THE WAY OF THE TIGER:REPORT ON HUMAN—TIGER CONFLICTS
IN THE RUSSIAN FAR EAST

THE WAY OF THE TIGER:REPORT ON HUMAN—TIGER CONFLICTS
IN THE RUSSIAN FAR EAST

WWF—Russia
WWF—Netherlands

The Way of the Tiger: Report on Human—Tiger Conflicts in the Russian Far East.
Alexey Kostyria, Pavel Fomenko, Vasily Solkin, Femke Hilderink. 2018. — World Wide Fund For
Nature (WWF), Vladivostok. 36 p.
Special thanks to Yury Darman, Peter Osipov, Natascha Zwaal, Nathalie van Koot, Hunting Departments of Primorsky and Khabarovsky Provinces, NGO “Centre Tiger” (Alekseevka
Rehabilitation Centre), Utyos Rehabilitation Centre
Front cover
Photo credits: © Oleg Kabalik© WWF, 2018

Table of Contents
SUMMARY								 4INTRODUCTION:
THE AMUR REGIONA BRIEF HISTORY OF THE AMUR TIGER 			

6

1. CAUSES OF HUMAN—TIGER CONFLICTS			

12

2. HUMAN—TIGER CONFLICTS IN THE RUSSIAN FAR EAST:
INCREASE OF HUMAN—TIGER CONFLICTS
MAIN CAUSE OF HUMAN—TIGER CONFLICTS
TYPES OF HUMAN—TIGER CONFLICTS 				163. HUMAN—TIGER CONFLICTS RESOLUTION 			

20

4. AMUR TIGER REHABILITATION AND MONITORING:REHABILITATION CENTRES
CATERING TO CUBSMONITORING OF RELEASED TIGERS 				

245. LESSONS LEARNED:RECOMMENDATIONS 						30REFERENCES								35SUMMARY
Tyger, Tyger, burning bright,
In the forests of the night;
What immortal hand or eye,
Could frame thy fearful symmetry?
		by William Blake

By the 1930s, the tiger
population in the wild
was 20—30 animals

The fate of the Amur tiger has waxed and waned since the 19th century when
there was still a significant population. By the 1930s, however, thepopulation had shrunk to mere 20—30 animals in the wild. This alarming
situation prompted action and by the 1980s the population had increased tomore than 250 with that number on the rise. However, tragedy struck again
with the collapse of the Soviet Union and state controls, which resulted in theborders being opened and the tiger population plummeting again. The Amurtiger was in imminent danger of extinction until its fortunes changed again
in 1996 with the implementation of a long-term conservation program. This
program met with success and the population has risen to more than 500.
Poaching is currently the greatest threat to tigers in the region.
This success story, however, has a flip side. The increasing tiger populationneeds more space to survive. Therefore, animals and humans come into contact more often, competing for prey and territory. These encounters result in
an increasing number of human-tiger conflicts (HTC). These cases involve
tigers preying on livestock or dogs, people getting injured and tigers being
killed in defence or retaliation. One of the main causes of HTC is tigers being
wounded by poachers. The injured animals cannot hunt properly and sothey are forced to kill easily-accessible prey such as livestock. Another major
cause is the deterioration of tigers’ natural habitat due to various factors:•••

Since 2000, 33 tigers
have been killedin conflicts

4

The erosion of forests, making the environment less hospitable fortigers and their prey.
The depletion of natural tiger prey through unsustainable hunting
and poaching, forcing tigers to feed on livestock.
Livestock husbandry leading to competition between livestock andwild prey for space and natural resources.

WWF experts say that the resolution of every HTC should be one of the
top priorities.It is so important because traditionally, HTCs in Russia wereresolved by simply killing the tiger, which led to a drastic decline in the
population. Since 2000, 33 tigers have been killed in conflict situations andthe number of deaths has increased significantly since 2000. This number is
expected to grow further as the tiger population continues to increase. The
number of HTCs has risen dramatically since 2010, but most of these conflicts are resolved without harm to the animals or humans involved. In orderto solve HTCs, a number of measures and protocols have been agreed on.
The most important tool in containing HTCs are the Rapid Response TeamsBetween 2000—2017,24 tigers were placed into
rehabilitation centres.
13 of them were later
released into the wild

(RRTs) that have been set up in the area. These specialised teams fightpoaching and are called in to resolve HTCs in the quickest, most effective
way. The RRTs cooperate with two special tiger rehabilitation centres: Alekseevka in Primorsky Province and Utyos centre in Khabarovsky Province.
WWF offers logistical, technical and material support to the RRTs and rehabilitation centres. The response teams have played an important role in solving HTCs by removing wounded, diseased or otherwise unfit animals fromthe wild and taking them to the centres. After a successful rehabilitation process, tigers are released back into the wild, often in remote areas where thechances of HTCs are less likely. Between 2000—2017, twenty four animals
were placed in rehabilitation centres, thirteen of which were released into
the wild after being cared for. Six died because of the condition they were in
before they were captured, three had to stay in captivity and the remaining
two are still at the Alekseevka centre. Ten of those that were released were
tagged with GPS collars, only two of which are still transmitting. Five of theremaining eight tigers are reported to still be alive and two have been killed.
The fate of the last one is uncertain.

Medical examination of Uporny at Alekseevka Rehabilitation Centre

5

INTRODUCTION

The Amur Region
The Amur tiger inhabits the Russian Far East, a mountainous region covered
for more than 90% by forests. The region has a unique climate, combining
winter conditions, with deep snows and freezing temperatures, with mild
summers. The north has a continental climate, while there are monsoons inthe south. These heterogeneous conditions make the coexistence possibleof a variety of southern animals such as Amur tigers, Far Eastern leopards,
Amur forest cats, yellow-throated weasels, Himalayan black bears, gorals,sika deer, etc., and northern animals e.g. red deer, roe deer, elk, wild boar,
brown bears, wolves, sables, etc.

