Last updated: 25 October 2011
Economic and Social Commission for
Asia and the pacificMore than Transport Infrastructure-Designing for climate proofing-

Intern Report

Prepared by

Rubel DASIntern, Transport Division
UNESCAP, Bangkok

August-October, 20111

The secretariat of Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) is the regional
development arm of the United Nations and serves as the main economic and social development
center for the United Nations in Asia and the Pacific. Its mandate is to foster cooperation between
its 53 members and 9 associate members; it provides the strategic link between global and country
level programmes and issues. It supports Governments of countries in the region in consolidating
regional positions and advocates regional approaches to meeting the regions unique socioeconomic challenges in a globalizing world. The ESCAP secretariat is located in Bangkok, Thailand.
Please visit ESCAP website at www.unescap.org for further information

The shaded areas of this map are ESCAP members and associate member

2

ESCAP Intern Paper
Transport Division

More than Transport Infrastructure-Designing for climate proofingPrepared by Rubel Das*
October 2011

Abstract
In 2004, the transport sector produced 6.3 Giga-ton CO2 emissions and road transport accounts for 74% of
total transport CO2 emission. The existing and expected amount of green house gas emission will result
unavoidable climate change. Transport is not only for providing support in normal situation, but also for
critical situation. The need of transport infrastructure is felt severely in emergency time.
Even though, vulnerability of transport system is difficult to measure due to climate science model
limitation and system itself, suitable measure are required to adopt and to confront without knowing fullmagnitude of expected change. Asia/pacific zone are vulnerable due to geographical situation and socialand economic structure. The potential adaptation, response and mitigation are identified in this report. The
possible adaptation are Future proof design, Retro-fit solution, Develop contingency plan, Update
operating procedure, Research, Integrated Infrastructure system, Behavioral adaptation. Asia/Pacific zone
are required also to be prepared for emergency situation by strengthening critical infrastructure and being
prepared for evacuation. The mitigation approaches are Network efficiency, Technology improvement,
Green growth, Governmental policy

Disclaimer: The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this paper do not imply the expressionof any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any
country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
Mention of a commercial company or product in this publication does not imply endorsement by ESCAP.
The content in this document is the opinions and view points of the author's and not that of ESCAP or TD.

*Rubel Das, Phd candidate, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo Japan, rubeldas@tp.ide.titech.ac.jp(super-visor: Dr. Shinya Hanaoka)
3

Contents
INTRODUCTION

5CLIMATE CHANGE TREND

6

EFFECT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON TRANSPORT

8

Effect of temperature:

10

Effect of precipitation change

10Effect of sea level rise

11

VULNERABILITY FACTORS FOR TRANSPORT SYSTEM

12MEASURES`

14

Adaptation

15

Response

17

Mitigation

18

CONCLUSIONS

20

List of Tables
Table 1 Role of transportation for evacuation

17

Table 2 Bus emission per fuel type

19

List of Figures

Fig 1: total number of disaster5

Figure 2: impact of mitigation

18

Figure 3 General strategies for greenhouse gas mitigation

19

4

However,1. INTRODUCTION

transport

serviceforemergencychangeresponse is neglected in Asia/Pacific region, even

(IPCC) (2007) reported that existing and expectedthough this region is the most vulnerable foramount of green house gas emission will result

natural disaster. This region has 60% of total

unavoidable change in climate. With the change ofworld’s population and contributes to 25% of theclimate, the basic function of transport system

global domestic product. It encompasses the

such as, business growth, mobility or disastergreatest economic and political diversity. Rapid

response has possibility to be impacted. Some

growth in large regional economies such as China

obvious impacts to the transportation systems are

and India has made positions as economic giant.

traffic disruption due flooding and heavy snow

While Many of the countries within Asia/ pacificand rains, difficult driving conditions, increase inare developing nation, still struggling to tap into

maintenance requirement to the pavement due tothe global economic market.

Intergovernmental

Panel

on

climateNumber of disasterhigh temperature and more frequent icing–thawing
phenomenon, overflow of side drains and cross1975 2010

550

Number of disasterdrainage works, submerged bridges due to floods
induced by intense precipitation, inundation ofcoastal roads due to sea level rise, and road blocks
due to landslides (Regmi et al. 2009).
Transport infrastructure is not only for providing

0

support in normal situation, but also for critical•situation. The need of transport infrastructure is

80

85 90

Year

95 2000 05 10

felt severely in emergency time. There is evidence
Fig 1: total number of disaster (source:emdat.be)that natural disaster is increasing smoothly in past

In summary, Asia/Pacific region is in position of

decades. Figure 1 adopted from EMDAT.BE

combating with increasing trend of overall amountshows that the total number of disaster isof greenhouse gas and preparing for emergency

increasing every year from since disaster data baseresponse. It is equally important to adapt with theare recorded. When a major disaster strikes asociety,

if

local

overwhelmedbyemergency
theservicesconsequence,help

change environment and, get preparation foraretackling the unexpected event generated fromisnatural or man-made cause. This study hasrequested from the out side of the society. The

identified the research gap in transport sector ofservice from outside world can not reach victims if

potential measure for changed environment. It has

transport infrastructure is limited or disrupted byalso highlighted the suitable adaptation andthe natural event.

