Ghana’s Fourth National Communication to the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate ChangeWhite Sand Beach Resort, Gomoa Fetteh, Ghana. Credit: https://images.app.goo.gl/jVcoWTKfAEML2q4k6

May 2020

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

With kind support from

National Climate Change Report, 2020

The document is available for download on EPA website address www.epa.gov.gh

For further information, please contact:

Director of Environment
MESTI
P.O. Box M232
Ministries - Accra
Telephone: 0302-666049
Email: info@mesti.gov.gh

Executive Director
EPA
P. O. Box M326
Ministries - Accra
Telephone: 0302 - 664697
Email: info@epa.gov.gh

Except for commercial use, all relevant sections of, or information from this report can be reproduced for use as reference material
or any related purposes provided the source is appropriately citedForeword

I present Ghana’s Fourth National Communication (NC4) to the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC). The NC4 outlines the latest information on Ghana’s progress at addressing climatechange through specific policies.
The potential disruptive effects of climate change on Ghana is not markedly different from the rest of Africa.
Climate change threatens to erode the development gains Ghana has made in the past and hampers our ability
to accomplish the sustainable development aspirations we have envisaged for ourselves. Despite the pressing
economic challenges that confront us, Ghana has not relented on taking bold steps to deal with climate change,
and I call on the international community to show greater commitment to fighting climate change.
We hold the view that acting on climate change must not be done in isolation. It must be a well-coordinatedand embrace a holistic governmental strategy that integrates climate actions into national sustainable
development programmes. That is why Ghana’s climate policy is aligned with the latest medium-term national
development plan.
In the last decade, Ghana’s climate change efforts have focussed on putting in place, suitable policy conditions
to enable Ghana to increase its efforts on tangible climate actions. In this regard, Ghana published its national
climate change policy in 2012, low carbon development strategy in 2015, ratified the Paris Agreement in 2016and has already started implementing the measures in the nationally determined contributions. The focus is
now on scaling-up the implementation of our climate actions.
We are already implementing climate change programmes aimed at promoting renewable energy, lowering
deforestation, supporting the adoption of clean cooking, pursuing low carbon electricity generation, building
resilience in the savannah dryland and investing in sea defence infrastructure. Investing in these climate
actions, have direct developmental benefits as well as strong climate objectives. We have also introduced
significant policy interventions that have development and climate protection imperatives. Our flagshipprogrammes on planting for food and jobs, one-village-one-dam, and the one-district-one-factory, are all
geared towards boosting green industrialisation and rural development as well as building resilience to theimpacts of climate change.
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These policy initiatives are already contributing positive results to the attainment of the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs), as well as resilience and low carbon development objectives. Admittedly, we needto do more than if we are to achieve the goals outlined in the nationally determined contributions.
In conclusion, I wish to emphasise that as we strive to do our bit to halt climate change at the national level,
there is the need for more concrete efforts at the international level. Consequently, I call for reforms at theinternational level to streamline access to climate finance to complement national funding for initiatives
aimed at addressing climate change.

Professor Kwabena Frimpong-Boateng(Minister for Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation)

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Preface

This report is Ghana’s NC4 to the UNFCCC. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) collaborated closelywith several national institutions and individuals in the preparation of the NC4 while the Ministry ofEnvironment, Science, Technology and Innovation (MESTI) provided oversight. The components considered in
the report include the following: national circumstances, national greenhouse gas inventory, greenhouse gas
mitigation assessment, climate change vulnerability and impacts assessment, climate change education,
training and awareness, constraints, gaps, and related financial, technical and capacity needs, and otherinformation.
It presents comprehensive, up-to-date information on current findings from country-level studies andliterature, surveys, interviews and assessments, all of which were undertaken as part of the preparation of theNC4. The report presents new evidence and observations in twelve chapters to fulfil the reporting
requirements specified in the UNFCCC reporting guideline for the preparation of national communication from
Parties not included in Annex 1.
The compilation started with a stocktaking to assess previous national communications and recommend ways
to improve on the NC4. The review comments were incorporated in the NC4 project document for approval by
the Global Environment Facility (GEF) through the UN Environment. A national inception workshop wasorganised to kick-start the preparation of the NC4. During the workshop, the EPA introduced the NC4 tonational stakeholders to solicit their inputs on the implementation of the project. Six sector teams were formed
and assigned specific components of the NC4.
Each sector team conducted assessments for each component and produced first drafts. The EPA undertook
two rounds of expert and stakeholder reviews on the chapter drafts. The expert review evaluated the overall
consistency of the draft report with the UNFCCC guidelines and technical errors. After the reviews, the chapter
authors incorporated all comments, suggestions and responses into the first draft to produce the second
chapter draft. EPA then compiled a draft national communication report from the second drafts and submitted
it to UNEP and international partners for their reviews. Thereafter, the EPA organised a national stakeholder
validation workshop to validate the report. MESTI approved the final NC4 report before submission to the
UNFCCC.

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The report is the result of four years of information gathering and an assessment process designed to present
both big-picture messages and essential details on Ghana’s greenhouse emission trends, projections andopportunities for mitigation, how the country is affected by climate change, and efforts being made orenvisaged to address climate change in the context of sustainable development. The benefits of this report
are to:••••Help Ghana meet its reporting obligations under Articles 4 and 12 of the UNFCCC.
Provide information to support decision-making at all levels and inform national-level policy.
Strengthen capacity at the national level.
Serve as a reliable reference for researchers, NGOs, businesses, industry players and project
developers.

John A. Pwamang(Ag. Executive Director, Environmental Protection Agency)

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Acknowledgement

The preparation of the NC4 has been four years of a great learning experience and fantastic teamwork. In
many ways. The team made up of a variety of professions, knowledge and practice communities, exuded highprofessional and ethical standards at every stage of the work. When the team did not reach consensus on data
and methodological choices, they strove not to compromise on minimum standards.
The EPA wishes to recognise the immense contributions from all those who offered their service for the
preparation of this report. We are appreciative of GEF for providing funding support for the NC4. We are also
pleased with the enthusiastic partnership we had with Ms Suzanne Lekoyiet and her supportive team at UN
Environment. We greatly benefitted from her great insight, advice and guidance in the preparation of the
project document, compilation and submission of the report. We gratefully acknowledge the contributions Ms
Suzanne Lekoyiet made in ensuring that there were positive results at every step of the compilation process.
We also thank Mr William Kojo Agyemang-Bonsu for his rich inputs into this report. We also appreciate thetechnical support from NDC-SP, ICAT and RRR+ initiatives.
We are thankful to the management of the EPA for providing strategic technical guidance and direction during
the compilation process. Sincere thanks go to MESTI for their insightful advice and support throughout theapproval and submission of the NC4. We are particularly grateful for the effort put into securing final signature
to this report before its submission. And to all the international partners that provided technical support during
the preparation and review of the report, we say a ‘big thank you’; we truly value our partnership with you.
Furthermore, we wish to thank various working group members, consultants and other state institutions thatwere engaged in the entire national communication process, culminating in the preparation of this report. We
also recognise and appreciate the high level of dedication and commitment exhibited by various public andcivil servants who in diverse ways, contributed to producing this report.

Ebenezer Appah-Sampong(Deputy Executive Director, Technical Services, Environmental Protection Agency)

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List of contributors
Coordinating Authors
Mr John A. Pwamanng (Ag. Executive Director, Environmental Protection Agency)
Mr Ebenezer Appah-Sampong (Deputy Executive Director, Technical Services, Environmental Protection Agency)
Mr K.Y. Oppong-Boadi (UNFCCC Focal Point, Environmental Protection Agency)
Report Compilation
Dr Daniel Tutu Benefoh (Climate Change Unit, Environmental Protection Agency)
Reviewers
Dr George Manful (Retired UN Staff and Freelance)
Prof. S.K. Oppong (Renewable Natural Resources, KNUST)Dr Philip Antwi-Agyei (IPCC Author, Environmental Science Department, KNUST)Dr Benjamin Apraku Gyampoh (Editor-in-Chief of Scientific African journal of the Next Einstein Forum. Renewable
Natural Resources, KNUST)Dr Agyemang Yaw Boafo (Centre for Climate Change and Sustainable Development Studies, University of Ghana)
Dr Ernest Foli (Forestry Research Institute of Ghana, CSIR)Mr Stanford Mwakasonda, Global Support Programme
Editing
Mr Larsey Mensah (Freelance)

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Chapter Contributors
Chapter 1: National Circumstances
Mr K.Y. Oppong-Boadi (Environmental Protection Agency)
Mr Foster Aboagye-Gyamfi (Ministry of Finance)
Dr Antwi-Boasiako Amoah (Environmental Protection Agency)
Dr Felix Addo-Yobo (National Development Planning Commission)
Dr Albert Ahenkan (University of Ghana Business School)
Dr Abdul-Razak Saeed (formerly of IRRP Project, ICF)
Chapter 2: National Greenhouse Gas Inventory
Energy sector
Mr Kennedy Amankwa (Energy Commission)
Mr Larry Kotoe (Environmental Protection Agency)
Dr Abdul-Razak Saeed (formerly of IRRP Project, ICF)
Mr Emmanuel Appoh (Environmental Protection Agency)
Mr Daniel Essel (Ministry of Transport)
Mr Ben Sackey (Volta River Authority)
Dr Daniel Tutu Benefoh (Environmental Protection Agency)
Mr Salifu Addo (Energy Commission)
Mr Mawunyo Dzobo (formerly of IRRP Project, ICF)
IPPU Sector
Mrs Selina Amoah (Environmental Protection Agency)
Mr Emmanuel Osae Quansah (Environmental Protection Agency)
Mr Joseph Baffoe (Environmental Protection Agency)
Mr Micheal Onwona Kwakye (Environmental Protection Agency)
Mrs Esi Nerquaye-Tetteh (Environmental Protection Agency)
Agriculture Forestry and Other Land-Use sector
Dr Ernest Foli (Forestry Research Institute, CSIR)Mr Kingsley Amoako (Ministry of Food and Agriculture)
Mr Christian Flafe (Ministry of Food and Agriculture)
Mr Jacob Amoako (Forestry Commission)
Mr Mohammed Yakubu (Forestry Commission)
Mr Kofi Affum Baffoe (Forestry Commission)
Dr Charles Domozoro (Animal Research Institute, CSIR)Dr Winston A. Asante (Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology)
Mr Kwabena Owusu Asubonteng (UNU - Institute for Natural Resources in Africa)
Mr Foster Mensah (CERSGIS, University of Ghana, Legon)
Mr Kwame Boakye Fredua (Environmental Protection Agency)
Dr Daniel Tutu Benefoh (Environmental Protection Agency)
Waste Sector
Mrs Juliana Bempah (Environmental Protection Agency)
Mr Joseph Baffoe (Environmental Protection Agency)
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Mr Joy Hesse-Ankoma (Environmental Protection Agency)
Mr Daniel A. Lamptey (Environmental Protection Agency)

General Section
Mr Samson Botchway (Information technology, Environmental Protection Agency)
Dr Daniel Tutu Benefoh (Cross-cutting issues, Environmental Protection Agency)
Mr Jacob Amoako (Uncertainty assessment for land sector, Forestry Commission)
Chapter 3: Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Assessment
Ms Paula Edze (Energy Commission)
Mr Kennedy Amankwa (Energy Commission)
Mr Ebenezer Ashie (Energy Commission)
Dr Daniel Tutu Benefoh (Environmental Protection Agency)
Mr Simpson Attieku (Energy Commission)
Mr Peter Dery (Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation)
Mrs Roselyn Fosuah Adjei (Forestry Commission)
Dr Seth Debrah (Ghana Atomic Energy Commission)
Chapter 4: Climate Change Vulnerability, Impacts and Adaptation Assessment
Climate Scenarios and Spatial Vulnerability Assessment
Mr Richard Agyeman (Ghana Meteorological Agency)
Prof Kwadwo Owusu (Department of Geography and Resource Development, University of Ghana)
Dr Nana Ama Browne Kluste (Department of Physics, University of Ghana)
Mr Kofi Asare (Ghana Atomic Energy Commission)
Dr Emmanuel Tachie-Obeng (Environmental Protection Agency)
Prof Raymond Kasei (University of Development Studies)
Dr Daniel Benefoh (Environmental Protection Agency)
Climate Impacts and Adaptation Assessment
Dr Mumuni Abu (Regional Institute for Population Studies, Resource Development, University of Ghana)
Dr Antwi-Boasiako Amoah (Environmental Protection Agency)
Mr Winfred Nelson (National Development Planning Commission)
Dr Alpha Bob (Water Resources Commission)
Ms Grace Afrifa (Abantu For Development)
Mr Kingsley Amoako (Crop Services Directorate, Ministry of Food and Agriculture)
Chapter 5: Other Information
Mrs Angelina Tutuah Mensah (Environmental Protection Agency)
Mrs Roselyn Fosuah Adjei (Forestry Commission)
Dr Emmanuel Tachie-Obeng (Environmental Protection Agency)
Mr Osei Karikari (Environmental Protection Agency)
Mrs Florence Agyei (Consultant, Formerly of Environmental Protection Agency)
Mr Samuel Doste (HATOF Foundation)
Mr Mohammed Gyimah (Ministry of Environment, Science Technology and Innovation)

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Content
Foreword
PrefaceAcknowledgement
List of contributors
Chapter Contributors
Content
List of Tables
List of Figures
Abbreviations

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Executive summary
ES 1 Mandate for the preparation of national communication to UNFCCC
ES 2 National circumstances and institutional arrangements relevant for climate change
ES 3 National greenhouse gas inventory
ES 4 Greenhouse gas mitigation assessments
ES 5. Vulnerability, Impacts and Adaptation Assessments
ES 6. Other Information
ES 6.1 Technology Development and Transfer
ES 6.2 Research and Systematic Observation
ES 6.3 Financial, Technical and Capacity needs

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1. Introduction
1.1 Reporting Context on National Communication
1.2 Background to the Preparation of National Communication
1.3 Climate Change in Ghana

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2. National Circumstances
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2.1 Key Achievements since the Submission of Third National Communication to UNFCCC
42.2 Government Profile
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2.3. Institutional Arrangement for the Preparation of National Communications and Biennial Update Reports
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2.4 Climate Change Relevant National and Sectoral Policies
11
2.5 Government Flagship Policies in the Medium-Term Development Framework that Support Climate Change 14
2.6 Geographic Profile
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2.7 Climate Profile
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2.8 Demography Profile
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2.9 Macro-Economic Context
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2.10 Natural Resources28
2.11 Energy Resources31
2.12 Transport34
2.13 Industry
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2.14 Waste Sector
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2.15 Climate Change and the Implementation of Multilateral Agreements and Other Initiatives
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2.16 Description of Regional Development Priorities, Objectives and Circumstances, on the basis of which Ghana is
Addressing Climate Change and its Adverse Impacts
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3. Updates of National Greenhouse Gas Inventory
3.1 Overview of National Greenhouse Inventory
3.2 National System for Sustainable Inventory Preparation
3.3 Summary of Emissions/Removals Trends
3.4 Cross-Cutting Issues in Greenhouse Gas inventory

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4. Updates on Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Assessment
4.1 Mitigation Policy-Making Process
4.2 Ghana’s Mitigation Policies and Measures
4.3 Government-Wide Mitigation Actions
4.4 Capacity Development for Enhanced Mitigation Actions
4.5 Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Assessment

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5. Updates on Climate Vulnerability, Impacts and Adaptation Assessment
5.1 Description of Climate Projections
5.2 Climate Modelling and Adaptation Assessment Initiatives
5.3 Climate Change Vulnerability Assessment
5.3.1 Spatial Climate Change Vulnerability
5.3.2 Description of Climate Change Vulnerability Methodology
5.3.3 Spatial Climate Change Vulnerability Results
5.3.4 Limitation of the Spatial Climate Change Vulnerability Assessment
5.4 Flood and Drought Hazard Mapping
5.5 Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation
5.6 Sectoral Impacts Assessment
5.7 Updates on Adaptation Planning and Actions
5.8 Enabling Implementation of Adaptation Actions in Ghana

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6. Climate Technology Development and Transfer in Ghana
6.1 Technology Needs Assessment
6.2 Technology Requirements for Ghana’s Nationally Determined Contributions
6.3 Making Climate Technology Transfer and Diffusion Work
6.4 Technology Transfer Mechanism
6.5 Funds received to Support Technology Transfer

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7. Research and Systematic Observation
7.1 Climate Change Research
7.2 Systematic Observations
7.3 Participation in international climate change activities
7.4 Capacity Building Needs

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8. Information on Action for Climate Empowerment (ACE)
8.1 Efforts to Promote Access to Public Information
8.1.2.3 Climate change and resilience information centre – Care International

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8.3 Efforts to Promote Public Awareness8.4 Efforts to Promote Education

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9.0 Ghana’s first summary of information on how safeguards for REDD+ are being addressed and respected297

10. Ghana’s Experience on Response Measures
10.1
State of Response Measure Efforts in Ghana
10.2
Responding to the Gaps
10.2.2 Targeted Groups for the Presentations and Discussion of the Findings:

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11. Updates on Financial, Technical and Capacity Needs
11.1 Financial Constraints, Gaps, and Needs
11.2 Technical and Capacity Constraints and Gaps including Needs
11.3 GEF, Annex II Parties, multilateral/bilateral financial contributions

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12. Concluding Remarks

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13. Annexes
13.1 Annex 1: Summary Table A (2016)13.2 Annex 2: Energy sectoral table (2016)13.3 Annex 3: IPPU sectoral table (2016)13.4 Annex 4: AFOLU sectoral table (2016)13.5 Annex 5: Waste sectoral table (2016)13.6 Annex 6: multi-decade minimum and maximum temperature trends
13.7 Annex 7: Analysis of committed bilateral financial flows for the reporting period 2011-2019
13.8 Annex 8: Analysis of committed multilateral financial flows for the reporting period 2011-2019
13.8 Annex 9: Analysis of GEF financial flows for the reporting period 2011-2019
13.10 Proposed projects for funding

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References

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List of Tables
National Circumstances
Table 1: Institutions and summary of climate change activities relating to their mandates
Table 2: Policies, legislation and measures that support climate change
Table 3: Linkages between nationally determined contributions, national climate change policy, medium-term
development frameworks, government flagships projects and SDGs
Table 4: Macroeconomic indicators relevant to greenhouse gas emissions and removals in Ghana
Table 5: Surface freshwater systems in Ghana
Table 6: List of international conventions on the Environment in which Ghana participated

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National Greenhouse Gas Inventory
Table 7: Emissions/removal categories, methodological tiers and emission factors for 1990-2016
Table 8: Sources of activity data, format and the principal data providers
Table 9: Sector contributions to total emissions and percentage change from 2012 to 2016
Table 10: Differences in Carbon dioxide emissions by RA and SA
Table 11: Trends of selected precursor and local air pollutants for the period 1990-2016
Table 12: Level assessment key categories in 2016
Table 13: Trends assessment key categories for the period 2000-2016
Table 14: Status of level and trend key category assessment
Table 15: Summary of the recalculations and the underlying reasons for each
Table 16: Techniques used to fill time series data gaps
Table 17: List of QC procedures followed in the inventory
Table 18: Overview of the general assessment of completeness
Table 19: Planned improvement activities in the Energy sector
Table 20: Planned improvement activities in the IPPU sector
Table 21: Planned improvement activities in the AFOLU sector
Table 22: Planned improvement activities in the waste sector

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Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Assessment
Table 23: Renewable energy targets in the REMP from 2015 to 2030
Table 24: Categorisation of GHG inventory sectors to mitigation sectors and national accounts
Table 25: Designated mitigation assessment agency
Table 26: National mitigation assessment team
Table 27: Roles and responsibilities of the mitigation assessment team
Table 28: Potential improvements in the existing institutional arrangements for mitigation assessments
Table 29: Methodological steps used for mitigation assessment in the energy and non-energy sectors
Table 30: Tools and methodologies used in the energy sector
Table 31: Tools and methodologies used in the energy sector
Table 32: Tools and methodologies used in land-use change
Table 33: Tools and methodologies used in solid waste management
Table 34: Archive tasks, responsibilities, and schedules
Table 35: Potential improvements in the mitigation assessment institutional arrangement

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Table 36: Potential technical improvements in the assessment
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Table 37: Potential improvements in the mitigation assessment archive system
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Table 38: National mitigation priorities
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Table 39: List of mitigation options, their supporting policy/strategy, and priority status
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Table 40: Options included in the MAR curve
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Table 41: Options excluded in MAR curve
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Table 42: Overview of overall screening and prioritisation of mitigation options
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Table 43: Breakdown of mitigation scenario by sectors, mitigation options and their corresponding emission reduction
potentials between 2016 and 2030
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Table 44: Mitigation projections for the energy sector
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Table 45: Mitigation projections for the land-use sector
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Table 46: Mitigation projections for the IPPU sector
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Table 47: Mitigation projection for the Waste sector
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Table 48: Projected emissions along with WtM scenario by 2030
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Table 49: Mitigation along with WM and WAM scenarios by 2030
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Table 50: Potential emission reductions under the mitigation scenario relative to the WtM
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Table 51: Accelerated Economic Growth emissions for the period 2016-2030
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Table 52: Projected transport emissions under the AEG scenario
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Table 53: Projected fuel demand for electricity generation.
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Table 54: Projected installed electricity generation capacity under the AEG scenario
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Table 55: List of mitigation options, their NDC status, and mitigation scenario
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Table 56: Further steps toward implementation of selected mitigation options
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Table 57: Updates on the implementation of mitigation options since the submission of BUR2
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Vulnerability, Impacts and Adaptation Assessment
Table 58: Summary of the climate projection steps
172
Table 59: Matrix of climate modelling efforts, related initiatives and capacity needs in Ghana
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Table 60: Population employed in Agriculture per region
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Table 61: Vulnerability of parameters and the GIS data
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Table 62: Description of the parameters used to calculate climate change vulnerability for the administrative districts
and regions of Ghana
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Table 63: Example of the method used to calculate district-specific Climate Change Vulnerability
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Table 64: District breakdown of climate change vulnerability parameters
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Table 65: List of climate hazards and their impacts in Ghana between 1968 and 2017.
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Table 66: Sectoral adaptation assessment and linkages with the on-going adaptation measures
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Table 67: Priority adaptation policy actions to be implemented to achieve Ghana’s NDC adaptation goal
225
Table 68: Some Interventions to address the capacity gap for climate resilience building at the sub-national level 228
Table 69: List of government flagship programme supporting adaptation in the NCCP, NCCAS and the NDC
230
Table 70: Selected adaptation-related interventions in the cities and location actions category
232
Table 71: Early warning/disaster risk reduction initiative implemented by NADMO
233
Table 72: Early warning/disaster risk reduction initiative implemented by the Water Resources Commission
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Table 73: Climate adaptation investments in climate-vulnerable landscapes
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Table 74: Coastal protection projects in Ghana
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Table 75: List of climate change adaptation research works in Ghana
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Table 76: Barriers to adaptation measures in Ghana
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Other Information
Table 77: Climate technology options identified in 2003 TNA and the links with policy
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Table 78: Climate technology options identified in 2013 TNA and the links with policy
247
Table 79: Prioritised adaptation technology options and key barriers
248
Table 80: Selected policy, technical and financial reforms to enable technology transfer and diffusion
250
Table 81: Technology related capacity building initiatives in Ghana
252
Table 82: List of technology transfer funds received over the period 2011-2019
256
Table 83: Selected scientific and grey literature publications on climate change in Ghana for the period 2011-2019 263
Table 84: Overview of climate change and related courses offered by Tertiary Institutions in Ghana
292
Table 85: Institutions, public awareness and training programmes
293

Financial, Technical and Capacity Gaps
Table 86: Summary of the technical and capacity constraints and gaps
Table 87: Breakdown of climate change finance flows for the period 2011-2019
Table 88: Overview of committed climate fund per sectors
Table 89: Breakdown of the committed climate funds according to institutions

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List of Figures
National Circumstances
Figure 1: Milestone diagram showing the overview of publications of national communications
Figure 2: Overview of the Government profile in Ghana
Figure 3: Overview of the institutional involvement in the implementation of the UNFCCC in Ghana
Figure 4: Elements of the GCARP system
Figure 5: Institutional arrangement of national communication in Ghana
Figure 6: An overview of national and sector policies that support climate change and the NDC
Figure 7: Map of Ghana showing the twelve vegetation zones
Figure 8: Climate projections per ecological zones in Ghana
Figure 9: Trends of population growth by sex
Figure 10: Share of economic use of freshwater in Ghana
Figure 11: Share of total primary energy supply
Figure 12: Crude oil imports showing a declining trend from 2012 to 2018
Figure 13: Trend of petroleum products supplied to the economy between 2009 and 2018
Figure 14: Reverse flow facility at the eastern end of Ghana

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National Greenhouse Gas Inventory
Figure 15: Overview of the relationships of the elements underpinning the national system for GHG inventory
Figure 16: Institutional arrangement for the regular preparation of national GHG inventory
Figure 17: Summary of the inventory steps and data flows.
Figure 18: Trend of national aggregate net greenhouse gas emissions for the period 1990-2016
Figure 19: Breakdown of total net emissions by categories for 2016
Figure 20: Share of the total national emissions in 2016 by gases
Figure 21: Trends of emissions by gases for the period 1990 to 2016
Figure 22: Trends of net carbon dioxide emissions per sector
Figure 23: Trends of nitrous oxide emissions per sector
Figure 24: Trends of methane emissions per sector
Figure 25: Trends of perfluorocarbon emissions per sector
Figure 26: Trends of Hydrofluorocarbon emissions per sector
Figure 27: SLCPs emission trends for the period 1990-2016
Figure 28: Comparison of total national emission trends in NIR3 and NIR4 as a result recalculation

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Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Assessment
Figure 29: Total primary energy supply from 1974 to 2018
Figure 30: Overview of grid electricity share from the 1990s to 2030 expressed in GWh
Figure 31: Natural gas production and utilisation in Ghana
Figure 32: Trend of the percentage of flare gas of annual total gas production
Figure 33: Project emissions by sector, 1990 to 2030
Figure 34: Projected emissions by sectors, 2016 to 2030
Figure 35: Marginal abatement revenue curve
Figure 36: Mitigation scenario relative to BAU emissions

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Figure 37: Total GHG emissions under the AEG scenario
Figure 38: Projected emissions from intra-city vehicle operations under the AEG scenario
Figure 39: Emissions from intercity vehicle operation under the AEG scenario
Figure 40: Projected household emissions under AEG scenario
Figure 41: Projections of emissions for urban households by 2030
Figure 42: Projections of emissions in the urban household by 2030
Figure 43: Emissions associated with the manufacturing under AEG
Figure 44: Manufacturing sub-sector emissions under AEG
Figure 45: Projected electricity generation with coal under the AEG scenario with coal
Figure 46: Projected emissions associated with electricity generation under the AEG scenario
Figure 47: GHG emission reductions potential under the with measures mitigation scenario
Figure 48: GHG emissions reduction for efficient appliances under with measures mitigation scenario
Figure 49: GHG emissions reduction for fuel switch measure under with measures mitigation scenario
Figure 50: GHG emission reductions potential under the WAM mitigation scenario
Figure 51: GHG emission reductions potential under the WAM mitigation scenario for households
Figure 52: GHG emission reductions potential under the WAM mitigation scenario for the transport sector
Figure 53: Comparison of emissions under AEG, WM, and WAM scenarios

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Vulnerability, Impacts and Adaptation Assessment
Figure 54: Ghana Meteorological Agency outdooring a new automatic weather station
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Figure 55: Automatic weather station in Accra
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Figure 56: Spatial distribution of the 24 weather stations in six agro-ecological zones
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Figure 57: Maps of past and future rainfall patterns in Ghana (RCP 2.6)
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Figure 58: Past and future rainfall patterns in six agro-ecological zones of Ghana.
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Figure 59: Maps of the past, current and future temperature patterns in Ghana under RCP 2.6
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Figure 60: Past and future rainfall patterns in six agro-ecological zones of Ghana
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Figure 61: Multi-decade rainfall trends for six ecological zones in Ghana
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Figure 62: Multi-decade rainfall trends for six ecological zones in Ghana
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Figure 63: Interactions among the determinants of climate change vulnerability
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Figure 64: Climate change vulnerability scores for Ghana’s 216 districts
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Figure 65: District climate change vulnerability scores aggregated at the level of administrative regions
194
Figure 66: Flood hazard map showing the distribution of the likelihood of an area to experience a flood in 2010 201
Figure 67: Flood hazard map showing the distribution of the likelihood of an area to experience a flood in 2050 202
Figure 68: National drought hazard map for 2010
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Figure 69: National drought hazard map for 2050
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Figure 70: Extreme climate events (droughts and floods)
207
Figure 71: Floods in Atiwlame, in the Afram Plains North District in 2018
208
Figure 72: Fuveme in Keta municipality (between the Gulf of Guinea and the Keta Lagoon) of the Volta region is prone
to sea erosion
210
Figure 73: Climate change and urbanisation scenario
221
Figure 74: Climate change and commercial crop scenario
222
Figure 75: Climate change and electricity system scenario
222

Page | xvi

Other Information
Figure 76: Diagramme showing some of the international climate processes relevant for TNA
249
Figure 77: Snapshot of climate technologies in Ghana’s nationally determined contribution
249
Figure 78: Interface of the online platform for clean cooking market
254
Figure 79: Automatic weather station installed in Accra by GMet under the e-transform project
268
Figure 80: EOS-DB ground station mounted at the University of Energy and Natural Resources269
Figure 81: GNSS referencing station mounted at the compound of the University Energy and Natural Resources
270
Figure 82: Ghana Agriculture online GIS platform
271
Figure 83: Working sectors of respondent institutions
276
Figure 84: Description of the types of institutional involvement in climate change in Ghana
277
Figure 85: Commissioning of Automatic weather station at Accra Academy senior high school
278
Figure 86: Screenshot of Ghana’s climate data hub
279
Figure 87: Screenshot of the Ghana energy access database
280
Figure 88: Screenshot of Care International’s Climate change and resilience information centre
281
Figure 89: Award-winning drawings from the national contest
281
Figure 90: National contest award ceremony
282
Figure 91: Pictures from the maiden climate change week in Ghana
283
Figure 92: Picture from the second REDD+ National Forum
284
Figure 93: Picture from the NDC investment forum during the 2019 Africa Climate Week
285
Figure 94: Photo from the high-level segment of the 5th renewable energy fair
286
Figure 95: Photo from the 2nd Accra SDG Investment Fair
287
Figure 96: Picture of the partners of the climate chance summit in Ghana
287
Figure 97: The NPP and NDC political parties highlighting climate issues in their manifestos
288
Figure 98: National stakeholders during the initial meeting on the development of climate change school curricula 291
Figure 99: Group picture of Editors and sub-editors and resource persons
296
Figure 100: Screenshot of Ghana’s safeguard information system
297
Figure 101: Participants in the ILO-EPA training workshop on response measures299

Financial, Technical and Capacity Gaps
Figure 102: Share of climate financial inflows for the period 2012-2017

305

Page | xvii

Abbreviations
AAI
ACE
ACPC
AFB
AfDB
AFOLU
AGN
AIC
AMA
AMCEN
ANN
AREI
ATS
AWS
BAU
BiomassWeb
BUR
CBEA
CCAC
CCAFS
CCV
CDM
CD-REDDCDT
CERSGIS
CfRN
CGE
CH4
CIF
CO2
CO2e
CORDEX
COMAP
COP
CPEIR
CPESDP
CRM
CSIR
CSIRO
CSIR-IIR
CSR
CTCN
CVCA
DECCMA
DTRRS
ECA
ECREE
EF

-

African Adaptation Initiative
Action for Climate Empowerment
African Climate Policy Centre
Adaptation Fund Board
African Development Bank
Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use
Africa Group of Negotiators
Annual Incremental Carbon
Accra Metropolitan Assembly
African Ministerial Conference on Environment
Artificial Neural Network
Africa Renewable Energy Initiative
Automatic Timer Switches
Automatic Weather Stations
Business-As-Usual
Biomass-Based Value Web
Biennial Update Report
Community Based Extension Agent
Climate and Clean Air Coalition
Climate change, Agriculture and Food Security
Climate Change Vulnerability
Clean Development Mechanism
Capacity development for REDD Project
Climate Data Tool
Centre for Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Centre System
Coalition for Rainforest Nations.
Consultative Group of Experts
MethaneClimate Investment Fund
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide-equivalent
COordinated Regional climate Downscaling EXperimentComprehensive Mitigation Assessment Process
Conference of Parties
Climate Public Expenditure and Institutional Review
Coordinated Programme of Economic and Social Development Policy
Cylinder Recirculation Model
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization of Australia
CSIR Institute for Industrial Research
Corporate Social Responsibility
Climate Technology Centre and Network
Climate Vulnerability Capacity Analysis
DEltas, Vulnerability and Climate Change: Migration and Adaptation
Decentralised Treatment, Re-use and Recovery Systems
Economic Commission for Africa
ECOWAS Centre for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency
Emission Factors
Page | xviii

EFDB
EGTT
ENACTS-

IPCC Emission Factor Database
Expert Group on Technology Transfer
Enhancing National Climate Services

EORIC

-

Earth Observation Research and Innovation Centre

EPA
ERP
ESP
ETPA
FAOSTATFASDEP II
FC
FCPF
FIP
FIT
FOLU
FORIG
GACMO
GAP
GARID
GCARP
GCCES
GCF
GCIC
GCRF
GCFRP
GDP
GEF
GEONETCast
GhEA
GHG
GIDA
GLSS
GMet
GMI
GNCPC
GSGDA
GSS
GWP
HFZs
HFC
HPMP
HSD
ICAT
IFC
INM
IPCC
IPM
IPPU
ISA

-

Environmental Protection Agency
Emission Reduction Programme
Environmental Sustainability Project
Information on Education, Training and Public AwarenessFAO Statistics
Food and Agriculture Development Policy
Forestry Commission
Forest Carbon Partnership Facility
Forest Investment Plan
Feed-in Tariff
Forestry and Other Land Uses
CSIR-Forest Research Institute of Ghana
Greenhouse Gas Cost Abatement Model
Ghana Astronomical ProjectGreater Accra Resilient and Integrated Development
Ghana Climate Ambitious Reporting Programme
Ghana Climate Change Education in Schools
Green Climate Fund
Ghana Climate Innovation Centre
Global Challenges Research Fund
Ghana Cocoa Forest REDD+ Programme
Gross Domestic Product
Global Environment Facility
Global Network of Satellite-based data dissemination systems
Ghana Energy Access Database
Greenhouse Gas
Ghana Irrigation Development Authority
Ghana Living Standards Survey
Ghana Meteorological Agency
Global Methane Initiative
Ghana National Cleaner Production Centre
Shared Growth and Development Agenda
Ghana Statistical Service
Global Warming Potential
High Forest Zones
Hydrofluorocarbon
Hydrofluorocarbon Phase-out Management Plan
Hydrological Service Department
Initiative for Climate Action Transparency
International Finance Corporation
Integrated Nutrient Management
Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change
Integrated Planning Model
Industrial Processes and Product Use
International Solar Alliance
Page | xix

ISSER
ITMOs
KCA
KETS
KMA
KNUST
KNUST-TCC-

Institute for Statistical, Social and Economic ResearchInternationally Transferred Mitigation Outcomes
Key Category Analysis
Korean Emission Trading Scheme
Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology
KNUST Technology Consultancy Centre

KSNR

-

Kogyae Strict Nature Reserve

LCO
LEAP
LECBP
LoCAL
LPG
LTO
MDAs
MDGs
MEA
MESTI
METASIP
MLGRD
MLNR
MMDAs
MoFA
MoI
Mt
MTDPF
N2O
NADMO
NAMAs
NCAP
NCCAS
NCCC
NCEP
NC4
NDC
NDC-SP
NDPC
NF3
NFP
NFPDP
NIBP
NIR
NTP
PAC
PAM
PATPA
PCS
PFCs
PIER

-

Light Crude Oil
Long-range Energy Alternative Planning
Low Emission Capacity Building Project
Local Climate Adaptive Learning Living
Liquefied Petroleum Gas
Landing and Take-Off
Ministries, Departments and Agencies
Millennium Development Goals
Multilateral Environmental Agreement
Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation
Medium Term Agriculture Sector Investment Plan
Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development
Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources
Metropolitan, Municipal, and District Assemblies
Ministry of Food and Agriculture
Means of Implementation
Million tonnes
Medium-term Development Policy Framework
Nitrous oxide
National Disaster Management Organisation
Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Action
National Climate Assessment Programme
National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy
National Climate Change Committee
National Clean Energy Access Programme
Fourth National Communication
Nationally Determined Contribution
NDC Support Programme
National Development Planning Commission
Nitrogen Trifluoride
National Focal Point
National Forest Plantation Development Programme
National Institutional Biogas Programme
National Inventory Report
National Transport Policy
Project Advisory Committee
Policies and Measures
Partnership on Transparency in Paris Agreement
Post-construction support for community-managed water systems
Perfluorocarbons
Private Investment for Enhanced Resilience
Page | xx

PSC
QA/QC
RAC
RCCs
RCMs
RCP
RCS
REDD+
REMP
REPO
RIPS
RMSC
RSO
RTIMP
SADA
SDF
SDGs
SE4ALL
SFDRR
SF6
SIS
SLCP
SLWM
SRES
STMA
SUNREF
SWM
TAHMO
TCCCA
TAMA
TNA
TNC
TT1PS
TTMC
UNCBD
UNDP
UNECA
UNEP
UNFCCCUNU-INRA
V&A
VALCO
VSLA
WABiCC
WAM
WAPCo
WAPP
WASCAL
WFP-

Project Steering Committee
Quality Assurance/Quality Control
Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
Regional Coordinating Councils
Regional Circulation Models
Representative Concentration Pathways
Rainwater collection from ground surfaces
Reducing Emission for Deforestation and Forest Degradation Plus
Renewable Energy Master Plan
Renewable Energy Purchase Obligation
Regional Institute for Population Studies
Resource Management and Support Centre of Ghana Forestry Commission
Research and Systematic Observations
Root and Tuber Improvement and Marketing
Savannah Accelerated Development Authority
Skills Development Fund
Sustainable Development Goals
Sustainable Energy for All Action Plan
Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction
Sulphur Hexafluoride
Safeguard Information System
Short-Lived Climate Pollutant
Sustainable Land and Water Management
Special Report on Emission Scenarios
Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolitan Assembly
Sustainable Use of Natural Resources and Energy Finance
Solid Waste Management
Trans-African Hydro-Meteorological Observation
Transparency, Consistency, Comparability, Completeness, Accuracy
Tamale Metropolitan AssemblyTechnology Needs Assessment
Third National Communication
Tema Thermal 1 Power Station
Ghana Technology Transfer and Marketing Center
United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity
United Nations Development Programme
United Nations Economic Commission for Africa
United Nations Environment Programme
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
United Nations University, Institute for Natural Resources in Africa
Vulnerability and Adaptation
Volta Aluminium Company Limited
Village Savings and Lending AssociationsWest Africa Biodiversity and Climate Change
Scenario with Additional Measures
West African Gas Pipeline Company limitedWest Africa Agricultural Product ProgrammeWest African Science Service Center on Climate Change and Adapted Land Use
World Food Programme
Page | xxi

WM
WOM
WMO
WRC

-

Scenario with Measures
Scenario without Measures
World Meteorological Organisation
Water Resources Commission

Page | xxii

Executive Summary (ES)Akwidaa, Ghana

Source: https://unsplash.com/photos/XOdKX5WtPTc

Page | xxiii

Executive summary
ES 1 Mandate for the preparation of national communication to UNFCCC
ES 1 is the summary of chapter one of the NC4, which gives the general background to the preparation ofnational communications. Ghana joined the UNFCCC in September 1995. After becoming a Party to the
UNFCCC, Ghana has actively implemented various domestic policies to address climate change while
continuing to advance national economic development. Since 2001, the country has published three national
communications in compliance with its obligations under Articles 4 and 12 of the UNFCCC. The preparation of
the Fourth National Communication (NC4) is consistent with those provisions. The overall objective of the NC4
is to update and communicate information on Ghana’s climate change policies to domesticate the UNFCCC.
ES 2 National circumstances and institutional arrangements relevant for climate change
ES 2 presents the overviews of updates on Ghana’s national circumstances and climate change governance.
Ghana is a unitary democratic republic governed by the 1992 Constitution. Democratic power is shared among
the Executive, Legislature and the Judiciary. The President heads the Executive arm and oversees high-levelappointments. The Legislative functions are vested in the National Parliament. The Judiciary is independentof the other branches of Government. The National Development Planning Commission (NDPC) facilitatesdevelopment planning together with line ministries and 260 district assemblies. The Ministry of Environment,
Science, Technology and Innovation (MESTI) and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) coordinate theclimate change issues within the Government. The EPA facilitates the regular preparation and disseminationof international climate reports, including national communications.
Ghana, with a total land area of 239,460km2, is in West Africa on the Guinea Coast. It lies close to the equatoron latitude 11.50N and 4.50S and longitude 3.50W and 1.30E. Ghana’s climate is tropical and strongly
influenced by the West Africa monsoon. The climate is generally warm with variable temperatures masked byseasons and elevation. The northern part of the country typically records one rainy season, which begins in
May and lasts until September. Southern Ghana records two rainy seasons from April to July and from
September to November.
Ghana’s 2020 population is estimated at 30.9 million and represents a 26% increase over 2010 levels of 24.6
million at an annual growth rate of 2.3% compared to the 1.5% target for 2020. With an average yearly growthrate of 2.3% per annum, Ghana’s population is likely to reach 37 million by 2030. Under a tenth (8.2%) of the
population live in extreme poverty with a threshold of GH¢792.05 per adult equivalent per year. Extreme
poverty is outstandingly high in the rural Savannah at 36.1% and accounts for more than a quarter of thoseliving in extreme poverty in rural Ghana. Poverty and livelihoods, gender and geographic locations determine
the level of climate change vulnerabilities in the country.
The utilisation of gold, cocoa, timber and crude oil generate export revenues, taxes, and jobs. In 2018 alone,
Ghana earned US$ 14.9 billion in revenues from the merchandise exports1 with gold (36.4%) and crude oil(30.6%) contributing the most. Besides, the country is agrarian and endowed with forest and fish resources.
The rebased economic figures show that the economy has increased by over 100% from US$ 32.2 billion in2010 to US$ 65.6 billion in 2018. Climate change issues are highlighted in the Coordinated Programme of
Economic and Social Development Policies and the Medium-Term Development Policy Framework.
1

https://www.bog.gov.gh/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Statistical-Bulletin-November-2019.pdf

Page | xxiv

In 2016, Ghana put forward thirty-one priority adaptation and mitigation actions in the Nationally Determined
Contributions (NDC) to the UNFCCC in response to the Lima call for action. The latest National Development
Policy Framework for the period 2017-2024 affirms Ghana’s commitment to the NDC under the Paris
Agreement. The NDC is also aligned with priority areas in the National Climate Change Policy (NCCP). Someregional initiatives Ghana is involved in are as follows:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

West African South-South Network on MRV and Transparency
West African Alliance on Carbon Markets and Climate FinanceWest Africa Biodiversity and Climate change (WABiCC)
Climate change, Agriculture and Food Security, West Africa (CCAFS)
West African Science Centre on Climate Change and Adapted Land Use (WASCAL)UNFCCC CDM Regional Collaboration Centre in LOME
Regional Centre for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency (ECREE)West Africa Gas Pipeline
Sustainable Greenhouse Gas Inventory in West Africa

ES 3 National greenhouse gas inventory
ES3 summarises the national greenhouse gas inventory processes and results. It reports on the inventory
results per sector and according to gases for the period 1990-2016.
ES 3.1 Greenhouse gas emission trends
Ghana’s total greenhouse emissions were estimated at 42.2 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (MtCO2e) in 2016, representing more than 7.1% of the 2012 levels (Table ES.1). When the Forestry and Other Land
Uses (FOLU) emissions are excluded from the national total, emission stood at 29.3 MtCO2e. Generally, thetotal national emissions have increased by 66.3% between 1990 and 2016.
Table ES 1: Trends in greenhouse gas emission share by sectors
IPCC Sectors/Categories
Total Emissions (MtCO2e)

Change (%)

1990

2000

2010

2012

2016
42.15

19902016
66.3

20002016
54.6

20102016
19.6

20122016
7.1

National Emissions with FOLU

25.34

27.26

35.23

39.35

National Emissions without FOLU

11.32

14.53

22.5

26.39

29.28

158.7

101.5

30.1

10.9

Energy

3.73

5.96

10.11

13.07

15.02

302.7

152.0

48.6

14.9

Industrial Processes and Product
Use
Agriculture, Forestry, and Other
Land Use
Waste

0.49

0.36

1.09

1.52

1.04

112.2

188.9

-4.6

-31.3

20.10

19.47

21.49

22.05

22.92

14.0

17.7

6.7

4.0

1.02

1.48

2.53

2.71

3.17

210.8

114.2

25.3

17.0

The need to address poverty demands expansion of the economy, which is accompanied by an increase ingreenhouse gas emissions. Consequently, Ghana’s expects that the national emissions will grow as we develop,
but will plateau and then decrease over time as it implements the NDC. The carbon-intensive economic
expansion has led to a notable increase in emissions from road transport, thermal electricity generation and,biomass utilisation for cooking, deforestation and disposal of domestic liquid waste.

Page | xxv

ES 3.2 GHG emissions and development indicators
Population, economy, energy, and greenhouse gas indicators relate well. The relationship depicts the extent
to which economic growth, population rise, and energy utilisation drive GHG trends. The NC4 results suggestthat Ghana’s total emissions grew alongside the rising population, GDP, and energy consumption but at varying
rates (Table ES 2). Population, GDP, and energy consumption are rising at a faster rate than the emissions. The
results reveal a positive sign of possible moderate effects of some mitigation policy interventions on slowing
down emission growth in the country.
Table ES 2: Macro economy, energy and emission indicators
Indicators
1990
2000

2010

2012

2016

Change (%)

Population (million)

14.43

18.91

24.23

25.87

28.21

1990-2016 2012-2016
95.5
9GDP (Constant 2010 US$ billion) *

12.05

18.36

32.17

40.10

48.20

300

20.2

Total primary energy supply (Mtoe)**

5.29

6.88

9.84

8.36

9.67

82.8

15.7

Total final energy consumed (Mtoe)**

4.31

5.54

5.63

6.61

7.09

64.5

7.3

Total GHG emission (MtCO2e)

25.34

27.54

35.24

39.35

42.15

66.3

7.1

Total CO2 emission (MtCO2)

16.84

17.86

22.71

25.71

27.29

62.1

6.1

Total electricity generated (GWh)**

5,721

7,223

10,167

12,024

13,022127.6

8.3

of which is Hydroelectric (GWh)**

5,721

6,609

6,996

8,071

5,561

-2.8

-31.1

of which is Oil Products (GWh)**

-

614

3,171

3,953

7,435

-

88.1

of which is Renewable (GWh)**

-

8,317

26

-

-

4,462

6,067

-

Total Electricity Consumed*** (GWh)

9,258

11,418

155.9

23.3

Total energy consumed per capita (toe)

0.30

0.29

0.23

0.26

0.25

-16.7

-3.8

GHG emissions per capita (t CO2 e)

1.73

1.45

1.44

1.53

1.49

-13.9

-2.6

CO2 emission per capita (t CO2)

1.15

0.94

0.93

1.00

0.97

-15.7

-3.0

GHG emissions per GDP unit
(kg CO2e / constant 2010 US$)

2.10

1.50

1.09

0.98

0.87

-58.6

-11.2

GHG emissions per GDP unit
(kg CO2 / constant 2010 US$)

1.39

0.97

0.71

0.64

0.57

-59.0

-10.9

* Source: World Bank, National Account (2018),** Source: National Energy Statistics. This also considers electricity export to the neighbouring countries and total hours of electricity load.

ES 3.3 Greenhouse Gas Inventory by Sources/Removals
The Agriculture Forestry and Other Land Uses (AFOLU) sector emissions of 22.9 MtCO2e make it the largest
source of GHG emissions in Ghana, accounting for 54.4% of the national emissions of 42.2 MtCO 2e. With 15
MtCO2e, the Energy is the next leading source contributing 35.6% of the national emissions, followed by the
Waste with 3.2 MtCO2e (7.5%) and the Industrial Process and Product Use (IPPU) by 1.04 MtCO2e (2.5%). Total
emissions increased by 7.1% between 2012 and 2016. The emissions from all the sectors increased, except
IPPU, with the waste sector recording the highest growth. While emissions from Waste and Energy grew by
17% and 15% respectively, AFOLU rose slightly by 4% over the period. In contrast, IPPU emissions recorded asignificant drop of 31.3% in the same period (ES Figure 1).

Page | xxvi

7.5%

Energy35.6%

Industrial Processes and Product Use
Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land use
54.4%

Waste

2.5%

ES Figure 1: Total 2016 emissions by source/removal category

Below are highlights of the emission trends and the underlying drivers:
For the AFOLU sector:• The land category is the leading emissions source with 12.9 MtCO2e and accounted for 30% of thetotal national emissions. It also contributed 46% of the overall AFOLU emissions in 2016 and has
declined by 0.7% since 2012 due to carbon stock enhancement interventions in degraded areas.
• Cropland, grassland, and forestland were responsible for most of the emissions in the land category.
• The emissions from “aggregated sources and non-CO2 emission on land” was the second-highest in
the AFOLU sector. Its emissions levels of 6.6 MtCO2e in 2016 contributed 16% of the nationalemissions, representing 3% increment compared to the 2012 levels.
• The “direct N2O emissions from managed soils” has a 63% share of the total emissions under the 3C
category.
• Livestock emissions were 3.03 MtCO2e, made up of 8% of the total net emissions. The emissions
increased by 18% between 2012 and 2016.
Similarly, in the Energy sector:• The emissions from stationary combustion were 7.83 MtCO2e with the energy industry being the mostsignificant source in 2016.
• The 2016 levels accounted for 52% of all the energy sector emissions. Between 2012 and 2016,
emissions emanating from stationary combustion increased moderately by 19.8%.
• Mobile combustion emissions were estimated at 7.2 MtCO2e in 2016. It was singularly responsible for
48% of the total energy emissions and 17% of the overall national emissions.
• The 2016 transportation emissions increased by 7% relative to the levels reported in 2012.
• Within the transportation category, road transport was the most significant emission source due to
growing vehicle ownership and the associated traffic congestion in the cities.

Page | xxvii

Furthermore, in the Waste sector,• The 2016 total emissions of 3.2 MtCO2e represented 17% more than the 2012 levels and contributed
8% of the total emissions.
• Wastewater treatment and discharge and solid waste disposal were the two dominant emission
sources within the waste sector.
• Wastewater treatment and discharge contributed 58% to all waste sector emissions, followed by solid
waste disposal, which was 36%.
For the IPPU sector• The total emissions were 1.04 MtCO2e for 2016, representing 3% of the total emissions.
• The 2016 emissions value was 31% less than the 2012 figures.
• HFC from product use as a substitute for ODS was the dominant emissions source, followed byemissions from the mineral industry.
ES 3.4. Emission Sources and Removals by Sinks According to Gases
Carbon dioxide (CO2) was the dominant greenhouse gas in Ghana and constituted 66% of the total emissions.
Without FOLU emissions, CO2 was the leading GHG with 14.4 MtCO2 levels. The AFOLU and the energy sectors
are sources of 99% of the total CO2 emissions. Among the sectors, the AFOLU was the leading source until
2015, when Energy became the most significant source. In 2016, Energy generated the most CO2 emissions of
13.9 MtCO2, followed by AFOLU producing 12.9 MtCO2. Across time series from 1990 to 2016, net CO2 levels
went up by 62%. Notably, in the last four years of the time series (2012-2016), CO2 emissions marginally
inched up by 6%. Activities in forestland remaining forestland, forest conversion to cropland and grassland,
thermal electricity generation and road transport were responsible for the rising CO2 emissions.
The other leading GHG was nitrous oxide totalling 7.7 MtCO2e in 2016, which was 18.3% of the total emissions.
Similarly, the AFOLU sector, specifically, “direct N2O emission from managed soil” under the “aggregate sources
and non-CO2 emission on land” category, was the principal source of N2O releases into the atmosphere.
Likewise, N2O emissions exhibited an upward trend over the 26 years rising from 4.1 MtCO 2e in 1990 to 6.9
MtCO2e in 2012 and further to 7.7 MtCO2e in 2016. The implementation of the Government’s fertiliser subsidy
programme partly accounted for the rising emissions. Apart from AFOLU, insignificant amounts of N2O camefrom Waste (0.6 MtCO2e) and Energy (0.4 MtCO2e) sectors (Table ES 3).
Table ES 3: Contributions from different gases to the national emissions in 2016
Sectors & Sub-sectors
Mt
Emissions MtCO2e
CO2
CH4
N2 O
PFC
HFC
1. Energy
13.97
0.66
0.38
2. Industrial Process & Product Use
0.39
0.03 0.61
4. Waste
0.009
2.56
0.60
3. AFOLU
12.91
3.29
6.72
Total net emissions (including FOLU) 27.29
6.51
7.71
0.03 0.61
Total emissions (excluding FOLU)
14.41
6.51
7.71
0.03 0.61

Total
15.01
1.03
3.16
16.2
42.15
29.27

Share of Total% with FOLU % w/o FOLU
35.6
51.3
2.4
3.5
7.5
10.8
54.4
34.5
100
100

For CH4 emissions, a significant proportion came from the AFOLU and waste sectors. Almost half (50.6%) of
the AFOLU’s methane came mostly from livestock rearing. The rest of the methane emissions came from thewaste sector (39.3% of the total methane emissions) through the disposal of solid waste and wastewater
treatment and discharge facilities. A relatively smaller percentage of 10.1% of the methane, was produced byPage | xxviii

the energy sector using biomass for cooking and heating in residential and commercial areas. The upturn inmethane levels corresponds to the rise in the nitrogen addition to managed soil, unmanaged waste disposal
practices and the wastewater treatment technologies. For the 1990-2016 window, methane emissions fromthe waste sector recorded the highest (287.9%) growth at the fastest annual growth rate of 5.6% compared to
AFOLU that increased by 27.2% at a 1% rate per annum. Unlike the sectors, methane emissions from energy
showed a quantum decline of 31.1% at 1.5% drop every year.
Perfluorocarbons (PFC) and Hydrofluorocarbons (HFC) are key industrial gases that are emitted exclusively
from IPPU. PFC emissions are associated with Aluminium production at VALCO in the metal industry category.
The 2016 levels stood at 0.03 MtCO2e, representing a reduction of 83.4% from 1990. But with recent efforts
to renew the VALCO plant, though still operating at limited capacity, PFC emissions shot up by 101% from2012 to 2016. The HFC emissions level of 0.61 MtCO2e in 2016 signalled response to policy interventions. As
a result of the major policy push to phase out CFCs in the 2000s with HFC substitute in the RAC sector, there
was a substantial increment in HFC consumption by 981.9% from 2005 to 2016 peaking in 2012 at 0.96
MtCO2e before declining in the subsequent year till 2016. Between 2012 and 2016, HFC emissions showed asignificant drop of 36% following the efforts to promote the adoption of low-GWP HFCs. Due to the lack ofactivity data, Ghana did not estimate SF6 emissions. NF3 emissions do not occur in Ghana.
ES 3.5 Precursor gases and SLCPs emissions
Precursor gases are not greenhouse gases at the point of release, but when they get into the atmosphere, they
can contribute to global warming, local and regional air pollution with its attendant public health challenges.
Methane, HFCs, black carbon and tropospheric ozone are classified as Short-Lived Climate Pollutants (SLCP)
because they have a relatively short life span in the atmosphere. Methane, HFCs and Black Carbon (BC) emit
directly, while tropospheric ozone forms photochemically in the atmosphere from primary emissions ofmethane, nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds, and carbon monoxide.
For these SLCPs, CH4 was the foremost and accounted for 310 Gg in 2016. Black carbon was 234.28 Gg, andHFC emissions were 0.29 Gg in the same year. The primary source of CH 4 was livestock rearing, solid waste
disposal and biomass use in cooking. Black carbon emissions were mainly from transport, residential cooking,and manufacturing industry. HFC emissions were primarily from stationary and mobile air conditioners. In
addition to the SLCPs, the NC4 also reports on the estimates of precursor gases such as Nitrogen Oxides (NOx),
Carbon Monoxide (CO), Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds (NMVOCs) and Particulate Matter (PM2.5).
The most predominant precursor gas was carbon monoxide recording 1,767.7 Gg in 2016. In the same year,
NOx, NMVOC and PM2.5 levels were 122.4 Gg, 271.8 Gg, and 605.2 Gg respectively. These emissions weresignificant to quantify alongside emissions of GHGs and SLCPs for the development of integrated strategies toreduce air pollution and greenhouse gases.
ES 4 Greenhouse gas mitigation assessments
ES4 presents the methods and results for mitigation assessment. Ghana has adopted a voluntary nationalemission target of minus 45% against the BAU emissions of 74 MtCO2e. The mitigation target translates to33.3 MtCO2e emission reductions between 2017 and 2030 and divided into an unconditional of minus 15%(11 MtCO2e) and a conditional of minus 30% (22.2 MtCO2e) (Figure ES1). Ghana identified twenty mitigation
measures in the energy, transport, forestry, industry and waste sector to achieve the minus 45% emission
reduction commitment.
Page | xxix

2030
2029
2028
2027
2026
2025
2024
2023
2022
2021
2020
2019
2018
2017
2016
-

20
BAU Emissions (WtM)

40

60
Unconditional mitigation (WM)

80

100

120

Conditional mitigation (WAM)

Figure ES 1: Mitigation scenario relative to BAU emissions

The first blue bar represents the baseline emissions for 2016, covering all the IPCC sectors and direct
greenhouse gases obtained from the national GHG inventory results. Multi-year blue bars from 2017 depict
the Business-As-Usual (BAU) the emissions pathway up to 2030 under the current policies. The potential
effects of the twenty mitigation options would amount to 45% below the 2030 BAU emissions expressed in
two tiers bars (red bold line bars and dash bars). The red bold line bars from 2017 to 2030 represent the lower
ambition mitigation pathway that corresponds to the 15% NDC unconditional commitment and expected fromthe implementation of fuel switch and forest plantation mitigation options. The green-dash bars (2017 to2030) show the ambitious mitigation trajectory, which is consistent with the additional 30% emission
reductions under the conditional mitigation commitment (Table ES 4).
Table ES 4: Breakdown of mitigation scenario by sectors, mitigation options and their corresponding emission reduction potentials
Category
No. of mitigation
Mitigation reduction potential
options
2017-2030
Annually
Mitigation
scenario

Breakdown of
mitigation
options bysectors

With Measures (WM) and With
Additional Measures (WAM) scenario

20

33 MtCO2e

2.4 MtCO2e

WM scenario

2

11 MtCO2e

0.8 MtCO2e

WAM scenario

18

22 MtCO2e

1.6 MtCO2e

Energy13

14 MtCO2e

1 MtCO2e

Forestry2

9 MtCO2e

0.6 MtCO2e

IPPU

1

1 MtCO2e

0.1 MtCO2e

Transport

1

5 MtCO2e

0.4 MtCO2e

Page | xxx

Table ES 5 presents the identified twenty priority mitigation options and their potential effects.
Table ES 5: List of prioritised mitigation options

Switch from fuel oil to natural gas(Replace crude oil with natural gas in thermal
1 plants)

64.1

Total Score

Environmental Impacct

Gender

Education

HealthResource access

Employment

SocialEase of implementation

Capacity availability

Technical effectivenessInstitutional ownership

Climate resilience

No Mitigation policy/technology options

Abatement cost 2030($/tCO2)

Abatement potential 2030(ktCO2/year)

Development Impact Visualation
ClimateEconomic-128.7

Forest plantation

2 (Annual 25,000ha forest plantation up to 2030 ) 1466.7 -26.9
LPG for cooking

3 (Access by 2030, projected to 50%)
Efficient lighting with LED
4 (Ligting with 7 million LED bulbs)

Efficient woodstoves1158.9-20.7

552.42

350.6

14597

292.5

398.46-43.0

83.777-1.8

2713.6

163.0

516

321.2

177.94405.464.058413.3

187.82

151.5

8.03

321.2

146.25336.2

1414.39.0(Distribute

5 2 million efficient stoves by 2030)
Single cycle to combined cycle
6 (Add 330 MW of steam capacity by 2030)
Power factor increase in buildings(Installation of power bank in 1000 commercial
7 and industrial buildings)
Reduced flaring in oil fields(Recover 120 MMSCF/day of natural gas from oil
8 fields)
Mini hydro power(Install 300 MW mini hyro-dams connected to
9 national grid)
Solar PV, Large grid10 (250MW utility scale by 2030)
Solar home PV
11 (200,000 50W PV by 2030)
Solar LED Lamps
12 (2 million LED lamps by 2030)
Mini-grid
13 (Install 55 mini-grids - 300 MW by 2030)
On-shore wind turbines
14 (Install 150 MW by 2030)
Avoided deforestaton (REDD+)
15 (Avoid deforestation in 270,000ha)
Bus Rapid Transit
16 (200km BRT line in Urban areas)395.1 -125.3

Landfill gas flaring

17 (200 t/day plant nationwide)

1704.5

-1.3

7.1

-0.3

1754.9

0.0

613

0.0

Institutional biogas

18 (200 t/day plant nationwide)
Composting of municipal waste
Domestic requirement for 20% by 2015 and19 30% by 2040
HFC phase-down
20 (All flourinated gases)

key

Highly positive
Positive
Neutral/Minor impact
Negative
Uncertain/ policy specificPage | xxxi

Table ES 6 provides an overview of some of the critical interventions that must be implemented to achieve the minus 45% mitigation objectives. It also capturesinformation on barriers, investment cost, abatement potentials, sustainable development benefits, implementing institution and alignment with national policy.
Table ES 6: List of mitigation actions, the status of implementation and enabling policies
Mitigation Options Line Ministries
Supporting Agencies Investment costs for Estimated split between
implementation
the public-private sector
to 2030 (US$)
and consumer
investments*
Clean cooking
Ministries ofEnergy Commission US$ 0.65billion
Improved cookstoves:(Improved
Energy,National Petroleum
Improved
about 70% consumer
cookstoves andLand and
Authority
cookstovescosts and 30%
LPG Cookstoves)
NaturalForestry(US $0.16billion)
public support costs,
Resources, Local Commission
LPG stoves
LPG stoves: about 80%
Government and District Assemblies(US$ 0.49billion)
consumer cost and 20%
Rural
public support.
Development

Utility-scale solar

Solar lanterns

2

Ministry ofEnergyMinistry ofEnergyEnergy Commission,
Private sector

Energy Commission,
Private sector

US$ 169 million2

US$ 300 million

80% of the total cost
expected to come fromthe private sector

Private sector involved
in importation,
distribution, sales andAbatement potential andsustainable
development impacts

Priority Barriers- Abatement potential of
15.8 MtCO2e by 2030
- Health benefits fromreduced indoor air
pollution.
- Lower fuelwood
demand anddeforestation.
- Potential cost savings tohouseholds.
- 11 MtCO2- 1,169 job prospects- Inadequate production
and distribution capacity;- Limited expertise to
design and produce more
efficient technologies;- The sector is not
attractive to financial
institutions.

- 947 ktCO2e/year- The challenging
investment climate,- Uncertainty of available
resources,- Limited technologicalcapacity.
- Insufficient experience inrenewable energy
development- Information andawareness barriers- Inadequate resource
availability.

Alignment with
National
Policy/Programme
removing barriers- Policy target: 50%
LPG penetration by
2020.
- Reduce wood fueldemand from 72%
to 50% by 2020.
- Programmes –SEforALL Action
plan.
Renewable Energy
Act.
Renewable Energy
Master Plan.
SREP Investment
Plan.

National Energy
Policy.

Referenced from Table 13 in the Renewable Energy Master Plan

Page | xxxii

Switch from liquid
fuel to natural gas
in thermal power
plants

Ministry ofEnergyVolta River
Authority, Ghana
Gas Company

US$ over 1 billion

Forest plantation
development

Ministry ofLands andNaturalResources

Forestry
Commission
Private sector

US$ 4.1 billion
investment cost,projected income of
US$ 9.4 billion

Ghana Forest
Cocoa REDD+
Programme

Ministry ofLands andNaturalResources

Forestry
Commission, Ghana
Cocoa Board
Private sector

US$ 50 million
results-based
payment model.

installation of LED
lamps- Health benefits fromreduced indoor air
pollution.

About 80% investment
in gas infrastructures by
GNGC. GNCP is the gas
aggregator. 20% of thecost of gas production
and distribution by theprivate sector.
The shared cost
between public andprivate sector plantation
development companies.

- Potential to generation
145 ktCO2e/year

The results-based
payment scheme would
help to leverage an overUS$ 200 million
additional investment- Potential to generate
2,456.67 kt/year.
- 2.8 million jobs for over
25 years.

- Potential to generate
1414.29 kt/year.

- The incentive for
manufacturers orimporter of efficient LED
lamps.
- The disposal of
inefficient bulbs is apotential source of
mercury emissions.
- Irregular flow of natural
gas from the West Africa
Gas Pipeline.

Light for all
initiative.
(Distribution of 12
million LEDs)- Lack of sustainablefinancing framework forplantation development.
- Lengthy land acquisition
processes.
- Weak legal andinstitutional frameworkfor plantation.
- Lack of a unified legal
framework for regulating
plantation development,
benefits sharing,financing.
- There are challenges inmobilising funds for
implementation.
- There are inadequate
capacities to use state-ofthe-art GIS technology to

National Forest andWildlife Policy.

National Gas Master
Plan

Forest Plantation
Strategy.
Forest Plantation
Development Fund.
REDD+ Strategy.

National Forest andWildlife Policy.
REDD+ Strategy.
Forest Plantation
Strategy.

Page | xxxiii

into the cocoa
landscape.

Bus Rapid
Transit (BRT) –High Occupancy
Buses

Institutional biogas

Ministry ofTransport,
Infrastructure,and local
Government

Ministries ofEnergy,Education and
HealthMinistry of Transport

Energy Commission

US$ 0.35
billion

US$ 0.11
billion

About 70-80% public
investment cost for
infrastructure and 20%30% private costs forvehicles.

About 55% public
investment through arebate scheme 45%
private costs for costinstitutional biogas.

-

HFC Reductions in
the RAC Sector scale-up market
share of climatefriendly andenergy-efficientconditioners to
70% by 2030
Avoided methanefrom the disposalof solid waste

Ministry ofEnvironment,
Science,Technology andInnovation

Environmental
Protection Agency,
Energy Commission

US$ 15.5 million

Private sector
involvement in theimportation of efficientconditioners-

Ministry of
Sanitation andWater Resources

Private companies

Not estimatedPrivate sector-led-

Abatement potential to2030 of 1.63 MtCO2e.
Reduced traffic
congestion
Improved local air
quality
Improved road safety
Job creation
Abatement potential to2030 of 0.024 MtCO2e.
Reduction in indoor
pollution
Improved sanitation
Reduction in outpocket-expenditure on
cooking fuels
Job creation andincreased incomes.
Potential to reduce theemission of 900 kt/year.

Potential to reduce
1,754.9 kt/year

map and monitor existing
plantations spatially.
- Threats from illegal
mining.
- Difficult to regulate
informal transport service
providers.
- Inadequate funding.
- Lack of consistentpolitical commitment.
- BRT integration into roaddevelopment.
- Lack of access to improve
to finance.
- There are local
professional artisans.
- High upfront cost.
- Non-existing public
capital incentives.
- Ensure standardisation ofdesign and production of
biomass plants.
- Industry refusal to getbacking of national
agencies.
- Inadequate funding-

Mixed waste stream
introduces extra costs
to processing.

Forest Plantation
Development Fund.
National Transport
Policy.
Policy target: 80% of
all trips in urban
areas must be on
public. Mass Transit
Systems.
SEA4ALL Action Plan.
Renewable Energy
Act.
Renewable Energy
Master Plan.

HFC phase-out
management plan

Double the current
waste to compost
capacity of
200tonnes/day toPage | xxxiv

throughcompositing-

Landfill gas
management

Local
Government,
Waste and theEnvironment
sectors.

Ministry of Local
Government and
Rural Development

US$ 0.51
billion

About 30% public
investment to equity,
70% private capital cost-

Abatement potential to2030 of 0.4MtCO2e/yr.
Reduce the incidence offire at landfills.
Additional Energy
generated
Improve sanitation-

Underdeveloped
compost market.
Limited compost
production capacity
High upfront
transaction cost.
No landfill gas
collection obligation
Challenges in theoperational
management oflandfills

400tonnes/day by
2030

National
Environmental
Sanitation Policy
Renewable Energy
Act

Page | xxxv

ES 5. Vulnerability, Impacts and Adaptation Assessments
ES 5 provides the summary information on vulnerability, impact and assessments.
ES 5.1 Key Policy Messages
Under this section, as much information as possible on adaptation efforts across the country from 2015 andsynthesises it into key messages. The key messages are:More than 30 years of climate records show that the climatic conditions in Ghana have severely deteriorated
and are more likely to worsen in the future.
The uncertainties in the future climate will be far more significant than in the past.
• Rainfall variability will be high in the forest regions than the rest of the country.
• Ghana will continue to be warm and even get worse by 2080.
• Temperatures are likely to increase by at least 3oC by 2080 nationwide.
• The savanna regions are likely to record temperature above 30oC.
• The high likelihood of wet spells may lead to more floods across the country.
• The projected increases in dry spells may exacerbate drought conditions, especially in the savanna.
Climate-induced events are on the rise, and their impacts could become alarming if concrete steps are nottaken to deal with the human aspects that contribute to them.
In the past 50 years, 22 major hydrometeorological events in Ghana have affected 16 million people with over
400 deaths.
• There have been over 19 significant flood events in the past five decades.
• Three drought events have occurred in the past five decades.
• Five of climate-induced disasters have cost Ghana more than US$120 million.
Vulnerability due to dependence on agriculture adversely impacts livelihoods, with increasing severity fromthe coast to the Northern savanna.
Using agriculture-livelihood sensitivities, the communities in the Northern dry savanna will experience theworst impacts of climate change.
• Upper West is the most vulnerable region to climate change.
• Wa East is the most vulnerable district in the whole country.
• 10% (roughly 28,000km) of Ghana’s land area falls in the high flood hazard zones mostly along theWhite Volta and downstream of the Akosombo dam.
• Majority of the land in Northern Ghana falls in the high drought hazard category.
Climate change is likely to bring unbearable disruptions to the electricity system, cash crop production, urban
migration, livelihoods of smallholder farmers and the coastline.

Page | xxxvi

The changing climate is a threat to energy and food security and rural livelihoods.
• The already harsh ecological conditions coupled with adverse climate change impacts in Northern
Ghana could accelerate migration toward the southern cities. Most migrants tend to live in slums andurban-stressed areas that are prone to recurrent floods.
• The projected future severe drought conditions may affect cash crop production.
• Prolonged drought conditions, will increase the population of variegated grasshoppers which
destroy cassava.
• There is an increasing reduction in marine fish catch as well as freshwater landings due to rising sea
temperatures and to high fishing intensity; leading to generally low incomes in fishing communities.
• An increase in extreme temperatures could lead to increased demand by competing water users
which could reduce water availability for power generation.
• Climate change-induced sea-level rise is very likely to exacerbate the erosion taking place alongvulnerable sections of the 560 km coastline.
ES 5.2. Adaptation policies and investments are producing positive returns and must be scaled-up at all levels.
The principal government flagship policy initiatives support climate change adaptation measures under the‘modernising agriculture’ agenda.
• ‘1 Village 1 Dam’ policy has increased access to water all year round to vulnerable farmers. So far, five
hundred and seventy small dams and dugouts are under different stages of construction in the
Northern, Upper East, and Upper West Regions.
• 1 District 1 Warehouse has contributed to reverse post-harvest losses. The construction of 300
warehouses 1,000 metric tonnes capacity is underway3.
• Planting for Food and Jobs involves the supply of improved seeds, fertiliser and extension services tofarmers and has contributed to increased food production (maize 75%, rice 24%, soybean 39%, andsorghum 100%). Five hundred and fifty-seven thousand farmers supplied with high-quality seeds.
Seven thousand, six hundred metric tonnes of seeds and cassava planting materials distributed tofarmers.
• Rearing for Food and Jobs supports climate-smart livestock production. So far, 53,500 livestock (sheep,
pigs, cockerels and guinea fowls) have been distributed as of June 2019.
• Planting for Export and Rural Development (PERD) is a decentralised tree crop programme to promoterural economic growth and farmer incomes. The plan is to develop nine commodity value chains,
namely cashew, coffee, cotton, coconut, citrus, oil palm, mango, rubber and shea, through adecentralised system. PERD seeks to support one million farmers in 170 districts with certified freeplanting materials to cover over one million hectares of farmlands and engage 10,000 young
graduates as crop specialised extension officers.
ES 5.3. Key national and sector policies that Prioritise Climate Change Adaptation Measures• 2018-2021 Medium-Term Development Framework• National Climate Change Policy (2015-2020)• National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy (2010-2020)• Nationally Determined Contributions (2020-2030)

32019 Mid-year National Budget Speech

Page | xxxvii

•
•
•
•
•

Strategic Medium-Term Plan for the Ministry of Works and Housing (2018-2021)
Ghana Plan of Action for Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate Change Adaptation (2012)
National Climate-smart Agriculture and Food Security Action Plan (2016-2020)
Ghana Irrigation Development Policy (2011)
National Adaptation Plan Framework (2018)

ES 5.4 Adaptation Intervention Areas:
Strengthening capacities of District Assemblies and EPA Regional Staff on mainstreaming climate change• Trained 100 district assembly staff from 22 District Assemblies in Western Region in 2018 on
mainstreaming climate change into district plans, programmes, and policies.
• Trained 60 EPA regional staff on the effective integration of climate change adaptation into
Environmental Impact Assessment.
• Created awareness amongst about 800 regional stakeholders on Ghana’s NDC nationwide.
• Trained 138 district assembly staff from 10 districts, on mainstreaming Ghana’s NDC into District
Development Plans.
Tackling the recurrent flood in urban areas• Implementing a national flood management strategy.
• Investing US$ 200 million in Greater Accra Resilient Integrated Development Project to improve floodrisk and solid waste management in the Odaw River.
Strengthening systematic observation, climate services, and early warning systems• Modernisation and automation of weather observation networks. The Ghana Meteorological Agency(GMet) has added ten automatic weather stations to beef up the existing stations.
• The National Disaster Management Organisation (NADMO) has established emergency operation
centres for early warning and communication for priority hazards in 10 sites to benefit nearly 6 million
people.
• Water Resources Commission has invested over US$ 4 million in flood and drought hazard assessment
in White Volta and Oti River basins.
Building resilience in vulnerable agricultural landscapes• Investing more than US$ 100 million in the Northern drylands to build the resilience of smallholder
farmers and the fragile ecosystem they depend on for their livelihoods.
• Invested € 3.8 million in climate risk transfer (drought index insurance).
Expanding coastal protection and irrigation development• Invested nearly US$ 670 million in seven sea defence projects across Ghana’s coastline.
• Planning to undertake sea defence projects in Amanful Kumar Coastal Protection works; Dixcove
Coastal Protection Works; Komenda Coastal Protection Works; and Nkontompo Coastal Protection
Works (Phase 2) - Western Region• Rehabilitation of 3,000 ha through the Kpong Right Bank Irrigation Project and the extension of new
irrigation infrastructure and services to a proposed additional 8,000 hectares under the New

Page | xxxviii

Development Irrigation Scheme (NDIS) underway. This US$ 90 million initiative, is part of the Accra
Plains Irrigation Project.
Developing capacity and research for adaptation• Introduced specialised graduate and post-graduate training programmes on climate change
adaptation at University of Ghana, University for Development Studies, Kwame Nkrumah Universityof Science and Technology (KNUST), the University of Cape Coast and the University of Energy andNatural Resources (UNER).
• CSIR College of Science & Technology offers a programme on climate change and integrated natural
resources management.
• On-going research on climate impacts and cocoa production, climate change and migration, climatechange, and water resource management.
ES 5.5 Barriers to Climate Change Adaptation• Limited institutional and technical capacity• Slow adaptation and mainstreaming into district development plans• Poor spatial distribution and population coverage of climate change adaptation projects.
• Low private sector participation.
• Limited adaptation funding
ES 5.6 Best Practices and Lessons for Adaptation Communication• Need to establish an electronic database for adaptation best practices in Ghana.
• Develop standard indicators for tracking adaptation actions.
• Track implementation of adaptation actions under Ghana’s NDCs and document best practices.
• Develop institutional arrangements for tracking and reporting adaptation actions at all levels.
• Develop a functional national system for adaptation communication.
ES 6. Other Information
ES6 addresses issues on technology transfer, research and systematic observation, Action for Climate
Empowerment (ACE), REDD+ safeguard and response measures. It also includes information financial, technicaland capacity needs.
ES 6.1 Technology Development and Transfer
Ghana has conducted two Technology Needs Assessment (TNA) in 2003 and 2013. Both assessments produced
priority mitigation and adaptation technology option for addressing climate change. The 2003 assessment
highlighted mitigation technology options in the Energy and Waste sectors. The 2013 TNA focused on
adaptation technologies in the Water and Agriculture sectors. Although the 2013 TNA is the most current, it isnearly seven years old and needs to be updated to reflect the current technology needs of the country (Table
ES7).

Page | xxxix

Table ES 7: Climate technology options identified in 2003 technology needs assessment and the links with policy documents
Priority technology portfolios
2003 TNA
Supporting policy Comments
document
Biofuelsx
Industrial energy efficiencyxx
Consistent with Ghana’s NDCs
improvement
Energy efficiency lightingxx
Aligns with 12 prioritised NAMAs and Ghana’s
NDCs, strategic national energy plan
Solar PVsxx
Aligns with Ghana’s SEforALL Action Plan; 12prioritised NAMAs, Renewable Energy Master
Plan, Strategic National Energy Plan and
Ghana’s NDC, Internationally Transferred
Mitigation Outcomes (ITMOs)
Natural gas combined cycle and Natural x
x
The technology aligns with Ghana’s NDC,
gas distribution system
National Gas Master Plan.
Management technologies andxx
The technology aligns with Ghana’s NDC,
efficiency improvement in transport
National Transport Policy.
sub-sector or BRT
Wind Energyx
The technology aligns with Ghana’s NDC,
Renewable Energy Master Plan, Strategic
National Energy Plan, Scaling Up Of
Renewable Energy Penetration Investment
Plan (SREP-IP).
Solar water heaterxx
Renewable energy master plan, strategic
national energy plan, Ghana’s SEforALL Action
Plan, SREP-IP
Small and mini-hydrox
The technology aligns with the Renewable
Energy Master Plan, Strategic National Energy
Plan, SEforALL Action Plan, SREP-IP and NDC.
Biomass for power generation (coxThe technology aligns with The Renewablegeneration from sawmill residues)
Energy Master Plan, SEforALL Action Plan.
Landfill methane gas capture for power x
x
The technology aligns with Ghana’s NDC andgeneration
the Renewable Energy Master Plan.
Anaerobic and CH4 generationx
x
The technology aligns with Ghana’s SEforALL
technologies for wastewater handling
Action Plan, 12 prioritised NAMAs, Renewable(Biogas technologies)
Energy Master Plan and Ghana’s NDC.
Incinerationxx
LPG and improved stovesx
Aligns with Ghana’s SEforALL Action Plan,
Strategic National Energy Plan, LPG
Promotion Policy, Renewable Energy Master
Plan, National Gas Master Plan, Clean
Development Mechanism (CDM), NDC, andITMOs.
Efficient fridges
xStrategic National Energy Plan and the NDC.