Less than 3.5 million
people live in the Amurtiger range and its
immediate vicinity

The area has a relatively small human population compared to regions
inhabited by other tiger sub-species. Less than 3.5 million people live in the
Amur tiger range or in its immediate vicinity. Only about 100,000 people are
actively engaged in legally hunting animals and birds. Agriculture is concentrated in the densely-populated Prikhankayskaya Plain next to Lake Khanka
and does not infringe on the tigers’ habitat. Within the tigers’ range, the local
population only raises livestock on a limited scale, using river valleys for
grazing.
The Amur tiger’s existence depends on natural factors such as abiotic conditions, (natural enemies, food competitors, stocks of potential prey) andanthropogenic factors. Anthropogenic factors can be divided into direct(poaching, direct removal for safety reasons) and indirect (forest fires,
logging, infrastructural expansion, increasing population density, hunting
activity, etc.).
A Brief History of the Amur Tiger
Research and practical measures for the preservation of the Amur tiger havebeen carried out on a regular basis since the end of the 1940s.

By the 1930s, only
20—30 of the Amur tigers
were left in the wild

6

At the beginning of the 19th century, the tiger was common and regularly
hunted in the southern part of the Russian Far East. Their numbers sharply
declined due to commercial hunting. Other factors were the simultaneous reduction and deterioration of their habitat because of commercial logging andthe development of taiga areas for industrial and agricultural purposes. By
the 1930s, the tiger was on the brink of extinction with only 20—30 of themleft in the wild. Since then, the number has gradually increased thanks to
the huge efforts of Russian scientists and rangers, which resulted in a seriesof measures to protect the tiger population. These measures include a ban
on tiger hunting and capturing tiger cubs, as well as a travel prohibition forall foreigners in the Amur tigers’ habitat. By the end of the 1980s, the tiger
population exceeded 250 individuals and continued to grow. The Amur tiger
population and range began to decrease again after the collapse of the Soviet
Union in 1991, which opened the borders. During the first half of the 1990s,
illegal hunting of tigers dramatically increased due to economic difficulties
and the weakening of state controls, as well as the soaring demand for tiger
body parts and derivatives in China and other Pacific Rim countries. The
sharp decline spelt imminent extinction for the Amur tiger.
Saving the Amur Tiger
In 1994, WWF Russia launched its first project for Amur tiger conservation.
At that time, only a few hunters could say that they had seen tiger tracks intheir hunting areas, never mind actually encountering the Master of Taiga in
the wild. Today, finding tiger tracks and even encountering a tiger in the fo
est is no longer rare. Not even for city people, who visit the forest for a picnic
in the weekend. How was this remarkable turnabout achieved?
In order to save the Amur tiger population, governmental, scientific andpublic organisations developed a «Strategy for Amur tiger conservation in
Russia». This was approved by the Minister of Environment and Natural
Figure 1. Amur Tiger Population Dynamic

In 1994, WWF Russia
launched its first fieldproject for Amur tiger
conservation

Resources of the Russian Federation on 24 June 1996. The strategy’s main
goal was to compile a half-century of experience in Amur tiger research andprotection in Russia, to formulate basic principles and outline a comprehensive system of conservation measures for the long term.
One of the main aspects of the strategy is the reduction of human-tiger conflicts (HTCs). These are expected to grow with increasing tiger populations
that require more space and overlap with human habitation. Tigers and people come into more regular contact, competing for prey and territory. These
encounters are labelled HTCs if they lead to situations in which tigers preyon livestock or dogs, people get injured, or tigers are killed in defence or retaliation. Even if people or tigers are not injured or killed, big cats encroaching on human-dominated areas can cause fear and a negative attitude.

7

CASE STUDY. Uporny
The case of the male tiger Uporny gives a good picture of how the rehabilitation centres operate. Uporny, which means ‘stubborn’ in Russian, was three orfour years old when he was caught during a HTC on 14 November 2014. He
was taken for recovery to Utyos Rehabilitation Centre, where he remained until
being released into the wild on 28 May 2015. Prior to his release, Uporny’s abilities to hunt and avoid people were checked by experts at the centre. The tiger
was reintroduced into the wild with the support of the Khabarovsky Province
Government, WWF Russia and the Amur Tiger Centre. Uporny was released
into a forest area called “Tigrovy Dom” (the tiger home) in Nanaisky District,Khabarovsky Province.
Uporny was tagged with a Lotek GPS collar, which showed his daily walks usually varied from three to six kilometres. His shortest recorded walk was 67 metres,
while the longest was 22 kilometres.
Uporny crossed a number of large rivers such as the Pikhtza River, Anyui,
Manoma, Gur, and the mouth of the Khara River (the Gassi Lake). The tiger
crossed eight roads, of which five were forest roads for timber transport, andthree were asphalt. One time he was registered very close to the motorway connecting Khabarovsk and Komsomolsk-na-Amure, which he followed at a distance of only 100—150 metres for six kilometres. He was recorded near humansettlements three times, but he never entered the villages. On September 2015,
he spent about 24 hours at a distance of 500 metres from the village of Lidoga(about 1,600 inhabitants). On 25 September 2015, he passed the settlement of
Nizhnyaya Manoma (about 180 inhabitants) by as close as one kilometre. On 10
October 2015, Uporny crossed the Innokentievskoye Lake one kilometre awayfrom the village of Dzhonka (about 1,250 inhabitants).
His most northern point of movement was the right bank of the Amur River
just in front of Komsomolsky Nature Reserve. After that, the tiger moved backto much better habitats with Korean pine forests. By the end of December, it
seemed Uporny had found his home range north of Anuisky National Park on
the territory of the Gur-Khoso Nature Park.
Since late November 2015, Uporny’s home range has been in the Gur River basincovering more than 1,000 km². His home range includes the left and right feeder
basins of the Gur River. On 28 August, experts examined one of the ridges where
the tiger spent five days and discovered evidence of possible mating, indicatingthat Uporny is mature enough to breed.
Unfortunately, the monitoring of Uporny abruptly stopped on 14 March 2016,
when he was found dead in the Gur River valley with wounds to his head andback. His corpse was found near a wild boar he had attacked. The boar was probably finished off by another predator, possibly quite a large male tiger. This situation confirms that the life of predators in the wild is very hard and death fromnatural causes is higher than described in scientific studies.