mitigation scope for transport sector to the5response of climate change. It is also identified

consequence of climate change as predicted bythat there is no existing study that focus onmost of the existing climate models are an increaseprioritizing transport infrastructure for emergency

in global temperatures, changes in precipitation

support.

patterns, and sea level rise. In general climate

Though climate change is inevitable, it will impact

models predict that increases in temperature will

differentially in different parts of the world in

be higher over land areas than over oceans anddifferent ways. In this context: this research willseas, higher in interiors of continents than inaddress the following research questions: How

coastal area, and higher when going from thedifferentially the climate change will be felt in

tropics to the polar region in northern hemisphereworld wide? How to identify the impact of climate(IPCC, 2007). The potential consequence ofchange on transport sector? What are the mostclimate change for precipitation patterns are more

vulnerable components of transports systems due

complex, and depends largely on continental

to climate change? What are the factors thatgeometry (vicinity of water) but also on themaking the transport system vulnerable? What are

vicinity and shape of mountains and on wind flow

the potential adaptation, mitigation, and response

direction. In general the existing climate models

approaches for Asia?

predict that precipitation will increase in areas

The reminder of this report is organized as follows.

adjacent to the polar Regions, and will decrease in

Section 2 presents the climate change trend world

areas adjacent to the tropics. Furthermore, tropicalwide with closer view for Asia/Pacific region.

precipitation is expected to increase especially

Section 3 explores the ways of measuring impact

during the rainy seasons. The following reports theof climate change on transport system and impact

predicted effects of climate change for various

ofregions across the globe as predicted by a recent

different

meteorologicaleventson

thecomponents of transportation system. Section 4

IPCC study (Christensen et al. (2007))shows the factors that make the transportation

Africa:systems vulnerable to climate changes. Section 5

 Nearly

summaries the adaptation, response and mitigation

1.5 times global mean increase intemperatureapproaches for changed environment. The report Dryer the Mediterranean and southern Africa,

ends with drawing conclusions in section 6 based

increasing rainfall in East Africa

on findings of this research.

 Large uncertainty with respect to precipitation

and with respect to change in spatial distribution

2. CLIMATE CHANGE TREND

and frequency of tropical cyclones

Climate change is almost invariably considered an

Europe:issue of global interest even though the extant of Slightly

climate change is still debated issue. The mainhigherincrease

temperatures than global mean
6

in

mean

and

 Warming in northern Europe largest in winter, Snow

for the Mediterranean largest in summer

season and snow depth very likely

decrease in most of North America

 Lowest winter temperatures increase more thanCentral and south America:

average temperatures in northern Europe

 Mean Mean precipitation increase in northern Europe

increase in temperature by and large

similar to global averageand decrease in most of the Mediterranean area

 Precipitation

 Extremes in precipitation very likely to increase

Americain northern Europe Large Increase in risk of summer drought in central

likely to decrease in central

local

variationinprecipitationinmountainous areas

Europe and Mediterranean Large uncertainly with respect to annual and Changes in wind strength uncertain, although it

seasonal mean rainfall in northern south

is more likely that average and extreme wind

Americaspeeds will increase.

Australia and New Zealand: Duration of snow season and snow depth very Meanlikely to decrease

increase in temperature by and large

similar to global average

Asia: Increased

frequency of extreme high daily

 Increase in temperature higher than global mean

temperatures, and decrease in the frequency of Summer heat spells will be longer, more intense,

cold extremes

and more frequent in East Asia
 Most Precipitationof Asia will experience an increase inAustralia

precipitation, either during summer or winter Change

events in parts of south Asia and in East Asia
rainfall and winds due to tropical

likely to increase Precipitation likely to increase in the west of theSouth Asia

South Island of New Zealand

North America:

 Increased risk of drought in southern areas ofAustralia

higher increase in temperature thanglobal mean Warmingin rainfall uncertain in northern andcentral Australia, although extremes are very

cyclones likely increase in East Southeast and Slightly

in winter and spring, likewise forsouthwest Australia in winter Increase in frequency of intense precipitation

 Extreme

likely to decrease in southern

Polar Regions:largest during winter in northern Mean warming very likely exceeds global mean,

regions and largest during summer in southwest

and is largest in winter and smallest in summer

 Mean precipitation likely increase in Canada and Arctic

northeast USA, and likely decrease in southwest

precipitation increases, likely more in

winter than in summer

USA7 Arctic sea ice likely to decrease in extent andthickness(uncertain

how

Arcticwith regional sea level variability. Low lying riverdeltas of Bangladesh, India, Vietnam and China

Ocean

are in greater risk from coastal area inundation due

circulation will change)
 Antarctic

to sea level rise.

temperature and precipitation arelikely to increase Uncertainty

Tropical Asia is routinely affected by climate

with respect to frequency of

extremes,

extreme temperature and rainfall events in polar

has been observed warming of 0.320C in last threecloser look of climate change trend on Asia/pacificdecades, while Sri Lanka and tropical India havezone. This research is concentrated on Asia/Pacificincreased by approximately 0.30C and 0.680C,

perspective where 60% of total world’s population

respectively (Rupkumat et al, 1994 and 1996).

resides with greatest cultural, economical and
broad

range

and

agriculture based economy. In this zone, Vietnam

change in world wide. We present, here after, aAdrought,

densely populated cities in the world and the rural

We have observed wide variation of climate

diversity.

floods,cyclones. This zone is characterized by the mostregionecologicalparticularly

Vast areas of some Tropical Asia nations are proneof

to flooding including 3.1 million hectares ofclimatological and geographic feature exist within

Bangladesh and million hectares of India (Karl et

the Asia/Pacific region, from temperate areas withal, 1995)

marked temperature difference from one season toanother, to tropical areas with temperature that are

3. EFFECT OF CLIMATE CHANGE

consistently relatively high throughout the year.