Similarly, the top technology lists from the 2013 TNA were in line with relevant government policy documents.
Notable among them are the National Climate Change Policy, National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy,
National Disaster Management Plan, Nationally Determined Contribution and the Strategic Medium-Term
Development Plan for the Ministry of Works and Housing. Table ES 8 shows adaptation technology options
and their supporting policy documents.

Page | xl

Table ES 8: Climate technology options identified in 2013 technology needs assessment and the links with policy documents
Priority technology portfolios
Sector2013
Links toComments
TNA
policyRainwater collection from ground Waterxx
The technology aligns with the National Water
surfaces
Policy.
Post-construction support for
Water
x
x
The technology aligns with the National Water
community-managed water
Policy.
systems
Improving the resilience of
Water
x
x
The technology aligns with the National Water
protected wells to flooding
Policy.
Demarcation and protection of
Water
x
x
The technology aligns with the Riparian Buffer Zone
buffer zones for water bodies
Policy.
Rainwater harvesting from roofs
Water
x
x
The technology aligns with the National Water
Policy.
Community-based extension
Agriculturexx
The technology aligns with Ghana’s NDC, Planting
model
For Food And Jobs, with the National Climate-Smart
Agriculture Action Plan.
Water user associations
AgriculturexIntegrated soil nutrient
Agriculturex
The technology aligns with the Food andmanagement
Agriculture Sector Development Policy II and the
National Climate-Smart Agriculture Action Plan.
Ecological pest management
Agriculturexx
The technology aligns with the National ClimateSmart Agriculture Action Plan and Ghana’s NDC.
Seed and grain storage
Agriculturexx
Aligns with Ghana’s NDC, Planting For Food And
Jobs (one district one warehouse programme).

ES 6.2 Research and Systematic Observation
ES 6.2.1 Research
The NCCP and the NDC recognise research as a strong pillar for policy and practice. The main research interest
gathered through a nationwide survey broadly include:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

technology adoption pathways
pathways for indigenous knowledge transfer
socio-economic impacts on local communities
documenting past and on-going ecological and social dynamics
policy-research diagnostics
climate financeinstitutional coordination

The major challenge Ghana faces with climate change research is inadequate funding from the Government;
climate change research in the country is often project-driven and donor-funded. Because funding from thegovernment is not adequate, most academic and research institutions involved in climate change research rely
on external funding sources. The donor funding for climate research has been useful, but an increase ingovernment funding in research areas, that directly respond to national priorities would be necessary.
Notwithstanding, the ongoing research contributes immensely to informing the climate change strategy
development in the country.
Page | xli

As a result, the EPA has developed a climate change research database to collate and synthesise researchfindings to inform climate actions. Many on-going studies address different aspects of climate change on
landscape dynamics, climate change and society, climate modelling and cross-cutting issues.
ES 6.2.2 Systematic Observation
The GMet4 manages the national systematic observation infrastructure and provides climate services for publicuse, agriculture application, civil aviation, commercial airlines, military aviation and maritime. The synoptic
and automatic network of meteorological and radar stations support the systematic observation infrastructure.
GMet also collaborates with other international bodies such as the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO)
on climate observations and data services. Besides, the University of Energy and Natural Resources, Sunyani
has established the Earth Observation Research and Innovation Centre (EORIC) to research into earth andatmospheric observations. The centre undertakes research, training and provides services in carbon flux
monitoring, aerial and satellite operations and fire monitoring. The Centre for Remote Sensing and Geographic
Information Services (CERSGIS), Legon provides specialised services on geo-information for earth observation
monitoring and mapping on land and coastal resources.
ES. 6.2.3 Participation in International Climate Change Activities
Ghana is active in climate change activities at the regional and global levels. The country’s participation ininternational climate change activities demonstrates its commitments to the collective efforts to tackle climatechange. The summary of activities that Ghana was involved in or contributed to are listed below:
Continental level• Africa-wide climate change initiatives• Climate for Development in Africa Programme (ClimDev-Africa)• Africa NDC Hub• African Adaptation Initiative (AAI)• African Renewable Energy Initiative (AREI)• Africa Ministerial Conference on the Environment (AMCEN)• African Group of Negotiators (AGN)• African Climate Policy Centre (ACPC)• United Nations University – Institute for Natural Resource in Africa (UNI-INRA)
International level• UNFCCC and Climate Change Negotiations• Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)• Partnership on Transparency in Paris Agreement (PATPA)• Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC)• NDC Partnership• Coalition for Rainforest Nations (CfRN)• Global Methane Initiative (GMI)• UN-REDD

4

http://www.meteo.gov.gh/website/

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ES. 6.2.4 Action for Climate Empowerment (ACE)ACE is an integral part of Ghana’s climate strategy covering areas such as access to public information, public
participation, public awareness and education. The updates on Ghana’s ACE activities are as follows:
Efforts to promote access to public information• Installing Automatic weather stations in Senior High schools• Climate change sharing information platforms.
• Climate change data hub.
Efforts to promote public participation• National school drawing contest on climate change
Efforts to promote public awareness• National Climate Change Week
• REDD Eye Campaign• Climate Change and Population Conference on Africa• Africa Climate Change Week
• Renewable Energy Fair
• Accra SDG investment Fair
• Climate Chance Summit - Africa• Climate Change Dialogue with Political Parties and Parliamentarians• National Climate Change and Green Economy Learning Strategy
Efforts to promote education• Ghana achieved the full integration of climate change into school curricula.
• Seven tertiary institutions in the country have introduced climate change courses at theundergraduate and graduate level.
• The University of Ghana and the KNUST, Kumasi have introduced graduate courses on “Climate
Change and Sustainable Development” and “Climate Science and Meteorology respectively”.
• WASCAL has introduced graduate and post-graduate programmes on climate change at KNUST.
• Several stakeholders educate the public on climate change through mass and print media such asradio and TV interviews, jingles, documentaries, community durbars, information vans anddissemination of educational materials. Social media is now an effective means of communication on
climate change.
ES. 6.2.5 First Summary of Information on How Safeguards for REDD+ are being Addressed and Respected
In May 2019, as mandated by Decision 12/CP. 19 paragraphs 3-4, Ghana voluntarily provided its first summaryof information (SOI) on how safeguards for REDD+ are being addressed and respected via the UNFCCC website.
Ghana has established an online Safeguard Information System (SIS) to meet the National Environmental
Regulations, Cancun, World Bank and GCF safeguard requirements. With the establishment of the SIS, Ghana
wishes to update the SOI submitted to the UNFCCC consistent with Decision 12/CP. 19. The URL reference to
SIS is http://reddsis.fcghana.org/.

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ES 6.2.6. Ghana’s Experience on Response Measures
Ghana opted to report response measures information in its BUR2 and has further provided an update in thisnational communication as follows:••••

Established a national working group on response measures made of thirteen state and non-state
institutions.
Continued public awareness on response measures.
Ghana adopted a new national employment policy in 2015.
Organised successful National Dialogue on decent work and just transition in Accra in 2018. The
recommendations from the dialogue are as follows:--

Need to conduct scoping and rigorous impact evaluation of the NDC on jobs and the labour
market.
Retooling of the education system, especially the vocational and technical training schools
and centres and to mainstream the “Just Transition Concept” in their curriculum.
Upgrade existing skills to reflect the needs of the transition to a green economy.
Ensure that in the NDC implementation, the findings from the scoping study on decent workand a just transition to an environmentally sustainable economy and society for all in Ghana
to ensure a just transition is achieved.
Undertake a climate change and employment diagnostics to give a better understanding of
the labour market and its implications in implementing the NDC.
Enhance policy and institutional coherence and a strong need for economic modelling.

ES 6.3 Financial, Technical and Capacity needs
ES 6.3.1 Financial, technical and capacity needs
Ghana has identified the following as critical financial, technical and capacity needs
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Difficulty in tracking climate financial inflows
Duplication of activities and funding
Mislabelling of climate financeLack of transparency on reporting on non-financial support for training and technical assistance
Inadequate financial allocation in the national budget
Data processing and management strategies
QA/QC Protocols and Management of GHG inventory
Uncertainty assessment and management of GHG inventory
Strengthening the national system for GHG inventory
GHG and mitigation action data management and institutional arrangement
Training on marginal abatement curves
Training new technical experts on GHG at the international level
Improving the estimation of emission baselines
Use of statistical and dynamic crop and hydrological models in climate impact assessment.
Methodology for monitoring adaptation action

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ES. 6.3.2 GEF, Annex II Parties, multilateral/bilateral financial contributions
Total climate-related financial inflows for the period 2011-2019 amounted to US$ 15.5 billion (the equivalentof GHC 29.7 billion). The financial investment in the natural gas industry development alone amounted to
US$14.2 billion in three oil and gas fields and processing plants. When the loan investments in the natural gas
industry development are excluded, total climate inflows for the period hover around US$ 1.3 billion (GHC 2.5
billion). Of the total amount of climate finance for the period, the grant component constituted the largest
share of 72.1% followed by loans (19.1%), national budget (8.5%) and result-based payments (0.4%) (FigureES 2).
0.4%
8.5%
Grant
19.0%

Loan
National budget
72.1%

Result Based Payment

Figure ES 2: Share of climate financial inflows for the period 2012-2017

As shown in Table ES9, the financial flows through bilateral channels were the largest (45.1%), followed bymultilateral (29%), global projects (11.6%), national funds (7.1%), and the GEF (4.4%). The remaining 2.8% areprivate foundations (1.3%), private sector (0.13%) and technical cooperation (0.02%).
Table ES 9: Breakdown of climate change finance flows for the period 2011-2019 in US$
Climate finance flow channels
Grant
Loan
National budget

Result-based
payment

Total

Bilateral
Adaptation
Adaptation (MOI**)
Mitigation
Mitigation (MOI)

591,529,884
7,979,847
1,113,558
516,648,586
48,581,393

591,529,884
7,979,847
1,113,558
516,648,586
48,581,393

SD* (MOI)
Co-financing
Mitigation
GEF
Adaptation
Adaptation (MOI)

17,206,500
58,366,182
13,418,182
70,00017,206,500
18,000,000
18,000,000
58,366,182
13,418,182
70,000

Enabling Activities
Mitigation
Global Project

1,678,000
43,200,000
152,000,000

18,000,000
18,000,000

1,678,000
43,200,000
152,000,000

Page | xlv

Mitigation
Multilateral
Adaptation

152,000,000
125,348,308
22717296

Mitigation
Mitigation (MOI)
Finance (MOI)
Adaptation (MOI)SD
SD (MOI)

68499128.24
31020894
938,679
68,96650,0002,053,345

National Funds
Mitigation
Private Foundations
Adaptation (MOI)
Mitigation (MOI)
Private Sector

16,921,063
16,445,100
475,963
1,700,000

SD (MOI)
Technical Cooperation
Grand Total

1,700,000
249,000
946,114,437

249,500,000-

249500000

5,200,000
5,200,000

93,280,000
93,280,000

249,500,000

111,280,000

152,000,000
380,048,308
22,717,296
323,199,128
31,020,894
938,679
68,96650,0002,053,345
93,280,000
93,280,000
16,921,063
16,445,100
475,963
1,700,000

5,200,000

1,700,000
249,000
1,312,094,437* SD: Sustainable development, **MOI: Means of Implementation

In terms of sectors, the Energy sector is the leading recipient of climate financial inflows. The total climate
funds committed to energy sector projects over the eight years, amounted to US$ 758.8 million, making up
57.8% of total funds committed.

Page | xlvi

1. Introduction
1.1 Reporting Context on National Communication
National Communication (NC) is a tool that allows countries to report on their national and regional efforts
toward the achievement of the ultimate objective of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change, UNFCCC (hereinafter referred to as the “Convention”). The preparation of NC contributes to raisingawareness and strengthening technical capacities on climate change among national stakeholders. It also
allows Ghana to highlight critical gaps in national climate efforts. Since 2001, Ghana has published three NCs5,
and each NC preparation cycle took four years to complete (Figure 1). Ghana submitted the third NC to theSecretariat of the Convention in 2015 and continued to prepare the Fourth National Communication (NC4) in2016. The four years of work has culminated in the compilation of this NC4 report.

Figure 1: Milestone diagram showing the overview of publications of national communications

In each preparation cycle, Ghana ensured continuity with the previous national communications. This NC4
report, therefore, builds on the NC36 by incorporating updates and additional information to reflect significant
policy changes and efforts made after the submission of the previous national communication, in 2015. Ghana
has prepared the NC4 by pursuant to decision 17/CP.8 on the guidelines for the preparation of national
communications from Parties not included in Annex I to the Convention7. The main objective of the NC4 is tocommunicate to the COP, the status of Ghana’s effort to implement the Convention up to 2020 by highlighting
the pertinent achievements and constraints. The update information in the NC4 covers the period between
2015 and 2020. The compilation of the NC5 would commence immediately after submission of NC4, to avoid
a break in reporting.
1.2 Background to the Preparation of National Communication
Ghana became a Party to the UNFCCC in September 19958; ratified the Kyoto Protocol in May 2003 and theParis Agreement in September 20169. Over the period, Ghana adopted strategies to domesticate theConvention to address climate change. As a Party to the Convention, Ghana has an obligation under Article 4,paragraph 1, and Article 12, paragraph 1 of the Convention, to regularly prepare, publish and report on national
communications to the Conference of Parties (COP) to the Convention.
5
https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/transparency-and-reporting/reporting-and-review-under-the-convention/national-communicationsand-biennial-update-reports-non-annex-i-parties/national-communication-submissions-from-non-annex-i-parties

6

https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/ghanc3.pdf

7https://unfccc.int/files/meetings/workshops/other_meetings/application/pdf/dec17-cp.pdf
https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetailsIII.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVII-7&chapter=27&Temp=mtdsg3&clang=_en
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The process for compiling the NC is hands-on, collaborative, evidence-based and delivered coherently. As muchas possible, relevant stakeholders got involved in the NC4 preparation. In all, fifty national experts fromtwenty-four state and non-state institutions contributed to the preparation of the NC4. The national experts
worked in five groups with each responsible for a specific component of the report. There are eleven interrelated chapters in the NC4, all of which were informed by the latest climate change literature and the best
available data in the country.
The compilation of NC4 started with a stocktaking exercise to assess the results and processes of the previous
three national communications. The outputs of the stocktaking informed the design and implementation of
the NC4. During the stocktaking exercise, a team of experts evaluated the national system for the compilationof NCs to identify the inherent strengths and weaknesses and come up with concrete approaches to tackle
them immediately in the NC4 and future compilations. The recommendations from the exercise covered criticalareas like improvements in institutional arrangements, revamping the structure for data management, capacity
development and result dissemination.
Based on the findings from the stocktaking, Ghana developed the NC4 project proposal as part of the UN
Environment’s umbrella NC project for approval by the Global Environment Facility (GEF) council. The UN
Environment was GEF’s implementing agency for Ghana’s NC4, which started in January 2016. The GEF is theprimary funding source for the preparation of the NC4 10 even though it is not adequate to cover the full cost.
Additional support came from the Low Emission Capacity Building (LECB), NDC Support Programme (NDC-SP)
and the Initiative for Climate Action Transparency (ICAT) projects. Besides, Ghana provided in-kind support tomatch financial and technical assistance received to enable the preparation of this report.
1.3 Climate Change in Ghana
As in many developing nations, climate change is a significant threat for Ghana, as the country is susceptible
to both the Atlantic Ocean and Sahelian climate effects. The effects of climate change are intensifying acrossthe country and would worsen in the future, with undesirable consequences on development. Hence, Ghana
has integrated its climate change strategies into economic development plans and sectoral policies. The
national development plan seeks to improve the lives of Ghana’s citizens and tap into the opportunities thatclimate change presents.
As part of the pursuit of Ghana’s agenda of prosperity for all, the strategy is to adopt development choices thatpromise to deliver growth-focused, people-centred and climate-resilient outcomes. The government’s latest
Coordinated Programme of Economic and Social Policies (CPESDP) for 2017-2024, demonstrates the relevanceand commitment to respond to the challenges and opportunities offered by climate change. In line with this,the CPESDP fully embraces Ghana’s obligations under the NDC to the Paris Climate Agreement and linkages
to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the Africa Union’s Agenda 2063. Taking bold steps topromote climate-compatible development can lead to unlocking the investment opportunities to the benefitof Ghana’s sustainable development agenda. Indeed, climate adaptation is an uncontested priority of Ghana.
At the same time, mitigation serves as the primary vehicle for technology transfer and foreign direct
investment. In this respect, mitigation actions are usually implemented at the lowest cost possible to promote
long-term economic development.

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Updates of national circumstances

Accra, Ghana

Source: http://www.bruna.cat/imgdownload/full/141/1410851/ghana-wallpaper.jpg

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2. National Circumstances
2.1 Key Achievements since the Submission of Third National Communication to UNFCCC
Ghana continues to implement policies that have positive effects on development and climate protection.
Highlights of the significant accomplishments are listed below:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

•
•
•
•

Adopted 2018-2021 Medium-Term Development Framework plan that highlights climate change asa priority.
Put forward Thirty-One adaptation and mitigation measures in the NDC under the Paris Agreement to
the UNFCCC in 2016.
Adopted the Renewable Energy Master Plan in 2019.
Promulgated the Petroleum Exploration and Development Act, 2016, (Act 919,) to restrict the flaringof gas in petroleum exploration and development.
Established the SDG delivery and Green funds in 2019 with the target to raise US$100 million andUS$200 million, respectively.
The Forestry Commission signed an agreement to deliver six million tonnes of greenhouse gas
emissions reduction under the Ghana Cocoa Forest REDD+ Programme with the World Bank in 2019.
Investing US$ 200 million in the Greater Accra Resilient Integrated Development Project to improve
flood risk and solid waste management in the Odaw River led by the Ministry of Water Resources andSanitation with funding from the World Bank.
Investing more than US$ 100 million in the Northern drylands to build the resilience of smallholder
farmers and the fragile ecosystem they depend on for livelihood since 2016.
Investing nearly US$ 670 million in 7 sea defence projects across Ghana’s coastline over the last
decade.
Development of the National Adaptation Plan Framework in 2018, which seeks to clarify Ghana’s
approach to its NAP process.
The EPA, National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NaCCA) and Ghana Education Service, has
incorporated climate change issues into school curricula. Currently, Climate change is taught as partof the following subjects in lower and upper primary: English Language, Science, Our World and Our
People, Creative Arts and Religious and Moral Education.

2.2 Government Profile
Ghana has managed a remarkable democratic transition since 1992. As a nation-state, Ghana's 1992
constitution distributes democratic power among the executive, legislative and the judicial arms ofgovernment (Figure 2). The President is the head of the executive arm, and the legislative functions are vested
in parliament. There is also the judiciary that is independent of the other arms of government. The national
house of chiefs, advises on matters of chieftaincy, customary laws and land administration.
Ghana operates a local government system that seeks to decentralise development (administrative, political,
planning and fiscal), to the sub-national level. The decentralised local government comprises structures at thenational, regional and district levels. The country is subdivided into sixteen administrative regions and 260
Metropolitan/Municipal/District Assemblies (MMDAs) each headed by a Chief Executive. The National
Development Planning Commission (NDPC) has a legal mandate to coordinate the entire national development
planning system in Ghana.
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It occupies the apex of the decentralised planning system involving Ministries, Departments and Agencies(MDAs), Regional Coordinating Councils (RCCs) and the MMDAs. Accordingly, the NDPC works with all MDAs,
including the MESTI, to integrate climate change issues into the national development plans. Also, the Ministryof Local Government and Rural Development (MLGRD) coordinates the operations of the MMDAs and the RCCs
under the Local Governance Act (Act 936)11.

Legislature

Executive

Judiciary

Sectors

Local Government

Other state and nonstate actors

Line ministries

RCC

Traditional Authorities

Departments

MMDAs

CSOs and private sector

National Development
Planning Commission

Agencies

Development partners
Academia

Figure 2: Overview of the Government profile in Ghana

2.2.1 Climate Change Governance in Ghana
Within the Government, the MESTI leads the formulation of climate change policies and supervises theimplementation of the Convention and its Protocol activities within the country (Figure 3). The EPA is
responsible for the technical coordination of the implementation of climate programmes and as a result,facilitates the preparation of international climate change reports in close collaboration with sector ministries.
Ten years after becoming a Party to the Convention, in 2005, Ghana ratified the Kyoto Protocol and accededto the Doha amendment in 2014 to extend its obligations under the Kyoto Protocol to 2020. In this regard,
the EPA serves as the Convention National Focal Point (NFP) while MESTI is the National Designated Authority(NDA) for the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). The EPA is also the focal point for international bodies
such as the Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Climate Technology Centre and Network
CTCN) and the Action for Climate Empowerment (ACE).

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MESTI hosts the National Climate Change Committee (NCCC), which is a multi-sectoral task force on climatechange. The NDPC and Ministry of Finance play critical roles in the mainstreaming of climate change issues
into the national development plans and the mobilisation of climate finance. With regards to the mobilisationof finance from international sources, the Ministry of Finance acts as the National Designated Authority (NDA)
for the Green Climate Fund12. Besides, several MDAs have either established focal units or teams to work on
climate change issues in their respective ministries. For instance, the Crop Services Directorate under the
Ministry of Food and Agriculture is leading the implementation of the National Climate-Smart Agriculture
Action Plan for the sector. Similarly, the Climate Change Unit at the Forestry Commission is the National REDD+
secretariat. At the Energy Commission, the Renewable Energy, Energy Efficiency, and Climate Change Division
oversees the energy and climate change issues in the sector (Figure 3).
MESTI(Policy formulation)
MESTI
CDM Focal Point
EPA

Ecobank(GCF Accredited
NIE)

Ministry of Finance
GCF NDAUNFCCC Focal Point

IPCC Focal Point

Forestry Commission
REDD+ Secretariat

CTCN Focal Point
NADMO
Hyogo Framework

ACE
NCCC

Local Governments

Line ministries

Academia

CSOs

Private sector

Figure 3: Overview of the institutional involvement in the implementation of the UNFCCC in Ghana

Recently, the Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development established a new climate change team tocoordinate the activities within the Ministry. Many academic institutions are actively involved in teaching andresearch into climate change. Table 1 summarises institutions engaged in climate change activities in the
country.
Table 1: Institutions and summary of climate change activities relating to their mandates
Ministry and Institution
Ministry of Planning
National Development
Planning Commission

12

Operational areas
Defines broad government development policy, including climate change.
Lead inter-ministerial efforts and policy alignment to SDGs.
Ensure the integration of climate change issues into national planning.
Incorporated climate change indicators into the national results framework.
Coordinate the preparation of sectoral and the national annual progress reports, which also cover
climate change issues.

https://www.greenclimate.fund/countries/ghana

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Ministry of Finance

Ecobank Ghana Limited
MESTI

EPA

Ministry of Food andAgriculture
Ministry of Lands andnatural resources
Forestry Commission

Ministry of Energy

Energy Commission

Ministry of Transport andMinistry of Railways
NADMO
Ghana Meteorological
AgencyMinistry of Local
Government and Rural
Development
Academic institutions(Universities, CSIR)

National planning and budgeting processes.
Facilitate the domestication of the SDGs in the country.
Prepares SDG compliant budget, including climate change.
Tracks domestic and international climate change inflows.
Serves as the national designated entity for the Green Climate Fund.
Green Climate Fund Accredited National Implementing Entity.
Leads in formulating climate and environmental policies and programmes.
The focal point for the Clean Development Mechanism.
Hosts the National Climate Change Committee to oversee the implementation of the National
Climate Change Policy.
Coordinates the regular preparation and implementation of the Nationally Determined
Contribution.
UNFCCC Focal Point.
GEF Focal Point.
Coordinates adaptation planning and mitigation assessment
Evaluates and promote relevant climate technologies.
Coordinates the regular preparation of national and international climate reports.
Administers Environmental Impact Assessment of projects.
Manages the technical aspects of the preparation and implementation of the Nationally
Determined Contribution.
Leads in the policymaking and implementation of climate-smart agriculture.
Create and promote sustainable crop production.
Championing forest and wildlife policy.
Implementing the forest investment programme with funding from the climate investment funds
Serves as the national REDD+ secretariat.
Implementing the forest plantation strategy.
Implementing the national REDD+ strategy.
Implementing the cocoa landscape REDD+ project.t
Responsible for sustainable energy policies.
Implementing the scaling up of renewable energy investment plan.
Adopted the national gas master plan.
Adopted the renewable energy master plan.
Leads in the implementation of sustainable energy for all action plan.
Implementing energy efficiency regulation for home appliances and buildings.
Promoting renewable energy through technical regulation.
Proficiency training for artisans in electric wiring and solar installations.
Promoting sustainable transport modes.
Developing policy and regulation for electric vehicles.
Railway infrastructure development.
Promote disaster risk reduction through early warning systems.
Manages the network for systematic observation and climate services.
Facilitates the involvement of local government in national climate change activities.
Effective spatial planning to support climate resilience.
Contributes to knowledge generation via research, human capacity building through training andsupporting evidence-based decision-making in climate change.
Contributes to the works of international climate change bodies like the IPCC, WMO, WASCAL,
Climate and Development Knowledge Network (CDKN) and the UN Environment.

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2.3. Institutional Arrangement for the Preparation of National Communications and Biennial Update Reports
The culture of climate reporting is gaining roots in Ghana. Barely a decade after introducing the Ghana Climate
Ambitious Reporting Programme (GCARP) as the national system for reporting, the country has chalked
significant achievements (Figure 4). With the GCARP system, Ghana has successfully published three national
communications, two biennial update reports and the accompanying International Consultation Analysis (ICA).
This feat has been possible due to the GCARP arrangement that backs the timely data collection, process andanalysis and reporting. The GCARP consists of the institutions, data management, tools and method andcapacity development building blocks that helped to produce national communication. The same GCARP willcontinue to support Ghana’s participation in the Enhanced Transparency Framework (ETF) under the Paris
Agreement.
Continuous
training

Capacity
development

Capableinstitutions

Institutionalarrangement

Appropriate
methods

GCARP
SystemDatasharing

Tools and methods

IPCC-based
data analysis

DataManagement

Decentralised
reporting tasks

Coordinating
body

Sector lead
institutions

Data owners

Data
supplyFigure 4: Elements of the GCARP system

Since the submission of the NC3 in 2015, Ghana has continued with the reforms of the functionality of the
GCARP system in the following areas:
Institutionalisation of climate reporting – The transfer of climate reporting tasks to the line ministries, while
EPA plays the coordination role, has been relatively successful. The process of permanently getting climate
reporting into the governmental structures is a priority of the reforms in the national arrangement. The
institutionalisation process started almost a decade ago, but it is yet to reach the desired level. The aim wasto ensure that climate reporting becomes a credible source of information for policy formulation. It would beachieved by systematically integrating climate reporting tasks into the work routines of line ministries andsecure budgetary allocation.
In the last decade, EPA has taken several steps to facilitate the institutionalisation by first decentralising theclimate reporting tasks to relevant organisations under the ministries. The purpose was to let the line
ministries play a more significant role in reporting, developing capacities, creating awareness, inspiringownership of the national communication results and ultimately infusing stability or permanence in theinstitutional arrangements for reporting.
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Even though over the years, the transfer of climate reporting tasks to the line ministries has brought
improvements in climate reporting, Ghana will continue to address the practical challenges in theinstitutionalisation process. Ghana’s Capacity Building Initiative for Transparency (CBIT) project is expected tocontribute to strengthening the institutionalisation efforts.
Continuous capacity development – Continuous capacity development is one of the strategies toinstitutionalise the GCARP. Ghana is implementing a three-prong, interwoven capacity development strategy.
The strategy is based on the thinking that as the climate reporting task is fully decentralised to line ministries,
their capacities and interest must be widespread, sustained and incentivised over time. So, national experts
who are already part of the GCARP undergo refresher training on advanced topics in international climate
reporting to update their knowledge on current trends. Usually, these experts attend international anddomestic training programmes on national communications, greenhouse inventories and biennial update
reports.
Another approach to capacity development is via learning-by-doing. New entrants into the GCARP team get
the opportunity to work closely with experts and learn on the job. Through this, the new experts get to knowof the climate reporting stages. Another viable option is to collaborate with universities to train more people
on various climate reporting topics. This approach is a viable option because it may be cheaper and moresustainable in the long term. The capacity development process would continue in the coming years with anemphasis on the following areas:•••

Continuous training of experts from line ministries as an incentive to sustain their interest and add
value to career progression.
Collaborate with line ministries to include the time their experts spend on climate reporting the staff
appraisal.
Encourage line ministries to add more personnel to support sector works.

2.3.1. Institutional Arrangements for the Continuous Preparation of National Communications
The EPA coordinates the development of the national communications with technical inputs from line
ministries. Fifty national experts from twenty-four state and non-state institutions contributed to thecompilation of NC4. The national experts worked in five technical teams with each team responsible for
specific components of the report while the EPA hosted the NC4 project management unit.

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MESTI(Supervision and policy alignment)

EPA(Coordinating body)

UNEP

PSC

Technical teams
National circumstancesand FTC

GHG Inventory

Vulnerability and
Adaptation Assessment

Mitigation Assessment

Other information

NDPC

Energy Commission

MoFA

Energy Commission

MESTI

Ministry of Finance

Forestry Commission

University of Ghana

Ghana Atomic Energy

EPA

UG School ofBusiness

MoFA

University ofDevelopment Studies

Forestry Commission

Forestry Commission

EPA

Ministry of Transport

Abantu forDevelopment
Water Resources
Commission

MESTI

HATOF Foundation

GSS
UNU-INRA

EPA

EPA

NDPC

Energy Centre,
KNUST
EPA

GMeT
Ghana Space Centre

Data providers

Data providers

Data providers

Data providers

Data providers

Figure 5: Institutional arrangement of national communication in Ghana

The institutional arrangement is in three tiers (Figure 5). MESTI and EPA occupy the upper-tier where MESTI
ensures policy alignment of the national communication and oversight, and the EPA provide support for the
Project Steering Committee (PSC). The PSC is composed of thirteen senior representatives drawn from thegovernment, tertiary institutions, and civil society. The PSC met every six months to evaluate the progress ofwork and where necessary, make policy decisions. It served as the information clearinghouse for all the
stakeholders involved in the preparation of the national communication.
The five Technical Teams (TT) were the nerve-centre of the institutional arrangement for the preparation of
the national communication and occupied the middle-tier. Each of them focused on compiling specificchapters of national communication. So, the TT was responsible for the day-to-day planning and execution of
the activities outlined to complete the section assigned to them. The members of the sector TT were fromrelevant private, public institutions, and the academic community based on competence, experience andrelevance to climate reporting. Among the TT members, a competent institution was selected to lead thetechnical work for the group, which is governed by a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) signed between
the EPA and the lead institution. The MOU helped to streamline the preparation process and ensure the timely
delivery of the tasks and future continuity.
2.3.2 Areas for Future Improvements in the Institutional Arrangements
From the time Ghana adopted the GCARP, the institutionalisation process has focused on decentralising thereporting task to the line ministries. Since the introduction, decentralisation reforms have brought
improvements in the institutional arrangement for the preparation of national communications in the areas ofcoordination and participation. Despite these improvements, Ghana will continue to work on the following:

Page | 10•Even though the EPA has a standing MOU that governs the relationship among the institutions
involved in the national communication, the entirety of the MOU is not fully operationalised. It is
Ghana’s priority to review the existing MOU to reflect practical realities that are achievable within thescope of the national communications. One area that would receive attention in the coming years is
working to achieve full operationalisation of the MOU between the EPA and the partnering state
institutions. Under the streamlined MOU, the line ministries would be able to follow the timelinesand deliverables according to plan.

•

Another critical aspect of the institutionalisation process that Ghana intends to put greater focus onis the idea of getting the line ministries to fully incorporate the national communication preparation
activities into their work programme.

•

Even though the line ministries are responsible for the national communication activities in theirsectors, the time the experts spend is not part of the staff performance appraisal. The current situation
sometimes makes the officer prioritise other tasks from their institution over the national
communication. Ghana would continue to work with the line ministries to tackle this issue as it serves
as a significant incentive for the staff who work on national communication.

2.4 Climate Change Relevant National and Sectoral Policies
In Ghana, climatic change issues are captured in the Coordinated Programme of Economic and Social
Development Policies (CPESDP) and the Medium-term Development Policy Framework (MTDPF). In 2016,
Ghana put forward thirty-one priority adaptation and mitigation actions in the Nationally Determined
Contributions (NDC)13 to the Secretariat of the Convention in response to the Lima call for action. The latest
CPESDP (2017-2024) affirms Ghana’s commitment to the NDC14 under the Paris Agreement. Having
incorporated climate change issues into the current CPESDP and the MTDPF (2018-2021), all MDAs andMMDAs reflect the same in their sector and district medium-term plans. Besides, the National Climate Change
Policy (NCCP, 2015–2020)15 and Climate Change Adaptation Strategy (NCCAS, 2012) outlines the criticalmeasures for the realisation of the medium-term climate protection outcomes (Figure 6).

Government of Ghana. 2015. Ghana’s intended nationally determined contribution (INDC) and accompanying explanatory note. UNFCCC. Available
at: http://www4.unfccc.int/ndcregistry/PublishedDocuments/Ghana%20First/GH_INDC_2392015.pdf
14https://www4.unfccc.int/sites/NDCStaging/Pages/Party.aspx?party=GHA
15
Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology (MESTI), Republic of Ghana. 2014. Ghana National Climate Change Policy. Available at:https://s3.amazonaws.com/ndpc-static/CACHES/NEWS/2015/07/22//Ghana+Climate+Change+Policy.pdf
13Page | 11

Figure 6: An overview of national and sector policies that support climate change and the NDC

Besides committing to climate change efforts in the national development plan and the cross-cutting
strategies, some sectoral policies explicitly seek to address climate change (Figure 6). Table 2 presents therelevant national and sectoral policies, strategies and legislation that support climate change.
Table 2: Policies, legislation and measures that support climate change
Organisation or
sector
NDPC

Parent policy

Legislation/ measures/instruments

Comments

Decentralised planningsystemNational Development Planning
System Act, 1994 (Act 480)

Ministry of
FinanceNational policy on
public-private
partnership
National budget
guidelines

Local Government Act (Act 936)
Financial Administration (Act 654)

Relevant for mainstreaming climatechange into sector and district mediumterm development plans.
Streamline national efforts to mobilise
public and private financing to support
infrastructure and service delivery.
Guide MMDAs to budget for climatechange programmes in their annual
budgets.
Mobilise funds at the national level tosupport proper waste disposal.

Environmental fiscal
reformEnvironment

National Climate
Change Policy

15% environmental tax on plastics
with an exemption on
pharmaceutical and agricultural
sectors
There is no measure anticipatedby way of instruments andlegislation

National Environment
PolicyEnvironmental
Assessment

Environmental Assessment
Regulations, 1999 (L1 1652)

Framework for addressing climate change.
Complement efforts by NDPC to facilitate
mainstreaming of climate change.
Framework for addressing environmental
challenges. Complement efforts of NDPC tofacilitate mainstreaming the environment.
Addressing climate change issues at the
project level through permitting andlicensing.
Incorporated climate change issues into
the administration of Environmental
Assessment.

Page | 12

Strategic Environmental
Assessment
Ministry of
Local
Government
and Rural
Development

Local Government
PolicyMinistry ofEnergyNational
EnergyPolicyFunctional Organisational
Assessment Tool

Renewable
Energy Act

Renewable Energy Act
Feed-in-Tariff Scheme
Renewable Energy Fund
Renewable Energy Master Plan16
National gas master plan
Sustainable energy for all action plan17
National LPG promotion policy
National Energy Fund

Energy Efficiency Standards and Labelling
Regulations, 2005 (LI1815),
Energy Efficiency Standards And Labelling(Household Refrigerating Appliances)
Regulations, 2009 (LI 1958), Energy Efficiency
Standards and Labelling (Household
Refrigerating Appliances) Regulations, 2009(LI1958)
Energy Efficiency Regulations, 2008 Regulations,2008 (LI 1932)

Automatic Utility and Petroleum Price Formulae
Transport

National Transport
Policy10-year over-aged vehicle
importation tax
Annual roadworthy certification
for all vehicles
Motor emission standards

Strategic level mainstreaming of theenvironment into development policies,
plans and programmes.
M & E system that evaluates theperformance of MMDAs to compliance with
Government Policies, rules, regulations andprocedures in carrying out their mandated
functions. Climate change indicators arepart of the assessments.
Provide a framework for renewable energy
promotion. The National Energy Policy
under review.
Promote downstream natural gas market
development and clean cooking.
Promote clean cooking
Funding for energy research and seedcapital for the development of renewablesystems.
Obligation to display a label, whichindicates the energy efficiency rating of
the product before the first retail sale. It is
an offence under LI. 1815 to import,
display for sale or sell Air Conditioners andCompact Fluorescent Lamps in Ghana
unless they meet the minimum
performance standards and are correctly
labelled.
Prohibition of manufacture, sale orimportation of incandescent filament lamp,
used refrigerator, used refrigerator-freezer,
used freezer and used air-conditioner
Phasing-out of subsidies on utility andpetroleum products
Disincentive for importing over-aged
vehicles.
Yearly physical inspection of vehicles
before roadworthy certificates are issued.
Proposed standards for mobile andstationary engine emissions and fueleconomy.
Ghana Standards Authority (GSA) publishedthe first-ever motor vehicle emission
standards. The GSA and EPA are working
closely with MESTI to develop legislation
to back the implementation of thestandards.

16
17

http://www.energycom.gov.gh/files/Renewable-Energy-Masterplan-February-2019.pdf
http://energycom.gov.gh/files/SE4ALL-GHANA%20ACTION%20PLAN.pdf

Page | 13

Forestry

National Forest andWildlife Policy

Stumpage Fees
Annual Allowable Cuts
Ban on chain-saw operations
Timber certification

National REDD+ Strategy
National Forest Plantation
Strategy
MMDAs bye-laws.

Surcharge on timber as part of the timber
harvesting regulation regime.
Cut off the threshold of volumes of timber
harvested every year
Implementation of timber certification
through the voluntary partnershipagreement with the EU
Promoting avoided deforestation andrestoration of degraded forest.
Restoration of degraded areas andenhanced food production and create jobs.
National Institutional Biogas Programme(NIBP)

Waste
Management

National Environmental
Sanitation Strategy andAction Plan

Manufacturingindustry

Environmental Assessment
Regulations 1999 (L1 1652)
Environmental Protection Agency
Act, 1994 (Act 490)
Ghana Meteorological Agency Act
2004(Act 682)
Sector strategic medium-term plan for the Ministry of Worksand Housing (2018-2021)18

Promotion of cleaner production
Incorporation of climate change issues into
the administration of Environmental
Impact Assessment
Weather forecasting, early warning,provision of metrological services
Flood control, coastal production and slum
management

Ghana plan of action for disaster risk reduction and climatechange adaptation (2012)19
National climate-smart agriculture and food security action
plan (2016-2020)20

Promoting community-based early warning
systemDisseminate climate-smart agriculture
technologies at the community level.

Ministry ofCommunication
Ministry ofWorks andHousing
NADMO
Ministry ofFood andAgriculture

2.5 Government Flagship Policies in the Medium-Term Development Framework that Support Climate Change
The current MTDPF highlights the government flagship programmes that seek to initiate concrete
development actions that deliver tangible climate benefits. Generally, the flagship programmes focus onpromoting growth poles for green industrialisation and rural developments and support climate change. Theyare:
• One-district one factory,• Integrated Aluminium Industry• Planting for food and jobs,• One village one dam• Aquaculture for food and jobs
• One district one warehouse
Table 3 shows the linkages between nationally determined contributions, national climate change policy,
medium-term development frameworks, government flagships projects and SDGs

18

https://www.mwh.gov.gh/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/SECTOR-MEDIUM-TERM-DEVELOPMENT-PLAN-2018-2021.pdf
http://nadmo.gov.gh/images/NADMO_documents/2015_documents/GHANA%20PLAN%20OF%20ACTION%20ON%20DRRCCA%202011-2015.pdf
20
Essebey G.O, Nutsukpo D, Karbo N, and Zougmore R. 2015. National Climate-Smart Agriculture and Food Security Action Plan of Ghana (2016-2020). Working Paper
139. Copenhagen, Denmark: CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). Available at: www.ccafs.cgair.org
19

Page | 14

Table 3: Linkages between nationally determined contributions, national climate change policy, medium-term development frameworks, government flagships projects and SDGs
SDGs

Goal 1:No Poverty

Medium-term national
development priorities(GSGDA 2 - 2014 to2017)
Ensuring andsustaining
macroeconomic
stability
Enhancing thecompetitiveness ofGhana’s private sector,

Goal 2:
Zero Hunger

Accelerated agriculture
modernisation andsustainable natural
resource management

Medium-term National
development priorities(Agenda for Jobs - 2018 to
2021)
Strong and resilient
Economy.
Industrial Transformation(flagship programme: Onedistrict one factory,Integrated Aluminium
Industry)
Livelihood Empowerment
Against Poverty (LEAP)
Programme
Agricultural development
and rural transformation(flagship programme planting for food and jobs,
one village one dam, one
district one warehouse)
Fisheries and aquaculture
development (flagshipprogramme – aquaculture
for food and jobs

National climatechange policy
priorities

NDCs mitigation
actionParis Agreement (Ghana’s Nationally Determined Contributions)
NDCs Adaptation
Progress and achievements–
Progress and achievements –Actions
mitigation actions
adaptation actions

Energy, Industrial,
and Infrastructural
Development

1. Promote cleanrural households
lighting

17. Value additionbased utilisation offorest resources

2. Expand theadoption of marketbased cleaner
cooking solutions.
3. Promote Forest
Plantation
Development

18. Resilience forgender and thevulnerable

Agriculture and foodsecurity. (Focus area
1: develop climateresilient agriculture
and food systems)

4. REDD+ in cocoa
landscapes
5. Enrichment
Planting andenforcement oftimber fellingstandards.
6. Wildfire
Management

19. Agriculture
resilience building inclimate-vulnerable
landscapes

Employed 20,000 youth to 10 million
trees to enhance carbon stocks.
Forestry Commission. Links to SDG 15
and 13.
Planted 192, 253ha of degraded
forest under National Forest
Plantation Development Programmewith more than US$ 50 million
investment.
Forestry Commission. Relate to SDG
15 and 13.
Galamstop to support communitybased mining. Ministry of Local
Government and Rural Development

Investing more than US$ 100
million in the Northern dryland tobuild the resilience ofsmallholder farmers and thefragile ecosystem they depend on
as their livelihood. Multiple
projects. Relate to SDG 2 and 3,
NDC 3 and 6
Supplied 577,000 farmers withsubsidised fertilisers and highquality seeds for the 2018
cropping season. Two thousand
seven hundred extension agents
being recruited to support thedissemination of climate-smart
technologies under Planting for
Food and Jobs (PFJ) – MoFA.
Links to SDG1 and 2
50,000t warehouse capacity
added in 2018 One district one
Warehouse (1D1W) – Ministry ofSpecial Development Initiative
Five hundred seventy small dams
and dugout constructed or
rehabilitated in Northern (310),
Upper East (150) and Upper West

Page | 15(110) Regions in 2018. - Ministryof Special Development Initiative.
Goal 3:
Good healthand well being

Infrastructure andhuman settlements
development

Ensure affordable,
equitable, easily accessible
and Universal Health
Coverage (UHC).
Strengthening early
warning and emergency
preparedness system.

Disaster
preparedness andresponse. (Focus area
2: build climateresilient
infrastructure)

7. 200 institutional
biogases

20. City-wide resilient
infrastructure planning
21. Managing climateinduced health risks
22. Integrated water
resources management

8.Double composting
capacity

Promoting healthy dietsand lifestyles.
Implement the Water-forAll programme to ensure
every Ghanaian has accessto potable water.
Enhance inclusive andequitable access to andparticipation in quality
education at all levels.

6. Effective solid
waste collection andlandfill gas
management.

23 Early warning
disaster reduction andclimate services

Equitable social
development(Focus area 7:
minimise impacts ofclimate change on
access to waterand sanitation)

Installed 600 tonnes/day capacity
compost facility and produced
average 8,545.4 tonnes of compost.
Ministry of Water and Sanitation
1000 biogas project by the Ministryof Special Initiatives

Implementing the US$ 200
million Greater Accra resilientand integrated development
project to deal with recurrent
floods in the Odaw river.
Ministry of Works and Housing.
Relate to SDG1 and NDC 23.
Developed multi-hazard Early
Warning System and EWS Master
Plan to benefit roughly 6 million
people (NADMO).
Developed floods and drought,
hazards, vulnerability and risk
maps at current (2010) and futurescenarios (2050) at the national
level and the ten pilot districts(NADMO).
Implementing insurance risk
transfer programme for drought
and floods (NADMO, Ministry of
Finance).
Invested about US$ 4 million inflood risk in White Volta and Oti
Basin – Water Resources
Commission

Page | 16

Expanding coastal protection
Invested nearly US$ 670 million
in 7 sea defence projects acrossthe coastline.

Goal 4:
Quality
Education

Human Development,
Productivity, andEmployment

Strong and resilient
Economy.
Enhance inclusive andequitable access to andparticipation in quality
education at all levels.

Goal 7:
Affordable andClean Energy

Oil and gas
development
Infrastructure andhuman settlements
development

Strengthen Technical andVocational Education andTraining (TVET)
Industrial Transformation(flagship programme: Onedistrict one factory,Integrated Aluminium
Industry)

Equitable social
development.
(Focus area 6:
addressing impactsof climate change onhuman health).

Energy, Industrial,
and Infrastructural
Development

Ministry of Works and Housing.
Relate to SDG 13.
Climate change issues
incorporated into school
curricular. (Ministry of Education,
Ghana Education Service,
National Council for Curriculum
and Assessment EPA). Link to
SDG 13.

NDC 21

9. Scale-up
renewable energy
penetration by 10%
by 2030.

More than quadrupled solar PV
installed capacity to 39 MW. Ministryof Energy.
Link to SDGs 12 and 13

10. Promote cleanrural households
lighting
11. Expand theadoption of marketbased cleaner
cooking solutions.
12. Double energy
efficiency

Disseminated 1.2 million improved
cookstoves to households andadditional 1,000 institutional stoves.
Ministry of Energy.
Link to SDG 12 and 13
Replaced 18,000 inefficient 250W
streetlights with 150W LED. And
32,893 automatic timer switches
installed.

Page | 17

improvement to 20%
in power plants

Forty-six capacitor banks installed inpublic buildings. Energy Commission.
Relate to SDG 12 and 13.
Invested nearly US US$13.2 billion(Tweneboa-Enyenra-Ntomme (TEN)
and ENI/Vitol, (Sankofa) fields(ENI/Vitol - US$7.28 billion, TEN US$5.9billion) in natural gas
production and infrastructuredevelopment.
Ministry of Energy. Relate to SDG 12
and 13.
The Ministry of Energy is leading in
the distribution of 12 million LED
Lamp21 to selected government
institutions, including the security
services.

Goal 8:Decent Workand Economic
GrowthHuman Development,
Productivity, andEmployment

Private Sector
Development(Public-private sector
dialogue, Support
entrepreneurship and SME
development)
Industrial Transformation(flagship programme: Onedistrict one factory,

21

Equitable social
development (focus
area 8: addressing
gender issues inclimate change)

13. Scale-up
Sustainable masstransportation – busbased transport.

Equitable social
development(focus area 9:
Address climate

14 Scale-up
Sustainable masstransportation –railway development

NDC 22

Relate to SDG 12 and 13.
Implementing the Ghana Railway
Master Plan. Ministry of Railway
Development
Conversion of 2 x110MW Simple
Cycle Takoradi 2 Thermal Power
Plant (T2) to 330MW Combined Cycle
Plant by Takoradi International
Company (TICO). Ministry of Energy.
Link to SDG 12, 7 and 13.

https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/government-to-distribute-12-million-led-bulbs.html

Page | 18

Ensuring andsustaining
macroeconomic
stability
Enhancing thecompetitiveness ofGhana’s private sector.

Goal 12:
Responsible
consumption
and production

Accelerated agriculture
modernisation andsustainable natural
resource management.
Accelerated agriculture
modernisation andsustainable natural
resource management

Integrated Aluminium
Industry)change andmigration)

Expand the railway
network to northern Ghana
to open-up economic
opportunities andlink up with neighbouring
countries
Private Sector
Development(Public-private sector
dialogue, Support
entrepreneurship and SME
development)(focus area 3:
increase theresilience ofvulnerable
communities toclimate-related risks)
Energy, Industrial,
and Infrastructural
Development.

Agricultural development
and rural transformation(flagship programme planting for food and jobs,
one village one dam)
Industrial Transformation(flagship programme: Onedistrict one factory,Integrated Aluminium
Industry).

Energy, Industrial
and Infrastructural
Development

15. Reduce
consumption of highGWP gases inelectronic appliance

NDCs 9, 10, 11, 12,
13, 14

NDC 22

NDCs 12NDC 20Focus area 5:
Improvemanagement andresilience ofterrestrial andaquatic ecosystems

Page | 19

Goal 13:
Climate Action

Ensuring andsustaining
macroeconomic
stability

Accelerated agriculture
modernisation andsustainable natural
resource management

Goal 15 Life on
Land

Accelerated agriculture
modernisation andsustainable natural
resource management

Establish a Presidential
Advisory Council on
Science, Technology andInnovation to ensure highlevel attention on STI.
Agricultural development
and rural transformation(flagship programme planting for food and jobs,
one village one dam)
Industrial Transformation(flagship programme: Onedistrict one factory,Integrated Aluminium
Industry)
Expand the railway
network to northern Ghana
to open economic
opportunities and link up
with neighbouring
countries.
Agricultural development
and rural transformation(flagship programme planting for food and jobs,
one village one dam, one
district one warehouse)

Energy, Industrial
and Infrastructural
Development

NDCs 1 to 17

Natural Resource
Management(focus area 4:
increase carbon
sinks)Natural Resource
Management(focus area 4:
increase carbon
sinks)

NDC 17Develop national indicators to track
SDG goal 13 and the 31 climate
actions in the NDCs. NDPC, MESTI and
EPA
Implementing the Ghana Railway
Master Plan. Ministry of Railway
Development

NDC 3,4,5 and 7

Employed 20,000 youth to plant 10
million trees to enhance carbon
stocks. Forestry Commission. Linked
to SDG 15 and 13
Investing US$ 50 million in
Integrated Mining Integrated Project
to tackle illegal mining as a driver of
deforestation. Ministry of Lands andNatural Resources. Linked to SDG 13,
2 and 3.

Page | 20

Ghana has negotiated for the firstever US$ 236 million result-based
payment scheme for REDD+ in thecocoa landscape with the World Bank.
Forestry Commission. Relate to SDGs
2, 15 and 13
Invested US$ about 51 million
through Forest investment
programme to pilot REDD+ in thecocoa landscape.
Ministry of Lands and Natural
Resources. Relate to SDG 13, 2 and 3.
Planted 192, 253ha of degraded
forest under National Forest
Plantation Development Programmewith more than US$ 50 million
investment.
Forestry Commission. Relate to SDG
15 and 13.

Page | 21

2.6 Geographic Profile
Ghana, with a total land area of 238,535 square kilometres 22, is situated in West Africa on the Guinea Coastand lies close to the equator on latitude 11.50N and 4.50S and longitude 3.50W and 1.30E. The country is
subdivided into twelve distinct vegetation zones (Figure 7). The total land area consists of 69% of agriculturalland and 41% of forest areas (FAO, 2020)23. Agricultural lands have increased from 55% of the total land areain 1990 to 69% in 2017 (World Bank, 2020). In the same vein, the share of arable land of the country’s landarea increased from 12% to 21%. Irrigated agricultural land constitutes only 0.2% of the total agricultural land.
Agricultural machinery use is 4.5 tractors per 100 km2 of arable land. Forest lands, between 1990 and 2017,
increased from 38% of the total land area to 41% (World Bank, 2020).

LegendRegional_Boundary

Ecological_Zones
Savanna
Dry semi-deciduous (fire zone)
Dry semi-deciduous (inner zone)
Moist semi-deciduous (north west subtype)
Moist semi-deciduous (south east subtype)
Upland evergreen
Savanna
Moist evergreen
Upland evergreen
Southern marginalWet evergreen

Figure 7: Map of Ghana showing the twelve vegetation zones
22
23

https://data.worldbank.org/country/ghana
http://www.fao.org/countryprofiles/index/en/?iso3=GHA

Page | 22

2.7 Climate Profile
Ghana’s climate is tropical and strongly influenced by the West Africa monsoon winds. The climate is generally
warm with variable temperatures masked by seasons and elevation. The northern part of the country typicallyrecords one rainy season, which begins in May and lasts until September. Southern Ghana records two rainyseasons; major season from April to July and minor from September to November. Several climate models haveconfirmed that air temperature has increased by 1.0OC between 1960 and 2003, at an average rate of 0.21OC
per decade. The rate of increase has generally been more rapid in the northern parts than in the southern parts.
Between 1960 and 2003, the:••••average number of ‘hot’ days per year has increased by 48 (an additional 13.2% of days).
number of hot nights per year increased by 73 (an extra 20% of nights).
frequency of cold days per year has decreased by 12 (3.3% of days).
number of cold nights per year has reduced by 18.5 (5.1% of days).

Rainfall is highly variable on inter-annual and inter-decadal timescales suggesting that long-term trends
would be both difficult to identify and manage their associated consequences.
2.6.1 Past and Future Climate
The scientific evidence unanimously points to changing climatic conditions in Ghana over the last three
decades. More than 30 years of climate records show that the prevailing climatic conditions in Ghana haveseverely deteriorated and are more likely to worsen in the future. The following are key messages on the futureof the changing climate based on Figure 8:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

There are uncertainties in the rainfall patterns that vary across the different ecological zones in Ghana.
Rainfall variability will continue to be higher in the forest regions than the rest of the country.
Ghana would continue to be warm and even get worse by 2080.
Temperatures are more likely to increase by at least 3oC by 2080 nationwide.
The savanna regions are likely to record average temperatures above 30oC.
More than ever before, the high likelihood of wet spells may lead to more floods.
The projected increases in dry spells may exacerbate drought conditions.

Figure 8: Climate projections per ecological zones in Ghana

Page | 23

Population (No)Millions

2.8 Demography Profile
Ghana’s 2020 population is estimated at 30,955,202 and represents a 26% increase over the 2010 levels of
24,658,823 at an annual growth rate of 2.3%24 compared to the 1.5% target for 2020 (NDPC, 2017). With anaverage yearly growth rate of 2.3% per annum, Ghana’s population is likely to reach 37 million by 2030 (GSS,2020). The population is dominated by females (51% of the population) and the youth adults and those under
15 years make 35% of the population (Figure 9).
35
30
25
20
15
10
5

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
*2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
*2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020

0

Male

Figure 9: Trends of population growth by sex

Female* Population consensus years

The breakdown of the total population translates into 7.5 million households of 4.1 average size (GSS, 2017).
Even though more persons live in the urban area (56.1%) compared to the rural area (43.9%), urbanisation rate
has marginally declined from 4.9% to 3.4% in the last three decades (World Bank, 2020). The high annual
growth of the urban population of 3.4% means that many people are migrating to urban areas. Greater Accra
region has the highest share of in-migrants (51.3%) seeking economic opportunities (GSS, 2018). Not only does
the rising urban migration contribute to additional pressures on urban infrastructure and services, but it canalso worsen the vulnerabilities of people living in distressed neighbourhoods, particularly women (Owusu andNursey-Bray, 2019)25. About a quarter (23.4%) of Ghanaians are poor, representing a 0.8% decline of the 2012
figures (GSS, 2018).
Generally, the incidence of poverty is predominant in rural communities. The rural savannah areas record thehighest poverty of 67.7%, followed by rural coastal areas (29.9%). Conversely, the populace in the Greater
Accra is least poor with 2% incidence of poverty. According to GSS (2018), with the extreme poverty thresholdof GH¢792.05 per adult equivalent per year, under a tenth (8.2%) of the population live in extreme poverty.
Between the periods 2006-2017, extreme poverty has reduced from 16.5% to 8.2%. Extreme poverty is
generally prime in rural areas, with 2.2 million persons affected (GSS, 2017).

24

https://www.statsghana.gov.gh/nationalaccount_macros.php?Stats=MTA1NTY1NjgxLjUwNg==/webstats/s679n2sn87
Mensah Owusu & Melissa Nursey-Bray (2019) Socio-economic and institutional drivers of vulnerability to climate change in urban slums: thecase of Accra, Ghana, Climate and Development, 11:8, 687-698, DOI: 10.1080/17565529.2018.1532870
25

Page | 24

Extreme poverty is outstandingly high in the rural Savanna at 36.1% and accounts for more than a quarter of
those living in extreme poverty in rural Ghana. Poverty and livelihoods, gender and geographic boundaries
influence the level of vulnerabilities to climate change impacts in the country.
2.9 Macro-Economic Context
The Ghanaian economy depends on natural resources. The utilisation of gold, cocoa, timber and crude oil
generate export revenues, taxes, and jobs. In 2018 alone, Ghana earned US$ 14.9 billion in revenues from themechanise exports26 with gold (36.4%) and crude oil (30.6%) contributing the most. Besides, the country isagrarian and endowed with forest and fish resources. Agriculture, forestry and fishing engage 38.3% of theemployable population. Latest calculation estimates the cost of environmental degradation at 10.7% of the2017 GDP, implying that the country would need to mobilise about US$6.4 billion yearly to invest in ecologicalrestoration. The country has mostly experienced stable and consistent economic growth since 1960.
The rebased economy figures show that the economy has grown by over 100% from US$ 32.2 billion in 2010
to 65.6 billion in 2018 (World Bank, 2020). The service and agriculture sectors drive consistent growth in theeconomy. The expanding trend of the economy along a carbon lock-in pathway leads to rising energy and GHG
emissions (Table 4). The predominant roles of service and agriculture sectors in the economy implied theirrelatively high greenhouse emission intensities of value-added GDP of 0.7 and 2.4 kg CO2e per constant 2010
GDP US$ respectively. The rising population, high urbanisation rates and the policies to reduce poverty
continue to drive the increasing trend of GHG emissions in the country (EPA, 2019).
Table 4: Macroeconomic indicators relevant to greenhouse gas emissions and removals in Ghana
Indicators

1990

2000

2010

2012

2016

2018

Change (%)
1990-20182012-2018

Population (million)

14.43

18.91

24.23

25.87

28.21

29.61

105

14

GDP (Current US$ billion) *

5.89

4.98

32.17

41.94

55

65.56

1013

56

Total primary energy supply (Mtoe)**

5.29

6.88

9.84

8.36

9.67

10.5

98

26

Total final energy consumed (Mtoe)**

4.31

5.54

5.63

6.61

7.09

7.5

74

13

Total GHG emission (MtCO2e)

25.34

27.54

35.24

39.35

42.15

45.41***

79

15

Total electricity generated (GWh)**

5,721

7,223

10,167

12,024

13,022

16,246184

35

of which is hydroelectric (GWh)**

5,721

6,609

6,996

8,071

5,561

6,017

-25

of which is thermal (GWh)**of which is renewable (GWh)**

-

614
-

3,171
-

3,953
-

7,435
27

10,19533

158
100

Total Electricity Consumed** (GWh)

4,462

6,067

8,317

9,258

11,41813,185195

42

Total energy consumed per capita(toe)
GHG emissions per capita (t CO2 e)

0.3

0.29

0.23

0.26

0.25

0.25

-17

-4

1.73

1.45

1.44

1.53

1.49

1.52***

-12

-1

2.1

1.53

1.09

0.98

0.87

0.74***--24

GHG emissions per GDP unit (kg CO2e/2010 GDP US$)
Grid emission factor (wind/solar
projects) (tCO2/MWh)
Grid emission factor (all otherprojects) (tCO2/MWh)

65
0.35

0.35

0.39

0.46

31

0.51

0.48

0.43

0.53

10

* World Bank, Ghana Country Data, 2019, ** Ghana Energy Statistics 2019, *** Projected figure
26

https://www.bog.gov.gh/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Statistical-Bulletin-November-2019.pdf

Page | 25

2.9.1 Fiscal Instruments that Support Climate Change in Ghana
Ghana needs to mobilise US$ 22.6 billion investments from domestic, international and private sources toimplement NDCs for the ten years (2020 and 2030). The financing consists of existing public sector investment.
Ghana’s NDCs provide fantastic investment opportunities to green the Ghanaian economy. The projected
US$22.6 billion NDC investments can bring a substantial positive return on the economy, green jobs andachieve SDGs. Not only can the NDC investments help to build resilient and decarbonise the economy, butalso rake in foreign exchange to stabilise the cedi depreciation, reduce the balance of trade, create decent
green jobs and above all facilitate the transfer of green technology.
Besides technological and regulatory measures, fiscal instruments are also effective if they are well
implemented. In this regard, Ghana has adopted the strategy to pursue a variety of economic policy instrumentsthat would support the implementation of climate actions. Ghana is aware that there is no single pot fromwhich the country can easily tap the funds. The funds are in a variety of investment portfolios like public funds,
capital markets, bond markets, pension funds, institutional investors, philanthropists, earmark funds andCorporate Social Responsibility (CSR). Over-reliance on grant financing is no longer a viable option because
many development partners are shifting their overseas development assistance policy to favour more tradeand investment than role grant. Besides, with such a broad scope of Ghana’s NDC, it would not be feasible torely on grant financing. Financing Ghana’s NDC requires a careful blend of multiple financial instruments thatlook beyond grant and government’s limited funds. Some of the critical fiscal strategies Ghana is working on
and which are at different stages of progress are explained in the following sections:2.9.1.1 Climate trust funds
Globally, climate trust funds are a vital policy instrument that many countries and multilateral organisations
adopt to raise climate finance. Ghana has commenced the initial processes towards the establishment of the
Ghana Green Fund (GGF). In this regard, the Ministry of Finance with the support from GIZ developed draft
legislation for the fund awaiting government review and approval in 2015. The proposed fund aims tofacilitate, co-finance and channel investments required to implement adopted environment and climatechange policy and law, including investments in climate change adaptation and mitigation, waste
management, industrial pollution and resource use, sustainable forestry, biodiversity and nature protection,
sustainable transport, as well as other sectors covered by environmental and climate change policy.
Ghana has also introduced a public-private joint initiative to establish SDG Delivery and Green fund. The
Government established SDG delivery and Green funds in 2019 to raise funds to support the implementationof the country’s SDG programme. The private sector has the target of establishing US$100 million SDGs
Delivery Fund and a US$200 million Green Fund to complement government’s efforts at tackling climatechange and funding the implementation of the SDGs in the country27. The private sector will raise from thecorporate social responsibility (CSR) budget over five years to capitalise the fund. Ghana has mobilised
mitigation finance from international funds such as Climate Investment Funds (CIF), Global Environment
Facility (GEF) and the Green Climate Funds. Under the CIF28, the Government and its partners are investing US$
75 million to enhance the forest landscape vitality. An additional US$ 40 million is being invested in boosting
the scaling up of renewable energy penetration.
27

https://www.presidency.gov.gh/index.php/briefing-room/news-style-2/1369-ghana-committed-to-reducing-her-carbon-footprints-presidentakufo-addo28
https://www.climateinvestmentfunds.org/country/ghana

Page | 26

Similarly, the GEF has invested US$ 89 million in 32 national projects over the last two decades 29. Under thecurrent GEF 7 funding cycle, Ghana is seeking to raise US$ 13 to support the implementation of the landscaperestoration and ecosystem management for sustainable food systems in the Pra Basin. Ghana is yet to receive
direct mitigation finance from the GCF. The GCF has approved funding for two adaptation projects worth US$
46 million30.
2.9.1.2 Carbon pricing policy
Ghana is yet to adopt a carbon pricing policy though the country’s NDC recognises carbon markets as a climate
implementation strategy. In 2020, the UNFCCC Regional Office in Lome initiated work with Ghana to evaluate
the options for carbon pricing policy in the country. In the pursuit of the strategy to adopt carbon market
measures, the government of Switzerland and Ghana are implementing National Clean Energy Access
Programme (NCEP) as a pilot under Article 6.2 on the Internationally Transferred Mitigation Outcomes (ITMOs).
The NCEP31 seeks to operationalise Article 6.2 in Ghana and transfer mitigation outcomes as ITMOs to
Switzerland.
2.9.1.3 Green bonds
Ghana has initiated a programme to explore the potential of green bonds for SDGs and NDC financing in
201932. As part of the programme, the Ministry of Finance began a process of tapping into green and SDG
related bonds. The UNDP and the Ministry of Finance are training critical national stakeholders to improvetheir knowledge of green and SDG related bonds to facilitate Ghana’s active participation in the green bondmarkets. With green bonds, Ghana can mobilise resources from domestic and international capital markets forclimate change adaptation, renewable energy, low carbon transport, sustainable waste management,
integrated water resource management, clean transportation and other environmentally friendly projects. The
Green Bond Bootcamp drew about 30 government officials. Climate Bonds Initiative, an international, investorfocused not-for-profit organisation is working on mobilising the US$100 trillion bond market for climatechange solutions delivered training.
2.9.1.4 Climate innovation centres33
A private sector consortium led by Ashesi University implements the Ghana Climate Innovation Centre (GCIC).
GCIC supports Ghanaian entrepreneurs and new ventures involved in developing profitable and locallyappropriate solutions to climate change mitigation and adaptation. The US$ 17.2 million programmes would
provide targeted support, mentoring, training and funding facilitation to up to 100 companies in Ghana over
five years (World Bank, 2014). Initial funding for GCIC is from the Danish Government through the World Bank.
The total investment required is US$ 17.2 million, of which US$ 10 million is the expected contribution fromDANIDA. It is projected that after five years, revenues of up to 100 GCIC-assisted companies would generate
the equivalent of approximately US$ 28.6 million in economic impact. The investment will assist up to 304,000
people to increase their resilience to climate change by providing increased access to cleaner sources of energy
and better and more efficient sources of water and agricultural resources.
29

https://www.thegef.org/country/ghana
https://www.greenclimate.fund/countries/ghana
31
https://www.international.klik.ch/en/Activities-and-impact/Mitigation-activities.287.html
32
https://www.gh.undp.org/content/ghana/en/home/presscenter/articles/2020/exploring-the-potential-of-green-bond-issuance-for-sdgsfinancin.html
33
https://www.ghanacic.org/
30

Page | 27

In the long-term (over ten years), assuming continued financial support, GCIC-supported ventures are projected
to generate close to 10,720 cumulative jobs and mitigate over 661,598 tons of CO2e. So far, GCIC has achieved
the following results:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Cumulatively supported 83 businesses with 27 being women-owned or women-led.
Businesses received over US$1.4 million as a grant of which GCIC disbursed US$ 772,435 as proof ofconcept grants.
Generated a cumulative revenue of US$1.63 million by all GCIC businesses.
Raised US$1.79 million as early-stage and growth-stage financing.
Created 127 jobs, 57 of which are women employees.
GCIC investment would have avoided 1,129 Mt C02 of greenhouse gas emissions.
Over 200,000 households have access to products.

2.10 Natural Resources
Ghana’s natural resource base accounts for a vast portion of the country’s economy. The total natural rent (oilrent, natural rent, mineral and forest rent) amounts to 13.1% of GDP (World Bank, 2020). A little over one-third(34.4%) of economic outputs from crops (15%), livestock (3%), forestry and logging (2%), fishing (1%), mining
and logging (14%), water and sewerage (1%) and hydroelectricity (1%) depend on natural resources (BOG,
2019).
2.10.1 Freshwater
Freshwater covers approximately 5% (11,800km2) of the total land area of Ghana consisting of the Volta,
Southwestern and Coastal river systems (EPA, 2016) (Table 5). Their total annual run-off is estimated at 54
billion m3, of which 37.8 billion m3 originates in Ghana whereas the remaining 16.2 billion m3 come fromoutside the country. Table 5 shows the surface freshwater systems in Ghana.
Table 5: Surface freshwater systems in Ghana
River systems
Volta

Catchments
70% of freshwater coverage

Coverage
Least run-off of
146,000m3/km2/year

South Western

22% of freshwater coverage

Highest run-off of
245,000m3/km2/year

Coastal

8% of freshwater coverage

Highest run-off of
202,000m3/km2/year

River basins
Black VoltaWhite Volta
Oti
Daka
Pru
Sene
Afram
Bia
Tano
Offin Ankobra
Pra
AyensuDensu
Ochi-Amissah
Ochi-Nakwa
Tordzie/Aka

Source: Adapted from Bawakyillenuo and Asante, 2012

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The geology of a basin determines the amount of groundwater. Ghana’s groundwater yield varies from 45m3/h
to 18m3/h in the Voltaian formation and the limestone aquifers located in the south-eastern and western partsof Ghana. The total annual recharge is between 157.7mm and 195.0 mm. Ghana is estimated to have 30.3
billion m3 of renewable internal freshwater resources (World Bank, 2020). An annual freshwater withdrawal of
0.982 billion m3 is available for economic activities. Figure 10 shows the share of the economic uses offreshwater in Ghana (World Bank, 2020).

Industry
10%

Domestic
24%
Agriculture
66%

Figure 10: Share of economic use of freshwater in Ghana

Some of the critical challenges threatening freshwater resources are:• Ineffective basin management systems• Effects of land-use change through logging, fuelwood collection and wildfires• Land degradation and desertification• Poor agricultural practices, including the use of agrochemicals in farming and harmful chemicals infishing.
• Surface mining including illegal mining• Infrastructure development including the siting of industries at unauthorised locations• Negative impacts of climate variability and change.
2.10.2 Agriculture
The agricultural sector consists of crops, livestock, forestry and logging, and fishing. The sector contributed
18.3% of the national GDP in 2018 (World Bank, 2020). Agriculture is a crucial sector for jobs and livelihoods
in rural areas (World Bank, 2018). In 2011, the annual agriculture GDP growth rate increased from 0.8% to4.2%. Crop production is predominantly peasant, rain-fed and depends on simple technology. The use of
irrigation to counter poor rainfall is particularly low across the country. For instance, the World Bank (2020)
reports that the agricultural irrigated land was 0.22% of the total agricultural land in 2014. This figuretranslates into 40,000 hectares of the areas under irrigation in the country with potential irrigable lands of
500,000 hectares.34

Between 1 and 2 percent of the irrigation potential of the country has been developed (Bawakyillenuo and Kpieta, 2013 citing National
Investment Brief, 2008).
34

Page | 29

The Ministry of Food and Agriculture is currently implementing the national agriculture investment plan(2018-2021)35 to operationalise the government’s agriculture transformation agenda articulated in thenational medium-term development policy framework. The plan recognises that climate change adversely
affects actors in agricultural value chains, especially those in the savannah zone because most farmers are
smallholders and rely mostly on unreliable rain-fed agriculture. In terms of greenhouse gases, the sector
accounts for 24% of the total national emissions in 2016. Of this, 16% came from crop management practices
and the remaining 8% attributed to livestock. Implementation of the National Climate Smart Agriculture andFood Security Action Plan seeks to respond to climate challenges in the sector.
2.10.3 Forestry
Forestry contributes to the GDP of the agriculture sector. There are two main types of natural forest in Ghana:
the closed forest located in the south-western and middle belt and savannah forest found in the north. Apartfrom environmental and ecological functions of the forest, it also accounted for 6% of GDP36, employs about
120,000 people37 and exports wood products worth about US$220 million annually (Bank of Ghana, 2018).
According to the Forestry Development Master Plan,38 Ghana’s forest cover stood at 9,294,349 ha in 2015 andincreases by 0.3% annually. The plan attributes the gains in forest cover to the national afforestation
programme, natural regeneration, and significant reduction in the incidence of forest fires. Nevertheless, landuse change trends and the drivers are localised and differ from ecological zones. While in the high forest zone,
the dominant land-use change drivers relate to mining, settlement and agriculture expansion, in the savannah
and transition landscapes it is more of fire, grazing and wood-fuel extraction which is estimated to be 1.2
million tonnes in 2018.
Ghana’s total terrestrial carbon stocks amount to 2.04Gt of which, 1.6Gt is from above and below ground stock,
and about 0.34Gt are in the soils to 1m depth. Ecologically, the high-forest zone has carbon stocks of up to
93.47MgC/ha and a maximum of 34.05MgC/ha in savannah forest. Carbon stocks in cultivated areas are
generally lower compared to the forest but vary by ecological zones. For cropland within the high forest zones,
the carbon stocks typically fall within the range of 28.27-72.7MgC/ha, whereas those in the savannah areas
have carbon stocks that cover 18.46-32.04MgC/ha (Forestry Commission, 2015). In 2013, Ghana had 2,400 ha
39
of mangrove forest along the coast. Most mangroves occur in the east coast, especially along the Volta delta
as compared to the few in the western coastline in Amansuri River estuary and Kakum River estuary40. Pressuresfrom agriculture, urbanisation and oil pollution are a threat to mangrove forests41. Mangrove above-groundbiomass ranges from 378-2077MgC/ha for undisturbed, with degraded mangrove areas, carbon stocks range
from 146.88-529.59MgC/ha. The estimated percentage of the total land area of Ghana prone to desertification
is 64.97% representing about 165,000km2 with the Upper East and eastern part of the Northern Region facing
the greatest desertification threat on an area of about 78,718 km2 (Dorm-Adzobu, 2010).

35

http://mofa.gov.gh/site/publications/policies-plans/316-national-agriculture-investment-plan-ifj
https://www.gipcghana.com/invest-in-ghana/sectors/75-forestry/313-investing-in-ghana-s-forestry-sector.html
37
https://www.gipcghana.com/invest-in-ghana/sectors/75-forestry/313-investing-in-ghana-s-forestry-sector.html
38https://www.fcghana.org/userfiles/files/MLNR/FDMP%20Final%20(2).pdf
39
https://eros.usgs.gov/westafrica/mangrove40
http://gh.chm-cbd.net/biodiversity/faunal-diversity-ghana/ecosystem-diversity/mangrove-and-tidal-forests41
http://www.fao.org/forestry/mangrove/vegetation/en/gha/
36

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2.10.4 Mineral Resources
Ghana has commercial minerals (metals and industrial ore) and hydrocarbon deposits (mineral fuels). Mineral
exploitation is vital for the socio-economic development of the country. The mineral sector contributed 14%
to the country’s GDP in 2018, compared with 8.5% in 2016 (Bank of Ghana, 2019). Gold and crude oil exports
constitute 40% of the total merchandise trade inflows in the same period. The entire extractive industry
contributes 18% to government revenue (mineral royalty, property rate, corporate tax and dividend) and 2%
to employment42. The regulatory framework for the mineral sector is in the Minerals and Mining Act 703 of
200643, the Environmental Protection Agency Act of 199444 and Petroleum (Exploration and Production) Act of201645.
Ghana also joined the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) in 2007 to improve accountability of
the use of mineral revenues. There are also unexploited economic deposits of iron ore, limestone, kaolin,feldspar, silica sand, and others46. There is a wide range of environmental impacts associated with the
exploitation of mineral resources which the EPA regulates in collaboration with other stakeholders. The
environmental impacts that border on climate change are deforestation, carbon-intensive fossil-fuel use, waste
management and electricity generation. Mineral extraction is also affected by changing climatic conditions.
Extreme flooding and poor visibility conditions can impede smooth mining operations.
2.10.5 Biodiversity
Ghana has over 300 vital areas for biodiversity conservation (Hackman, 2014). The biological resources for thecountry include 3,600 species of flora47, 504 species of fishes, 728 species of birds, 225 species of mammals,and 221 species of amphibians and reptiles (Allotey, 2007). There are 16 legally constituted wildlife reserves,
covering about 5.3% of the country’s total land surface area. Human-induced fragmentations and degradationof the biologically diverse landscapes are some of the significant threats to the conservation of the biologicalresources and ecosystem services. Ghana’s high forest zones fall within the West African Biodiversity Hotspot
identified by Conservation International. The country has developed a national strategy on biodiversity
conservation under the framework of the Convention on Biological Diversity.
2.11 Energy Resources
Ghana produces energy from fossil-fuel, biomass, hydro and solar resources. Fossil-fuel (oil and natural gas)accounted for the largest share of the final energy supply of 58% in 2018 (Energy Commission, 2019). For
fossil fuels, the oil share was consistently high, showing a declining trend from 46% in 2012 to 42% in 2018.
Conversely, the natural gas proportion more than doubled from 5% to 14% over the same period. Biomass isthe second dominant primary energy supply source in Ghana and comprises wood fuels, agro-waste andmunicipal waste. Its share of the total energy supply has declined by 4% from 41% in 2012 to 37% in 2018. In
the same period, the component of renewable (hydro and solar) of the total primary energy supply saw aconsistent downturn from 8% in 2012 to 5% (Figure 11).

42

https://eiti.org/es/implementing_country/4
https://resourcegovernance.org/sites/default/files/Minerals%20and%20Mining%20Act%20703%20Ghana.pdf
44https://www.lexadin.nl/wlg/legis/nofr/oeur/arch/gha/490.pdf
45
http://www.petrocom.gov.gh/L&C_folder/Pet_register/laws/PETROLEUM%20(EXPLORATION%20AND%20PRODUCTION)%20ACT,%202016%20(ACT%20919).pdf
46
www.ghana-mining.orgwww.ghana-mining.org
43

47

https://www.cbd.int/countries/profile/?country=gh

Page | 31

100

Share of primary energy supply (%)

90
80
70
60
50
40
30

20
10
0
1990

2000

2012

Fossil-fuelBiomass

2018

Renewable

Figure 11: Share of total primary energy supply

2.11.1 Fossil Fuels
Ghana is still a net importer of oil products after starting commercial oil production in 2010. The value ofpetroleum products (crude oil, premium, gas oil, LPG, aviation fuel and natural gas) import, is US$ 2.6 billion
in 2018 (Bank of Ghana, 2019). The total crude oil export volume of 62.1 million barrels in 2019 is almost
equal to production (Energy Commission, 2019) and represents 136% higher than the 2012 figures. Besides,
crude oil imports for electricity generation and oil refining has substantially declined by 514% from 1,210
kilotonnes to 197 kilotonnes over the 2012-2018 period (Figure 12).
1600

Crude oil (kilotonnes)

1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
2012

2013

2014
Refinery

2015

2016

2017

2018

Electricity

Figure 12: Crude oil imports showing a declining trend from 2012 to 2018

Source: Energy Commission, 2019

Page | 32

The pattern of natural gas supply (import and production) to the domestic market is on the upturn. It hadsignificantly gone up by 275% from 15.4 TBtu in 2012 to 57.9 TBtu in 2018 as the dominant fuel for electricity
generation in the country. While the trend of imports component showed inter-annual variations, theproduction side saw an impressive jump from 2 TBtu in 2014 to 32.6 TBtu in 2016 as domestic demand grewcompared to crude oil. The policy on the deregulation of the downstream petroleum market drives the supplyof secondary petroleum products. Whereas the policy encourages private sector participation in thedownstream market at the imports, distribution and retail segment of the value chain, the state-owned
companies still maintain strategic bulk storage and refinery roles. Generally, the supply of petroleum products(production and imports) has increased by 21% from 3.2 to 3.9 megatonnes over the period 2012-2018. The
large share (average of 91%) of petroleum products supply comes from imports with the remaining 9%
produced from the refinery.
4,000
3,500

Kilotonnes

3,000
2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000

500
0
2009

2010

2011
RFO

ATK

2012

2013

2014

2015

Kerosene

Premix

LPG

Gasoline

Figure 13: Trend of petroleum products supplied to the economy between 2009 and 2018

2016

2017

2018

Gas Oil

Source: Energy Commission, 2019

Commercial oil production started in 2011 and was followed by natural gas in 2014. Since 2011, Ghana has
cumulatively produced 317.5 million barrels of crude oil from the Saltpond, Jubilee TEN and lately Sankofa
fields (Energy Commission, 2019). In 2018, the country produced 62.1 million barrels, all of which are exported
offshore (Figure 13). Spring Fields Limited confirmed the prospects of an additional commercial oil find to thetune of 1.5 billion barrels in 2019. In terms of natural gas, a cumulative total of 118.22 TBtu has been produced
between 2014 and 2018 at an average of 23.6 TBtu per annum.
2.11.2 Biomass
In Ghana, the dominant sources of biomass are fuelwood, crops residue, animal waste and municipal waste.
Wood fuels (firewood and charcoal) form the bulk of biomass fuel obtained from dead trees, forest clearings,
logging residues and sawmill residues. Inefficient earth mound is the rudimentary technology for most charcoal
production systems in the country. In 2018, out of the total biomass supply of 1.2 million tonnes, charcoal
consumption was 1.1 million tonnes and 0.5 million tonnes of firewood (Energy Commission, 2019). It isestimated that with an annual rainfall of 1,300 – 2,200mm, about 243PJ/year or 65,000GWh/year of wood fuelcould be obtained from the existing tropical forests (Ministry of Energy, 2012).