8Uporny’s movements before he settled in his home range (May—December 2015)

to be continued on the next page9

Uporny’ s Tale
based on the story by Matthew Twombly
NOVEMBER 2014
VYAZEMSKOYE VILLAGE, RUSSIA

SEVERAL VILLAGERS SPOTTED A
LONE, RAGGED MALE TIGER ON
THE OUTSKIRTS OF TOWN—ARARE SIGHT, BUT NOT UNHEARDOF IN THE REGION.

SEVERAL EXPERTS FROM THE
GROUP CAME TO SNARE AND
TRANQUILIZE THE CAT, A THREEYEAR-OLD MALE IN POOR HEALTH.
HIS FUR WAS PALE, AND HISRIBS WERE SHOWING. HE
WAS SERIOUSLY EXHAUSTED.

BUT UPORNY’S HEALTH
IMPROVED QUICKLY, AND HEEAGERLY ACCEPTED FOOD.

EXPERTS FROM UTYOS MADE SURETO KEEP CONTACT WITH UPORNYTO A MINIMUM, PRESERVING HISWILD INSTINCTS FOR HIS EVENTUAL RELEASE.

MAY 28, 2015
BORDER OF ANYUISKY NATIONAL PARKA SITE FOR RELEASE WAS CHOSEN 124 MILES NORTHEAST OFUTYOS REHABILITATION CENTER, JUST OUTSIDE THE PARKIN PRIME TIGER HABITAT.

HE WAS OUTFITTED WITH A RADIO
COLLAR, WHICH MEASURED BODYTEMPERATURE AND LOCATION, SO
HIS MOVEMENTS THROUGH THE
WILDERNESS COULD BE CLOSELY
TRACKED.
BECAUSE THE RESEARCHERS WERELEARNING SO MUCH FROM UPORNY’S MOVEMENTS, THE RESEARCHTEAM DECIDED TO LEAVE HIS GPS
COLLAR ON FOR ANOTHER YEAR AND
A HALF.

10

FOR MOST OF THE PAST TWOYEARS, THEY’VE BEEN CLOSELY TRACKING THE TIGER
THROUGH A GPS COLLAR.

BUT A DAY CAME WHEN THE
COLLAR STOPPED RECORDING
ANY MOVEMENT, AND SHOWEDA DRAMATIC DROP IN THE CAT’S
BODY TEMPERATURE.

TO FIND THE POINT OF THE LASTSIGNAL, THEY TRAVEL 5 MILESFROM THE NEAREST ROAD,EXPECTING THE WORST.

AND THEY’RE RIGHT.

ALL EVIDENCE POINTSTOWARD A FIGHT WITH
ANOTHER LARGE PREDATOR,ALMOST CERTAINLY
ANOTHER MALE TIGER.

FOR WWF-RUSSIA, UPORNY
BECAME A SYMBOL FOR THE
FREEDOM AND STRUGGLE OFSURVIVAL IN THE WILD.

HE WAS CAPTURED,REHABILITATED, AND FORCED
TO ADAPT ALL OVER AGAIN.

HE LIVED FREELY IN THE
FOREST FOR TWO YEARS,IN THE HARSHEST CONDITIONS, WITH TEMPERATURES
DROPPING TO -40°F AND
SNOW UP TO FIVE FEET DEEP.

 E SUCCESSFULLYHKILLED LARGE PREY,
AND WE BELIEVE HE
FOUND A MATE.

UPORNY LIVED A TRULYWILD LIFE, AND MET A
WILD END.

“H E SHARED HIS LIFE
STORY WITH US,”SAYS FOMENKO.

11

1. CAUSESOF HUMAN—TIGER
CONFLICTS (HTC)
Many factors influence the frequency and scale of Human-Tiger Conflicts:

The number of HTC
has doubled since 201012•

Poaching of tigers and their prey leads to injuries, e.g. from footsnares or gunfire wounds. Injured tigers are not capable of hunting
for wild prey and turn to easier food supplies such as livestock or
chained dogs.

•

A tiger range must meet certain requirements in order for tigers tosurvive. These requirements include a high-quality habitat consistingof dense, natural forest.

•

Competition between tigers and humans for space is the main factor
causing conflicts. Continued human incursions into tiger ranges will
increase the risk of HTC.

•The erosion and fragmentation of forests decrease the tigers’ habitat,
as well as that of its prey, leading tigers to seek alternative food (e.g.
livestock) in or near human habitations. The decrease in tiger prey isalso caused by hunting. The lack of natural prey results in increased
HTC in areas where humans live near forests.

•

Tigers’ prey is also negatively impacted by overexploitation and competition with livestock. This probably accounts for the increased
number of tiger attacks on livestock. Karanth and Smith [1] cite thedecline of prey as an important cause of the decline of tiger
populations.