ON TRANSPORT

Generally, the Asia/Pacific region has experienced

Along this century and beyond, climate change

a warming trend in recent decades consistent withwill result in a broad range of consequence for

global temperature trends and a changed rainfall

most

pattern. For example, annual average rainfall has

regions

of

the

world

includingtheAsia/Pacific regions. Although, climate change

declined in the coastal margins and arid plains ofimpact assess has been an active area of research

Pakistan, the east coast of India and in Indonesia.

for last decades, literature that focus on transport

Yet, rainfall has increased in western andinfrastructure is limited, if any. It is quite

southeast coastal China, Bangladesh, and thereasonable as transport infrastructure constructs

Philippines (IPCC, 2007). Climate modelingfor long time (e.g. rail infrastructure design forindicates temperature increases in the Asia/Pacific

100 years) and impact of climate change on

region on the order of 0.5-20 C by 2030 and 1-70 C

transport infrastructure is not readily available.

by 2070. This Asia/Pacific region will be affectedTransportation

by a rise in global sea level of approximately 3-16

community–theplanners,

engineers, builders, operators, and stewards of

cm by 2030 an 7-50 cm by 2070 in conjunction

Nation’s roads, airports, rail, transit systems, and8

ports – are being concerned on the impact of Surface rail: storm surge, prolonged rainfall,climateflood, snow, extreme wind, prolonged highchangeontransport

infrastructure.

However, it is not easy to measure the direct or

temperature, humidity

indirect impact of climate change on transport

 Underground rail: prolonged rainfall, highinfrastructure. There are several ways to examine

temperature

the influence of climate change on transport. One

 Airport: electric storm, flood, drought, snow,

possible way would be to compare transport

extreme wind, fog

systems between regions with very different

 Airways: electric storm, extreme windclimate conditions, for example by comparing

 Terminal: droughttransport in Spain with transport in Norway.

 Coastal infrastructure: sea level rise, storm surge,

Differences in performance of road, rail andflood, fog

waterway transport system give an indication of Sea ports: sea level rise, storm surge, flood, fog,

the potential impact of climate change. Anotherdrought

approach to analyze the influence of climate

 Inland waterway: storm surge, prolonged rainfall,

would be to consider seasonal variations inflood, drought, frost, soil shrinkagetransport and travel behavior. Variation of Embankments: water table rise, storm surge,

performance of transport systems between seasons

prolonged rainfall, flood

can be partly explained by weather variations. For

 Tunnel: flood

freight transport, variations in demand will be Bridge: storm surge, prolonged rainfall, flood,

related to seasonal cycles in some sectors, such aschange in wind direction and scour pattern

the agricultural sector. A third way to address Pipeline: prolonged rainfall, flood

climate Control system: storm surge, prolonged rainfall

issues

would

be

to

considertheinstantaneous relationship between weather and GPS: electric storm

travel behavior.

 Oil distribution: sea level rise, storm surge, flood

Regardless of measurement system variability, Gas distribution: sea level rise, storm surge,

some impact of climate change readily observableflood distribution

without measuring the degree of impact for Electric car recharge network: electric storm,

climate change, as set out below:

prolonged rainfall, flood Roads: storm surge; prolonged rainfall, flood, CO2 transport: flood

drought, snow, extreme wind, frost, fog, soil
shrinkage

Highway is one import part of transport system

 Pedestrian road : snowand

 Cycle path: flood

variability. The following section explores the9extremely

exposedtoweather

relatedimpact of climate change on highway operation

Regional changes in snow and ice removal

and infrastructure.

costs, environmental impacts from salt and3.1. Effect of temperature:chemical use

Small changes in average temperatures will notChanges in pavement designs

greatly affect highway systems; however, by the



Fewer

cold-related

restrictions

for

maintenance workers

end of the century some regions are projected toexperience significant warming that will affectc) Later onset of seasonal freeze and earlier

highway planning, construction, and operations.

onset of seasonal thaw

Following provides a summary of how changes inChanges in seasonal weight restrictions

temperature may affect highway infrastructure and

Changes in seasonal fuel requirements

operations (NRC (2008)).