Page | 33

2.11.3 Renewable Energy
Ghana has the potential to receive abundant sunlight because of its unique geographical location close to thecentre of the world. A study conducted in Ghana by the Ministry of Energy shows that the country gets averagelevels of solar radiation in the range of 4-6 kWh/m2/day with a sunshine duration between 1800 to 3000 hours
per annum (Energy Commission, 2014). The study further indicates that the south-eastern coastal part of thecountry has good wind regimes for wind power generation. The average wind speed along the coastline isestimated to be between 6 and 7 meters per second at 50 meters high. The gross wind electric potential isabout 5,600 MW representing 1,128km2 (Ministry of Energy, 2012)2.12 Transport
Transportation features firmly in the latest socio-economic development programme for the country (NDPC,
2018). According to GOG (2018), the entire national transportation infrastructure includes one international
airport; five domestic airports; road network of 78,401km in 2018, of which 41% is in excellent condition48; alimited rail network in southern Ghana; and an underdeveloped inland water transport system. The
transportation and storage service sub-sectors contribution to the GDP increased from 5% in 2013 to 7.5% in2018 and projected to inch up to 8.2% in 2020 (Ministry of Finance, 2019). The national transport policy
provides a broad vision for achieving an effective, sustainable and efficient transportation hub in the longterm.
2.12.1 Road Transport
Road transport is the most dominant carrier of freight and passenger in Ghana’s land transport system. It carries
over 95% of all passengers and freight traffic and reaches most communities. Ghana’s road network increased
from 38,000km in 2000 to nearly 78,401km in 2018, out of which 23% is paved49. Traffic congestion is on therise in major urban areas leading to longer travel distances, increasing travel times and cost. Diesel, petrol and
LPG are the petroleum fuels used in road transport activities. Transport is the biggest consumer of petroleum
products. In 2018, the road transport sector consumed 3.8 million tonnes of petroleum products representing
72% over 2012 levels of 2.2 million tonnes. Road transport accounts for an average of 85% of the total fuelconsumption.
2.12.2 Rail Transport
The rail network is confined mostly to the southern part of the country, forming a triangle connecting Accra,
Kumasi and Takoradi. There is also a central track connecting Kotoku to Huni Valley. The rails have mostly
deteriorated, with only 13% of the 947 km network operational, including 54 km from Nsuta to Kojokrom andabout 10 km from Accra to Tema (NDPC, 2020). Moreover, service is generally poor and unreliable. Despite thelimited rail operations in the country, trains consumed 0.3 million tonnes of diesel mainly for freight transport.
In this regard, Ghana adopted a new programme to develop a vibrant and modern rail transport to catalyse
economic development. The current railway development plan outlines the ambitious railway industry
revitalisation agenda. The plan envisages that the over 4,000km of rail line will be constructed in 15 years(Ministry of Finance, 2019).

48
49

https://www.mofep.gov.gh/sites/default/files/pbb-estimates/2019/2019-PBB-MRH.pdf
https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/It-s-a-shame-only-23-of-our-entire-road-network-is-paved-Roads-Minister-717991

Page | 34

2.12.3 Inland Water Navigation
The Volta lake transport system is the leading inland water transport system in Ghana connecting the south
to the north. The Volta River spans about 450km from the south to the north with ports at Akosombo in thesouth and Buipe and Yapei in the North (Ministry of Transport, 2010). Some of the items transported by theVolta lake transport are petroleum products, cement and agricultural commodities. It also provides passenger
services, mostly for the rural population along the lake. The lake transport operates cargo vessels, ferries andmotorboats for passenger and freight transport.
2.12.3 Domestic Aviation
The domestic aviation market is slowing down as reflected in the decline of total passenger movements from719,234 in 2014 to 418,610 in 201850. The decrease in passenger movement correspondingly influenced thegeneral downturn in domestic aircraft movement from 16,978 to 10,140 in the same period. Consequently, theaviation kerosene fuel consumption in domestic aviation rose from 141.3 kilotonnes in 2012 to 200.3
kilotonnes in 2018. Bunkering services for aviation kerosene fuel to support international commercial airlines
are also on the increase.
2.13 Industry
The industrial sector contributed 33.9% to the national GDP at an annual growth rate of 15.7% in 2018. Mining
and quarrying account for most of the sector GDP with 42.1%, followed by manufacturing (30.7%), andconstruction (22.7%). The remaining 5.5% of the GDP is from the utilities (electricity and water and sewerage).
Section 2.9.4 elaborates on the utilisation of mineral resources through mining. For manufacturing, thedominant industries include cement; iron and steel, aluminium, pulp and paper and food and beverages. The
only aluminium smelter in Ghana is the Volta Aluminium Company Limited (VALCO), which currently operates
a single pot. The government’s industrial transformation policy focuses on Agri-processes and integrated
aluminium industry. Implementation of the one-district one-factory and integrated aluminium industry
programmes is to deliver broad policy objectives. Industry consumes 814.2 kilotonnes of all final energy ofwhich electricity is 401.7 kilotonnes and 403.5 kilotonnes of petroleum products. Therefore, the technologicaland policy changes that promote carbon-intensive practices will lead to GHG emissions.
2.14 Waste Sector
Liquid and solid waste management can contribute to global climate change. The waste problem is more
severe in urban areas than the rural areas, owing to high population, prevailing economic activities andconsumption patterns. New sprawling suburbs with no access to roads, social infrastructure and waste
collection services, compound the situation. In 2016, Ghana produced 4.9 million tonnes of municipal solid
waste which is 13% higher than the 2012 level. The breakdown of the waste stream are as follows: (a) foodwaste including garden and wood waste (73%), (b) paper waste (8%), (c) textile (4%), plastic (8%) and others
including inert/metals (7%). Over the last two decades, the involvement of the private sector in waste
management has contributed to improving collection and disposal. The participation of the private sector inwaste management also led to the halving the fraction of waste dumped elsewhere from 28.2% in 2000 andincreased the capacity to incinerate and compost.

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Disposal of solid waste to the land with relatively deeper depth and sanitary landfill sites is increasingly
common in urban waste management. There are also potentials for waste to energy and compost. Incineration
with energy recovery and recycle " are not just disposal methods but also provides "added-value".
Decentralised Treatment, Re-Use and Recovery Systems (DTRRS) for sewage management in bio-digesters;
and aerobic composting of sewage developed in Ghana are currently being piloted in peri-urban communities.
DTRRS technologies are already being promoted in Ghana. Several of the DTRRS technologies have been
installed in institutions, hospitals, schools and in hotels to address the sanitation and water problems
associated with the uncontrolled discharge of septic and faecal sludge, contributing to land-based sources ofpolluting the beaches, rivers and watercourses – a leading cause of public-health related diseases such as
cholera and typhoid outbreaks.
2.15 Climate Change and the Implementation of Multilateral Agreements and Other Initiatives
Ghana is a Party to nineteen multilateral agreements on the environment. Several national implementation
structures have been put in place to support Ghana to meet its commitments under these various agreements.
2.15.1 Rio Conventions, the Kyoto Protocol and Paris Agreement
Ghana has ratified the three Rio Conventions and taken active steps to meet its obligations under them. The
Rio Conventions are (a) United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), (b) United
Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (UNCBD) and (c) United Nations Convention to Combat
Desertification (UNCCD). The Ministry of Environment Science, Technology and Innovation is responsible forcoordinating the implementation of the Rio conventions. The focal points of the UNFCCC, UNCBD and UNCCD
are in EPA and MESTI. In line with the implementation of the Rio conventions, Ghana prepared the following
documents: National Climate Change Policy (UNFCCC), National Action Plan to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
and National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (UNCBD). As a party to the Kyoto protocol, Ghana has put
in place many structures to support its implementation at the national level. These are Designated National
Authority for CDM, establishing a National Carbon Trading Committee and a Technical Committee to screen
CDM projects. Since the submission of the last national communication, Ghana has joined the followinginternational multilateral agreements•••

Paris Climate Agreement
Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer
Minamata Convention on Mercury

2.15.2 Other multilateral agreements
Table 6 presents a non-exhaustive list of multilateral agreements to which Ghana is either a signatory or aparty.
Table 6: List of international conventions on the Environment in which Ghana participated
United Nation Conventions
International Plant Protection Convention, Rome, 1951
International Convention for Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil London, 154 (as amended in 1962
and 1969). London, 155 (as amended in 1962 and 1969)
Convention on Fishing and Conservation of the Living Resources of the Seas, Geneva, 1958
Convention on the Continental Shelf, Geneva, 1958
Convention concerning the Protection of Workers Against lionizing Radiations, Geneva, 1960

Date of Ratification
22 February 1991
17 August 1962
29 April 1958
(signed)29 April 1958
7 November 1961

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Convention on African Migratory Locust, Kano, 1962
Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water, 1963
International Convention for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas, Rio de Janeiro, 1966
Treaty on Principles Governing Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space including
the Moon and the Other Celestial Bodies, London, Moscow, Washington, 1967
African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, 1969 (Ghana is yet to ratify therevised version of this Convention, which is, however, to come into force).
Copenhagen Amendment to the Montreal Amendment on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer,
Copenhagen, 1992
International Convention Relating to Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Oil Pollution Casualties,
Brussels, 1969
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat, Ramsar, 1971
Treaty on the Prohibition of the Emplacement of Nuclear Weapons and other Weapons of Mass
Destruction on the Sea Bed and the Ocean Floor and in the Subsoil thereof, London, Moscow, Washington,
1971
International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil
Pollution Damage, Brussels 1971 and the 1976 Protocol.
Convention on the Prohibition of the Development Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological(Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on Their Destruction, London, Moscow Washington, 1972.
Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, Paris, 1972
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships and Protocol (MARPOL 73/78)
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, Washington, 1973
Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification
Techniques, Geneva, 1976.
Convention Concerning the Protection of Workers against Occupational Hazards in the Working
Environment Due to Air pollution, Noise and Vibration, Geneva, 1977
Protocol Concerning Cooperation in Combating Pollution in Cases of Emergency, Abidjan, 1981
International Tropical Timber Agreement, Geneva 1983
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Montego Bay, 1982.
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, Vienna, 1985.
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, Montreal, 1987
Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, Bonn, 1979
Basel Convention on the Control of Trans-boundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal,
Basel, 1989
London Amendment to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, London, 1990
Convention for Cooperation in the Protection and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environmentof the West and Central African Region, Abidjan,1981
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, New York, 1992
Convention on Biological Diversity, Rio de Janeiro,1992
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought
and Desertification, Particularly in Africa, Paris, 1994
Treaty Establishing the African Community, 1991
Convention on Nuclear Safety
Beijing Amendment to the Montreal Protocol
Montreal Amendment to the Montreal Protocol
Amendment to the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes
and Their Disposal, Geneva, 1995
Rotterdam Convention on Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides inInternational Trade, Rotterdam, 1998
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety
Protocol on Liability and Compensation
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants

28 November 1963
27 November 1963
17 April 1968
3 March 1967

17 May 1969
30 September 2000
20 April 1978
22 February 1988
6 June 1975

20 April 1978
6 June 1972
4 July 1975
3 September 1991
14 November 1975
22 June 1978
27 May 1986
20 July 1989
9 March 1985
7 June 1983
24 July 1989 (Ac)24 July 1989
19 January 1988
12 March 2003
24 July 1992
20 July 1989
6 September 1994
29 August 1994
27 December 1996
25 October 1991
6 July 1995 (signed)
8 August 2005
8 August 2005
9 June 2005
12 March 2003
12 March,2003
30 May 2003
30 May 2003

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In the implementation of the multilateral agreements, Ghana faces challenges such as inadequate coordinationand integration among the conventions, insufficient participation and ownership of programmes and plans, aswell as under-resourced institutions to implement them. That is why Ghana is seeking to localise theimplementation of the multilateral environmental agreements through the national medium-term
development framework.
2.16 Description of Regional Development Priorities, Objectives and Circumstances, on the basis of which
Ghana is Addressing Climate Change and its Adverse Impacts
Ghana regularly participates in most of the ECOWAS climate change programmes. The recent regional
collaboration among some selected member states led to the adoption of a regional framework on air
pollution. This initiative followed the joint effort by the ECOWAS countries to adopt a single policy to reduce
sulphur in diesel fuel. Besides, Ghana actively contributes to the following sub-regional climate change
initiatives:•

West African South-South Network on MRV and Transparency51 - Ghana is a founding member of the
network. In 2016, West African nations came together with the support of UNFCCC, UNDP, ECOWAS,GIZ and Belgium, to form the network to facilitate experience and knowledge sharing on MRV andtransparency. The platform also supports countries to improve capacities on climate reporting and the
preparation of nationally determined contributions. So far, fourteen West African states have joined
the group hosted at the UNFCCC-West Africa Development Bank Regional Collaboration Centre in
Lome (RCC Lome). In Ghana, the EPA is the focal point for the network. In 2017, Sierra Leone andLiberia received P2P learning from Ghana and Senegal on MRV and Standard Baseline (SBL). In 2018,a team from São Tomé and Príncipe visited Ghana to learn and share experiences on theoperationalisation of the Ghanaian national MRV system.

•

West African Alliance on Carbon Markets and Climate Finance52 - The alliance aims to strengthen theparticipation of West African nations in carbon markets and the mobilisation of climate finance. The
partnership offers technical assistance to the member countries in the following areas: article 6
negotiation and climate diplomacy, in-country readiness for Article 6, support to access results-based
climate finance, technology transfer, transparency and access to carbon-market demand sources. The
secretariat of the alliance is in Enda Energie, Senegal. Ghana is already developing an Article 6 pilot
project with the Government of Switzerland and looks forward to sharing experiences with thealliance members.

•West Africa Biodiversity and Climate change (WABiCC)53 – USAID is funding the five-year WABiCC
programme. The goal of WABiCC is to “improve conservation and climate-resilient, low-emissions
growth across West Africa”. “WABiCC increases the capacity of institutions at all levels to address
combating wildlife trafficking, increasing coastal resilience to climate change and reducing
deforestation, forest degradation, and biodiversity loss”.

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52
https://www.westafricaclimatealliance.org/
53
https://www.wabicc.org/en/

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•Climate change, Agriculture and Food Security, West Africa (CCAFS) 54 - CCAFS is a collaboration
among all 15 CGIAR Research Centres and collaborates with the other CGIAR research programmes.
CCAFS research focuses on the interactions between climate change and agriculture. In West Africa,
CCAFS researches in Ghana, Senegal, Niger, Mali and Burkina Faso. Some of CCAFS’s critical researches
in Ghana include the establishment of climate-smart village in Lawra-Jirapa district55, developmentof science-policy dialogue platform and the formation of climate-smart agriculture alliance. Throughthe instrumentality of CCAFS, Ghana developed a National Climate-Smart Agriculture and Food
Security Action Plan (2016-2020).56•

West African Science Centre on Climate Change and Adapted Land Use (WASCAL)57 – WASCAL is a
sub-region-wide capacity building and research initiative funded by the German Federal Ministry of
Education and Research. WASCAL’s research focuses on land use and cover/land degradation/climatechange nexus, risks and vulnerability to climate extremes, sustainable rural-urban and cross bordermigration in West Africa and sustainable agriculture/climate-smart landscapes nexus. The
headquarters of WASCAL is in Ghana and covers 11 West African countries involving 12 Universities.
More than 300 West African citizens have benefitted from WASCAL’s masters and doctoral
programmes.

Furthermore, Ghana partakes in some of the major climate change-related activities that the ECOWAS
institutions are implementing in the region. Below is an overview of the institutional initiatives:•

UNFCCC CDM Regional Collaboration Centre in LOME – The regional office supported Ghana todevelop a standard baseline in the transport and waste sectors. The centre in collaboration with theWest Africa Power Pool, also helped the West African countries, including Ghana, to establish gridemission factors for the countries that share electricity with common transmission infrastructure in
the sub-region. It also played a crucial role during the 2019 Africa climate change week in Ghana. The
centre is the host of the West African South-South Network on MRV and Transparency•

Regional Centre for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency (ECREE)58 – ECREE is the ECOWAS
Observatory for renewable energy and energy efficiency and operates in the “policy and capacity
development, knowledge management and investment/business promotion” space. Ghana hosted thethird ECOWAS Sustainable Energy Forum (ESEF), October 2019. In 2018, ECREE opened the third callfor ECOWAS Renewable Energy Facility (EREF)59. Since its inception in 2017, EREF has brought
together top government officials, industry players, businesses, and other stakeholders to deliberateon the advancement of the sub-regions' sustainable energy plan. “The third call of the facility aims
to provide non-reimbursable grant co-funding for the capital expenditure in clean energy mini-grids
in rural and peri-urban areas, with specific attention to those initiatives supporting and promoting
productive uses of electricity (PUE)”.

54

https://ccafs.cgiar.org/regions/west-africa
https://ccafs.cgiar.org/developing-climate-smart-village-models-west-africa#.XgMojEf7RPZ
56
https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/69000
57
https://wascal.org/
58
http://www.ecreee.org/
59
http://www.ecreee.org/news/ecowas-sustainable-energy-forum-2019-concludes-accra
55

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The Kumasi Institute for Technology and Environment (KITE) benefitted from EREF to enable it toprovide grant co-funding for small to medium-sized renewable energy and energy efficiency
projects and businesses in rural and peri-urban areas. The project run from 2011 to 2014.
•

West Africa Gas Pipeline60 - The West African Gas Pipeline Company limited (WAPCo) is a limited
liability company that owns and operates the West African Gas Pipeline (WAGP). The company's
primary mandate is to transport natural gas from Nigeria to customers in Benin, Togo and Ghana in asafe, responsible and reliable manner, at prices competitive with other fuel alternatives. The gasdelivered in Ghana helps to generate electricity from a clean energy source. In 2019, WAPCo
completed reverse flow transportation of gas from the Western Region of Ghana to the East (Figure
14).

Figure 14: Reverse flow facility at the eastern end of Ghana•

Source: WAPCo website

Sustainable Greenhouse Gas Inventory in West Africa61– Ghana participates in the GHG inventory
programme in West Africa with funding from the Australian Government through the UNFCCC
secretariat. Seven West African countries (Benin, Burkina Faso, Cabo Verde, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana,
Senegal and Togo) received capacity building support from FAO. In the project, Ghana received
technical assistance for reviewing the AFOLU section of its national GHG inventory report. Ghana also
received hands-on training on Collect Earth software for landscape mapping.

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National greenhouse gas inventory

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3. Updates of National Greenhouse Gas Inventory
3.1 Overview of National Greenhouse Inventory
This section provides the results of the national greenhouse gas inventory for 1990-2016 reported in the
Fourth National Greenhouse Gas Inventory Report (NIR4). It contains comprehensive information on thedescription of findings, methodology, and processes for preparing the inventory. The NIR4 and associatedtables are submitted to the UNFCCC in fulfilment of Ghana's obligations, in part, under the enhanced national
communication reporting (Article 12, paragraph 1(a), of the Convention, decisions 1/CP.16 para 60(a-b). It isalso in compliance with reporting requirements in the preparation of its Second Biennial Update Report (BUR2)
and consistent with Decision 1/CP.16 para 60(c). Although this is the fourth time Ghana has prepared aseparate NIR, it is the second NIR submitted to the UNFCCC under the "BUR" reporting mechanism.
The Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emission estimates have been compiled based on the methodologies contained in
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories
IPCC 2006). The use of the 2006 IPCC guidelines was to enhance the quality of the GHG emission estimateson, Transparency, Completeness, Consistency, Comparability and Accuracy (TCCCA) over the 1990-2016 period.
The inventory estimates cover direct anthropogenic GHG emissions by sources and removals by sinks andinclude CO2, CH4, N2O, HFCs and PFCs. The emissions/removals from the following four economic sectors havebeen estimated; in accordance with the 2006 IPCC guidelines••••

EnergyIndustrial processes and product use (IPPU)
Agriculture, Forestry, and Other Land Use (AFOLU)
Waste

The GHG inventory estimates are expressed in mass units, and carbon dioxide equivalents (CO 2e) terms using
the 100-year Global Warming Potentials (GWPs) contained in the 1995 IPCC Second Assessment Report (IPCC
1996).
3.2 National System for Sustainable Inventory Preparation
Ghana launched the Climate Ambitious Reporting Program (CARP)62 as its domestic MRV system in 2013. The
operational aim of CARP was to put in place a workable climate data management to support regular national
and international reporting of information on GHG inventory, climate actions, and support (Figure 14). Although
the CARP design suits the national circumstances, the implementation of the various components on the
ground is at different levels. Operationally, the GHG part of the CARP is the most advanced because of theanchor on functional institutions, data handling, methods, tools and protocols, and skills development.
Elaborate information on the national system is in the fourth national inventory report63.

62

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63https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/gh_nir4-1.pdf

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Data handling• Institutional teams• Roles and tasks• MoUsSkills development• IPCC Guidelines• GHG Manual• QA/QC Manual• Inventory plan

• Data sources• Data templates• Databases

Institutionalarrangement• Continous training• Learning-by-doing

Methods, tools &protocols

Figure 15: Overview of the relationships of the elements underpinning the national system for GHG inventory

3.2.1 Institutional Arrangement for GHG Inventory Preparation
In Ghana, the EPA is the national entity for the GHG inventory (Figure 16). The MESTI gives official approvaland endorsement of NIR for onward transmission to UNFCCC. The EPA works with several public and private
institutions and organisations to plan, implement, and compile the inventory. There are thirty national experts
from twenty different public and private organisations. Each organisation has an assigned role at every stageof the inventory cycle with reporting lines. In each inventory, the EPA and the sector lead organisation agree
on the tasks and capture them in the memorandum of understanding. The EPA’s role as the coordinating entity
is based on the legal mandate given to it by the EPA Act, 490 (1994). Within the EPA, the Climate Change Unit
is the national inventory entity and is directly responsible for the management of the entire inventory process.
The Unit ensures the prompt delivery of high-quality inventory estimates and reports that satisfy international
standards.
The inventory compiler also serves as the generalist and ensures that cross-cutting issues in the inventory are
addressed sufficiently. Some of the issues the generalist deals with include, recalculations, ensuring
responsiveness of the national system, key category analysis, managing improvements list, addressing
technical review comments and leads on QA/QC and uncertainty management. Four teams work on one IPCC
inventory sector. A competent organisation is selected to lead each team with the members assigned to a
specific task in the sector inventory. The members are from the public, private organisations and academia.
Some institutions supply data to the inventory compilers. The detailed description of the institutionalarrangement is in the NIR4.
MESTI

Inventory compiler (EPA)

Energy

IPPU

AFOLU

Waste

Data suppliers
Figure 16: Institutional arrangement for the regular preparation of national GHG inventory

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3.2.2 Data Handling
The EPA and the sector lead institutions are responsible for the identification and sourcing of all activity dataand emission factors. Data sourcing starts with a data mapping table. Then, based on the table, the sectors
prepare a plan to collect relevant data for national and international sources. After initial contacts with thedata providers, the sector lead institutions directly request the data from the source with administrative
support from the EPA. Where the sector lead institutions asked the EPA to help to access data, the climatechange unit makes an official data request to the relevant institutions stating the data format, the period, andthe primary use of the data in the inventory. The data request letters, especially those to industrial plants,
usually refer to the relevant provisions of the EPA, Act 49064, which permits EPA to access industry information
without hindrance.
A confidential data request is treated separately according to the agreement between the data provider andthe EPA. The collected data then goes through a series of screening and documentation procedures to ensure
proper indexing and backup. The team conducts initial technical and quality evaluation before transmission to
the working groups. Documentation on the data and the acquisition processes are stored in the online databasefor archiving and retrieval. Ghana has established a climate change data-hub as an online database to hold all
the inventory data and related information. The data hub is the storage unit of the inventory data and helps
to streamline documentation and archiving protocols of the activity data and emission factors, reports, andrelevant publications. The database hosts the following:
•
•
•
•
•
•

inputs of datasets from each sector
datasheets for each inventory sector
emission estimates from the IPCC software for all the inventory sectors from 1990-2016
IPCC 2006 software database filecompleted sector QA/QC templates
reports and documentation

The online database is hosted on a cloud server managed by a webmaster at EPA. Access to the database isby open and restricted access. All users (public, institutional users, and the inventory team) can access to thefront end of the database through this URL address http://climatedatahubgh.com/gh/. Users with open accesscan only search for publicly available data and upload files through trail filters. There are two levels of
restricted access. Those who can access the backend to only view the inventory data and users who have thepermission to (a) upload, (b) query, and (c) retrieve data from the database. The webmaster and the inventory
compiler can view confidential data.
The IPCC software has a backend database file which has data inputs and emission results for the sectors. The
software allows unlimited access levels to every user to the applicable sections of the database but not theentire database. Therefore, one "superuser login ID" was created for the inventory compiler to allow for accessto the data for all the sectors. The team members have "login credentials" that only allow them to access theirrelevant sections. When the sector completes the database files, the lead institution submits them to theinventory compiler, who then creates a "single inventory database file" containing all data for all the sectors
for the completed time-series. Then the compiler sends the inventory data, individual results sheets, and the
database file to the online database administrator for archiving.
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3.2.3 Summary of Inventory Steps and Data Flows
Generally, the inventory tasks are subdivided into six steps. It starts with the identification and sourcing ofactivity data and emission factors. The strategy is different for the variety of data sources, be it public, private,
academia, or surveys. For much of the data obtained from the government sources, we focused on collecting
data from public institutions that have the legal mandate to publish relevant statistics for the inventory. The
administrative data from the public institutions are the preferred source because they are considered official
government records. The EPA already collects data from industry as required under the Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA) regulations in the preparation of the Environmental Management Plans (EMPs). The
Manufacturing Industry Department of EPA supply industry-specific data on energy, productions and wastefrom the Annual Environmental Reports (AER).
The inventory also uses data from published scientific literature or national reports. Following the data
documentation plan, anytime data from national reports or peer-reviewed literature are used, the teamreferences proper records of the source. The purpose is to ease up retrieval of the data and to correctly cite in
the NIR. Since international data come from multiple sources, Ghana uses data published by reputableorganisations like FAO, IEA, World Bank etc. After the team assembled all the data in a single location, theyevaluate and process them in a usable format. Often the data processing involved the identification of outliers(inaccurate data, out-of-range data) time-series gaps, incompatible format, and indexing all selected data.
The next stage is the selection of an appropriate method for the inventory. Most of the methods used in theinventory are tier 1 except in transport and solid waste disposal categories where the team applied countryspecific methods. In the next step, the team carried out recalculations of the previous year's emissions andcalculated new estimates for the added years. After the recalculations and the latest estimates, the teamperformed the trends, Key Category Analysis (KCA), and Uncertainty Assessment (UA). All the datasets (activity
data, emission factors, sectoral datasheets, national totals, gas-by-gas, mandatory tables) were used to prepare
the draft inventory report and third-party review. Finally, both the datasheet and the report are uploaded tothe climate change data hub for storage. Detailed elaboration of the inventory steps is in Figure 17.
3.2.4 Methodology and Data Sources
The inventory followed a series of iterative steps. The emissions and removals are not directly measured but
estimated using the internationally-recognised and scientifically acceptable methodologies. Emissions
calculations are linked to the Activity Data (AD) on economic activities in the country, and Emission Factors(EFs) published from scientific studies. Therefore, the estimation of the emissions/removals for a specific gas
for a given inventory year uses the following: (a) a country-specific or regional or IPCC accepted methodology,
AD from practices/technologies in a specific sector and EFs. The inventory method is consistent with the 206
IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories and in line with international best practices. Broadly,
the dominant use of tier 1 IPCC methodology and default emission factors was because, for most of the sectors,
the existing dataset does not permit the use of higher-tier methodologies. Besides, the higher-tier or modelbased method was not available in the country at the time of publishing this report. Furthermore, for many of
the inventory categories, default emission factors were used due to the lack of country-specific emission
factors. But where detailed datasets existed Land (3B), IPPU (2C), and solid waste disposal (4A), the higher
inventory tier and country-factor factors were applied.

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Figure 17: Summary of the inventory steps and data flows.

The team used the combination of tiers 1 and 2 approaches depending on the availability of adequate data tosatisfy the level of detailed inventory calculation. The NIR4 contains a comprehensive elaboration of selected
methods under each sector.
3.2.4.1 Selection of emission factors
The emission factors were from country-specific and regional/international sources. The Country-Specific (CS)factors were from stationary industrial plants (plant-specific such as VALCO) and land category (forestland,grassland, cropland). The default emissions factors were obtained mainly from the IPCC Emission Factor
Database (EFDB)65 and EMEP/EEA or EMEP/ CORINAIR66 air pollutant emission inventory guidebook. Emission
factors published in regional and international peer review studies were also used.
65
66

https://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/EFDB/main.php
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In the selection of the EFs, the following factors were considered: representativeness of the EFs for a set of
facility-level plants, ecological zone or the production system, and applicability of the regional andinternational EFs to the unique country conditions. Generally, in the inventory, the default emissions factors
from the IPCC EFDB and EMEP/EEA were commonly used because of the non-existing country-specific emission
factors. The use of the default EFs per se does not render the calculated emissions/removals inaccurate but
comes with high uncertainty. When country-specific or region-specific emission factors are available for thesame activity, the country-specific factors were used instead of the IPCC default figures. The reason was thatthe country-specific factors tend to give a more accurate estimate of the emissions/removals associated withthe activity than using the global elements. Table 7 shows the overview of methodological tiers and the typeof emission factors used according to the category and gases.
Table 7: Emissions/removal categories, methodological tiers and emission factors for 1990-2016
Category
1.A1
1.A2

1.A3
1.A4
1.B1
1.B2
2.A
2.B
2.C
2.D

2E
2.F

3.A
3.B
3C

4.A

Energy Industries
Manufacturing
Industries andConstruction
Transport
Other Sectors
Solid Fuels
Oil and Natural
Gas
Mineral Products
ChemicalIndustry
Metal Production
Non-Energy
Products from
Fuels and Solvent
Use
Electronics
Industry
Product Uses as
Substitutes for
Ozone Depleting
Substances
Livestock
Land
Aggregate
sources and nonCO2 emissions
sources on land
Solid waste
disposal

CO2
Meth EF
T1
D
T1
D

T1
T1

D
D

T1
NO

D
NO

T2
T1

PS
D

T2
T1

CS
D

CH4
Meth EF
T1
D
T1
D

N2 O
Meth
T1
T1

PFCs
EF
Meth
D
D

T1
T1
NO
T1

D
D
NO
D

T1
T1

D
D

NO

NO

NO

NO

NE

NE

NE

NE

SF6
EF MethHFCs
EF Meth

T2

PS

NE

NE

NO

NO

NO

NO

Non-GHGs67
EF Meth EF
T1
D
T1
D

NO

NO

T1

D

T1
T1
NO
NE

D
D
NO
NE

NE
NO

NE
NO

NE
NE

NE
NE

NO

NO

T1

D

T1

D

TI

D

T1
T1

D
D

T268

D

T1

D

T1

D

67

Applies to gases classified as non-GHG SLCP and indirect GHG such as Black Carbon (BC), Nitrogen Oxides (NOx), Particulate Matter (PM2.5),
Carbon Monoxide (CO) and Non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs). SO2 is not estimated due to the lack of appropriate factors.
68
This is because country-specific activity data and some default parameters used in the inventory as recommended under section 3.2.1 and figure
3.1 (Decision tree for CH4 emissions from Solid Waste Disposal sites) of the 2006 IPCC Guidelines.

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4.B

4.C

4.D

BiologicalTreatment of
Solid Waste
Incineration andOpen Burning of
Waste
Wastewater
Treatment andDischarge

T1

D

TI

D

T1

D

NE

NE

TI

D

T1

D

T1

D

T1

D

T1

D

NE

NE

Key: CS= Country-Specific, PS= Plant-Specific, ΝΕ = Not Estimated, NO=Not Occurring, D = Default IPCC methodology and emission factor, EF =Emission Factor, Meth=Methods, T1, T2 - Levels of Tiers. The ash-colour-fill cell indicates the gas emission/removal does not apply to thecorresponding category.

3.2.4.2 Activity data sources
Activity Data (AD) is a primary data point for the inventory. They have been collected from several national
and international institutions, as well as from scientific literature. Majority of the AD was from existing data
platforms managed by government institutions like the Energy statistics (Energy Commission), Agriculture
Facts and Figures (Ministry of Food and Agriculture), National Forest Management System, (Forestry
Commission) Vehicle statistics, (Driver Vehicle and Licensing Authority - DVLA), Industry environmental
statistics (EPA). The dataset format varies and is published at different frequencies.
In the energy sector, the energy statistics are the primary data source and are published every year online on
URL address http://www.energycom.gov.gh/planning/data-center/energy-statistics. It contains data on energybalance, supply, and consumption for different fuels and demand sectors. The Energy Commission relies ondata supplied to it by the oil refinery, electricity-producing companies, National Petroleum Authority (NPA),
Petroleum Commission and the Ghana National Gas Company (GNGC). The Energy Commission also collects
data from the Ghana Statistical Service (GSS) and uses survey data. The data from the energy statistics was theprimary source of the AD for most of the sub-categories under the energy sector 1A1, 1A2, 1A3, and 1B. Dataon vehicle population, car traffic, and circulation patterns are obtained from the Ministry Transport and DVLA.
The IPPU sector AD came from a wide variety of sources. Most of them were from the facility level, obtained
through official requests. Some of the AD also came from the Environmental Management Plans and Annual
Environmental Reports companies submitted to the EPA and the Industry Survey published by the GSS and the
EPA. The IPPU inventory team collected data on HFCs consumption refrigeration air-conditioners from thenational survey on HFC conducted by the National Ozone Unit at the EPA.
The Ministry of Food and Agriculture's Statistics Research and Information Directorate (SRID) publishes theAgric Facts and Figures at different times. Usually, whenever they put out figures, it covers several years otherthan the publication year. They publish the dataset on the web address (http://mofa.gov.gh/site/wpcontent/uploads/2011/04/mofa_facts_and_figures.pdf). The current online version of the Facts and Figures
was published covering data from 1999 to 2009. The SRID made available the latest version of the facts andfigures to the inventory team covering up to 2016 though they are not published online. The Facts and Figures
is the primary activity data source for the 3A and selected categories under 3C.

Page | 48

The primary source of the AD for Land category (3B) is the National Forest Management System (NFMS) hosted
by the REDD+ Secretariat of the Forestry Commission. Though the full version of the NFMS is not complete
yet, most of the requisite dataset has been pooled together at a central point at the Forest Commission during
the preparation of the REDD+ National Forest Reference Level (FREL) to the UNFCCC.
The data on waste management was not well organised at a single location. Mostly, the AD for the waste
sector was dispersed among several district assemblies. So, the waste inventory team had to consult a wide
variety of data sources from government reports, scientific literature, data from environmental sanitation
service companies, and the GSS to be able to assemble all the necessary data. In the absence of national data,alternative reliable data from international organisations such as FAO, IEA, World Bank was used. Table 8
provides an overview of the data used in the inventory.

Page | 49

Table 8: Sources of activity data, format and the principal data providers
SectorData Type

Data Sources

Principal Data Providers

Remarks

1. Energy
1.A1 Energy Industry

Fuel types, supply, and consumption:

Energy Commission.
National Petroleum Authority.

Energy Commission publishes the
National Energy Statistics online in April
every year.

1.A2• Crude oil production, imports, exports, anduse for electricity generation and as
refinery inputs.
• Natural gas production, processed, imports,
and use as fuel for electricity generation.
• Annual figures on production, imports,
export, and petroleum products
production.
• Auto production of selected petroleum
products in the refinery, gas processing
plants, and the oil fields.
Industrial sectors and their fuel consumption:

National Energy Statistics.
Tema oil refinery materialbalance.
National Energy Plan.
International Energy Agency
Database.
Oil and Gas Production Figures.
Ghana National Gas Company
Data.

1.A3

Manufacturing
Industry andConstruction

Transport• Fuel types and consumption.
• Quantity of fuel used as feedstock.
• Quantity of fuels for non-energy use.
Fuel, vehicle and traffic information• Fuel types and consumption by vehicles ofdifferent years of manufacture andtechnology class.
• International and domestic Aviation• Rail and Navigation, Number of Registered
Vehicles, Vehicle Types

National Energy Statistics,
2018. Industry survey data,
2013. National Industry Census,
2003. IEA
Vehicle registration database.
Transport sector study reports.
Petroleum product sales data.
Railway fuel consumption data.
Water transport fuelconsumption.
Premix fuel consumption data.

Tema Oil Refinery. Thermal Electricity
Generation Utility Companies (VRA,
Sunon Asogli, Takoradi International
Company TICO, and otherindependent power producers.
Ghana National Gas Company
Limited. National Petroleum
Commission. International Energy
Agency.
Energy Commission. Manufacturing
Industry Department of theEnvironmental Protection Agency.
Ghana Statistical Service.
Energy Commission. Environmental
Protection Agency. Driver Vehicle
Licensing Authority. Oil Marketing
Companies (Shell Ghana Limited,
Total Ghana Limited). Ministry ofTransport, Ghana Railway Company.
Volta Lake Transport Company.
Ghana Bunkering Services. Premix
Committee at the Ministry ofFisheries and Aquaculture
Development

Tema Oil Refinery updates the materialbalance every year. Energy Commission
request for TOR’s administrative data
during the preparation of the Energy
Statistics.
Petroleum Commission publishes the Oiland gas production figures every month.
The share of fuel allocation per industry
sector is based on the fuel shares in the
Energy' Commission's SNEP dataset.
There plans to survey to improve theexisting data.
Yearly vehicle population figures werefrom the annual release ofadministrative data on vehicle
registration, roadworthy certification
figures from DVLA, and Vehicle importfigures from the GcNET under Ghana
Customs.
There are plans to liaise with the newly
established garages involved vehicle
inspections in collecting additional
vehicle odometer readings andmeasured emission figures.

Page | 50

1.A4

Other Sectors

Quantities of solid and liquid fuelconsumption per category.

National Energy Statistics
National Energy Plan, National
Census Report, Ghana Living
Standard Survey Report

Energy Commission
Ghana Statistical Service

1.B

Fugitive emissions
from fuels

Quantities of wet production, amounts ofreinjected, volumes of gas flared, and gas
consumed on site. Volumes of gas exported
to Ghana National Gas Company.

Oil Exploration and Production.
Gas transmission lines.
Oil refinery data in the energy
statistics.

Ghana National Petroleum
Corporation.
Petroleum Commission. Oil
Production Companies.
Environmental Protection Agency.
Tema Oil Refinery.

Environmental Reports.
Environmental Performance
Rating and Public Disclosure
Database. Industry Survey.
Industrial data from facilities.
National survey on HFC
consumption

Volta Aluminum Company Limited
Tema steelworks
Aluworks Limited
Environmental Protection Agency

No industry-specific data is published.
The team officially request data fromindustry players and the Environmental
Impact Statement (EIS)National Ozone Office, Environmental
Protection Agency

One-time national survey on HFCs by
the Ghana EPA

Agriculture Facts and Figures.
FAOSTAT.
Expert Judgment.

Ministry of Food and Agriculture –SRID.
UN FAO.
AFOLU Team

Forest Preservation Program,
2012, National Forest
Reference Level, 2017.

Forestry Commission, Ghana

Ministry of Food and Agriculture
publishes the Agriculture Fact andFigure online annually. The metadata for
the Agriculture Facts and Figures are notavailable.
The Forestry does not publish the landuse maps at any scheduled time. The
maps are normally produced as part ofprojects.
Biomass estimates across all theecological zones were generated from

2. Industrial Process and Product Use
2.A
Mineral Industry
Industrial production and Plant-specificemission factors
2.C
Metal Industry
2.D
Non-Energy Products Amount of non-energy use of diesel andfrom Fuels andkerosene
Solvent Use
2F
Product Uses as
Quantities of different types of refrigerant
Substitutes forimports and volumes sold per year to the
Ozone Depleting
refrigeration and air conditioner.
Substances
3. Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land use
3.A1 Enteric Fermentation Animal population, Animal attribute (age, sex,and& Manure
and weight classes).
3.A2 Management
Fractions of manure management practices.

3.B1

Forest land

Land-use maps, land-use change map, landuse change matrix.

Biomass estimates for 5 IPCC pools (AGB,
BGB, deadwood, herb, litter, and soil).

The share of fuel allocation per industry
sector is based on the fuel shares in the
Energy' Commission's SNEP dataset.
There plans to survey to improve theexisting data.
Petroleum Commission publishes the Oiland gas production figures every month.

Page | 51

3.B2

CroplandClimate zones, soil stratifications, andecological zone maps.

IPCC database

IPCC
Forestry Commission

Industrial round wood.

RMSC, FAOSTATForestry Commission
FAO

Wood fuel production.

Energy Statistics

Energy Commission

Areas affected by fires.

REDD+ National Forest
Reference Level, 2017.

Forestry Commission

Land-use maps, land-use change maps, landuse change matrix.

Forest Preservation Program,
2012, National Forest
Reference Level, 2017.

Forestry Commission

Climatic zones, soil classification, ecologicalzone maps.

IPCC database

IPCC

Land-use maps, land-use change map, andchange matrix.

Forest Preservation Program,
2012, National Forest
Reference Level, 2017.

Forestry Commission

IPCC database

IPCC

Biomass estimate for five IPCC pools.
(AGB, BGB, deadwood, herb, litter, and soil).

3.B3

Grassland

Biomass estimate for 5 IPCC pools (AGB, BGB,
deadwood, herb, litter, and soil)
Climate zones, soil classification, andecological zone maps

the Forest Preservation Programme in2014. There are no scheduled updates.
One-time GIS layers for climatic zones,
soil classification, and ecological zones
exist.
Industrial round wood harvest figures
are available in every quarter at RMSC
but not published online. The teamclassifies them as administrative data
requested via an official letter.
Energy Commission publishes total
wood fuel supply in the Energy Statistics
yearly.
One-time GIS map produced by Forestry
Commission when developing the
REDD+ FRELThe Forestry does not publish the landuse maps at any scheduled time. The
maps are normally produced as part ofprojects.
Biomass estimates across all theecological zones were produced as partof the Forest Preservation Programme in2014. There are no scheduled updates.
One-time GIS layers for climatic zones,
soil classification, and ecological zones
exist.
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto

Page | 52

3.C1

3.C3

Urea application

Annual Urea consumption figures

National Forest Reference
Level, 2017.
Forest Preservation Program,
2012. National Forest
Reference Level, 2017.
Agriculture Facts and Figures

3.C4

Direct N2O emissions
from managed soils
Indirect N2Oemissions frommanaged soils
Indirect N2Oemissions frommanure management
Rice cultivation

Annual generic NPK consumption

Agriculture Facts and Figures

Annual crop production in tonnes per annum

Agriculture Facts and Figures

Animal population (cattle, goats, sheep,swine, donkey, poultry, horse)
Fractions of manure management practices
Annual rice production areas

Agriculture Facts and Figures

Proportions of annual rice production area
under rain-fed irrigated and upland systems

National Rice Development
strategy

Waste Generation, Population Figures,
Composition, amounts of waste deposited,means of disposals and their various
percentages

Published national reports.

3.C5

3.C6

3.C7

Biomass burning

4. Waste
4A
Solid Waste Disposal

Areas affected by fire in cropland, forestland,
and grassland
Mass of fuel available for burning

Expert Judgment
Agriculture Facts and Figures

Ghana Statistical Service.
Sanitation Directorate of
MLGRD. World Bank Country
Database. Private Waste
Management Companies andCivil Engineering Department
KNUST and EPA.

Forestry Commission

Ditto

Forestry Commission

Derived from biomass figures for eachland-cover type.

Ministry of Food and Agriculture –SRID
Ministry of Food and Agriculture –SRID,
Ministry of Food and Agriculture –SRID

The Ministry of Food and Agriculture
publishes the Agriculture Facts andFigures online.
Ditto
Ditto

Ministry of Food and Agriculture –SRID
AFOLU Team
Ministry of Food and Agriculture –SRID
Ministry of Food and Agriculture SRID

Ditto

National Environmental Sanitation
Strategy & Action Plan (NESSAP).
Population Census Reports andGhana Living Standards Survey 2008.

Solid waste data is not at a single
location. Documentation is poor. Used
multiple reports, literature, andscattered data at the various assemblies.

Private Waste Management
Companies (Zoomlion Ghana Limited,
Waste care), and NGOs Academia(Civil Engineering Department,
KNUST). Second National
Communication Report.

Carry out a national survey on solid
waste.

Ditto
Ditto
Ditto

Page | 53

4B

Biological Treatment
of Solid Waste

The fraction of waste composted, number ofcompost plants

Private Waste Management

4C

4C.1 Waste
Incineration

Amount and types solid waste incinerated,
type of incinerator including capacities andcombustion efficiencies

Ghana Health Services.

Population, the proportion of population
burning waste, duration of burning and thenumber of days per year, the fraction ofwaste burnt relative to the total amounttreated.
Population, Wastewater Generated per year,
wastewater treated per year, Wastewater
Treatment Systems and their various
percentages, Protein Consumption,
GDP/capita

Published national reports,
Ghana Statistical Services,
Sanitation Directorate of
MLGRD,

Industrial coverage, Total Industry Product
Quantity of Wastewater generated Type of
Wastewater Treatment/discharge System

Industry survey

4C.2 Open Burning ofSolid Waste

4D

4D.1 Domestic
wastewater
treatment anddischarge

4D.2 Industrial
wastewater
treatment anddischarge

Ministry of Local Government
and Rural Development.

Ghana Statistical Service.
Sanitation Directorate of
MLGRD. World Bank, Ghana
Health Service. Ministry of Foodand Agriculture

Private Waste Management
Companies (Zoomlion Ghana Limited)
and NGOs. Expert judgment by the
Waste TeamNational Environmental Sanitation
Strategy Action Plan document.
Ghana Health Service Facts andFigures. Expert Judgment by the
Waste team.
National Environmental Sanitation
Strategy & Action Plan (NESSAP),
Population Census Reports andGhana Living Standards Survey 2008,
Expert Judgment by Waste TeamNational Environmental Sanitation
Strategy & Action Plan (NESSAP).
Population Census Reports andGhana Living Standards Survey 2008.
Multiple Cluster Indicator Survey
Data. World Bank Country Databaseand FAO. Expert Judgment by Waste
team.
Industrial output data collected froma national industrial survey.
Environmental Management Plans.
Expert Judgment by Waste team.

Ditto

Data on incineration is scanty andscattered. The inventory team relied on
different data sources. Carry out anational survey on incineration.
Data on open burning is not adequate.
The inventory team relied on different
data sources. Carry out a national survey
on open burning.
Data on domestic are scattered. The
inventory team relied on different data
sources. Carry out a national survey on
domestic wastewater.

The quality of the data from the survey
and the Environmental Management
Plans for Industries need to be
improved.

Page | 54

3.3 Summary of Emissions/Removals Trends
3.3.1 Analysis of Aggregate Emissions
Ghana's total national greenhouse gas emissions stood at 42.2 MtCO2e (million tonnes of carbon dioxide
equivalent) in 2016. The 2016 levels are 66.4%, 53%, and 7.1% more than 1990, 2000, and 2012 emissions,
respectively (Figure 18). Overall, the national GHG emissions increased at a 2.1% annual growth rate between
1990-2016. Without the FOLU emissions, total emissions showed a similar upturn to 29.3 MtCO2e in 2016.
45

40

Total emissions (MtCO2e)

35
30
25
20
15
10
5

2016

2015

2014

2013

2012

2011

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

2000

1999

1998

1997

1996

1995

1994

1993

1992

1991

1990

-

Figure 18: Trend of national aggregate net greenhouse gas emissions for the period 1990-2016

Ghana's GHG emissions expressed in per capita and Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in dollars showed a declining
trend over the 26 years. The emissions per capita decreased from 1.7 tCO2e per person in 1990 to 1.5 tCO2e in
2016, representing a drop of 13.7%. Similarly, the emission intensity of GDP, the emission per unit GDP output (atconstant 2010 US$), dropped from 2.1 kg/ per GDP (constant 2010 US$) to 0.87 kg per GDP (constant 2010 US$),
which is a 59.3% reduction in the same period. The overall decreases in the emission per capita and GDP intensity
suggest a positive effect of the growth-focus and economic diversification policies Ghana pursued in the last two
decades.
3.3.2 Emission Trends by Sectors
The AFOLU is consistently the most significant contributor to national emissions between 1990 and 2016. In 2016,
with total emissions of 42.2 MtCO2e, the AFOLU sector accounted for 54.4%, of the total, followed by the energy
sector (35.6% from stationary, mobile, and fugitive emissions), waste sector (7.5%) and IPPU (2.5%). Without the
FOLU emissions, the energy sector emissions made up more than half (52.5%) of the total national emissions. Thisis followed by emissions from livestock and aggregated sources and non-CO2 (3A and 3C; 33.4%) and then by thewaste sector (10.5%) and IPPU (3.5%). Figure 19 shows the individual contributions of the emissions/removals by
the categories. It further revealed that the land, livestock, stationary, and mobile combustion are the critical GHG
emission sources.

Page | 55

Stationary combustion

7.5%

Mobile combustion

18.6%

Fugitive emissions from fuels

30.5%

Industrial Processes and Produce Use

17.0%

23.8%

Livestock and Aggregated sources and Non-CO2
emissions
Land

0.1%

Waste

2.5%

Figure 19: Breakdown of total net emissions by categories for 2016

All the inventory sectors recorded increases in the 1990-2016 time-series. For the emissions in 2012-2016, thewaste sector recorded the highest rise of 17%, followed by the energy sector with 14.2% and then by AFOLU(4.0%). The IPPU emissions notably decreased from 1.52 MtCO2e to 1.04 MtCO2e representing a 31.3% reduction(Table 9).
Table 9: Sector contributions to total emissions and percentage change from 2012 to 2016
Sector/Category
Total emissions (MtCO2e)

National Emissions with FOLU
National Emissions without FOLU
1 - Energy
Stationery combustion
Transport Mobile combustion
Oil and Natural Gas (Fugitive emission)
2. Industrial Processes and Product Use
Mineral Industry
Metal Industry
Non-Energy Products from Fuels and Solvent Use
Product Uses as Substitutes for ODS
3. Agriculture, Forestry, and Other Land Use
Livestock
Land
Aggregate sources and Non-CO2 emissions sources on land
4. Waste
Solid Waste Disposal
Biological Treatment of Solid Waste
Incineration and Open Burning of Waste
Wastewater Treatment and Discharge

1990
25.34
11.32
3.73
2.31
1.41
0.016
0.49
0.01
0.48
20.10
1.72
14.01
4.36
1.02
0.26
0.09
0.03
0.64

2000
27.26
14.53
5.96
2.77
3.17
0.023
0.36
0.04
0.31
0.00
19.47
1.82
12.73
4.91
1.48
0.48
0.06
0.03
0.90

2012
41.62
28.66
15.35
8.65
6.68
0.012
1.52
0.48
0.08
0.00
0.96
22.05
2.91
12.96
6.18
2.71
0.99
0.06
0.07
1.58

2016
42.15
29.28
15.02
7.83
7.17
0.024
1.04
0.33
0.09
0.00
0.61
22.92
3.48
12.87
6.57
3.17
1.16
0.10
0.08
1.84

Percentagechange(2012-2016)
1.3%
2.2%
-2.1%
-9.5%
7.3%
100%
-31.6%-31.3%
12.5%
1.9%-36.5%
3.9%
19.6%
-0.7%
6.3%
17.0%
17.2%
66.7%
14.3%
16.5%

The socio-economic factors that drive emission trends relate to policy changes. In the energy sector, even though
the percentage of fugitive emissions from fuel was relatively small (average of 0.32%), it recorded the highest
sectoral emissions rise of 100% (0.012 MtCO2e to 0.024 MtCO2e) for the period 2012-2016.
Page | 56

Stationary and mobile combustions were the primary sources of emissions, so in terms of the trends, both recorded
22.7% and 7.2% increases respectively within the same timeframe. Fugitive emissions also increased over theperiod 2012-2016, primarily due to increased oil and gas production. It is during this period that Ghana started
producing crude oil and natural gas in commercial quantities through investment in oil production and theestablishment of a natural gas processing plant. The 20.6% rise in stationary combustion emissions was theresultant effect of the capacity expansion of electric power plants (2,280 MW in 2012 to 3,795 MW in 2016) as
well as increased fuel use in the manufacturing industry and changes in household energy consumption patterns.
The main drivers for the increase in transport emissions were the continued growth in the number of vehicles
along with a rise in fuel (diesel and petrol) consumption.
IPPU emissions have decreased since 2012. The reductions are associated with HFCs and the Aluminium
production by VALCO. The decline in HFC emissions corresponds to the influence of the phase-down of high-GWP
HFCs in the country. Generally, the rise in the AFOLU sector emissions is associated with growth in land category
emissions, mainly from land converted to cropland, grassland, and forestland (forest remaining forest and land
converted to forest). The high emissions are linked with land conversions to cropland, and grassland showed theimpacts of the drivers of deforestation on growing emissions. Furthermore, the emission increases under the direct
N2O emissions from managed soils sub-category influenced the rising emission trends. For the waste sector,
emissions from unmanaged waste disposal sites and domestic wastewater treatment and discharge determined
the waste sector emission trends. The increases in the net emissions from waste were due to growing populations,operational and management challenges at most landfill sites, and the poor state of domestic wastewater
treatment facilities in the country.
3.3.3 Analysis of Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Gases
Carbon dioxide is the most prevalent GHG emissions in Ghana and accounted for 64.7% (27.3 MtCO2) of the total
emissions in 2016, trailed by nitrous oxide (18.3%) and methane (15.4%). The share of the fluorinated gases(different types of HFCs and PFCs) is 1.5% and 0.1%, respectively, in 2016 (Figure 20).
0.1%

1.5%

Carbon dioxide

18.3%

MethaneNitrous oxide
15.4%

64.7%

Perfluorocarbon
Hydrofluorocarbon

Figure 20: Share of the total national emissions in 2016 by gases

Page | 57

When the emissions from FOLU are excluded from the national totals, CO2 still constituted almost half (49.2% 14.41 Mt) of the total emissions in the same year. Nitrous oxide is the second important GHG in Ghana andconstitutes 26.3% (7.71 MtCO2e) of the total emissions. Methane levels made up 22.2% (6.51 MtCO2e) of all theemissions (Table 16). The rest were HFCs emissions (2.1% - 0.61 MtCO2e) and PFC (0.1% - 0.03 MtCO2e). Overall,
the total CO2 emissions showed an upward trend and grew at a rate of 1.9% in the same period. Particularly forthe period 2012-2016, CO2 emissions recorded an average 6.1% increase. The rising trends in CO 2 emissions areassociated with increasing CO2 emissions from energy industries, transport, and land-use change (Figure 21). The
spike in the emissions between 2007 and 2009, was due to the high consumption of crude oil for electricity
generation during the electricity crisis.
45
40

Total Emissions (MtCO2e)

35

30
25
20

15
10
5

CO2

CH4

N2O

PFC

2016

2015

2014

2013

2012

2011

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

2000

1999

1998

1997

1996

1995

1994

1993

1992

1991

1990

0

HFCs

Figure 21: Trends of emissions by gases for the period 1990 to 2016

In the same vein, nitrous oxide emissions patterns exhibited a rising trend from 1990 to 2016 at a 2.6% growthrate per annum. Compared to 2012 levels, nitrous oxide emissions went up by 11.8% in 2016. A critical driver ofN2O emissions relates to multiple sources of nitrogen accumulation in soils from the application of synthetic
fertilisers, crop residues, organic fertiliser, and land-use change and management. Methane was the third
commonest GHG in Ghana and recorded a growth rate of 1.8% per annum over the 26 years. Between 2012 and2016, CH4 levels grew by 12.8% from 5.57 MtCO2e in 2012 to 6.51 MtCO2e in 2016. The majority of the CH4
emissions came from livestock rearing (enteric fermentation and manure management), solid waste disposal andwater treatment, and discharge.
Perfluorocarbons are another essential type of greenhouse emission in Ghana. It mainly comes from the industrial
operations of VALCO. The level of PFC emission has steadily declined at an annual rate of 6.9% from 0.2 MtCO 2ein 1990 to 0.03 MtCO2e in 2016. The operational capacity of the VALCO Aluminum Plant influenced the downward
trend of PFC. The gases used in refrigerators and air-conditioners are the primary source of HFCs. The imports arefor use in stationary and mobile air-conditioning and refrigerating appliances. In the national inventory, Ghana
reported HFC emissions from 2005 to 2016. Between 2012 and 2016, the HFCs saw a considerable decrease of
35.9%. The HFCs between 2012 and 2016 has seen a considerable decrease of 35.9%. The notable inter-annual
variations in the emissions were due to the fluctuations in the imports of HFC when Ghana started to implement
measures to phase-out ODS.
Page | 58

3.3.3.1 Carbon dioxide emissions
Total CO2 emissions grew from 16.83 Mt in 1990 to 27.29 Mt in 2016. The Energy and AFOLU sectors were theprincipal sources of CO2 emissions mainly from fossil fuel combustion and land-use change. While CO2 in theenergy sector saw a four hundred-fold increment (from 2.52 Mt to 13.97 Mt), that of the AFOLU sector dropped by
7.9% from 14.02 Mt in 1990 to 12.91 Mt in 2016. The energy sector CO2 emissions increased by 15% for the period
2012-2016, and AFOLU CO2 slightly declined by nearly 1% in the same period (Figure 22).
30

CO2 emissions (Mt)

25
20
15

10
5

Energy

IPPU

AFOLU

2016

2015

2014

2013

2012

2011

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

2000

1999

1998

1997

1996

1995

1994

1993

1992

1991

1990

0

Waste

Figure 22: Trends of net carbon dioxide emissions per sector

3.3.3.1.1 Carbon dioxide emissions comparison using reference approach and sectoral approach
The Reference Approach (RA) is a top-down approach which uses Ghana’s total energy supply data to calculate
CO2 emissions from combustion of mainly liquid and gaseous fuels. The RA does not distinguish between different
source categories within the energy sector but only estimates total CO 2 emissions from the fuel combustion (1A)
source category. On the other hand, the Sectoral Approach (SA) distinguishes different source categories within
the energy sector and estimates the emissions for the respective sources.
The RA and SA often have different results because RA has no detailed information on how the individual fuels
were used in each category. Therefore, it is good practice to apply both RA and SA to estimate Ghana’s CO 2
emissions from fuel combustion and compare the results of these two independent estimates. Significant
differences may indicate possible problems with the activity data, net calorific values, carbon content, excluded
carbon calculation. Typically, the gap between the two approaches is relatively small (5% or less) when comparedto the total carbon flows involved. Therefore, explanations should be provided when the difference is more than5%.
3.3.3.1.2 Comparison of CO2 emissions in the energy sector
The comparison and the reasons accounting for the differences between CO2 emissions estimated using RA andSA have been provided below in Table 10. The differences in CO2 emissions between RA and SA ranges from 0.4%
to 4.6%. Generally, estimates for RA CO2 emissions are higher than SA CO2 emissions. The following reasons
Page | 59

explain the inconsistencies in RA and SA CO2 emissions: (a) statistical differences among petroleum products andbiomass (b) observed variations associated with secondary data used to derive the stock change.
Steps are underway to improve fuel allocation formulae in the energy balance and expected to correct some of
the identified inconsistencies below.
Table 10: Differences in Carbon dioxide emissions by RA and SA
Year
Reference Approach (MtCO2)
Sectoral Approach (MtCO2)
LiquidSolidGaseousLiquidSolidGaseous
1990
2.61
2.52
1991
2.10
2.02
1992
2.38
2.28
1993
2.38
2.33
1994
2.88
2.86
1995
2.72
2.67
1996
3.40
3.30
1997
3.35
3.25
1998
5.51
5.32
1999
5.08
4.88
2000
5.10
4.99
2001
5.65
5.36
2002
7.01
0.02
6.69
0.02
2003
6.09
0.03
6.07
0.03
2004
6.02
0.03
5.81
0.03
2005
5.72
0.03
5.69
0.03
2006
8.20
0.01
7.87
0.01
2007
9.10
0.04
8.92
0.04
2008
8.10
0.03
7.93
0.03
2009
8.89
0.01
8.85
0.01
2010
8.55
0.02
0.82
8.45
0.02
0.80
2011
9.30
0.02
1.81
8.92
0.02
1.81
2012
11.36
0.01
0.94
11.16
0.01
0.93
2013
11.77
0.01
0.68
11.49
0.01
0.68
2014
11.20
0.002
1.49
11.00
0.002
1.47
2015
10.36
0.003
2.68
10.30
0.003
2.62
2016
12.16
0.02
1.62
12.06
0.02
1.60

Differences (%)
Liquid
Solid
3.62%
3.78%
4.37%
2.01%
0.87%
1.87%
2.89%
3.16%
3.63%
4.14%
2.19%
5.47%
4.74%
0.03%
0.40%
0.03%
3.53%
0.03%
0.47%
0.03%
4.22%
0.03%
2.03%
0.03%
2.14%
0.03%
0.49%
0.03%
1.21%
0.03%
4.22%
0.03%
1.77%
0.03%
2.48%
0.03%
1.82%
0.03%
0.56%
0.03%
0.81%
0.03%

Gaseous
3.56%
0.06%
0.72%
0.82%
1.88%
2.46%
1.04%

Total
3.62%
3.78%
4.37%
2.01%
0.87%
1.87%
2.89%
3.16%
3.63%
4.14%
2.19%
5.47%
4.78%
0.44%
3.56%
0.51%
4.25%
2.06%
2.18%
0.52%
4.81%
4.32%
2.52%
3.34%
3.73%
3.06%
1.88%

Some specific explanations on the differences between CO2 emissions for the major fuels are provided below:
•
•
•

•

The national energy balance was based on mass-balanced and not carbon balanced. That approach
introduced inherent inconsistencies in the fuel balance.
Observed statistical differences in the supply and consumption figures in the energy balance contributed
to some of the differences.
Data on annual stock change for liquid fuels were hardly reported in the energy balance. Therefore, it wasderived using production, imports, export, and consumption and ending stocks figures. Because most of
the data on stock changes were not reported in the energy balance calculated and, there was a possibilityof overestimations or underestimations.
Kerosene – RA and SA excluded CO2 emissions from non-energy use of kerosene in the industrial process.

Page | 60

3.3.3.2 Nitrous oxide emissions
Apart from the IPPU sector, nitrous oxide emissions occurred in AFOLU, waste, and the energy sectors. The N 2O
emissions saw notable increment from 4.09 MtCO2e in 1990 to 7.1 MtCO2e in 2016 with the AFOLU sector being
the dominant source. Within the AFOLU sector, direct and indirect N2O emissions from managed soils (3.C4, 3.C5
and 3.C6) accounted for 86% of the N2O emissions (Figure 23) in 2016. The remaining 14% came from livestock
rearing. Besides the AFOLU sector, relatively smaller quantities of N2O emissions were from the waste and energy
sectors. In the waste sector, open burning was a significant source of N2O while for the Energy sector, other sectors
and road transport accounted for most of the emissions.
8

N2O emissions (MtCO2e)

7
6
5
4
3
2
1

Energy

AFOLU

2016

2015

2014

2013

2012

2011

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

2000

1999

1998

1997

1996

1995

1994

1993

1992

1991

1990

0

Waste

Figure 23: Trends of nitrous oxide emissions per sector

3.3.3.3 Methane emissions
From 1990 to 2016, methane emissions increased by 54.8%, with the majority coming from the AFOLU and Waste
sectors (Figure 23). Methane emissions for the periods 2012-2016 also went up by 9.5%. The AFOLU and Waste
sectors were the two dominant sources of methane, and they both correspondingly account for 50.6% and 39.3%
of the total methane emissions. In the AFOLU sector, the emissions from enteric fermentation and manure
management were the dominant sources of methane. For the waste sector, most of the methane emissions werefrom wastewater treatment and discharge and solid waste disposal.

Page | 61

7

CH4 emissions (MtCO2e)

6
5
4
3

2
1

Energy

AFOLU

2016

2015

2014

2013

2012

2011

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

2000

1999

1998

1997

1996

1995

1994

1993

1992

1991

1990

0

Waste

Figure 24: Trends of methane emissions per sector

3.3.3.4 Perfluorocarbon emissions
Perfluorocarbons are industrial emissions from technology used in the primary aluminium production by VALCO
during anode effects. Apart from the fact that PFCs emissions generally depicted a declining trend (-83% between
1999-2016), there were years (2002, 2003, 2009, and 2010) that the emissions were completely missing because
the aluminium plant (VALCO) was not operating at all (Figure 25). Since VALCO resumed limited operations(running a single pot), PFC emissions have increased a hundredfold between 2012 and 2016. The extent of
VALCO’s operations largely determined the emissions trends.
0.25

PFC emissions (MtCO2e)

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

2016

2015

2014

2013

2012

2011

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

2000

1999

1998

1997

1996

1995

1994

1993

1992

1991

1990

0

Figure 25: Trends of perfluorocarbon emissions per sector

Page | 62

3.3.3.5 Hydrofluorocarbons emissions
NC4 marks the first time Ghana is reporting on HFC emissions after EPA published a national survey report on HFC
in 2017. With the available survey data, it was possible to estimate HFC emissions from stationary refrigeration
and air-conditioning appliances. The HFC emissions increased from 0.1 MtCO2e (2005) until it peaked in 2011 (1.1
MtCO2e) and started dipping afterwards to 0.6 MtCO2e in 2016 (Table 26).
1.20

HFC emissions (MtCO2e)

1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20

2016

2015

2014

2013

2012

2011

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

2000

1999

1998

1997

1996

1995

1994

1993

1992

1991

1990

0.00

Figure 26: Trends of Hydrofluorocarbon emissions per sector

3.3.3.6 Precursors and indirect emissions
3.3.4 Short-Lived Climate Pollutants
Short-Lived Climate Pollutants (SLCPs) are potent GHGs and local air pollutants and are emitted through similar
economic activities as the GHGs. Tackling SLCPs emission has a global climate and local air quality benefits.
Therefore, Ghana has reported on an inventory of GHG and SLCPs covering CH 4, BC and HFC for the period 19902016. Figure 27 is a chart showing the trend in SLCP emissions for 1990-2016.
350

0.50
0.45

250

0.35
0.30

200

0.25
150

0.20
0.15

100

HFC Emissions (Gg)

0.40

0.10

50

0.05

0

-

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016

Methane and Black Carbon Emission (Gg)

300

CH4

BC

HFC

Figure 27: SLCPs emission trends for the period 1990-2016

Page | 63

In 2016, the methane emissions level was 324.66 Gg and, the majority (48%) of which came from livestock entericfermentation and manure management. The waste sector was the second-largest source of methane constituting
38% of the total national emissions. Within the waste sector, municipal solid waste disposal and domestic
wastewater were the primary sources of methane whereas, under the energy sector, residential cooking with solid
biomass contributed most to methane emissions. Black carbon levels increased from 199.29 Gg in 1990 to 234.28
Gg in 2016, and almost all of BC emissions came from the Energy sector. Under the IPPU, Products Use as
Substitutes for ODS was the only source of HFC emissions.
3.3.4.1 Precursor and local air pollutants
Consistent with the IPCC Guidelines, emissions of some precursor and local air pollutants have been estimatedusing national activity data and default emission factors from EMEP/EEA or EMEP/ CORINAIR air pollutant emission
inventory guidebook. It is noteworthy that these estimates do not replace the measured local air pollutants thatare usually published by the Environmental Quality Department of EPA for different locations at the city level but
are an essential complement to them. The measurements of air pollution at monitoring sites provide an estimateof the concentration of air pollutants at specific locations resulting from all sources. At the same time, theinformation in this report are estimates of the emissions of air pollutants from emission sources. Table 11 shows
the trends of NOx, CO, BC, NMVOCs and PM2.5 emissions for the period 1990-2016. Except for CO that saw a decline,
the rest of the pollutants showed a rising pattern.
Nitrogen oxides are a group of poisonous, highly reactive gases. NOx gases form when fuel is burnt at hightemperatures69. In 2016, most (80.4%) of the NOx emissions came from the energy sector through the burning offossil fuels. The remaining 19.6% were from the burning activities in the AFOLU (18%) and waste (1.7%) sectors
respectively. Between 1990 and 2016, NOx emission levels increased by 21.6%. Carbon monoxide (CO) is acommon industrial hazard resulting from the incomplete burning of natural gas and any other material containing
carbon such as gasoline, kerosene or wood.
Table 11: Trends of selected precursor and local air pollutants for the period 1990-2016
Year
Gg/Year
NOx
CO
BC
1990
100.64
2,279.92
199.291991
97.54
2,281.99
203.43
1992
98.67
2,267.03
209.21
1993
97.24
2,291.83
215.24
1994
99.89
2,308.31
226.281995
97.50
2,310.02
230.891996
102.802,319.93
248.88
1997
101.572,334.33
258.41
1998
106.66
2,291.51
259.77
1999
106.762,278.42
267.66
2000
112.782,134.15
233.03
2001
111.642,070.30
223.942002
111.982,004.48
216.392003
104.36
1,903.41
205.642004
109.42
1.891.82
211.282005
96.87
1,730.13
146.642006
113.58
1,861.65
212.2069

NMVOC
282.05291.18297.60310.25322.26332.81345.55359.58352.33357.98267.32
253.37240.64223.73220.76172.58234.05PM2.5
561.10576.20594.60608.57632.13652.13674.32701.82689.57698.62546.71526.07509.61499.30502.79367.50517.89https://www3.epa.gov/region1/airquality/nox.html

Page | 64

2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016

121.23111.11
119.37114.79127.09131.59128.51130.38127.83122.42

1,973.53
1,707.92
1,734.54
1,745.38
1,816.14
1,815.05
1,827.43
1,847.26
1,804.80
1,767.67

236.60179.76
195.38205.79233.10239.18242.05247.37246.90234.28248.32205.72219.73237.53250.94257.11265.92274.91
274.63271.84517.74373.44401.44519.99561.45575.90582.34610.98625.47605.20

Most of the CO emissions were from the energy sector (69.2%) and followed by the AFOLU (29.9%) and waste(0.9%) sectors. The patterns of CO emissions indicated a steady decline of 22.5% between 1990 and 2016. Black
carbon is a constituent of PM2.5 and is produced from the incomplete burning of fossil fuels and biomass. The
inventory estimates total black carbon emission in Ghana to be 234.3 Gg in 2016, mainly from road transport andresidential cooking activities under the sector. The 2016 BC emission was 7.6% higher than the 1990 levels andincreased at a 0.6% annual growth rate. PM2.5 are tiny particles with an aerodynamic diameter of 2.5 microns in
the air that reduce visibility and cause haziness. It is a mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets found in the
air. Some particles, such as dust, dirt, soot, or smoke, are large or dark enough to be seen with the naked eye.
Typically, in Ghana, PM2.5 concentrations are measured using a gravimetric method and high-volume samplers
located in strategic locations along roadsides, residential, commercial and industrial areas.
The PM2.5 levels measured at these sites are the result of emissions of different pollutants, including primary PM2.5
emissions, but also emissions of gaseous precursors, such as nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide and ammonia, which
react in the atmosphere to form particles. The estimation of primary PM2.5 emissions based on specific activity dataand emission factors is in no way replacing the measured PM2.5 concentration monitoring figures. It is tocomplement them by providing estimated primary PM2.5 emissions from the technology and sectoral point of view.
Transport and domestic cooking and open burning are the dominant sources of primary PM2.5 emissions in Ghana.
In 2016, a total of 605.2 Gg of PM2.5 was recorded in Ghana and of which, 99.3% were emitted from the Energy
sector through activities like road transport, and domestic cooking accounted for most of them. The remaining
0.7% was from open burning in the Waste sectors.
3.4 Cross-Cutting Issues in Greenhouse Gas inventory
3.4.1 Key Category Analysis
Key category analysis was performed to identify the main activities that contributed most to theemissions/removals for a given year or across the entire time series. The 2006 IPCC Guidelines provides guidance
and a mathematical approach for the KCA. The guideline emphasises that the key category has a significant
influence on a country's total inventory of greenhouse gases in terms of the absolute level of emissions or
removals, the trend in emissions/removals, or both. In this inventory, the identification of key categories has been
performed using the tier 1 level and trend assessments, as recommended in the 2006 IPCC Guidelines. Thisapproach identifies sources/removals that amount to 95% of the total emissions or 95% of the trend of theinventory in absolute terms.

Page | 65

The methods used for the identification of the key categories were the level assessment for 2000 and 2016, andtrend assessment for 2016, and 2000. The results of the key category analysis are presented as with and without
the FOLU70 category.
3.4.1.1 Key category analysis results
In 2016, 20 key categories were identified using the level assessment (L) with an aggregate emission of 40.1
MtCO2e (Table 12) amounting to 93% of the national totals. Out of the 20 identified key categories, 9 of themwere sources of CO2 emissions and contributed most to the key category emissions. The CO2 levels were followedby CH4 and N2O with five each and then by HFC. Without FOLU, the key categories analysis identified 17 activities
with emissions totalling 45.3 MtCO2e. For the trend assessment (T) of KCA, 20 categories were identified (Table
13). For both L and T assessments, the categories with CO2 emissions dominated followed by CH4 and then N2O.
Some of the categories that emerged from L and T assessments are as follows: (a) Electricity generation (1. A1ai),(b) land converted to cropland (3B2.b), (c) land converted to grassland (3B3.b), (d) manufacturing industries andconstruction (1A2), (e) road transportation (1A3b), (f) wastewater treatment and discharge (4D). Most of the key
categories identified in the level and trend assessment are in the Energy and AFOLU sectors. It is also important
to note that CO2 emissions are the dominant pollutant for the categories under L and T assessments (Table 14).
Table 12: Level assessment key categories in 2016
IPCC CategoryGas

3.B.2.b - Land Converted to Cropland3.B.3.b - Land Converted to Grassland
1.A.3.b - Road Transportation
1.A.1ai – Electricity generation
3.C.4 - Direct N2O Emissions from managed soils
3.B.1.a - Forest land Remaining Forest land (net sink)
3.A.1 - Enteric Fermentation
1.A.2 - Manufacturing Industries and Construction
4.D - Wastewater Treatment and Discharge
3.C.5 - Indirect N2O Emissions from managed soils
3.B.1.b - Land Converted to Forest land (net sink)
1.A.3.c - Railways
3.A.2 - Manure Management
4.A.1 - Managed Waste Disposal Sites
1.A.4.b - Residential
2.F.1 - Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
4.D - Wastewater Treatment and Discharge
3.C.1 - Emissions from biomass burning
3.B.2.a - Cropland Remaining Cropland3.C.1 - Emissions from biomass burning

CO2
CO2
CO2
CO2
N2 O
CO2
CH4
CO2
CH4
N2 O
CO2
CO2
N2 O
CH4
CH4
HFC
N2 O
CH4
CO2
N2 O

Emissions/Removals(MtCO2e)
8.84.
8.80
5.92
5.04
4.14
-3.56
2.41
1.94
1.29
1.14
-1.11
0.94
0.94
0.92
0.85
0.61
0.54
0.53
-0.51
0.44

Contribution to level

Cumulative

16.59%
16.53%
11.11%
9.46%
7.78%
6.69%
4.52%
3.64%
2.43%
2.14%
2.08%
1.77%
1.76%
1.73%
1.59%
1.15%
1.02%
0.99%
0.95%
0.83%

16.59%
33.12%
44.23%
53.69%
61.46%
68.15%
72.67%
76.31%
78.74%
80.89%
82.96%
84.73%
86.49%
88.23%
89.82%
90.97%
91.98%
92.98%
93.93%
94.76%70

FOLU – Forestry and Other Land Use. Excludes emissions from Agriculture source categories (such as livestock), and includes emissions andremovals from forest and other land use types

Page | 66

Table 13: Trends assessment key categories for the period 2000-2016
Category

Gas

Trend
Assessment(Tx,t)
0.11
0.07

Contribution
to trend (%)

Cumulative

CO2
CO2

Emissions/Removals(MtCO2e)
2000
2016
0.55
5.04
3.74
1.94

1.A.1ai – Electricity generation
1.A.2 - Manufacturing Industries andConstruction
3.B.2.b - Land Converted to Cropland3.B.3.b - Land Converted to Grassland
1.A.3.b - Road Transportation
3.C.4 - Direct N2O Emissions from managed soils
3.B.1.a - Forest land Remaining Forest land
1.A.3.c - Railways
3.C.1 - Emissions from biomass burning
4.D - Wastewater Treatment and Discharge
3.C.1 - Emissions from biomass burning
3.A.1 - Enteric Fermentation
3.C.5 - Indirect N2O Emissions from managed
soils
4.A.2 - Unmanaged Waste Disposal Sites
3.B.1.b - Land Converted to Forest land
2.A.4 - Other Process Uses of Carbonates
2.C.3 - Aluminium production
3.A.2 - Manure Management
1.A.4.b - Residential
3.B.2.a - Cropland Remaining Cropland

19.0%
12.0%

19.0%
31.0%

CO2
CO2
CO2
N2 O
CO2
CO2
N2 O
CH4
CH4
CH4
N2 O

8.84
8.80
3.04
2.25
3.71
0.04
0.933
0.46
0.99
1.47
0.61

8.84
8.80
5.92
4.14
3.56
0.94
0.44
1.29
0.53
2.41
1.14

0.05
0.05
0.05
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01

9.9%
9.8%
9.2%
5.8%
4.8%
3.9%
3.2%
3.1%
3.1%
2.5%
1.7%

40.9%
50.7%
59.9%
65.7%
70.5%
74.4%
77.6%
80.7%
83.8%
86.3%
88.0%

CH4
CO2
CO2
CO2
N2 O
CO2
CO2

0.48
1.10
0.04
0.24
0.57
0.19
0.51

0.23
1.11
0.31
0.055
0.94
0.03
0.51

0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.00

1.6%
1.2%
1.1%
1.1%
1.0%
0.9%
0.6%

89.6%
90.8%
91.9%
93.0%
94.0%
94.9%
95.5%

Table 14: Status of level and trend key category assessment
Category
Level assessment (L)Electricity generation
L
Manufacturing Industries and Construction
L
Land converted to cropland
L
Land converted to grassland
L
Road transportation
L
Direct N2O emissions from managed soils
L
Forest land remaining forest land (net sink)L
Railways
L
Emissions from biomass burning (CH4)
L
Wastewater treatment and discharge
L
Emissions from biomass burning (N2O)
LEnteric fermentation
L
Indirect N2O Emissions from managed soils
L
Unmanaged waste disposal sites
Managed waste disposal sites
L
Land converted to Forest land (net sink)
L
Other process uses of carbonates
Aluminium production
Manure management
L
Residential
L
Cropland remaining croplandL
Refrigeration and air conditioning
L

Trend assessment (T)
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T

Page | 67

3.4.2 Time Series Consistency
According to the 2006 IPCC guidelines, “time series is a central component of the greenhouse gas inventory
because it provides information on historical emissions trends and tracks the effects of strategies to reduce
emissions at the national level. As is the case with estimates for individual years, emission trends should be neither
over nor underestimated as far as can be judged. All emission estimates in a time series should be estimatedconsistently, which means that as far as possible, the time series should be calculated using the same method anddata sources in all years. Using different methods and data in a time series could introduce bias because theestimated emission trend reflects not only real changes in emissions or removals but also the pattern of
methodological refinements.”
3.4.2.1 Description of recalculations
In ensuring time-series consistency for the inventory period 1990-2016, recalculations were performed on the
1990-2012 estimates. The reasons for the recalculations were mainly due to methodological changes andrefinement and the addition of new categories in the inventory. The general reasons for the recalculations havebeen provided in Table 15.
Table 15: Summary of the recalculations and the underlying reasons for each
Inventory Category
Key reasons for the
Recalculation tasks
sectorrecalculationsAll
All categories
Addition of new categories and Changes in methodology and the inclusion of extra data
sectors
methodological changes anddue to the use of the 2006 Guidelines
refinement
EnergyManufacture of solid Addition of new categories
Inclusion of new activity data on the manufacture offuel (1A1c)
charcoal.
Other sectors (1A4)
Availability of new dataset
Revisions in solid biomass (firewood and charcoal) activity
data for 2006-2012.
Fuel combustion
Availability of new dataset
Changes in the activity data on fuel balance due to the(1A)
revisions in the energy balance.
IPPU
Product Uses as
Addition of new categories
Inclusion of newly available HFC consumption figures
substitutes for ODS
from 2005 to 2012.
(2F)
Lubricant use (2D1)
Availability of new dataset
Changes in activity data on lubricant due to new dataset
from companies.
AFOLU
Land (3B)
Methodological changes andAvailability of new and more accurate land-use change
refinement
matrix for the period 1990-2012
Changes in timber harvesting figures due to the use of
new bottom-up data collection methodology.
Revision and changes of areas affected by fires due to theuse of MODIS fire dataset.
Addition of new categories
Inclusion of new plantation areas and further
categorisation into the teak and non-teak species.
Methodological changes andRevision of fuelwood harvesting figures due to therefinement correction of errors. changes in the energy statistics.
Choice of emission factors
Changes in aboveground net biomass growth in naturalforests from 4.7 tonnes d.m/ha/yr. to 1.6 tonnes d.m/ha/yr.
Waste
Solid waste disposal Changes in the solid waste
Revision of solid waste generation, collection and(4A)
datasetdisposal dataset.