•

Many heads of cattle fall prey to tigers in various locations due toinefficient livestock husbandry and management practices. HTC isoften related to the location of grazing pastures and the poor securityof livestock enclosures.

•

The risk of HTC is also increased by activities, which lead to people
venturing into tiger habitat, such as hunting, fishing and the collection of Non Timber Forest Products (NTFP).

•The success of tiger conservation also leads to HTC as the increasing
tiger population needs more space to survive, thereby encroaching on
human territory.

Tigress
seriously wounded
by a poacher,Primorye, summer
2015

13

TIGER TALES. Artyomka
Successful Translocation
On 26 October 2016, Artyom City police received an alert from a citizen about acow killed by a tiger. A group, specialised in solving human-tiger conflicts, wascalled in. The group consisted of experts from the Primorsky Province Hunting
Department, WWF Russia and the Amur Tiger Centre. They immediately arrived
at the scene and discovered the cow’s remains. Footprints left in the soil provedthat the bovine was attacked by an adult Amur tiger. That same evening, the groupdetected the animal with an infra-red camera when he was returning to his prey tofeast further. The animal was safely captured and taken to Alekseevka Rehabilitation Centre, where he was examined. The examination and analyses showed that
he was a healthy four to five year old male Amur tiger, weighing more than 170 kg.
The cat was kept at the centre for four days before being released on 30 October,
fitted with a transmitter collar. He was set free in the Tigrovoye Hunting Lease*on the border with Ussuriysky Nature Reserve. The location was selected by ajoint decision by various nature conservation organisations. The decision was
based on several factors such as the availability of plentiful stocks of wild ungulates to feed on, sufficient distance from human settlements and the absenceof people in the vicinity at the moment of release. GPS information received a
day after the release showed that Artyomka had recovered nicely from the sedation and had moved five kilometres north, away from densely populated areas.
Translocating tigers is a widely used method to deal with wild ‘conflict’ animals.

Vet aims tranquilizer rifle at Artyomka

14

Artyomka sniffs the air of freedom

Artyomka’s first steps in the wild

* Hunting Lease is a site that is managed

for the purpose of hunting ungulates, waterfowl
and small mammals. People can buy a permit
from the leaseholder, which allows them tohunt a certain number of animals. Each lease/estate has a hunting quota based on the healthof ungulate populations. Hunting leases areimportant conservation partners of WWF. They
support high numbers of deer, wild boar andother wildlife as it means they have higher hunting quotas. WWF also hails higher densities ofthese animals as they are the tiger’s prey. Ahigh population of ungulates is in the best interests of all those involved.

15

2. HUMAN—TIGER
CONFLICTS IN THE
RUSSIAN FAR EAST

17 Russians were killedin conflicts with tigers
in the last 40 years

Humans are rarely killed by Amur tigers as the feline is not as aggressive
towards humans as other species. A tiger, who encounters a human, will usually try to avoid direct contact. This also applies to conflict tigers that have
lived close to human settlements for a long time and regularly visit them totake livestock. Encounters with a tiger are uncommon, but when it happens,
the animal is rarely aggressive. Nonetheless, there is a potential threat astigers do attack in extenuating circumstances. Most tigers that attack people have been injured by humans or are sick or emaciated. A study of tiger
attacks on people showed that 17 fatal cases have been recorded in Russia inthe last 40 years. The research, conducted by Igor Nikolaev of the Russian
Academy of Science, shows that 57% of attacks involved tigers that had been
injured by humans and only 21% involved tigers that were sick or emaciated(Fig. 2) [3].
Figure 2. The Division of Amur Tiger Attacks on People

21 %
57 %
14 %

297 conflicts with tigers
were reported in
2000—201616

Related to tigers that have
injuries of uncertain cause
Involved tigers that were
sick or emaciatedAttacks involved tigers that
had been injured by humans

Increase of HTC
In the period between 2000 and 2016, 279 conflict situations were reported.
Conflict situations resulted in the deaths of 33 tigers in roughly the same period. Data shown in figure 3 shows that the number of conflicts between people
and tigers has doubled since 2010. Given the growing tiger population and human activities within their habitat, this number is expected to rise even further
in the near future. Part of the reason for this is because since the Amur tiger
population stabilised at 500, trackers and specialists can no longer physicallycover the areas where HTCs occur.

Figure 3. Conflicts with Amur Tigers in the Russian Far East, 2000—2016

Figure 4 provides an overview of the number of tigers killed in conflicts
between 2000 and 2016. Figure 5 shows the number of people that wereattacked and killed by tigers over the same period.

Figure 4. Amur Tiger Killed in Conflicts, 2000—2016

Figure 5. Number of People Attacked and Killed by Tigers, 2000—2016

People attacked by tigers

People killed by tigers

17

26 CASES OF TIGER
ATTACKS ON PEOPLERESULTED IN 4
FATALITIES AND 14CASUALTIESMain Cause of HTC
Poaching is the main cause of death of Amur tigers, as well as one of themain causes of HTC. An Amur tiger may become aggressive when chased
or when unexpectedly confronted with a human, but also when it isdefending its prey or cubs. Tigers may also get injured, making them
unable to hunt wild prey. This forces them to look for easier prey such as
livestock or chained dogs. Poaching does not just result in dangerous
confrontations between people and tigers. It also leads to other HTCs,
such as vehicles colliding with tigers and tiger cubs being orphaned. Every
year, especially during winter, a number of cubs lose their mothers and are
unable to live independently.
Types of HTC
According to WCS data, 57% of all recorded conflicts involve tigers attacking
livestock. On average in Russia, tigers kill each year around 30 domestic
animals and heads of cattle. The vast majority of fatalities are dogs, witharound five cases of large horned cattle. These figures are roughly ten times
less than in other countries, such as India. For example, between 280 and
430 heads of live-stock are reported to be killed by tigers each year in the
Khanha tiger reserve alone [2].
More recent data from 2009—2017 shows that confrontations with dogs werethe most widespread type of conflict (62%). In 32% of these cases, tigers cameto the settlements and their tracks were identified. There were only two tiger
attacks on people (6%), in which one person was killed and the other injured.
Figure 6. Types of Human—Tiger Conflicts in Russia
6%
People attacked