Improved mobility and safety associated witha) Increases in very hot days and heata reduction in winter weather
Longer construction season in colder areas

waves





Increased thermal expansion of bridge joints

3.2. Effect of precipitation change

andIncreased rains can cause disruptions in the use of

paved

surfaces,causing

possibledegradation
Concerns

highways (mainly due to flooding), as well as
regardingpavement

integrity,

structural damage. In some areas, however,traffic-related rutting and migration of liquiddrought conditions are expected to increase, whichasphalt, greater need for maintenance of roads

can introduce other threats to the highway system.

and pavement

Following provides a summary of how changes in

Maintenance and construction costs for roads

severe storm intensity may affect highway

and bridges; stress on bridge integrity due toinfrastructure and operations (NRC (2008)).

temperature expansion of concrete joints,a) Increases in intense precipitation events

steel, asphalt, protective cladding, coats, and Increases in weather-related delays and trafficsealants

disruptions

Asphalt degradation, resulting in possible

 Increased flooding of evacuation routes

short-term loss of public access or increased Increases in flooding of roadways and tunnels

congestion of sections of road and highway

 Increases

during repair and replacementin road washout, landslides, andmudslides that damage roadways

Limits on periods of construction activity, and Drainage systems likely to be overloaded more

more night time work

frequently and severely, causing backups andVehicle overheating and tire degradation

street floodingb) Decreases in very cold days

 Areas where flooding is already common will

face more frequent and severe problems
10

 If

soil moisture levels become too high,

structural integrity of roads, bridges, and tunnels

construction season and mobilization periods(especially where they are already under stress)

could be compromised(leading

rates and influence the size requirement for Moreb) Increases in drought conditions

and

the

to

higherstorm surges/wave

frequent and potentially more extensive

emergency evacuations

susceptibility to wildfires, causing

 Moreroad closures due to fire threat or reduced

debris on roads, interrupting travel andshipping

visibility

 Bridges, signs, overhead cables and other tall

 Increased risk of mudslides in areas deforested

structures are at risk from increased wind speeds

by wildfires Increasedc) Changes in seasonal precipitation andstorm surge and wave impacts on

bridge structures

stream flow patterns

 Decreased

expected

lifetimeofhighways

exposed to storm surge

Benefits for safety and reduced interruptions
if frozen precipitation shifts to rainfall

 Risk of immediate flooding, damage caused by

Increased risk of floods, landslides, gradualforce of water, and secondary damage caused by

failures and damage to roads if precipitation

collisions with debrischanges from snow to rain in winter and Erosion of land supporting coastal infrastructurespring thaws

and coastal highways

Increased variation in wet/dry spells and Damage to signs, lighting fixtures, and supports

decrease in available moisture may cause road

 Reduced drainage rate of low-lying land after

foundations to degradelocationheights, increased flooding, stronger winds)

bridges and culverts

wetlandd) Increases in coastal storm intensity

 Increased peak stream flow could affect scourinwetlands offer to infrastructure

base



Changes

associated natural protective services that

 Standing water may have adverse effects on road

 Increased

Changes in access to floodplains during

rainfall and flooding events

Degradation, failure, and replacement of road

 Damage to infrastructure caused by the loss ofstructures due to increases in ground andcoastal wetlands and barrier islands

foundation movement, shrinkage and changes

in groundwater

3.3. Effect of sea level rise:

Increased maintenance and replacement costs

Rising sea levels can permanently inundate coastalof road infrastructureroads and cause damaging erosion. Higher sea

Short-term loss of public access or increased

levels can exacerbate the effects of storm surge,

congestion to sections of road and highway

causing storm surges to reach greater heights and11further inland, possibly inflicting additional

level rise on 84 developing countries around thedamages on structures. Following provides a

globe. Although they do not explicitly assess thesummary of how changes in sea-level rise may

impact on transport and transport infrastructure,affect highway infrastructure and operations

they do analyze the amount of urban area affected.

(NRC (2008))

The average amount of urban area affected for thea) Rising sea levels (exacerbating effect of

84 countries is 1.02% for a 1 meter sea level risehigher storm surge, increased salinity of(4.68% for a 5 meter sea level rise). The cost

rivers and estuaries, flooding)associated with infrastructure damages by future

more areas to effects of storm

sea level rise, storm surge and flooding can besurge/wave action, causing more frequent

substantial. Moreover, extreme cases such as

interruptions to coastal and low-lying roadway

SIDR, NARGIS may become frequent and may

travelhave even larger impact in the future because of an Exposes

increased sea level. In a study by Jacob et al.

 Amplifies effect of storm surge, causing more(2007), assuming a 1 meter global sea level rise,severe storm surges requiring evacuation
inundation of roads or low-lying

the annualized costs of infrastructure damages due

feeder roads in coastal areas. Reduces routeto flooding incidences for the metropolitan East

options/redundancy

Coast in the US are estimated to increase by a

 Permanent Morefrequent

undergroundorseveretunnelsoffactor 3. This implies that costs will increase fromlow-lyingapproximately 0.5 billion US dollar per year inpumping

2000 to 1.5 billion US Dollar per in year 2100. In

floodingand

infrastructure, requiring increased

the cost calculation it is accounted the indirect cost

activityof network disruption like costs due to delay, As the sea-level rises, the coastline will change

detours and trip cancellation etc.

and highways that were not previously at risk tostorm surge and wave damage may be exposed