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Total Emissions (MtCO2e)

40

NIR3

NIR4

1994

45

1992

The recalculations led to an average 72% increase in the previous emissions trends for 1990-2012. The mostsignificant difference of 159% was recorded in 1991 and the least increase of 19% in 2012(Figure 28).

35

30
25
20
15
10
5

2012

2011

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

2000

1999

1998

1997

1996

1995

1993

1991

1990

0

Figure 28: Comparison of total national emission trends in NIR3 and NIR4 as a result recalculation

3.4.2.2 Filling of time series gaps
In the inventory where we observed time series data gaps across the inventory years, interpolation andextrapolation techniques were used to resolve them. Table 16 contains the list of categories of interpolation andextrapolation techniques that have been used to fill time series gaps.
Table 16: Techniques used to fill time series data gaps
SectorCategory
Activity data
AFOLU
Land – areas of land-use
Missing 2016 land category areas
representations
Missing land use areas for the intervening years,
1991-1999, 2001-2011, 2013-2014
20-year time points
Land – areas affected by fire 1991-1999 missing, 2001-2009, 2011-2014
Fertiliser application
Missing years – 1991 -1994
Timber harvesting
Missing 2016 activity data
Waste
Solid Waste Disposal (4A)
Missing data of annual per capita solid waste
generation 1950-1989, 1990-2004, 2006-2014,2016
Biological treatment of Solid Missing data on amount composted from 1990-1993
waste (4B)
Wastewater discharge andMissing data income class which was derived fromtreatment (4D)
urban and rural population classification for 19901995, 1997-2004, 2006-2009 and 2011-2016
Distribution of the share of the population indifferent income classes using different waste
treatment facilities for 1990-1995, 1997-2004,
2006-2009 and 2011-2016

Type of Technique used
Extrapolation
Interpolation
Extrapolation
Interpolation
Interpolation
Extrapolation
Trend extrapolation andinterpolation
Extrapolation
Interpolation andextrapolation
Interpolation

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3.4.3 Quality Assurance/Quality Control procedures
The NIR4 comprehensively elaborates the QA/QC procedures under the sector chapters. Thus, this report provides
a broad outlook of the QA/QC procedures across the inventory. It touches on the current state, institutional roles,
general and specific processes, challenges and the improvement strategies. QA/QC is an integral part of thenational system, and broadly consistent with the good practices in the 2006 IPCC Guidelines. Ghana uses the US
EPA QA/QC template71 to report on the QA/QC procedures for the inventory. Furthermore, the team followed theForestry Commissions’ twelve Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) to guide QA/QC practices in the land
category. The SOPs were useful in the planning and designing of the data collection techniques for activity dataand emission factors (biomass inventory)72. Despite making progress in the improvement of QA/QC procedures;
there were still challenges in the areas relating to:
•
•
•
•
•
•

insufficient data handling protocols in the treatment of incompatible data formats
secondary data without metadata
detection of data errors and outliers
data restriction and confidential datanon-standardised application of experts' judgement
the use of tier 1 or default emission factors for the list of key categories

To address the challenges, Ghana has also adopted a country-specific QA/QC plan and GHG inventory manual73.
The GHG plan clearly articulates the inventory steps, institutional responsibilities and timelines. The
recommendations in the plan inform the training of existing experts. The QA/QC manual seeks to streamline andformalise existing QA/QC procedures and communicate with a clear set of objectives to the inventory team in linewith the 2006 IPCC Guidelines. These procedures are to ensure that the inventory system and estimates emerging
from them are more transparent, credible and defensible.
3.4.3.1 Tier 1 QC protocols
In the inventory, Ghana implemented tier 1 QC procedures which covered checks, documentation and archiving
practices the inventory compilers routinely used throughout the inventory cycle. The list of the QC procedure
followed in the inventory is in Table 17.
Table 17: List of QC procedures followed in the inventory
QC Tasks
Internal consistency

Details of QC Tasks
Ensured that the total GHG emissions equalled the sum of the individual
emissions from the sectors and categories.
Confirmed total GHG emissions equalled the sum of the emissions
by gas.
Ensured that parameters used in multiple categories (e.g., the population of
livestock) are consistent across categories.
Confirmed that the emissions data is reported in a manner consistent with thecalculation tables in the Non-Annex 1 National Communications Reporting
Guidelines.
It was confirmed that the selection and application of the estimation methods
were consistent with IPCC Guidelines.

Responsibility
EPA
EPA
EPA
EPA

EPA

71

https://www.epa.gov/climatechange/Downloads/EPAactivities/Complete%20Template%20Workbook.doc
http://fcghana.org/userfiles/files/REDD%2B/Ghana%20MRV%20Final%20Report%20(ID%2067024).pdf.
73
http://www.gh.undp.org/content/dam/ghana/docs/Doc/SUS$ev/LECBP_National%20GHG%20Inventory%20%20Manual_revised_v2.pdf.
72Page | 70

Documentation

ChecksCreated back-ups of all documentation in hard and soft copies and uploaded
files on to a central storage facility online.
Moved all files and documentation to an "online climate change data hub".
Checked that assumptions and criteria for the selection of activity data, andemission factors are documented
Checked that the parameters and emission/removal units are recorded
correctly, and that appropriate conversion factors are used.
Checked for transcription errors in data input and reference.
Checked for methodological, and data changes are resulting in recalculations.
Checked that emissions/removals are calculated correctly.
Compared current inventory estimates to previous estimates, if available. If
there are significant changes or departures from expected trends, re-check
estimates and explain any difference. Substantial changes in emissions or
removals from previous years may indicate possible input or calculation errors
Checked that emissions/removals data are correctly aggregated from lower
reporting levels to higher reporting levels when preparing summaries.
Checked that data in tables are the same as the calculation in spreadsheets
and the text.
Checked if there were any unusual or unexplained trends noticed for activity
data or other parameters across the time series.

All sectors
WebmasterWebmaster
EPA
EPA
EPA
EPA
EPA
EPA

EPA
EPA
EPA

3.4.2.2 QA Procedures
Quality Assurance measures are an essential part of the overall QA/QC procedures. The QA procedures allow
experts who have not been directly involved in the inventory to scrutinise the inventory system and the emission
estimate to provide comments. Ghana has undertaken extensive technical reviews of the inventory, and afterwards,
documented the status of addressing the comments using the “issue-tracking template”.
3.4.2.2.1 Third-Party review of the inventory
After the team finishes putting together inventory figures, the inventory manager compiles from the dataset. Then,the NIR, the datasheet and all related documentation undergo an extensive third-party review both in Ghana andat the international level. During this round of inventory preparation, the first-ever voluntary in-country review
was organised together with the Convention’s Secretariat. Besides, several international experts reviewed thedraft NIR, and the team addressed the issues raised before submission to the Secretariat of the Convention.
Furthermore, national stakeholders provided input into the draft inventory at a workshop.
3.4.2.2.2 Voluntary UNFCCC in-country review
Ghana was the first African country to undergo a voluntary in-country review of the National GHG Inventory
Management System and National GHG Inventories of Ghana on 19-23 March 2018. The review was organised by
the UNFCCC secretariat with support from the Global Support Programme, UNDP. Ghana responded positively toparticipate in a voluntary in-country review when it received an official invitation from the Convention in
November 2017. Afterwards, the Ghana team, the Convention’s Secretariat and the GSP, started to work out thefull details of the review modalities covering planning, selection of international review experts, data review
exchanges, review week modalities and considerations of review outputs.
3.4.4 General Uncertainty Assessment
The emission inventory figures are best estimated using standard IPCC protocols. The method used to produce theunderlying datasets introduced inherent uncertainties into the inventory. The physical measurements or modelling
Page | 71

to generate activity data and emission factors carry a wide range of errors. Additionally, using expert judgments
to fill time series gaps, select default activity data and emission factor, all add on to the uncertainty levels of theinventory. The 2006 IPCC Guidelines provide methods for assessing the overall uncertainties and report as wellas the strategy to reduce their effects on the final emissions. The IPCC guidelines require that the inventory
estimates must be published with the uncertainty range using a tier 1 uncertainty analysis across the sectors. The
detailed uncertainty assessment for the land representation category has been reported under the AFOLU sectionof the NIR.
However, Ghana is unable to report on the uncertainty range for the other sectors because there is no credible
basis to assign default range of uncertainty in the IPCC software due to the absence of requisite metadata,
particularly for the country-specific activity data. The reason is that most of the activity data were from secondary
sources that hardly reported uncertainty ranges in their metadata. Therefore, qualitative approaches backed byexperts' judgment were used to assign the uncertainty ranges based on the sources of data consistently andtransparently. Although the IPCC guideline provides the methodology for uncertainty assessment and even theinventory software has a sub-menu of uncertainty values to choose from, in the case where the supplier of theactivity data does not publish enough background data to allow for the quantitative calculation of the uncertainty,
the assignment of the error range becomes arbitrary. In this regard, Ghana plans to work closely with the
Mathematics Department of KNUST and the Department of Statistics of the University of Ghana to come up witha practical approach to statistically quantify uncertainty levels associated with inventory and report on the
progress in the next NIR.
3.4.5 General Assessment CompletenessAccording to the IPCC Guidelines, it is good practice to assess the completeness of inventory in terms of its
geographic coverage, scope (sectors and gases included, missing or non-applicable) and the time series. Therefore,
the sector assessment of completeness is part of this report. An overview of the inventory completeness is in Table
18.
Table 18: Overview of the general assessment of completenessCompleteness variable
Geographic coverage

StatusNation-wide

Sectors (Identified
sources and sinks)

4 IPCC
sectors –economywide

Comments
The inventory covered the entire territorial boundary of the Republic of Ghana. Thus,
none of the 16 administrative regions in Ghana has been left uncovered by theinventory.
All sources or removals of direct GHG gases that are associated with activities occurringin Ghana, outlined in the 2006 IPCC Guidelines, were covered in the inventory except
the following activities which were considered insignificant or where there is no data:••••

Gas compounds

Direct andindirectGHGs

1B.2a.iii.5 – Distribution of oil products
3D.i – Harvested wood products
2G – SF6 electrical equipment; N2O for medical applications.
1B.2a.iii.5 – Distribution of oil products

The emission inventory does not include activities that are not captured in the official
records published by State institutions. For example, unreported fuel use, household
animals that are not captured in the livestock census and unaccounted harvested
wood.
Direct GHG included CO2, CH4, N2O and PFCs (CF4 and C2F6) HFCs. SF6 has not been
considered in this inventory due to data unavailability. Also, SLCPs and local pollutants
such as BC, CO, NMVOCs, Nox and PM2.5 have been included in the inventory.

Page | 72

Time-series

26 years

Notation keys-

Time series range – 1990 to 2016
Base year – 2010
Previous reporting year – 2012
Latest report year – 2016
Categories and gases where emissions are:• Not estimated (NE)
• Not occurring (NO)• Included Elsewhere (IE)
• Confidential ©
• Not Applicable

3.4.6 Planned Improvements
During the inventory, certain areas were identified for future improvements to ensure building greater confidence
into the inventory estimation by reducing uncertainties to the extent possible. Tables 19, 20, 21 and 22 provide
the list of identified planned improvement activities and the next steps that must be taken.
Table 19: Planned improvement activities in the Energy sector
Category
Identification of planned improvement
areas
1.A1b –
Electricity
generation
All Categories

Develop or request IPPs to report on theirplant-specific emissions and emission
factors or conduct a study.
Survey to update and review the existing
pattern and share of fuel consumption inall sectors of the economy

1.A3b – Road
Transportation

Survey to update the existing 2005 dataon fuel allocation to the various vehicle
classes.
Survey to improve the technology-basedclassification of the vehicle-based EU
standards (besides, focus on separating thefunctional catalytic device).
Survey to establish fuels economy baseline
for different classes of vehicles

1.A3a – Civil
aviation

1.A3c Railways

Separate portions of the total fleet that areused for freight transport from passenger
transport
Collect additional ATK consumption, LTO
of domestic airlines data from OMCs, Civil
Aviation Authority, and the Airlines
Additional data collection to produce tier 2
estimates – data on domestic air traffic
movement (LTO)
Reconcile the Ghana Railway Company’s
and IEA diesel consumption for railtransport to ensure consistency andtransparency.

Prioritisation of
improvement
activities
KC

Responsibility andnext steps

Expected time toresolve

EPA & Energy
Commission

When funding isavailable-

Energy Statistic
Team. Energy
Commission

KC

DVLA, EPA andEnergy Commission

Medium-long term
improvement in thereporting in Energy
Statistics
Medium to longterm bearing in mind
on-going project onroadmap emission
and fuel economy
standards by 2020.

DVLA, EPA andEnergy Commission,
private garages
Energy Team

Next inventory

Non-KC

Energy Team

Next inventory

Non-KC

Energy Team

Next inventory

Non-KC

Energy Team

Next inventory

Page | 73

1.B2a.iii.4

NE categories

Collect additional data from Ghana Railway
Company on the following: (a) number oftrains in service, (b) annual distances ordestinations covered and (c) technologiesof the trains.
Undertake a study to assess the quantities
of gas flaring at the refinery when fundingis made available to the team.

Non-KC

Energy Team

Next inventory

Non-KC

Energy Team

When funds become
available.

Report emissions from NE categories

All categories

Energy Team

When funds become
available.

Table 20: Planned improvement activities in the IPPU sector
Category

Identification of planned improvement areas(a) Data improvements
Conduct industrial survey in-country to identify all possible sources according to the IPCC Guidelines for both formal and informal
sources and ensure data is collected and sources maintained for future inventories.
Identify, track and monitor any potential new sources that would be important for inclusion in inventories according to the IPCC
Guidelines, e.g. SF6 use in electrical equipment.
Collect data for Ceramics industry on carbonate used and estimate emissions for the sub-category
Update data on ODS substitute gas (HFCs) especially in the refrigeration and air-conditioning and mobile air-condition subcategories.
Improve data completeness for lubricants use to cover imported quantities by oil marketing companies and individuals. Efforts would
be made to identify the importers to collect data to improve upon future calculations(b) Methodological improvements
Improvement in estimates on non-energy use and feedstock to ensure internal consistency.
Collect data reported for dolomite use by the cement industry to improve the emission estimates for the Other Carbonate use
source category. In implementing improvements and integration of data from the plant, the latest guidance from the IPCC on theuse of facility-level data in national inventories would be relied on in the estimation.
Improvements on methodology to ensure the use of tier 2 method for all years to improve emission calculations particularly for
lubricant use, steel production, limestone use and refrigeration and AC including mobile AC sub-sectors.
Improvements on methodology to ensure the use of tier 2 method for all years to improve emission calculations particularly for
lubricant use, steel production, limestone use and refrigeration and AC including mobile AC sub-sectors.
Report emissions from NE categories
Table 21: Planned improvement activities in the AFOLU sector
Improvement tasks
Responsibility& Priority
Collaborators
Develop all-embracing new land
FC, EPA, UNU-INRA,
High
representations schemes with
Rudan, CERSGIS,
definitions (include the possibility Geomatics-KNUST,of delineating tree crops from
FAO, NATU-KNUST,
annual crop areas).
Cocoa Board
Survey department,
RMSC, FC
Reprocess land-use maps and LUC FC, AFOLU Team,High
matrices
CERSGIS, RMSC
Overlay land cover maps withHigh
map of ecozones, climate, soil andrecalculate land-use change maps

Next Step

TargetAssumptions

Explore the possibility oflinking with the FPP
process as a follow-up.
EPA to facilitate thediscussions for thedevelopment of the land
use mapping scheme.
AFOLU technical teamfrom the collaborating
institutions would proceedwith these activities
following the initial action

Next
Inventory

Funding issecured on
time

Page | 74

Integrate maps on perennial crops(mainly cocoa and rubber) in landuse maps and recalculate
Reconsider the dealing withwetlands and eliminate someways of change between
categories.
Reconsider factors that express
the speed of land-use change inthe 1970s and 1980s
Cross-check area estimates from
LUC matrices with data available
at the plantation unit.
Fire monitoring

High

High

High

High

Include the annual fire hotspots
and overlay on the land-use maps
to assign disturbances to land-use
subcategories

FC, Ghana National
Fire Service,
NADMO, District
Assemblies

High

Work on biomass inventory
Include the biomass density
estimates for plantations
Remove outliers from biomass
plot estimation (deadwood
estimates)
Quality check deadwood
calculations in inventory data
Explore the possibility ofincluding trees in annual
croplands
Explore the possibility of reducing
the uncertainty associated with
time-series data.
Biomass changes in different land
representations, including
different pools.
Fuel production/supply
Pools
Account for the burning of crop
residues beyond the burning offields.
Account for multiple cropping rice
Include harvested wood products.
Include crop residues fromplantain.
Clarify the fertiliser use in rice.

FC and FORIGFC and FORIG

High
High

FC and FORIGHighFC and FORIGHigh

FC & MoFA

MediumAFOLU Team

MediumMoFA

Low

MoFA, AFOLU TeamFC
MoFA and EPA

Low
Low
Low

MoFA and EPA

Low

Link with AGRHYMET

NextInventory

FC to initial
contact with
AGRHYMET
supported by
EPA

EPA to follow-up with FC
and FORIG

Next
Inventory

Contact
FORIG
Contact FC
for updates
Contact FC

Include in the discussionsof the AFOLU
collaborating team
EPA to coordinate therevision of existing
estimates

Next
Inventory

part of theactivity 1

Next
Inventory

Funding issecured ontime.

MoFA to lead AFOLU teamin the identification,collection and inclusion ofdata into the inventory

Next
Inventory

Funding for
BUR3 would
cover thisactivity.

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Table 22: Planned improvement activities in the waste sector
Improvements
Responsibility &Priority
Collaborators
Solid waste disposal
Collect additional data on
Built Environment
highsolid waste generation rate Department, EPA, Civil
and waste classification atEngineering
the landfill/disposal site
Department, KNUST,MLGRD, AMA, KMA,
STMA, TMA
Support the establishment
EPA Built Environment highof proper waste data
Department
management system in
selected assemblies
Revise solid waste
Waste inventory teamhighgeneration rates and waste
stream fractions with newdatasets
Separate solid disposal
Waste inventory teammediumfurther to managed,
unmanaged anduncategorised
Revise fraction of solid
Built Environment
mediumwaste biologically treatedDepartment, EPA andthrough composting
Zoomlion Ghana
Limited
Revision of the fraction of Built Environment
highsolid waste incinerated and Department, EPA,
openly burnt
statistical service, MID,private partners

Wastewater and treatment
Update existing survey
data on industrial anddomestic waste

Manufacturing Industry
Department, EPA, built
environment

highUncertainty management

Waste teamhigh

NE categories

Report emissions fromNE categoriesHigh

Next Step

TargetAssumption

Contact relevant
institutions to include
data need into surveys
and researchnextinventory

Funding isavailable

Built Environment to
prepare a project
proposal to seek funding

medium tolong term

Funding isavailable

EPA to coordinate
revision of existing
estimates

next
inventory

EPA to coordinate

next
inventory

EPA and Zoomlion to takethe leadnextinventory

EPA carry out a survey on
incinerators for the Ghana
Health Service and Ghana
Education Service andprivate companies toinclude in their survey

nextinventory

EPA to initiate a survey toreview industrial anddomestic WWTP for
applicable sectors
EPA to work closely with
the University of Ghana’s
Statistic Department tostart work on waste
sector-specificuncertainty management
Waste Teamnext
inventory

Funding ismadeavailable

nextinventory

Funding ismadeavailable

nextinventory

When funds
becomeavailable.

Availability of
new solid
waste dataset

Page | 76

Climate mitigation assessment

Source: offgridenergyindependnece.com

Page | 77

4. Updates on Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Assessment
The mitigation assessment is a critical component of the section on the general description of steps taken or
envisaged to implement the Convention in the National Communication. It includes information on the efforts
underway to mitigate GHG emissions within the broader national development context. The information containedin the assessment is the updates of those previously reported in the second biennial update report to theConvention. There are four main areas of the mitigation assessment. The first part sets the tone by providing thecontext to the report consistent with the guideline for preparation of the national communications. The ensuing
section is on the mitigation policies and the progress towards achieving mitigation policy commitments. It
elaborates more on the main mitigation policy making-steps and the linkages with sectoral and national mitigation
policies. It also touches on the progress made in the achievement of national and sector mitigation policies.
This section focuses on the arrangements for mitigation assessment. It reports information on institutionalarrangements by defining clear roles and responsibilities assigned to the various institutions involved in theevaluation. The section also provides additional details on the methodology and tools in the assessment for each
mitigation sector. The information includes the type of tools, the segment of the evaluation to which the tools areapplied and the potential areas for improvements. It further discusses mitigation archiving strategy for Ghana byoutlining archiving practices and the identification of improvements for future mitigation assessment. This crucial
piece of information can be useful in the design of the strategies for mainstreaming the mitigation assessment
into the governmental structures. Another vital aspect of the section is on the identification and prioritisation of
the areas for possible future improvements. The screening was done with the view to pinpoint practical ways toaddress challenges and barriers encountered in the assessment.
Another aspect also presents the results in two parts according to the GACMO and LEAP tools. The GACMO tool
results are on the economy-wide assessment. It covered all the mitigation sectors and built on the 2016 national
GHG inventory results to project the emissions for the business-as-usual and mitigation trajectories. The LEAP
model was used to conduct a refinement of the assessment on the energy sector. The improvement seeks todownscale the parameters for the mitigation assessment in the energy sector. Results on the baseline andmitigation scenarios from the GACMO and LEAP have been reported separately under each model. There is anarea on the progress of implementation of prioritised mitigation measures since the submission of the second
biennial update reports. The information includes new updates on the investment made in the mitigation
measures; policy and regulatory reforms; steps that have been taken or envisaged to enable the implementationof the mitigation measures. It also highlights critical technical, financial, policy and regulatory barriers that militate
against the implementation of the mitigation actions and the strategies to address them.
4.1 Mitigation Policy-Making Process
In Ghana, the central government defines the broad mitigation policy for the line ministries and local government
to adopt and implement. The government captures its mitigation policies in the Coordinated Programme of
Economic and Social Development Policies as required by Article 36(5) of the national Constitution. The current
CPESDP (2017-2024) affirms Ghana’s commitment to achieving the 45% emission reduction goal set out in the
NDC under the Paris Agreement. The fulfilment of the CPESDP mandate paves the way for the NDPC to develop
the four-year cycle MTDPF to operationalise the vision, policies, and programmes outlined in the CPESDP. The
ministries and local governments are to make the broad policies defined in the MTDPF relevant to the sector or
district by further developing a medium-term plan to reflect priorities of the government. The line ministries
outline their specific-sector mitigation policies implemented by the Agencies under them.
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The Ministries of Energy; Transport; Trade and Industries; Lands and Natural Resources and Sanitation and Water
Resources are instrumental when it comes to developing and implementing mitigation policies in Ghana. In
preparing the district-medium-term plans, even though the local governments are to tackle specific development
issues in their jurisdiction, it must be consistent with the central government’s priorities.
4.2 Ghana’s Mitigation Policies and Measures
Since Ghana published its third national communication in 2015, it has continued to implement a wide range ofsocio-economic strategies that deliver long-term greenhouse Mitigation Outcomes (MO). The current national
medium-term74 and sectoral plans75, as well as the NDC, outline the mitigation measures. The measures are in thefollowing areas:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Low carbon electricity supply
Scaling-up renewable energy
Clean cooking and lighting
Electric mobility and rail transit
Lowering deforestation and restoration of degraded areas
Energy efficiency in households, commerce, and industry
Innovative waste management
HFC phase-down andNatural gas recovery and utilisation and no flaring

The expected cumulative effects of the policies and measures are estimated to lead to a 45% reduction ofBusiness-As-Usual (BAU) GHG emissions of 74 million tonnes by 2030. In all, the national mitigation target
translates into 33 million tonnes over fourteen years (2016-2030). After sufficiently defined sector priority
measures, the focus is on the consistent implementation of coherent strategies for the achievement of the set
mitigation outcomes. A brief discussion of the mitigation Policies and Measures (PAMs) can be found below.
4.2.1. Energy Sector Mitigation Policies and Measures
The National Energy Policy, adopted in 2010, is the primary document driving the mitigation efforts in the sector.
It has set out concrete strategies to attain broad policy goals on universal access to electricity, renewable energy
penetration, natural gas commercialisation, and infrastructure and LPG use into the broader development context
of the country. Different documents like the National Gas Master Plan (2016)76, Renewable Energy Master Plan
(2019)77, Sustainable Energy for All Country Action Plan (2012)78, Mini-grid Electrification Policy (2015, revised in2017) and Integrated Power System Master Plan79, National LPG Promotion Policy (2017) and the Ghana Nuclear
Power Programme (NPP) outlines the strategies to address the policy objectives and proposed interventions in the
National Energy Policy.

74

https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/new-ndpc-static1/CACHES/PUBLICATIONS/2018/08/23/Medium-term+Policy+FrameworkFinal+June+2018.pdf
75Some of the major sectoral plans include the national energy policy, transport policy, forest and wildlife policy, national environmental sanitation
strategy etc.
76
https://www.thegasconsortium.com/documents/GMP-Final-Jun16.pdf
77
http://www.energycom.gov.gh/files/Renewable-Energy-Masterplan-February-2019.pdf
78
http://energycom.gov.gh/files/SE4ALL-GHANA%20ACTION%20PLAN.pdf
79
http://www.energycom.gov.gh/files/Ghana%20Integrated%20Power%20System%20Master%20Plan%20_Volume%202.pdf

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In 2017, the Ministry of Energy started a comprehensive review of the National Energy Policy, which is stillongoing. The review is to make the policy consistent with the government’s sustainable energy programme andrespond to the emerging energy issues in the country.
4.2.1.1. Diversification of the national energy mix
Over the last four decades, the national energy mix has transformed from the dominance of biomass (85%) andhydro (15%) in 1974 to a diverse share of oil products (44%), natural gas (14%), renewables (0.03%), hydro (5%)
and biomass (37%) in 2018 (Figure 29). The 2030 national energy mix would have a comparatively less carbonintensive outlook. The strategy is to develop alternative and domestic energy sources that are dominated bynatural gas, biomass, nuclear and complemented by renewables and hydro. For instance, the reliance on traditional
biomass for cooking would decline as set out in the energy sector policy target to increase LPG use penetration to
50% of households by 2030.
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018
Oil

Natural Gas

Hydro

Renewables

Biomass

Figure 29: Total primary energy supply from 1974 to 2018

4.2.1.2. Low carbon electricity supply
The government has a target to achieve universal access to grid electricity by 2025 (recently updated from theinitial 2020 target date) through the national electrification scheme and self-help electrification programmes.
Access to power in Ghana presently stands at about 84.3 per cent with urban areas having about 100 per centwhile the rural areas have 67.2%80. Electricity generation capacity has more than doubled since 2008 (increasingfrom 2,011 MW to 5,139 MW in 2018) and is likely to reach 9,700 megawatts by 2030. Besides, Ghana continues
to implement policies to diversify the electricity generation mix, and improve efficiency in electricity production,transmission and distribution. All these measures are aimed at enhancing the sustenance of the electricity system
and reducing carbon emissions. Generally, the electricity supply mix has shifted from being 100% hydro-based in
the 1990s to a mix of hydro (49.8%), thermal (50.5%) and renewable (0.1%) in 2018. The thermal component
consists of 24% light crude oil and natural gas dual-fired plant, 14% heavy fuel oil-fired plant, 12% natural gasfired plant and 0.6% diesel-fired plant.

80

http://www.energycom.gov.gh/files/ENERGY_STATISTICS--2019.pdf

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The policy to diversify from light crude oil to natural gas in existing power plants has resulted in carbon emission
reductions of 428.7 kt/ year since 2010. The strategy aims to increase electricity generation from natural gas andrenewable energy sources over the next decade. The implementation of the National Gas Master Plan and theRenewable Energy Master Plan would drive the increased share of natural gas and renewable energy in theelectricity supply. A thousand-megawatt capacity of nuclear power is also likely to kick in by 2029 to decarbonise
further electricity supply in the country (Figure 30).

Figure 30: Overview of grid electricity share from the 1990s to 2030 expressed in GWh

Another policy Ghana is pursuing to lower greenhouse emission in electricity supply is the retrofitting of existing
single cycle thermal plants to combined cycle by expanding the capacities to utilise steam instead of relying on
fossil fuels. The policy aims to upgrade the installed capacity of each of three single-cycle thermal power plants
by 330 MW through retrofits to convert the technology and thereby improve the thermal efficiency rates. As aresult, there have been conversions of 2 x110MW simple cycle Takoradi 2 Thermal Power Plant (T2) to 330MW
combined cycle plant; 110MW simple cycle Tema Thermal 1 Power Station (TT1PS) and 110 MW simple cycle
CENIT Plant to 330MW combined cycle; 2x 110MW simple cycle Kpone Thermal Power Plant to 330MW combined
cycle and 10MW capacity addition by Karpowership. This initiative has generated an average of 109.9 kt C/year
greenhouse emission savings since 2014. Grid transmission losses have not improved significantly, contrary to
expectation. It hovers around 4.1% of the total electricity transmitted annually.
4.2.1.3 Scaling-up the penetration of renewables
In Ghana, renewable energy currently contributes to 1% of the energy mix as of 2019 (Energy Commission, 2019).
The policy goal is to achieve 10% renewable in the mix by 2030. In 2011, Ghana passed the Renewable Energy
Act, 2011 (Act 832) to scale-up renewable energy to meet the 10% policy target. The achievements under the RE
Act are as follows:
•
•
•
•
•

Developed and gazetted a Feed-in-Tariff (FIT) scheme
Established framework for the renewable energy fundPrepared net metering code and renewable energy sub-codes for transmission and distribution systems.
Adopted licensing manual for RE service providers; andDrafted guidelines for the Renewable Energy Purchase Obligation
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In furtherance to Act 832, the Ministry of Energy adopted the Renewable Energy Master Plan (REMP) in 2019. The
target of the REMP is to increase the renewable energy share of the national energy generation mix from 42.5 MW
in 2015 to 1363.63 MW in 2030 (Table 23). It is estimated to create about 220,000 jobs and 11 million tonnes of
CO2 savings. The estimated total investment required for the REMP is at US$ 5.6 billion, of which more than 80%
would come from the private sector.
Table 23: Renewable energy targets in the REMP from 2015 to 2030
Renewable Energy
Technologies
Solar Energy
Solar Utility Scale
Distributed Solar PV

Reference 2015
No. ofMWp
units-Standalone Solar PV
Solar Street/Community
lighting
Solar Traffic signals (% of 14
total traffic signals
installed in the country)
Solar Lanterns
72,000
Solar irrigation
150
Solar Crop Dryers
70
Solar Water Heaters
4,700Wind Energy
Wind Utility Scale
Standalone Wind Systems Wind Irrigation/Water
10
Pumping
Biomass / Waste-to-Energy
Biomass Utility-Scale
Waste-to-Energy Utility
Scale
Biogas10(Agricultural/Industrial
Organic Waste)
Biogas (Institutional)
100
Biogas (Domestic)
50
Woodlot Cultivation (ha)190,000
Charcoal (Local Demand)
1,551,282
Charcoal (Export)
190,450
Briquetting/Pelleting
19,700
Biofuel (tonnes)
0
Hydro / Wave Power
Small/Medium Hydro
PlantsWave Power
Hybrid Mini-Grids
Mini/Micro-grids
13
End-User Technologies
Improved Biomass
800,000
Cookstove (Domestic)
Improved Biomass
1,800
Cookstove(Institutional/Commercial)
Total Installed RE Electricity Capacity

2019-2020
No. ofMWp
Units2021-2025
No. ofMWp
Units2026-2030
No. of
MWp
Units

Cumulative in 2030
No. of
MWp
Units

22.5
2

-

130
18

-

195
80

-

100
100

-

447.5
200

2
3

-

8
4

-

5
4

-

5
14

-

20
25

3

11

-

15

-

20

-

60

-

2.8
-

128000
6000
80
15300

6
-

300000
20000
250
50000

20
-

500000
20000
300
65000

20
-

1000000
46150
700
135000

48.8
-

0
0.01
-

25

0
0.1
-

30

275
0.9
-

35

50
1
-

100

325
2
-

0
0.1

-

0
0

-

72
30

-

0
20

-

72
50.1

-

20

-

70

-

100

-

200

-

-

80
30
60000
94017
59550
20300
100

-

140
50
10000093947
100000
25000
4900

-

180
70
78000
100877
78000
35000
15000

-

500
200
4280001840123428000100000
20000

-

0

-

0.03

-

80

-

70

-

150.03

0

-

5

-

0

-

45

-

50

-

73

-

114

-

100

-

300

12

-

500000-500000-1200000-

3000000

-

-

1200

-

7000

-

8000

-

18000

-

1353.63

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To drive investments into renewable energy, Ghana continues to implement the following concrete technical andfiscal strategies:
•
•
•
•
•
•

•

Expand the National Interconnected Transmission System (NITS) to accelerate the interconnection ofutility-scale renewable energy projects.
Encourage bulk customers to integrate renewable electricity in their distribution and consumption mix
under the Renewable Energy Purchase Obligation (REPO).
Ensure that net-metered systems have access to the distribution grid, in line with the Net-Metering Code.
Recommend tax incentives for the importation of materials and equipment required for local assembly,
manufacturing or installation and maintenance of renewable energy systems.
Deploy decentralised renewable energy technologies for electrification of the isolated island and lakesidecommunities under the Scaling-up Renewable Energy Programme (S-REP)7.
Institutionalised the Annual Renewable Energy Fair (Conference and Exhibition) as an avenue todisseminate information on government policies, interventions and emerging technologies on renewableenergy and energy efficiency. It also provides the platform for consultation among academia, government
representatives, decision-makers, private sector operators, project financiers, and consumers. The annual
fair was introduced in 2015.
In 2017, Ghana ratified the International Solar Alliance (ISA) framework agreement to become one of thefounding members of ISA. As a member of ISA, Ghana can access up to US$10 billion renewable energy
credit facility from India.

4.2.1.4 Improving access to clean cooking solutions
The promotion of clean cooking solutions is one of the significant emission mitigation strategies in the energy
sector. The 2010 National Energy Policy proposes the promotion of the adoption of improved biomass cookstoves,
LPG and alternative fuels like pellets for cooking. Accordingly, the Sustainable Energy for All Country Action Plan
(SEforALL CAP, 2012), National LPG Promotion Policy (NLP, 2017) and National Gas Policy contain concrete actions
towards achieving 50% of households adopting LPG as their primary fuel for cooking and adoption of 2 million
improved biomass cookstoves by households by 2030 and the promotion of the establishment of sustainable
woodlots for cooking. The improved biomass stove and LPG use policy actions are likely to generate a total of 15.8
million tonnes GHG emission reductions of which 93% (14.6 million tonnes) would come from the 2 million
improved stoves replacement policy, whiles the remaining 7% (1.2 million tonnes) are attributable to the 50% LPG
household adoption policy. The Ministry of Energy, National Petroleum Authority and the Energy Commission
collaborate closely with the private sector and civil society organisations to implement the clean cooking policy.
Some of the critical steps Ghana has taken towards the realisation of the policy are:•••Design and implementation of a Rural LPG Promotion Programme since 2013 to accelerate thepenetration of LPG for cooking in unserved and underserved rural communities. The programme beganwith the free distribution of 6kg LPG cylinders, single burner stove and accessories. The programme hastransitioned to the distribution of only stoves and accessories due to the national policy to transition to
the Cylinder Recirculation Model (CRM) of distribution.
The transition of the current user-ownership of LPG cylinders to the CRM of distribution to remove
adoption barriers of the high cost of LPG cylinders in addition to stove and accessories cost.
Established two test centres at the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology’s Technology
Consultancy Centre (KNUST-TCC), Kumasi and the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research’s InstitutePage | 83

•
•
•
•

for Industrial Research (CSIR-IIR), Accra to test the technical performance (thermal efficiency, safety,
durability and emissions levels) of stoves and fuels. The test centres were established with support fromthe United Nations Development Programme and the Clean Cooking Alliance.
Development and adoption of ISO standards for clean cookstoves and clean cooking solutions and thedevelopment of regulations (and labelling scheme) for improved biomass cookstoves (on-going).
Development of regulations for the wood-fuel sector (covering “traditional” firewood and charcoal
production, transformation, distribution and sale).
Dissemination of an electronic SEforALL Newsletter every quarter since 2014 to update the public on the
progress of implementation of the country’s SEforALL Action Plan.81
Implementation of a Sustainable Woodlot for Schools Programme to support Senior High Schools toestablish woodlots for cooking.

These policy initiatives have led to the deployment of over 9,000 improved institutional stoves (firewood andpellet stoves) for general cooking, agro-processing and fish smoking; and over 1.6 million domestic charcoal, pellet
and ethanol cookstoves nationwide by the private sector since 2012. The Rural LPG Promotion Programme being
implemented by the Ministry of Energy has reached 151,500 households with 151,500 cylinders and 132,800
stoves and accessories as at the end of 2019. Under the Energy Commission's Woodlots for Schools Programme,
over 120 hectares of acacia woodlots have been established in schools nationwide from 2014 to 2019. The
cumulative mitigation effects of clean cooking initiatives are estimated to be 642.5 kilotonnes per year.
Furthermore, cookstove projects featured prominently in the international carbon markets. Currently, Ghana hasregistered five cookstove POAs as CPAs to generate emission reductions. Two more Programme of Activities (POAs)
are in the validation stage. Under the Ghana-Korea Carbon Project spearheaded by the Ministry of Energy, 500,000
households would access improved biomass cookstoves by 2020. Funding for the initiative would come fromprivate Korean companies participating in the Korean Emission Trading Scheme (KETS). The resulting carbon
emission savings would be eligible as compliance offset under KETS.
4.2.1.5 Restriction on gas flaring, recovery and utilisation of natural gas
The discovery of 2,080 billion cubic feet (Bcf) of associated and non-associated natural gas reserves is a significant
boost to Ghana’s economy, particularly in the power generation, transportation, and industrial sectors (Figure 31).
As a result, the Government adopted the National Gas Master Plan (GMP) in 2016 to facilitate gas
commercialisation and gas infrastructure development for a vibrant downstream market. In this regard, the Ghana
Gas Company (GNGC) was established in 2014 at Atuabo to produce lean gas, condensate, LPG and isopentanes
for the downstream market especially for the power, transportation, and industrial sectors. GNGC currently
supplies gas to Volta River Authority (VRA) and 470MW Karpowership after its relocation from Tema (East coast)to the Sekondi naval base (West coast)82 for power generation.

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80,000

Quantity of Natural Gas (MMScf)

70,00060,00050,00040,00030,00020,00010,0002010

2011

Gas Production

2012

2013

Injection and fuel use

2014

2015

Gas export to GNGC

2016

2017

2018 (April)

Flared Gas

Figure 31: Natural gas production and utilisation in Ghana

Due to the implementation of gas commercialisation policy, since 2014, GNGC produces an average of 23,202.9
BCF of natural gas annually; mainly for power generation and allied industries. Ghana has also adopted zero-gas
flaring as an industry practice. The fundamental petroleum policy for Ghana does not allow deliberate gas flaring
in oil and gas development. Section 33 of the Petroleum (Exploration and Production) Act 919, 2016 further
requires operators to seek authorisation before flaring or venting of petroleum83. As a result, the percentage offlared gas of the total natural gas production has consistently declined from an average of 38.6% before 2014 to
13% to date (Figure 32).
100%

Percentage of flare gas of aanual
total gas production

90%

80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018 (April)

Figure 32: Trend of the percentage of flare gas of annual total gas production

Currently, environmental guidelines for offshore oil and gas development provides concrete guidance on safe
disposal of gas in the event of an emergency and other plant upset conditions. The regulator imposes a penalty
on the operator if gas is flared outside the allowable operational threshold. The implementation of this policy has
led to cumulative avoided GHG emissions of 755kt per year since 2014.
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4.2.1.6 Promoting energy efficiency and conservation
The 2010 National Energy Policy highlights energy efficiency and conservation in homes, offices and industries asa strategy to achieve emissions mitigation outcomes in the energy sector. Already, Ghana is implementing a broad
range of measures in appliance energy efficiency standards and labelling, energy conservation promotion, andaddressing financing barriers. Under standards and labelling, Ghana is implementing energy efficiency standards
and labels Programme to ensure that only appliances that meet minimum energy efficiency standards and arelabelled accordingly, enter the Ghanaian market. In this regard, Legislative Instruments (LIs) 1815, 1958 and 2353
are in force to specify the minimum energy efficiency standards and labelling requirements for air conditioners,
refrigerators and lighting bulbs. Legislative Instrument (LI) 1932 is also in effect to ban the importation and saleof used air conditioners, refrigerators and incandescent bulbs.
In furtherance to the programme, the Energy Commission has developed a database application (App) for
refrigerators, air conditioners and lighting bulbs which is running on the Google play store. The App helps
consumers to identify energy-efficient refrigerators and the retail shops from which to procure them fromdesignated shops. So far, there have been over 10,000 downloads of the certified refrigerating appliance APP. The
development of new energy efficiency standards and regulations for twenty more appliances including ceilingfans and regulators, television sets, satellite decoders/TV signal boxes and lighting (domestic/commercial
lighting/street lighting) is underway. The aim is to expand the standard and labelling initiative to cover 23
electronic appliances in homes, industry and commerce by 2023 and maintain Ghana's leadership in pushing forthe operationalisation of the ECOWAS sub-region harmonisation of electronic appliance standard to reduce market
dumping. It is with the same goal that Ghana has joined the global coalition to increase energy efficiency by 3%
per annum84.
Ghana implemented a refrigerator rebate and an exchange scheme from 2013 - 2015 at the cost of US$3.1 million,
and has saved the country 400 Gigawatts hours (GWh) of electricity, 1.1 million tonnes of carbon dioxide andrecovered 1,500 kilogrammes of Chlorofluorocarbon. Under the scheme, consumers who turned in their old
refrigerating appliances received discounts when they purchased new and efficient ones. Over the three years,
more than 10,000 old and inefficient refrigerators have been replaced with new and efficient ones under therebate scheme. In 2007 the Government introduced a programme to replace almost 6 million government
incandescent bulbs with the more energy-efficient compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs).
Afterwards, measures have been put in place to replace the CFLs with more energy-efficient LED ones. That is why
the Ministry of Energy has introduced the “light for all initiative” under which 12 million LED lights are to be
distributed nationwide under a cost-recovery programme led by local banks85. This initiative has the potential toreduce energy consumption by 50% from the current compact fluorescent bulbs’ usage and 0.96 Mt of carbon
emission savings. So far, the Ministry of Energy has distributed over 3 million LED lights to public institutions andwith a potential 0.24Mt carbon savings per annum. Under the Millennium Challenge Compact II (MCC II), Ghana is
implementing the US$2.4-million Energy Efficiency and Demand Side Management (EEDSM) project. EEDSM would
supply about 69,250 150W LED streetlights complete with fixtures to various Municipal, Metropolitan, and District
Assemblies (MMDAs) across the country.

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So far, MCC has replaced 18,000 inefficient street lights 250W (halogen, helium) with energy-efficient 150W LED
street lights. Under the Regional Capitals Street Lighting Project, the replacement of the inefficient 250W HighPressure Sodium (HPS) lamps with 150W LED types and rehabilitation of existing infrastructure in Accra andKumasi is about 85% complete. Energy Efficiency standards have been developed and gazetted for more than 16
appliances. These appliances are washing machines, fan motors, distribution transformers, electric motors,
computers, energy meters, microwave, blender, electric water heater, lighting (commercial lighting/streetlighting),
TV Sets, Decoders, Ceiling fans, Batteries, Inverters, and Solar Panels. The Legislative Instrument to back thestandards are being developed.
In the building sector, the Energy Commission is collaborating with the Ghana Green Building Council (GGBC) tosecure funding for the development of energy efficiency standards and labels for commercial buildings. The move
would eventually make public buildings green and save energy. The Ghana Building Code, GS1207 of 2018 alreadyaddresses issues on energy efficiency and sustainability in buildings. Some of the green-certified buildings in the
country are as follows:
•
•
•
•
•
•

One Airport Square, Accra - Green Star certified by GHGBC/GBCSA
Mother and Baby Unit, Kumasi, Edge certified by IFC
Takoradi Mall, Takoradi, Edge certified by IFC
Atlantic Towers, Accra, Edge certified by IFC
Greater Accra Regional Hospital, Ridge, Accra, LEED-certified by USGBCMPS Terminal, Tema, Edge certified by IFC

Besides, the Ministry of Energy introduced the Automatic Timer Switches (ATS) initiative for homes. The Ministryof Energy launched the deployment of the automatic timers to kick-start the free distribution at the graduation ofcertified electrical wiring personnel on 6th September 2017. The Ministry has distributed 32,893 ATS to consumers,
including security agencies, government institutions, and households. The Ministry has also conducted tests on
the energy-saving potential of the timers over 48 hours, indicating an energy savings of about thirty per cent. The
32,893 ATS distributed nationwide could lead to a total electricity savings of approximately 3,215 MWh (3 GWh)
and 1.44 kilotonnes of avoided carbon emission per year.
4.2.1.7 Ghana nuclear power programme
Ghana has a schedule to start nuclear power production in 2029 if all technical, financial and regulatory processes
are met. As a result, the Government has developed a national roadmap to integrate nuclear power into Ghana’senergy mix, which was accepted by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Primary data on plant sites
have been completed, awaiting field data acquisition and feasibility studies. To give an additional boost to theroadmap, Ghana established the National Nuclear Power Ghana Limited86 in 2019 as a Special Purpose Vehicle(SPV) jointly owned by the Volta River Authority (VRA), the Bui Power Authority (BPA) and the Ghana Atomic Energy
Commission (GAEC). Currently, the preparation of a siting study report is underway to enable the Government takea final decision. The strategy is to bring 1000 MW capacity of nuclear power online by 2030. If the plan tocommission a 1000 MW power plant is accomplished by 2030, it has the potential to reduce 1 million metrictonnes of GHG emissions in the first two years of operation.

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4.2.2. Environment Sector Mitigation Policies and Measures
The MESTI coordinates the implementation of the national climate change policy for the country. MESTI performs
this policy function through the National Climate Change Implementation Committee with a technical backstop
from the EPA. MESTI works closely with the EPA on the governmental processes to ratify Multilateral
Environmental Agreements (MEAs). MESTI and EPA led the ratification of the Paris Agreement in 2015 and theKigali Amendment in 2019. Furthermore, the ministry facilitated the promulgation of the Hazardous and Electronic
Waste Act (Act 917) and the Hazardous, Electronic and Other Waste, Control and Management Regulations (LI2250), 2016. The laws provide for the establishment of a national E-waste plant involving the private sector.
4.2.2.1 Hydrochlorofluorocarbon Phasedown
Ghana became the 79th country to ratify the Kigali Amendment in August 2019 and paved the way to implementa national programme to gradually phase out HFCs by introducing an alternative technology to HFCs with thesupport of the private sector. The amendment seeks to phase-down 19 identified Hydrochlorofluorocarbon
refrigerants found in refrigerators, air-conditioning, cold storage systems and in mortuaries. The new HFC
alternative technologies can deliver triple wins: no harm to the ozone layer, climate-friendly and improve energy
efficiency. The EPA hosts the National Ozone Unit and leads in implementing the HFC Phase-out Management
Plan (HPMP). Under the HPMP, the EPA started training technicians from well-established air-conditioning
installation workshops in the conversion of existing R22 based air-conditioning units to run on Hydrocarbon R290.
In 2019, the EPA hosted a week-long sub-regional training workshop of national ozone officers from Western,
Eastern, Northern and Southern regions of the Africa Anglophone Network in Accra. The implementation of the
HPMP could save 0.64 kilotonnes of GHG emissions every year.
4.2.3 Land and Natural Resources Sector Mitigation Policies and Measures
The 2012 National Forest and Wildlife policy is the foundation of the mitigation strategy for the forest sector. The
policy is operationalised through the implementation of the Forestry Development Master Plan, Forest Plantation
Development Strategy and the REDD+ strategy. The Forest Plantation Strategy aims to increase forest cover andrestore degraded lands, whereas the REDD+ strategy seeks to address the key drivers of deforestation and forest
degradation in the cocoa, shea, and sub-national mangrove landscapes. There are five major collaborative
initiatives underway in the high forest ecological zone that anchor on the REDD+ strategy, namely: the Ghana
Cocoa Forest REDD+ Programme (GCFRP), Ghana Forest Investment Programme (GFIP) 87, Dedicated Grant
Mechanism (DGM)88 and the Cocoa Forest Initiative (CFI)89. An additional six million tonnes of carbon emissions
reductions have been projected over seven years, commencing when the Green Climate Fund (GCF) approves theShea landscape initiative for implementation in Ghana.
The GCFRP is led by the Forestry Commission and seeks to build on the implementation of FIP. The aim is toincrease forest cover and promote the co-existence of forest and cocoa, and achieve 10 million tonnes of carbon
emissions reduction over six years (2019-2024) in selected deforestation hotspot intervention areas in the highforest zone90.

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The GFIP is implemented by the Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, which focuses on forest protection andsustainable cocoa production. Out of the GFIP, a tree tenure and benefit-sharing framework have been adopted
and 24 million tree seedlings planted in the cocoa landscape. Phase 2 of the GFIP would scale up the restorationof degraded landscapes and provide concessional loans to private plantation developers. CIF and DGM are private
sector-led. Whiles CIF led by the World Cocoa Foundation, as a joint effort between Ghana and Cote D’Ivoire (twoleading producers of global cocoa beans), seeks to promote deforestation-free cocoa supply chain among 34 cocoa
and chocolate companies. DGM being implemented by Solidaridad91 West Africa empowers local communities to
get involved in the promotion of climate-smart landscape practices.
The Forest Plantation Development Programme (NFPDP) is a crucial mitigation measure in the forest sector. The
NFPDP was launched in 2001 and implementation started in 2002 as a strategic initiative to restore forest coverof the degraded forest, reduce wood supply deficit, create jobs, enhance carbon stocks and contribute to foodproduction. The NFPDP is a public-private joint programme targeting degraded lands in on-reserve and off-reserveareas. It has the following components:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Modified Taungya System (MTS).
Community Forest Management Project (CFMP)
Government Plantation Development Programme (GPDP)
Private developers on-reserve.
Forest Services Division (FSD) Plantation.
Forest investment programme.
Expanded plantation programme.
FC/Industry plantations fund.
Large-scale off-reserve plantations.

The 2016-2040 Ghana Forest Plantation Strategy (GFPS)92 seeks to establish 625,000 ha of forest plantations(translating into 25,000ha per annum), enrichment planting of 100,000 ha of poorly-stocked and degraded forest
reserve compartments and, facilitate the incorporation of trees within farming systems (trees on-farms) covering
3.75 million (ha) of agricultural landscapes. The key achievements of the NFPDP so far include:•••

more than 190,000 ha of tree plantation established under NFPDP from 2002 to date,over 3 million metric tonnes of food produced from the plantations for 2002-to-date.
over 400,000 direct jobs since 2002 to-date.

Ghana also established a Forest and Plantation Development Fund (Act 583)93 in 2000 to provide financial
assistance for the development of private forest plantations on lands suitable for commercial timber production
and research. Illegal mining (locally referred to as galamsey) is a significant driver of deforestation. The
government has adopted a multi-sector strategy to tackle illegal mining which is being implemented through theMulti-Sectoral Mining Integrated Project (MMIP)94 by the Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources.

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The policy covers the following areas: formalisation of artisanal and small-scale mining95, streamlining mining
regulations and strengthening compliance monitoring, restoration of areas affected by illegal mining, community
involvement in mining and the establishment of an inter-ministerial task force to oversee efforts to curb illegal
mining in Ghana.
4.2.4 Transport Sector Mitigation Policies and Measures
The transport sector mitigation strategy aims to promote low carbon mass transport mobility in the long-term.
This strategy is anchored on the national transport policy. It focuses on electric mobility (e-mobility), fleet renewal,
efficient vehicle inspections, and rail-based transit to realise GHG mitigation outcomes. E-mobility has recently
received a strong policy push in the Transport and Energy Ministries. In the 2019 national budget (pp 190)96, thegovernment tasked the Ministries of Energy and Finance to come up with tax-free solutions for full-electric carsin Ghana. Furthermore, the Ministry of Transport is collaborating with the AFD to seek funding support for the
Accra city electric bus project from the GCF. In line with the directive in the national budget, the Ministry of Energy
launched the “Drive Electric Initiative” (DEI)97 during the 5th renewable energy fair. The initiative aims to have atleast one hundred electric vehicles, and at least ten public charging outlets in Ghana by 2020 to upscale renewableenergy and contribute to the reduction of GHG emissions98.
Another mitigation strategy in the Transport sector is the fleet renewal programme. As part of the fleet renewal
efforts, the Ministry of Transport has introduced a facility to put 400 euro-3 high occupancy buses to service toincrease mass ridership in cities. So far, one hundred buses are in operation whereas the remaining three hundredbuses would start to operate in 2020. The Ministry of Transport also has a policy to improve the vehicle inspection
regime to allow for private sector participation to bring innovation and efficiency. In line with the policy, theMinistry of Transport through the Driver Vehicle Licensing Authority (DVLA) has franchised twenty companies toundertake vehicle inspections to including vehicle emissions testing. The Ministry plans to add twenty morecompanies to expand the coverage nationwide. Regarding rail-based transit, Ghana has a flagship railway
development programme and currently, the Ministry for Railway Development is implementing the National
Railway Master Plan to modernise railway network nationwide by aiming at mobilising US$7.8 billion investments
into 1,394 km of rail network.
4.2.5 Waste Sector Mitigation Policies and Measures
Biogas production and composting are the two main mitigation actions in the waste sector. The National
Institutional Biogas Programme (NIBP) and the Renewable Energy Master Plan (REMP) neatly outline the strategies
for the promotion of domestic and institutional biogas production. The NIBP aims at installing 200 biogas digester
systems in public boarding schools, hospitals, and prisons. In the REMP, the target of the total number of biogas
installations has increased to 900 units, of which 400 are for general and domestic use and the remaining 500 are
institutional. Out of the 900 installation units, 160 biogas plants (100 institutional and 60 domestic/commercial)are in place. Under the Switch Africa Green initiative implemented by the Ghana National Cleaner Production
Centre (GNCPC)99, ten biogas plants have been constructed in seven Senior High Schools (SHS) within the Greater
Accra Metropolitan Area.
95

The Mineral and Mining (Amendment), 2019 makes illegal mining a criminal offence with a mandatory minimum 15 years jail sentence

96

https://www.mofep.gov.gh/budget-statements/2019
http://www.energycom.gov.gh/public-notices?limit=1&start=998
http://www.energycom.gov.gh/files/concept%20note%20Drive%20electric.pdf
99
https://ncpcgh.org/index.php/projects/biogas-technologies-project
97

Page | 90

A total of 101 artisans have been trained and have commenced the building of biogas plants. The centre has also
developed an excel template for the bio-digester calculator (capacities, feed, LPG equivalence and bill ofquantities). Safisana Biogas Plant was established in 2017 to produce electricity, biogas, organic fertiliser, andseedlings100. The company has a power purchase agreement with the electricity company of Ghana to deliver green
electricity to the national grid.
In 2018, Safisana generated 0.32 GWh of green electricity to the national network through sub-transmission
connection translating into 144 tonnes of GHG savings. The composting initiative in Ghana is a collaboration
between the local government authority and two major waste management companies. The two companies haveestablished compost facilities that receive municipal solid waste from waste operators at an agreed tipping fee.
The compost produced is sold as fertiliser, for agricultural business. The Accra Compost and Recycling Plant(ACARP) has constructed a 600 tonnes per day capacity compost plant and completed feasibility to expand thecapacity to 1000 tonnes per day. ACARP plans to establish another 600 tonnes per compost plant in Kumasi. Jekora
Ventures Limited produces JV Compsoil and Fortifier Compost for the local market. Since 2013, an average of
8,545.3 tonnes of compost have been produced annually and has led to 355.9 kt C/yr.
4.3 Government-Wide Mitigation Actions
There are governmental emissions mitigation efforts that cut across the ministries. Often such efforts do notdirectly translate to emissions reduction but create the enabling conditions for the implementation of the
mitigation measures at scale. These include mitigation policy reforms, capacity development for mitigation, aimed
at mobilising funding and the adoption or review of regulations that support GHG mitigation measures.
4.3.1 Policy and Regulatory Reforms Toward Achieving Mitigation Outcomes
Since 2015 when Ghana submitted its Third National Communication to the Convention, a wide range of policy
and regulatory changes intended to enable more significant mitigation, and sustainable development outcomes
have been adopted. A summary of the reforms are as follows:
4.3.1.1 Fossil-fuel subsidy reforms
Ghana has adopted a petroleum price liberalisation policy since 2006. The National Petroleum Authority (NPA)
initiated automatic price adjustment formulae. The gradual removal of subsidies followed the adoption of theformulae until prices reached market levels over the period 2013-2015 except for premix fuel for local fishing.
Ghana reformed subsidies on gasoline, diesel and LPG fuel and mitigated the effects by introducing livelihood
policies to protect poor households. The removal of the support has reduced the expenditure and pressures on the
public purse and served a positive signal for investments in climate change mitigation actions.
4.3.1.2 Tax, duty exemption and income tax for solar, wind and tree crops, feed-in-tariff for renewables
Starting in 1998, the Government reduced import duties and VAT on solar and wind generation systems andcomponents. Presently, solar and wind energy generating systems are exempt from both import duties and ValueAdded Tax (VAT). Components for use with solar and wind generation systems benefit from preferential importduty of 5%101.
100

http://www.safisana.org/what-we-do/ashaiman-factory/

101

https://www.iea.org/policiesandmeasures/pams/ghana/name-24515-en.php?s=dHlwZT1yZSZzdGF0dXM9T2s,&return=PG5hdiBpZD0iYnJlYWRjcnVtYiIPGEgaHJlZj0iLyISG9tZTwvYT4gJnJhcXVvOyA8YSBocmVmPSIvcG9saWNpZXNhbmRtZWFzdXJlcy8iPlBvbGljaWVzIGFuZCBNZWFzdXJlczwvYT4gJnJhcXVvOyA8YSB
ocmVmPSIvcG9saWNpZXNhbmRtZWFzdXJlcy9yZW5ld2FibGVlbmVyZ3kvIj5SZW5ld2FibGUgRW5lcmd5PC9hPjwvbmF2Pg

Page | 91

Reduced Corporate Income Tax (CIT) rates from the standard rate of 25% for tree crop farming (up to five years)102.
In 2016, the Public Utility Regulatory Commission (PURC) published the gazetted revised feed-in-tariff rates toboost private sector investment in renewable energy103.
4.3.1.3 Strengthening vehicle inspections
Efficient vehicle inspection is critical for high-performance of public and private transport. The main policy
direction is to allow private sector participation in vehicle inspection. In line with the policy, the Ministry ofTransport franchised the first twenty private vehicle inspection centres in the country. Under this initiative, vehicle
inspections have become automated, and voluntary vehicle emissions testing is part of the examinations.
Furthermore, the DVLA, EPA and the Ghana Standards Authority (GSA) have adopted a motor vehicle emission
standard. The EPA has developed a regulation to back the implementation of the standards which is currently
undergoing administrative reviews.
4.3.1.4 Sulphur in diesel regulations
Ghana has put in place low sulphur diesel standards to reduce vehicle emissions with a new sulphur content
standard of 50 parts per million (ppm), down from 3,000 ppm104. This move positively affects 3 million residents
in Ghana by reducing exposure to poor urban air quality.
4.3.1.5 Cookstove performance labelling
According to GLSS7, about 68% of Ghanaian households still rely on solid biomass as their primary cooking fuel,mostly using inefficient cookstoves. Most of these solid biomasses are harvested from the wild and carbonised
using inefficient conversion technologies, leading huge vegetation cover losses and high carbon emissions. Hence,the policy decision to regulate the production and use of solid fuels for cooking and heating. The Government isharnessing successes chalked in implementing star-labelling energy efficiency schemes for electrical appliances
to apply the same for improved biomass cookstoves. The national standard adopted for biomass cookstoves to berecognised as more efficient than baseline technologies is 20% thermal efficiency (as compared to an average of
18% for baseline technologies). Thresholds have also been adopted from the ISO voluntary performance standards
for emissions (PM2.5 and Carbon Monoxide) and safety under the labelling scheme, tested using the ISO test
protocols. The Energy Commission has engaged several stakeholders on the draft regulations to implement thelabelling scheme for biomass cookstoves and is working to finalise the regulations for submission to the Ministryof Energy by the end of 2020 for onward submission to the Parliament of Ghana. All the efforts are geared towards
facilitating a faster transition to efficient biomass stove for cooking in households, institutions and commercial
ventures.
4.3.1.6 No gas flaring legislation
In 2016, Ghana passed legislation (Petroleum Exploration and Development Act 919, 2016)105 to restrict the flaringof gas in petroleum exploration and development unless the regulator grants permission. In practice, thislegislation applies to flare and venting operations in petroleum exploration and operations of oil and gas fields,
gas processes and oil refining.
102

https://www.gipcghana.com/invest-in-ghana/why-ghana/tax-regime-and-incentives.html
http://www.purc.com.gh/purc/sites/default/files/fit_2016.pdf
104
https://www.myjoyonline.com/news/2017/April-17th/ghana-to-reduce-sulphur-levels-in-fuel-to-50ppm-from-july-1.php
105
http://www.petrocom.gov.gh/L&C_folder/Pet_register/laws/PETROLEUM%20(EXPLORATION%20AND%20PRODUCTION)%20ACT,%202016%20(ACT%20919).pdf
103

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4.3.1.7 Building codes
The Ghana Standards Authority has issued the 2018 building codes (GS 1207: 2018) which seek to, among others,
promote energy efficiency and green building practices in the design and construction of structures.
4.3.2 Mobilising Finance to Support Mitigation Measures
The government and its many collaborators mobilise funds to implement mitigation actions from several national
and international sources. At the national level, the government allocates public funds in the national budget tofinance mitigation investments in forest plantation development, fleet renewal, natural gas infrastructure,sustainable energy, and waste management. Summary of Ghana’s efforts to raise the funding for mitigation actions
are as follows:
4.3.2.1 Establishment of SDG delivery and green funds
The initiative is a joint effort between the government and the private sector SDG advisory group. The SDG delivery
fund and Green fund was established in 2019 to raise funds to support the implementation of the country’s SDG
programme. The private sector has the target of establishing US$100 million SDGs Delivery Fund and a US$200
million Green Fund to complement government’s efforts at tackling climate change and funding theimplementation of the SDGs106. The fund would be raised over five years from the corporate social responsibility(CSR) budget to capitalise the fund.
4.3.2.2 Accessing mitigation finance from international earmarked funds
Ghana has mobilised mitigation finance from international funds such as Climate Investment Fund (CIF), Global
Environment Facility (GEF) and the Green Climate Fund (GCF). Under the CIF107, the Government and its partners
are investing US$ 75 million to enhance the vitality of the forest landscape. An additional US$ 40 million is being
invested in boosting the scaling up of renewable energy penetration. Similarly, the GEF has invested US$ 89
million in 32 national projects over the last two decades108. Ghana is yet to receive direct mitigation finance fromthe GCF. The GCF has approved funding for two adaptation projects worth US$ 46 million109. There are two
mitigation projects on green cooling and shea landscape REDD+ seeking funding from GCF.
4.3.2.3 Result-based payment mitigation projects
Ghana is developing two Result-Based Payment (RBP) mitigation projects under the World Bank’s Forest Carbon
Partnership Facility (FCPF) and the International Transferred Mitigation Outcomes (ITMOs) under Article 6.2 of theParis Agreement. Under the FCPF, Ghana is about to implement a result-based payment Cocoa REDD+ project togenerate 10 million emissions reduction over six years. Ghana and Switzerland are about to pilot the National
Clean Energy Access Programme (NCEP) under the ITMOs scheme. The NCEP110 would seek to operationalise Article
6.2 in Ghana and transfer mitigation outcomes as ITMOs to Switzerland, thereby demonstrating the scalability of
the conditional mitigation commitments. The NCEP would contribute to reducing GHG emissions by increasing
access to distributed energy for qualified households and SMEs in Ghana. The programme would involve thenationwide installation and operationalisation of a wide range of renewable energy technologies.

106

https://www.presidency.gov.gh/index.php/briefing-room/news-style-2/1369-ghana-committed-to-reducing-her-carbon-footprints-president-akufo-addo107

https://www.climateinvestmentfunds.org/country/ghana
https://www.thegef.org/country/ghana
109
https://www.greenclimate.fund/countries/ghana
110
https://www.international.klik.ch/en/Activities-and-impact/Mitigation-activities.287.html
108Page | 93

It covers solar PVs, solar lanterns, solar home systems, and improved cooking systems to generate an estimated
2.2 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent and increase access to more than 1 million green technology
installations. An essential feature of the ITMOs activity is the integration of a Green Credit Line to streamline andscale-up investment. The carbon receivables would cushion SMEs to take up an ambitious expansion programme
and reduce the payback risk to the local banks through credit guarantees.
4.3.2.4 Establishment of €30m Facility to Support the Implementation of Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency
Projects in Ghana
Agence Française de Développement (AFD) and the Energy Commission (EC) have signed a Technical AssistanceFacility (TAF) to support local banks and energy businesses in Ghana. The facility, Sustainable Use of Natural
Resources and Energy Finance (SUNREF) programme is one of the most significant green finance projects to be
deployed in Ghana. SUNREF programme seeks to provide both technical assistance and green credit loans to local
financial institutions for them to finance small and medium-scale renewable energy and energy efficiency projects
in Ghana. The SUNREF programme has three pillars: credit lines of up to €30m from AFD disbursed through local
banks; Technical Assistance Facility (TAF) of €1.88 million from the European Union Africa Infrastructure TrustFund (EU-AITF); and an investment grant scheme €2.4m from the EU-AITF to provide additional incentives to green
investments. The programme aim is to support small and medium-sized companies in Ghana to invest in renewableenergy and energy efficiency interventions. It could contribute up to 7GWh per year reduction in energy
consumption, increase the share of renewable energy in the overall energy mix and contribute to 3.2 ktCO 2
emissions saving each year.
4.4 Capacity Development for Enhanced Mitigation Actions
There are several on-going skill development initiatives that contribute to strengthening the mitigative capacities
in the country. A brief overview of the mitigation related capacity development efforts is described in this section.
4.4.1 Skills Development Fund
Ghana has established the skills development fund (SDF) to provide funds to improve the productivity of theworkforce through training. The Government of Ghana, the World Bank, and DANIDA provided funding for SDF.
Priority is on enterprises in agribusiness/processing and sustainable energy. Under SDF, micro to large enterprises,
universities, and technical universities can access funding for specialised training and acquire machinery. ThroughSDF, many artisans have been trained in solar installation and maintenance by the Energy Commission and Ghana
Telecom University College111. The training also focused on technicians working on a solar system to upgrade theircapacity in grid-connected solar PV installations. SDF provided GHS 1.6 million funding to put in place atechnology centre at the Kumasi Technical University to promote renewable energy and energy efficiency
technologies to businesses. The centre also conducts research and provides practical training to students insustainable energy.
4.4.2 Technical Education and Institutional Training in Mitigation Related Disciplines
Training and research into renewable energy is a vital area in most universities and technical institutions in the
country. KNUST has established The Energy Centre (TEC), Technology Consultancy Centre (TCC) and Land Use
Centre to research and promote mitigation technologies in renewable energy and land use. The Energy Centre
offers studies on policy engagement and organises short courses in renewable energy.

111

https://www.sdfghana.org/fwindow.php?fid=8Page | 94

The University of Energy and Natural Resources (UENR) established in 2012 delivers higher education, disseminate
knowledge, and undertake energy-and-natural resources-related research. UENR has set up a regional centre forenergy and environmental sustainability112 to provide post-graduate training in Energy and Environment. Africa
Institute for Sanitation and Waste Management is a collaboration between KNUST and Zoomlion Ghana Limited
to establish specialised training bodies to train, study and promote innovative waste management technologies.
The University of Ghana also has the Institute of Environment and Sanitation Studies and the Centre for Climate
Change and Sustainability Studies to research and advocate for the adoption of mitigation technologies in thewaste sector.
4.4.3 Certified Electrical Wiring
In 2012, Ghana’s Parliament passed the Electrical Wiring Regulation (L.I. 2008)113 to govern electrical wiring andinstallation in Ghana. The Energy Commission has issued guidelines for the certification of electricians andcurriculum for the examination and certification of electricians. The Commission has certified several institutionsin the country to undertake pre-examination training in electrical wiring for prospective electricians. The Energy
Commission has developed a database application (CEWP App) for certified electricians in Ghana. This App, whichis available on the Google play store and the Apple app store, allows customers access to the database and allows
them to use only certified electricians for their electrical wiring and installations.
4.4.4 Training of Biogas Technicians
The Ghana Cleaner Production Centre has a programme under the Switch Africa Green Project to train artisans ineight modules on the construction of biogas digesters. So far, the centre has trained 30 artisans who have been
issued a Certificate of proficiency from the National Vocational Training Institute (NVTI). A biogas calculator has
been developed to assist artisans in the estimation of materials required for biogas construction by the National
Cleaner Production Centre.
4.5 Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Assessment
This section presents the steps used to conduct the GHG mitigation assessment, and the results are in two parts.
Part one outlines the national arrangements for the mitigation assessment by addressing topics like key sectoral
emission analysis, institutional mechanism for mitigation activities, methods and data sources, mitigation analysis
archiving system and plans for further mitigation. The second part is on the mitigation assessment results. The
results are presented for aggregate and individual measures in the energy and non-energy sectors. There isadditional information on priority mitigation measures.
4.5.1 Categorisation of IPCC Greenhouse Gas Inventory Sectors for Mitigation Sectors
The mitigation assessment builds on GHG inventory estimates by mapping the results to suit key mitigation
sectors. The first important step was to sort inventory results of the categories under the traditional IPCC sector
into the mitigation sectors. The sorting allows for the inventory estimates to be expressed into sector
classifications like the national GDP accounts. Aligning the GHG inventory results with the national account, helped
to establish the linkages between GDP and emission trends. Table 24 presents the emissions according to the IPCC
sectors, mitigation sectors, and national accounts.

112

113

https://www.rcees.uenr.edu.gh
http://www.energycom.gov.gh/licensing/electrical-wiring

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Table 24: Categorisation of GHG inventory sectors to mitigation sectors and national accounts
GHG inventory
IPCC Codes
Mitigation sectors
National
Historical emissions
sectoraccounts[MtCO2e]2010
2016
Energy1.A1Electricity supply
Service
2.6
5.01*
1.A3
Transport
4.88
7.08
1.A4
Others
1.44
1.53
1.B2
Fugitive
0.02
0.02
1.A2
Manufacturing
Industry
1.78
1.05
industry
Industrial
2.A, 2.B, 2.C, Industrial process
1.09
1.04
Processes and
2.D, 2F
Products Use
AFOLU (livestock)
3A,
Agriculture
Agriculture
2.69
3.48
AFOLU (Land)
3B
Land-use change
12.98
12.87
AFOLU (Non-CO2
3C
Aggregated
Agric
5.82
6.57
and Aggregatedemissionssources)Waste
4A, 4B 4C
Solid waste
Services
1.04
1.33
4.D1
Domestic wastewater
1.08
1.21
management
4.D2
Industrial wastewater Industry
0.42
0.62
management
Total
35.84
41.81

Share of 2016
national emissions
(%)
11.98
16.93
3.66
0.05
2.51
2.49

8.32
30.77
15.71

3.18
2.89
1.48
100

*Emissions from energy transformation (manufacture of solid fuels and refining) of 0.35 MtCO 2e has been excluded from the 1.A1 in 2016 because it
was not considered a significant emission source in the country. In 2010, 0.23 MtCO2e from the manufacture of solid fuels and refining, was not included
under 1.A1.

4.5.2 Institutional Arrangement for Mitigation Assessment
Ghana’s mitigation assessment has emerged from multisectoral efforts of line ministries. The information gives an
overview of the existing institutional structure for mitigation assessment. It also identifies where there have been
improvements since the submission of the third national communication and documents areas in the current
institutional arrangement requiring further strengthening. The EPA is the designated mitigation assessment
agency and the hosts of the UNFCCC focal point. The EPA has the responsibility to coordinate the planning,
preparation, and reporting of the mitigation assessment in close collaboration with key government institutions.
Within the EPA, the climate change unit undertakes the day-to-day management of the mitigation assessment.
The unit prepares a work plan for the sectoral mitigation teams, assists with data requests and ensures that theoutputs of the mitigation assessment meet high-quality standards and are submitted on time. The EPA is also
tasked to document all materials, including data and store them in a single location. Furthermore, the EPA
identifies officers from the relevant institution to form the mitigation assessment team and prepares amemorandum of understanding to govern how they work within the broader framework of the assessment. A small
sector group was formed out of the mitigation team to specifically focus on energy, transport waste management,
land-use change, and cross-cutting issues.
Tables 25 and 26 give an overview of the existing institutional arrangements for the mitigation assessment. Table
26 highlights the relationships between the designated mitigation organisation and UNFCCC Focal Point; Table
27 gives details on the mitigation team members.
Page | 96

Table 25: Designated mitigation assessment agency
Designated National GHG
Describe the arrangements or relationship between Mitigation
Mitigation Assessment
Assessment Agency/Organisation and UNFCCC Focal Point Agency
Preparation Agency
Energy Commission
Energy Centre, KNUSTMember of the mitigation assessment team group responsible forenergy.

Ghana Atomic Energy
Ministry Transport

Member of the mitigation assessment team, provided mitigation
actions in the transport sector.

Forestry Commission

Member of the mitigation assessment team and lead for the land-use
change category. Provided data on REDD+ and forest plantation as
input into the forest mitigation assessment.

Economics Department,
University of Ghana, Legon

Member of the mitigation assessment team, provided inputs into theeconomic analysis aspects. Instrumental in the construction of themarginal abatement revenues for the prioritised mitigation actions.
Validated technology cost prices and the assumptions behind theGDP projection and the discount rates.

Ministry of Environment,
Science, Technology, andInnovation

Member of the mitigation assessment team and responsible for
mitigation policy in the Environment sector include carbon markets.

Environmental Protection
Agency (Built Environment
Department.)

Member of the mitigation assessment team, led in the assessment of
mitigation opportunities in the landfill and compost.

Environmental Protection
Agency (Manufacturing
Industry and Climate Change
Unit.)

Member of the mitigation assessment team and was responsible for
mitigation actions in industrial processes covering HFC phase-out
and industrial wastewater management

UNFCCC Focal Point and
UNFCCC Focal Point
AgencyMr K. Y. Oppong Boadi,
Environmental Protection
AgencyUNFCCC Focal Point
Agency manages the
mitigation assessment
process from planning,
preparation, andreporting.

Page | 97

Table 26: National mitigation assessment team
Name
Role

Organisation

Contact Information

Comments

Email: attieku@energycom.gov.gh
Tel: 0244872370
Email: attieku@energycom.gov.gh
Tel: 0244872370

Dr Daniel Benefoh of Environmental Protection Agency was
the alternate leader of the mitigation team.
The sector lead ensured strong linkages with the strategic
national energy planning process.

Mitigation Team Leader

Mr Simpson Attieku

Energy Commission

Electricity Supply Lead

Mr Simpson Attieku

Energy Commission

Nuclear PowerDr Seth Debrah

Residential and Commercial
SectorMs Paula Edze

Ghana Atomic Energy
Commission
Energy Commission

Email: s.debrah@gaecgh.org
Tel: 0243215604
Email: pedze@energycom.gov.gh
Tel: 0244487403

The mitigation team member who focused on the mitigationassessment of the planned nuclear power.
Coordinator, SEforALL Secretariat

Energy Efficiency in homes,commerce, and industry

Mr Kennedy Amankwa

Energy Commission

Email: kenamankwah@yahoo.co.uk
Tel: 0242261212

Industry Sector

Mr Joseph Baffoe

Land-use management

Thomas Gyambrah

Environmental Protection
AgencyForestry Commission

Solid Waste Management
Lead

Mr Joy Hesse Ankomah

Environmental Protection
AgencyEmail: jabaffoe@gmail.com
Tel: 0262373698
Email: nanayaw239@yahoo.com
Tel: 0249772820
Email: joy.ankomah@epa.gov.gh
Tel: 0501301433

Member of the national GHG inventory working group onenergy and contributed to the assessment of mitigation
opportunities in energy efficiency measures.
Mitigation action in the RAC sector with an emphasis on the
HFC phase-down.
Forestry mitigation measures on REDD+ and forest plantation

Economic/Integrated Analysis

Prof. Daniel Twerefou

Sustainable development andmitigation policy

Mr Peter Dery

University of Ghana
Economics, Dept.
CDM/DNA, MESTI

Email: twerefou@yahoo.co.uk
Tel: 0244-603-676
Email: peterjdery@yahoo.co.uk
Tel: 0243-646749

Review of cost prices and the assumptions behind the GDP
projection and the discount rates.
Linkages with carbon markets and environment sector
mitigation actions.