32 %Tiger incursions
into settlements
Domestic animals killed

62 %An initial WWF study (2000-2016) provided some interesting insights in
HTC. Adult tigers with a pad width of more than 8 cm were involved in 41% of
HTC cases. 15% involved tiger cubs and 6% tigresses with cubs. In theremaining 38% of cases, the sex and age of the animals were not identified.
The data shows that 26 cases of tiger attacks on people were recorded that
resulted in four fatalities and 14 casualties (Fig. 5). The majority of these
attacks were provoked by people.

18

One of the training sessions for students and specialists at the Diagnostic Centre of
the Primorskaya Agriculture Academy

A conflict tiger captured and sedated by the Rapid Response Team for Khabarovsky
Province, December, 201719

3. HUMAN—TIGER
CONFLICTS RESOLUTION
Given the current and expected increasing levels of human-tiger conflicts,
WWF experts identified HTC as its number one priority. This is importantbecause traditionally, HTCs in Russia were resolved by simply killing thetiger, which led to a drastic decline in the population. In cooperation with thegovernmental agencies and local stakeholders, adequate measures need to betaken to reduce HTC.
In 2012, a special standard operating procedure (SOP) for HTC was designedby the Hunting Department of Primorsky Province. As part of this procedure,
Rapid Response Teams (RRTs) were set up to resolve conflicts in Primorsky
and Khabarovsky Provinces.
These teams each consist of two to three nominees of the hunting department, a field veterinarian, and a WWF representative. They can be alerted
when people encounter a tiger close to human habituation, or if they see an
injured or orphaned tiger.
Four risk categories of HTC were identified that require a different responseby the teams:••••

Category 1: Tiger attack on humans.
Category 2: Tiger attack on livestock or domestic animals.
Category 3: Visual sighting of a tiger in the vicinity of a village.
Category 4: Detection of tiger tracks in the vicinity of a village.

Based on these categories, the teams decide on their procedure when called
to a HTC scene. In general, the following steps are taken:

In 2012, Rapid Response
Teams were set up
to resolve conflicts in
Primorsky and Khabarovsky
Provinces

1. They investigate the conflict scene to evaluate the situation.
2. They monitor the tiger involved to assess behaviour and movement.
3. In category 3 or 4 cases, they will try to haze the animal using special
equipment such as flashlights, fireworks and guns with rubber bullets.
4. If that does not work, or if it is a category 2 case, they will proceed to capture the animal with a foot snare, after which the animal will be tranquilized by the veterinarian and transported.
5. The tiger is then brought to a rehabilitation centre for a medical examination and recovery.

20

Under no circumstances, should tigers be killed when straying into human habitation. Therefore, some additional measures are taken by the response teams:•••

Local administrations are encouraged to work with local people todeescalate the situation;
Anxious locals must be prevented from surrounding the animal,
which hampers capture and could lead to people and staff being seriously injured;The police and local administrators are to be called in at an early stage
because smooth coordination is critical to control crowds. Frightened
mobs can worsen a tense situation and lead to avoidable casualties ortragedies.

A medical examination of a tiger cub at Alekseevka Rehabilitation Centre

21

TIGER TALES. Vladik
Tiger Go HomeOn 19 October 2016, a citizen of Vladivostok got the shock of his life when he saw
an Amur tiger prowling the streets. He reported the incident to the emergency callcentre and another person confirmed the sighting. Police were quickly dispatched to
the location and the Hunting Department of Primorsky Province was alerted. WWF
Russia was also informed and they closely monitored the incident. The tiger was
difficult to track because of the absence of snow and drones were used to look forhim. While the search was underway, the hunting department instructed alarmed
citizens how to act in the event of an encounter with the fugitive tiger. The main
advice was not to run as the tiger was unlikely to harm anyone unless provoked.
Pavel Fomenko, species programme coordinator at WWF Russia’s Amur branch,
speculated that the tiger was probably searching for a new habitat. As the Amurtiger population increases, big cats tend to go in search of less populated areas. Often young tigers are chased away by adult males, who consider them competition.
The feline intruder in Vladivostok was captured by special rangers a day after the
initial sighting. On the night of 20 October, police received a report of the tiger being sighted in the Shamora Bay area. Ranger groups immediately descended on the

Final medical examination before a long trip to Khabarovsky Province

22area and WWF participated in the operation. Visual contact was made at 10 p.m.
when the tiger was detected in a forest by a thermal camera. As the animal was
within firing range, it was shot with a sedative. The tranquilizer soon took effectand the beast was left unharmed. Afterward, the cat was moved to Alekseevka Rehabilitation Centre. Upon arrival, the animal was thoroughly examined, measured
and samples were taken. The subject was a young male Amur tiger about threeyears-old, weighing approximately 140 kg. He was healthy and in good condition,
as well as being well-fed as he had apparently recently eaten a cat or a dog. After