4. VULNERABILITY FACTORS FOR

in the future Erosion of road base and bridge supports/scour

TRANSPORT SYSTEM

 Highway

The latest edition of the Oxford Dictionary ofembankments

at

risk

of

subsidence/heave

English Reduced clearance (including freeboard) under

gives

the

following

definitionof“vulnerable”:

bridges“Exposed to the possibility of being attacked or Increased maintenance and replacement costs ofharmed, either physically or emotionally”,

tunnel infrastructure

It follows from the definition that vulnerability is a

Dasgupta et al. (2007) use data from various

relative property: it is vulnerability to something.

sources to analyze the impact of 1 to 5 meter sea
12

The IPCC Third Assessment Report described

protection

vulnerability as “a function of the character,moisture affects the serviceability of foundation

magnitude and rate of climate variation to which aand slope stability. Sea level rise will affectsystem is exposed, its sensitivity, and its adaptive

coastal infrastructure. Susceptibility depends on

capacity”. It defined vulnerability as “the degree tothe strength and integrity of key facilities ofwhich a system is susceptible to, or unable to copesystem. So infrastructure susceptibility depends on

with, adverse effects of climate change, including

awareness and preparation for expected effect ofclimate variability and extremes”.

climate change. Susceptibility is defined as theFollowing the similar trend for Transport systems,

elements exposed within the system, which

It can be stated that transport systems are

influence the probabilities of being harmed atvulnerable to climate change due to three main

times of hazardous events.

factors; exposure, susceptibility and resilience.

C) Resilience: “The capability of the system toA) Exposure: Exposure can be understood as the‘return to normal’ after having been disturbed”;

values that are present at the location where

taking account of both the “maximum disturbanceclimate change effects such as floods, cyclone etc

from which the system can recover” and the

can

the

“speed of recovery”. (Berdica, 2002) There are

predisposition of a system to be disrupted by asome elements of a resilient transport system

climate change event due to its location in theProperty Description which has been describedsame area of influence. Exposure is the degree tobelow (Godschalk (2003) and Murray-Tuite

which a system comes into contact with climate(2006).

conditions or specific climate impacts (CIG 2007),

Adaptability Can the transport system adapt toand the probability, or likelihood, that this stressclimate change?

will affect transportation infrastructure (CCSP

Autonomy The components of the transport2008). It is important to remember that highway

system are able to operate independently so thatstructures are already being exposed to many

the failure of one component does not cause others

climate- or weather-related stressors. Climate

to fail.

change can exacerbate (or lessen) these same

Diversity The transport system contains a number

stressors.

of different mode and route choices which ensuresB) Susceptibility: Susceptibility relates to systemthat the system does not fail when one component

characteristics.

fails.

occur.

ExposureWind

isdefinedvelocityasaffects

theanddrainageinfrastructure.

Soilserviceability of structure and generates waves that

Mobility Travelers are able to reach their chosenaffect coastal structures. Temperature affects thedestinations at an acceptable level of service.

expansion and contraction of component materials.

Recovery The transport system has the ability toRainfall affects water and power supplies, flood

recover quickly to an acceptable level of service
13with minimal outside assistance after an incident

measuringthevulnerability

occurs.

infrastructure can begin. However, It is important

Safety The transport system does not harm its

to formulate policy to protect the infrastructureusers or expose them unduly to hazards.

from long term and acute affects of climate change,

Strength The transport system’s ability toand developing new infrastructure system fit forwithstand an incident (e.g. a how extreme a floodchanging climate condition on the basis of

event can the system cope with?).

available

information.

Suitableoftransport

Policyandengineering efforts can increase the resilience and
The three factors of vulnerability of transport

decrease the vulnerability of transport system.

system can be formulated by following equation

V = E + S − R ………………….. (1)5. MEASURES

Legend:.

The extent to which transport system is vulnerable
V=Vulnerability;

E= Exposure

depends on their exposure to climate change

S=susceptibility;

R= Resilience

effects and on the ability of impacted system toadapt. Adaptation is the only response available

Estimating exposure is the primary step forfor the impacts that will occur over the next

vulnerability measurement and it is the most

several decades before mitigation measures canambiguous. Climate science can not confirm thehave an effect.” (Stern Review: The Economics of

local level effect of climate change, though global

Climate Change).

level effect can predict with less uncertainty. It is

There are four main reasons why adaptation issaid that the precision of reduced-scale climate

necessary and immediate.

analyses is improving, but variability even withina) Mitigation takes time to work: The global

regions (such as local elevation change) generates

atmosphere is a large system with considerable

further difficulty of different climate scenarios“lag” built in between changes in levels of(USCCP). In spite of methodological limitation,

emissions to atmosphere and changes in thethe recent Transportation Research Board (TRB)

composition of the atmosphere. The emissions thatclimate change report suggests ”transportation

have been released through the last 150 years andprofessionals will have to confront and adapt toclimatechangewithout

knowingtheparticularly in the latter 20th Century, mean thatfull

regionally as well as globally, some change inmagnitude of expected change” (UPCC).

climate is unavoidable over the next 30 to 40 years.