Archive (Data and Document)

Dr Daniel Tutu Benefoh

Environmental Protection
AgencyEmail: dbenefor2000@gmail.com
Tel: 0246114652

Member of the national GHG inventory-working group onenergy.

Waste mitigation action on landfill management, compost,
and biogas

Table 27 gives additional information on the roles and responsibilities at the sectoral level. It includes the specific task assigned to each member of the sector groups.
They also teased out the crucial challenges the team encountered during the assessment and strategies to address them in the next mitigation assessment exercise. The
mitigation assessment task broadly includes coordination of the assessment process; technical assessment; review of results and methodological choices, data collection
and archive.
Table 27: Roles and responsibilities of the mitigation assessment team

Page | 98

RolesInstitutions

Contact(s)Mr Simpson
Attieku and Dr
Daniel Benefoh

Contact Information

Participated in theassessment meeting?

Comments

Email: attieku@energycom.gov.gh
Tel: 0244872370

Yes

EPA has an existing MOU arrangement with theinstitutions that are involved in the mitigationassessment. The MOU governs the relationship between
EPA and institutions in terms of the data exchanges,
finalisation of work plan and deliverables, and reportinglines. The team is also responsible for the coordination ofa series of technical and stakeholder meetings to discuss
the strategy on training, data collection, and work plans.
Data collection is an integral part of the mitigationassessment. The Energy Commission and EPA led in theregular data collection throughout the assessment
period.
The lead created smaller groups out of the mitigationteam to focus on specific sector assessments in energy,transport, land-use change, industrial processes, andwaste management. Each team had the responsibility toidentify key data sources; collect and process mitigationassessment data, and choose appropriate tools toundertake the sector mitigation assessment and prepare
sector reports. Energy Commission used the LEAP model
to evaluate the mitigation opportunities in the energy
and transport sectors.
The team ensured linkages between the mitigationassessment and key sustainable development policies.
They also provided critical inputs in the review andselection of methodology for the assessment. The teamalso participated in the workshop to evaluate the initial
results from the assessment.

Mitigation assessment lead is
responsible for the overall
coordination of GHG mitigationassessment in the energy sector

Ghana Energy Commission
and the Environmental
Protection Agency

Mitigation assessment team. The
team conducts assessment forenergy, transport, forestry, andwaste management consistent
with internationally recognised
methodologies.

Energy Commission, EPA,
Energy Centre, KNUST,
Forestry Commission,
Ghana Atomic Energy
Commission and Ministry ofTransport

Refer to Table 4

Refer to Table 4

Yes

Mitigation team responsible for
ensuring policy linkages with the
mitigation assessment. The teamalso reported on carbon markets
and provided inputs into
economic data used in theevaluation.

University of Ghana,
Economics Dept.
CDM/DNA-MESTI, EPA

Refer to Table 4

Refer to Table 4

Yes

Review of mitigation assessment
methodology and results

UNEP-DTU Partnership

Jorgen Villy
Fenhann

Email: jqfe@dtu.uk

Yes

Email: dbenefor2000@gmail.com
Tel: 0246114652

The team worked with UNEP-DTU Partnership toundertake an economy-wide mitigation assessment
using the GACMO model. UNEP-DTU originally developed
the GACMO model.

Page | 99

Data providers

ISSER – University of
Ghana, Legon
SPPD – Energy
Commission

Dr Aba Obrumah
Crenstil
Mr Simpson
Attieku

Email: abaodoi@gmail.com
Tel: +233 244363551
Email: attieku@energycom.gov.gh
Tel: 0244872370

Yes

SEforALL Secretariat –Energy Commission

Ms Paula Edze

Email: pedze@energycom.gov.gh
Tel: 0244487403
Email: ebenashie@gmail.com
Tel: 0557349004

Yes

Email: kenamankwah@yahoo.co.uk
Tel: 0242261212

Yes

Mr Ebenezer Ashie

Energy Efficiency andClimate Change Unit–
Energy Commission

Mr Kennedy
Amankwa

Ghana Statistical Services
(GSS)

Yes

Yes

No

National Development
Planning Commission(NDPC)Dr Felix AddoYobo

Email: felix.addo-yobo@ndpc.gov.gh
Tel: 0505093954

Yes

Forestry Commission

Mr Thomas
Gyambrah

Email: nanayaw239@yahoo.com
Tel: 0249772820

Yes

Participated in the mitigation assessment meeting toprovide inputs into the methodology for the assessment.
Supplied LEAP dataset for the analysis under the energy
sector. Using the LEAP database ensured consistency
with the Strategic National Energy Plan (SNEP). The EPA
requested for the LEAP data as part of the collaboration
with the Energy Commission. Both the EPA and Energy
Commission team that worked on the SNEP also workedon the energy sector mitigation assessment.
The SEforALL secretariat provided data on sustainableenergy projects on the various energy institutions are
implementing programmes in areas relevant to themitigation assessment. The secretariat publishes aquarterly bulletin on sustainable energy interventions in
Ghana.
Provided data on significant energy efficiency
interventions across the country that are useful to themitigation assessment in the energy sector. The Unit also
contributed to the screening and selection of the
mitigation actions using multi-criteria analysis.
Facilitated access to publicly available data on Ghana
living standards surveys, housing, and multiple indicatorscluster surveys. The GSS figures were useful in thehousehold energy demand projections, waste disposal
trends and industry waste outputs.
NDPC has the mandate to set out the priority list of thegovernment of the day in the national development plan.
The key policy areas informed the mitigation assessment
scenario. The Commission also regularly publishes theannual progress report and helps to track theimplementation of key government policies andprogrammes.
Forestry Commission provided data inputs on REDD+ andforest plantation. Participated in the mitigation

Page | 100

Built Environment
Department Environmental Protection
AgencyData Archiving

Climate Change Unit Environmental Protection
AgencyMr. Charles
Sarpong Duah
Mr Joy Hesse
Ankomah

Email: strongmanbowas@yahoo.com
Tel: 0546419884
Email: ankojoyhesse@yahoo.com
Tel: 0501301433

Yes

Mr Joseph Baffoe

Email: jabaffoe@gmail.com
Tel: 0262373698

No

Provided data on HFC consumption in the country andinput in the potential mitigation assessment.

Dr Daniel Tutu
Benefoh

Email: dbenefoh2000@gmail.com
Tel: 0246-114-652

Yes

Documentation and archiving

Yes

assessment meeting to offer data into the methodology
for the assessment.
Provided data on solid waste management, including
composting and landfill gas management.

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4.5.2.1 Potential improvements in the institutional arrangement
Table 28 outlines the key identified areas in the existing institutional mechanisms needing further improvementin the subsequent assessments. The improvement areas are: increasing access to policy, technology, andfinancial/economic data; strengthening working relationships of the institutions involved in the evaluation;
continuous capacity development; use of appropriate and comprehensive mitigation assessment tools andinclusion of additional stakeholders in the mitigation assessment.
Table 28: Potential improvements in the existing institutional arrangements for mitigation assessments
Mitigation
sector/category
Electricity Supply

Strengths in the management structure ofnational mitigation assessments
Access to reliable plant-level current and projected
electricity supply data from the LEAP model. The
projections data on electricity supply are consistent
with the SNEP. The independent power producers andthe Volta River Authority supplied the primary data onelectricity supply (process and fuels) to the Energy
Commission.
The Energy Commission regularly publishes the energy
statistics annually in April. The statistics containelectricity to supply data and the source of power
plants and the fuel used. This dataset is a useful source
for the mitigation assessment in electricity supply.

Demand-side
Households,
Commerce, andIndustry

The team coupled electricity optimisation model
results in the LEAP model to enhance the outputs.
The regular supply of data on household energy use
and expenditure from the Ghana living standard survey
regularly published by the Ghana Statistical Service.
The household energy demand projection is based on
historical data on household energy consumption and
expenditure, incomes and population trends andspecific policy targets.
The Energy Commission surveys data on energy
demand and intensities for different fuels in commerce
and industries.

Potential increases in the management structure ofnational mitigation assessments
Develop country-specific emissions factors that are
representative of increasing diversification ofelectricity sources. Build on the CDM methodology
for the development of grid emission factors.
Continue working with Volta River Authority facilitylevel accounting and expand the programme toinclude independent power producers.
Improve economic and technical forecast data inelectricity supply in the short-term. Link the short
forecast data with the annual electricity supply plan
produced by the power sector players.

Improve data on the relationship between economic
and population forecast and household energy
demand projection
Ghana does not have country-specific data on
technologies in the LEAP model. In this regard, theteam relied on global prices in the mitigationassessment. There is a need to conduct a study toassess the cost of major climate-smart technology
and the factors that drive the value over time.

There is a right level of in-country capacities to run the
LEAP model. The Energy Commission officially uses the
LEAP model for strategic energy planning. The
mitigation assessment builds on the LEAP model toensure consistency.

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Transportation(road transport)

Increased access to vehicle population data from the
Ministry of Transport and the Driver Vehicle andLicensing Authority. The vehicle data include annual
imports from Ghana Customs, Vehicle Registration, andRoadworthy certification from the private garages. The
data covers vehicle model, technology class, fuel, andweight from 1995 to 2016.

Collaborate with DVLA and the private vehicle
inspection garages to collect data on annual
mileage.
Survey to collect data on passenger or freight km in
collaboration with the Ministry of Transport andDVLA.
Improve data on the correlation between
passenger/freight transport and sector GDP andmotorisation rate.

Industry Sector

Obtained data on industry from the Energy
Commission, Ghana Statistical Service, and theEnvironmental Protection Agency.

Organise additional training on transport modelling.
Update data on industrial and commercial energy
consumption through a survey.
Expand the annual environmental report for theindustry to include GHG estimation and the industry
level projections. There are plans to establish an
online reporting system for the industry.

Land-use change

National plantation development programme annual
report provides useful plantation data (area planted,
target, and investment and food production).

Solid Waste
Management

The team procured data from two compost facilities
and the Ministry of Sanitation and Water Resources in
the country for the assessment.

Cross-sectoral

There is a collaboration between economic research,development and environment institutions whichfacilitated a greater exchange of data and experienceson economic forecast and sustainability options

Include Association of Ghana Industries, Ministry ofTrade and Industry and the Private EnterpriseFederation in the mitigation assessment. Theirinvolvement would be essential to add policy andregulatory dimensions to the assessment.
Capacity development on mitigation assessment
modelling in the land sector such as the ALU, Ex-ACT
tool by FAO. Continue efforts towards ensuringconsistency between the land BAU emissions(baseline) and the REDD+ forest reference levels.
Collect landfill-specific or facility-level data on solidand liquid waste disposal and treatment.
Collaborate with local government authorities in theten regional capitals in Ghana to improve on themethod of data collection, particularly, solid waste
disposal.
Deepen the involvement of research and academic
institutions in the financial forecast and analysis ofmarket potentials of selected technologies.
Collaborate with research and academic institutions
to develop methodological tools that consider thereal economic structure of Ghana.
Develop simple to implement QA/QC anduncertainty template for the sectors.

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4.5.3 Mitigation Assessment Methods and Data Sources
The proper documentation of information on the methodology, data and data sources and the underlying assumptions is critical to ensure greater transparency in the
mitigation assessment. Such information would enable users who were not directly involved in the assessment and the future mitigation teams to understand the rationale
for the methodological and data choices. The next mitigation assessment can refer to this documentation to determine the methods, tools and resources used. It would
also help to improve transparency by explaining how the assessment was done and the challenges encountered. The documentation would also reduce the future effort
teams would require to develop the mitigation assessments and provide a basis to ensure consistency in future reports. Table 29 provides an overall summary of themethods used for critical mitigation analysis tasks (BAU projection, mitigation scenario analysis).
Table 29: Methodological steps used for mitigation assessment in the energy and non-energy sectors
Analysis Task
Description of Methods
Who conducted theanalysis?
Development of BAU Energy sectors: Baseline emissions were projected along with the Mitigation assessment
Scenariobusiness as usual (BAU) trajectory for the period 2016-2030. BAU is team (Energy
analogous to without measures scenario (WtM) and covers the national Commission and EPA)
and sector levels. The BAU generally represents the future emissions
associated with the continuation of the status quo of government policies.
In the energy sector, the BAU emission is consistent with the AEG scenario
in the LEAP model. AEG is when the government implements its
mitigation policy without adopting new ones. The 2016 baseline
emissions projected to 2030 based on the economic (GDP), population andpolicies. The BAU emissions are the threshold below which emission
reductions would occur due to the implementation of mitigation policies.
It is also used as the reference for the measurement of performance of theindividual or agreement mitigation policies.

Key Contact

Comments

Energy sector –Mr Simpson Attieku (Energy
Commission), Dr Seth Debrah(Ghana Atomic Energy
Commission and Dr Daniel
Benefoh (Environmental
Protection Agency)

In the energy sector, the assumption
on economic growth, incomes,
population trends, price variation,
currency exchange rates, fuel prices,emission factors, discount and policy
covered in the BAU, were consistent
with the LEAP.

Non-energy sectors: In the non-energy sectors where specific data on
future projections on the drivers of the future emissions do not exist, theteam decided to use the mean for the last five years of the historicalemissions to inform the BAU emission projections. The non-energy sectors
included land-use change, waste management, and industry.
Transportation was treated separately from the energy sector eventhough the LEAP model included it as one of the demand sectors.

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Identification andprioritisation(screening) of
mitigation options

Several mitigation options have been identified for each sector based on
existing programmes and the new policy direction. The team used a multicriteria assessment (MCA) approach to screen the mitigation option tocome up with a list of measures. The MCA tool is a spreadsheet that theteam adopted to suit the unique planning situation of the country. The
MCA approach was developed using qualitative and quantitative
variables. The qualitative factors included the following: consistency withalignment with the sector, national priorities and SDGs, institutional
ownership, technical effectiveness, capacity availability and ease of
implementation whereas the quantitative factors were emission
reduction, marginal cost, and investment outlay.

Mitigation assessment
team (EPA team andworkshop participants)
facilitated by UNEPDTU

Dr Daniel Tutu Benefoh,(Environmental Protection
Agency)Dr Daniel Twerefou of the
Economics Department, University of
Ghana, Legon) had used a similar
MCA approach to prioritise low
carbon development intervention in
the country.

The MCA is a Focused Group Discussion (FGD). Each criterion was scoredand assigned overall weight. The participants did three rounds of scoring,individually and as a group. In each scoring round, the participants
provided an objective score for each mitigation option using a "score
sheet" in no order based on their disposition to specific field experience/
knowledge/ expertise. The group scoring was in two scoring rounds.
Scoring was moderated by a facilitator who managed the group dynamics
and ensured fairness. The co-solicitation was used to achieve objectives
and transparent allocation of scores and reduction of bias.
Allocation of scores for each criterion per mitigation option was agreed
upon in two ways either through consensus scoring (where theparticipants agreed on a proposed score for a mitigation option after short
discussions) or scoring by voting, (if no consensus after the participant’sdeliberations. When voting or agreement does not resolve the allocationof the score, the mitigation option was excluded from the list. The resultsof the individual score and group scores were averaged and allocated tothe mitigation option.
The MCA produced a priority list of mitigation options that were put
together as policy packages under different mitigation scenarios(unconditional measures and conditional measures).

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Macro-Economic
Analysis

The macro-economic assessment was not conducted due to the lack ofappropriate datasets to run Computational General Equilibrium (CGE)models.

Mitigation Scenario
Analysis (integration)

Economy-wide simulation for two mitigation scenarios(unconditional and conditional mitigation target)(GACMO model)

Mitigation teamsupported by the EPA
and UNEP-DTU

Mr Jorgen Villy Fenhann
UNEP-DTU Partnership
Dr Daniel Tutu Benefoh,
Dr Antwi-Boasiako Amoah

Economy-wide simulation for energy mitigation scenarios (LEAP Model),expressed as “with measures (WM)” and “with additional measures(WAM)” and “with additional measures plus” depicting increasing levelsof ambition. The different mitigation scenarios made of several policy
measures compared to the without measures scenario (WtM).

Energy team and EPA

Simulation of mitigation scenarios based on the forest plantation
strategy and the REDD+ strategy (ALU and GACMO Model).

Land sector team and
EPA

Simulation of mitigation scenarios in the solid and liquid waste
categories. GACMO model.

Waste team and EPA

The GACMO model uses a spreadsheet to construct a marginal revenue
curve for selected mitigation technologies.

EPA and UNEP-DTU.

Mr Simpson Attieku (Energy
Commission), Ms Paula Edze
(Energy Commission), Mr
Kennedy Amankwa (Energy
Commission), Dr Seth Debrah(Ghana Atomic Energy
Commission) and Dr Daniel
Tutu Benefoh (EPA)
Mr Thomas Gyambrah (FC)
Mr Charles Sarpong Duah (FC)and Dr Daniel Tutu Benefoh(EPA)
Mr Joy Ankomah Hesse, Mrs
Juliana Bempah and Dr Daniel
Tutu Benefoh all of EPA
Mr Jorgen Villy Fenhann(UNEP-DTU Partnership)
Dr Daniel Tutu Benefoh (EPA),
Dr Antwi-Boasiako Amoah (EPA)

Marginal revenue
curve

There is a plan to undertake
dynamic modelling of mitigation
options in the subsequentassessments.
The GACMO model is an all-in-one
mitigation assessment tool for all
sectors. It is easy to use and flexible
enough to suit Ghana’s national
circumstances. The tool has a robust
and transparent methodologicalstructure and can be portable toother models.
The LEAP database was initiallydeveloped by the Energy
Commission to inform the strategicenergy planning process. Several
mitigation scenarios along different
policy packages were created.

The GACMO focused on forest land.
REDD+ projection was obtained fromthe forest reference level estimates.
The focus was on biogas andcompost in the waste sector.
Technology and fuel costs wereobtained from international sources.

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Tables 30-33 provide additional documentation on the tools and resources used for the specific mitigationassessment tasks, the rationale for using the selected tools and resources, and comments and suggestions for
future analyses.
Table 30: Tools and methodologies used in the energy sector
Analysis Task(s)Development of BAU and mitigation scenarios
Sector or scope

Economy-wide projections. The projections covered all the GHG inventory sectors from 2016 to 2030, but
the emissions from agriculture and industry are not part of the mitigation commitments. The emission
scenarios were as follows: “without measures (WtM)” and “with measures (WM)” and “with additional
measures (WAM).”
Without measures (WtM) - The scenarios corresponded to baseline (BAU emissions), unconditional andconditional mitigation projects reflecting increasing ambition. The WtM scenario represents future
emissions trajectory projections along with status quo policy (trend of the existing policy remained
unchanged in future, and none of the proposed or on-going government measures that have mitigation
objectives is wholly or partially implemented).
With measures (WM) - represented a future emissions scenario where proposed or on-going government
policies and measures are implemented to achieve a lower mitigation goal. This scenario corresponds to
the 15% unconditional mitigation commitment under the first nationally determined contributions.
With additional measures (WAM) - a scenario with additional measures (mitigation scenario – where
ambitious additional measures are undertaken with international support to achieve high ambitious
emission reductions). This scenario is consistent with the 30% conditional mitigation commitment under
the first nationally determined contributions.

Model/data source/tool

LEAP (Long-range Energy Alternative Planning) and the GACMO model

Describe why thisresource was chosen

The LEAP model and GACMO are flexible and straightforward to use. Both are not data-intensive and canbe adapted to suit the complexities of the national circumstances. There are significant in-country capacity
levels to use the two models. The GACMO model has an in-built MRV component which allows for the
tracking of the effects of the mitigation actions. The LEAP model has been the primary analytical tool forenergy planning and mitigation assessment since 2005. The GACMO was officially adopted for the latest
analytical work behind Ghana’s NDC. Ghana would continue to use both tools in the future.

Contact

Energy team – Mr Simpson Attieku (Energy Commission), Ms Paula Edze (Energy Commission), Mr Kennedy
Amankwa (Energy Commission) and Dr Seth Debrah (Ghana Atomic Energy Commission). Mr Jorgen Villy
Fenhann, UNEP-DTU Partnership. Dr Daniel Tutu Benefoh and Dr Antwi-Boasiako Amoah all of EPA.

Other comments (e.g.
usefulness, lessons,suggestions for future
analysis)

The LEAP and GACMO tools allow the assessment in the energy and non-energy sectors. While the LEAP
model is more energy-centric, the GACMO is an open-source spreadsheet that is simple but can be modified
to suit complex assessments. There is reliable data on the cost of resources, fuels and technology, and thechanges in them over time. So, in the LEAP, there was no cost information. In the GACMO, the cost
information was obtained from international sources. The mitigation team plans to undertake a study tocollect country-specific data on cost and investment on different mitigation technologies. The study results
would improve on the data behind the marginal abatement revenues curves. Building the mitigationassessment on the LEAP model produced by the Energy Commission ensured greater consistency in the
results because of the same dataset, assumptions, and mitigations scenario. Another important lesson isthat the same team worked on both LEAP and the assessment and the plan is to pool them together in the
future.

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Table 31: Tools and methodologies used in the energy sector
Analysis Task(s)Development of Marginal Abatement Revenue Curve
Sector or scope

Economy-wide

Model/data source/tool

GACMO tool

Why this resource waschosenGACMO model uses a spreadsheet to construct a marginal abatement revenue curve for selected mitigation
technologies. The curve automatically generates the marginal abatement revenues for each priority
mitigation technology using their ex-ante emissions reduction potential (t) and the cost (in US$) of
replacement.

Contact

Mr Jorgen Villy Fenhann UNEP-DTU Partnership, Dr Daniel Tutu Benefoh (EPA) and Dr Antwi-Boasiako
Amoah (EPA)

Other comments (e.g.
usefulness, lessons,suggestions for Future
analysis)

The marginal abatement revenue curve is a histogram plot of emission savings (t) against the cost (US$)
for each mitigation technology. The results are inputs of quantitative variables in the multi-criteria analysis
for screening the mitigation options. The team collected data on technology costs from multiple
international sources. It would be useful to collect additional country-specific technology cost data to
improve the reliability of any future analysis. In the next assessment, the focus would be on energy
mitigation technologies not covered in the current analysis. For instance, the team would investigate thedetailed cost and mitigation assessment of nuclear technology because of the strong policy push fornuclear power.

Table 32: Tools and methodologies used in land-use change
Analysis Task(s)Mitigation assessment for land-use change
Sector or scope

Forestry sector – carbon stock enhancement through forest plantation development and REDD+

Model/data source/tool

ALU and GACMO

Why this resource waschosenWith the ALU tool, it is possible to directly link the GHG inventory result for the forest land category to
the mitigation assessment. The GACMO model allows calculating emission reduction potential and thecost for specific mitigation options (tree plantation and REDD+ in the same dashboard as other nonforest mitigation options). Both are flexible and less data-intensive. There is enough in-country capacity
to use both models.

Contact

Mr Thomas Gyambrah (FC), Mr Charles Sarpong Duah (FC) and Dr Daniel Tutu Benefoh (EPA)

Other comments (e.g.
usefulness, lessons,suggestions for Future
analysis)

There are discrepancies in the forest reference level for REDD+ and the mitigation assessment results forthe land sector. The variations were due to differences in the scope of activities in the forest reference
level and mitigation. While the forest reference for the REDD+ includes activities (avoided deforestationand forest degradation), the mitigation assessment was limited to only carbon stock enhancement. In thenext evaluation, the team would work to resolve differences in the baselines.

Table 33: Tools and methodologies used in solid waste management
Analysis Task(s)Assessment of GHG mitigation potential for compost and biogas

Sector or scope

Waste sector

Model/data source/tool

Tool for calculating GHG in solid waste management (SWM) and GACMO

Why this resource waschosenSimple, flexible modelling tool; adaptable to national circumstances,

Contact

Joy Ankomah Hesse (Built Environment Environmental Protection Agency)

Other comments (e.g.
usefulness, lessons,suggestions for future
analysis)

Explore opportunities to include GHG mitigation potential assessment for domestic and industrial
liquid waste disposal

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4.5.4 Mitigation Assessment Archiving System
In 2015, Ghana instituted a Climate Ambitious Reporting Programme (CARP) to facilitate national and international
climate reporting. Documentation and archiving are some of the functional components of CARP. As a result, theEPA established114 an online database to store GHG inventory and mitigation assessment data. The archive system
keeps a record of references, the methods used, expert comments, data, and the location of the documents. The
mitigation data archive has many benefits. It helps to facilitate easy retrieval of files and aid in the work of newteams in the future. It also makes the mitigation assessment process and the results more transparent andreproducible.
The team followed the documentation and archiving procedures. All the records from the assessment are in asingle location online server hosted by the EPA. Having the files in a single location, in both soft and hard copies,
would make it easy to retrieve by the future mitigation team. Besides, it can also serve as a reference source during
technical reviews. An extra copy of the records is kept on hard drives to reduce the risk of losing them. The EPA
assisted the mitigation team in collecting and processing data for the assessment. The mitigation team also useddata available in NC2 and NC3 to ensure continuity.
Most of the administrative data the mitigation team obtained, were part of the data the technical institutions
usually publish regularly. For instance, the Energy Commission supplied the energy sector data collected during
the preparation of the strategic national energy plan. The Ghana Statistical Service and Energy Commission
collected the household energy data. The EPA and the sector lead keep all materials (processed data, results,
literature) in the assessment in hard and electronic formats. The stored dataset includes five spreadsheets, LEAP
and ALU application database files. The file naming for each soft material follows the sector, last date saved andname of the expert who last worked on the file. Records of all comments, expert judgments, and assumptions are
documented and incorporated into the separate files.
4.5.4.1 Making the archive system work
The first step of putting in place a data archive system has been successful through the CARP. In the reporting
cycle, the focus would be on making the archive system work better than its current performance. In this regard,
Ghana plans to streamline the role and responsibilities, standardise the archive procedures and above all,implement them. A description of the overview of some of the improvement areas in the archive system is provided
below.
Defined the roles and responsibilities of archiving contact person
The EPA has played the role of archiving the assessment material. In the next assessment, the EPA intends todecentralise the task to the assessment institutions fully. The EPA would continue to act as the central point tocoordinate the archiving functions. Each assessment institution must either appoint a separate archiving contact
person or let the sector expert in the mitigation team act in the same capacity. Whichever option the sector
chooses, the contact person would receive training on the archiving procedures at the beginning of the next
assessment and assigned the responsibility to plan and implement the sector archive procedures. Generally,archiving contact person ensures that all archiving procedures are performed diligently throughout the assessment
period including properly documenting and retaining mitigation assessment procedures, supporting documents,
spreadsheets, and databases at every stage of the assessment.

114

https://climatedatahubgh.com/

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The person would also be responsible for clarifying who is responsible for carrying out archive procedures atvarious levels, as well as for ensuring that all team members know their archiving responsibilities. The archiving
contact person has the following tasks:
•
•
•
•
•

communicate archiving system plans, procedures, and responsibilities to other staff.
Develop the archiving activities, and assign the task to the team members.
Create a checklist of filing procedures for team members to follow.
Ensure that the archive procedures go as planned.
Serve as the keeper of the permanent archive and respond to future requests to view archive materials.

Revised archive procedures
The revisions of the existing archive procedures made it more effective by simplifying the archiving steps at every
stage of the assessment. In the next evaluation, Ghana plans to continue to implement the changes in the archiving
procedures. As much as possible, the mitigation team member would have the opportunity to learn about the newchanges in the archive procedures before the beginning of the next assessment cycle. The latest change in thearchive system would provide clear guidance on file management, data and document preservation, and storage.
File management
Throughout the mitigation assessment, the team handled multiple electronic file types. Different individuals or
institutions create files from many sources. The team members also created files during the assessments. By thetime the evaluation ended, the team had created several files. File management ensured the orderly naming,
documentation and archiving of all data, reports, assumptions, databases, spreadsheets the assessment team had
used. With regards to file naming, the group adopted a revised file saving convention to reflect the new changes
in the assessment. The EPA team receives multiple files at different times. So, the team decided that the mitigation
sector, source or destination, date, and the version of the file would distinctly separate all records when it was last
saved and make it possible to pack all the shared files in a single folder for each sector. To get all the teams onboard, the mitigation team has established a clear communication line on file management procedures and thenaming convention. It is part of the orientation of the new entrants and part of the refresher training for the
existing team members
Data retention
The team transferred all soft copies of data (spreadsheets, databases) used in the assessment to the custody of
the archive contact person every six months and completely after the assignment. The team then archived thefiles listed by saving to a hard disk or other durable media and giving same to the archiving contact person. Where
it was difficult for the team to store the data archive in electronic format, the team printed the files, catalogued,
and placed it in the archive. The contents of the hard disk were labelled clearly for easy reference
•
•
•
•
•
•

Source data, calculation spreadsheets and report files.
Key sectoral emissions analysis spreadsheets.
Draft and final electronic versions of the mitigation assessment document (for use as a starting point to
update the assessment in the future).
Updated documentation tools, which should be used to list and check references.
The assumptions used in the assessment.
Records of previous review comments and the actions taken to address them.
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Document retention
All source documents and references used in the mitigation assessment were collected and transmitted to thearchiving contact person. The materials must include vital information from publications, contacts, and the date.
It also covered, at a minimum, the title page with the name of the author(s), pages of actual data used, pages
explaining data used, and pages describing methodologies used. The document included:
•

•
•

•

All new reference documents for the current mitigation assessment records file. The files retained instorage from any given analysis year are known as the mitigation analysis archive. The archiving contact
person is responsible for reviewing the references cited in the mitigation assessment and collecting all
new documents. It is not necessary to include duplicate copies of references that are already in therecords file from the previous analyses.
Draft versions (either electronic or hard copy) used for major internal and external peer reviews, as wellas the final submitted versions of the analysis.
The final version of the national mitigation assessment report (compilation of Key Sectoral Emissions
Analysis, Institutional Arrangements for Mitigation Activities, Mitigation Analysis Archiving System, andNational Mitigation Plan).
Documents created to address comments received during any official review periods (or from expert
reviews). These documents typically include both; comments received verbatim, as well as the response
and subsequent actions taken by the mitigation-working group.

Storage platforms
The mitigation assessment data is stored in an online server, hard drive, and seldom in printed copies. The storage
procedures are below:•••

The master copies of the archive files are stored in the online server by a mitigation assessment leader.
Duplicate copies of the archive files are stored in hard drive and lodge with the administrator of theonline server at the EPA.
All archive materials are duplicated (two copies of each document), catalogued and placed in the archive
file. An index describing the contents of the archive should be placed at the front.

4.5.4.2. Additional archive procedures checklist
The archive contact persons must have clear steps to follow to achieve a high standard of archiving in the future.
A checklist has been prepared for the archives contact persons to ensure that all archiving procedures are timely
and complete. The checklist contains the list and schedule of all the archiving activities, responsibilities andtimelines. The archiving contact person ensured that all the tasks are outlined before the start of any archive
procedure. In every mitigation assessment round, the leader of the mitigation assessment team reviews thechecklist and approves of it before sharing among the team members. During the inception meeting for the
mitigation assessment team, the group discusses the list and confirms the responsibilities. The team also evaluates
the practicality of the checklist by testing it on real-life examples. The team also agrees to document significant
challenges encountered when using the checklist. Table 34 is the checklist for the archive task.

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Table 34: Archive tasks, responsibilities, and schedules
No

Sub-task

Date
Due

Task completed
statusdate

Archiving contact person
1Created an official archive located in EPA’s on the online server√

2

Communicated the archiving plan and set deadlines to all team members√

3

Collect copies of all data references√

4

Request missing references from sector leads

5Compile electronic versions of spreadsheets used to estimate emissions reductions bysector.

√6

Collect copies of final versions of the mitigation assessment document.

√

7

Compile electronic versions of final versions of the mitigation assessment document.

√

8

Collect copies of expert review comments response documents from each category lead.

√

9

Catalogue all documents using a unique tracking number and index.

10

Collect completed institutional arrangements for mitigation activities and documentationof mitigation assessment methods and data.

11

Compile electronic versions of key sectoral emissions analysis.

12

Save all electronic files on archived hard drives

√

√

13
Distribute electronic files at the start of the next mitigation assessment update.
Sector contact persons√

14

Send electronic versions of spreadsheets used to estimate net emissions to Mitigation
lead (add "key" to the naming convention).

√

15

Send final text documents for the sector to Mitigation lead.

√

16

Send documentation of mitigation assessment and options reports for the sector.

√

17

Create an index of draft documents and files for electronic and hard copy storage.

18

Create an index of final documents and files for electronic and hard copy storage.

19

Compile and send electronic versions of any key sectoral emissions analyses anddocuments to the mitigation lead (add "key" to the naming convention).

√

20

Save all final electronic files on archive hard drive. Label as "FINAL" with the name ofcategory/sector, date, and contact information, and send a copy to Mitigation lead.

√√ means task was successfully complemented under the current mitigation assessment

4.5.4.3 Plan for further mitigation assessment
The plan for additional mitigation assessment is a set of actions Ghana has identified to improve the mitigationassessments. The plan would guide any future efforts to increase the transparency, consistency, comparability,
completeness, and accuracy of future inventories. It addresses many of the shortcomings of the previous mitigationassessment and would inform the next mitigation teams of needed improvements. The improvement areas
identified in the evaluation of key sectoral emissions in Ghana include documentation of existing institutionalarrangements, analyses of methods and data, and developing archiving systems. They are key areas the teamencountered challenges that were not resolved during the assessment. Also, the areas for improvement have been
informed by the comments from the technical review. The areas requiring improvement include institutionalarrangement, technical gaps, capacity development, and outreach.

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4.5.4.3.1 Improvements in institutional arrangement
The mitigation assessment is backed by a national system that governs the assessment process. It involves
institutional and procedural arrangements Ghana has put in place to guide the assessment of mitigation potentialof government policies and measures. In the preparation of the mitigation assessment report, the team identified
and documented all the relevant contributors and their roles and incorporated them in the report. The informationon the institutional arrangement is useful for improving the quality of the report. It also contributes to the efforts
of institutionalisation of the mitigation assessment process into governmental structures. The information on theinstitutional arrangements also pinpoints the potential areas of weakness and opportunities to strengthen them.
Table 35 presents the improvement areas in the existing institutional arrangement for mitigation assessment.
Table 35: Potential improvements in the mitigation assessment institutional arrangement
Category
Strengths in the management structure of mitigation
Potential improvements in the management
assessment
structure of mitigation assessment
Electricity
The energy sector team and the Energy Commission have In the current assessment, the team has included
supplystrong work relationships. The leader of the modelling team the representative from the Ghana Atomic Energy
for the strategic national energy planning also doubles as the Commission. The atomic energy expert led theleader of the energy group in the mitigation team. Both modelling of nuclear energy into the futuregroups use the same primary dataset and projections. The electricity mix.
mitigation team builds on the foundational data for the
strategic energy planning for the country. The team also cocreated capacity-building needs for their mutual benefits.

Transport

Furthermore, there is an active collaboration among the key
stakeholders that supply primary data to the Energy
Commission. For instance, VRA, GRIDCo, Bui Power, Electricity
Company of Ghana and the independent power producers
regularly share data on electricity supply, losses, andexpansion plans. Some of the datasets are publishedroutinely in the annual energy statistics.
The Ministry of Transport is part of the mitigation assessment
team. The Ministry has a focal point and focuses on both
policy and critical technical issues in the mitigationassessment. Transportation is considered as part of theenergy demand sectors in strategic energy planning.

The team also started a collaboration with the Volta
River Authority by developing a facility-specificgreenhouse reporting tool. The plan is to continue
the partnership and further strengthen it. There arealso plans to initiate cooperation with other
Independent Power Producers (IPPs).

There is a need for the Ministry of Transport, Energy
Commission, and the EPA to work together to ensure
more significant synergies in the existing
collaboration.

Residential

Ghana Statistical Service regularly shares household energy
demand data from the Ghana Living Standards Survey with
the Energy Commission. The Energy Commission uses thedata in the LEAP model.

Need to further collaborate with Ghana Statistical
Service to incorporate more relevant questions intheir regular national living standards surveys.

Industry/

Energy demand share, fuel intensity figures are obtained
from the Energy Commission’s survey.

Undertake additional commerce/industry surveys.
Collaborate with the EPA’s Manufacturing Industry
Department to collect more data on
industry/commerce.

Land-usemanagement

The collaboration with the Forestry Commission team on
the REDD+ and the Forestry Plantation Development helped
to facilitate access to data.

Provide training to the Forestry Commission on land
mitigation assessment.

Solid Waste
Management

Some capacity within EPA to continue with any future
mitigation assessment.

Start collaboration with the local government
authority on regular data collection for mitigation
options in the waste sector afresh.

Commerce

Page | 113

4.5.4.3.2 Potential improvements in technical areas
The team has further identified the potential for future improvement through feedback and personal experiences.
Tables 36 and 37 lists the challenges and potential improvements for the actions in the mitigation assessment
process.

Page | 114

Table 36: Potential technical improvements in the assessment
Activity
Problem description

Potential improvements

Development of marginal
abatement revenue curve

Inadequate data on technology-specific fuel consumption, unit cost, and duration. In
the case where such data are missing, team members used expert judgment.

Collect specific data on fuel consumption, the market fuel cost, and lifetime through thehousehold of market surveys.

Development of baseline
emission

The baseline emissions in the ALU, LEAP and the GACMO models depended on
different socio-economic and technical assumptions for energy and non-energy
categories. The assumptions did not apply to all the baseline emissions.

In the current assessment, the team used the GACMO model to combine all the sectors
into a single window. It helped to avoid using multiple tools for the assessment sectors.
The next step is to further improve on the technical details of the GACMO and build theresult of the individual tools into the GACMO model.

The lack of clarity and a proper way to identify and incorporate government policies
in the baseline scenario. Currently, the baseline cover policies outlined in themedium-term development plan and under implementation or more likely tocontinue in the future regardless of changes in government. However, in theassessment, the assumption is that once the national development plan captures thepolicy implementation would start within a reasonable timeframe. The baseline only
represents a situation of full implementation of the already agreed government
policies but not partially or non-implementation.

Design and adopt a practical approach for the selection of policies to include in thebaseline consistently. This approach would allow for the inclusion of realistic policies inthe baselines.

The way of applying growth rates to different emission categories is consistentamong the models.

Inconsistent projection rates are a vital source of uncertainty in the assessment. The teamwould investigate the possibility of applying consistent projections rates. The first stepwould be to explore the statistical relationship between the historical emission,
demographic, macro-economic, fuel and technological indicators. In the next step, theteam would further investigate how the projection rates would be applied consistently
over the entire time series.

Development of mitigation
projections

Mitigation commitment did not include the manufacturing industry and agriculture.
With the new government policies, it would be essential to introduce new mitigationcommitments in the missing categories.

Collect complete data specific to the manufacturing and agriculture to cover the newcategories mitigation commitment would be introduced to in the next assessment.

Use of default emission
factor for baseline andmitigation assessment in
LEAP and GACMO models

The team relied on default IPCC emission factors for the baseline and mitigation
scenarios for all categories. The use of default factors contributed to the highuncertainty levels of in the assessment

Undertake studies to develop country-specific emission factors by focusing on the key
categories in the national greenhouse gas inventory. The future use of improved
emission factors would improve the overall projections.

Marginal abatement
revenue curves.

The use of international fuel prices, technology cost and lack of data on future cost
contributed to the uncertainties in the projections.

Replace the international fuel prices with the price data published by the National
Petroleum Authority. Conduct a national survey to collect data on climate technologies
and factors that drive market prices.

Page | 115

Table 37: Potential improvements in the mitigation assessment archive system
Archive system task
Describe problem
Potential improvement
Define roles andresponsibilities

Lack of clarity on thefunctional responsibilities andreporting line among the teammembers

Ask the mitigation assessment institutions to get a contact person to
focus on the archive system. The person would work closely with theoverall archiving contact person at the Environmental Protection
Agency. The sector archive contact person would cover the
documentation and archiving procedures in the sectors, whereas theone at the EPA would be responsible for national archiving. Train thecontact persons on the archive checklist.

Storage location

The procedure for the retrievalof the storage data not welldescribed in the QA/QC manual

Archiving contact person could ensure that the central point forarchived documents stored in the short term must be easily
retrievable.

Table 38 lists these potential improvements and identifies the level of priority associated with each (high, medium,and low).
Table 38: National mitigation priorities
Priority level Improvements needed
High

Improve on the documentation and archiving at the sector and national level assessment.

High

Obtain more reliable data on the following: (a) energy - residential and commercial, (b) non-energy – solid waste
management and liquid waste disposal.

Medium

Improve forestry mitigation and ensure linkages with REDD+ forest reference level.

MediumWork more closely with institutions such as District Assemblies, power producers, Ministry of transport, private
vehicle garages.

High

Incorporate new mitigation assessment for agriculture and manufacturing industries.

Low

Consider using other mitigation assessment tools that are more flexible and have a broader scope of coverage fordifferent sectoral activities.

MediumDevelop country-specific emission factors for technologies in key category sectors.

4.5.5 Scope of Mitigation Assessment
There are two sets of results from the GACMO and LEAP tools. The GACMO assessment results covered all the
mitigation sectors, whereas the LEAP is only on the energy sector. The summary of the assessment steps includes;••••

Formulate baseline emissions
Select and prioritise mitigation options
Develop marginal abatement revenues andConstruct mitigation projections

4.5.5.1 Baseline emission projections in the GACMO tool
The presentation of Ghana’s emission projections is according to different sectors. The reported assessment sectors
are energy (categorised into fossil fuel plants, others, manufacturing industry, and fugitive emission), industrial
processes and product use, transport, agriculture (subdivided into livestock and aggregate Agric sources), land-use
change and waste. Emissions by gas are expressed in terms of carbon dioxide equivalent using the 100-year global
warming potentials contained in the IPCC’s second assessment report. Ghana’s emissions have already recorded a
60% increase between 1990 and 2016. The projected upward trend is likely to continue up to 75 MtCO2e in 2030,
which is a three-fold increase over the 1990 levels.
Page | 116

The AFOLU and the energy sectors are the dominant sources of the emission throughout the forty years (19902030). Energy sector emissions are most likely to overtake that of AFOLU in 2027 as the government pushes for
ambitious industrialisation policies (Figure 33).
80
70

MtCO2e

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 2024 2026 2028 2030
Enery

IPPU

AFOLU

Waste

Figure 33: Project emissions by sector, 1990 to 2030

The emissions projection was further subdivided into the mitigation categories to reveal additional nuances in thebusiness as usual trajectory. In figure 3, the emissions showed a similar upward trend of increase by 32.8 MtCO2e
from 42 MtCO2e to 75 MtCO2e between 2016 and 2030. The observed growth in the electricity sector is due tothe expected increase in thermal power capacity, transport led by car-centric strategies, fugitive emissions fromthe oil and gas fields and land from land-use change due to deforestation. Emissions from direct combustion(manufacturing industry and other sectors) would also grow correspondingly to the rolling out of the government
industrialisation policies (Figure 34).
80
70
60

MtCO2e

50
40
30
20
10
0
2016

2017

Electricity

2018

2019

Transport

2020

2021

Fugitive

2022

2023

Agriculture

2024

Land

2025

2026

Waste

IPPU

2027

2028

2029

2030

Direct combustion

Figure 34: Projected emissions by sectors, 2016 to 2030115
115

Direct combustion includes emissions from manufacturing industry, households, commerce, fisheries and agriculture; Agriculture includes livestock
and aggregated emissions and non-CO2 sources.

Page | 117

4.5.5.2 Description of the mitigation assessment steps
The mitigation scenario in the GACMO tool represents the counterfactual to the BAU emission pathway. The
assessment came up with two distinct incremental ambition mitigation scenarios. The mitigation scenario “withmeasures (WM)” and “with additional measures” correspond to the unconditional (CUND) and conditional (CND)
nationally determined contribution commitments. The “with measures” mitigation scenario represents a modest
deviation from the BAU trajectory resulting from the government’s unilateral effort to decarbonise the economy
in the long run. The “with additional measures” scenario depicts the most ambitious mitigation trajectory towards
rapid and higher decarbonisation outcomes. A consultative process was to identify and prioritise twenty mitigation
options using a multi-criteria approach. The twenty mitigation options span energy, transport, industry, land, andwaste. The prioritisation process led to the characterisation of two mitigation options under WM, and theremaining 18 fell in the WAM category.
4.5.5.3 Identification and prioritisation of mitigation options
The national stakeholder consultation meetings produced twenty mitigation measures in the energy, transport,
forestry, waste and industry sectors. Out of the twenty mitigation measures, the highest of thirteen is in the energy
sector, followed by three in the waste, two in forestry and one each in transport and the IPPU sectors. The selected
mitigation options align well with existing national and sector policy or strategy documents (Table 39).
Table 39: List of mitigation options, their supporting policy/strategy, and priority status
SectorEnergyForestry
EnergyMitigation option
Switch from fuel oil to natural gas
Forest plantation
Efficient lighting with LEDs
Efficient wood stoves
LPG stoves replacing wood stovesSingle-cycle to combined cycle
Power factor increase
Reduced flaring at the oil field

Forestry
Transport
Waste

Mini hydropower
Solar PVs, large grid
Solar home PVs
Solar LED Lamps
Solar/diesel mini-gridWind turbines, on-shore
REDD+: Avoided deforestation
Bus Rapid Transit (BRT)
Landfill gas flaring

Institutional biogas

CompostIPPU

HFC phase-down

Supporting policy/strategy*
National Gas Master Plan
Forestry Plantation Strategy
National Energy Policy
SEforAll Action Plan
SEforAll Action Plan
LPG Promotion policy
Strategic National Energy Plan
National Energy Policy
Petroleum Development and Exploration
Act (Act 919)
Scaling Up Renewable Energy Penetration
Investment Plan,
Renewable Energy Master Plan
SEforAll Action Plan

StatusUnconditional

Conditional

National REDD+ Strategy
National Transport Policy
National Environmental Sanitation
Strategy, Renewable Energy Master Plan
(REMP)
National Institutional Biogas Programme(NIBP), Renewable Energy Master Plan
(REMP)
National Environmental Sanitation
Strategy
HFC Phase-out Management Plan (HPMP)* Mitigation option (s) either been categorically identified in the stated policy/strategy or fit with the policy or strategy goal in the document.

Page | 118

With the multi-criteria (MCA) screening tool, it was possible to categorise the mitigation options into unconditionaland conditional status based on broad climate, economic and social criteria. The criteria were further divided intoquantitative and qualitative sub-criteria. The quantitative sub-criteria were derived from emission reduction
potential and the direct cost derived from the marginal abatement revenue curve. The qualitative factors included
the following: consistency with alignment with the sector, national priorities and SDGs, institutional ownership,technical effectiveness, capacity availability and ease of implementation whereas the quantitative factors wereemission reductions, marginal cost, and investment outlay. The Marginal Abatement Revenues (MAR) curve iscalculated based on the value of the GHG emissions reduction options US$/tCO2 (y-axis), and the impacts of the
GHG emission reductions in kt/year (x-axis) (Figure 33).
To make the MAR curve legible, the options with minimal reduction impacts (values on the x-axis) or low marginal
cost (values on the y-axis) are excluded from the curve (Tables 18 and 19). Seventeen options have been initially
included in the MAR curve to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of emission reductions. They were purposefully
selected to ensure a balanced representation of all the mitigation sectors. The options selection parameter was
set to the following threshold: (a) thresholds for smallest value on x-axis (ktCO2e/yr) = 100, (b) thresholds forsmallest value on y-axis (US$/ktCO2e) = 100, and thresholds for largest value on y-axis (US$/ktCO2e) = 600. In all,the six options that were within the negative cost range had relatively smaller emission reduction potential.
Single-cycle to combined cycle option recorded the highest negative cost and least emission reductions. The restin a similar category are notably reforestation and LPG stove (Figure 35).

Figure 35: Marginal abatement revenue curve

On the other hand, Figure 35 presents the eleven mitigation options that showed positive upfront costs. Of theeleven, large solar PV, off-shore wind, LED bulbs, mini-hydro, efficient stoves, and reduced gas flaring were in the
top six options with the highest reduction cost range. But from this list, efficient stoves, and reduced gas flaring
have the most substantial GHG emission reduction potential. The rest in this category are solar lamps, avoided
deforestation and compost.

Page | 119

Table 40: Options included in the MAR curve
Mitigation options

US$/tonCO2

Solar PVs, large grid
Efficient lighting with LEDs
Wind turbines, on-shore
Mini hydropower connected to the main grid
Efficient wood stoves
Reduced flaring at the oil field
Solar LED lamps
Efficient refrigerators
REDD: Avoided deforestation
Enrichment planting
Composting of Municipal Solid Waste
ODS phase-out
Landfill gas flaring
Assisted forest regeneration
LPG stoves replacing wood stoves
Reforestation
Single-cycle to combined cycle

405.37350.58336.21321.22292.48163.03151.55
32.75
9.04
0.87
0.02
0.00
-1.28
-10.09-20.75-26.91-42.96

Table 41: Options excluded in MAR curve
Mitigation options
Solar home PVs
Biogas at rural farms using kerosene
Biogas from Municipal Solid Waste
Energy efficiency in industry
Energy efficiency in service
Power factor increase
Efficient lighting with LEDs replacing CFL
Solar/diesel mini-grid
Bus Rapid Transit (BRT)
Switch from fuel oil to natural gas in industry

US$/tonCO2
413.33195.03
-0.26
-1.17
-1.17
-1.77
-5.58
-116.55-125.30-128.73

Emission reduction in 2030 per
option kt/year
177.94552.42
146.25516.0014596.53
2713.62187.822415.171414.29256.671754.89
613.001704.49733.331158.87
1466.67
398.46

Emission reduction in 2020 per option
kt/year
64.06
0.25
7.07
32.79
26.39
83.78
86.21
8.03
395.10106.78The twenty mitigation options are in nine priority areas in energy, transport, forestry, industry and waste sectors.
Out of the twenty mitigation options, thirteen are in the energy sector, two in forestry, three in waste and one
each in the transport and IPPU sectors (Table 40). Mitigation options in the agriculture and manufacturing industry
are not part of the list (Table 41). The sectors are the mainstay of the economy and livelihoods of most rural
households. Besides, their contributions to national emissions are not much. Also, there is no clear-cut policy thatcan be turned into mitigation commitment at this stage. However, with a renewed policy direction of thegovernment of the day on rice, tree crops, and fertiliser, and an ambitious industrialisation drive, the next
assessment would consider mitigation options from the agriculture and industrial sectors. The mitigation
screening process prioritised switching from fuel oil to natural gas and forest plantation as the two mitigation
actions under the “with measures (WM)” scenario. The remaining 18 mitigation options form the “with additional
measure (WAM) scenario. They cut across technologies in the energy sector (mini-hydro, wind, solar, mini-grid,solar lanterns, improved cookstoves, LPG stoves, power factor correction devices et), forestry (REDD+, forests
plantation, enrichment planting), climate-friendly and energy-efficient air-conditions, bus-based transit, railway
transit, landfill gas management, compost and biogas (Table 42)
Page | 120

Table 42: Overview of overall screening and prioritisation of mitigation options

Switch from fuel oil to natural gas(Replace crude oil with natural gas in thermal
1 plants)

64.1

Total Score

Environmental Impacct

Gender

Education

HealthResource access

Employment

SocialEase of implementation

Capacity availability

Technical effectivenessInstitutional ownership

Climate resilience

No Mitigation policy/technology options

Abatement cost 2030($/tCO2)

Abatement potential 2030(ktCO2/year)

Development Impact Visualation
ClimateEconomic-128.7

Forest plantation

2 (Annual 25,000ha forest plantation up to 2030 ) 1466.7 -26.9
LPG for cooking

3 (Access by 2030, projected to 50%)

1158.9-20.7

Efficient lighting with LED

4 (Ligting with 7 million LED bulbs)
552.42 350.6
Efficient woodstoves(Distribute
5 2 million efficient stoves by 2030)
14597 292.5
Single cycle to combined cycle

6 (Add 330 MW of steam capacity by 2030)
Power factor increase in buildings(Installation of power bank in 1000 commercial
7 and industrial buildings)
Reduced flaring in oil fields(Recover 120 MMSCF/day of natural gas from oil
8 fields)
Mini hydro power(Install 300 MW mini hyro-dams connected to
9 national grid)
Solar PV, Large grid10 (250MW utility scale by 2030)
Solar home PV
11 (200,000 50W PV by 2030)
Solar LED Lamps
12 (2 million LED lamps by 2030)
Mini-grid
13 (Install 55 mini-grids - 300 MW by 2030)
On-shore wind turbines
14 (Install 150 MW by 2030)
Avoided deforestaton (REDD+)
15 (Avoid deforestation in 270,000ha)
Bus Rapid Transit
16 (200km BRT line in Urban areas)

398.46-43.0

83.777-1.8

2713.6

163.0

516

321.2

177.94405.464.058413.3

187.82

151.5

8.03

321.2

146.25336.2

1414.39.0

395.1 -125.3

Landfill gas flaring

17 (200 t/day plant nationwide)

1704.5

-1.3

7.1

-0.3

1754.9

0.0

613

0.0

Institutional biogas

18 (200 t/day plant nationwide)
Composting of municipal waste
Domestic requirement for 20% by 2015 and19 30% by 2040
HFC phase-down
20 (All flourinated gases)

key

Highly positive
Positive
Neutral/Minor impact
Negative
Uncertain/ policy specificPage | 121

4.5.6 Mitigation Projection Results
There are two scenarios under mitigation projection. The scenarios are “with measures” (WM) and “with additional
measures” (WAM) with WAM representing a high ambition trajectory. The WM scenario consists of two mitigation
options, whereas the remaining 18 are under WAM. When the two scenarios are put together, the overall
cumulative mitigative effects of the twenty options is likely to be 45% lower than the BAU emissions 74 MtCO2e
by 2030. The 45% target along the mitigation trajectory translates to 33.3 MtCO2e emission reductions in absolute
over the 2017-2030 period. This trajectory is consistent with the total mitigation commitment in the NDC. All thetwenty options underpin Ghana’s NDC mitigation commitment and fall into the “IN” category. All other mitigation
measures outside the prioritised twenty options or the NDC are classified as “OUT”. Under the WM scenario, thepotential mitigation amount to 11 MtCO2e representing 15% below the BAU emissions. The WM mitigation
scenario corresponds to Ghana’s unconditional NDC commitment. The WAM scenarios could potentially achieve
an additional 30% emissions reduction relative to the BAU emissions. The savings represent a cumulative total of
22.2 MtCO2e over 2017-2030 and in sync with the conditional NDC commitment.
2030
2028
2026
2024
2022
2020
2018
2016
-

20

BAU Emissions (WtM)

40

60

Unconditional mitigation (WM)

80

100

120

Conditional mitigation (WAM)

Figure 36: Mitigation scenario relative to BAU emissions

In Figure 36, the gold bar represents the baseline emissions for 2016, covering all the IPCC sectors and direct
greenhouse gas obtained from the national GHG inventory. Multi-year blue bars from 2017 is the BAU pathway
depicting emissions scenario associated with the status quo of the existing policies, would remain unchanged by
2030. The total potential effects of the twenty mitigation options would amount to 45% below the 2030 BAU
emissions expressed in two tiers (red bold line bars and green-dash bars). The red bold line bars from 2017 to2030 are the lower ambition mitigation pathway that corresponds to the 15% NDC unconditional commitment
and expected from the implementation of fuel switch and forest plantation mitigation options. The green-dashbars (2017 to 2030) show the ambitious mitigation trajectory, which is consistent with the additional 30%
emission reductions under the conditional mitigation commitment (Table 43).

Page | 122

Table 43: Breakdown of mitigation scenario by sectors, mitigation options and their corresponding emission reduction potentials between
2016 and 2030
Category
No. of mitigation
Mitigation reduction potential
options
2017-2030
Annually
Mitigation
scenario

With Measures (WM) and With
Additional Measure (WAM) scenario

20

33 MtCO2e

2.4 MtCO2e

WM scenario

2

11 MtCO2e

0.8 MtCO2e

WAM scenario

18

22 MtCO2e

1.6 MtCO2e

Breakdown ofEnergy13

14 MtCO2e

1 MtCO2e

mitigation
options bysectors

Forestry2

9 MtCO2e

0.6 MtCO2e

IPPU

1

1 MtCO2e

0.1 MtCO2e

Transport

1

5 MtCO2e

0.4 MtCO2e

Waste

3

4 MtCO2e

0.3 MtCO2e

4.5.6.1 Sector-by-sector baseline and mitigation projection results
The results obtained from the GACMO model for each sector are in Tables 44 to 47. Table 44 shows the energy
sector mitigation figures. The energy sector BAU emissions would possibly quadruple to 36.6 MtCO 2e by 2030.
The emissions might reduce by 58% if the Government implements the thirteen identified WM and WAM
mitigation options. The 58% translates to 21.1 MtCO2e potential emissions reduction in the energy sector alone,of which 20.9 MtCO2e would be associated with the twelve measures under WAM. The remaining 1.1 MtCO 2e
potential savings would be attainable with the options under the WM scenario. The efficient cookstove andreduced flaring mitigation options would by far have the massive emission reductions potential throughout theperiod. Mini-grid and solar home systems would contribute the least to the overall mitigation potential for thesector.
Emissions in the land-use sector would not grow as steep and as fast as the energy sector. The likelihood foremissions would rise by 9.1 MtCO2e to 31.9 MtCO2e by 2030 due to increasing deforestation and forest degradation(Table 45). Concerning the mitigation potential in the sector, implementing the two identified options could leadto a 12.1% emission reduction relative to the WtM emission by 2030. There are three plantation strategies(reforestation, assisted regeneration, and enrichment) that target enhancing carbon stock across degraded lands
under the WM scenario. The other mitigation option relates to avoided deforestation. Reforestation, assisted
regeneration, and enrichment fall under the WM scenario, and it is expected to mitigate 7.7% of the WtM by 2030.
The WAM scenario covers REDD+: avoided deforestation is projected to generate 1.41 MtCOe2 emission reductions
which represent 4.4% below the 2030 WtM emissions. Table 46 shows the WtM emission trends from 2016 to2030 for the IPPU sector.
The figures depict that the already declining trends in the IPPU sector emissions would continue to 2030 by 19%.
There is only one mitigation option in the IPPU sector that would further reduce the emissions by 73% in the same
period. The waste sector has three mitigation options all under the WAM scenario. They have the potential toreduce GHG emissions by 67% relative to the projected WtM emission by 2030. Landfill gas flaring and compost
have the highest mitigation potential in the sector (Table 47).

Page | 123

Table 44: Mitigation projections for the energy sector
Sectoral - Energy
Years
WtM emissions (A)WM and WAM emission reduction (B)Adjusted WtM (A-B)
Energy mitigation relative to WtM (%)
WM scenario option
Switch from fuel oil to natural gas
WAM scenario options
Efficient lighting with LEDs
Efficient wood stoves
LPG stoves replacing wood stovesSingle cycle to combined cycle
Power factor increase
Reduced flaring at oil field
Mini hydro power
Solar PVs, large grid
Solar home PVs
Solar/diesel mini-gridSolar LED lamps
Bus Rapid Transit (BRT)*Wind turbines, on-shore2016
14,694.1
14,694.1-

201715,549.2
1,126.4
14,422.8
7
26.7
26.7
1,099.7
49.3
182.5
21.7
99.6
4.2
664.3
21.5
8.9
4.0
0.1
11.7
27.0
4.9

2018
16,671.7
2,252.7
14,419.0
14
53.4
53.4
2,199.3
98.6
364.9
43.4
199.2
8.4
1,328.5
43.0
17.8
8.0
0.1
23.5
54.0
9.8

2019
17,794.2
3,379.1
14,415.1
19
80.1
80.1
3,299.0
148.0
547.4
65.1
298.8
12.6
1,992.8
64.5
26.7
12.0
0.2
35.2
81.0
14.6

2020
19,266.8
4,505.4
14,761.4
23
106.8
106.8
4,398.6
197.3
729.8
86.8
398.5
16.8
2,657.1
86.0
35.6
16.0
0.3
47.0
108.1
19.5

2021
20,388.4
5,300.0
15,088.4
26
106.8
106.8
5,193.2
236.8
1,313.7
156.3
398.5
21.8
2,668.4
120.4
49.8
19.2
0.8
56.3
126.0
25.4

2022
21,860.1
6,094.6
15,765.5
28
106.8
106.8
5,987.8
276.2
1,897.5
225.7
398.5
26.8
2,679.7
154.8
64.1
22.4
1.3
65.7
143.9
31.2

ktCO2e2023
23,331.8
6,889.2
16,442.6
30
106.8
106.8
6,782.4315.7
2,481.4
295.1
398.5
31.8
2,691.0
189.2
78.3
25.6
1.9
75.1
161.8
37.1

2024
24,803.5
7,683.8
17,119.7
31
106.8
106.8
7,577.0355.1
3,065.3
364.6
398.5
36.9
2,702.3
223.6
92.5
28.8
2.4
84.5
179.7
42.9

2025
26,761.7
8,478.4
18,283.3
32
106.8
106.8
8,371.6394.6
3,649.1
434.0
398.5
41.9
2,713.6
258.0
106.8
32.0
2.9
93.9
197.6
48.8

2026
28,260.4
11,003.9
17,256.6
39
106.8
106.8
10,897.1
426.2
5,838.6
579.0
398.5
50.3
2,713.6
309.6
121.0
38.4
3.9
112.7
237.1
68.3

2027
30,208.9
13,529.3
16,679.6
45
106.8
106.8
13,422.5
457.7
8,028.1
724.0
398.5
58.6
2,713.6
361.2
135.2
44.8
5.0
131.5
276.6
87.8

2028
32,157.3
16,054.8
16,102.6
50
106.8
106.8
15,948.0
489.3
10,217.6
868.9
398.5
67.0
2,713.6
412.8
149.5
51.2
6.0
150.3
316.1
107.3

2029
34,105.8
18,580.2
15,525.6
54
106.8
106.8
18,473.4
520.9
12,407.1
1,013.9
398.5
75.4
2,713.6
464.4
163.7
57.7
7.0
169.0
355.6
126.8

* The transport is included in the energy sector to ensure consistency with the IPCC inventory classification

Page | 124

2030
36,669.8
21,105.6
15,564.2
58
106.8
106.8
20,998.9
552.4
14,596.5
1,158.9
398.5
83.8
2,713.6
516.0
177.9
64.1
8.0
187.8
395.1
146.3

Table 45: Mitigation projections for the land-use sector
Land-use sector
Years
WtM Emissions (A)WM and WAM emission reduction (B)Adjusted WtM (A-B)
Land-use mitigation relative to WtM (%)
WM scenario option
Reforestation
Assisted forest regeneration
Enrichment planting
WAM scenario options
REDD: Avoided deforestation

2016
22,923.5
22,923.5-

201723,440.2
307.7
23,132.5
1.3
131.0
131.0
65.5
45.8
65.5
65.5

2018
23,957.0
615.5
23,341.5
2.6
261.9
261.9
131.0
91.7
131.0
131.0

2019
24,473.8
923.2
23,550.6
3.8
392.9
392.9
196.4
137.5
196.4
196.4

2020
24,990.6
1,231.0
23,759.6
4.9
523.8
523.8
261.9
183.3
261.9
261.9

2021
25,616.6
1,372.4
24,244.2
5.4
523.8
523.8
261.9
220.0
366.7
366.7

2022
26,242.7
1,513.8
24,728.9
5.8
523.8
523.8
261.9
256.7
471.4
471.4

ktCO2e2023
26,868.8
1,655.2
25,213.5
6.2
523.8
523.8
261.9
293.3
576.2
576.2

2024
27,494.8
1,796.7
25,698.2
6.5
523.8
523.8
261.9
330.0
681.0
681.0

2025
28,120.9
1,938.1
26,182.8
6.9
523.8
523.8
261.9
366.7
785.7
785.7

2026
28,891.9
2,324.7
26,567.2
8.0
712.4
712.4
356.2
344.7
911.4
911.4

2027
29,662.8
2,711.2
26,951.6
9.1
901.0
901.0
450.5
322.7
1,037.1
1,037.1

2028
30,433.8
3,097.8
27,336.0
10.2
1,089.5
1,089.5544.8
300.7
1,162.9
1,162.92029
31,204.8
3,484.4
27,720.4
11.2
1,278.1
1,278.1
639.0
278.7
1,288.6
1,288.62030
31,975.8
3,871.0
28,104.8
12.1
1,466.7
1,466.7733.3
256.7
1,414.3
1,414.3

2018
1,010.7
61.3
949.4
6
61.3
61.3

2019
995.4
92.0
903.4
9
92.0
92.0

2020
980.1
122.6
857.5
13
122.6
122.6

2021
965.9
159.4
806.5
17
159.4
159.4

2022
951.6
196.2
755.4
21
196.2
196.2

ktCO2e
2023
937.3
232.9
704.4
25
232.9
232.9

2024
923.1
269.7
653.3
29
269.7
269.7

2025
908.8
306.5
602.3
34
306.5
306.5

2026
895.6
367.8
527.8
41
367.8
367.8

2027
882.3
429.1
453.2
49
429.1
429.1

2028
869.1
490.4
378.7
56
490.4
490.4

2029
855.9
551.7
304.2
64
551.7
551.7

2030
842.6
613.0
229.6
73
613.0
613.0

2022
3,913.75
2,314.36
1,599.39
59%
2,314.36
552.407.07
1,754.89

ktCO2e2023
4,051.93
2,403.94
1,647.99
59%
2,403.94
641.987.07
1,754.892024
4,190.11
2,493.52
1,696.59
60%
2,493.52
731.56
7.07
1,754.892025
4,328.28
2,583.10
1,745.19
60%
2,583.10
821.147.07
1,754.892026
4,493.83
2,759.77
1,734.06
61%
2,759.77
997.817.07
1,754.892027
4,659.38
2,936.44
1,722.94
63%
2,936.44
1,174.48
7.07
1,754.892028
4,824.92
3,113.11
1,711.82
65%
3,113.11
1,351.15
7.07
1,754.892029
4,990.47
3,289.77
1,700.69
66%
3,289.77
1,527.82
7.07
1,754.892030
5,156.01
3,466.44
1,689.57
67%
3,466.44
1,704.49
7.07
1,754.89

Table 46: Mitigation projections for the IPPU sector
IPPU sector
Years
WtM Emissions (A)WM and WAM emission reduction (B)Adjusted WtM (A-B)
IPPU mitigation relative to WtM (%)
WAM scenario option
HFC phase-down

2016
1,041.2
1,041.2-

2017
1,025.9
30.7
995.3
3
30.7
30.7

Table 47: Mitigation projection for the Waste sector
Sector - Waste
Years
WtM Emissions (A)WM and WAM emission reduction (B)Adjusted WtM (A-B)
Waste mitigation relative to WtM (%)
WAM scenario options
Landfill gas flaring
Biogas from Municipal Solid Waste
Composting of Municipal Solid Waste

2016
3,167.50
3,167.50-

20173,284.97
533.802,751.17
16%
533.8093.31
1.77
438.72

2018
3,402.45
1,067.60
2,334.85
31%
1,067.60
186.62
3.53
877.442019
3,519.92
1,601.40
1,918.52
45%
1,601.40
279.935.30
1,316.17

2020
3,637.40
2,135.20
1,502.20
59%
2,135.20
373.257.07
1,754.892021
3,775.58
2,224.78
1,550.7959%
2,224.78
462.82
7.07
1,754.89

Page | 125

4.5.6.2 Overall key sectoral emission assessment
Tables 48 to 50 present the overview of the emissions associated with WtM and the mitigation scenario over the2016 to 2030 period.
Table 48: Projected emissions along with WtM scenario by 2030
Mitigation sectors
Base year
2016
Electricity supply
5.01
Transport
7.08
Other
Households
1.06
sectors
Services and commerce
0.63
Agric & fisheries
0.41
Fugitive
0.02
Manufacturing industry
1.05
Industrial process and product use
1.04
Agriculture (livestock)
3.48
Land-use change
12.87
Non-CO2 and Rice cultivation
0.22
Aggregated
N2O from Agricultural soils
5.34
emission
Urea application
0.036
sources
Biomass burning
0.97
Solid waste
Solid waste
1.33
Liquid waste
1.84

Emissions (MtCO2e)Intervening years
2020
2025
6.58
9.13
9.29
12.94
1.45
1.84
0.09
0.13
0.49
0.63
0.03
0.04
1.43
2.05
0.98
0.91
3.94
4.58
13.45
14.20
0.26
0.33
6.52
8.36
0.029
0.023
0.79
0.62
2.16
2.64
0.98
0.91

End year
2030
12.55
17.71
2.46
0.19
0.77
0.06
2.94
0.84
5.34
15.00
0.41
10.72
0.018
0.49
3.22
0.84

Table 49: Mitigation along with WM and WAM scenarios by 2030
Mitigation sectors
Base year
2016
WM and WAM
WM (unconditional)
Electricity supply
Land-use change
WAM (conditional)
Electricity supply
Households
Services/commerce
Fugitive emissions
Transport
Land-use
Industrial process and product use
Solid waste
Liquid waste-

Emission Reductions (MtCO2e)Intervening years
2020
2025
7.53
12.17
0.63
0.63
0.11
0.11
0.52
0.52
6.89
11.54
0.54
0.81
0.83
4.12
0.26
0.53
2.65
2.71
0.11
0.19
0.26
0.79
0.12
0.31
2.12
2.07
0.007
0.007

End year
2030
28.04
1.58
0.11
1.47
26.46
1.22
15.82
0.83
2.71
0.39
1.41
0.61
3.46
0.007

Page | 126

Table 50: Potential emission reductions under the mitigation scenario relative to the WtM
Year
Emissions (MtCO2e)BAU Emissions
Mitigation scenario emissions
WAM
WM and WAM[C][D =B+C]
-

2016

WtM
[A]
41.82

WM
[B]
-

2020

48.87

0.63

6.89

2025

60.12

0.63

2030

74.64

1.58

Overall effects of mitigation
options on BAU emissions
A-D [MtCO2e]
-

D/A
[%]
-

7.52

31.35

15.4

11.54

12.17

47.95

20.2

26.46

28.04

46.6

37.57

4.5.7 Detailed Mitigation Assessment in the Energy Sector
The energy sector is a key emissions source and has the highest number of mitigation options. As a result, Ghana
has decided to conduct a detailed mitigation assessment for the sector with the LEAP tool. The assessment aims
to enhance the transparency and reliability of the results. The additional assessment also sought to ensure
consistency with the revised strategic energy planning (SNEP). The parameters of the LEAP are slightly different
from the GACMO tool. Therefore, the energy results from the GACMO and LEAP tools are not comparable in several
respects. First, the fundamental analysis of the LEAP is consistent with the categories in the SNEP. Secondly, themacro-economic, demographic and policy assumptions for the baseline and mitigation projections are fine-tuned
to be compatible with SNEP parameters. There was a need for the refinement because of the vast variations in thescope of the activities in the covered methodology used and assumptions for forecasts.
Ghana has created comparable baseline scenarios to represent based on two plausible socio-economic trajectories.
The Without Measures (WtM) scenario and the Accelerated Economic Growth (AEG) scenario. The WtM scenario
depicts a low ambition future socio-economic situation based on a historical trend up to 2030. The parameters for
the WtM include the following: population116 would increase from 24.7 million in 2010 to 38 million in 2030 at
an average annual growth rate of 2.17%; urbanisation rate is likely to increase from 50.9% in 2010 to 65.0% in
2030 at an average annual rate of 1.2%, and GDP would continue to grow from US$ 32.2 billion (in current prices)in 2010 at an average yearly rate of 7.1% to US$ 126.9 billion (current prices) in 2030117.
The AEG represents a high ambition baseline. It incorporates emission implications of current government policies
in the baseline. These are the Ghana Shared Growth and Development Agenda, Medium-Term National
Development Policy Framework (2018-2021) and The Coordinated Programme for Economic and Social
Development Policies (2017-2024), which included actions already taken and those yet to be undertaken by thegovernment such as the ‘One District-One Factory’ industrial initiative and the ‘planting for food’ policy.
The specific parameters under the AEG are: the population would increase from 24.7 million in 2010 at an averageannual rate of 2.09% to 37.4 million in 2030; urbanisation rate would increase from 50.9% in 2010 to 66.0% in
2030 at an average yearly rate of 1.3%, and GDP is expected to rise from US$ 32.2 billion (current prices) in 2010at an annual average rate of 8.3% to US$ 158.6 billion (current prices) in 2030.

116

Ghana Statistical Service, Ghana Population Projection, October 2014
In the Ghana Long Term National Development Plan (2018-2057) concept paper 2016, real GDP in 2030 would to be US$ 29.73 Also, the averageannual growth rate of 7.1 from 2010 to 2030 for the WtM scenario is in line with the average annual growth rate 7.4 (with oil) and 5.6 (without oil) from2017 to 2019 from Ministry of Finance (letter referenced MOF/RSD/ADMIN/03/17, dated 20th April, 2017).
117

Page | 127

The mitigation scenario represents the counterfactual trajectory of the baseline due to the various government
policies that underpin the NDC measures. The PAMs have been packaged into two incremental mitigation ambition
scenarios. These are the “With Measures (WM) scenario and the “With Additional Measures (WAM) scenario. The
mitigation potential of the policies was determined by computing the relative differences between the emissions
associated with AEG. The WM and WAM scenarios reflect the variety of policy options available to Ghana mitigation
GHG in the long run. This approach further highlights the ground mitigation policy choice on climate and socioeconomic imperatives. The LEAP results are in the sections below.
4.5.7.1 Business-as-usual emissions in the energy sector
The AEG emissions are plausible business-as-usual emissions in the energy sector associated with energy
transformations and consumption in Ghana. The emissions are driven by the changing trends in macro-economic
indicators, demography, and prevailing government policies. Thus, the effect of government mitigation policies
would be calculated relative to the AEG as the reference case. AEG emissions have been divided intotransformation and demand categories. The energy transformation category is subdivided into electricity
generation, oil refinery, and charcoal production. Only the results cover emissions of electricity generation andcharcoal production emissions under the AEG. Oil refinery emissions are excluded from the current assessment
due to inadequate data. The demand side emissions divided along with residential and commercial/services(including agriculture), manufacturing and industry and transport.
The total energy sector emissions under AEG scenario, are projected to grow from 43.6 MtCO2e in 2020 to 82.5
MtCO2e in 2030 at an annual rate of 7.3%. The 2030 emissions would be 88% more than the 2020 levels.
Throughout the assessment, the demand side category would contribute to much of the total emissions accounting
for 72.9% while energy transformation emissions averagely make up 27.1% (Table 51). In all, the transport sector
would constitute the most significant emissions source and expected to contribute to 36.6% of the total projectedenergy sector emissions. It would be trailed by residential emissions (24.7%), electricity generation (23.2%),
Industry (9.9%), charcoal production (3.9%). The three top emission sources are likely to drive AEG emission trends
over the 2016-2030 assessment period.
Table 51: Accelerated Economic Growth emissions for the period 2016-2030
Emission sources
Emissions (MtCO2e)
2016
2020
2025
2029
2030
Transport
10.8
15.0
22.3
30.6
33.2
Electricity Supply
7.3
9.3
14.5
19.1
20.6
Residential
11.5
12.4
14.2
15.8
16.2
Industry
Charcoal
Agriculture
Services
VALCo
Total

3.3
1.8
0.4
0.0
0.0
35.2

4.2
2.1
0.6
0.0
0.1
43.6

6.2
2.2
0.9
0.0
0.1
60.5

8.0
2.3
1.3
0.1
0.1
77.4

8.5
2.4
1.4
0.1
0.1
82.5

Cumulative totals
301.9
191.1
203.9
81.6
32.3
12.5
0.6
1.3
825.2

% of thecumulative total
36.6
23.2
24.7
9.9
3.9
1.5
0.1
0.2
100.0%

Just as the emissions from all sources are likely to grow, the agriculture category emissions would follow a similar
trend. The emissions are projected to record the highest growth of 141% over 2020-2030 at an annual rate of
10.3% followed by transport (122%) at 9.3% per annum, electricity generation (121%) at a yearly rate of 9.2% andindustry (105%) at 8.3%.
Page | 128

The rest of the emissions sources would experience relatively slower growth over the same period. The emissions
from residential areas and charcoal production would not grow as fast as the sources listed above. Residential
emissions would increase by 31% over the ten years at a rate of 3% annually. In the same vein, emissions fromcharcoal production are expected to marginally grow at 15% over the same timeframe at the rate of 1.6% perannum. Generally, the emissions associated with energy use in agriculture are relatively low, but it would record
the fastest growth. The Planting for Food and Jobs policy can drive the emissions up in the sector, particularly inthe areas of mechanisation and irrigation.
The expected high growth in the industry category would correlate strongly with the government’s accelerated
industrialisation drive. Policy initiatives like the 1 District 1 Factory and the integrated aluminium industry, aregoing to influence industrial emissions strongly. Regarding transport, it would continue to be the dominant sourceof emissions for the sector. The emissions would rise sharply from 15 MtCO2e in 2020 to 33.2 MtCO2e (Figure 37).
The anticipated increase in transport emissions is linked to the continued high motorisation rates and traffic
congestion, especially in large cities in the country. The government’s aggressive efforts to revive the railway
industry would also contribute to transport emissions. Similar increasing emission trends are expected, inelectricity and residential categories at varying rates.
90
Transport
Industry
Services

80

Emissions (MtCO2e)70

Electricity Supply
Charcoal
VALCo

Residential
Agriculture

60
50
40

30
20
10
0
2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

2025

2026

2027

2028

2029

2030

Figure 37: Total GHG emissions under the AEG scenario

Likewise, residential emissions would follow a similar rising trend as the other categories but at a relatively slower
growth rate. Even though residential emissions would be among the four top emission sources in the country, therate of increase would hover around 3.7%. The changes in household sizes would drive the expected emissions
trend, electricity prices, changes in household energy preferences as living standards improve as a consequenceof the government's economic empowerment and pro-poor policies.
4.5.7.2 Projected transport emissions
The transport sector would overtake the residential category to become the dominant emissions source in the
country by 2030. The sector would account for 44.1% of the total final energy demand under the AEG scenario.
The trend would correspondingly translate into emissions rising by 18.24 MtCO2e from 15 in 2020 to 33.2 MtCO2e
at a yearly rate of 9%.
Page | 129

The lion’s share of the transport emissions throughout the projected period would come from the road category(71.2%), followed by railways (26.7%) and then by domestic aviation (2.1%) (Table 52). Intracity, intercity, and train
services would drive transportation emissions in the future. Among them, intracity passenger vehicle operations
would be the primary emissions source making up 41.7% of the total transport section emissions. Emissions
associated with diesel train operations would become the second-largest source of emissions in the sector.
Emissions from diesel trains would be followed by inter-city operations (21.9%). The contributions of freighttransport118 to total emissions would hover around 7.5%. Long-distance freight transport would make up 4.6% of
the entire transport emissions while that of local freight would be 3.%.
Table 52: Projected transport emissions under the AEG scenario
Transport modes
Emissions (MtCO2e)2016 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026
Diesel Train
1.4
3.0
3.5
4.1
4.7
5.4
6.2
7.1
Intercity
3.3
3.8
4.0
4.2
4.3
4.5
4.7
4.9
Intracity
5.2
6.7
7.2
7.6
8.1
8.6
9.2
9.8
Local
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.6
0.6
0.7
0.7
Long-distance
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.8
0.9
0.9
1.0
1.1

2027
8.0
5.1
10.4
0.8
1.1

2028
9.1
5.3
11.1
0.9
1.2

2029
10.3
5.6
11.8
1.0
1.3

2030
11.6
5.8
12.5
1.1
1.4

Small Plane
Total

0.6
26.1

0.7
28.3

0.8
30.6

0.8
33.2

0.1
10.8

0.3
15.0

0.3
16.2

0.3
17.5

0.4
19.0

0.4
20.5

0.5
22.3

0.5
24.1

For the road category, a higher percentage (66%) would emanate from intra-city mobility, and the remainder (34%)
would be associated with intercity operations. Intra-city emissions are forecasted to surge by 125% from 5.6 in2020 to 12.5 MtCO2e by 2030. Generally, private petrol cars, LPG taxis, and petrol taxis would be the primarysources of emissions in the intra-city vehicle operations (Figure 38). Private petrol, LPG taxi, and petrol taxi cars
would correspondingly contribute 33.2%, 36.8% and 15.2% respectively of the emissions from the intracity
operations. Emissions from petrol taxis would record the highest percentage change between 2020 and 2030 at
an annual rate of 23.3%.