Vladik leaps to freedom

the examination, the tiger was placed in an enclosure at the rehabilitation centre,
pending analysis of the samples taken. Based on the results, a panel of experts had
to decide on whether to release the tiger or not. They also needed to determine
whether it was a domestic or wild tiger and why it roamed into human territory.
On 15 May 2017, after around eight months in captivity, Vladik was releasedback into the wild at his new home in Bikin National Park. The release mission
was performed with the support of WWF Russia and the Amur Tiger Centre.
At the time of his release, Vladik was in peak physical condition, weighing 125kg. He was skilled at hunting ungulates and was shy of people. Pavel Fomenko explained that his new home was chosen because it is far away from humansettlements so there was little chance of Vladik straying into urban territory
again. Besides that, there were no other tigers or large predators in the area
to compete with Vladik for prey. There were also plentiful stocks of ungulates.
You would think that Vladik lived ‘happily ever after’ in his new home, but surprisingly, his story did not end there. Vladik had been tagged with a GPS moduleand in November 2017, the tracking device showed that the tiger had returned towhat experts assume must be his original home range in the south-west of Primorsky Province. After that, he moved on to the major tiger area in Sikhote-Alin.
Vladik’s return home was an epic journey that took him from the north of Primorsky Province all the way to the south-west. During his odyssey, Vladik carefully avoided all encounters with humans and left domestic animals unmolested.
He even seemed to make a ‘victory lap’ of his old haunts before settling down in
Sikhote-Alin. Pavel Fomenko described the tiger’s behaviour as ‘unique’. Who
knows what the next chapter will be in Vladik’s extraordinary life.

23

4. AMUR TIGER
REHABILITATION
AND MONITORING
A tiger will be captured and placed in the Alekseevka or Utyos rehabilitation centre in cases in which a tiger cannot be chased away from the scene;is injured; has caused serious damage (e.g. preyed upon livestock or dogs, orinjured people); is an orphaned cub.

In 1991, Utyos
Rehabilitation Centre wasestablished in Khabarovsky
Province

In 2012, Alekseevka
Rehabilitation Centre wasestablished in Primorye

Rehabilitation Centres
The rehabilitation centre in Alekseevka (Primorsky Province) was established in2012 to care for wildlife in need of human aid. Utyos centre was established in
Khabarovsky Province. It was launched by tiger expert Vladimir Kruglov in 1991
and has been his family’s life work ever since, with his son Eduard and daughter
Lyudmila following in his footsteps.
There are four to six staff members at each centre, including the director, a veterinarian, one or two animal keepers and one or two additional staff.
When a tiger is brought in, it receives a thorough medical examination to identify possible injuries and to assess its overall physical condition. In the case ofserious injuries, surgery can be conducted by the centre’s veterinarian. A tiger
is usually quarantined first. Then it is released into a large enclosure, where it
can recover further from its ordeal. During the animal’s rehabilitation, a groupof experts decide whether it can be released again in a remote area in the wild or
whether it will need to remain in captivity. The decision is based on the animal’s
physical condition and its ability to hunt and survive in the wild. The release ofan animal is always a joint decision.
Between 2000—2017, 24 animals were placed in rehabilitation centres. Six ofthese tigers died due to their bad physical condition when they were captured.
One adult male was translocated to the Rostov-na-Donu’s Zoo. Figure 7 shows
the total number of tigers that were placed in rehabilitation centres and releasedback to nature.

24

Figure 7. Tigers Placed in Rehabilitation Centres and Reintroduced
into the Wild, 2000—2016 (including orphaned cubs (WWF, WCS)

Tigers placed in rehabilitation centres

Tigers reintroduced into the wild

Catering to Cubs
Besides rehabilitating tigers that cause HTC, the centres’ main task is to carefor cubs, who lost their mothers due to poaching. They are usually orphaned
so young that they have not yet developed the skills to survive in the wild
without coming into conflict with humans. The centres have large, naturalistic-looking enclosures, which allow the cubs to be as wild as possible, whilestill receiving the support they need. There is minimal human contact andliving prey is provided so they can hone their hunting skills. The cubs stay at
the centres until they are deemed fit for release. After their release, they arecarefully monitored through satellite tracking to make sure they are copingwith their return to the wild.
Monitoring of Released Tigers
Between 2009—2017, a total of 13 tigers (nine tiger cubs and four young
adults) were released into the wild after rehabilitation. Ten of them were
tagged with GPS collars to monitor their movements to prevent them becoming involved in HTCs again. Two of this group of ten tigers are known
to still be alive and are being monitored via their collars. The other animals’
collars stopped transmitting due to battery failure. The usual lifespan for a
GPS collar is about three years, but sometimes they malfunction earlier forunknown reasons. The only recent information we have received about themis from local people and camera traps. Five tigers have survived and adapted,
one died from exhaustion, possibly connected with infection, and one tiger
was killed by another tiger. One adult male has disappeared from the radar,
but he is suspected to have been killed by poachers.

25WWF Support
WWF provides various support services to the Rapid Response Teams andboth rehabilitation centres. WWF staff members, Pavel Fomenko and Alexey
Kostyria, are members of the RRTs. Their personal involvement is criticallyimportant in various areas, such as:
•
•
•
•
•
•

solving conflict situations;medical examinations at conflict sites, as well as at the centres;
investigating the circumstances of the death of any tigers in HTCs;
explaining individual rehabilitation courses;
assessing an animal’s physical fitness for release into the wild;
assisting in the release of an animal into the wild.

Pavel and Alexey have a lot of personal experience in mitigating HTCs.
Furthermore, they have specialised knowledge about biology, veterinarycare, psychology and other important skills necessary to work efficiently withconflict animals. Their regular participation in the field, conducting workshops and training require special facilities and material resources, which
are provided by WWF.
WWF’s main goal in supporting the rehabilitation centres is to return tigers
to the wild. WWF helps the centres to purchase different kinds of equipment,such as remote-controlled monitoring systems and electric fences. It also
helps with repairing enclosures and in the construction of special, temporary cages and quarantine units. The rehabilitation centres actively use thesefacilities and equipment.