Once the types and probabilities of weather eventsb) Adaptation will be cheaper now than later: The

areeffects of future climate change will lead toestablishedwithreasonablecertainty,

14

economic consequences. Measures to adapt to

involves adjustment to reduce the vulnerability ofthese consequences incur costs, but will result incommunities, regions, or activities to climatic

benefits by reducing the residual cost of climatechange and variability. In this way, enhancementschange.

of adaptive capacity reduce vulnerability andpromote sustainable development (Smit et al,c) Planned adaptation is more effective than last2000). However, adoption actions should beminute, reactive adaptation: Failure to plan can

flexible and evidence based. Addition to it,

result in unexpected costs relating to travel andadoption measures need to be effective, cost-business disruption, reduced productivity and costs

effective and efficient. Some adoption approachof repairing or replacing damaged assets. Smallfor transport system and infrastructure arebusinesses take on average 50 days to recoverdescribed below:

from a flood.
a) Future proof design: Climate change eventsd) Decisions we make now will contribute to ourlikely to affect the transport infrastructure are

future vulnerability: If current planning activities

already experienced elsewhere in world. Therefore

are not adequately considering the future impacts

there is advantage in learning from others. The

of climate change, we may be exposing ourselvesinternational Union of Railways (UIC) has

to greater risk in the future.

matched various global locations in terms of

However, there is little expectation that adaptation

current and projected climate, to enable lesson toor mitigation alone can avoid climate change

be learned. The United Kingdom’s Highway

impacts. They can complement each other and canagency has already adopted French temperaturesignificantly reduce the risks of climate change.

standards road surface. USA adopted to increase

Herewith, it is also obvious to response on thethe clearance for bridges (Meyer, 2008). However,changed environment.

Asia is still has lacking of adopting future proof
design policy. Bangladesh, Vietnam, Pacific island

5.1. Adaptation

countries and flat plains would mostly affected by

Adaptive capacity is the potential or ability of astorm and flood. Transport infrastructure in coastal

system, region, or community to adapt to thezone of these countries is required to make robust

effects or impacts of climate change. Adaptation isagainst failure. One possible strategy is to raiseadjustment in ecological, social and economic

embankments (Tanner et al, 2007). The most

system in response to actual or expected climatic

obvious consequence of climate change isstimuli and their effect or impacts. Enhancement

temperatureof adaptive capacity represents a practical meansincrease

which

impactbinding

capacity of road surface material. Improvedof coping with changes and uncertainties inclimate, including variability and extreme. It
15

surface material such as ‘super pave’ is a potential

system, Earthworks, Redesigning culverts in

adaptation technique for climate change in Asia.

embankments can help to prevent landslips etc.
Besides, due to extreme climate change theb) Retro-fit solution: Given the long life span of

frequency of maintenance activities are required tothe majority of transport infrastructure, it will be

be increased.

critically important to identify and implement
networke) Research: research to identify vulnerabilities ofcomponents. Some major infrastructure may

different transport sectors, determine probablerequire significant investment to meet adaptation

risks identify adaptation options or reduce

requirement, e.g. coastal rail tracks which cannot

uncertainty to determining prepared adaptation.

cost-effective

retro-fitting

existing

be moved and may require complex and costlyf) Integrated Infrastructure system: Extreme

adaptation. New infrastructure will need to be built

eventsconsistently with adaptation requirements. In thishighlights

theinterdependence

ininfrastructure as they are liable to ‘cascade failure’,

process, it is required of identification andwhere the failure of one aspect of infrastructure,prioritization of critical network elements forsuch as ‘flood defense’ (i.e. embankment) can lead

immediate attention and reinforcement.

to other failures, the flooded road disconnect thec) Develop contingency plan: pre planned

communication with hospital. Failure in energy

response for when/if climate change risk aresectorrealized

managed.

Managing national infrastructure is a system issue,

Contingency planning needs to be undertaken withrequiring collaboration, planning and sharing

the combination of engineering based approaches

information between sectors. Resilience is thus

and awareness of transport user (i.e. educating therequired in all sectors to protect against cascade

public).

warning

failure and to adapt the infrastructure against the

information boards and signs, strengthening of

slowly changing climate over the longer term. The

coastal protection are required. Another approach

infrastructureof contingency plan is to have redundant road.

management with Government, with long term

Redundant road can increase the resilient to faceplanning

extreme hazardous events.

infrastructure, and a regulatory and policysoimmediate

Installment

of

can

be

additionalwillframeworkd) Update operating procedure: it is required tointerrupt

systemfortherequiresadapting

which

transport

providejoinedandthesystem.

up

maintaining

platform ofintegrated improvement of all sectors.

update the operating procedure to take account of
the impact of climate change. Amendment tog. Behavioral adaptation: Behavioral aspect has

design standards and operating practice arehighly potential to adopt with climate change

required in different items such as Drainage

impact. It includes all stakeholders in transport

16

sector. Environment friendly distribution system

response for evacuation has been documented incan be encouraged for example shipment can betable 1 (Houston 2006). One of the important roles

delayed until a sufficient load factor is reached.

of transportation during evacuation is the direction

Painting bus roof white can reduce the risk ofand control of highway networks.

overheating. Degrading service frequency mightbeusefuladaptation

techniquein

Table 1 Role of transportation for evacuation

some

Phase
evacuation

circumstances. Buses in India and China tend to be
more fuel-efficient than those in the industrializedof Transportation role

Before1. Provide road inspection(Readiness and and assessment
2. provide evacuation routeactivation)
3. Develop control strategy

world, primarily because they have considerably
smaller engines and lack air conditioning (Sperlingand Salon, 2002).