118

Freight transport by road was classified into urban or local freight transportation and long-distance freight transportation

Page | 130

14
Private cars_petrol

12

Taxis_LPG

Emissions (MtCO2e)10

Taxis_petrol

8

Big buses_gas oil
6

Light Duty Vehicle_diesel

4Light Duty Vehicle_petrol

2

Motor cycle_petrol0Private cars_diesel
2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030

Figure 38: Projected emissions from intra-city vehicle operations under the AEG scenario

The final energy demand for intercity road passenger transportation under the AEG scenarios is projected toincrease from 1,269 ktoe in 2020 at an average annual rate of 4.2% to 1,913 ktoe in 2030. Diesel would constitutethe largest share (67.5%) of the final energy demand, and the gasoline (32.5%) leading to rising emissions. The
emissions from inter-city transport are likely to grow by 20% from 3.8 to 5.8 MtCO 2e between 2020 to 2030 at
the rate of 4.5% per annum (Figure 39). Diesel buses and light-duty diesel vehicles would dominate the emissions
from intercity passenger vehicle operations. These vehicles are usually used as high-occupancy public transportand run on diesel fuel. As the share of diesel buses and light-duty vehicles, road usage increases, there will be acorresponding rise in emissions. The big diesel buses usually ply the highways to connect passengers from one
city to another.
6
Big buses_diesel

Emissions (MtCO2e)5Light Duty
Vehicles_diesel
Light Duty
Vehicles_petrol
Motor cycle_petrol

43

Private cars_diesel
2

Private cars_petrol
Taxis_gasoline

102016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030

Figure 39: Emissions from intercity vehicle operation under the AEG scenario

Page | 131

The expected rise in road transport emissions could be due to the continued democratisation of cars and its
attendant traffic congestion, especially in big towns and cities. With more than 60% of Ghanaians projected to livein urban areas, and steady growth in the economy, the demand for individual car ownerships would significantly
drive future emissions in the transport category. Diesel is likely to be the main fuel for rail transportation in Ghana.
It would increase from 631 kt in 2020 to 2,259 kt in 2030. The government policy drive to revitalise the railway
industry would drive future emissions in Transport. Under the AEG scenario, diesel trains would be a significant
part of the new fleet of trains government would put in service. That is why diesel train emissions would contributeactively to the transport sector. The emissions are expected to grow by 258% from 1.7 MtCO2e to 6 MtCO2e
between 2020 and 2030. More diesel trains are likely to be commissioned on newly constructed rail lines. The
rapid increase in the share of final energy demand for rail transportation is attributable to the government’s policy
to revamp the country’s railway sector.
4.5.7.3 Projected emissions for households
The households have been divided into urban and rural to obtain homogenous energy use patterns consistent
with the national statistics classification. The urban households are further classified into metro-urban (core areasof the city) and other-urban (peri-urban areas). Rural households are grouped according to ecological zones into
savannah, forest and coastal and by electricity access. Household end-use energy applications are lighting,cooking, refrigeration, air-conditioning, water heating, clothes washing, dishwashing and miscellaneous uses.
Emissions from electricity use in households have been excluded from the assessment to avoid double counting
because electricity generation emissions are already part of the electricity category. The total household emissions
may increase by 31% from 12.4 in 2020 to 16.2 MtCO2e 2030 at a 3% annual growth rate (Figure 40). Emissions
from all the categories of households are likely to increase over the same period with “other urban” and “metro
urban” households recording high growth rates. The share of the emissions from rural households (savannah, forestand coastal rural), would be relatively lower compared to the rest of the households.
18
16

Emissions (MtCO2e)

14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

Metro Urban

2021

2022

Other Urban

2023

2024

Savanna

2025

2026

ForestCoastal

2027

2028

2029

2030

Figure 40: Projected household emissions under AEG scenario

Page | 132

The other urban households would contribute most to the emissions. It would account for 29% of the total
household emissions for a forecasted decade. Other urban households would be followed by rural savannah(24.4%), rural forest (22.7%) and metro urban (14.7%) in the order of magnitude of contribution to the total
household emissions. Coastal households would contribute the least to total household emissions. It would
account for 9.2% of total emissions and grow from 1.2 to 1.5 MtCO 2e for the 2020-2030 period at a 3% annual
rate. The projected emission trends would correlate strongly with the energy consumption patterns of the various
household categories. Urban households would account for 60.2% of the total household energy demand in 2030
compared to 47.4% in 2020. The reasons are that more than two thirds (68.9%) of households are expected toreside in urban localities by 2030. However, the final energy demand for urban households would be 2,268 ktoe
in 2030, increasing from 1,609 ktoe in 2020 at an average annual growth rate of 3.5%. As stated earlier, the low
growth rate is due to the decrease in urban household sizes, the shift from the use of charcoal to LPG for cooking
and the penetration of energy-efficient appliances.
The final energy demand in rural forest households would account for 45.7% of the total energy demand in rural
households, while the savannah and coastal rural households account for 36.0% and 18.3% respectively in 2020.
The results indicate that cooking is the dominant household energy end-use activity, followed by lighting. Cooking
would account for 81% of the household sector’s total final energy demand in 2020. Firewood share would makeup 9.3% of the urban household’s aggregate energy demand compared to 7.2% in 2030. Similarly, charcoal demand
could contribute 44.1% of the total final energy demand in 2020 compared to 39.1% in the same period. The shareof LPG demand would increase from 13.2% of the total final energy demand in 2020 to 15.5% by the end of 2030.
Total emissions from the urban areas would mainly come from cooking.
The 2020 emissions of 4.8 MtCO2e is forecasted to increase by 58% to 7.7 MtCO2e by 2030. Emissions would leadthe growth from the traditional charcoal stoves (43.8%), followed by wood stoves (27.3%), improved charcoal stove(17.3%) and LPG stove (11.3%) (Figure 41). However, emissions from wood stoves would record the fastest growthof 12.1 per annum over the decade. In the same vein, emissions from LPG stoves would also grow at a relatively
high rate of 4.8% annually. The rising trend corresponds with the upward trend in charcoal, wood and LPG demand.
The demand for charcoal under AEG is forecasted to rise from 670 ktoe in 2020 to 775 ktoe due to favourable
pricing and ready availability.

Page | 133

87
Gas LPG

6

Emissions (MtCO2e)

Gas Lamp
5

Gas stove LPG

4

Improved Charcoal Stove
Improved Wood Stove3

Kerosene Lamp
Kerosene Stove2

Traditional charcoal stove
1

Wood Stove0
2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030

Figure 41: Projections of emissions for urban households by 2030 (Technologies not appearing in the graph means that they phased outof the local market)

On the contrary, the emissions from kerosene and wood stoves would record a drastic decline over the 10-yearassessment period. The emissions share for kerosene lamps in urban households is expected to reduce by 8% by2030. In the rural areas, woodstoves would account for 91.2% of the total emissions and then by the traditional
charcoal stove (6.8%). Little emissions contribution would come from kerosene lamps for lighting. Emissions fromwood stoves are to increase by 14% over the decade of 2020 to 2030 at a growth rate of 1.5% (Figure 42).
9
8
Gas LPG

7

Gas stove LPG

Emissions (MtCO2e)6

Improved Charcoal Stove

5

Improved Wood Stove

4

Improved charcoal
Kerosene Stove3

Kerosene lamp2

Traditional charcoal stove

1

Wood Stove0
2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030

Figure 42: Projections of emissions in the urban household by 2030

Fuelwood would still be the dominant fuel for rural households between 2020 and 2030 for the AEG scenario. The
fuelwood share may decrease from 80.7% in 2020 to 70.7% in 2030. However, the percentage of charcoal in therural household’s final energy demand could rise from 6.2% in 2020 to 7.5% in 2030. The portion of LPG demandin the total final energy demand in rural households is projected to increase from 1.8% in 2020 to 4.0% in 2030.
Page | 134

These energy demand dynamics in rural households could influence future emissions. While the emissions fromkerosene lamps are expected to decrease by 25% and may lead to replacement with alternative forms of efficient
lighting.
4.5.7.4 Projected emissions for energy use in industry
The industry sector includes manufacturing, construction, mining and quarrying, and water production activities.
Generally, industrial emissions would grow by 105% from 4.2 to 8.5 MtCO2e over the 2020-2030 period at 8.3%
annually. Throughout the assessment period, manufacturing would be the leading source of emissions,contributing 68% of the total industrial emissions, followed by mining and quarrying (27%) and construction (5%).
The expected 19.3% annual increments would significantly influence the predicted high growth in the emissions
in final energy demand. It would translate to a rise in final energy demand from 872 ktoe in 2020 to 5,092 ktoe
in 2030. The higher final energy demand for the manufacturing sub-sector is due to the processing and refiningof bauxite and iron integrated industries because of the government’s proposed programs of Integrated Bauxite
and Aluminium Industries; and Iron and Steel Integrated Industries. Within manufacturing, food processing, surface
mining, and beverages would be the primary sources of emissions. Emissions from the food processing category
would dominate and consistently account for 29.8% of industrial emissions throughout the period and are likely
to be followed by surface gold mining (20.5%), beverages (7.8%) and textiles (5.4%) (Figure 43).
9

OthersCeramics and Lime
Food processing
Steel Milling
Textiles8

Emissions (MtCO2e)7

Beverages
Diesel all uses
Soap Production
Surface gold

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

2025

2026

2027

2028

2029

2030

Figure 43: Emissions associated with the manufacturing under AEG

The dominant fuels in the final energy mix for the industrial sector would be diesel. The share of other petroleum
products like RFO and LPG would be 5.6% and 1.8% respectively of the total final energy demand in 2020
compared to 6.6% and 2.4% in 2030. The manufacturing category promotes technology transfer, provides revenue
and employment and as such, is very critical to the economy. It has been subdivided into formal and informal
manufacturing and includes the production of cement119, textiles, food and beverages, plastics, iron and steel,chemical and pharmaceutical products and the processing of wood lumber into other products. Mining andquarrying would be another important source of GHG emission in the country.

119

Milling of clinker and gypsum

Page | 135

Under the mining and quarrying category, gold mining would drive the emission trends because it would accountfor 80% of the total energy demand for mining and quarrying. The mining emissions of 0.3 MtCO2e are likely toincrease by 48% over the decade at an annual growth rate of 4.4% due to the projected increased use of diesel
from 471 ktoe in 2020 and 531 ktoe 2030. Construction emissions are unlikely to be a significant contributor toindustrial emissions as it has been predicted to account for only 5%. The total emissions for the manufacturingsector may grow by 381% from 0.7 to 3.2 MtCO2e in 2030 with food processing (19.5%), steel milling (12.8%),
steel production (11.2%), pig iron production (10.2%), and beverages (10%) identified as the most significant
sources (Figure 44). Natural gas would be the primary fuel for manufacturing in the next decade and would drive
emissions upward. The high demand for natural gas as final energy use would be instigated mostly by theprocessing of extractive minerals such as iron to pig iron, limestone to clinker and bauxite to alumina.
3.5
3.0

Emissions (MtCO2e)

2.5

Pig Iron Production

Steel Production

Steel Milling

Clinker Production

TextilesWood processing

Beverages

Food processing

Fabrication of metals

Others

2017

2020

2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
2016

2018

2019

2021

2022

2023

2024

2025

2026

2027

2028

2029

2030

Figure 44: Manufacturing sub-sector emissions under AEG

The food processing industry annually accounts for about 15% of the total output of the manufacturing sector 120.
This industry comprises the large-scale processing of raw cocoa beans and oil-palm fruits into semi-finished andfinished products, the manufacture of animal feeds, canned products, dairy products, food products, e.g. pasta,
noodles and grain mill products, e.g. wheat flour. The total final energy demand for the food processing industry
is likely to increase from 94 ktoe in 2020 at an average annual rate of about 8% to 203 ktoe in 2030. Demand for
RFO, used in the formal food industry, would account for 42% of the final energy demand for food processing. The
diesel fuel demand for food processing would go up by 25% under the AEG scenario. The steel production plants
in the country use the Electric Arc Furnace technology to produce steel using scrap metals as feedstock. The total
final energy demand for steel production would increase from 57 ktoe in 2020 at an average annual growth rateof 8.1% to 780 ktoe in 2030.
Diesel and RFO are projected to account for 40% and 7% share respectively of the total final energy demand forsteel production. The corresponding emissions would increase from 0.2 MtCO2e in 2025 to 0.6 MtCO2e in 2030.
Similar emission trends are likely for pig iron production. The beverage industry includes the large-scale
manufacture of alcoholic (i.e. hard liquors, wines, and beers) and non-alcoholic (i.e. carbonated drinks, fruit juices,and water (sachet and bottled) drinks.
120

Ghana Statistical Service: “Value Added Estimates of Sub-sectors of Manufacturing in the Revised 2011 GDP”

Page | 136

The total final energy demand of the beverage industry would increase from 44 ktoe in 2020 at an average annual
growth rate of 7.2% to 76 ktoe and 89 ktoe in 2030. Residual fuel oil would account for 60.6% of the final energy
demand. The final energy demand for the textile industry is projected to increase from 26 to 31 ktoe in 2020 at
an average annual rate of 6.0% and 6.3% respectively to 47 ktoe. RFO would be the dominant fuel in the final
energy mix of the textile industry. Metal fabrication, plastic production, wood processing, steel milling, andchemical industries would contribute less to the total emission.
4.5.7.5 Projected emissions for electricity generation
The future electricity generation under the AEG scenario is presented “with and without” coal to evaluate theemissions implications. Without the coal plant coming on stream, Ghana’s total electricity generation may growby 14% from 25,360.2 GWh in 2020 to 28,910.6 GWh in 2030. Sustainable energy contributions to the total
electricity generation are estimated at 22.3% of which large hydro accounts for the largest share (Figure 45). The
plausible generation scenario where the proposed coal plant comes online, total electricity production would
likely see a quantum increase by 120% from 25,360.2 to 56, 139.8 GWh by 2030. The sustainable energy share
under this scenario would constitute 14% over the decade.
60,000

Projecred electricity generation (GWh)

50,00040,00030,00020,00010,000

0
2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

2025

2026

2027

2028

2029

2030

AKSA
AMERI_2016
AMERI_2021
Akosombo hydroAmandi
BXC
Bui 400 hydroCenit
Cenpower_impgas
Early_PowerGP Chirano
GP Darmand Plant
GP Tarkwa Plant
KTPP
Karpower_1
Karpower_2
Kpong hydroMRP
Mienergy
New Gas CC
New Oil CC
Nuclear PP
Pwalugu hydro
SAPP1
SAPP2
Safisana
TAPCO_T1
TICO_T2
TT1
TT2
Tema T5 CC_coal
Trojan 2A Ksi
Trojan 1 Tema
Trojan 2B Tema

Figure 45: Projected electricity generation with coal under the AEG scenario with coal

The total fuel demand for electricity generation is anticipated to increase from 2,173.2 to 4,460.2 over the 20202030 timeframe. Natural gas would constitute the largest share of fuel demand making up 42% of the total fueldemand. The rest would be made-up of coal (39.6%), hydro (14.7%) and crude oil (3.3%) (Table 50).
Table 53: Projected fuel demand for electricity generation.
Fuels
Fuel Quantity (ktoe)
2016
2020
2025
2029
Natural gas
Diesel
LPG

714.664176.6
44.2

1645.849.1
17.1

1387.042
0.8
3.2

929.2960.8
2.2% of the cumulative total
2030
940.008
0.8
1.9

Cumulative total(2020-2030)
15060.7
21.042256.3876

42.1%
0.1%
0.2%

Page | 137

Crude Oil
Hydro
Coal

115.7
471.4
-

29.6
471.4
-

119.5
481.5
1,283.8

78.6
481.5
2,688.7

94.9
481.5
2,941.01193.245256.4914157.9

3.3%
14.7%
39.6%

Biomass
HFO
Total

0.1
64.8
1,587.5

0.1
2,173.2

0.1
3,276.0

0.1
4,181.2

0.1
4,460.20.70426035746.5

0.0%
0.0%
100.0%The installed generation capacity would almost double over the decade (2020-2030). About 5,014.14 MW ofcapacity may be added at an annual growth rate of 8.1% in the same period (Table 51). Should the coal plantcome online as generally anticipated, it would make up about a quarter of the total installed capacity under the
AEG scenario. It would be followed by the legacy hydro installations (Akosombo, Kpong, and Bui), making 17.2%of the installed capacity. The rest would be mainly natural gas and fuel oil-fired thermal plants and renewables.
Table 54: Projected installed electricity generation capacity under the AEG scenario
Installed capacity (MW)Power plants
2016
2020
2025
Akosombo hydro
900.0
900.0
900.0
Kpong hydro
140.0
140.0
140.0
Bui 400 hydro
330.0
330.0
330.0
Pwalugu hydro
48.0

2029
900.0
140.0
330.0
48.0

2030
900.0
140.0
330.0
48.0

BXC
Mienergy
VRA Solar Plant
TAPCO_T1
TICO_T2
TT1

18.0
1.8
305.0
320.0
100.0

18.0
16.0
1.8
305.0
320.0
100.0

18.0
16.0
1.8
305.0
320.0
100.0

18.0
16.0
1.8
320.0
100.0

18.0
16.0
1.8
320.0
100.0

TT2
Cenit
MRP
KTPP
SAPP1
SAPP2

45.0
100.0
40.0
200.0
180.0
-

45.0
100.0
200.0
180.0
370.0

45.0
100.0
200.0
180.0
370.0

45.0
100.0
200.0
180.0
370.0

45.0
100.0
200.0
180.0
370.0

Cenpower
AMERI_2016
AMERI_2021
Karpower_1
Karpower_2
AKSA

230.0
213.0
-

340.0
230.0
450.0
375.0

340.0
230.0
450.0
-

340.0
230.0
450.0
-

340.0
230.0
450.0
-

Amandi
Early Power
Trojan 1 Tema
Trojan 2B Tema
Trojan 2A Kumasi
Trojan 3 Tema

25.0
20.0
16.3
-

180.0
377.5
20.0
16.3
49.9

180.0
377.5
-

180.0
377.5
-

180.0
377.5
-

GP Chirano
Safisana

30.0
0.1

30.0
0.1

30.0
0.1

30.0
0.1

30.0
0.1

Page | 138

GP Darmand Plant
GP Tarkwa Plant
New Gas combined cycle

25.5
33.0
-

25.5
33.0
-

25.5
33.0
-

25.5
33.0
-

25.5
33.0
-

New Oil combined cycle
Nuclear power plant
Tema T5 combined cycle coal
Total

3,272.7

224.0
5,377.1

1,211.1
2,005.2
7,956.2

1,501.8
4,237.4
10,174.1

1,790.3
4,637.9
10,863.1

Under the option with coal, there is the possibility of ultimately adding 4,600 MW to the existing electricity
generation capacity. The coming on stream of the coal plant is anticipated to start 2025 with 2000 MW and later
ramped up to the projected optimal capacity. Although the possibility of incorporating coal-fired plants in thegeneration mix is intrinsically indicative at this stage, it is essential to note that it would require appropriate
policy, regulatory and investment justification before coming online. The projected shift in the electricity
generation mix to base more on natural gas, hydro and renewables and the option to plug in coal, would influence
the future GHG emission trends. The changing electricity mix is expected to translate to a total emissions
increment of 270% from 9.6 MtCO2e in 2020 to 35.4 MtCO2e in 2030 (Figure 46).
40
35

Emissions (MtCO2e)

30
25
20
15

10
5
0
2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030

Tema T5 CC_coal
TAPCO_T1
TICO_T2
TT1
TT2
Cenit
MRP
KTPP
SAPP1
SAPP2
Cenpower_impgas
AMERI_2016
AMERI_2021
Karpower_1
Karpower_2
AKSA
Amandi
Early_Power
Trojan 1 Tema
Trojan 2B Tema
Trojan 2A Ksi
Trojan 3 Tema
GP Chirano
Safisana
GP Darmand Plant
New Oil CC

Figure 46: Projected emissions associated with electricity generation under the AEG scenario

4.5.7.6 Projected emission for charcoal production
Charcoal production is a major source of greenhouse emissions because of inefficient carbonisation and demandfor charcoal. The charcoal production technology is predominantly earth mound pit and mud beehive. The process
efficiencies of the technologies are less than thirty per cent. The dominant use of the inefficient earth mound pit
and mud beehive technologies presents an opportunity to optimise the thermal efficiencies and contribute to
reducing GHG emissions. As charcoal would remain a significant part of the final energy demand in households,
the production process provides a viable opportunity to modernise the charcoal production process and mitigate
Page | 139greenhouse emissions. The assessment showed that GHG emissions from charcoal production are likely to increaseby 15.1% over the ten years (2020-2030) from 2.1 to 2.4 MtCO2e at a rate of 1.6% per annum. Earth mound pit
technology would contribute 85% of the total charcoal production emissions compared to mud beehive kiln of
15% over the same timeframe. While the mud beehive emissions are likely to exhibit an increasing trend, that of
the earth mound pit would decline. The share of mud beehive emission would increase by 269% over the decade;on the other hand, the earth mound pit emission is expected to decline by 0.5% in the same period.
4.5.8 Assessment Mitigation Potential in the Energy sector
Assessing the mitigation potential involved the evaluation of the greenhouse gas effects of the prioritised energy
mitigation options listed in Table 52 relative to the AEG. The assessment of the potential mitigation effects of
the alternatives was done as individuals and together as an aggregate package. Two aggregate mitigation
scenarios, With Measures (WM), With Additional Measures (WAM) made of two or more measures, are evaluated toestimate the overall GHG effects. The measures under the WM and WAM scenarios corresponded with theunconditional and conditional mitigation commitment in Ghana’s NDCs and further showed the increasing
ambition of GHG effects. Table 55 shows the list of mitigation options modelled under the mitigation scenario.
Table 55: List of mitigation options, their NDC status, and mitigation scenario
Mitigation options
Mitigation policy package
NDC status
Switch from fuel oil to natural gas Low carbon electricity
Unconditional commitment
Single-cycle to combined cycle
Low carbon electricity
Conditional commitment
Solar PVs, large gridLow carbon electricity
Conditional commitment
Wind turbines, on-shore
Low carbon electricity
Conditional commitment
Nuclear plant
Low carbon electricity
Not included in NDC 1*
Efficient lighting with LEDs
Efficient lighting
Conditional commitment
Efficient wood stoves
Clean cooking
Conditional commitment
LPG stoves replacing wood stoves Clean cooking
Conditional commitment
Efficient home appliances
Efficient lighting
Not included in NDC 1**
Power factor increase
Industrial efficiency
Conditional commitment
Mini hydro-powerLow carbon electricity
Conditional commitment
Solar home PVs
Distributed solar
Conditional commitment
Solar/diesel mini-gridMini-grids
Conditional commitment
Solar LED lamps
Efficient lighting
Conditional commitment
Bus Rapid Transit (BRT)
Low carbon mass mobility
Conditional commitment
Electric mobility
Low carbon mass mobility
Conditional commitment
Railway mobility
Low carbon mass mobility
Conditional commitment
Reduced flaring at oil fields
Low carbon oil and gas production Unconditional commitment
Fuel switch in pig iron production Sustainable industrial production Not included in NDC 1*
Fuel switch in alumina production Sustainable industrial production Not included in NDC 1*

Mitigation scenario
WM
WAM – included in LEAP
WAM
WAM
WAM
WAM
WAM
WAM
WM
Not modelled in the LEAP
WAM
WAM
Not modelled in the LEAP
WAM
WAM
WAM
WAM
Not included in NDC 1**
WAM
WAM* Measure was not initially included in the NDC 1 published in 2016. Ghana intends to incorporate measures as part of the conditional NDC
commitment during next year’s updates as a result of the new government policy direction. ** Measure was being implemented at the time of the
NDC but omitted due to a lack of data. With the availability of new dataset, Ghana would be able to incorporate as an unconditional commitment

4.5.8.1 With measures mitigation scenario
The WM includes mitigation options considered under the current unconditional NDC commitment. It also covered
the options that were excluded from the NDC due to a lack of data but are eligible to be part of the unconditional
commitment. The measures are “fuel switch from fuel oil to natural gas in thermal plants” and “efficient home
appliances”.

Page | 140

The fuel switch measure aims at replacing fuel oil (crude oil, HFO, DFO, and Diesel) with natural gas in existingand new thermal power plants. The mitigation effects would result in the avoided use of fuel oil for natural gas inthermal electricity generation in line with the policy of the state-run power producer (Volta River Authority) tocease the use of fuel oil as the primary fuel for their thermal plant. Efficient home appliances underpin the
country’s energy efficiency improvement strategy, but their GHG effects are not part of the NDC due to data
challenges. In the LEAP tool, the efficient homes appliance package focused on electrified homes and included
penetration of efficient technologies for refrigeration, space cooling and heating, and washing.
90
Transport

80

Residential

Emissions (MtCO2e)7060Electricity Supply

50

Agriculture

40

Industry

30

Charcoal

20

VALCo

10

Avoided emissions
under WM

0
2020

2021

2022

2022

2024

2023

2026

2024

2028

2022

2030

Figure 47: GHG emission reductions potential under the with measures mitigation scenario

The WM scenario compares the incremental benefits of the fuel switch in fossil-fuel power plants and efficient
home appliances against the projected AEG emissions. The assumption is that the two identified mitigation options
would be implemented in addition to the policies driving the AEG emissions trajectory. The potential aggregate
GHG effects of the mitigation options under WM is estimated at 25% relative to the projected emissions of AEG
by 2030 (Figure 47). The expected emission reductions under WM scenario translate to an average of 14 MtCO 2e
per year. The breakdown of the contributions of individual mitigation options under WM is reported relative to the
AEG emissions for households and electricity generation. Regarding the efficient appliance measure in households,
the estimated emission savings would be 4% lower than the AEG emissions. It would translate into an annual
savings rate of 0.6 MtCO2e over the assessment period (Figure 48).

Page | 141

18
Coastal16

Emissions (MtCO2e)

14

Forest12
Metro Urban

10
8

Other Urban

6

Savanna

4
Avoided emissions
from efficient
appliances

2
0
2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

2025

2026

2027

2028

2029

2030

Figure 48: GHG emissions reduction for efficient appliances under with measures mitigation scenario

In the same vein, the replacement of fuel oil with natural gas for the fossil-fuel power plant could lead to an
estimated 50% reduction relative to the projected AEG emissions for the electricity category. The potential savings
would increase from 2.1 MtCO2e in 2020 to 21.53 MtCO2e by the end of the decade. The cumulative total of theeffect would amount to 117.5 MtCO2e by 2030, with an annual average of 29.6 MtCO2e (Figure 49).
40

Emissions (MtCO2e)

30

20

10

0
2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

2025

2026

2027

2028

2029

2030

AKSA
AMERI_2016
AMERI_2021
Amandi
Cenit
Cenpower_impgas
Early_PowerGP Chirano
GP Darmand Plant
KTPP
Karpower_2
New Gas CC
SAPP1
SAPP2
Safisana
TAPCO_T1
TICO_T2
TT1
TT2
Trojan 2A Ksi

Figure 49: GHG emissions reduction for fuel switch measure under with measures mitigation scenario

4.5.8.2 With additional measures mitigation scenario
The “with additional measure” is the ambitious mitigation scenario and is made up of eighteen options in theenergy sector. The eighteen options cover a combination of a wide range of mitigation technologies focusing on
households, transport, industry, and electricity categories. WAM represents a mitigation scenario where the NDC
commitments are fully achieved, which represent a significant increment over the WM and AEG emissions
trajectory.

Page | 142

Two WAM mitigation packages focus on the household category. The first set is on clean cooking and includes thepenetration of improved charcoal stoves, improved wood stoves, and LPG stoves. The second cluster of household
mitigation options target clean and efficient lighting in electrified and non-electrified households.
Efficient lighting component is on the distribution of LED lamps in the electrified households, whereas clean
lighting focuses on the replacement of kerosene lamps with solar and dry cells in non-electrified households.
Under the WAM scenario, the assessment identified three transport mitigation options. These are the introductionof electric vehicles, electric trains and high occupancy bus services (Bus Rapid Transit - BRT). Electric mobility
mitigation options would focus on adopting electric vehicles for private and commercial use in major cities in the
country. Concerning trains, even though the government may introduce diesel trains under the AEG, mitigation
scenarios would evaluate the emissions if 20% of the passenger-km is on electric trains.
The BRT is a bus-based mitigation option in intra-city transport. BRT is already under implementation under thecurrent transport policy; the WAM scenario would seek to expand the coverage of the BRT to more cities. The plan
is to import 400 high occupancy buses to augment the existing fleet. But the envisaged emission reductions cannot
be achieved without dedicated lanes for the buses. In Industry, the focus would be on mitigating GHG emissions
from pig iron and alumina production.
Both industries are linked to the government integrated aluminium industry agenda. The mitigation strategy
would concentrate on the promotion of substitute fuels for the iron and alumina industry. For pig iron production,
the aim is to quantify emissions from the alternative use of natural gas instead of traditional coal. In the samevein, the focus is on assessing the implications of adopting natural gas as an alternative fuel of residual fuel oil.
On the electricity side, the assessment aims at evaluating the GHG effects for adopting additional measures on
utility-scale solar and wind installation as an alternative to natural gas-fired thermal plants. The assessment also
estimated the emission reductions potential associated with the scenario of introducing nuclear power on theutility grid scheduled to come online by 2030. The cumulative GHG emissions reductions under the WAM scenario
are estimated at 181.1 MtCO2e covering the ten years (2020 to 2030). This figure is 29.7% lower than the projected
AEG emissions of 610 MtCO2e (Figure 50).
9080

Agriculture

Emissions (MtCO2e)

70

Charcoal

60
Electricity Supply
50
Industry

40

Residential

30

Services

20

Transport

10
0
2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

2025

2026

2027

2028

2029

2030

Figure 50: GHG emission reductions potential under the WAM mitigation scenario

Page | 143

The individual mitigation options would contribute differently to the aggregate mitigation potential under the
WAM scenario. Under the household, there are three broad options in the areas of clean cooking (improved stovesand replacement of LPG fuel), LED lighting and solar lamps. The improved cookstove mitigation strategy captures
the penetration of charcoal and wood stoves as well as LPG stoves. A cumulative total of 30.2 MtCO2e is expected
to be achieved for all the mitigation options in the household category. The emission reduction would be about
19.9% below the AEG emission for the household (Figure 51). The annual average savings are likely to hoveraround 0.91 tCO2e every year.
Among the household mitigation measures, the improved cookstove option is expected to achieve the highest
emission reductions of 19.4 MtCO2e, which would represent about 12.8% deviation from the AEG emissions. LED
bulbs strategy involved the replacement of less efficient CFL and incandescent bulbs with LED. The total emission
savings from this measure would amount to 6.4 MtCO2e for the entire assessment period. The emission reduction
figure is 4.2% less than the projected AEG emissions for the household category. The savings would occur at a rateof 0.58 per annum. The solar PV mitigation option would contribute the least to the overall emissions reductionin the category. In all, 4.4 MtCO2e of greenhouse gas emissions would be avoided as the result of the solar PV
interventions. The projected mitigation effect of the solar PV option would be 2.9% lower than the AEG emissions
by 2030.
25

Emissions (MtCO2e)

20

15

10

5

0
2020

2021

2022

2023

Household AEG emissions

2024
Solar PV savings

2025

2026
LED savings

2027

2028

2029

2030

Improved stoves savings

Figure 51: GHG emission reductions potential under the WAM mitigation scenario for households

The next set of mitigation options under WAM scenario is in the transport sector and includes three multi-modal
shift mitigation measures. These are electric vehicles, BRT and electric buses. The highest reduction contributionsof 34.8 MtCO2e would come from the high-occupancy BRT system in major cities and projected to be 13.8% below
the AEG emissions

Page | 144

50
45

Emissions (MtCO2e)

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
2020

2021

2022

2023
Total

2024
BRT

2025
Electric vehicle

2026

2027

2028

2029

2030

Electric train

Figure 52: GHG emission reductions potential under the WAM mitigation scenario for the transport sector

The mitigative effects of electric vehicles and electric trains could lead to emission reductions of 29.7 MtCO2e and26.9 MtCO2e, respectively. For electric vehicles, the projected emission savings would be 11.7% deviation fromthe AEG emissions (Figure 52). In the same vein, an electric train alternative is a plausible option for the proposed
diesel train strategy. It is projected that, if 20% of the passenger-km of the proposed diesel train initiative isreplaced with electric trains, it would lead to cumulative total emission savings of 26.9 MtCO2e which is 10.6%
below the AEG emissions for the transport sector. Under the industrial sector, improved alumina and pig ironproduction are two main mitigation options. They would focus on the replacement of residual fuel oil and coalwith natural gas to achieve the mitigation objective in the assessment period. Both options would be part of thegovernment’s industrialisation agenda.
4.5.8.3 Mitigation effects of the AEG, WM and WAM scenarios
The evaluation of the overall mitigation effects of the selected options, the emissions associated with WM andWAM scenarios have been compared with the AEG. Generally, the emissions under the WAM trajectory would be
the lowest as expected, relative to the WM and AEG scenarios. While the total cumulative emissions along the AEG
trajectory is estimated to be 278.9 MtCO2e, the WM emissions would deviate by 28% to 217.3 MtCO2e and further
decline below by 40% to 199 MtCO2e on the WAM scenario (Figure 53)

Page | 145

40

Emissions (MtCO2e)

35
30
25
20
15

10
2019

2020

2021

2022

AEG emissions

2023

2024

With Measures

2025

2026

2027

2028

2029

2030

With Additional Measures

Figure 53: Comparison of emissions under AEG, WM, and WAM scenarios

4.5.9 Strategies for Implementing Mitigation Options
The rolling out of the mitigation options cannot be successful without coherent policies, capable and wellcoordinated institutional roles, access to necessary investments and technology. Ghana would prioritise advocacy
for the consistent implementation of existing policies as a concrete way to achieve its mitigation goals. Table 56
provides an overview of some of the critical actions that need to be implemented to achieve the mitigation
objectives. It captures information on significant barriers, investment cost, abatement potentials, sustainable
development benefits, lead agency and alignment with national policy.

Page | 146

Table 56: Further steps toward implementation of selected mitigation options
Mitigation Options
Line Ministries
Supporting Agencies Investment costs for
implementation
to 2030 (US$)
Clean cooking(Improved biomass
cookstoves and
LPG Cookstoves)

Utility-scale solar

Solar lanterns

121

Ministries of Energy and
Ministry of Land andNatural Resources, Local
Government and Rural
Development

Ministry of Energy

Ministry of Energy

Energy Commission
National Petroleum
Authority
Forestry Commission
District Assemblies

Energy Commission,
Private sector

Energy Commission,
Private sector

US$ 0.65billion
Improved
cookstoves(UDUS$0.16billion)
LPG stoves (US$0.49billion)

US$ 169 million121

US$ 300 million

Estimated split between
the public-private sector
and consumer
investments*
Improved cookstoves:
about 70% consumer
costs and 30%
public support costs,
LPG stoves: about 80%
consumercost and 20% public
support
80% of the total cost
expected to come fromthe private sector

Private sector involved inimportation, distribution,
sales and installation of
LED lamps

Abatement potential andsustainable
development impacts

Priority Barriers

Alignment with National
Policy/Programme
removing barriers- Abatement potential to2030 of 15.8 MtCO2e- Health benefits fromreduced indoor air
pollution.
- Lower woodfuel demandand deforestation.
- Potential cost savings tohouseholds- 11 MtCO2- 1,169 jobs prospects- inadequate production anddistribution capacity;- limited expertise to design
and produce more efficienttechnologies;- the sector is not attractive tofinancial institutions;

Policy target: 50% LPG
penetration by 2020.

- The challenging investment
climate,- Uncertainty of available
resources,- Limited technologicalcapacity.
- Insufficient experience inrenewable energy
development- Information and awarenessbarriers- Inadequate resource
availability- The incentive for
manufacturers or importer of
efficient LED lamps.
- The disposal of inefficientbulbs is a potential source of
mercury emissions.

Renewable Energy Act.

- 947 ktCO2e/year- Health benefits fromreduced indoor air
pollution.

Reduce wood fuel demand
from 72% to 50% by 2020.
Programmes – SEforALL
Action plan.

Renewable Energy Master
Plan
SREP Investment Plan

National Energy Policy
Light for all initiative(distribution of 12 million
LEDs)

Renewable Energy Master Plan

Page | 147

Switch from liquid fuelto natural gas inthermal power plants

Ministry of Energy

Volta River
Authority, Ghana Gas
Company

US$ over 1 billion

Forest plantation
development

Ministry of Lands andNatural Resources

Forestry Commission
Private sector

US$ 4.1 billion
investment cost,projected income of
US$ 9.4 billion

Ghana Forest Cocoa
REDD+ ProgrammeHigh Occupancy Buses

Ministry of Lands andNatural Resources

Ministry of Transport,
Infrastructure, and local
government

Forestry
Commission, Ghana
Cocoa Board
Private sector

Ministry ofTransport

US$ 50 million
results-based
payment model.

(US$ 0.35
billion)

About 80% investment in
gas infrastructures by
GNGC. The private sector
contributes 20% gas
production anddistribution cost
The shared cost between
public and private sector
plantation development
companies.

The results-based
payment scheme isexpected to leverage an
additional overUS$ 200 million
investment into thecocoa landscape.
About 70%-80% public
investment cost for
infrastructure and 20%30% private costs forvehicle stock- Potential to generation 145 - Irregular flow of natural gas
ktCO2e/year
from the West Africa Gas
Pipeline

National Gas Master Plan

- Potential to generate- Lack of sustainable financing
2,456.67 kt/year.
framework for plantation- 2.8 million job prospects fordevelopment.
over 25 years.
- Lengthy land acquisition
processes.
- Weak legal and institutionalframeworkfor plantation development.
- Lack of a unified legal
framework for regulating
plantation development,
benefits sharing, financing.
- Potential to generate- Difficulty in the sourcing of1414.29 kt/year.
funds for implementation.
- Inadequate capacity to use
state-of-the-art GIS
technology to map andmonitor existing plantations
spatially.
- Threats from illegal mining.
- Abatement potential to
Difficult to regulate informal
2030 of 1.63 MtCO2e.
transport service providers.
- Reduced traffic congestion - Inadequate funding.
- Improved local air quality- Lack of consistent political- Improved road safetycommitment.
- Job creation- Integration of BRT in roaddevelopment.
- Lack of clarity in regulationand enforcement.

National forest and wildlife
policy.
Forest Plantation Strategy
Forest Plantation
Development Fund
REDD+ Strategy

National forest and wildlife
policy.
REDD+ Strategy
Forest Plantation Strategy
Forest Plantation
Development Fund
National Transport Policy
Policy target: 80% of all
trips in the Urban Areashould be done throughthe public. Mass Transit
Systems

Page | 148

Institutional biogas

Ministries of Energy,
Education and Health

Ministry of Energy(US$ 0.11
billion)

About 55% public
investment throughrebate scheme 45%
private costs for costinstitutional biogas--

Scale-up market shareof climate-friendly andenergy-efficientconditioners to 70% by
2030
Avoided methane fromthe disposal of solid
waste throughcomposting

Abatement potential to2030 of 0.024MtCO2e.
Reduction in indoor
pollution
Improved sanitation
Reduction in out-pocketexpenditure on cooking
fuels
Job creation and increased
incomes

Ministry of Environment,
Science, Technology andInnovation

Environmental
Protection Agency,
Energy Commission

US$ 15.5 million

Private sector
involvement in theimportation of efficientconditioners-

Potential to reduce theemission of 900 kt/year.

Ministry of Sanitationand Water Resources

Private companies

Not estimatedPrivate sector-led-

Potential to reduce 1,754.9
kt/year- Lack of access to finance,
including microfinance.
- Limited local professional
artisans.
- High upfront cost.
- Non-existing public capital
incentives.
- Standardisation of biomass
plants and registration offirms to ensure efficientmonitoring.
- There is a need to equip theEC and GSA to ensure proper
standardisation.
- Industry refusal, backing
from other national
agencies needed.
- Inadequate funding--

Landfill gas
management

Local government, waste,environment

Ministry of Local
Government and
Rural Development(US$ 0.51
billion)

About 30% public
investment to equity,
70% private capital cost-

Abatement potential to2030 of 0.4MtCO2e/yr.
Reduce the incidence of fireat landfills.
Additional energy
generated
Improve sanitation-

Mixed waste stream
introduces the extra cost ofprocessing.
Limited market scope andapplication of compost.
Limited compost production
capacityHigh upfront transaction
cost.
No landfill gas collection
obligation
Challenges in theoperational management oflandfills

SEforALL Action Plan.
Renewable Energy Act.
Renewable Energy MasterPlan.

HFC phase-out
management plan

Double the current waste
to compost capacity of
200tonnes/day to
400tonnes/day by 2030

National Environmental
Sanitation Policy
Renewable Energy Act

Page | 149

4.5.10 Updates on Implementation of Mitigation Options
Updates on the implementation of mitigation measures since the submission of the second biennial update
report to the Convention was reported in 2018. The reported information is along the lines of the mitigation
policy options outlined in this communication and consistent with the mitigation commitment in the NDC.
Only mitigation measures, the implementation of which has meaningfully progressed on the ground, and new
information have been collected, are reported. This section of the report must be read together with the
mitigation actions and their effects in Ghana’s BUR2 to appreciate the bigger picture (Table 57).
Table 57: Updates on the implementation of mitigation options since the submission of BUR2
Mitigation
Category
Updates since the submission of BUR2 to the UNFCCC
options
Households
Clean cooking The clean cooking measures include the dissemination of improved charcoal andsectorwoodstove and the adoption of LPG for cooking. The Ministry of Energy and National
Petroleum Authority lead in the implementation of the LPG related interventions, and theEnergy Commission leads in the application of the biomass associated interventions. Clean
cooking interventions are supported by development partners like the UNDP, the Clean
Cooking Alliance, Netherlands Development Organisation, and the World Bank. The
following are the updates of the significant steps taken and achievements made since thesubmission of the second biennial update report to the UNFCCC:

LED lighting

Transport

High-occupancy
busesElectric vehicles

The Ministry of Energy has successfully launched Ghana’s 500,000 improved cookstoveproject in collaboration with the Korean Investors. The project is expected to deliver notless than 4,000 kt of emissions reductions (ERs) every year. The ERs are to be transferredto the Korean Carbon Market under rules of the amended Kyoto Protocol and subsequently
within the framework of the Paris Agreement Article 6. Ghana is the host of fourteen
improved cooking stove program activities with a potential average of 151.1 kt/year eachin the first period.
The Ministry of Energy has introduced the “light for all initiative” in which 12 million LED
lights are to be distributed nationwide under a cost-recovery programme led by local
banks. This initiative has the potential to reduce energy consumption by 50% from thecurrent compact fluorescent bulbs’ usage and 0.96 Mt of carbon emission savings. Three
million LED lights are to be distributed to public institutions by the Ministry of Energy,
which is expected to reduce 0.24Mt carbon savings.
Part of the 2.4million US$ under the Energy Efficiency & Demand Side Management(EEDSM) project implemented by MiDA is being used to replace existing high-energy
consuming streetlights as part of the effort to save energy and enhance security within
the Greater Accra Region. A total of 1,800 energy efficiency streetlights would be installed
ed under the project. Part of the funds would also be used to finance 3 Energy Auditing
Centers in selected tertiary institutions for the building of capacity for energy auditors
who would work towards the reduction in wastage in the energy supply systems in Ghana.
Other activities include curriculum and development of standards for most appliances.
Fleet renewal. The Ministry of Transport plans to import 400 high occupancy Euro 3 buses.
One hundred high-occupancy buses (Euro 3) are already in the country. Additional 300
would be imported to add to the fleet. Efficiency in testing and improved roadworthiness- Private sector participation in-vehicle testing. Nearly twenty private garages in operation- Accra, Tema, Kumasi, Somanya, Winneba, Koforidua. Twenty more to be added to cover
the northern sector.
The Ministry of Energy has launched an e-drive initiative to promote electric vehicles in
Ghana. The Ministry of Transport, Private sector and AFD are developing Accra city vehicle
project to seek funding from the Green Climate Fund.

Page | 165

SustainableenergyLow carbon
electricity

Lowering
deforestation
andrestoration of
degradedlands

Solar programme

Conversion of asingle cycle tocombined cycle
thermal plant
Fuel switch infossil-fuelthermal plant
Forest Cocoa
REDD+

Forest plantation
development

The Volta River Authority has launched a renewable energy programme. Phase 1, VRA isconstructing 17MW Upper West Regional Solar Power Project, 76 MW Wind Power Project-1 and 76.5MW Wind Power Project -2. In phase 2, VRA plans a 200MW Solar Power project
to be built in different stages, including 18MW Upper West Regional Solar Power Project& 40MW Bongo Solar Power Project, 200MW Wind Power Project, 75kWp.
Volta River Authority Head office Cafeteria Building Solar-PV Rooftop Project, 28kWp
Akuse Solar PV Rooftop Project, 40.2kWp Akuse Institutional office buildings Solar PV
Rooftop Project.
Conversion of the 220MW Simple Cycle Kpone Thermal Power Station to 330MW
Combined Cycle Plant. A total 400kt CO2e annual savings envisaged when operational.

VRA has introduced a corporate policy to utilise natural gas solely for power generationfrom the thermal power plant.
Ghana signed an agreement with the World Bank to cut carbon emissions and reduce
deforestation122. Ghana’s five-year Emission Reductions Payment Agreement with
the Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF) Carbon Fund, which is administered by theWorld Bank, unlocks performance-based payments of up to US$50 million for carbon
emission reductions from the forest and land-use sectors. In Ghana’s ERPA, the FCPF
Carbon Fund commits to making initial results-based payments for emission reductions of
10 million tons of CO2 emissions (up to US$50 million).
Youth in Afforestation programme. 65,000 youth recruited under the programme has
planted about 10 million seedlings of different species across the country since 2018 123.

122

https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2019/07/09/ghana-signs-landmark-deal-with-world-bank-to-cut-carbon-emissions-andreduce-deforestation
123
https://www.graphic.com.gh/daily-graphic-editorials/ghananews-afforestation-programme-needs-the-push.html

Page | 166

Climate vulnerability, impacts andadaptation assessment

Cover photo source: CNES/Airbus Image over Keta from Google Earth

Page | 167

5. Updates on Climate Vulnerability, Impacts and Adaptation Assessment
This section of the NC4 presents a unified consolidation of information on climate scenarios, vulnerability
assessment, and adaptation. It is structured into four parts. Part one is on the updates on climate scenarios
including reviewing climate modelling initiatives. Information on data, methodology and the results from theclimate projection analysis are covered as well. Part two is on spatial vulnerability, explaining the data points
and the methods for the vulnerability assessment. The visualised results are in thematic maps covering theentire country. In part three, the results from climate projections and the spatial vulnerability assessment areused as input in the revision of the information on impacts assessment and adaptation planning. Part foursynthesises the key messages from the climate scenarios, spatial vulnerability, and adaptation planning intosummaries for policymakers and end-users.
5.1 Description of Climate Projections
Climate projections and the underlying analysis provided evidence on the current and future climate change
in Ghana. The projections give a lead on the past and future characteristics of climate variables per each agroecological zone. Often, the results serve as inputs in climate change vulnerability, impacts, and adaptationassessments. Here, the report lays out the methodology, analysis, and results of climate projections. The results
also reveal the trend of current and future climate change. The projection of the future climate outlook has agreat deal of reliability since it was derived from the pattern of 34-year historical climate records.
Presentation of results is at the national scale and for different agro-ecological zones to make it easy tounderstand and user-friendly. The climate projections are a useful reference for potential end-users involvedin engineering, policy and grassroots work, particularly for multiple stakeholders in water resourcesmanagement, urban infrastructure planning, agriculture, and climate adaptation planning. It also serves asreference material for academics and students involved in climate change-related activities. The updated
climate projections are improvements of the previous information reported in the NC3. The team made thefollowing changes:••••

RCPs instead of SRES124 to ensure consistency with the current IPCC report. The IPCC AR5
recommended the use of RCPs as best practice.
CORDEX125 models, instead of the AMMA model126 due to its high resolution and better performanceover Africa.
Added two gauged stations to the previous 22 stations managed by Ghana Meteorological Agency127.
The baseline was 1980-2014, an improvement of the previous 1981-2010 for a longer baseline.

The changes introduced in the current projections contributed to making the results more robust for the
climate assessment based on emission scenarios of the Fifth Assessment Report (AR5)128 by theIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.

Special Report on Emissions Scenarios – SRES. sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/ddc/sres/
Coordinated Regional Climate Downscaling Experiment. The downscaling is performed using multiple regional climate models.
126
African Monsoon Multidisciplinary Analysis. https://www.amma2050.org/
127
www.meteo.gov.gh/website/
124
125

128

https://www.ipcc.ch/assessment-report/ar5/

Page | 168

5.1.1 Methodology for the Climate Projections
5.1.1.1 Summary of climate projection steps
Long-term observed historical climate data was used in the projections. The climate projection team obtained
data from the Ghana Meteorological Agency (GMet), which has the mandate to collect and manage climate
data for the country. The data included daily rainfall, minimum and maximum temperature for thirty-four years(1980-2014). Three GCM ensembles from Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5 (CMIP5) were usedin the downscaling to drive five regional climate models data from CORDEX. The analysis covered two
timeframes. The baseline was the period 1980-2014, whereas the future projections are sliced into threeepochs: 2015-2040, 2041-2060, 2061-2080.
5.1.1.2 Description of weather stations data
The GMet was established in 1957 to provide efficient and reliable meteorological information by collecting,processing, archiving, analysing and disseminating findings/meteorological information to end-users. In linewith their mandate, GMet:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

undertakes daily national weather forecast on radio and television.
Collects, processes, stores, and disseminates meteorological information.
Undertakes research and publications.
Collaborates with relevant agencies (Agricultural, Water Resources, Aviation, Energy, Adaptation
programmes) on issues of weather and climate.
Provides expert advice on climate issues.
Provides meteorological information to meet international set standards.
Renders other meteorological services on routine/requests.

Currently, GMet regularly publishes agrometeorological, flood and drought monitoring bulletins for informed
medium-term planning. The primary data source for the climate projection was GMet’s meteorological records
from 1980 to 2014. The data on climate variables used for the predictions were obtained from the twenty-four
nationwide meteorological stations managed by the GMet129.The twenty-four weather stations have a good
spread across the country but not evenly distributed (Figures 54 and 55).

129

www.meteo.gov.gh/website/

Page | 169

Figure 54: Ghana Meteorological Agency outdooring a new automatic weather station

Figure 55: Automatic weather station in Accra

The selected data for the projections were gauged weather stations with high inter-annual data availability
and of high quality. The selected stations offered a good spread of climate data across the country for rigorous
assessment. The deciduous zone has the most stations with eight stations followed by the coastal savannawith five stations. The transitional and the guinea savanna zones have three stations, whereas rainforest was
the least with a one-gauge station (Figure 56).

Page | 170

Figure 56: Spatial distribution of the 24 weather stations in six agro-ecological zones

The twenty-four selected stations had complete climate data with minimal gaps. The selected stations had atleast 85 per cent data availability for the period 1980-2014 for rainfall, minimum and maximum temperatures.

Page | 1715.1.1.3 Description of the climate projection method
The team followed three main steps in the climate projection (Table 58). The broad overview of the climate
projection steps is summarised below:
5.1.1.3.1 Data collection for climate projection
Data collection is the first important step for climate projection. It involved scanning through the existing
national climate records available at least for thirty years’ time-series. The use of thirty years or more
observational climatological data as a baseline is to allow for the detection of patterns in climate variability
and change. In this assignment, gauged 34-years’ time-series data from twenty-four weather stations wereused as the baseline. The data covered climate variables such as daily rainfall, and minimum and maximum
temperature recorded between 1980 and 2014. The data was cleaned by eliminating outliers and inaccuracies
resulting from administrative or transposition errors. After the cleaning, the data was used in further analysis
during the simulation and downscaling stage.
5.1.1.3.2 Simulation and downscaling
The team downscaled daily rainfall, maximum and minimum temperature data using quantile-quantile
transformation method. Ten projections (corresponding to ten different combinations of GCMs and RCMs) were
produced for each station per ecological zone and for RCPs 2.6 and 8.5 emission scenarios. The downscaled
data was transformed into annual averages of rainfall and temperatures for each station and plotted. The
yearly averages were calculated for the period 1980-2014, 2015-2040, 2041-2060 and 2061-2080.
5.1.1.3.3 Analysis of downscaled results
The country is subdivided into six agro-ecological zones representative of the sites where the data wasrecorded. The ensemble averages of the ten projections of each of the stations in the climatic zones were
calculated for 2015-2040, 2041-2060 and 2061-2080. The rainfall changes were calculated by subtracting
the historical mean (1980-2014) from the zonal mean projection. Decadal change and the spread of variability
per each zone were determined. The observed and projected data were gridded to produce individual spatial
maps.
Table 58: Summary of the climate projection steps
Activity
Description of Activity
Data collection
Minimum and maximum temperature andrainfall for 24 synoptic stations.
Quality control

Selection ofmodelsIdentification and removals of outliers, key
entry errors, negative precipitation values,
spatial and temporal checks.
GCMs
RCMs
SMHI
REMO

Selection ofemission scenarios

RCP 2.6 and RCP 8.5

Tools used/Source
Ghana Meteorological
AgencyRemarks
Records of daily weather
observations.

R-Climdex,
Climate Data Tool (CDT).

Improved data integrity

CORDEX models

Readily available anddataset tested over West
Africa.

IPCC (2015)

Robust for West Africa
projected economic
development scenario

MPI-ESM-LR
CNRM-CM5
GFDL-ESM2G
CM5A-LR
MIROC5

Page | 172

Period for
scenarios

Downscaling
Methodology
Analysis of themodel results

Baseline – 1980-2014
Scenario years
2015-2040 (near future)2041-2060 (mid future)2061-2080 (far future)
Quantile-Quantile transformation (statistical
downscaling)
Calibration and validation
Ensemble mean of results
Analysis of change of climate variables(period and ecological zones)
Observed data were gridded

Near to far-futurescenarios for segmented
policy planning

Personal Computer (PC)Historical data from GMet

Allow projections to the
local scale
Cancelling out biases andoutliers

RCMs
R Software version 3.5
SURFUR/ARCGIS

5.1.2 Projection Results
This section presents the model results from the projections.
5.1.2.1 Model performance
The overall climate model performance was good on the observed data. It performed as expected in theprediction of future climate with a high degree of confidence. There was strong statistical confidence forpredicting the near and mid-future climate compared to far-future climate, which recorded high uncertainty.
The high confidence in the model was validated with the accurate prediction of the extreme events ofreduction in rainfall that occurred in 2015. The extreme events resulted from the severe El Nino of 2015. The
models were sensitive to local climate effects which led to the over-estimation of urban heat effects and urban
induced-precipitation.
5.1.2.2 Past, present, and future rainfall patternFigure 57 presents the results of rainfall distribution for six agro-ecological zones under RCP 2.6 and RCP 8.5.
Generally, the widespread rainfall distribution in the country would not substantially shift but would showhigh variability across all the six agro-ecological zones (Figure 55). The rainfall under both RCP 2.6 and RCP
8.5.

Page | 173

Figure 57: Maps of past and future rainfall patterns in Ghana (RCP 2.6)

The coastal zone projections indicate a likely reduction in rainfall at varying degrees over the analysis period.
The level of reduction would be smaller in the near future. The rainfall reduction is likely to be larger in the
mid-future, whereas the far future would experience a marginal decline. In the deciduous forest, rainfall is
projected to be high for both scenarios. In the Guinea savanna, the overall rainfall is likely to increase but very
high in the far future. Rainfall patterns in the rain forest are expected to decline significantly. Like the projected
rainfall pattern in the Guinea savanna zone, the significant increase in the rainfall amount is expected with ahigher amount for RCP 8.5 than RCP 2.6. In the transitional area, only a marginal increase in rainfall is projected
for both RCP 2.6 and RCP 8.5 (Figure 57)

Page | 174

Figure 58: Past and future rainfall patterns in six agro-ecological zones of Ghana. The pink and blue lines are showing the mean
trend in rainfall. The enveloped around mean line shows the degree of variability of change in the past and future climate as indicatedby the dotted vertical line.

Page | 175

5.1.2.3 Past, present, and future temperature patternFigure 59 shows the projected average temperature over Ghana. Figure 60 further revealed a high likelihoodof temperature increases by an average of 3OC across all the agro-ecological zones by the year 2080.

Figure 59: Maps of the past, current and future temperature patterns in Ghana under RCP 2.6

Towards the far future, the coastal savanna and Sudan savanna areas are likely to record average temperaturesof above 30 OC under RCP 8.5 scenario.

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Figure 60: Past and future rainfall patterns in six agro-ecological zones of Ghana. The pink and blue lines show the mean trend in
rainfall. The enveloped around mean line shows the degree of variability of change in the past and future climate as indicated by
the dotted vertical line.

Overall, the temperature increases would be similar under both RCP 2.6 and RCP 8.5 until the late century,
where temperature increase under RCP 2.6 stabilises while the temperature RCP 8.5 scenario continues toincrease in all the agro-ecological zones (Figure 60).

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5.1.2.4 Decadal trends for temperature and rainfall
5.1.2.4.1 Multi-decadal rainfall pattern
The far future rainfall is predicted to have a decadal increase with projected decadal variability for all theecological zones until 2080. Although the coastal zone shows a general decline in rainfall, the decadal trends
show substantial increases after 2050. In the past, under RCP 8.5, the worst drop of 27.9% is unlikely to reoccur.
Instead, the likely anticipated decline is within the range of 1-13% until the end of the century (Figure 61).
Similarly, the rainforest agro-ecological zone toes the line of the coastal area with a likely decrease in the last
decade. The general decadal increases in this zone are between 5% and 26%. There are a consistent increasein decadal rainfall for Sudan-savanna, deciduous and forest-savanna ecological zones compared to thetransition zone where there is a high likelihood of a decline in rainfall in the near future. However, decadal
rainfall begins to increase after 2050.

Figure 61: Multi-decade rainfall trends for six ecological zones in Ghana. The green line represents the general trend of rainfall
expressed in grey for the entire period. The red and blue strikes show the decadal trends of increases and decrease respectively

5.1.2.4.2 Decadal maximum temperature trend
In conformity with global trends, the decadal maximum temperatures for all agro-ecological zones areprojected to increase. The rate of increases would range from 0.01% to 0.07%. In terms of mean decadal
averages, the maximum rainforest temperature is unlikely to exceed 33 OC, but the rest of the country is likely
to increase beyond 34 OC (Figure 62).

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Figure 62: Multi-decade rainfall trends for six ecological zones in Ghana

5.1.3 Limitations in the Projections
Although the models performed well in the prediction of future climate over the country, there were data
quality and analytical challenges. The data issues mainly related to incomplete data due to time series gaps
and limited spatial coverage of the observation data. Another area of concern was the use of RCP 2.6 and 8.5
scenarios in the projections. The team considered RCP2.6 and RCP8.5 as the most suitable emission scenario
to fit Ghana’s future economic growth scenario. However, there is the real possibility that the Ghanaian
economy may grow beyond or below the set thresholds for the selected RCPs. Concerning the efforts toimprove on data quality, the focus had been on the strategy to increase coverage of the observation stations.
In the last five years, the GMet has made efforts to modernise its observations capability, and as a result, about
ten automatic stations have been established across the country to augment the existing observation
infrastructure. The dataset from the ten automatic stations was not used in the current climate projections
because of the lack of long-term historical data. Besides, low station density and missing data are still
operational issues that GMet continues to address. Increasing the number of stations with adequate androutine maintenance would improve the quality of data for future projections.
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5.2 Climate Modelling and Adaptation Assessment Initiatives
Climate modelling and adaptation assessment studies continue to receive attention from academia and thepractice community. Most of the studies are either part of a research package or a specific project activity. For
instance, the World Bank and USAID conducted studies involving climate projections and subsequently used
the results in thematic impact assessments. Besides, there have been many peer-reviewed publications on
climate modelling, impact assessments and adaptation since 2015. The list of climate modelling andadaptation initiatives show that climate projections have been produced in ten government-led initiatives.
The latest climate modelling and adaptation assessment initiatives led by USAID and World Bank centred onenergy resources and climate and economic analysis (Table 59). The USAID study was part of the Ghana
Integrated Resource and Resilience Planning Programme being implemented by ICF International. The
modelling results fed into the assessment of the impacts of projected climate change on power systems in
Ghana. The analysis concluded that the projected increases in extremes (drought, flood, or heat stress) havethe most significant potential to impose negative impacts across the power system. The reason is that they
have the potential to increase demand while diminishing generation (hydropower) as well as transmission anddistribution capacity. At the same time, there may be beneficial opportunities, such as increasing solar capacity
due to an increase in irradiation.
Conversely, the results of the World Bank study led130 to the IBRD/IDA credit facility for the implementation of
the Greater Accra Resilient and Integrated Development (GARID) project. The Ministry of Works and Housing
is leading the implementation of the GARID project. Another study was the climate projections that was
conducted as part of the feasibility study for the preparation of the climate-resilient landscapes for sustainable
livelihoods project in northern Ghana to the Green Climate Fund, led by the EPA and the Ministry of Food andAgriculture with technical support from UN Environment. Generally, climate modelling and adaptation studies
have become more prevalent in the academic community in Ghana. A keyword search in “google” and “google
scholar” in February 2019 returned about 3 million and 25,000 results, respectively in Ghana.
For 2018 alone, over 2,600 scientific papers were published covering a wide variety of topics in peer review
journals. The high levels of research show a significant interest in climate modelling and adaptation researchin the country. Some of the joint research areas included climate projections, vulnerability and impacts
assessment on specific ecosystems as well as the geographic regions and adaptation strategies. Universities
and some research institutions have introduced climate change courses to contribute to the development of
human capacities. For instance, the Physics Department of Kwame Nkrumah University of Science andTechnology has undergraduate and graduate degree courses in meteorology and atmospheric science. In
2016, the CSIR College of Science and Technology (CCST)131 started a course on climate change and integrated
natural resources management. Some of the climate change topics in the course include climate modelling
and adaptation.

130
131

Ghana multi-sectoral investment framework for climate and disaster risk management
https://www.csir.org.gh/index.php/latest-news/114-csir-to-start-private-university

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Table 59: Matrix of climate modelling efforts, related initiatives and capacity needs in Ghana
Initiative
Background
Scope, Objectives, Outputs

Implementing institutions

1. Government of Ghana Efforts
NCAP 2

Climate modelling components

Remarks

Climate variables,
Models, timeframe and scale
Variables: Monthly mean daily
temperatures.
Model: GCMs, ECHAM4, CSIRO
Timeframe: 30-year mean centred at
2020, 2050 and 2080.
Scale: Ghana & immediate offshore
watersScale: National and pilot districts

Climate scenarios & sectoral
impacts assessments

EPA, KNUST, UG, CSIR, GMET,
CRIG, Netherlands

AfricaAdaptation
Programme

Inform climate adaptation
decisions and practices.

EPA, UNDP, and Japan

Innovative insurance products foradaptation to climate change

Drought index insurance.

National Insurance Commission,Germany

Scale: Northern Ghana

Climate Change Adaptation throughIntegrated Water Resources
Management

Assess floods and drought
disasters on the biophysicalenvironment,

Water Resources Commission.
DANIDA.

Scale: White Volta basin

Climate Change Adaptation: Water
Security and Flood Risk Reduction

Long-term water security innorthern Ghana.

Water Resources Commission.
DANIDA.

Scale: Northern Ghana

Climate-proofed Water Conservation
Strategies in Northern Ghana

Promote the transfer of knowledge
and skills on the sustainable
management of water resources

Water Resources Commission.
Centre for Human andEnvironmental Security andGeo-hydrodynamics Limited

Scale: Three northern regions

Graduate training for one GMet staff. Sea level risedata obtained. Rainfall, temperature projections.
The results were used for V and A of the Health,
Tuber, Fisheries, Cereal and Cocoa.

The community of practice for climate modelling.
Automatic weather stations for GMe.t Leadershipand skills development. Strengthening early
warning systems.
Cereals in Sudan savanna. Expanded network of
weather stations. The project helped to reduce theclimate-induced risk for crop production in northern
Ghana.
Trained 700 people in 15 districts of the threenorthern regions. The project established an
innovative Adaptation Learning Resource Centre.
Developed Disaster contingency plans for threecommunities.
Increased water security for both domestic andproductive uses.
Increased resilience and strengthened adaptation.

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Managing water in the urban-ruralinterface for a climate change
resilient city

Integrated urban water
management in Accra.

IWMI, DFID, CSIR

Community Resilience through Early
Warning Project

Implement hazard mapping, early
warning, and vulnerability
assessment and reduction

Government of Norway through
UNDP and implemented by
NADMO

Integrated early warning system. The project help tobuild capacities within the country to reduce
disaster risk.

Building Stronger Universities in
Developing Countries Phase III

Capacity development in climatechangeUniversity of Ghana
Danish Foreign Ministry

PhD programme in Climate change

Ghana Integrated Resource andResilience Planning Programme

Risk and Resiliency in Ghana's
Electric Power Sector.

USAID/Ghana IRRP Project by
ICF

Ghana multi-sectoral investment
framework for climate and disasterrisk management

Foster climate-resilient
infrastructure investments andpromote climate-smart policy
choices

World Bank as part of the 17th
IDA

Strengthening climate change
research and capacity in West
Africa.

MESTI, UG, KNUST
German Government.

West African Monsoon variability
and impacts on communities.

GMet,
French Government

2. Africa level initiatives
WASCAL

AMMA

Variable: Rainfall trends.
Model: Nested fine-grid Accra area
atmospheric model. Reg CM3-4
downscaling models.
Scale: Densu basin

Variables: Temperature, rainfall,
extreme events, and sea-level change.
Models: Climate projections were fromclimate resource aggregators.
Timeframe: 1986-2015
2040-2065.
Scale: Electricity supply at the national
level
Scale: Climate change and economic
analysis

Increased resilience in Accra to climate change andwater security

Sea level rise data obtained. The study establishedthat the South-east and South-west zones of Ghana
are wetter and subject to changes in sea level andstorm surge.

Led to Greater Accra Resilient and Integrated
Development Project. Facilitated the World Bank’s
investment decision in building resilience. Review
of climate change impacts, adaptation, and DRR
Contribute to evidence or knowledge-based system.
Masters and PhD in climate modelling and land
management

Variables: Rainfall, temperature, wind,pressure.

Funds and research on climate modelling

Models: Different Regional models

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CORDEX

Provide regional climate scenarios
for impact assessment

Global Change System for Analysis
Research and Training

Contribute to strategic place-based
regional research

African Centre of MeteorologicalApplication for Development

Facilitate the implementation of
the sub-regional strategy fordisaster management

Ghana among 53 Africancountries, African Development
Bank, WMO, UNDP, ECA

GCRF African-SWIFT

Build capacity within African
forecasting agencies and improve
communication links to forecast
users.

4 African countries including
Ghana, UK Research andInnovation Global Challenges
Research Fund.

Focus on climate change datacollection, analysis, and generationof information.

Early warning system under AAP
project

Climate Change and Variability in
Ghana: Stocktaking

Holistic literature on climatechange and variability in Ghana.

Asante and Anuakwa-Mensah,
2015. Climate, Volume 3

Climate change impact underalternate realisations of climate
scenarios on maize yield and biomass
in Ghana

An estimate of the effects ofclimate variables on potential
maize productivity.

Srivastava et al., 2018

3. Studies and Publications
Climate and Society Community ofPractice

UCC, UG

Variables: Rainfall, temperature, wind,pressure.
Models: CORDEX models

Local capacity building trained three Ghanaians

Support to regional research and fellowships. Few
Ghanaians have benefited from the programme.

Agricultural Systems
Volume 159, January 2018,
Pages 157-174

Coordinate training and capacity building andresource mobilisation. Climate watch and early
warning. Disseminates products regularly for Africancountries.
PhD training. One staff from GMet undergoing PhD
Training at the University of Leeds, UK. Enhance
climate service delivery

Variables: Rainfall, temperature, wind,pressure.
Models: RCMs.
Timeframe: 2050s and 2080.
Scale: Sisala East and Mamprusi West
districts
Variables: Impacts and projections ofclimate change and variability.
Scale: Focus on agricultural, health andenergy.
Variables: Climate impacts assessment
on Maize.
Models: RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5 and
LINTUL5.
Timeframe: 2000, 2030 and 2080
Scale: Ashanti and Brong Ahafo Regions

High rainfall volume can instigate floods. Multidisciplinary training for COP members. Early
warning information for rainfall.
.

This initiative revealed that the impacts of climatechange had worsened the plight of the poor.

Positive eﬀect of CO2 reduced water stress. The
average increase in maize yield and abovegroundbiomass by 57% and 59% respectively under RCP
8.5 by 2030

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Modelling Impact of Climate Change
on Water Resources and Agriculture
Demand in the Volta Basin and other
Basin Systems in Ghana

Assess the impacts of projectedclimate change on water
availability.

Amisigo et al., 2015

Changes in expectations andextremes in the rainfall climatology
of Accra, Ghana, 1895–2005

Reviews one of the longest
continuous monthly rainfall
records in West Africa for evidenceof longer-term periodic behaviourof annual and seasonal rainfall
totals using a sliding, rather thanthe discrete, thirty-year window.
Intercompare the performance of aset of ten regional climate models(RCMs).

Peter Waylen andKwadwo Owusu

Daily characteristics of West African
summer monsoon precipitation in
CORDEX simulations

Simulation of the Rainfall Regime
over Ghana from CORDEX

Demonstrate how well nine
CORDEX models can capture thespatial and temporal rainfall
seasonality.

Effective Adaptation Options to
Climate Change Impacts in Ghana

Investigate and gain an improved
understanding of climate
variability and climate change anddevise effective adaptation
measures.
Determine which environmental
variables drive the climate
suitability of an area to growcocoa, predict the change inclimate for the cocoa-growing
areas in Ghana.

Predicting the impacts of Climatechange on the cocoa-growing regions
in Ghana and Cote D'Ivoire.

Variables: Impacts on water resources.
Models; CliRun water balance model,
AquaCrop, WEAP.
Scale: Volta Basin and the rest of Ghanariver basins
Variable: Rainfall
Model: Time series and correlations
analysis.
Timeframe: 1895–2005
Scale: Accra

Call for the evaluation of groundwater. All water
demands cannot be simultaneously met currently,
or under any of the scenarios used, including thewet scenarios.

Variable: Precipitation.
Models: RCMs
Scale: West Africa

Though not generalised, multi-model ensemble
outperforms individual RCM member in theprediction of the range of precipitation variables

Variable: Rainfall.
Model: RCMs
Timeframe: 1989 to 2008
Scale: Ghana

Research conducted by Ghanaians and published.
Historical analysis of rainfall over Ghana

PhD Thesis by EmmanuelTachie-Obeng, 2012

Variables: Rainfall and Temperature.
Models: GCMs
Timeframe: 2050s and 2080s
Scale: Wa and Wenchi

The projection for rainfall and temperature. Postgraduate training in climate change. Thesis
completed and published. The study revealed
adaptation options for Maize.

International centre for tropicalagriculture with support fromBill & Melinda Gates
Foundation

Variables: Rainfall and temperature(mean, max, min, and precipitation).
Models: 19 downscaled GCMs
Timeframe: 2030s and 2050s
Scale: Ghana (30 arc seconds)

Research conducted by non-Ghanaians. The results
were useful for long-term planning for the cocoa
sector in Ghana.

Sustainability 2015, 7(6), 69576975

Klutse et al.
Theoretical and Applied
Climatology
January 2016, Volume 123,
Issue 1–2, pp 369–386
Owusu and Klutse 2013

Rains during the short dry spell and minor rainyseasons are controlled by SSTs in the Gulf of Guinea
and to a lesser extent the equatorial Atlantic. The
effects of ENSO are most pronounced at the heightof the significant rains.

Page | 184

UNDP Climate Change Country
ProfilesGhana's profile on climate
scenarios.

University of Oxford & Tyndall
Centre for Climate Change
Research

West Africa Agriculture and Climate
Change study

Research-based on scenarios from
economic global climate change
models.

MoFA and IFPRI

BSc course in meteorology andclimate science in 2008

Human capacity building inmeteorological and climate
science.
Climate change adaptation
research and training capacity fordevelopment
Increase human capacity in climate
science.

Physics Department, Kwame
Nkrumah University of Scienceand Technology
RIPS, IDRC Canada

Partnerships for Enhanced
Engagement in the Research science
project

Support research in climate andagriculture

The University of Cape Coast.
Physics Department

Post-graduate students undertaking
research in climate-related
disciplines

Human Capacity Development

Geography and Resource
Management Department,
University of Ghana, Legon

BSc and MSc degrees in Geography.

Building Capacity to Meet the Climate
Change Challenge in Ghana

Aim at mainstreaming climatechange issues into university
courses and enhancing the pool ofclimate change experts.
Create a knowledge base andcapacity for integrating climatechange, shared socioeconomic
pathways

University of Ghana

Award MSc and MPhil degrees in Climate Change
Adaptation. Established Centre for Climate change
and sustainability studies.

Water Research Institute, CSIRPhD in climatology and climate change, landuse/cover modelling starting in 2019.

Regional Institute of Population
Studies
Undergraduate and postgraduate
meteorology and atmospheric science

Building Climate Resilience into
Basin Water Management in the Pra
and Densu River Basins in Ghana

Variables: Rainfall and temperature.
Models: GCMs
Timeframe: 2030, 2060, 2090
Scale: Ghana
Variable: Annual changes in rainfall.
Models: Four GCMs
Timeframe: 2050
Scale: Agriculture

Ghanaians did not directly partake in the research.
Provide a sound basis for vulnerability and impact
assessment

Award BSc. Degree. The first batch has been
graduated.
Climate change modelling short course. Training on
real-time numerical model and uncertainties ofclimate projections.
BSc and MPhil in Physics with Meteorology.

The University of Cape Coast.
Physics Department
Variables: Rainfall and Temperatures
Scale: Ejura, Wenchi, Saltpond

Supports Physics Dept. in teaching and research ofclimate modelling. Purchase of automatic weather
station.

Page | 185

5.3 Climate Change Vulnerability Assessment
This section discusses the assessment of Ghana’s vulnerability to climate change in two parts. Part 1 presents
work on the assessment of spatial climate change vulnerability, whereas part 2 focuses on Ghana’s flood anddrought vulnerability maps. In both cases, the rationale, methodology, results and the main conclusions havebeen provided in the applicable sections.
5.3.1 Spatial Climate Change Vulnerability
The vulnerability of communities and ecosystems to climate change is a vital determinant in adaptation
planning. The IPCC defines climate change vulnerability (CCV) as “the degree to which a system is susceptible
to and unable to cope with adverse effects of climate change, including climate variability and extremes” 132.
This definition implies that vulnerability is determined by the character, magnitude, and rate of variation inclimate parameters to which a system is exposed, and the sensitivity and adaptive capacity of the system inquestion133. Therefore, within the CCV context, four primary factors influence the extent to which a system isvulnerable to climate change (Figure 63). These factors are elaborated below:••••

Exposure is the nature and degree to which a system is exposed to significant climatic variations134.
Sensitivity is the degree to which a system is affected, either adversely or beneficially, by climaterelated stimuli. The effect may be direct or indirect135.
A combination of exposure and sensitivity determines the potential impact.
Adaptive capacity is the ability of a system to adjust to climate change – including climate variability
and extremes – to moderate potential damages, to take advantage of opportunities, or to cope withthe consequences136.
Exposure

Sensitivity

Potential impact

Adaptive capacity

Vulnerability
Figure 63: Interactions among the determinants of climate change vulnerability
132

McCarthy JJ et al. eds. 2001. Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability – Contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of

the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
133
McCarthy JJ et al. eds. 2001. Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability – Contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
134
McCarthy JJ et al. eds. 2001. Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability – Contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
135
McCarthy JJ et al. eds. 2001. Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability – Contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
136
McCarthy JJ et al. eds. 2001. Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability – Contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

Page | 186

5.3.2 Description of Climate Change Vulnerability Methodology
An assessment was conducted to calculate CCV for the administrative districts of Ghana quantitatively. The
assessment was built on the workflow and data generated from the study on climate-resilient landscapes forsustainable livelihoods in Northern Ghana. Data for the assessment was obtained from national institutions
that have the mandate to publish government data, literature and inter-governmental bodies. The data wasprocessed and used to generate parameters to quantify the variables for exposure, adaptive capacity andsensitivity components of CCV (Figure 61).
Exposure was divided into current exposure to climate change and variability; and predicted future exposure
to climate change and variability. Three parameters on the present shift in temperature and rainfall were used
to quantify the current exposure of each district in Ghana. For future exposure scores, nine rainfall andtemperature parameters were split into a total of thirty-six sub-parameters to account for predicted mediumand long-term changes (2060 and 2080) under two different scenarios (RCP 2.6 and RCP 8.5) of future climatechange (Table 58). The districts in the country were ranked for every parameter and sub-parameter relating toexposure to current and predicted absolute changes in climate137.
Sensitivity to current and future climate change was quantified as a percentage of the population peradministrative region currently employed in the agricultural sector (Table 60). It was assumed that people
operating in this sector would be the most sensitive to changes in the climate (as reflected in increasing
temperatures and decreasing and variable rainfall patterns) as the agricultural sector rain-fed and inherently
climate-dependent. Employment information was only available at the regional level, and therefore, all
districts within a region received the same sensitivity score in the assessment. No data were available topredict future sensitivity based on projected changes in agricultural employment. Therefore, it was assumed
that sensitivity would remain relatively constant in the coming decades. Districts were ranked according topercentage agricultural employment, where a more significant percentage suggested a higher sensitivity to
climate change138.
Table 60: Population employed in Agriculture per region
Region139# households
Mean household size
Western
553,635
4.2
Central526,764
4Greater Accra
1,036,426
3.8
Volta
495,603
4.2
Eastern
632,048
4.1
Ashanti
1,126,216
15.3
Brong Ahafo
490,519
4.6
Northern
318,119
7.7
Upper East
177,631
5.8
Upper West110,175
6.2

Agri households
275,975
270,854
68,715291,224
374,257
412,055
336,097
240,238
148,660
84,931Agric population (Est)
1,159,095
1,083,416
261,117
1,223,141
1,534,454
6,304,442
1,546,046
1,849,833
862,228
526,572

The adaptive capacity of people within each district in Ghana was quantified using seven parameters relatingto i) economic activity; ii) education, (iii) sanitation, (iv) rural water availability, (v) health, (vi) security and
137
138

139

See Table 59 for a description of the ranking methodology.
See Table 59 for a description of the ranking methodology.

The data were collected at the time Ghana had ten regions. In 2019, the Regions were further divided into sixteen.