Mobile «hospital» for tigers in service in Primorye since January 201826

Pavel Fomenko,
head of the Rare Species Conservation Unit,
WWF—Russia, Amur branch

Before joining WWF’s ranks Pavel, a game biologist
by profession, worked as a researcher at the Pacific Institute of Geography of the Russian Academyof Science. He headed the Division on Protectionof the Altaisky Nature Reserve and took part in thefirst international research projects on the Amur tiger
and Amur leopard.
As a WWF member, Pavel created a network of antipoaching groups in the key Amur tiger habitats, built

reliable contacts with tiger-range protected areas,
governmental agencies supervising nature protection. On his initiative, conflict resolution groups wereformed in Primorsky and Khabarovsky Provinces. He
also laid the basis for cooperation with the Operative
Customs, Sniffer Dogs Service, the Customs Academy and the Frontier Service. TIME magazine named
Pavel the Hero for the Planet—2000” and the Russian
Geographical Society awarded him a Golden Medal.

—

Alexey Kostyria,
Ph. D., senior coordinator of the Rare Species Conservation Unit,
WWF—Russia, Amur branchAlexey liked to explore the wilderness since hischildhood. After specialising in mechanics at the Primorskaya Agricultural Academy, he worked at the
Sikhote-Alin Nature Reserve as an inspector anda lab assistant. In 2001, Alexey graduated from theFar Eastern University, the faculty of biology andworked as a senior research associate at the Institute of Biology and Soils of the Russian Academy of
Sciences for ten years. Alexey headed international

research projects on Himalayan and brown bears,
as well as on the Amur leopard monitoring with camera traps. He also participated in the Amur tiger census. He carried out research into the trans-border
movements of Amur tigers and leopards between
Russia and China, using data from genetic analysis and camera traps. In 2016, Alexey joined the
WWF—Russia team monitoring Amur tiger camera
traps.

27

TIGER TALES. Filippa
A Night on the Town
On 29 April 2017, the tigress Filippa was transported from Alekseevka Rehabilitation Centre in Primorsky Province to the Dichun Wildlife Refuge in
Evreiskaya Province. She was released upon arrival and disappeared into
the deep forest, roaring with excitement. Filippa was tagged with a GPS collar so that her movements could be monitored. The release mission was carried out with the support of WWF—Russia and the Amur Tiger Centre.

Freedom is at Filippa’s fingertips

Almost 15 months earlier, on 29 December 2015, an exhausted five-monthold tiger cub was found in one of the gardens of Filippovka village (hence hername) near the Land of the Leopard National Park. The cub was dying fromstarvation and stealthily approached the village in search of food. However, instead of finding food, she almost became a meal for local dogs. Villagers reported the incident to the national park staff and they rescued the young tigress.
After 14 months of rehabilitation at Alekseevka Rehabilitation Centre, Filippa had
a new name and a new lease on life. She had fully recovered and learned to hunt; asmall helpless tiger cub had turned into a graceful, powerful tigress. It is hoped that
she will breed in the wild, further increasing the Amur tiger population28

Tranquilizers are loaded and final instructions given

Vet’s examination before a long journey29

5. LESSONSLEARNED
Recently, governmental agencies of Khabarovsky Province placed the Utyos
enclosure under their jurisdiction. This is only the first step to make thecentres independent of WWF support. Unfortunately, at present, the centre
cannot fully operate without WWF support. They are in constant need ofmoney to provide the services cited above. At present, WWF has an agreement with Alekseevka Rehabilitation Centre to provide the bulk of fundingor its operations.
The response teams have played an important role in solving HTC by removing wounded, diseased or otherwise unfit animals from the wild. The teams’
actions seem to have increased the local populations’ acceptance of their felineneighbours. Solving HTC, fostering local acceptance and fighting poaching
prove the team’s success. Their standard operating procedure of investigating,monitoring, hazing, capturing, evaluating and finally releasing the tiger into or
removing it from the wild seems to be a logical and effective approach.

The Rapid Response Team for conflicts resolution for Primorsky Province

30

Recommendations
We recommend that RRTs continue their work. In dealing with tiger attacks
on domestic animals, we recommend that they explore additional techniques
and technologies. In addition, they should collect data to evaluate their effectiveness. GPS collars should help to monitor tigers that repeatedly cause conflict and may improve hazing efforts by helping the response team to get close
to the tiger. They will also provide data on the tiger’s response to hazing. Thisis a very important part of the process and one of the main reasons why thegovernment and public organizations provide financial support. Experience
with the current use of GPS collars shows that they only provide sufficient data
to record the animal’s movements and whether it is alive or dead.
We make the following recommendations to further improve the performance of the Rapid Response Teams:
•
•

•

•

•

•

The teams are currently dependent on WWF for animal handling andtelemetry expertise. Therefore, continued training is required so thatthe teams can operate more independently in future.
To further reduce the loss of tigers due to conflict, the teams should
continue to use and improve methods to maintain tigers in the wild.
These methods include translocation and returning cubs to the wild
and rehabilitation in the rehabilitation centres when necessary.
Translocation is becoming an important method to re-establish subpopulations (e.g. translocation* to Evreiskaya and Amurskaya Provinces) and to increase small populations.
Anti-poaching efforts should be continued to prevent poachers fromtaking advantage of conflict situations to kill tigers. This will also
reduce the risk of injuries and cubs losing their mothers. In addition,
it gives the teams a meaningful task when they are not engaged inmanaging conflicts.
A methodology is required to evaluate interventions, including standardised data sheets and a central data base. Measures of effectivenes
should reflect how effective the team is in reducing the loss of humanlife and livelihood, as well as the number of tiger deaths.
More robust and regular support should be provided to the rehabilitation centre in the village of Alekseevka in Primorsky Province andto Utyos Rehabilitation Centre in Khabarovsky Province. The numberof conflict tigers or orphaned cubs is hard to predict so the centres
need to have the capacity to accommodate at least ten animals. It
should be noted that if long-term rehabilitation is necessary for an
animal, that means it will need to be kept for up to two years.
Russia was the first country to create a government-sponsored response team. Today, response teams exist in several countries insome form, as do proposals to create response teams in other countries. If, the activities of the response team are properly evaluated,
they may serve as a model for developing teams in other areas.