During(Operation)

Adaptation policy is a complex issue as there arealso regulatory, business and social aspects ofadaptation. There is an issue of justification

After (Reentry)

whether extra cost for improving resilience isworth for reducing the risk of failure.

1. Order and provide traffic
operation resources
2. Direct and control highway
network
1. Remove debris
2. Restore traffic

Transportation is not the only responsible forproviding facilities for evacuation of people during

5.2. Response

emergency situation. First responders such as

Climate change may also open new route forpolice, fire department, and emergency medicaltransport system. For example, seaways and inland

service can also facilitate evacuation especially forwaterways in northern latitudes will be open for

those who need special needs. Coordination

more of the year and a continuation of the recent

between emergency manager and transportation

rate of summer ice-melt in the Arctic could open a

personnel should work together to determine‘Northern Sea Route’ (NSR) between the pacificevacuation routes, and other stakeholders need to

and Atlantic Oceans. The NSR route between

be involved to make sure that those routes are

Yokohama and Rotterdam is approximately 4300

clear before evacuation.

km (39%) shorter than the route via Suez Canal.

When hazards turn into disaster, transportation

Besides economical benefit through opening new

will be affected the most. It is required to restore

freight route, climate change force people to makeevacuation

duringclimatologicalthe critical transport infrastructure as early basis.

situation.

Although there is no universal definition of critical

Transportation is important factor for emergency

transport infrastructure, it is generally said that

evacuations. Transport agencies are responsible

those transport facilities whose absence fromfor providing facilities for evacuees. The potential

service would significantly affect disaster victims’
17

recovery. Similar concept involves “transportation

Both Economic growth and social growth are

lifelines”,

providingcontributing to increasing green house gas

essential accesses for emergency services toemission. Acknowledging this situation, somedisaster sites. The examples of critical transport

initiative has been taken for green house gas

infrastructure are

reduction. South Korea plan to reduce carbon di-







transportation

facilities

Major arterial highways and bridges forming

oxide and other heat trapping gases by 4 percent

national highway

below 2005 levels by 2020. Japan makes target forInternational marine harbor, airport, including

25 percent reduction of green house gas emission

depots, terminals and stations

from 1990 levels by 2020. Jakarta pledges to cut

Transportation control systems

greenhouse gas emissions 30 percent from 2009 to
2020. New Delhi plans to be a carbon neutral city

5.3. Mitigation

by 2030 (Benjamin, 2011).

Climate change may be unavoidable, but theTransportation, as a greater source of carbon di-magnitude of change is certainly alterable. The

oxide emission, is a big source to fulfill country

policy maker now has the chance to revise some oftarget. Figure 2 illustrates the impact of policy for

its transport policy goals and programs in its

mitigation. Business as usual scenario continues to

response to climate change. The most significant

increase the impact on environment. Mitigation

effort to reduce greenhouse gas emission is Kyoto

policy will reduce the impact on environment.

protocol which set the target for reduction ofBusiness
as usual

greenhouse gas emission compare to 1990.
However, some rising giant like china were

Environmentallyunsustainable

Environmental impact

excluded from this concrete reduction target.
Those countries were considered developing
country during the signing of Kyoto protocol in
1997. Besides economic growth in this region,social structure is also changing. Asia is facing

Sustainabletransport

Environmentally sustainableTimemonumental migration from rural to urban area.
Figure 2: impact of mitigation (based on OECD,

By 2030, the percentage of Chinese, India, and2000)

Indonesia citizens living in cities will reach 60
percent, 40 percent and 69 percent respectively. In

There are four general strategies available towealthier nations such as Japan and South Korea,

mitigate

the proportion of urban dealer will approach 90

transportation efficiency, lower carbon intensity ofpercent (Benjamin, 2011).

fuels,

green

reduce

house

VMT,

gases:

andenact

governmental policies and program.
18

improvedvariouspassenger modes. And the number of cars (andMitigation

light trucks) continues to increase virtually with
Vehicle andnetwork efficiency

Carbonintensity of
fuels

VMT
reduction

Government andpolicy program

the prosperity of economy and migration to urban.
Growth in GHG emissions can be reduced by

Travel demand

restraining

Alternativetransportation

Land usethegrowthinpersonal

vehicleownership. Such a strategy can, however, only be
Figure 3 General strategies for greenhouse gas

successful if high levels of mobility andmitigation (Schmidt, 2008)

accessibility can be provided by alternative means.
The challenge is to improve public transport

Some possible step for implementing thosesystems in order to preserve or augment thestrategies describe below.

market share of low-emitting modes. If publica. Network efficiency: in 2004, the transporttransport gets more passengers, it is possible tosector produced 6.3 Giga-ton CO2 emissions andincrease the frequency of departures, which in turnroad transport accounts for 74% of total transport

may attract new passengers (Akerman and Hojer,

CO2 emission. The enormous waterways in Asia

2006).

may make a contribution to sustainable transport

b. Technology improvement: Fuel efficientby allowing road freight transport to shift to inland

technology innovation is a big step for adaptation

navigation. However, such modal shift is only
economicallyfair,environmental

justwith changed environment. This holds, among

andothers, for hydrogen fuel cell, advanced bio-fuelenvironmentally sound if the draining of wetlands

conversion, and improved batteries for electric andand dredging of rivers comes to an end. What is

hybridneeded is an intermodal transport system thatmore

efficiently.