Page | 187

governance effectiveness; and (vii) poverty. As for exposure and sensitivity, each district received adaptive
capacity ranks for each of the seven parameters140. No data were available to predict future adaptive capacity
based on projected changes in economic activity, district development or poverty. Therefore, it was assumed
that adaptive capacity would remain relatively constant in the coming decades. District-specific exposure,sensitivity and adaptive capacity were calculated as the sum of the ranks of parameters divided by the
maximum possible component score. District-specific CCV was calculated using the IPCC equation:
CCV = (Exposure x Sensitivity) – Adaptive Capacity

Equation 1

The resulting CCV scores range from -1 (low vulnerability) to 1 (high vulnerability). Table 58 is a simplified
illustration of how CCV was calculated for the districts of Ghana. GIS layers of the vulnerability parameters
were created for each district and subsequently overlaid using Equation 1. When putting the maps together,equal weights were assigned to each layer. The parameters are shown in Table 61.
Table 61: Vulnerability of parameters and the GIS data
Vulnerability
Scale
Variables
parameters
Exposure
Current change
Temperature seasonality
per district
Mean annual rainfall
Future climate
Mean rainfall(RCP 2.6 and 8.5
Mean temperature
per district
Mean rainfall in wettest month
Mean rainfall in the driest month
Number of dry months
Rainfall seasonality
Annual minimum temperature
Annual maximum temperature
Sensitivity
District
Population
Adaptivegovernance effectivenesscapacity
economic activity
Poverty

Spatial data
Temperature variability
Trend
2060 and 2080

Agricultural employment
District capacity
Night light distribution
Percentage in poverty
Number in poverty
Poverty Depth
Severity (derived from poverty
depth)Gini

The map that emerged from the overlay of the individual GIS layers was the CCV map for each district. The
CCV score for each district was derived using the concept, and the variable described in Tables 62 and 63.

140

Ibid

Page | 188

Table 62: Description of the parameters used to calculate climate change vulnerability for the administrative districts and regions of Ghana
Component
Parameter
Rationale and data description
Current/recent
Variation in annual average
The measure of current temperature variability. Calculated as the current district-specific standard
exposure to climate
temperature141
deviation over monthly average temperature values.
change and variability. Variation in mean annual
It provides a measure of current rainfall variability. Calculated as the current district-specific standard
142
rainfalldeviation over monthly average rainfall values.
Changes in mean annual
Current and recent changes in rainfall would affect among other things: i) the frequency and intensity ofrainfall143, 144
climatic hazards such as droughts and floods; ii) agricultural productivity; iii) ecosystem function; and iv)
human health. Calculated as the absolute district-specific change in rainfall as measured by a linear
trend from 1981–2016.
Predicted future
Percentage change in mean
Future changes in rainfall would affect among other things: i) the frequency and intensity of climatic
exposure to climate
annual rainfall
hazards such as droughts and floods; ii) agricultural productivity; iii) ecosystem function; and iv) humanchange andhealth.
variability145, 146, 147, 148.
Calculated as the district-specific absolute percentage difference between predicted future (2060 &2080) and current (1980–2014) mean annual rainfall.
Percentage change inFuture changes in rainfall variability (seasonality) would affect among other things: i) the frequency andrainfall variability
intensity of climatic hazards such as droughts and floods; ii) agricultural productivity; iii) ecosystem
function; and iv) human health. Calculated as the district-specific absolute percentage difference
between predicted future (2060 & 2080) and current (1980–2014) rainfall variability.
Percentage change in mean
Future changes in rainfall in the wettest month would affect agricultural productivity during the mostrainfall of the wettest month vital period of the growing season.

Ranking methodology
Greater variation = higher
exposure ranking
Greater variation = higher
exposure ranking
Greater absolute change =higher exposure ranking

Greater absolute percentagechange = higher exposure
ranking

Greater absolute percentagechange = higher exposure
ranking
Greater absolute percentagechange = higher exposure
ranking

Data are from: www.worldclim.org; Hijmans, R.J., Cameron S.E., Parra J.L., Jones P.G., Jarvis A. 2005. Very high-resolution interpolated climate surfaces for global land areas. International Journal of Climatology 25: 1965–1978.
Data are from: www.worldclim.org; Hijmans, R.J., Cameron S.E., Parra J.L., Jones P.G., Jarvis A. 2005. Very high-resolution interpolated climate surfaces for global land areas. International Journal of Climatology 25: 1965–1978.
143
Data are from the CHIRPS v2.0 dataset, available at http://chg.geog.ucsb.edu/data/chirps/.
144
Funk C., Peterson P., Landsfeld M., Pedreros D., Verdin J., Shukla S., Husak G., Rowland J., Harrison L., Hoell A., Michaelsen J. 2015. The climate hazards infrared precipitation with stations—a new environmental record formonitoring extremes. Scientific Data 2, 150066. doi:10.1038/sdata.2015.66 2015.
145
All future climatic predictions were calculated using an ensemble of 10 general circulation models downscaled using five regional climate models. Four sub-parameters were produced, including percentage change by: i)
2060 under RCP 2.6; ii) 2060 under RCP 8.5; iii) 2080 under RCP 2.6; and iv) 2080 under RCP 8.5. This accounted for medium- and long-term changes under two different scenarios of future climate change.
146
Current climate data are available at www.worldclim.org; Hijmans, R.J., Cameron S.E., Parra J.L., Jones P.G., Jarvis A. 2005. Very high-resolution interpolated climate surfaces for global land areas. International Journal of
Climatology 25: 1965–1978.
147
Future climate data are available at www.york.ac.uk/environment/research/kite/resources/; Platts P.J., Omeny P.A., Marchant R. 2015. AFRICLIM: high-resolution climate projections for ecological applications in Africa. African
Journal of Ecology 53, 103-108.
148
Exposure to sea-level rise, salt water intrusions and/or coastal erosion was not considered in this assessment. This was to ensure that all parameters were comparable across Ghana and were not region-specific.
141
142

Page | 189

Percentage change in thenumber of dry months

Percentage change in meanannual average temperature
Percentage change in meanannual minimum
temperature
Percentage change in meanannual maximum
temperature
Percentage change in meanpotential evapotranspiration
Percentage change in mean
moisture index
Sensitivity to current
and future climatechangePercentage of the
population employed in the
agricultural sector149

Adaptive capacity

District League Table
score150

Calculated as the district-specific absolute percentage difference between predicted future (2060 &2080) and current (1980–2014) mean rainfall in the wettest month.
Futures changes in the number of dry months would affect agricultural productivity through changes tothe length of the growing season. Calculated as the district-specific absolute percentage difference
between predicted future (2060 & 2080) and current (1980–2014) number of dry months where a dry
month is a month with moisture index <0.5.
Futures changes in annual average temperature would affect, among other things: i) agricultural
productivity, and ii) ecosystem function. Calculated as the district-specific absolute percentage difference
between predicted future (2060 & 2080) and current (1980–2014) mean annual average temperature.
Futures changes in annual minimum temperature would affect, among other things: i) agricultural
productivity, and ii) ecosystem function. Calculated as the district-specific absolute percentage difference
between predicted future (2060 & 2080) and current (1980–2014) mean annual minimum temperature.
Futures changes in annual maximum temperature would affect, among other things: i) agricultural
productivity, and ii) ecosystem function. Calculated as the district-specific absolute percentage difference
between predicted future (2060 & 2080) and current (1980–2014) mean annual maximum temperature.
Future changes in potential evapotranspiration would affect, among other things: i) agricultural
productivity, and ii) ecosystem function. Calculated as the district-specific absolute percentage difference
between predicted future (2060 & 2080) and current (1980–2014) mean potential evapotranspiration.
Future changes in the moisture index would affect, among other things: i) agricultural productivity and ii)
ecosystem function. Calculated as the district-specific absolute percentage difference between predicted
future (2060 & 2080) and current (1980–2014) mean moisture index.
The agricultural sector is considered one of the most sensitive sectors to climate change. Therefore, theassumption was made that the percentage of people working in the agricultural sector in each district
would be a good indicator of how sensitive people in that district are to climate change. Employment
data were only available at the regional level. Therefore, all districts within a region have the same
percentage of employment in the agricultural sector.
The DLT incorporates measures of education, sanitation, rural water availability, health, security, andgovernance effectiveness to assess development across Ghana’s 216 districts. These factors are
considered good indicators of the capacity of private citizens and local governments to adapt to achanging climate151.

Greater absolute percentagechange = higher exposure
ranking
Greater absolute percentagechange = higher exposure
ranking
Greater absolute percentagechange = higher exposure
ranking
Greater absolute percentagechange = higher exposure
ranking
Greater absolute percentagechange = higher exposure
ranking
Greater absolute percentagechange = higher exposure
ranking
Larger percentage employed in
the agricultural sector = higher
sensitivity ranking

Lower score = lower adaptive
capacity ranking

Data are from: Ministry of Food and Agriculture. 2010. Agriculture in Ghana: Facts and Figures.
Data are from: UNICEF – 2016 – District League Table 2016: Calling for central government to better target district support.
151
GIZ – 2014 – A framework for climate change vulnerability assessments.
149
150

Page | 190

Night-time light intensity152

Poverty Severity157

Night-time light intensity is a good proxy for economic activity153. Economic development and activity area useful measure of adaptive capacity as it relates to the ability of people to diversify their livelihoods andincomes when and if necessary.
People under the poverty line are assumed to have reduced capacity to adapt to climate change as they
have fewer financial resources to moderate damages and take advantage of the benefits of climate change.
District district-specific estimate of the percentage of people below the poverty line of GH₵1,314 perperson per year.
The number of people under the poverty line accounts for the number of people with reduced adaptive
capacity. District district-specific estimate of the number of people below the poverty line of GH₵1,314
per person per year.
Poverty depth is used in addition to percentage poverty to measure adaptive capacity. Where thepercentage poverty parameter considers all people below the poverty line equally poor, poverty depth
measures the intensity of poverty. District-specific average poverty gap in the population as a proportionof the poverty line.
The square of district-specific poverty gaps to provide further attention to the needs of the poor.

Gini coefficient158

The district-specific measure of inequality.

Percentage of the population
under the poverty line154

Number of people under thepoverty line155
Poverty Depth156

Lower value = lower adaptive
capacity ranking
Greater percentage = lower
adaptive capacity ranking

Greater number = lower
adaptive capacity ranking
Greater depth = lower adaptive
capacity ranking

Greater severity = lower
adaptive capacity ranking
Greater Gini = lower adaptive
capacity ranking

The Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) data are from U.S. National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).
Mellander C., Lobo J., Stolarick K., Matheson Z. 2015. Night-Time Light Data: A Good Proxy Measure for Economic Activity? PLOS One. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0139779.
154
Data are from: Ghana Statistical Service. 2015. Ghana Poverty Mapping Report.
155
Data are from: Ghana Statistical Service. 2015. Ghana Poverty Mapping Report.
156
Data are from: Ghana Statistical Service. 2015. Ghana Poverty Mapping Report.
157
Data are from: Ghana Statistical Service. 2015. Ghana Poverty Mapping Report.
158
Data are from: Ghana Statistical Service. 2015. Ghana Poverty Mapping Report.
152
153

Page | 191

Table 63: Example of the method used to calculate district-specific Climate Change Vulnerability
Exposure
District
RegionPredicted change in
Predicted change in mean
Score
mean annual
annual average
rainfall159 (ranking)temperature (ranking)Sensitivity

Adaptive capacity% agricultural
employment(ranking)

Score% below thepoverty line
(ranking)

District League
Table (ranking)

Score

CCV

Adansi North

Ashanti

5.91% (2)16.14% (2)0.67160

43.8 (2)0.67161

18.4 (2)58.61 (2)0.67162-0.22163

Accra Metropolis

Greater Accra

1.84% (1)14.56% (1)0.33

10.5 (1)0.33

2.6 (3)65.03 (3)

1.00

-0.89

Wa EastUpper West

8.85% (3)17.03% (3)1.00

73.2 (3)1.00

83.8 (1)54.96 (1)

0.33

0.67

By 2080 under RCP 8.5.
[Rainfall change rank (2) + Temperature change rank (2)] / [Max. possible rainfall change rank (3) + Max. possible temperature change rank (3)] = 0.67
161[% agricultural employment rank (2)] / [Maximum possible % agricultural employment rank (3)] = 0.67
162[% below poverty rank (2) + District League Table rank (2)] / [Max. possible % poverty rank (3) + Max. possible District League Table rank (3)] = 0.67
163
[Exposure score (0.67) * Sensitivity score (0.67)] - [Adaptive capacity score (0.67)] = -0.22
159
160

Page | 192

5.3.3 Spatial Climate Change Vulnerability Results
The CCV assessment revealed that the vulnerability of Ghana’s districts generally increases from the coast 164
into the transition zone and the northern savannas (Figure 62). On average, the Upper West Region is the mostvulnerable in the country (Figure 64). The ten districts with the highest CCV scores were all from the Upper
West Region (Figure 64)165, and Wa East was the most vulnerable district to climate change with a CCV of 0.68.
Wa East’s neighbouring district – and the home of the regional capital, Wa Municipal, had the lowest CCV in
the Upper West Region.

Figure 64: Climate change vulnerability scores for Ghana’s 216 districts

The Northern and Upper East Regions were the second and third most vulnerable regions, respectively (Figure65). In the Northern Region, the Sawla-Tuna-Kalba District on the borders of Côte d'Ivoire and Burkina Faso
had the highest CCV. Garu Tempane on the Togolese border had the highest climate change vulnerability in
the Upper East Region. The three least vulnerable regions were the Greater Accra (average CCV = -0.78),
Ashanti (-0.61) and Central Regions (-0.51) (Table 64). The four districts with the lowest CCVs were all in the
Greater Accra Region, and the La Dade Kotopon District had the lowest CCV (-0.95) in Ghana (Figure 63).

164
165

Although exposure to coast-specific climate impacts (e.g. sea level rise) were not considered in this assessment.
See Table 8 in Supporting Information for the districts of Ghana ranked according to CCVPage | 193

•Figure 65: District climate change vulnerability scores aggregated at the level of administrative regions.

•“Xs” are mean values

Based on the results of the CCV assessment, it is evident that climate change adaptation interventions areurgently required to enhance climate resilience in most parts of the country, especially in the northern regionsof Ghana.
Table 64: District breakdown of climate change vulnerability parameters
District
RegionSensitivity

Exposure

Adaptive capacity

CCV

Adansi North

Ashanti

0.08

0.46

0.66

-0.62

Adansi SouthAshanti

0.08

0.41

0.54

-0.51

Afigya Kwabre

Ashanti

0.08

0.63

0.84

-0.78

Afigya Sekyere

Ashanti

0.08

0.68

0.63

-0.58

Ahafo Ano North

Ashanti

0.08

0.50

0.33

-0.29

Ahafo Ano SouthAshanti

0.08

0.63

0.67

-0.62

Amansie Central

Ashanti

0.08

0.49

0.64

-0.60

Amansie WestAshanti

0.08

0.50

0.82

-0.77

Asante Akim Central Municipal

Ashanti

0.08

0.44

0.79

-0.75

Asante Akim North

Ashanti

0.08

0.52

0.59

-0.54

Asante Akim SouthAshanti

0.08

0.43

0.57

-0.53

Asokore Mampong Municipal

Ashanti

0.08

0.46

0.84

-0.80

Atwima Kwanwoma

Ashanti

0.08

0.46

0.93

-0.90

Atwima Mponua

Ashanti

0.08

0.57

0.71

-0.66

Atwima Nwabiagya

Ashanti

0.08

0.55

0.81

-0.77

Bekwai Municipal

Ashanti

0.08

0.48

0.56

-0.52

Bosome Freho

Ashanti

0.08

0.48

0.44

-0.40

Bosomtwe /Atwima / Kwanwoma

Ashanti

0.08

0.43

0.92

-0.88

Ejisu Juaben

Ashanti

0.08

0.50

0.67

-0.63

Page | 194

Ejura SekyeDumase

Ashanti

0.08

0.58

0.39

-0.34

KMA

Ashanti

0.08

0.47

0.71

-0.67

KwabreAshanti

0.08

0.57

0.90

-0.86

Mampong Municipal

Ashanti

0.08

0.63

0.54

-0.48

Obuasi Municipal

Ashanti

0.08

0.54

0.85

-0.80

Offinso Municipal

Ashanti

0.08

0.66

0.52

-0.46

Offinso North

Ashanti

0.08

0.65

0.62

-0.57

Sekyere Afram Plains

Ashanti

0.08

0.65

0.55

-0.50

Sekyere Afram Plains North

Ashanti

0.08

0.52

0.24

-0.20

Sekyere Central

Ashanti

0.08

0.56

0.54

-0.50

Sekyere East

Ashanti

0.08

0.59

0.72

-0.68

Asunafo North

Brong Ahafo

0.74

0.49

0.67

-0.30

Asunafo SouthBrong Ahafo

0.74

0.52

0.58

-0.19

Asutifi North

Brong Ahafo

0.74

0.48

0.47

-0.12

Asutifi SouthBrong Ahafo

0.74

0.47

0.59

-0.24

Atebubu Amantin

Brong Ahafo

0.74

0.54

0.26

0.14

Banda

Brong Ahafo

0.74

0.59

0.25

0.19

Berekum

Brong Ahafo

0.74

0.59

0.52

-0.08

Dormaa East

Brong Ahafo

0.74

0.53

0.35

0.05

Dormaa Municipal

Brong Ahafo

0.74

0.50

0.68

-0.31

Dormaa WestBrong Ahafo

0.74

0.47

0.58

-0.23

Jaman North

Brong Ahafo

0.74

0.64

0.51

-0.03

Jaman SouthBrong Ahafo

0.74

0.57

0.58

-0.16

Kintampo North

Brong Ahafo

0.74

0.53

0.36

0.03

Kintampo SouthBrong Ahafo

0.74

0.71

0.24

0.28

Nkoranza North

Brong Ahafo

0.74

0.66

0.41

0.08

Nkoranza SouthBrong Ahafo

0.74

0.63

0.44

0.03

Pru

Brong Ahafo

0.74

0.51

0.25

0.14

Sene East

Brong Ahafo

0.74

0.50

0.32

0.05

Sene WestBrong Ahafo

0.74

0.54

0.35

0.05

Sunyani Municipal

Brong Ahafo

0.74

0.56

0.60

-0.18

Sunyani WestBrong Ahafo

0.74

0.61

0.45

0.00

Tain

Brong Ahafo

0.74

0.60

0.26

0.19

Tano North

Brong Ahafo

0.74

0.55

0.61

-0.20

Tano SouthBrong Ahafo

0.74

0.60

0.44

0.01

Techiman Municipal

Brong Ahafo

0.74

0.68

0.69

-0.18

Techiman North

Brong Ahafo

0.74

0.70

0.62

-0.10

WenchiBrong Ahafo

0.74

0.65

0.33

0.15

Abura / Asebu / Kwamankese

Central

0.23

0.27

0.48

-0.42

Agona East

Central

0.23

0.27

0.54

-0.48

Page | 195

Agona West

Central

0.23

0.27

0.76

-0.70

Ajumako-Enyan-EssiamCentral

0.23

0.27

0.72

-0.65

Asikuma / Odoben / Brakwa

Central

0.23

0.32

0.54

-0.47

Assin North

Central

0.23

0.42

0.46

-0.37

Assin South

Central

0.23

0.35

0.45

-0.37

Awutu Senya

Central

0.23

0.27

0.52

-0.45

Awutu Senya East Municipal

Central

0.23

0.26

0.65

-0.59

Cape Coast Metro

Central

0.23

0.27

0.80

-0.74

EffutuCentral

0.23

0.26

0.73

-0.67

EkumfiCentral

0.23

0.23

0.32

-0.26

Gomoa East

Central

0.23

0.24

0.59

-0.53

Gomoa West

Central

0.23

0.23

0.46

-0.41

Komenda Edna Eguafo / Abirem

Central

0.23

0.28

0.62

-0.55

MfantsimanCentral

0.23

0.28

0.47

-0.41

Twifo Atti-Morkwa

Central

0.23

0.46

0.71

-0.60

Twifo Lower Denkyira

Central

0.23

0.35

0.55

-0.47

Upper Denkyira East

Central

0.23

0.54

0.51

-0.39

Upper Denkyira West

Central

0.23

0.47

0.82

-0.71

Akuapem North

Eastern

0.33

0.45

0.64

-0.50

Akuapem South

Eastern

0.33

0.38

0.78

-0.65

Akyem Mansa

Eastern

0.33

0.35

0.28

-0.16

Asuogyaman

Eastern

0.33

0.36

0.70

-0.58

Atiwa

Eastern

0.33

0.55

0.56

-0.38

Ayensuano

Eastern

0.33

0.36

0.48

-0.36

Birim Municipal

Eastern

0.33

0.40

0.54

-0.42

Birim North

Eastern

0.33

0.41

0.75

-0.61

Birim South

Eastern

0.33

0.40

0.44

-0.31

Denkyembour

Eastern

0.33

0.45

0.88

-0.73

East Akim

Eastern

0.33

0.54

0.79

-0.61

Fanteakwa

Eastern

0.33

0.62

0.62

-0.42

Kwaebibirem

Eastern

0.33

0.47

0.66

-0.51

Kwahu Afram Plains North

Eastern

0.33

0.41

0.31

-0.17

Kwahu Afram Plains South

Eastern

0.33

0.45

0.16

-0.01

Kwahu East

Eastern

0.33

0.59

0.34

-0.14

Kwahu South

Eastern

0.33

0.64

0.36

-0.15

Kwahu West

Eastern

0.33

0.51

0.73

-0.57

Lower Manya

Eastern

0.33

0.37

0.78

-0.66

New Juaben Municipal

Eastern

0.33

0.46

0.86

-0.71

Nsawam Adoagyiri

Eastern

0.33

0.26

0.90

-0.81

Suhum Municipal

Eastern

0.33

0.43

0.84

-0.70

Page | 196

Upper Manya

Eastern

0.33

0.45

0.37

-0.22

Upper West Akim

Eastern

0.33

0.29

0.55

-0.45

West Akim

Eastern

0.33

0.45

0.71

-0.56

Yilo Krobo

Eastern

0.33

0.50

0.71

-0.55

Accra Metropolis

Greater Accra

0.00

0.26

0.81

-0.80

Ada East

Greater Accra

0.00

0.21

0.81

-0.81

Ada West

Greater Accra

0.00

0.22

0.70

-0.70

AdentaGreater Accra

0.00

0.29

0.74

-0.74

AshaimanGreater Accra

0.00

0.27

0.93

-0.93

Ga Central Municipal

Greater Accra

0.00

0.31

0.84

-0.83

Ga EastGreater Accra

0.00

0.32

0.84

-0.84

Ga SouthGreater Accra

0.00

0.26

0.57

-0.57

Ga WestGreater Accra

0.00

0.27

0.81

-0.81

Kpone Katamanso

Greater Accra

0.00

0.29

0.90

-0.90

La Dade Kotopon

Greater Accra

0.00

0.26

0.95

-0.95

La Nkwantanang Madina

Greater Accra

0.00

0.31

0.94

-0.94

Ledzokuku / Krowor

Greater Accra

0.00

0.26

0.86

-0.85

Ningo Prampram

Greater Accra

0.00

0.24

0.56

-0.55

Shai Osu Doku

Greater Accra

0.00

0.32

0.37

-0.37

Tema Metropolis

Greater Accra

0.00

0.25

0.81

-0.81

Bole

Northern

0.87

0.62

0.20

0.35

Bunkpurugu Yonyo

Northern

0.87

0.75

0.27

0.39

Chereponi

Northern

0.87

0.71

0.47

0.15

East Gonja

Northern

0.87

0.57

0.13

0.37

Gonja Central

Northern

0.87

0.62

0.27

0.26

Gushiegu

Northern

0.87

0.70

0.29

0.32

KaragaNorthern

0.87

0.69

0.33

0.27

Kpandai

Northern

0.87

0.54

0.21

0.26

Kumbungu

Northern

0.87

0.65

0.42

0.15

Mamprugu Moagduri

Northern

0.87

0.63

0.26

0.29

Mamprusi East

Northern

0.87

0.75

0.33

0.32

Mion

Northern

0.87

0.64

0.25

0.31

Nanumba North

Northern

0.87

0.63

0.40

0.15

Nanumba South

Northern

0.87

0.60

0.38

0.14

North Gonja

Northern

0.87

0.75

0.32

0.33

SabobaNorthern

0.87

0.62

0.34

0.20

Sagnerigu

Northern

0.87

0.67

0.44

0.15

Savelugu Nanton

Northern

0.87

0.68

0.39

0.20

Sawla/Tuna/Kalba

Northern

0.87

0.79

0.26

0.43

Tamale North Sub Metro

Northern

0.87

0.66

0.55

0.03

Page | 197

TataleNorthern

0.87

0.62

0.29

0.25

Tolon

Northern

0.87

0.66

0.28

0.29

West Gonja

Northern

0.87

0.73

0.33

0.30

West Mamprusi

Northern

0.87

0.68

0.42

0.17

Yendi Municipal

Northern

0.87

0.61

0.43

0.10

Zabzugu

Northern

0.87

0.60

0.37

0.15

Bawku Municipal

Upper East

0.68

0.79

0.34

0.20

Bawku West

Upper East

0.68

0.74

0.19

0.32

Binduri

Upper East

0.68

0.77

0.18

0.34

Bolgatanga Municipal

Upper East

0.68

0.70

0.45

0.03

Bongo

Upper East

0.68

0.76

0.21

0.31

Builsa North

Upper East

0.68

0.64

0.24

0.20

Builsa South

Upper East

0.68

0.62

0.09

0.33

Garu Tempane

Upper East

0.68

0.78

0.14

0.39

Kassena Nankana East

Upper East

0.68

0.68

0.44

0.02

Kassena Nankana West

Upper East

0.68

0.74

0.60

-0.10

NabdamUpper East

0.68

0.73

0.24

0.26

PusigaUpper East

0.68

0.81

0.27

0.28

TalensiUpper East

0.68

0.69

0.21

0.26

Daffiama Bussie

Upper West

1.00

0.76

0.13

0.64

JirapaUpper West

1.00

0.75

0.14

0.61

Lambussie Karni

Upper West

1.00

0.76

0.10

0.66

Lawra

Upper West

1.00

0.72

0.20

0.52

Nadowli-Kaleo

Upper West

1.00

0.74

0.17

0.58

NandomUpper West

1.00

0.74

0.20

0.54

Sissala West

Upper West

1.00

0.76

0.13

0.63

Sissala East

Upper West

1.00

0.74

0.29

0.45

Wa EastUpper West

1.00

0.75

0.07

0.68

Wa Municipal

Upper West

1.00

0.76

0.40

0.36

Wa WestUpper West

1.00

0.72

0.11

0.61

Adaklu

Volta

0.56

0.31

0.27

-0.10

Afadzato South

Volta

0.56

0.61

0.25

0.09

Agotime Ziope

Volta

0.56

0.32

0.33

-0.15

Akatsi North

Volta

0.56

0.26

0.51

-0.36

Akatsi South

Volta

0.56

0.26

0.67

-0.52

Biakoye

Volta

0.56

0.59

0.36

-0.03

Central Tongu

Volta

0.56

0.26

0.44

-0.29

Ho Municipal

Volta

0.56

0.50

0.52

-0.24

Ho West

Volta

0.56

0.43

0.28

-0.04

Hohoe Municipal

Volta

0.56

0.70

0.35

0.05

Page | 198

Jasikan

Volta

0.56

0.68

0.35

0.03

Kadjebi

Volta

0.56

0.69

0.23

0.16

Keta Municipal

Volta

0.56

0.24

0.64

-0.51

Ketu North

Volta

0.56

0.28

0.57

-0.41

Ketu South

Volta

0.56

0.27

0.64

-0.49

Kpando Municipal

Volta

0.56

0.57

0.50

-0.18

Krachi East

Volta

0.56

0.48

0.14

0.13

Krachi Nchumuru

Volta

0.56

0.48

0.14

0.13

Krachi West

Volta

0.56

0.43

0.34

-0.10

Nkwanta North

Volta

0.56

0.54

0.20

0.10

Nkwanta South

Volta

0.56

0.67

0.25

0.12

North Dayi

Volta

0.56

0.47

0.36

-0.10

North Tongu

Volta

0.56

0.28

0.20

-0.05

South Dayi

Volta

0.56

0.40

0.50

-0.28

South Tongu

Volta

0.56

0.23

0.53

-0.40

Ahanta West

Western

0.45

0.30

0.65

-0.51

Aowin

Western

0.45

0.41

0.60

-0.42

Bia East

Western

0.45

0.48

0.47

-0.26

Bia West

Western

0.45

0.51

0.64

-0.41

Bodi

Western

0.45

0.43

0.31

-0.11

Ellembelle

Western

0.45

0.30

0.70

-0.57

JomoroWestern

0.45

0.26

0.41

-0.29

JuabesoWestern

0.45

0.50

0.70

-0.47

MpohorWestern

0.45

0.38

0.59

-0.42

Nzema East

Western

0.45

0.34

0.43

-0.28

Prestea / Huni Valley

Western

0.45

0.44

0.61

-0.41

Sefwi-Wiawso

Western

0.45

0.43

0.59

-0.39

Sefwi Akontombra

Western

0.45

0.44

0.59

-0.40

Sefwi Bibiani-Anhwiaso Bekwai

Western

0.45

0.49

0.80

-0.57

Sekondi Takoradi

Western

0.45

0.36

0.56

-0.40

Shama

Western

0.45

0.34

0.72

-0.57

SuamanWestern

0.45

0.42

0.64

-0.45

Tarkwa Nsuaem

Western

0.45

0.40

0.76

-0.57

Wassa Amenfi Central

Western

0.45

0.49

0.30

-0.08

Wassa Amenfi East

Western

0.45

0.52

0.63

-0.40

Wassa Amenfi West

Western

0.45

0.45

0.77

-0.57

Wassa East

Western

0.45

0.39

0.56

-0.39

Page | 199

5.3.4 Limitation of the Spatial Climate Change Vulnerability Assessment
Using GIS techniques to produce a spatially-explicit climate change vulnerability map at the district was mostly
successful because it was the first significant attempt to link climate and socioeconomic variables.
Nevertheless, some inherent limitations need to be addressed to make the methodology robust and the results
more useful to target users. The significant fundamental barriers are listed below:
•
•

•

•
•
•

Using the districts as the minimum mapping unit may have masked the inherent variabilities inclimate change vulnerability at specific spots.
Sensitivity to the impacts of climate change is not only limited to agricultural livelihood. There is awide range of sensitivities across the country. For example, the major vulnerability along the coast
due to coastal erosion is driven by the threat to infrastructure, fishing livelihoods and marine ecology.
Sensitivity was limited to agricultural livelihood due to lack of data on sensitivity parameters ofcommunities and ecosystems.
Sensitivity levels were assumed to be constant in the current and future climate scenarios. This
assumption must be interrogated to identify areas where improvements can be made to add morerigour to the methodologies for future assessment.
The variables in each CCV parameter were assigned the same weight. There is a lot more nuance tothe parameters than the ways it has been represented in the CCA framework.
The CCV assessment combines specific vulnerabilities to extreme events such as floods and drought.
It is important to isolate them for effective planning and targeting.
The interpretation of the CCV results must be made with caution to recognise the limitations of theanalysis, as stated above.

5.4 Flood and Drought Hazard Mapping
In addition to the CCV map, Ghana has also prepared current (2010), and future (2050) flood and droughthazard maps to have a general idea of most susceptible areas in the country166. The future maps depict thelikelihood of an area to experience increased or decreased flooding or drought. The maps are used to inform
national policy for managing extreme climate events in the country.
5.4.1 National Flood Hazards
The Height Above Nearest Drainage (HAND) method was used to characterise the probability of flooding in anarea. The HAND method uses the relative height of a specific area (expressed in pixels) about the local drainage
network. It also includes slopes and drainage patterns. At the national level, the HAND method is based ondata from the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM)-DEM. The calculation of the HAND-index follows thesteps below:
•
•
•
•

166

Derive flow direction raster.
Classify the stream network according to the upstream area and the height of the stream according
to the DEM.
Define the upstream areas for each stream pixel with the same height as the downstream stream
pixel.
Derive the HAND index by calculating the difference between the outcomes of step 3 and step 2.

Risk Assessment & Mapping under the CREW initiative implemented by NADMO

Page | 200

The method validated several common and well-known flood areas. The validation shows that the hazard
levels are strongly dependent on the quality of the elevation data and the raster size used. In urban areas, thelevel of detail of the 90m SRTM-DEM seems to be too coarse, whereas the high hazard inundation areas ofLake Volta and the White Volta are well represented with the 90m SRTM-DEM.

Figure 66: Flood hazard map showing the distribution of the likelihood of an area to experience a flood in 2010

The future flood hazard map for 2050 was produced based on IPCC’s A1B and A2 emission scenario projections(Figure 67). The emission scenarios are the corresponding emissions associated with the likely future economic
development situation for the country.
Page | 201

The findings in Figures 66 and 67 unanimously point to the fact that the areas that are likely to experience
floods would remain unchanged if no remedial measures are adopted. Both maps also reinforced the notionof a flood is controlled in part by the drainage pattern of the area in question. It further revealed the highlikelihood of the occurrence of floods in low-lying areas that are close to existing water bodies.

Figure 67: Flood hazard map showing the distribution of the likelihood of an area to experience a flood in 2050

The maps above indicate that about 10% of the country falls within high (28,640km 2), medium (30,753 km2)
and low hazard (24,137 km2) regions, with most of the hazard zones located along the White Volta anddownstream of the Akosombo dam. The rest of the regions are categorised as no hazards (155,413 km2).

Page | 202

5.4.2 National Drought Hazards
The areas that experience drought were pinpointed by the spatial variability of meteorological parameters andthe physical properties of the land surface. In this regard, mapping out the potential drought hazard at thenational scale was performed using data on meteorological drought (e.g. rainfall deficit) without hydrologicalfactors like the phreatic groundwater level. Using this approach made it possible to incorporate climate change
variables (rainfall and temperature) into the assessment. Under this method, cumulative rainfall deficit(evapotranspiration minus rainfall) is an essential primary variable.
Parameters like cumulative rainfall, cumulative potential evapotranspiration, and the resulting cumulative
rainfall deficit are plotted. The threshold value for rainfall deficit and the number of days that the thresholdvalue is exceeded within each year, are also counted. Input data from global datasets are used to produce
drought hazard maps for the current climate situation. The advantages are that the:•••Same data is used nationwide, which makes the results more consistent
Global datasets show a better representation of the spatial variability than the data from the national
synoptic stations, mainly for rainfall andProblems of data gaps within time series are resolved.

Based on the drought hazard classification and the map with the 14-year average of the number of days thatthe deficit threshold of 600 mm exceeded the final drought hazard map, the current climate situation was
produced for 2010. For drought, changes in rainfall and potential evapotranspiration are of interest, as thesetwo variables determine the rainfall deficit. The future drought hazard map was produced based on the rainfallchanges associated with the IPCC’s A1B and A2 emission scenarios. Potential evapotranspiration was from data
derived from Obuobie, 2014 based on the Hargreaves method (Allen et al., 1998) and which is like the CGIAR
method for determining global evapotranspiration.
The results show that the northern part of Ghana has a high hazard; the eastern and south-eastern parts show
low and medium hazard (Figures 68 and 69). The southwest part of Ghana shows no hazard for drought. The
results provide a well-founded assessment of the likelihood of the occurrence of the drought phenomenon
based on 14-year averages. It should be noted that this does not mean that in areas rated as ‘no hazard’, there
would never be a drought problem, nor does this mean that areas with ‘high hazard’ would suffer from drought
every year.

Page | 203

Figure 68: National drought hazard map for 2010

Figure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 15: National drought hazard map for 2010

Page | 204

Figure 69: National drought hazard map for 2050

Figure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 16: National drought hazard map for 2050

Page | 205

5.5 Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation
This section is divided into two parts. Section 1 is on actual and potential climate impacts assessment. The
second section focuses on adaptation interventions. Under section 1, updates on significant climate hazards
and extreme events in the country have been presented. The update covers the period after Ghana submitted
its Third National Communication. The information includes major climate-related events that have occurred
during the reporting period and the system for climate data management. Emphasis has been placed on thecritical climate events that happened during the period and sectoral impacts assessment. Then, in the next
section, the emphasis is on adaptation interventions in terms of the actions being taken and the planning
aspects. The information on the adaptation actions has been reported by sectors or themes, including
information on specific adaptation programmes that have been or are being implemented by the various
institutions. The report also covered the national efforts on adaptation planning at all levels.
5.5.1 Recent Climate Hazards and Extreme Events
Ghana has experienced many climate hazards167 over the past five decades (Figure 70). The climate hazards
comprise at least three droughts and nineteen floods (Table 62), which have cumulatively affected over sixteen
million people and resulted in at least four hundred and forty-four deaths – excluding the undocumented
numbers of deaths resulting from droughts. The occurrence of climate disasters has a major negative impact
on the standard of living of people in the country168. Given Ghana’s reliance on rain-fed agriculture, drought
poses a significant threat to the agricultural sector, with the most immediate consequence being a decreasein the production of staple crops – especially sorghum, millet, maize, and groundnuts. These losses negatively
impact the livelihoods of smallholder farmers, particularly in the northern savanna zones 169. When crops fail,farmers often resort to selling livestock to supplement their incomes. As the food-deficit increases, farmers areforced to sell more valuable livestock, including draught and transport animals such as oxen and donkeys 170,
reducing the adaptive capacity of farmers in the long-term, which leads to maladaptation171. Drought also
affects fodder production, leading to weight reduction and deaths among livestock.
Overall, these factors reduce the output capacity of the agricultural sector, potentially leading to socioeconomic stress, food insecurity, and famine. For example, a severe drought in 1983 affected 12.5 million
people across the country, resulting in severe hunger and the deaths of hundreds of people, mostly children172.
The most affected regions of the 1983 drought were the Upper East, Upper West and Northern regions,southern Brong-Ahafo and northern Ashanti, where the decrease in rainfall severely reduced the output ofmaize and other cereals, including the loss of ~60,000 hectares of cocoa trees173.
UNISDR 2009. Terminology on Disaster Risk Management. Available at: https://www.unisdr.org/we/inform/terminology. – defined as natural
phenomena that may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, social and economic disruption, or environmental
degradation.
168
Okyere C.Y, Yacouba Y and Gilgenbach D. 2012. The problem of annual occurrences of floods in Accra: An integration of hydrological, economic
and political perspectives. Interdisciplinary Term Paper, Universitat Bonn .
169
Choudhary V, Christienson G, D'Alessandro S.P, Josserand H.P. 2016. Ghana: Agricultural Sector Risk Assessment. World Bank Agriculture Global
Practice Note.
170
Toulin C. 1986. Drought and the farming Sector: Loss of Farm Animals and Post-drought Rehabilitation. Alphan- African Livestock Analysis
Network 10
171
Antwi-Agyei, P.; Dougill, A.J.; Stringer, L.C.; Codjoe, S.N.A. (2018) Adaptation opportunities and maladaptive outcomes in climate vulnerability
hotspots of northern Ghana. Climate Risk Management, 19, 83–93.
172
Agency for International Development 1984. Disaster Case Report: Ghana – Food Shortage. Available at:
http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PBAAB318.pdf
173
Choudhary V, Christienson G, D'Alessandro S.P, Josserand H.P. 2016. Ghana: Agricultural Sector Risk Assessment. World Bank Agriculture Global
Practice Note.
167

Page | 206

Mean annual rainfall (mm)

1,600

28.5
X
28.0

1,500
1,400
X X

1,300
1,200

X

X

27.5
X X
X X
X X
X XX
27.0

X
X

X
X

1,100

X

1,000
900

26.5
X

Mean annual temperature ( ̊C)

1,700

X
800

26.0
1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Year
Figure 70: Extreme climate events (droughts and floods) relative to mean annual rainfall (left-hand y-axis; bars) and mean annual
temperature (right-hand y-axis; line) in Ghana from 1950 to 2012.

Furthermore, the dry conditions resulting from the drought and prolonged dry winds from the Sahara largely
contributed to the spread of extensive bush fires in the north, destroying up to 35% of total food production
in some regions. The severity of this 1983 drought ranks it as the fourth highest impacting climate disaster inAfrica over the past 35 years174. The impact of droughts can also be compounded by heat stress. During heatwaves, plants open their stomata to allow for cooling by evapotranspiration. However, during droughts, plants
are unable to do this, leading to increased leaf temperatures. The phenomenon can shorten the duration of
growth of leaves and grains and thus limit the ability of the plant to accumulate enough carbohydrate
necessary for substantial grain growth175. The combination of drought and heat stress can, therefore, havedetrimental effects on the growth and productivity of crops176. Smallholder farmers are the most vulnerable tothe impacts of drought as they have few assets to sell to supplement income or purchase food when crops fail.
Additionally, farms based away from reliable water sources such as rivers are at higher risk from droughts, thanfarmers with a reliable nearby supply of water because they rely on rainwater for crop production. However,farmers living close to large water sources, while being more resilient to the adverse effects of droughts, may
be more vulnerable to the impacts of floods. The occurrence of floods is more common than droughts in Ghana– with at least 11 flood events occurring in the past decade – and can cause widespread damage toinfrastructure and farmland, impacting the livelihoods of many Ghanaians. For example, a flood in the Greater
Accra Region in 1991 affected about two million people and caused over US$12 million worth of damage.
Besides, floods have had significant impacts on Ghana’s agricultural sector, including among other things: i)the loss of crops – such as cassava, rice, yams, and groundnuts – and livestock; ii) the destruction of farmlands,
houses, bridges, schools and health facilities; iii) damage to water supply infrastructure and irrigation facilities,
and iv) damage to food storage and post-harvest processing facilities177.
UNISDR 2008. Africa- Disaster Statistics. PreventionWeb. Available at:
http://www.preventionweb.net/english/countries/statistics/index_region.php?rid=1
175
Farrell A. High temperature stress. University of West Indies. Available at: http://plantsinaction.science.uq.edu.au/book/export/html/158
176
Mittler R. 2006. Abiotic stress, the field environment and stress combination. TRENDS in Plant Science 11(1): 1360–1385
177
Armah F.A, Yawson D.O, Yengoh G.Y, Odoi J.O, Afrifa E.K.A. 2010. Impact of Floods on Livelihoods and vulnerability of Natural Resource Dependent
Communities in Northern Ghana. Water 2(2): 120–139.
174

Page | 207

The existing technical and financial capacity among relevant stakeholders in the agricultural sector of northern
Ghana to address such risks or cope in their aftermath, is severely limited. The extent of the impacts of floods
in Ghana is exemplified by the severe floods that affected northern Ghana in 2007, which led to theGovernment pronouncing the three northern regions and some parts of the Afram Plains and Keta Area as adisaster zone (Figure 71). These floods claimed 56 lives, damaged ~500 km of roads, destroyed 69 bridges anddisplaced ~332,000 people.
Additionally, ~34,000 homes, ~ ten schools, 51 health facilities and ~70,500 hectares of farmland were severely
affected by the floods178179. The floods also caused the loss of an estimated 144,000 metric tonnes of foodcrops – including maize, sorghum, millet, groundnuts, yam, cassava, and rice. The loss in production, coupledwith the restricted access to markets because of damaged roads and bridges, led to negative growth in the
agricultural sector for the first time since 1994180.

Figure 71: Floods in Atiwlame, in the Afram Plains North District in 2018 181

Another example of the impacts of flooding in Ghana is the floods that occurred in parts of northern Ghana,Accra and the Agona District in 2010. Intense rainfall, inadequate drainage systems, and spill-over from dams
resulted in the loss of human life, livestock and farmland, as well as extensive damage to infrastructure. Suchflooding events often lead to significant impacts on, among other things, agriculture, education, health, waterand sanitation sectors of the affected regions, districts and communities182.

Government of Ghana 2007. Joint assessment report of flood disasters in the three northern regions of Ghana. Inter-ministerial Disaster Relief
Committee and UN Country Team.
179
Armah F.A, Yawson D.O, Yengoh G.Y, Odoi J.O, Afrifa E.K.A. 2010. Impact of Floods on Livelihoods and vulnerability of Natural Resource Dependent
Communities in Northern Ghana. Water 2(2): 120–139.
180
Choudhary V, Christienson G, D'Alessandro S.P, Josserand H.P. 2016. Ghana: Agricultural Sector Risk Assessment. World Bank Agriculture Global
Practice Note.
181
https://africafeeds.com
182
Okyere C.Y, Yacouba Y and Gilgenbach D. 2012. The problem of annual occurrences of floods in Accra: An integration of hydrological, economic
and political perspectives. Interdisciplinary Term Paper, Universitat Bonn .
178

Page | 208

Table 65: List of climate hazards and their impacts in Ghana between 1968 and 2017 183.
Year
DisasterRegions affected
Total
description
deaths
1968
1971
1977
1983
1989
1991
1995
1999
2001
2002
2002
2007
2008
2009

Flood
Drought
Drought
Drought
Flood
Flood
Flood
Flood
Flood
Flood
Flood
Flood
Flood
Flood

2009
2010
2010

Flood
Flood
Flood

2011
2011
2013
2015
2016

Flood
Flood
Flood
Flood
Flood

CentralCountrywide
Northern, Upper East, Upper WestCountrywide
Northern
Greater Accra
Greater Accra
Northern, Upper East, Upper WestGreater Accra
Greater Accra
Greater Accra
Northern, Upper East, Upper West
Northern
Greater Accra, Ashanti, Volta,
Western, Central, Eastern
Northern
Greater Accra, Central, Volta
Brong Ahafo, Eastern, Western,Upper East, Upper West, Northern
Eastern
Greater Accra, Eastern, Volta
Northern, Volta
Greater Accra
Greater Accra

----7
5
145
52
12
-4
56
-16

Total
peopleaffected
25,00012,000-12,500,000
2,800
2,000,000
700,000
324,602
144,025200
2,000
332,600
58,00019,755

Total
damage(US$)
74,00,000
100,000----12,500,000
21,000,000-------

2445
18

139,790
7,500
9,674

----

6
14
5
25
10

12,571
81,47325,0005,000-----12,000,000--

Between 1991 and 2011, the country experienced seven significant floods. In 2010, floods in the White Volta
River Basin affected hundreds of thousands of people and destroyed many of their livelihoods. Urban floods
also regularly impact key cities, with the last major event occurring in Accra in June 2015 (Table 65). Ghana
has a 550km coastline. The coastal zone is inhabited by more than one-quarter of Ghana’s population andabout 80% of its industrial activities such as oil and gas production, port operations, thermal electricity
generation, coastal agriculture, sand winning, hydroelectricity generation, and fishing. These activities have
led to coastal erosion and compounded by the rising impacts of sea-level rise closely linked to climate change(Figure 72). Although the entire coastline is eroding at varying intensity, the eastern section has been identified
as the most vulnerable.184

183
184

EM-DAT 2016. Disaster List for Ghana. Available at: http://emdat.be/disaster_list/index.html
theconversation.com/why-ghana-needs-a-new-approach-to-stop-the-erosion-of-its-coastline-44018

Page | 209

Figure 72: Fuveme in Keta municipality (between the Gulf of Guinea and the Keta Lagoon) of the Volta region is prone to sea
erosion185

5.6 Sectoral Impacts Assessment
This section is dedicated to summarising the key messages from the sectoral vulnerability and impact
assessment to climate change. It highlights the types of study, the key findings and the corresponding
adaptation measures and the implementation status.
5.6.1 Cross-Sectoral Impacts Assessment
Climate change impacts contribute to the worsening drought conditions, flooding from heavy and incessantrains, sea level rise and erosion (Figure 72). To address these challenges, Ghana’s policy response to climatechange emphasises on building a resilient economy and ecosystems. Ghana’s policy response is informed by
the evidence of climate change and the associated vulnerability. Ghana’s NC3 reported on assessment studies
on roots and tubers, cocoa, fisheries, land management, health, poverty and gender that fed into thedevelopment of the national adaptation strategy. The NC4 reports on three additional sub-sectors including
energy, water and migration. For the agriculture sector, the impact assessment separates the conditions for
agriculture in the north from the southern sectors of the country since the two have different climaticconditions and adaptation mechanisms.
The assessment reports on the methods and tools, critical vulnerabilities and the proposed adaptation
measures in each sector. In addition, it examines the key policy instruments that anchor the sector measures
and whether they are in line with the adaptation actions in the NDC. Table 66 presents Ghana’s adaptationassessment studies and the corresponding adaptation measures.

185

https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-36257360

Page | 210

Table 66: Sectoral adaptation assessment and linkages with the on-going adaptation measures
SectorAgriculture(Roots andtubers)Scope

Roots and tuber
as an alternative
livelihood in the
middle andsouthern belts of
Ghana

Methods/Tools

Socio-economic survey foreconomic and household
data.
Baseline studies using
quantitative and qualitative
methods.
Secondary data (production
statistics) used for natural
yield variability.
Crop model – DSSATv4
used to evaluate root crops
vulnerability,
Implications for futureclimatic change and project
expected magnitude of
impacts.
Computer-aided modelling,
Scenario analysis,
Simulation gaming.
The participatory andqualitative assessment used
for interactions between
impacts of climate change onroot and tuber crop yields
and national policies

Key identified
vulnerabilities

Proposed adaptation
measuresOn-going adaptation

Unreliable, irregular andunpredictable rainfall
patterns.

Improved Farming
technologies orpractices

Root and Tuber
Improvement andMarketing (RTIMP) –MoFA.

Indiscriminate
deforestation.
Poor or degraded soils
because of intensive andharmful cultivation
practices.
Prolonged drought
increases the population ofvariegated grasshoppers,
which destroy cassava.
Generally, the low-income
status of root & tuber
farmers.
Heavy dependence on root
and tuber on rainfall.
Reduction in production
due to high temperatures.

Varieties with different
maturity periods.
Introduce droughtresistant varieties.
Integrated nutrient
management undervarious crops.
Afforest degraded
Forest lands.
Alternate cropping
Post-harvest
technologies
Alternate livelihood,especially off farming
activities.
Irrigation under root
crops production

NCCAS Priorities
Ghana’s NDCs

Promoting a value
chain approach toclimate change
adaptation inagriculture in Ghana(ProVACCA).
The main goal of the
project is to reduce thevulnerability of thefood supply system tothe deleterious impactsof climate change andclimate-induced risks
in the cassava value
chain.
West Africa Agricultural
Productivity
Programme.
Lessons from
Conservation
Agricultural Practices –CARE International

Programme Area 7:
minimising climatechange impact andsocio-economic
development
throughAgricultural
Diversification

Modifiedcommunitybased
conservation
agriculture
adoptedin 43
administrative
districts

Policy alignment
NCCP
Strategic Themes:
Food and Agriculture
Strategic Focus:
Focus Area 1:
Development ofclimate-resilient
agriculture and foodsystems
Programme Areas
1.2 Develop andpromote climateresilient cropping
systems
1.5. Support forwater conservationand irrigation
systems
1.6. Risk Transfer andAlternative
livelihood Systems
1.7 Improved
Postharvest
Management

Page | 211

Sectorpolicies
FASDEP II
CSA andFood
security
action plan

Agriculture(Fisheries)

Agriculture(Cocoa)Marine andinland fisheries
as sustainable
alternative
livelihood andclimate change
adaptation

A survey study on fish species
regarding catch, physicalconditions, and socioeconomic dynamics.

Increasing variability inmarine fish stock, reduction
in catch rate due to risingseas temperature,
decreases in freshwater
landings, generally low
incomes in fishingcommunities.

Aquaculture
development;
restocking of thefingerlings; reliable
extension services
includingdissemination of
weather information;
monitoring diseases;
education

Cocoa as a cash
crop forsubsistent
livelihood
activity within
the agricultural
sector in Ghana.

CASE2 (Cacao Simulation
Engine2)Erratic rainfall patterns incocoa-growing areas.

Drought tolerant andhigh yielding cocoa
varieties.

Informal semi-structured andformally structured surveys(individual interviews).

Generally, the low-income
status of cocoa farmers isdue to the small size offarms.

Physical (canoco 4), Biomass
dynamic model, Artificial
Neural Network (ANN) for
meteorological and fisherydata.

Key informant interviews,
group interviews
Focus group interviews of
selected farmers and otherstakeholders.

Increased degradation ofland in cocoa-growing
areas.
Generally low andunreliable prices of cocoa
An ageing population of
cocoa farmers.
Traditional farming
practices within the cocoa
sector.

Zero tillage nonburning of vegetationand mulching for theconservation of soil
moisture.
Incorporate shade trees
to moderate microclimatic and edaphic
conditions of the cocoa
environment.
Supplementary water
application throughirrigation.

Pro-poor REDD+

Programme Area
10: Adapting toclimate change,sustainable
livelihoods throughenhanced fisheries
resource
management

Scale-up
penetration ofclimate-smart
technologies toincrease
livestock andfisheries
productivity by
10%.

Programme area 6:
managing water
resources asclimate change
adaptation toenhanced
productivity andlivelihoods.

Governancereform forutilisation offorest resourcesforsustainableenergy use andbiodiversity
business.
Modifiedcommunitybased
conservation
agriculture
adoptedin 43
administrative
districts

Strategic theme:
Food and Agriculture
Focus area 1:
development ofclimate-resilient
agriculture and foodsystemProgramme area:
support adaptation
and risk reduction in
the fisheries sector
Strategic Theme:
Natural resourcesmanagement
Strategic focus:
increase carbon sink
Programme areas
4.4: Conservation oftrees throughsustainableagroforestry and onfarm practices

Page | 212

FASDEP II
CSA andFood
security
action plan
National
Tree Crop
PolicyRehabilitation andrestoration of degradedareas.

Agriculture

Agriculture as
the livelihood in
the northernsavannah zone

IPCC Climate change
vulnerability assessment
GIS techniques

A differentiatedvulnerability across theagro-ecological zones withthe highest intensity in thesavannah zones

Development of offfarm incomegenerating activities
Ecosystem-based
adaptation
alternative climateresilient livelihoods

Sustainable land andwater management
project. Upscale
sustainable land
management practices.
Adaptation Fundproject focuses onproviding access towater to smallholder
farmers in the
Savannah Drylands.

Policy area 7:
minimising climatechange impacts
and socioeconomic
development
through
agricultural
diversification

Modifiedcommunitybased
conservation
agriculture
adoptedin 43
administrative
districts

Strategic theme:
Food and Agriculture
Focus Area 1:
development ofclimate-resilient
agriculture and foodsystems

Programme Areas:
1.2: develop andpromote climateresilient cropping
system.
1.5: support to water
conservation andirrigation systems.
1.6: Risks transfer
and alternative
livelihood systems.
1.7: Improved postharvest management.

Page | 213

FASDEP II
CSA andFood
security
action plan
(CSAFSAP)
Tree crop
policyEnergy

Power sector(generation,transmission, anddemand)Integrated Planning Model(IPM)

Increased temperaturesand extremes could lead toincreased demand bycompeting water users can
reduce water available forpower generation

Modify operations ofreservoirs andspillways to include
variable and changing
flow amounts.
Develop improvedhydrologicalforecasting techniques
and adaptive
management operating
rules
Protect watersheds tosecure an adequate
water supply to reduce
silt loading andattenuate peak flow.

Volta river basin
project.
The aim is to promotea more sectorally
coordinatedmanagement approachbased on integrated
water resource
management principles
both at the nationaland regional levels
with a strong emphasison an expanded role
for all stakeholders.

Programme area 6:
managing water
resources asclimate change
adaptation toenhanceproductivity andlivelihoods
Programme area 9:developing
demand andsupply-side
measures foradapting thenational energy
system to impactsof climate change

Integrated water
resources
management
Renewableenergy: scale-up
renewableenergypenetration by
10% by 2030

Programme area 7:
minimise the impact
of climate change on
access to water andsanitation

Renewableenergy Act
832 (2011)
Electricity
generation
masterplan
Renewableenergymaster plan

Employ sediment
expulsion technology.
Implement erosion
control measures toreduce siltation andsedimentation

Migration

Migration as
adaptation toclimate change

A mixed-method was usedand comprised quantitativeand qualitative surveys andDeltaic regions and semiarid regions in Ghana are

Modify spillway
capacities and install
controllable spillway
gates to flush silted
reservoirs.
Promotion of resilient
alternative livelihoodinterventions.

Deltas, vulnerability
and climate change:
migration and

Building
standards forstrategic coastal

Focus area 9:
Address climate

Page | 214

National
migration

Geographic Information
System.

Gender(focus on
Womenlivelihoods

Gender andclimate change
in the Southernand NorthernGhana

A qualitative survey using
questionnaires including
focusGroups to a small group oftwenty women in a locality
selected from the three study
areas
Sustainable livelihood
framework.
The procedure for thequalitative survey describedby Roger
Climate Vulnerability andCapacity Analysis (CVCA)

vulnerable to climatic
impacts.
Examine why populations
would continue to live inplaces whereenvironmental thresholds
have been exceeded andhow migration has beenused as an adaptation toclimatic impacts.
Women experiencing
discrimination undercustomary
Law and practices.
Time spent in collecting or
buying firewood.
Indoor air pollution
through cooking.
The increased workload ofwomen and children whocollect firewood.
Reduction in fisheryresources.
Competition from big
fishing trawlers.
Inadequate and poor accessto financial credit facilities

Establishment of an
integrated coastal andnorthern development
authorities to promoteeconomic opportunities
on the coast and thesavannah.

adaptation (DECCMA)
project

Security tenure andprotection of land
rights.

Increase advocacy andpublic awareness ofgender issues.

Ensure planned land
use.

ABANTU for
Development and theGender Action on
Climate Change for
Equality andSustainability withsupport from Care
International

Improve the efficiencyof health service
delivery.

policy for
Ghana
RevisedNational
Population
Policy of
Ghana, 2014

Northern development
authority (NODA)

Southern Voices on
Adaptation (SVA):

Increase access tohealth services.

change andmigration

Adaptation at scale insemi-arid regions(ASSAR) project

Facilitating equitable
access to land.

Develop sufficientinstitutional capacity
and capability.

infrastructure
adopted.

Programme Area 2:
Alternative
livelihood:
Minimising climatechange impact forthe poor andvulnerable

Implementationof communityled adaptationand livelihood
diversificationfor vulnerable
groupsStrategic Theme:
Equitable Social
Development
Strategic Focus
Focus Area 6:
Addressing Impactsof Climate Change on
Human Health

Programme area 6.7
Social protection andimproved access tohealthcare, e.g. NHIS

Adaptation Learning
Programme –increase
the capacity ofvulnerable groups suchas women and children
to adapt to increasing
and uncertain climate

The National
GenderPolicy (2015)
SocialProtection
Policy (2015)
Child andFamilyWelfarePolicy (2015)
National
AgeingPolicy (2010)
Ghana
Disability
policy (2010)

Page | 215

Foster partnership withother agencies in
improving health by:change and climate
variability

Addressing inequalities
based on gender,
poverty, and disability;
Expand water
availability, sanitation,and the healthy
environment

Climatechangeand health

Climate change
and health indifferent
ecological zones
in Ghana:
Ashanti Region(Southern
Ghana),
Northern Region- Malaria,
Diarrhoea,
Guinea Wormand Cerebral
Spinal Meningitis

Desktop review,questionnaire administration,
focus group discussion, key
informant interviews andobservations, epidemiology
survey, household casestudiesMultiple regression analysis
among climate variable andthe three diseases,sustainable livelihood
approach for socio-economic
health impacts, ANN,
MIASMA (Modelingframework for the HealthImpact Assessment of ManInduced Atmosphericchanges) MODEL Version 2.0

Measles cases would
increase by the year 2080
because of increased mean
air temperature andreduced rainfall amount.
However, measles is on thedecrease under the present
climate condition.
The gradual rise in theincidence of meningitis
cases over the range ofmonths where cases ofmeningitis are high.
Risk of increased diarrhoea
cases due to a reduced
rainfall amount andImprove nutritional
status.
Break the transmission
cycle. Destroy
breeding grounds ofmosquitoes
Destroy the larvae to
break the life cycle.
Break the host-vector
contact and protect thehost.
Destroy the Cyclops tobreak the life cycle.
Break the host-vector
contact and protecting
the host,
Reduce Cyclops host
contact through;Programme Area 8:
Minimizing climatechange impacts onhuman healththrough improved
access to healthcare
Programme Area 5:
Developing andimplementing
environmental
sanitation
strategies to adapt
to climate changeManaging
climate-induced
health risks

Strategic Themes:
Equitable social
development
Strategic focus
Focus area 6:
Addressing Impactsof Climate Change on
Human Health
Programme
6.3 Strengthen
disease surveillance
and response
systems
6.4 Improve publichealth measures

Page | 216

National
health policy.
National
HealthInsurance
PolicyFramework.

or LEMRA (Local Ecoepidemiological Malaria Risk
Assessment)

increased mean air
temperature.

Provision of safe
drinking water,
Filtration of water toremove Cyclops(immunization,
improved drainage,
sanitation, andhygiene)especially invulnerable
communities

Chemical destructionof crustaceans.
Vaccination of highrisk groups.

6.5. Emergency
health preparedness,e.g. provision of
ambulances invulnerable areas

Increased input tovaccination campaigns,
Proper housing, andventilation. Effective
case management and
Education.

Water

Climate change
Adaptation:
Water Resource
Management inUpper East,
Upper West andNorthern
Regions of
Ghana
Protection of
Beaches andEnvirons against
Encroachment by
the SeaConstruction and structuraldevelopment of water
systems
Human resource capacity
building and training
Hydrological modelling andtesting with ground data
while performing futurescenario demonstration on
exceedance
Surveys and target farmgroup interactions

Limited access to water
services in urban, periurban, rural and small
towns

Develop and improveearly warning systems
for flood and droughtmonitoring

Un-harmonised
Water, sanitation andhygiene education

Increase and improvehydrological andmeteorological gauge
stations for thecollection andreporting of accurate
and timely data

Farming practices close towater bodies resulting in
uncontrolled catchment
degradation
Flood and drought affecton-farm productivity

Enforce regulations on
pollution control of

Increased Resilience to
Climate Change inNorthern Ghana
through theManagement of Water
Resources andDiversification ofLivelihoods

Programme Area 1:
Integrated Water
Resources
Management

Sea Defense / Coastal
Erosion Project

Improve access towater resources
knowledge base

Flood Recession
Agriculture for foodsecurity in the white
Volta River BasinStrengthen
regulatory
framework

Improveinstitutional andStrengthen
equitable
distribution andaccess to waterfor 20% of the
population living
in climatechange risk
communities

6.6. Collaborationand partnership for
improved nutrition,water, and sanitation
Strategic Theme:
DisasterPreparedness andResponse
Strategic Focus:
Focus Area 2: Build
Climate Resilient
Infrastructure
Program Areas
2.1 Build capacity todesign climateresilient
infrastructure

Page | 217

National
Water Policy- 2007(NWP)
National
Riparian
Buffer Zone
Policy –2011 (NBZP)Urban Water
SupplyInvestment
Plan - 2007
(UWSIP)

Early warning
system formonitoring Floodand Drought inselected Basins(OTI, White Volta

Loss of livelihood

surface andgroundwater resources
Construct sea defence
and coastal erosion
systems

Diversification of
livelihood
Un-serviced
urban, periurban, rural andsmall towns

Improve access to safe,
affordable, adequate
and regular watersupplyCommunity Resiliencethrough Early Warning(CREW) project(NADMO, UNDP)
Flood Hazard
Assessment (WRC,UNDP, NADMO, HSD,
and GMet)

human resources
capacity

2.2 knowledge
management andcoordination
2.3 climate-resilient
sectorial and local
development
planning
2.5 Flood prevention
activities
2.7 Protection ofcoastal resources andcommunities

Enhance publicawareness andeducation
Enhance transboundary aninternational
corporation

Disaster Risk
Management (WRC,UNDP, NADMO, HSD,
and GMet) Completed

Focus Area 3:
Increase Resilienceof Vulnerable
Communities toclimate-related risks

OTI Flood Hazard
Assessment (WRC,UNDP, NADMO, HSD,
and GMet)

Programme area
3.1 Early warning
mechanism

Improving theresiliency of crops todrought throughstrengthened early
warning within Ghana.
(WRC, GMet)
PovertyLinkages

Addressing
climate change
and poverty
linkages acrossthe country(Nationwide)

Use of secondary data.
Supplemented by primarysources of data. Data mainly
from national government
publications and unpublishedreports such as Ghana
Poverty Reduction

Heavy reliance agriculture
and other livelihood
ventures on rainfall.
Inadequate irrigable lands.

Reforestation.
Devise flood/drought
early warning systems.

Programme Area 2:
Alternative
livelihood:
Minimizing climatechange impact thepoor andvulnerable

Agriculture
resiliencebuilding inclimatevulnerable
landscapes

Strategic Themes:
DisasterPreparedness andResponse
Strategic Focus:

Page | 218

Rural Water
SupplyInvestment
Plan – 2007
(RWSIP)
National
Integrated
Water
Resource
Management
Plan - 2012
(NIWRMP)
Water Sector
Strategic
Development Plan - 2014
(WSSDP)2012 - 2025

Strategy.
Ghana Living Standards
Survey.
Draft national documents.
Core Welfare
Indicators Questionnaire(CWIQ) surveys
Qualitative and quantitativewith the aid of a statisticaltool, Statistical Package forSocial Science (SPSS),
Analysis of Variance andCorrelation,
the use of tables, charts, andmaps.

A progressive loss of nontimber forest products.
Increased land degradationand loss of cropable land.
Disruption in industry
productivity due topossible crises in theenergy sector.
Disruption in the supply of
raw materials.
Disruption of rainfall
patterns would affect the
Akosombo dam (30% of ourenergy sources).
Potential risk from sealevel rises, such as coastal
inundation and erosion.
Disruption of sources of
livelihoods, e.g. fishing andagriculture
Population displacement
Lack of and inadequate
credit facility (e.g. smallloans to small scale
farmers and petty traders)

Negotiate regional
water-sharing
agreements;
Providing efficientmechanisms fordisaster management;
Planting mangrove
belts to provide flood
protection;
Planting salt-tolerantvarieties of vegetation
Establishing setback
policies for new
developments;
Encourage the use of
setback policies for all
underdeveloped areas
within the coastal
zone. This would
prevent theconstruction of stablestructures withinhazard areas.

Value additionbased utilizationof forest
resources
Integrated water
resources
management
Resilience forgender and thevulnerable

Focus Area 3:
Increase Resilienceof Vulnerable
Communities to
Climate-related risks

Programme areas
3.3. Rapid Response
and Disaster
Management
3.5 Financial Supportand Insurance
Schemes
3.6 Provision ofSocialDevelopment ofwoodlots
Promote and develop
energy-efficienttechnologies

Page | 219

Promotion of energy
conservation,
especially in large
energy-consuming
industries.
Promote and develop
alternative energy
sources, institute credit
schemes to promotesmall scale enterprises
and businesses asalternative livelihood
ventures.

Page | 220

5.6.2 Climate Hazards and Economic Analysis
A climate hazard and economic study have been undertaken as part of the multi-sectoral investment
framework for climate and disaster risk management186. The purpose was to review climate change impacts,
adaptation and disaster risk reduction opportunities in Ghana. The study identified three areas of concern.
These are: (a) managing resilient urban transitions; (b) erratic earnings from the cash crops sector; and (c)increasing pressure on the electricity system.
5.6.2.1 Managing resilient urban transition
Most cities are particularly vulnerable to the consequences of recurrent flooding. The increasing vulnerabilities
in Ghanaian urban centres are the result of a complex chain of interconnected vulnerabilities, involving
climate-related disasters, development constraints, and policy failures. Key climate hazards have impacts,
notably from floods with the 2015 floods leading to several hundred casualties and severely disrupted
business activities. There are also distributional differences in exposure and impacts: informal settlements are
more susceptible to risks, due to lower building standards and the fact they are often located in high-risk areas.
The economic impacts of these floods (including the direct damage and losses, as well as the indirect effects
on transport, services.) lead to macroeconomic impacts (Figure 73).

Figure 73: Climate change and urbanisation scenario

5.6.2.2 Erratic earnings from cash crops
Increases in irregular rainfall patterns have the potential to reduce crop yields, threatening both subsistence
and commercial farmers. A reduction in cocoa yields, one of Ghana’s most significant exports would negatively
affect national output, reduce overall agricultural capacity, and threaten livelihoods of the poor and vulnerable.
Because of the decreasing and erratic production of cocoa, the whole cash crop value chain (transportation,
trading) in both the services and industry sectors could be affected. Decreasing exports and reduced
government revenues could also affect macroeconomic stability (Figure 74).
This study was part of the World Bank IDA and Ministry of Works and Housing work on investment framework on climate hazards and economic
analysis
186

Page | 221

Figure 74: Climate change and commercial crop scenario

5.6.2.3 Pressures on the electricity system
Climate-driven pressures would influence Ghana’s energy generation options on water availability for cooling(thermal power plants) and production (hydropower)187. The projected increase in the frequency of extreme
events could worsen the impacts on the power system. Heat and dry extremes could further accentuate thevulnerability of the already pressured electricity production and distribution system (Figure 75).

Figure 75: Climate change and electricity system scenario

187

Ghana multi-sectoral investment framework for climate and disaster risk management

Page | 222

Flooding events and storms are likely to affect electricity distribution and transmission. On the demand side,increasing temperature could also increase electricity demand for cooling, increasing peak demand and putting
additional pressure on the limited capacity. The study concludes that:••

New energy generation infrastructure projects should consider climate-related disasters and longterm climate change in their design and development.
Enhancing the climate resilience of energy infrastructure could lead to a significant increase in costand, given the need to include future uncertainty changes in the initial design.

5.7 Updates on Adaptation Planning and Actions
Several national, sector and district policies support climate adaptation. Policy alignment is critical because itis the surest way to demonstrate government support for adaptation as a priority area. It is also a practical
approach to secure government funds to implement adaptation programmes. When the adaptation issues areincorporated into the national medium-term development framework, it behoves on the line ministries andthe district assemblies to reflect them in their medium-term plans. Incorporating the adaptation into theindividual plans could be the justification for implementation. Therefore, this section provides updated
information on adaptation actions in Ghana. It focuses on adaptation planning efforts and the status ofadaptation actions being implemented in the country.
5.7.1 Adaptation Planning
Adaptation planning has been contextualised into policy alignment and mainstreaming efforts. The policyalignment aspects reflect the status of the national efforts to incorporate adaptation issues into national,
sectoral and district plans. It addresses the critical adaptation policy interventions and the subsequent
mainstreaming efforts at all levels.
5.7.1.1 Adaptation-related policies and strategies
5.7.1.1.1 Cross-sectoral policies and strategies
There are several adaptation-related policies and strategies the government has adopted to build resilience
to climate change. The first category of policies is cross-sectoral in nature with a national scope. Usually, thecross-sectoral adaptation policies set out the broad priority areas and the strategies to guide implementation.
Then, the sector-specific strategies draw on the priority areas identified in national policy to develop concrete
programmes for the ministry or district.
Medium-Term Development Policy Framework (2018-2021)
The national medium-term plans often recognise climate change issues. The previous plans (Ghana Shared
Growth Development Agenda 1 and 2)188 and the most recent one has incorporated climate change issues into
them. The latest medium-term plan (dubbed the Agenda for Jobs)189 outlined strategies to domesticate Ghana’s
commitment under the Paris Agreement. Climate change and variability issues have been captured under the“Environment, Infrastructure and Human Settlement” section.

https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/new-ndpc-static1/CACHES/PUBLICATIONS/2018/11/08/GSGDA+II+December+1++2014.pdf
https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/new-ndpc-static1/CACHES/PUBLICATIONS/2018/08/23/Medium-term+Policy+FrameworkFinal+June+2018.pdf
188

189

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The NDPC facilitates the preparation of the national development framework in line with the broad vision set
out in the current administration’s coordinated programme of economic and social development policies. The
NDPC performs the plans formulation and coordination functions under Act 480. The issues that are coveredin the national plan cover adaptation measures outlined in the national climate change policy and thenationally determined contributions. Once the medium-term development framework captures adaptation
issues, the line ministries and the district assemblies are expected to reflect them in their respective
development plans.
Ghana National Climate Change Policy (NCCP, 2015–2020)190
The NCCP and the master plan are Ghana’s flagship climate change policy to respond to climate change within
the sustainable context. The policy highlights the government commitments to tackle climate change andstrategies to institutionalise implementation of the programmes in it. The policy identifies effective adaptation
as the top priority area of government in addition to the low carbon growth and social development objectives.
The following seven pillars have been included in the policy:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

governance and coordination
capacity building
science, technology, and innovation
finance
International cooperation
information, communication and education
monitoring and reporting

Furthermore, four thematic areas have been identified to address adaptation issues. These are energy andinfrastructure; natural resources management; agriculture and food security; and disaster preparedness andresponse. NCCP is implemented by the Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology, and Innovation (MESTI).
Broad action areas have been identified to guide the implementation of the policy at the sectoral anddecentralised levels. MESTI has established the climate change implementation committee to coordinate therolling out of the NCCP interventions.
Ghana National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy (NCCAS, 2012)191
The NCCAS predates the NCCP but builds upon it. The “effective adaptation” goal in the NCCP is a further
elaboration of the priority actions in the NCCAS. It emerged from an earlier sectoral vulnerability study
conducted in 2008. Ghana’s NCCAS seeks to increase climate resilience and decrease the vulnerability of local
communities. Its adopted goal is to enhance Ghana’s current and future development by strengthening its
adaptive capacity and building the resilience of communities and ecosystems to the impacts of climate change.
The strategy prioritised eight areas for adaptation actions: (i) livelihoods; ii) energy; iii) agriculture; iv) health;v) early warning; vi) fisheries management; vii) land use, and viii) water.

Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology (MESTI), Republic of Ghana. 2014. Ghana National Climate Change Policy. Available at:https://s3.amazonaws.com/ndpc-static/CACHES/NEWS/2015/07/22//Ghana+Climate+Change+Policy.pdf
191
UN Environment and UNDP. 2012. National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy. CC DARE. Available at: https://s3.amazonaws.com/ndpcstatic/CACHES/PUBLICATIONS/2016/04/16/Ghana_national_climate_change_adaptation_strategy_nccas.pdf
190Page | 224

The actual implementation of the NCCAS is through the sub-national institutions, including the District
Assemblies under the supervision of the National Climate Change Committee. The Town / Area Councils would
prepare plans which would be submitted to the District Assemblies. Many ground interventions emerged fromthe implementation of the NCCAS. For example, the Ministry of Health implemented climate change and healthproject on the back of the NCCAS. Additionally, the MESTI’s Adaptation Fund Project is addressing the
livelihood, agriculture and water aspect of the NCCAS.
Ghana’s Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC, 2020-2030)192
In 2015, Ghana submitted its intended nationally determined contributions in response to the Lima Call for
Action. The intended nationally determined contributions automatically turned into NDC when Ghana ratified
the Paris Agreement in 2016. The nationally determined contributions comprised thirty-one climate actions
covering seven priority areas. The thirty-one climate actions consisting of twenty mitigation, and elevenadaptation actions are consistent with the broadly stated objectives of the medium-term development planand the national climate change policy. These programmes of actions would be the strategic focus of a “10year post-2020 enhanced climate action plan” currently under development. The long-term adaptation goal
set out in the NDC, is to increase climate resilience and decrease vulnerability for enhanced sustainable
development. Table 67 outlines the priority adaptation plans that would be implemented to achieve this goal.
Table 67: Priority adaptation policy actions to be implemented to achieve Ghana’s NDC adaptation goal
SectorStrategic Area

NDC Policy Actions

Agriculture and foodsecurity
Sustainable forest resource
management
Resilient infrastructure in
the built environment

Sustainable landuse

Agriculture resilience building in climatevulnerable landscapes
Value addition-based utilisation of forest
resources
City-wide resilient infrastructure planning
Early warning and disaster prevention

Climate change and health
Water resources
Gender and the vulnerable

Climate-resilient
strategic
infrastructure
Equitable social
development

Managing climate-induced health risk
Integrated water resources management
Resilience for Gender and the Vulnerable

Number of Programmesof Action
3
2
1
1
2
1
1

5.7.1.1.2 Sector-specific adaptation strategies
Once the national medium-term plan, NCCP, NCCAS, and the NDCs identified climate adaptation as a priority,
the line ministries and the district assemblies are expected to incorporate them into their sector/district plans.
Consequently, during the preparation of the current sector/district plans, some of the MDAs and MMDAs
reflected adaptation issues in them. Others have even adopted a climate-specific strategy to deal with theissues in the sector.
Sector strategic Medium-term Plan for the Ministry of Works and Housing (2018-2021)193
The Ministry of Works and Housing (MWH) has prepared a sector strategic medium-term plan for the period
2018-2021.

Government of Ghana. 2015. Ghana’s intended nationally determined contribution (INDC) and accompanying explanatory note. UNFCCC.
Available at: http://www4.unfccc.int/ndcregistry/PublishedDocuments/Ghana%20First/GH_INDC_2392015.pdf
193
https://www.mwh.gov.gh/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/SECTOR-MEDIUM-TERM-DEVELOPMENT-PLAN-2018-2021.pdf
192Page | 225

The plan was in response to the Environment, Infrastructure and Human Settlement theme under the national
medium-term development framework (Agenda for jobs: creating prosperity and equal opportunity for all). The
plan identified the following as the key development issues to address:••••

the rapid growth of slums in cities and towns
recurrent incidence of flooding
the vulnerability of the coastal zone on the impact of climate change
the potential rise in sea level resulting in wetland flooding

The plan further indicated the broad policy objectives in the national medium-term plan relevant to the MWH
operations and the adaptation measures as follows:••••

Promote resilient urban development
Address recurrent devastating floods
Promote proactive planning for disaster prevention and mitigation
Enhance climate change resilience

The targets set for the Plan period that relate to adaptation are:•••20% upgrade of existing slums by December 2021 and zero tolerance of new ones.
20 % increase in infrastructure investment for Sea defence projects.
Effective Early Warning System for effective flood control established by December 2021.

Some of the specially adapted relation intervention include:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Development of a coastline master plan for protection
Construction of fifteen sea defence projects in Western, Central and Greater Regions.
Renovation of 75 river gauging stations and changing of automatic water level recorders.
Develop 10 Regional Drainage Master Plans and construction of primary drains.
Develop 20 District Drainage Master Plans.
Implement the Annual Emergency National Flood Control programme.
Gazetting of the Building Code and the review of the Building Regulations

Ghana Plan of Action for Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate Change Adaptation (2012)194
The Ghana Plan of Action for Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate Change Adaptation (2012) summarises
strategic support for Disaster Risk Management (DRM) from the government and its development partners.
NADMO has a new law, Act 2016 (Act 927) that strengthens its mandate to enforce disaster risk reduction
regulation and coordinate all related activities. NAMDO is also the lead institution in the implementation andlocalisation of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR) (2015-2030) and the African
Regional Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction.

http://nadmo.gov.gh/images/NADMO_documents/2015_documents/GHANA%20PLAN%20OF%20ACTION%20ON%20DRRCCA%2020112015.pdf
194Page | 226

National Climate-Smart Agriculture and Food Security Action Plan (2016-2020)195
The Food and Agriculture Sector Development Policy (FASDEP 2) is the primary document from which
agriculture adaptation strategy is derived. FASDEP 2 is accompanied by a Medium-Term Agricultural Sector
Investment Plan (METASIP 2). The National Climate-Smart Agriculture and Food Security Action Plan was
adopted by the Ministry of Food and Agriculture in 2016 to provide additional details on the strategies to alignagricultural adaptation issues in the NCCP to the FASDEP 2. Thus, the main goal of the action plan is tofacilitate the NCCP in effectively integrating climate change considerations into the food and agricultural
sectors’ development policies and programmes
The specific aims of the Action Plan are to:• develop climate-resilient agriculture and food systems for all agro-ecological zones;• develop human resource capacity for climate-resilient agriculture; and• elaborate on the implementation framework and the specific climate-smart agriculture activities tobe carried out at the respective levels of governance.
MoFA is responsible for the implementation of the Action Plan, with the Environment and Climate Change Unit
(ECCU) having direct responsibility for the dissemination, capacity building and coordination of theimplementation. The ECCU works in collaboration with the Ministerial Climate Change Task Force to ensurethat relevant activities are integrated into the annual work-plans and budgets for all national Directorates of
MoFA. At a decentralised level, the Departments of Agriculture of the Metropolitan, Municipal and District
Assemblies would be responsible for the implementation of on-the-ground activities. At the community level,
farmers and farmer groups take responsibility for the implementation of activities on their management units.
The Ghana Irrigation Policy (2011)196
The Ghana Irrigation Policy plans to achieve sustainable growth and enhanced performance of irrigation while
contributing fully to the objectives of the Ghanaian agriculture sector. The policy has four objectives namely:i) accelerating the performance and growth in Ghana’s agricultural land under irrigation; ii) removing current
constraints on land and water resources to promote balanced socio-economic engagement in the water sector;iii) raising the environmental performance of all types of irrigation and related agricultural practices; and iv)
enhancing services which extend cost-effective, demand-driven irrigation services to public and private
irrigators through a series of economic incentives for farmer participation.
The target of the policy is to: i) improve national food security; ii) intensify and diversify production ofagricultural commodities; iii) increase livelihood options; iv) optimise natural resource usage; v) reduce
negative environmental impacts, and vi) expand investment space for irrigated production. The implementing
units are the Ghana Irrigation Development Authority (GIDA) under the MOFA, the District Assemblies and theWater Resources Commission, working together with the Department of Cooperatives, the private sector, NGOs
and farmer associations. The policy commits to decentralising irrigation services and encouraging private
sector participation from individual farmers and commercial operators.