* A tigress, named Zolushka (Russian for Cinderel-la), was found in February 2012 as a starving fourmonth-old cub. Her mother is thought to have been
killed by poachers. She was nursed back to healthat the Alekseevka Rehabilitation Centre, having had

the tip of her tail removed following severe frostbite.
The orphaned Siberian tiger was rehabilitated andreleased back into the wild. She has given birth totwo cubs in 2015.

31

TIGER TALES. Pozharsky Cub
The Miracle Cub
Friday 13 2017 turned out to be a lucky day for one male cub. The Primorsky
Province Hunting Department received an alert about a wounded tiger cub in
the northern part of the region. A team was quickly dispatched to capture theseriously injured cat and provide it with emergency first-aid to save its life. Thenit was quickly transported to Alekseevka Rehabilitation Centre for further treatment. An examination established that the cub was five to seven months old.
The centre’s specialists placed the weakened animal in a heated quarantine box
for observation, while the experts consulted on what further steps to take. His
wounds were extremely serious and the cub’s survival was described as a miracle.
Careful investigation of the shooting site revealed that the cub’s mother was nearby with a sibling. They were alive and unharmed and under noimmediate threat from the poachers, who presumably shot the male cub.
A week after the cub’s retrieval, he was still struggling for his young life. A
special commission consisting of specialists from government organisations,
NGOs and research institutions decided that urgent surgery was warranted to save the tiny animal’s life. His nose was operated on, thereby restoring
his breathing and careful examination of his eyes revealed that initial fears of
impaired vision were unfounded. After the medical procedure, the cub was
put in quarantine for further medical treatment. In the meantime, WWF—
Russia purchased video cameras to monitor the young animal around theclock and the Amur Tiger Centre paid for his medical treatment and care.
After his recovery, the cub was put with a female cub in a large enclosure encompassing about one hectare, where they can walk around freely and play together.
This is very important for such intelligent animals as tigers. Their being together
will allow them to grow stronger and hone their hunting skills, while forging astrong social bond. WWF Russia equipped the enclosure with a video system
to keep an eye on the tigers and monitor their progress. Experts are optimistic
about their prospects of eventually being released into the wild.

The first day at the Alekseevka
Rehabilitation Centre, Primorye

32

TIGER TALES. Lazovsky Cub
The Cub Who Came In From the Cold
On 16 December 2016, specialists of the Hunting Department of Primorsky
Province and the Tiger Rehabilitation Centre successfully captured an orphaned
tiger cub near Lazo village. Hunting Department staff took immediate control
over the situation as soon as they were alerted to the little predator’s appearance.
Little Lazovsky had been regularly sighted since 30 November near the village
dump site. There were no signs of the mother so after two weeks of monitoring thetiny tiger’s movements, the Hunting Department decided to capture her for repatriation to the wild. The operation was conducted using special equipment provided by WWF—Russia and Amur Tiger Centre. A careful examination followed
the successful capture. Lazovsky was revealed to be a five-month-old female cub,weighing 20 kg. She had a cut on her paw, presumably from glass in the dump
site, and even though she was weakened, Lazovsky was otherwise in fine shape.
Winter had descended on Primorsky Province with temperatures plummetingto —25°С. The little orphan could not possibly survive alone in such harsh conditions so she was sent to Alekseevka Rehabilitation Centre for observation andmedical care.

The tiger cubs now share one enclosure at the Alekseevka Rehabilitation Centre.
They are to be released into the wild in spring 201833

Medical examination with the new equipment at Utyos Rehabilitation Centre, Khabarovsky
Province, May, 201634

REFERENCES

1. Karanth, K.U., Smith, B.M., 1999. Prey depletion as critical determinant of tiger population viability. In: Seidensticker, J., Christie, S., Jackson, P. (Eds.), Riding the tiger: Tiger conservation in human dominated landscape. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
2. Jennifer R. B. Miller, Yadvendradev V. Jhala, Jyotirmay Jena Livestock
losses and hotspots of attack from tigers and leopards in Kanha Tiger Reserve, Central India Reg Environ Change (2016) 16 (Suppl 1): S17—S29
3. Nikolaev, I.G., Yudin, V.G., 1993. Tiger and man in conflict situations.
Bulletin Moskovsky Obschestva Ispytateley Priorody, Otdyel Biologica 98,
23—26 (in Russian)

35

Alexey Kostyria,
Pavel Fomenko,
Vasily Solkin,
Femke Hilderink
WWF—Russia Amur branch
WWF—Netherlands
THE WAY OF THE TIGER:REPORT ON HUMAN—TIGER CONFLICTS IN THE RUSSIAN FAR EAST
Photo on the cover — O. Kabalik
Layout — Yu. Fomenko
Photos by Yulia Fomenko, Antonio Olmos, Ola Jennersten, Oleg Kabalik, Egor Fomenko,
Elena Starostina
Pictures on pp. 10—11 by Matthew TwomblyThis publication is distributed free of charge.

WWF Russia, Amur branch, 18a Verhneportovaya, Vladivostok 690003
phone/fax: (423)241-48-68, amur.office@wwf.ru, www.wwf.ru