Such

Table

2

demonstrates

thedifferences in bus emissions per fuel type,

integrates environmental aspects by using existing
capacities

vehicles.

represented by tailpipe emission only.

integrated

mobility management has to be accompanied by a

Table 2 Bus emission per fuel type (CNTM,

fairer charging of infrastructure use that ends with2003)

the hidden subsidies for unsustainable transport
Fuel typeBus emission(lb CO2/mile)

There is no doubt that transport activity will

Gasoline

16.1

continue to grow at a rapid pace for the

Petroleum diesel

13.3

Compressed natural gas

11.7

modes.

foreseeable

future.

Personal

motor

vehiclesconsume much more energy and emit far more
B20 (20% Biodiesel, 80% 11.5
diesel)GHGs per passenger-km than other surface

19Ethanol from corn

11.0

European Council of Ministers, government

Hydrogen from corn

7.3

policies or programs are often the most cost-

B100 (100% Biodiesel)

3.7

effective

Hydrogen from electrolysis

1.3

mitigation

strategies

available(ECMT, 2006). Some possible policy arereform of vehicle taxation, fuel tax andemission trading etc.

c. Green growth: Vehicle-miles traveled hold apositive relationship with the magnitude oftransport-related

carbonemissionsbecause

6. CONCLUSION

greenhouse gas is a byproduct a vehicle’s internalThis study has attempted to fill gap that has

combustion engine. In other words, the more one

identified in literature on the impact of climate

drives the more one contributes to climate change.

change on transport sector which is gaining more

The Asian transport policy of integrating transportinterest due to its importance in economical, social

growth and economic growth is required to revise.

sector and overall integrated infrastructure systems.

It needs to promote spatial patterns that allow for a

There is still much to be done. The earth will notless transport intensive production, distribution

see the similar impact generated from climate

and consumption of goods. It must ensure the usechange in world wide. Due to vast low lying

of cleaner fuels and the progressive reduction ofcoastal area, the tropical Asia/Pacific region willtransport emissions by forcing the right kind offace the harsh impact from climate change. The

technology.

potential impacts of climate change in terms of

Demand management is an efficient mitigation

changes in temperature and precipitation averages

approach. Transport demand is a derived demand.

and extremes on the continental Asia/Pacific

Extra trip and unnecessary trip can be cut by

territory serves to elucidate the necessity ofincorporation of demand management strategy.

actions to face the upcoming hard time. However,

One potential scope for trip demand management

the impact of climate change on transport

is inclusion of e-service. Though on-line shopping

infrastructure/system is not easy to observe. It is

has mixed effect on trip demand, freight service

possible to learn from other country where

can be consolidated by e-service.

weatherdiffersortoobservetransport

d. Governmental policy: The final general

performance in same country in different weather

mitigations strategy is the enactment andcondition. As the infrastructure systems are

enforcement of various governmental policies

exposed to different and more extreme condition,

and

lower

it is highly likely that degradation and interruption

greenhouse gas emissions. According to theof vital services will occur at certain times. Some

programs

thatattempt

to20

Center for Science in the Earth System (CIG).
2007. Preparing for Climate Change: A
Guidebook for Local, Regional, and State
Governments. 186pp.

components of transport are critical, which can bebottleneck in restoration or response action.
Therefore there is need to limit the consequence offailure and accelerate restoration capabilities, both

Christensen, J.H., Hewitson, B. , Busuioc, A.,
Chen, A., Gao, X., Held, I., Jones, R., Kolli, R.K.,
Knon, W.T., Laprise, R., Magana Rueda, V.,
Mearns, L., Menendex, C.G., Raisanen, J., Rinke,
A., Sarr,A., Whetton, P., 2007 Rgional Climate
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847-940

through engineering solutions and by managing
consumer expectations. This study summary thepotential adaptation, response and mitigation
approach for Asia/Pacific zone based on literature
review. Here, it is worth to note that there are few
literature available which focus on climate change
and consequence on transport in Asia/Pacific.
Asia/Pacific

has

the

greatest

variationon

Climate Change Science Program (CCSP). 2008.
Impacts of Climate Change and Variability on
Transportation Systems and Infrastructure: Gulf
Coast Study, Phase I. A Report by the U.S.
Climate Change Science Program and the
Subcommittee on Global Change Research.
Savonis, M. J., V.R. Burkett, and J.R. Potter (eds.).
Washington,
DC:
DepartmentofTransportation. 445pp

geographic, economic and social customs in theworld which gives the both opportunity anddisadvantage simultaneously. The opportunity isthat Asia/pacific zone can learn climate change
effect from neighbor country within this zone. On
the other hand, each country is required country

Committee on Climate Change and U.S.
Transportation. Potential Impacts of Climate
Change on U.S. Transportation. Transportation
Research
Board,
Washington,
D.C.
http://www.trb.org/news/blurb_detail.asp?ID=879
4.

specific research for strategy on the ground ofclimate change.

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