Essebey G.O, Nutsukpo D, Karbo N, and Zougmore R. 2015. National Climate-Smart Agriculture and Food Security Action Plan of Ghana (20162020). Working Paper 139. Copenhagen, Denmark: CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). Available
at: www.ccafs.cgair.org
196
Ministry of Food and Agriculture. 2011. National Irrigation Policy, Strategies and Regulatory Measures. Available at: http://mofa.gov.gh/site/wpcontent/uploads/2011/07/GHANA-IRRIGATION-DEVELOPMENT-POLICY1.pdf
195Page | 227

5.7.1.2 Mainstreaming Adaptation
The past adaptation mainstreaming efforts mostly focused on incorporating them into the national
development framework. Integrating adaptation into the national, sectoral and district plans is an essential
first step. The next step is to make sure that the adaptation issues in the sectors and district plans are
implemented. Since 2015, the NDPC, EPA, MESTI and other actors have embarked on continuous training of
district assemblies on the mainstreaming of adaptation into their district plans. The training was onunderstanding the common physical and socio-economic vulnerabilities of the district and how to address
them in the district medium-term plans (Table 68).
Table 68: Some Interventions to address the capacity gap for climate resilience building at the sub-national level
Name of Intervention
Climate change
mainstreaming capacity
needs assessment at the
district level.
Training workshops toenhance institutional
capacity to address climatechange adaptation at the
district level.

When/Institutions
March 2018

Training workshops toenhance capacity for
integration of climatechange adaptation into
environmental assessment
processes at all levels.

July 2018

Regional Road Show on
Ghana’s NDC under the Paris
Agreement

SeptemberOctober 2016

Regional Road Show on
Ghana’s NDCs under theParis Agreement
Training of District
Development Planning

Beneficiary
22 District Assemblies
in the Western Region

Funding Source
USAID

About 100 officers(coordinating directors,planning officers,
budget officers,
engineers) from 22
district assemblies in
the Western region
About 60 officers fromthe EPA.

USAID/EPA(government of
Ghana) co-funding

681 participants197 from
Ashanti, Central andEastern Regions.

UNDP/
Government of
Ghana

More 100
participants198 from
Northern, Upper East,and Upper West Region
138 people
participated199 in the

UNDP/
Government of
Ghana

EPA/NDPC/ICF
April 2018
EPA and ICF

EPA and ICF

MESTI
May 2016
MESTI
September 2017MESTI/NPDC

USAID/EPA(government of
Ghana) co-funding

UNDP/
Government of
Ghana

Strategic Intention
Addressing climatechange adaptation
capacity gaps at the
district level.
Addressing climatechange adaptation
capacity gaps at the
subnational(district)level

Addressing capacity
gaps of EPA officers for
effective integration ofclimate change
adaptation into
environmental
assessment processes in
Ghana
Raising awareness ofGhanaians on Ghana’s
commitments under theParis Agreement
Raising awareness ofGhanaians on Ghana’s
commitments under theParis Agreement
Facilitate mainstreamingof NDCs in theParticipants in the Southern Zone include: Regional Ministers, Regional /District Coordinating Directors (R/DCD), Metropolitan, Municipal andDistrict Chief Executives (MMDCE), Members of the Eastern, Central and Ashanti Regional House of Chiefs comprising Paramount Chiefs, Queen
Mothers and their attendants and sub-chiefs, Heads of Government Departments, Non-Governmental Organisations, Muslim and Christian Council
members, Media, Security Personnel, Drivers, Staff of EPA Regional Offices, Registrars of House of Chiefs, Staff of Regional Coordinating councils.
198
Same list of participants as 178
199
The participants included District Coordinating Directors, District Planning Officers, District Budget Officers, District Engineers, District
Finance/Procurement Officers, District Development Officers, EPA officials and some Regional Coordinating Council officials. The districts are
Savelugu, Zabzugu and Bole districts in the Northern Region; Bawku Municipal, Bawku West, Bongo and Builsa South in the Upper East Region andNandom, Nadowli and Sissala East in the Upper West Region. The first training took place in Tamale, second and third in Bolgatanga and Wa
respectively.
197

Page | 228

Officers on the Use of the
Checklist for Mainstreaming
NDCs into National
Development Plans
Training of selected MDAs
on climate finance tracking
tool
Training on Mainstreamingof Climate Change andGreen Economy Related SDG
Indicators into the National
Development Plans

training programmefrom 10 adaptation
Districts
Ministry of
Finance/ISSER
May 2018
MESTI

Twenty-six people from
20 MDAs trained on thetools.
A total of 138 people
participated in the
training programmefrom 10 adaptation
districts.

formulation districtplans.

UNDP/
Government of
Ghana
UNDP/UNEP

Support budgeting forclimate change activities
in their annual plan.
Support M & E of
Climate Change andGreen Economy Issues inthe district planning

5.7.1.3 National adaptation planning
Adaptation planning is an integral component of the Ghana climate change strategy. Ghana has given
considerable attention to climate change mainstreaming in the past. The current strategy is to focus on
deepening the adaptation planning efforts and bringing on board the private sector. The section provides aconcise overview of the GCF readiness support on national adaptation planning.
5.7.1.3.1 National adaptation plan framework
Ghana has initiated steps to undergo National Adaptation Planning (NAP) and seek funding from the GCF withsupport from UNEP. The NAP proposal has been submitted to the GCF secretariat awaiting approval of theboard. Ghana’s NAP aims to provide the enabling framework for the planning and implementation ofadaptation actions highlighted in the NCCP, NCCAS and NDCs, all done within the context of sustainable
development. Improving adaptation planning through the NAP process would help build local adaptive
capacity to address climate change (SDG13), which would reduce poverty (SDG1), thereby enhancing livelihood
opportunities (SDG1) and improving gender equality (SDG5). The purpose is to provide an overall framework
to guide adaptation planning and implementation by clarifying the overarching vision and structure that would
drive the NAP process. The NAP process seeks to promote community-based and ecosystem-based approaches
and works to ensure that it delivers multiple co-benefits to sustainable development, poverty reduction andclimate change adaptation200. The NAP framework describes the benefits of the NAP process in the context ofGhana while ensuring that the NAP does not unnecessarily contribute to the proliferation of planning processes
and related documents. Specifically, the objectives of this NAP framework are to:
•

•
•
•

200

Clarify Ghana’s approach to its NAP process - This includes an articulation of the country’s vision ofclimate change adaptation, its adaptation objectives and principles, the roles to be played bystakeholders within the national government, and priority adaptation actions to be undertaken. It also
provides a reference point for bringing together various adaptation planning efforts from different
sectors, sub-national structures, and scales of decision-making;Align the NAP process with existing policies, strategies and adaptation research;
Identify specific themes that are particularly relevant and unique to the country context; andServe as a basis for stakeholder engagement.

MEST and EPA, 2018 - Ghana’s National Adaptation Plan Framework

Page | 229

Private sector involvement in the NAP Process
The Private Investment for Enhanced Resilience (PIER) project has selected Ghana to receive technicalassistance. The support would focus on NDC Private Sector Strategy; private sector engagement; andintegrating climate risk into portfolio management by the private banks. The modalities of the PIER project
are being worked out to firm up the scope and mode of delivery of the support. The NAP framework highlights
the need to engage the private sector in the NAP process for the implementation of climate adaptation actionsin the country.
5.7.2 Adaptation actions
5.7.2.1 Government flagship programmes that support climate adaptation
The government is implementing major development programmes that support the realisation of adaptation
goals in the NCCP, NCCAS and the NDCs. These are One village One Dam (1V1D), One district one Warehouse(1D1W), Planting for Food and Jobs, Planting for Export and Rural Development and Rearing for Food and Jobs
(Table 69).
Table 69: List of government flagship programme supporting adaptation in the NCCP, NCCAS and the NDCName ofprogramme

Lead Ministry

Objectives

Scope

Achievements

One village on
Dam (1VID)

Ministry ofSpecialDevelopment
Initiatives201

Provide all-year
availability of water
for smallholder
farmers incommunities,
particularly in thethree northern
regions

Construction of small
dams and dugouts
across communities of
the three Northern
Regions

Reduce post-harvest
losses amongsmallholder farmers
across the country.
Enhance theproductivity ofcrops of significancefor food andfeed in Ghana
through integrated
services on farming
and marketing

Constructing fifty202
1,000 metric tonnes
warehouses across thecountry.
Seed and fertiliser
supply.

Five Hundred
Seventy small dams
and dugout
constructed or
rehabilitated in
Northern (310),
Upper East (150) andUpper West (110)Regions in 2018
50,000 food storage
capacity added in2018

One district one
Warehouse(1D1W)
Planting for
Food and Jobs
(PFJ203).
(2017- 2020) at
an estimatedcost of US$
717.5 million

Ministry ofFood andAgriculture

Improved extension
services.

Five hundred
seventy-seventhousand farmers
were supplied withsubsidised fertilisers
and seeds for the2018 cropping
season204.
183,000mt offertilisers, 7,600mt ofseeds and cassava
planting

Supporting
adaptationarea
Building
resiliencevulnerable
landscapes

Minimising
post-harvest
loss
Promotion ofconservation
agriculture
practices

http://www.msdi.gov.gh/1D1A.html
http://www.msdi.gov.gh/1D1W.html
203
http://mofa.gov.gh/site/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/PFJ%20document%20New%20New.pdf
204
https://www.mofep.gov.gh/sites/default/files/budget-statements/2019-Budget-Statement-and-Economic-Policy_.pdf
201
202Page | 230

materials were
distributed.
Improved extension
service delivery. Twothousand seven
hundred extensions,other and relevant
staff are being
recruited.
Planting forexport and ruraldevelopment

Ministry ofFood andAgriculture

Decentralise tree
crop programme topromote rural
economic growthand farmer incomes

Rearing for Foodand Jobs (RFJ)

Ministry ofFood andAgriculture

To develop acompetitive andmore efficient
livestock industry
over the period
2019-2023

Support to one million
farmers in 170 districts
with certified freeplanting materials tocover over one million
hectares of farmlands
and engage 10,000
young graduates ascrop specialised
extension officers.
Breed improvement,
Productivity, andproduction,
Development of
infrastructure, feed
production andconservation of forage,
animal health anddisease control,development ofcommunal grazing
lands,
commercialisation of
livestock productionand entrepreneurshipdevelopment, andapplication of eagriculture in livestock
production.

Economic andincomes
diversification

So far, 53,500
livestock (sheep,
pigs, cockerels andguinea fowls) havebeen distributed as
at June 2019

Climate-smart
livestockproduction

5.7.2.2 Cities and local actions
Cities and local governments are the hubs of climate actions now. Many of them are gearing up with innovative
solutions to deal with climate issues in their jurisdiction and at the same time contributing to national efforts.
Three significant initiatives stand out and are worthy of mentioning. These are: (a) Greater Accra Resilient andIntegrated Development project (GARID); Local Climate Adaptive Living (LoCAL) project and C40 Partnershipwith Accra Metropolitan Assembly (Table 70).

Page | 231

Table 70: Selected adaptation-related interventions in the cities and location actions category
Project nameInstitution

Funding

Funding agency

Objectives

Components

Greater Accra Resilientand Integrated
Development Project(GARID- 2019-2025) 205

Ministry of Worksand Housing

US$ 200
million credit
facility

World Bank/IDA

Improve flood risk
management and solid
waste management in the
Odaw River Basin andimprove access to necessary
infrastructure and services
in the targeted communities
within the Basin.

Climate-resilient drainage
and flood mitigation
measures.

Local Climate Adaptive
Living(LoCAL) project206

Ministry of Rural
Development andLocal Government

UN Capital
Development Fund

C40 Partnership withAccra Metropolitan
Assembly
GIZ/Alliance Develop
Insurability Project207

AMA

C40 Cities Initiative

AMA, Ga West, and
the Ga East
Municipal

BMZ and Allianz
Climate Solutions
GmbH (ACS)

Enables local governments
to cope with the increased
cost of building resilienceagainst climate change andnatural disasters.

Solid waste management
capacity improvements
Participatory Upgrading ofTargeted Flood Prone Lowincome communities, andLocal Government
Performance-based Climate
Resilient grants withtechnical and capacity
supportAccra to develop a climatechange action plan

Help municipalities makecontingency plans to help
reduce the impacts ofanticipated hazards anddisasters, including flooding.

Supporting
adaptation areas
Flooding
Building
resilience cities
and towns

Mobilising
adaptation
funding

Building
resilience cities
and towns
Climate risk
transfer

Impacts
The number of people
protected by improved
flood mitigation
infrastructure.
Number of people intargeted low-income
communities withimproved solid waste
collection services
Delivered 2.3 million
climate grants to 3 local
governments

Adopted Accra ResiliencestrategyContribute to addressing
annual flooding in Accra

Documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/548841552863167300/Project-Information-Document-Integrated-Safeguards-Data-Sheet-Greater-Accra-Resilient-and-Integrated-Development-Project-P164330
https://www.uncdf.org/ghana207
http://www.ghananewsagency.org/social/stakeholders-meet-over-perennial-flood-disaster-in-district-assemblies-150757
205
206

Page | 232

5.7.2.3 Strengthening climate services
The Ghana Meteorological Agency is the lead institution in-charge of systematic observation and offers climate
services to a wide range of multiple users. The data used for the climate projection analysis in this report was
primarily sourced from GMet. Like many public institutions, GMet keeps working on improving the efficiencyof meteorological stations across the country. The GMet focus has been on the modernisation and automationof weather observation stations. The GMet has improved data collection by recently procuring ten automaticweather stations to augment the available weather stations. This is meant to aid the Agency in receiving
climate data in real-time for climate risk management decisions. Another significant initiative is the provisionof location-specific climate data within every 4km radius in Ghana by merging satellite and gauge data. This
was achieved through the Enhancing National Climate Services (ENACTS) initiative. Ghana is a partner to the
Rainwatch Alliance.
Rainwatch (rainwatch-africa.org) is an open-access platform for rainfall monitoring which further provides
useful information for decision making. The GMet has also improved on the dissemination of the forecast
information they generate for multiple applications. It is worthy to note that GMet issues flood, drought, andAgromet bulletins to inform adaptation planning208. The Remote Sensing and Climate Center of the Ghana
Space Science and Technology Institute209 has been in partnership with the Ghana Meteorological Agency inengaging and training key science actors and, Agric Extension Agents to use climate information from the
Rainwatch platform for climate risk management decisions and adaptation planning in the agricultural sector.
5.7.2.4 Enhancing early warning system /disaster risk management
Apart from enacting Act 927 in 2016 to strengthen the mandate to coordinate disaster related-activities,
NADMO established a climate change and disaster risk reduction department. The new department is to seeto the implementation of climate change and disaster risk reduction activities in the areas listed in Table 71.
Table 71: Early warning/disaster risk reduction initiative implemented by NADMO
Project nameInstitution

Community
Resiliencethrough Early
Warning(CREW)
project210

NADMO(2013 –2017)

Fundingamount(US$)
5,162,667

Funding
AgencyObjectives

Components or
achievements

Norway via
UNDP

Reduction of
economic andhuman losses anddamages frompriority disasters;

Developed multihazard Early warning
system and EWS
master plan to benefit
roughly 6 million
people.

Establishment ofadequate early
warning andcommunication forpriority hazards toreduce disasterrisks in the ten
pilot sites by 2016.

Supporting
adaptation
area
Early
warningsystem to
manageextremeevents

Early warning
communicationequipment has been
installed at the
NADMO HQ and in 20
subnational offices.

http://www.meteo.gov.gh/website/
https://gssti.gaecgh.org/remote-sensing-gis-and-climate-centre/
210
http://www.gh.undp.org/content/ghana/en/home/operations/projects/environment_and_energy/crew.html
208

209

Page | 233

Promoting
Integrated
Climate Risk
Management
and Transfer(ICRM)(2015 to
2019)

NADMO
Ministry of
FinanceUnknown

GermanGovernment
via GIZ

Put climate risk
management
strategy in place toprotect
smallholders andcommercial
agribusinesses
against thefinancial risks
associated with anextreme weather
event.

Floods and droughts,
hazards, vulnerability
and risk maps atcurrent (2010) andfuture scenarios (2050)
have been developed
for the country and theten pilot districts.
Appropriate
agricultural practices
for adaptation.
Africa Climate
Insurance

Risk transfer
associatedextremeevent(drought
andflooding)

Page | 234

The Water Resources Commission is also involved in the early warning and disaster reduction efforts. During the period under review, the commission has implemented projects
in the areas listed in Table 72.
Table 72: Early warning/disaster risk reduction initiative implemented by the Water Resources Commission
Name of
Initiative
Flood recession
agriculture forfood security inthe white Volta
River Basin

Implementing
organisation(s)HSD

Flood Hazard
Assessment

WRC, UNDP,NADMO, HSD,
and GMet
WRC, UNDP,NADMO, HSD
and GMET

WRC, UNDP,NADMO, HSD,
and GMet

Disaster risk
management

OTI flood hazard
assessment

Improved theresiliency ofcrops to drought
throughstrengthened
early warning
within Ghana.

WRC, GMet

Time Frame

Sponsor of
Initiative
International
Water
Management
Institute

Amount(US$)
Unknown2010 - 2012

World Bank

2014 - 20162016 - 2017

June 2016 –December
2016

2016 - 2017

Scope of
Initiative
White Volta
Basin in the
Northern
RegionObjectives

1 million

White Volta
Basin

World Bank

1.3 million

White Volta
Basin

Global facility
for disaster
reduction andrecoveryWorld Bank

Flood hazard
assessment of theWhite Volta Basin
Development risk
management
procedure andservices for the White
Volta

1.2 million

OTI Basin

ClimateTechnology
Centre andNetwork(CTCN)211

250,000

White Volta

Supervision of gauge
readers.
Validate, digitise andtransmit gauge values.

Drought Early Warning
system enhance data
accessibility, climate
forecasting, andadaptation planningand communication

Main Outcomes /Impacts
Monitored andtransmitted accurate
data during the 2016
flood season.
Trained and supervised
gauge readers.
Flood Hazard maps

Main tools
usedTraining

Beneficiaries

Hydrologicalmodels

Early warning
systemDevelopment of flood
early warning system forthe white Volta.
Development of floodrisk maps.
Flood forecasting model.
Development of floodmaps.

Training
HydrologicalModelsVulnerable
communities within
the basin
Vulnerable
communities

HydrologicalmodelsCommunities within
the OTI Basin

Early warning
system (flood)

Hydrologicalmodels,Communities within
the White Volta
Basin. Improving
the resiliency ofcrops to drought
throughstrengthened early
warning within
Ghana.

Early warning
system(drought)

Flood Early Warning
system developed
Online Portal for climate
data.
Drought and Floodforecast system

Training

Data collection
professionals

Supporting
Adaptation Area
Building
resilience in thevulnerable
landscape

Early warning
system211 https://www.ctc-n.org/content/improving-resiliency-crops-drought-through-strengthened-early-warning-within-ghana

Page | 235

5.7.2.5 Building resilience in climate-vulnerable landscapes
Landscapes provide critical support to ecology, rural livelihood and the national economy. Climate change can negatively affect landscape vitality. It can compromise thequality of ecosystem services for the people that derived their livelihoods from it. The savannah and transitional ecosystem and the people that live there are the mostvulnerable to climate change. It is because the livelihoods of most people living in the savannah and transitional ecological zones are intricately linked to the climate. So,
any significant change in the prevailing climate can cause severe disruption to the way they live. In this regard, significant attention has been given to the savannah andtransitional zones when it comes to climate change adaptation interventions. The summary of the interventions is listed in Table 73.
Table 73: Climate adaptation investments in climate-vulnerable landscapes
Project nameInstitution

Sustainable Land andWater Management
Project (SLWMP)MESTI, MoFAFC and EPA

Funding / Funding
AgencyUS$ 44,000,000(2011−2020)
GEF via World Bank

Increased Resilienceto Climate Change inNorthern Ghana
through theManagement of
Water Resources andDiversification ofLivelihoods
Adaptation of AgroEcosystems to

MESTI, WRC, EPA

US$ 8,293,972(2015-2020)
Adaptation fund via
UNDP

Ministry of Foodand Agriculture

US$ 3,900,000(2012−2017)

Objectives/Scope/Location

Components

Supporting adaptation area andresults
More than 10,000 farmers
benefited

Demonstrate improved sustainable
land and water management
practices aimed at reducing landdegradation and enhancing themaintenance of biodiversity inselected micro-watersheds. Twelve
districts in Upper East, Upper West,and Northern Regions.
Enhance the resilience and adaptive
capacity of rural livelihoods toclimate change impacts, and threats
to water resources in the northern
regions of Ghana. Ten districts212,
across the Upper East, Upper Westand Northern regions.

Tree plantation.
Input supply.
Extension services.
Promotion of SLM technologies.
Watershed management.
Village saving schemes.
Payment of Environmental Services.
Improve water access in these regions.
Increase the institutional capacity forclimate-resilient management of surface
and groundwater.
Diversify the livelihoods of ruralcommunities213.

Strengthening the resilience ofsmallholder farmers

Reduce climate-related crop losses inthe savanna and transitional regionsof Ghana through pilot measures.

Develop climate-smart farming systems.
Deliver climate-smart extension services;
Adopting climate-smart policies

Planted drought-resistant maize
varieties in demonstration plots in
the 16 pilot communities.

Strengthening the resilience ofsmallholder farmers

Builsa, Bongo, Bawku West, Bawku, Sissala East, Lawra, Nadowli, Bole, Zabzugu-Tatale and Savelugu.
UNDP 2015. The Increased Resilience to Climate Change in Northern Ghana through the Management Water Resources and Diversification of Livelihoods project proposal. Adaptation Fund. Washington DC. USA. Available at:https://www.adaptation-fund.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/RESUBMISSION_Ghana-AF_proposal_-29-January-2015.pdf
212
213

Page | 236

Climate Change(AAESCC)

Climate Change
Adaptation in
Northern Ghana
Enhanced214(CHANGE)

Innovative Insurance
Products for the
Adaptation to
Climate Change(IIPACC)

German Federal Ministry
for Economic
Cooperation via GIZ

Regional Advisory
and Information
Network Systems.
Trade Aid
Integrated.
Tumu Deanery
Regional
Integrated
Development
Programme.
National InsuranceCommission

US$ 3,000,000
2013−2015
Government of Canada
via the Department of
Foreign Affairs, Tradeand Development(DFATD).

€3,832,000. German
Federal Ministry ofEnvironment, Nature
Conservation and Nuclear
Safety via GIZ.
2009−2014216

Sixteen communities in eight districtsof the Brong-Ahafo and Northern
regions.

Assist smallholder farmers in
improving their adaptive capacity andin building their resilience to theimpacts of climate change on
agriculture, food security andlivelihoods

CSA agricultural practices and conservation
agriculture.
Sustainable soil and water management
practices.
Effective use of agriculture data.

17 communities in Savelugu-Nanton,
Bolgatanga, Sissala East Districts in
the Northern, Upper East, and Upper
West regions
Support the development ofsustainable agricultural insurance
system by introducing demandorientated crop insurance products toprotect against financial risks causedby extreme weather events, and otherforms of climate change.

Storage and prevention of post-harvest
lossesDrought index insurance product for maize,soya and sorghum farmers. An area-yieldindex product was introduced in three pilot
districts for smallholder farmers.
The multiple-peril crop insurance productwas introduced for commercial farmers

Six hundred farmers – 300 in eachregion – receive weather forecasts
by mobile phone, which has
improved their ability to manageand plan agricultural activities.
GMet being equipped with
automatic weather stations in theeight project districts, which has
improved weather forecasting forthe region.
100% of FBO leaders reported anincreased understanding ofclimate change. About 95% of
farmers attended at least one
training module. 93% – 66%
female – of farmers tested one ormore CSA method, far exceeding
the target of 75%. 95% – 66%
female – of farmers who
implemented CSA strategies
reported increased agricultural
productivity215.
Agricultural insurance solutions
for farmers in Upper East, Upper
West, and Northern Regions.

Canadian Feed the Children. 2015. Change project stakeholder learning forum: Project Wrap-Up Summary. Available at: http://www.canadianfeedthechildren.ca/downloads-projects/CHANGE-Project-Summary-of-Results.pdf.
Canadian Feed the Children. 2015. Change project stakeholder learning forum: Project Wrap-Up Summary. Available at: http://www.canadianfeedthechildren.ca/downloads-projects/CHANGE-Project-Summary-of-Results.pdf.
216
Gille S. 2013. The case of Ghana – Innovative insurance products for the adaptation to climate change. MCII-GIZ Workshop, Bonn. Available at: http://www.climate-insurance.org/fileadmin/mcii/documents/20130411__MCIIGIZ_Workshop_SGille.pdf
214
215

Page | 237

Ghana Agricultural
Sector Investment
Programme(GASIP);217

MoFA

IFAD loan of US$ 71.6
million
Adaptation for
Smallholder Agriculture
Programme grant of
US$10 million

Support Transition
Towards ClimateSmart Agriculture
Food Systems

FAO

Towards Pro-poor
REDD+ Project

IUCN
ARochaCodesult Network

2015−2020 – first two
cycles of three years
each, more are plannedin the long-term,(US$113 million)(2015–2016),
Government of Norway

Phase 1: 2009−2012
with US$4,610,960,
Phase 2: 2013−2016
with US$4,610,960,
DANIDA)220
Ghana, Cameroon,
Uganda, Indonesia andGuatemalaAgribusiness, including smallholders,has enhanced its profitability andclimate change resilience.

Value chain development
Rural value chain infrastructure.
Knowledge management, harmonisationand policy support218.

Contribute to sustainable poverty
reduction in rural Ghana

Assist Ghana to create the required policy
and economic environment for CSA. Provide
smallholder farmers with access to resources
and knowledge to implement CSA. Engage
stakeholders to encourage the uptake of CSApractices219.
Pilot and assess pro-poor benefit-sharing
mechanisms for performance-based REDD+.
Identify and promote policy and institutionalarrangements
requiredtodeliver
performance-based payments equitably andefficiently for REDD+ activities. Generate
and promoting lessons about the design andimplementation of pro-poor REDD+ benefitsharing mechanisms.

Facilitated the scaling up ofclimate-smart agriculture (CSA) in
Ghana

Nation-wide

Ensure food security by improving
smallholder farmers’ resilience toclimate change-induced hazards

Communities are surrounding Mole
National Park.
Wassa Amenfi forests

Improved adaptation planning

IFAD. 2015. GASIP Fact Sheet. Available at: https://www.ifad.org/topic/resource/factsheet.
Programme Management Department. 2014. Ghana Agricultural Sector Investment Programme (GASIP) Design Report.
219
FAO. 2016. FAO Project list. Available at: http://www.fao.org/ghana/programmes-and-projects/project-list/en/
220
The REDD desk. 2017. IUCN towards pro-poor REDD+ project. Available at: http://theredddesk.org/countries/initiatives/iucn-towards-pro-poor-redd-project.
217
218

Page | 238

Promoting a value
chain approach toclimate change
adaptation inagriculture in Ghana

MoFA by the Rootsand Tubers
Improvement andMarketing
Programme (IFAD
Project)221.

Resilient Landscapesfor Sustainable
Livelihoods (RLSL) 223

MoFA

GEF SCCF Grant US$2.5
million, IFAD loan.
US$8.5 million,
Government of Ghana.
US$0.3 million and
US$0.2 million as
beneficiary contribution
US$ 3,360,000(2013−2016) via UNDP,
FAO, and WFPReduce climate-induced risks to thecassava value chain; Achieve foodsecurity, and generate income forrural pilot communities in Ghana222.
Ashanti, Brong-Ahafo, Northern andVolta regions
Develop the capacity of national andlocal institutions;
Strengthen the resilience of districts
and communities in northern Ghana
to climate change and disaster risks
through the development, andImplement sustainable land
management approaches

Water, Climate andDevelopment Project(WACDEP)

African Ministers
Council on Water
the Ghana Water
Partnership andthe Volta Basin
Authority 224.

Austrian Development
Cooperation, DANIDA;
United Kingdom; andother Global Water
Partnership financing
partners. US$17.8
million. 2011−2016,

Ten communities in the threenorthern regions of Ghana –Northern, Upper East, and Eastern.
Integration of water security andclimate resilience in development
planning processes. West Gonja
district - Northern Region – and in
the Bakwu and Binduri districts –Upper East Region.

Awareness-raising on climate change andcapacity building to address its impacts
along the cassava chain;
Support adaptation to climate change incassava production;
Promote innovative adaptation solutions
along agricultural value chains.
The social component involved thedevelopment of community cooperatives.
Technical component focused primarily on
agricultural practices and interventions andthe establishment of community-based
seed production units to supply rural
farmers with farming inputs; and iii) the
training of rural farmers on Sustainable
Land and Water Management interventions.
The financial component involved theestablishment of revolving funds to assist
with the provision of farming inputs anddiversification into additional livelihood
activities.
Investments in regional and national
development.
Innovative green solutions.
Knowledge and capacity development
Partnership and sustainability

Targeted individuals and groups
of women, men and youth living inremote rural areas who are
involved in cassava processing,production, and marketing
activities.
Building the resilience ofvulnerable farmers

WACDEP promoted water as a key
part of sustainable regional andnational development andcontributed to climate change
adaptation for economic growthand human security.

GEF. 2016. Promoting value chain approach to adaptation in agriculture. Available at: https://www.thegef.org/project/promoting-value-chain-approach-adaptation-agriculture.
IFAD. 2015. Ghana: Promoting a value chain approach to climate change adaptation in agriculture in Ghana. Available at: https://www.ifad.org/documents/10180/b0c49e3d-5d00-454d-9d40-c78f79f5150b.
223
Ministry of Food and Agriculture. 2012. Resilient Landscapes for Sustainable Livelihoods Project Proposal.
224
Global Water Partnership. 2011. WACDEP Flyer. Available at: http://www.gwp.org/WACDEP.
221
222

Page | 239

5.7.2.6 Coastal protection
Coastal protection is a major adaptation intervention Ghana is pursuing to safeguard the integrity of the shoreline fromclimate-induced sea erosion. They are built parallel to the shore and aim to hold or prevent sliding of the soil while
protecting from wave action. Several Sea defence projects have been initiated and are at various stages of development.
Five of them are on-going, three have been completed, and four have been planned225(Table 74).
Table 74: Coastal protection projects in Ghana
Name of
Initiative
New Takoradi
SDP226

Implementing
organisation
HSD

Time
Frame
2016 –
2018

StatusSponsorongoing

MostlyGoG*

Adjua

Amandi2016

ongoing

MostlyGoG

51 m (US$)

Aboadze

Messrs Xara
Developers

2016

ongoing

MostlyGoG

28.5m (US$)

Ada SDP227

Dredging
InternationalandInternational

2013 2016

ongoing

MostlyGoG

183.4m (€) /240228m (€)

Axim Coastal
Protection
Works - Western
RegionKeta Sea
Defence Project

Makam Plant
Hire Ltd2019

ongoing

MostlyGoG

Sakumono Sea
Defence Project

Amandi
Holding
LimitedCompleted2015

completed

Amount(Currency)
35m (US$)

Scope of
Initiative
Protection ofbeaches andenvirons
againstencroachment
by the sea

Objectives
Constructionof seadefencesystems forthe coastal
areas of thecountry topreserve
lives.
Protect
communities
that suffer
the rage ofthe sea
periodically.

US$52mMostlyGoG

60 m

A gravity wallof length
550m and
constructionof twogroynes oflength 70
metres.

Protect the
Sakumonocoastalstretch belt

Major
Impacts
Initialfindings
completedand mainconstruction
to begin
Reclaimed
15km ofcoastal bed

Reclaimed
15 km ofcoastal bed
lost along
the Atlantic
Ocean

Protected
threecommunities
5,000 mstretch* GoG - Government of Ghana

Amanful Kumar Coastal Protection works, Dixcove Coastal Protection Works, Komenda Coastal Protection Works and Nkontompo Coastal Protection Works(Phase 2) - Western Region
226
SDP – Sea Defence Project227
http://www.ghana.gov.gh/index.php/media-center/news/2377-ada-sea-defence-project-completed, https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/workon-240-million-ada-coastal-protection-project-completed.html
228
Value for the two-phase project
225

Page | 240

5.7.2.7 Irrigation development
Ghana has 136,000 km2 agricultural lands of which 58,000 km2 is under cultivation and 11,000 hectares under irrigation229.
Agriculture in Ghana is dominated by small-scale farms. About 60% of all farms in the country are less than 1.2 hectares
in size, 25% are between 1.2 to 2.0 hectares, with 15 % above 2.0 hectares. There are about 3 million smallholder farmers,
with an average farm size between 0.5 and 2 hectares and produce 95 per cent of the country’s food crops230. Smallholder
farming is primarily rain-fed, using traditional, subsistence methods. It exposes the smallholder farmers to significant
climate risk when seasonal changes and droughts occur.
The use of irrigation technology, although currently not widespread, has a vital role to play in reducing the climateinduced vulnerability and improving production. Therefore, having access to water throughout the year for farming is a
critical adaptation intervention. Ghana Irrigation Development Authority (GIDA) under the Ministry of Food and Agriculture
has the mandate to formulate, develop and implement irrigation and drainage plans for all-year-round agriculture
production in a sustainable environment. GIDA does so by “identifying possible irrigation projects, and in some instances
involved in the management and maintenance of irrigation schemes”231. Furthermore, GIDA plays a significant role in theimplementation of the Ghana Irrigation Development Strategy and the master plan. Below are some of the achievementsfrom the implementation of policy and the master plan:
•
•

•
•
•
•
•
•

Twenty-two Irrigation Projects all over the country constructed by GIDA covering a total of 6,505 hectares.
An additional 22 schemes have been constructed under the Small-scale Irrigation Development Project (SSIDP)
and six schemes under the Small Farms Irrigation Project (SFIP). Each of these projects is less than 1,000 ha insize except the Tono and Kpong Irrigation Projects, which have about 2,500 ha.
Thirteen irrigation schemes have been completed, increasing the irrigable area by 325 hectares, out of 44,490
hectares.
Two Hundred and Eighty irrigation farmers trained in the management of irrigation systems.
Phase I of the rehabilitation of the Tono Irrigation Scheme is completed. It involved 25,870 metres of left branch
canal, 12,880 metres of the right branch and 1,800 metres of infill canals. Farmers are already cropping.
Draft feasibility studies for the entire 200,000 hectares and detailed design for 5,000 hectares completed.
A total of 897 pump sets and 266 sprinkler sets have been distributed to all ten regions of Ghana, and installationof the same is on-going.
Rehabilitation of 3,000 ha of the Kpong Right Bank Irrigation Project and the extension of new irrigation
infrastructure and services to a proposed additional 8,000 hectares under the New Development Irrigation
Scheme (NDIS) is underway232. This US$ 90 million initiative is part of the Accra Plains Irrigation Project.

http://www.fao.org/ghana/fao-in-ghana/ghana-at-a-glance/en/
http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4158e.pdf
231
http://mofa.gov.gh/site/?page_id=2976
232
http://www.ppp.mofep.gov.gh/project/78/accra-plains-irrigation-project229
230

Page | 241

5.7.2.8 Climate change adaptation research and skills development
The Council for Industrial and Scientific Research (CSIR) and the Universities are involved in different aspects of adaptation research. The research focuses on broad themes
such as (a) development of improved seeds; (b) climate change and population dynamics; (c) climate change impacts on agriculture and water. They are also training students
at the graduate and postgraduate levels. Table 75 presents some selected climate change adaptation research in the country.
Table 75: List of climate change adaptation research works in Ghana
Research Projects

Objective

DEltas, vulnerability
and Climate Change:
Migration and
Adaptation

Assess migration as an
adaptation in deltaic
environments

Recipient
Institution
RIPS, University of
Ghana, Legon(DECCMA)
Cities and Climate
ChangeBuilding Research
Capacity forsustainable water andfood security indrylands of subSaharan Africa(BRECcIA)
Building Capacity to
Meet the Climate

Improve the management offlood risks and enhance
resilience in Accra’s readinessfor future floods bydeveloping an integrated
climate-smart flood
management framework andcatalysing evidence-based
policy action.
Develop research capacity
across institutions that are
self-sustaining and focusedon improving food and water
security for the poorest ofsociety.

RIPS, University of
Ghana, Legon

Develop the University of
Ghana as a centre of

The University of
Ghana and

Location /scope

FundingTime frame

Outputs

Volta delta. Ketu
South, Ketu North,
Keta Municipality,
South Tongu, Central
Tongu, Ada East, Ada
West, Ningo Prampram
and Akatsi South.
Selected districts in
the Greater Accra
Region233

CAD 1,000,000
from IDRC

2014-2018

Formation of a National Expert
Advisory Group.Used Unmanned
Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) / drones toprovide visual evidence of coastal
erosion and flooding at Fuvemeh,
communities in Keta.

CAD 1,000,000

2016-2019

Community Scoping and
Sensitization on Flooding andClimate Change.

Targets/
Outcomes
Scholarship for PhD
students.
Publications in journals

Understanding State Institutions
and Flood Management

RIPS, University of
Ghana, Legon

Drylands in Ghana(Northern part ofGhana)£5.4 Million

Academic development

Unknown

2017-2021

Dryland communities innorthern Ghana

GlobalChallenges
Research Fund
(GCRF)
On-going

Introduced Masters course in

Graduate and Postgraduate training

Greater Accra Metropolitan Area; Adentan Municipal Assembly; Accra Metropolitan Assembly; Ashaiman Municipal Assembly; Kpone Katamanso Municipal Assembly; La Dade Kotopon Municipal Assembly; Ledzokuku Krowor Municipal
Assembly and Tema Metropolitan Assembly
233

Page | 242

Change Challenge(B4C-Ghana)

Building climateresilience into basinwater management

Building Stronger
Universities:
Environment andClimate Change
Platform Building
Stronger Universities,
Phase III 2017-2021
Climate Smart Cocoa
Systems for Ghana(CLIMCOCOA)

excellence in global
environmental change, withcapabilities to contribute
effectively to Ghana's ability
to adapt to climate change bybuilding training and research
capacity in the long-term.
Adopt an interdisciplinary andcross-disciplinary approach to
studying the trade-offs among
climate, land use and socioeconomic changes in Water
Resource Management in two
key river basins in Ghana.
Environment and climatechange theme of the Project

includes the
Ghana Wildlife
Society andCentre for African
Wetlands

Water ResearchInstituteOpen Society

Pra and Densu Basins

11,998,167
DKK

Climate Change and Sustainable
Development
Trained three batches (16 students)of graduate students in climatechangeEstablished Centre forclimate change andsustainability studies at
the University of Ghana,Legon

2019-2024

Not yetNot yetOn-going

Not yetNot yetOn-going

Not yetInclude 3 PhD. Students
and one post-doctoral
training.

DanishGovernment

University of
Ghana andKNUSTAcademic
Development

KNUST – 13
million DKKUG - 13 million
DKK
DANIDA

Develop a comprehensive
understanding of the impactsof climate change on thesocio-biophysical bases of
cocoa systems in Ghana, andassess the role of agroforestry
as a model for climate-smart
agriculture in Ghana

Geography
Department
University of
Ghana, Legon

Academic andKnowledge
Development

9.99 million
DKK
DANIDA

Page | 243

5.8 Enabling Implementation of Adaptation Actions in Ghana
5.8.1 Mobilising Adaptation FinanceFunding for adaptation actions come from the national government and development partners. The government
allocates funds for adaptation-related investments through the national budget. Additional funding comes fromdifferent donor countries and organisations. Currently, Ghana has developed two adaptation-specific projects on
the resilience landscape and the national adaptation plan for funding from the Green Climate Fund. Both projects
have been submitted to the secretariat and are waiting for investment decisions by the board.
5.8.2 Removing Barriers for Adaptation in Ghana
Even though Ghana’s development policies and strategies address climate change issues, there are significant
barriers that hinder the widespread adoption of climate change adaptation technologies and practices. The barriers
have retarded the potential of past and ongoing adaptation efforts to elicit transformational change towardbuilding a resilient society. Therefore, to build the climate-resilience of vulnerable communities sustainably, thesebarriers and ways to overcome them should be explicitly considered during the design of adaptation interventions.
Some of the barriers identified through interviews and literature review are in Table 76
Table 76: Barriers to adaptation measures in Ghana
Barrier
Limited institutionalandtechnical capacity

Limited integration ofclimate change
adaptation into district
development planning.

Limited spatial andpopulation coverage ofclimate change
adaptation projects

Description of issues
Limited institutional capacity within the Government toeffectively strengthen climate-resilience on the ground. It isparticularly pertinent at the regional and district levels, wherelimited coordination and collaboration between sectors ofgovernment prevents the effective management of adaptationinterventions. Government staff is not adequately trained tointegrate climate change adaptation into local development
planning and to coordinate the implementation of interventions.
Often too few extension officers to adequately cover a district,limiting their ability to interact effectively and transfer
information to the communities they serve.
District and community development plans do not consider
climate change impacts and do not include provisions for the
implementation of climate change adaptation. Districts andcommunities do not receive support for the design andimplementation of locally appropriate climate change
adaptation interventions.
Climate change adaptation projects in Ghana have generally
been focused within a limited geographic area and target alimited number of target communities. It is mainly due toinadequate access to additional funding to expand initiatives,
relying mostly on donor funding with limited local investment.

Efforts to address barriers
Reviving the District and Regional
Environmental Management
Committees
Recruitment of extension service
officer PFJ234
Continue training of district assembly
staff. Refer to table 13.

Continue training of district assembly
staff. Refer to Table 13. LoCAL
project (Table 15) encourages district
assemblies to address climatechange by providing performancebased climate-resilient grants withtechnical and capacity support.
Incorporate adaptation projects into
the mainstream operations ofgovernment to ensure long-termsustainability and upscaling of
project outcomes. The management
model of the SLWM project is a

Government Recruits 1,000 Agric Extension Officers -To Support ‘Planting for Food and Jobs’ Policy.
http://www.peacefmonline.com/pages/local/news/201702/307280.php
234Page | 242

Low private sector
participation

The limited geographic extent and population coverage of theinterventions restrict the spread of adaptation technologies
across Ghana and therefore inhibit transformational change.
Adaptation is considered a risky venture because it is tilted
towards addressing border social outcomes rather than profits.
The private sector tends to shy away from investing in
adaptation actions.

classic example of de-projectisationof adaptation measures.
Private Investment for Enhanced
Resilience (PIER) would explore ways
to attract the private sector into
adaptation.

Page | 243

Other information

Source: Lake Bomsumtwi in Ghana. Picture by Kobe Subramaniam on Unsplash

Page | 244

6. Climate Technology Development and Transfer in Ghana
Reporting on climate technology development and transfer in the NC4 covers a wide range of topics. It presents
new updates of the information in the NC3 in three ways. Firstly, when no further substantial information on
climate technology is available, the text in the NC3 is still considered relevant, then the report captures a
regurgitative summary. Secondly, where there are gaps in the previous report, new information is presented to fillthem to make it complete.
Finally, NC4 also captures newly discovered information and recent developments as updates. The chapter starts
with updates on technology needs assessment. It covers information on the progress of implementing the previous
technology assessments and areas that need additional effort in the wake of the NDC.
The next section is on information on the efforts to enable climate technology transfer and diffusion in Ghana, thechallenges and the opportunities to enhance NDC technology penetration. In this regard, the report has given a
broad overview of the NDC technologies and the strategies Ghana is implementing to advance climate technology
solutions and to remove the barriers impeding greater adoption. Furthermore, the report highlights the mechanism
for climate technology transfer in Ghana. It provides information on the various models for facilitating climate
technology exchanges in the country.
6.1 Technology Needs Assessment
Ghana has conducted two Technology Needs Assessments (TNA) in 2003235 and 2013236. Both assessments
produced priority mitigation and adaptation technologies for tackling climate change. The 2003 exercise was thefirst-generation assessment that highlighted critical mitigation technology options in the energy and waste
sectors. On the other hand, the 2013 TNA focused on adaptation technologies in the water and agriculture sectors.
Even though the EPA carried out the two assessments with different lenses, the approach followed a similar style.
In the two TNAs, national stakeholders and experts were involved in the consultation to identify and prioritise thetechnology portfolios using a set of nationally agreed criteria on climate protection.
Apart from the fact that the 2013 TNA was on adaptation, it also sought to build on the best practices of the 2003
TNA despite the decade long lag. It was also a way to ensure the completeness of the technology package sincethe 2003 TNA was limited to mitigation options. However, some of the identified technologies in both assessments
did not make it to the final priority list. Table 77 presents the top priority technology options 2003 TNA. The
options that were mentioned in the stakeholder identification process but not selected were consistent with the2003 TNA list. Most of the technologies are also consistent with the National Climate Change Policy, National
Energy Policy. The 2013 TNA is the most current version in Ghana (Table 78). It is nearly seven years old andneeds to be updated to reflect the current technology status of the country.

235
236

http://www.un-gsp.org/sites/default/files/documents/ghana_tna.pdf
https://tech-action.unepdtu.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2013/12/technologyneedsassessmentreport-ghana-13.pdf

Page | 245

Table 77: Climate technology options identified in 2003 TNA and the links with policy
Priority technology portfolios
2003 TNA
Policy aligned
Comments
Biofuels
Industrial energy efficiency
improvement
Energy efficiency lightingxxx

Consistent with Ghana’s NDCs237

xx

Solar PVsxx

Natural gas combined cycle and Natural
gas distribution system
Management technologies andefficiency improvement in transport
sub-sector or BRT
Wind Energy

x

x

x

x

Aligns with 12 prioritised NAMAs238 and Ghana’s
NDCs, strategic national energy plan239
Aligns with Ghana’s SEforALL Action Plan240; 12prioritised NAMAs, renewable energy master plan241,
strategic national energy plan and Ghana’s NDCs,
internationally transferred mitigation outcomes(ITMOs)242,
The technology aligns with Ghana’s NDCs, national
gas master plan.243
The technology aligns with Ghana’s NDCs, nationaltransport policy.

Solar water heaterx

Small and mini-hydrox

Biomass for power generation (cogeneration from sawmill residues)
Landfill methane gas capture for power
generation
Anaerobic and CH4 generation
technologies for wastewater handling(Biogas technologies)
Incineration
LPG and improved stovesx

Efficient fridges

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x
x

x

The technology aligns with Ghana’s NDCs,
renewable energy master plan, strategic nationalenergy plan, scaling up of renewable energy
penetration investment plan (SREP-IP).244
Renewable energy master plan, strategic nationalenergy plan, Ghana’s SEforALL Action Plan, SREP-IP
The technology aligns with the renewable energy
master plan, strategic national energy plan,
SEforALL Action Plan, SREP-IP and NDCs.
The technology aligns with the renewable energy
master plan, SEforALL Action Plan.
The technology aligns with Ghana’s NDCs,
renewable energy master plan.
The technology aligns with Ghana’s SEforALL Action
Plan, 12 prioritised NAMAs, renewable energy
master plan and Ghana’s NDCs.
Aligns with Ghana’s SEforALL Action Plan, strategic
national energy plan, LPG promotion policy,
renewable energy master plan, national gas master
plan, clean development mechanism (CDM), NDCs,
and ITMOs.
Strategic national energy plan and the NDCs.

237

https://www4.unfccc.int/sites/ndcstaging/PublishedDocuments/Ghana%20First/GH_INDC_2392015.pdf
https://www.pef.org.gh/documents/Ghana%20NAMA%20Investor%20Guide_final_web.pdf
239
http://www.energycom.gov.gh/files/SNEP%20Demand%20Oct2019_SNEP2030_Final.pdf
240
http://energycom.gov.gh/files/SE4ALL-GHANA%20ACTION%20PLAN.pdf
241
http://www.energycom.gov.gh/files/Renewable-Energy-Masterplan-February-2019.pdf
242
https://www.international.klik.ch/en/Activities-and-impact/Mitigation-activities.287.html
243
https://www.thegasconsortium.com/documents/GMP-Final-Jun16.pdf
244
https://www.climateinvestmentfunds.org/sites/cif_enc/files/srep_13_4_srep_investment_plan_for_ghana_0.pdf
238Page | 246

Similarly, the top technology lists in the 2013 TNA aligns with the National Climate Change Policy245, National
Climate Change Adaptation Strategy246, National Disaster Management Plan247, Nationally Determined
Contribution and the Strategic Medium-term Development Plan for the Ministry of Works and Housing248. Some ofthe sectoral policies covering the selected technologies are consistent with include: Planting for Food and Jobs;
Food and Agriculture Sector Development Policy II, National Water Policy and the National Climate-Smart
Agriculture Action Plan. Table 78 presents the top five list of adaptation technology options and the linkages with
relevant policy documents.
Table 78: Climate technology options identified in 2013 TNA and the links with policy
Priority technology portfolios
Sector2013 TNA
Policy aligned
Rainwater collection from groundsurfaces
Post-construction support forcommunity-managed water systems
Improving the resilience of protected
wells to flooding
Demarcation and protection of bufferzones for water bodies
Rainwater harvesting from roofs

Water

x

x

Water

x

x

Water

x

x

Water

x

x

Water

x

x

Community-based extension model

Agriculturexx

Water user associations
Integrated soil nutrient management

Agriculture
Agriculturexx

Ecological pest management

Agriculturexx

Seed and grain storage

AgriculturexxComments
The technology aligns with thenational water policy249
The technology aligns with thenational water policy
The technology aligns with thenational water policy
The technology aligns with theriparian buffer zone policy250
The technology aligns with thenational water policy
The technology aligns with
Ghana’s NDC, planting for foodand jobs, with the climate-smart
agriculture action plan.
The technology aligns with theFood and Agriculture sector
development policy II and theclimate-smart agriculture action
plan.
The technology aligns with theclimate-smart agriculture action
plan, Ghana’s NDCs.
Aligns with Ghana’s NDC,
planting for food and jobs (onedistrict one warehouseprogramme).

Table 79 presents the key barriers associated with the priority technology options ranging from technical toeconomic constraints.
245

https://www.un-page.org/files/public/ghanaclimatechangepolicy.pdf
https://www.adaptation-undp.org/sites/default/files/downloads/ghana_national_climate_change_adaptation_strategy_nccas.pdf
247
http://nadmo.gov.gh/images/NADMO_documents/2015_documents/Disaster%20Magt%20Plan.pdf
248
https://www.mwh.gov.gh/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/SECTOR-MEDIUM-TERM-DEVELOPMENT-PLAN-2018-2021.pdf
249
https://www.gwcl.com.gh/national_water_policy.pdf
250
http://www.wrc-gh.org/documents/acts-and-regulations/
246

Page | 247

Table 79: Prioritised adaptation technology options and key barriers
SectorTechnology
Technology Description
Portfolio
Water
RainwaterCollection, storage and use ofcollection from rainfall that lands on the ground as
groundopposed to collection from roofs
surfaces (RCS). with the intention for multi-purpose
use in the communities. In many
water-poor areas, small-scale runoff
collection infrastructure cancontribute significantly to thevolume of freshwater available forhuman consumption and otherversatile applications.
PostFacilitates community ownership,
construction
management and maintenance of
support forwater systems promotes womencommunityparticipation in their management
managedand improves system performancewater systems and sustainability.
(PCS).
Agriculture Integrated
Make efficient use of both synthetic
Nutrient
and natural plant nutrient sources toManagement
enhance soil fertility towards(INM)
improving and preserving soil
productivity.
CommunityProvide specialised and intensiveBasedtechnical training to identified
Extension
people in rural communities toAgent (CBEA)
promote a variety of technologies
and offer professional services withsupport and review from anextension organisation

The target of technology
diffusion
Addresses insufficiencyof water to support
livelihoods of ruralcommunities resulting inpoor community healthand poor school
attendance, particularly
for the girl-child

Scale/estimated Cost
(US$)
Water-poorcommunities in
Savannah areas andAfram Plains.
US$ 6,000,000

Technical and Economic Barriers

Comments

High construction andmaintenance cost. The high cost offeasibility. Few technicians andartisans to undertake construction
and maintenance of water
systems. High production andimport cost. Inadequate
government incentives.
Policy uncertainty.

Contained in TAP &PIR.
It was selected using
consultative MCA.
Technology diffusion
is projected to take ten
years.

Increasing the successand sustainability ofcommunity-managed
water systems throughexisting government
initiatives.

500 communities
nation-wide.
US$ 8,500,000

Inadequacy of funds available tocommunities for emergency
repairs and general maintenanceof their water systems.

Contained in TAP &PIR.
It was selected using
consultative MCA.

Appropriate applicationand conservation ofnutrients and transfer ofknowledge to farmers.

Pilot in selectedfarming communities
nation-wide (100, 000
farmers)
US$ 9,300,000
Pilot in 500 farming
communities nationwide
US$ 4,200,000

The high cost of credit. Low farmer
income. Inadequate availability oftechnical information and low
access to extension services to
end-users of the technology.
Lack of motivation for available
personnel.

Contained in TAP &PIR.
Selected using
consultative MCA

Training of service
providers in climate datacollection, analysis anddissemination within
their areas of operation
to enable communities
to select appropriate
response strategies.

Lack of budgetary allocation to
support CBEA because it is not an
integral part of the national
extension structure

Contained in TAP &PIR.
Selected using
consultative MCA

Page | 248

6.2 Technology Requirements for Ghana’s Nationally Determined Contributions
Since the establishment of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) under the Kyoto Protocol, the Convention
has adopted mechanisms to enhance mitigation ambition and address adaptation needs that promote climate
technologies (Figure 76). Most of the priority technologies from the TNAs informed the climate actions Ghana put
forward in the NDC. Improved cookstove technology is the highest of registered projects under the CDM in the
country. Similarly, the five top measures in the nationally appropriate mitigation actions (NAMAs) align well withpriority technology options selected from the 2013 TNA.

CDM

TNA

NAMAs

REDD+

CTCN

GCF

NDC

ITMOs

Figure 76: Diagramme showing some of the international climate processes relevant for TNA

The NDC is the latest global mechanism that has built on TNA selected technologies. Currently, under the Green
Climate Fund (GCF) Ghana has received readiness support funding to develop an early warning drought andforecasting system through the UNFCCC Climate Technology Centre and Network 251. Ghana is seeking additional
funds from the GCF to finance the scaling up of solar and conservation agriculture technologies. Also, cookstove
and solar technologies would be part of the first-ever pilot of Internationally Transferred Mitigation Outcomes(ITMOs) in the country. Ghana’s NDC contains thirty-one adaptation and mitigation technologies in seven priority
areas including energy, transport, water, agriculture, climate services, early warning system and forestry (Figure
77).

Figure 77: Snapshot of climate technologies in Ghana’s nationally determined contribution

251

https://www.greenclimate.fund/documents/20182/466992/Readiness_proposals_-_Ghana___UNEP_-_CTCN___Strategic_Framework.pdf/9db7f0316892-40c0-afd9-5e71028c87ed

Page | 249

6.3 Making Climate Technology Transfer and Diffusion Work
Creating the enabling conditions for technology penetration is a crucial aspect of Ghana’s climate strategy. It
focuses on removing persistent barriers and strengthening efforts to make them work. This section reports Ghana’s
progress toward enabling climate technology transfer and diffusion at all levels.
6.3.1 Addressing Policy, Regulatory and Fiscal Barriers
Undoubtedly, enough climate technologies exist in the global space, but market barriers prevent smooth transfer
and adoption in the country and across the sub-region. The constraints are in the areas of policy, regulations,
economic, technical and socio-cultural. In response, the government is rolling out some reforms to help address
policy and economic barriers that hamper technology transfer and diffusion. The strategies to deal with thechallenges are focused on policy and regulation, fiscal incentive skill and infrastructure development. The plan isto drive fast transfer and assimilation of innovative and affordable climate technologies embedded with strong
local business content. In implementing this strategy, Ghana is mindful of the need to safeguard local businesses’interest in being competitive and to avoid technology dumping in the open market. Table 80 shows an overview
of the strategies to remove technology barriers in the country.
Table 80: Selected policy, technical and financial reforms to enable technology transfer and diffusion
Strategy
Focus area
Technology targets
Type of instruments
1. Policy and regulatory reforms
Renewable
Renewable Energy
Renewable Energy
PolicyEnergy Act
targetTechnology
Renewable Energy
FiscalFund
Feed-In-Tariff (FIT)
Fiscalschemecompetitive bidding

FiscalLocal content
and local
participation

Regulations, 2017 (L.I.,2354). Local Content
and Local Participation)(Electricity Supply
Industry (ESI).

Electricity supply anddistribution
Electronic appliances

legalElectricity tariff
rationalisation
Standards andguidelines

Automatic priceadjustment policy
Standards for improved
stovesGrid-connected electricity
supply and consumption
Cookstove market

FiscalRegulatory

Comments
Policy target for RE electricity
generation share
Access to credit
Incentives for the private
sector to generate grid-scale
RE electricity
Renewable Energy Act isundergoing an amendment toreplace the FIT scheme with acompetitive bidding model.
Minimum of fifty-one per centequity participation inwholesale supply anddistribution in the electricity
supply industry in Ghana and
60% local content anddevelopment of capacity in the
manufacturing industry forelectrical cables, solar cells,
conductors, accessories,
An incentive for independent
power producers.
Development phase by Energy
Commission and CSIR

Page | 250

Appliance standards
and labelling

Appliance import market

Ghana Landfill
guidelines
Law on the ban on
importation of usedfridges and airconditioners
Investment
Technology Transfer
Promotion Act
Regulations, 1992
(L.I. 1547)
2. Skills and infrastructure development
SkillsSkills development
development
fund252
National
Technology research
Researchand development
Endowment
Fund
3. Financial and market reforms

Landfill methane captureFree zone
enclave

SDG delivery
fund
Ghana
Infrastructure
fund253
Akoben industry
performance
disclosure
mechanism
Rebate scheme

Over-aged
vehicle tax

252
253

Ensure quality and energyefficient appliance in the local
marketRegulate landfill construction
and management by EPA
Ban on import of old
refrigeration

Refrigeration and Airconditions

All technologies

Legal

Facilitate technology transfer

Technician and artisans

Training andAwareness

R& D institutions

Research andDevelopment

Funding for technicians andartisans in RE installation andmaintenance (Solar & Biogas)
National Science, Technology
and Innovation Policy.

Incentives forbusinesses to produce
at minimum cost forexport.

Industrial technology
enclave

Regulatory and
FiscalPrivate sector vehicle
for technology
financingFunding for large
infrastructure

Environmentally soundtechnologies

FiscalEnergy and transport
infrastructure

FiscalPromotion oftechnology adoption inindustry and thehospitality sectors.
An incentive for
efficient electronic
appliance adoption andmarket reforms
Tax incentive based on
polluter pays principle

Environmentally soundtechnologies

Regulatory

Annual public disclosure ofindustry performance.

Refrigeration and airconditioners

Regulatory and
FiscalTop up for poor households to
buy new efficient Fridges.

Vehicles of all technology
categories

FiscalReduce import of poorly
performing engine

Relief from double taxation forforeign investors andemployers;
100% exemption frompayment of direct and indirect
duties and levies on allimports for production andexports from free zones.
Private sector contribution
through corporate social
responsibility
Mobilise capital and provide
credit to businesses.

https://www.sdfghana.org/
http://www.odekro.org/Images/Uploads/Ghana%20Infrastructure%20Investment%20Fund%20Act,%202014.pdf

Page | 2516.3.2 Skills Development for Technology Development, Transfer and Adoption
Skills development is a crucial element for speedy technology adoption at all levels. In this regard, capacity
development is at the core of Ghana’s technology strategy. The focus is on increasing the capacities of frontline
adapters of climate technologies (farmers, engineers, technicians and artisans) and sustaining their awarenessthrough knowledge dissemination. It is an essential step towards mobilising the critical mass of technology users
and developers. Consequently, Ghana has come up with formal and informal capacity development programmes,
as shown in Table 81.
Table 81: Technology related capacity building initiatives in Ghana
Initiative
Type of technology capacity building
Ghana Energy Development
Operational Manual for Matching Grants
and Access Programme
modified to incorporate in Renewable(GEDAP)
Energy Business
Sustainable land and water
Hands-on training on soil and land
management project
management technologies
Skill Development Fund (SDF)

Training of technicians and artisans on
installation and maintenance of solar PVs

Human resource development
for disseminating solar PV

Technical Guidelines for PV Rural
Electrification in Ghana, Solar PV Resting
Manual, Solar PV system Technical Service
Guidelines and Community Agent Manual.
Formal training on renewable energy

Master courses In renewableenergyEstablished the University ofEnergy and Natural Resources

Skilled labour for the energy market

HND courses In RenewableenergyTechnical training on renewable energy

Comments
Capacity building for rural bank staff and solar
company’s on-going.
Target –20 communities in the arid regions. Morethan 10 000 farmers have benefited from thisprogramme.
Ghana Technology University College;
Energy Commission; Kumasi Technical University
All these institutions have benefitted from the
SDF to conduct training and construct the
infrastructure to facilitate research into
renewable energy.
An effort to support tertiary institutions which are
already offering courses in renewable energy tobuild the capacity of students.
Two-year MSc degree in the MechanicalEngineering Department, Kwame Nkrumah
University of Science and Technology.
Fully-fledged energy training institution to
produce high skilled labour on energy
technologies.
Renewable energy system engineering (Koforidua
Polytechnic), Renewable energy & Energy
Efficiency (Accra Polytechnic) and Renewableenergy and efficient technologies (Kumasi
Polytechnic).

6.3.3 Technology Development and Transfer Institutions
Institutions play various roles in technology development and transfer in the country. In this section, the reporthighlights on-going efforts by institutions to support climate technology.

Page | 252

6.3.3.1 Science and Technology Policy Research Institute
The CSIR254 is the leading hub for climate technology development and dissemination in the country. CSIR has
specialised institutions that research into technologies in agriculture, forestry and industry. The Science andTechnology Policy Research Institute (STEPRI) under CSIR has the mandate to conduct knowledge-based researchthat contributes to the formulation and implementation of policies and programmes for socio-economic
development.
6.3.3.2 Ghana Technology Transfer and Marketing Centre255
The Ghana Atomic Energy Commission has established a Technology Transfer and Marketing Centre (TTMC). The
centre aims to collaborate with the private sector to facilitate climate technology transfer. TTMC also undertakes
an analysis of the potential commercial market for each innovation. They also help literature and patent searches
to help assess patentability and support scientists and private sector companies to source for funding.
6.3.3.3 Technology Consultancy Centre256
The KNUST established a Technology Consultancy Centre (TCC) in 1972. The centre works with KNUST's academic
departments to research, co‐develop and transfer technology to support small and medium scale industries in
Ghana. The work of the centre relevant to climate change relates to cookstove testing. The centre serves as one of
the cookstove testing and expertise laboratories and conducts a training programme on climate technologies suchas biogas and, cookstove. Its “Suame Intermediate Technology Transfer Unit” collaborates closely with the informal
garage operators to facilitate industry technology.
6.3.3.4 University of Ghana Technology Development and Transfer Centre257
The University of Ghana has established a Technology Development and Transfer Centre (TDTC) to facilitate
technology commercialisation and intellectual property (IP) protection of research products from the University.
TDTC’s core mandate is to connect the University of Ghana to industry through close collaboration with the
Association Ghana of Industries (AGI) and the Private Enterprise Federation (PEF). Some of the centre’s activities
include exhibitions, registration of IP, building technology databases and awarding grants.
6.3.3.5 Clean cookstove market in Ghana
There are more than seventy national and international organisations that provide a variety of services in the clean
cookstove value chain.258 They are involved in the cookstove design/manufacture/assembly or distribution/retailsegment of the niche market. The latest innovation in the market is the establishment of clean cooking marketing
online platform259 to aid in the retail of clean stove and solar lighting devices to consumers across the globe (Figure
78).

254

https://www.csir.org.gh/
https://gaecgh.org/technology-transfer/
256
https://tcc.knust.edu.gh/
255

257

https://www.ug.edu.gh/tdtc/

258

https://www.cleancookingalliance.org/partners/directory.html?alpha=&region=1&country=3&type=&fuel=&area=1&area=3&submit=Submit
https://cleancookingmarket.com/shop/

259

Page | 253

Figure 78: Interface of the online platform for clean cooking market

6.4 Technology Transfer Mechanism
In Ghana, technology is not only acquired from international markets. Some conventional and indigenous climate
technologies can be acquired locally through research and development and farmer innovation. The mode oftechnology transfer and diffusion is through one or a combination of the mechanisms listed below. Often, thedictates of the markets at supplier and user’s end determine the route and dynamics of the technology transfer.
Some of the technology exchange mechanisms in Ghana are described below with examples.
•

South-south technology exchange – This channel for exchanging technology is growing amongdeveloping countries. The China-Ghana south-south cooperation on renewable energy technology
transfer260 is the latest model in the country. The partnership aims to ensure a more holistic transfer ofrenewable energy expertise and technology from China to Africa, building on China’s unique development
experience. The collaboration did not only support the transfer of hardware but focussed on theinstitutional framework and capacity required to make the local absorption of renewable energy
technologies effective. The Government of Denmark sponsored the partnership between the Energy
Commission of Ghana and the Ministry of Science and Technology China and managed by the UNDP. Someof the accomplishments of the cooperation include the publication of two reports on “renewable energy
policy review” and “barriers to renewable energy technology transfer”, development of the Renewable
Energy Masterplan (REMP).

260

https://www.gh.undp.org/content/ghana/en/home/operations/projects/environment_and_energy/china-ghana-south-south-cooperation-onrenewable-energy-technolo.html

Page | 254

•Multilateral development cooperation – The Ghana Climate Innovation Centre261 involves a multiple
institutional collaboration between Ghana and the Danish Government through the World Bank andimplemented by a private sector consortium. The centre is a clean technology hub that promotes SMEs tocommercialise and scale innovative solutions. The work of the centre has led to the receipt of over US$1.4
million received by businesses as a grant leading to 1,129 MtCO2 avoided emissions. The UNDP is alsocollaborating with Ghana Cocoa Board to register trees in the off-reserve areas in the cocoa landscape. In
this regard, the UNDP launched a mobile application for tree registration in cocoa landscapes262.

•

Private sector initiatives – Private sector is at the forefront when it comes to innovation and technology
adoption by farmers and within communities. Esoko263 is a leader in connecting farmers to the market andtechnology services. The company has created an ecosystem that connects farmers to information services(crop prices, weather forecast, crop tips), market opportunities, financial and payment services.
TechnoServe Ghana is a technology solution company that links smallholder farmers to lucrative
markets264. Gratis foundation265 is an indigenous hardware technology manufacture company in Ghana.
The company researches, designs, develops, manufactures and markets appropriate technology-based
products and services for micro, small and medium enterprises.

•

Pilot-to-scale and replication (GEF-Approach) – The refrigeration market transformation project uses GEF
funding model of piloting and testing technology to stimulate the future market. After the project, theefficient registration market has scaled with the private sector taking the lead.

•

Climate technology centre and network – The CTCN aims to connect countries to climate technology
solutions. The EPA of Ghana is the national designated entity for the CTCN. Ghana received technicalassistance from the CTCN on improving the resiliency of crops to drought through strengthened early
warning within Ghana with funding from the GCF. The technology support received responded to thenationally determined contributions in the areas of water, early warning and disaster prevention as wellas vulnerable agricultural landscapes266.

6.5 Funds received to Support Technology Transfer
Funding is critical for the implementation of technology transfer and to make them work. The section below gives
an overview of the financial and non-monetary support received for climate technology transfer in Ghana.
6.5.1 Funding from National, Multilateral and Annex II Parties to Support Technology Transfer
Funding for technology transfer comes from multiple sources. Chief among the funding sources are governmental,
multilateral and Annex II Parties.

http://www.ghanacic.org/
https://www.gh.undp.org/content/ghana/en/home/presscenter/pressreleases/2018/Tree_Mobile_App.html
263
https://esoko.com/digital-farmer-services/264
https://www.technoserve.org/our-work/where-we-work/ghana/265
http://gratis.gov.gh/
261
262

266

https://www.ctc-n.org/technical-assistance/projects/improving-resiliency-crops-drought-through-strengthened-early-warning

Page | 255

Generally, the support to Ghana from Annex 11 parties, is dominated by technology transfer financing but delivered
through different channels (Table 82). However, in terms of economic value, the government made the mostsubstantial investment in natural gas recovery and processing technology. Also, the government provides cofinance as a matching fund for donor support.
Table 82: List of technology transfer funds received over the period 2011-2019
Name
Type support
Source of Funding
Channel ofFinancialsupportSupportAmount (US$)
Ghana Climate
Grant
Government ofMultilateral
17.6million
Innovation Center
Denmark and others (World Bank)
Ghana Energy
Grant,
Multiple sources
Multilateral
235.28 million
Development andConcessional(World Bank)
Access Programme
Loans, nonconcessionalloans
Promotion of
Grant
GEF
Multilateral 6.1 million
Appliance of Energy
Efficiency andTransformation of
the Refrigerating
Appliances Market in
Ghana
China-Ghana SouthGrant
Government of
Bilateral
2.72 million
South Cooperation
Denmark(UNDP)
on Renewable
Energy Technology
Transfer
Millennium
GrantsUnited State
Bilateral
498.2 million
Development
Government
Challenge AccountCompact 2 – Ghana
Power Pact
Facilitating
Grant
Government of
Bilateral
0.35 million
Implementation and
DenmarkthroughReadiness For
UNEP-DTU
Mitigation
PartnershipTechnology Needs
Assessment

Grant

GEF

Human Resource
Development for
disseminating solarPV

Non-cashsupportGovernment ofJapan

Multilateralthrough
UNEP-DTU
Partnership
Bilateral
through JICA

0.07 million

Unknown

Capacity
supportGOG indicative
co-financing

Target 500
businesses---

4.4million

-

-

-

37.4 million

Capacity todevelop two
technologybased NAMAs
and low carbon
development
strategy--

Training
Materials

77.28 million-

Page | 256

Sustainable Land andWater Management
Project
Forest Preservation
Programme
Ghana Urban
Transport Project(BRT)
Ghana Gas
Infrastructure Plant
Low Emission
Capacity Building
Project: BRT andpower factor
correction)technologies
Community
resilience throughearly warning
Hand pollination
under cocoa
productivity
programme
Drought Early
Warning andforecasting system:
Improving theresiliency of crops todrought throughstrengthened early
warning within
Ghana267
Green cooling
Initiative(refrigeration and air
conditioning
technology)268

Grant
Loan

GEF
World Bank

Multilateral

13.25million-

4.5million

Cash andTechnical
SupportIDA Credit
Grant

Government ofJapan

Bilateral

8.5million-

GEF, World Bank,
and AfDB.

Multilateral

29 million

SpatialInfrastructure
and training-

Commercial
Loan from
China
Grant

Government of
China

China
Developmen
t BankMultilateralthrough
UNDP**1,000 million

0.882million

Capacity todevelop two
technologybased NAMAs

Grant

Government of
Norway5.2 million

-

Grant

Ghana Government

Bilateral
through
UNDP
National
Budget

Grant

Green Climate Fund

Multilateralthrough
CTCN, UN
Environment

300,150

Grant

Federal Ministry for
the Environment,
NatureConservation,
Building andNuclear Safety(BMU) as part of theInternational
Climate Initiative(IKI)

Bilateral

EU Australia

Unknown

2 million

Ghana
Government
100% funded
-

-

Ghana
Government
100% fundedTechnical
training on
drought early
warningtechnology** Initial estimate. Total capital expenditure could be more than conservative estimates.

https://www.greenclimate.fund/documents/20182/466992/Readiness_proposals_-_Ghana___UNEP_
6892-40c0-afd9-5e71028c87ed
268
https://www.giz.de/en/worldwide/28042.html
267_CTCN___Strategic_Framework.pdf/9db7f031-

Page | 257

7. Research and Systematic Observation
The section is in two parts. Part one reports on the update of climate research in Ghana and its relevance to policy.
The second part is on the status of systematic observation infrastructure in the country and Ghana’s participation
in international climate science programmes.
7.1 Climate Change Research
Research is the bedrock for evidence-based climate change decision-making at all levels. That is the reason thenational climate change policy and the NDC recognise research as a strategic pillar for policy and practice. But the
research needs are substantial and cover several topics. The main research interest gathered through a nationwide survey broadly include the following:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

technology adoption pathways
pathways for indigenous knowledge transfer
socio-economic impacts on local communities
documenting past and on-going ecological and social dynamics
policy-research diagnostics
climate financeinstitutional coordination
vulnerability assessment
climate adaptation issues

The survey further revealed that climate change research in Ghana is often project-driven and donor-funded. The
major challenge Ghana faces with climate change research is inadequate funding from the Government. Because
funding from the government is not adequate, most of the academic and research institutions that are involved inclimate change research rely on external funding sources. The donor funding for climate research has been useful,
but an increase in government funding in research areas that have a direct response to national priorities would
be necessary. That said, the ongoing research contributes immensely to informing the climate change strategy
development in the country. Consequently, the EPA has developed a climate change research database to collate
and synthesise research findings to inform climate actions. Many on-going studies address different aspects ofclimate change, namely: landscape dynamics, climate change and biodiversity, climate change and society, climate
modelling and cross-cutting research.
7.1.1 Landscape Dynamics
7.1.1.1 West Africa Science Centre on Climate Change and Adapted Land Use (WASCAL)269
WASCAL is a large-scale research-focused climate service centre mandated to help tackle the challenges of climatechange in West Africa with funding from the Government of Germany. Ghana is among 10 West African nations
benefiting from WASCAL and hosts the headquarters and the Land-use Centre at KNUST. In Ghana, thecollaborating institutions of WASCAL are the University of Ghana, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science andTechnology, Ghana Meteorological Agency and MESTI. WASCAL has organised around three main components,
269

https://wascal.org/

Page | 258

namely – (a) Competence centre and Observation Network, (b) Core Research Programme and (c) Graduate studies
programme. WASCAL has six core research clusters: (a) climate and weather; (b) landscape dynamics, (c)agricultural systems; (d) markets and livelihoods; (e)risk management; and (f) integrated assessment. The research
programme cluster has produced extensive datasets and peer-reviewed papers on vegetation structure, hydrology,
farming systems and innovations, soils and landscape dynamics. These products are useful to support evidencebased policy and practice on climate change. Since its inception in 2012, 390 masters and doctoral students havebenefited from the WASCAL scholarship programme. Currently, Ghana chairs the board of governors of WASCAL.
7.1.1.2 Improving Food Security in Africa Through Increased System Productivity Of Biomass-Based Value Webs
(BiomassWeb)270
Ghana is involved in BiomassWeb research with funding from the German Government. The research partner
institutions in the country include; CSIR-crop research institute, KNUST, WASCAL, University of Cape Coast, Forum
for Agricultural Research in Africa (FARA), ISSER, West Africa Regional Office of International Network for Bamboo
and Rattan (INBAR). BiomassWeb aims to provide concepts to increase the availability of and access to food in
Ghana through greater and higher-value biomass for food and non-food purposes in the next decades. The research
themes cover analysis of biomass demand, supply and related value webs, research innovations, andimplementation, including capacity and network building. The study sites are in Ashanti, Brong-Ahafo, and Upper
East Regions. The research was implemented from 2013 to 2018. Some of the publications relevant to Ghana from
BiomassWeb are as follows:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Is Africa ready to develop a competitive bioeconomy? The case of the cassava value web in Ghana
Socioeconomic Indicators of Bamboo Use for Agroforestry Development in the Dry Semi-Deciduous Forest
Zone of Ghana.
Making Contract Farming Arrangements Work in Africa’s Bioeconomy: Evidence from Cassava Out-grower
Schemes in Ghana.
Rapid and easy carotenoid quantification in Ghanaian starchy staples using RP-HPLC-PDA.
Why do maize farmers in Ghana have a limited choice of improved seed varieties? An assessment of thegovernance challenges in seed supply.
Climate change impact under alternate realisations of climate scenarios on maize yield and biomass in
Ghana.
Potentials of Bamboo-Based Agroforestry for Sustainable Development in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Review.
Impact of climatic variables on the spatial and temporal variability of crop yield and biomass gap in SubSaharan Africa – a case study in Central Ghana.
Comparative life cycle analysis of producing charcoal from bamboo, teak, and acacia species in Ghana

7.1.1.3 CLIMAFRICA271 – (Crop Research Institute of CSIR)
CLIMAFRICA is an EU-sponsored research programme in which Ghana is participating with 10 European and 8
African Countries. The research focuses on developing improved climate prediction on seasonal to decadal climaticscales; assess impacts in the water and agricultural sector of the economy;
270271

https://biomassweb.org/
https://www.climafrica.eu/cons_part_en.jsp

Page | 259

evaluate the vulnerability of the ecosystems and civil population; suggest and analyse new adaptation strategies;
develop a new concept of monitoring and forecasting warning systems. The research site is the communities
around the Ankasa Forest Reserves. The research project was conducted for the period 2010 – 2014. The otherpartners are Soil Research Institute of CSIR and Forestry Research Institute of Ghana of CSIR.
7.1.1.4 Savannah Forest Boundary Transition in West Africa - Coupling The Energy Balance and Hydrology andCarbon Cycles Across the Biome Zot - Forestry Research Institute of CSIR)272
The European Union provided funds for the research programme, which focused on the assessment of the energybalance and carbon fixation regime in savannah vegetation in the forest savannah zone of Ghana. The research
partners are FORIG and Wageningen University. The research delivered PhD thesis, scientific publications andpresentations both locally and internationally at workshops and seminars. It also established thirty-five permanentplots in the forest, forest-savanna (mixed) and savanna sites within the reserve to aid in research in carbon cycles.
7.1.1.5 Does Shifting Carbon Use Efficiency Determine the Growth Rates of Intact and Disturbed Tropical Forests?
Gathering New Evidence From African Forests – (Forestry Research Institute of CSIR)273
The research is a collaborative effort between FORIG and the University of Oxford with funding from the United
Kingdom through its Natural Environment Research Council. The research studied the relative importance ofphotosynthesis and autotrophic respiration in determining forest function in intact and disturbed tropical African
forests. To achieve this large carbon cycle assessment, plots have been established and replicated across two
different countries in Africa, namely, Ghana (West Africa) and Gabon (Central Africa). The research sites are the
Bobiri Forest Reserve and Kogyae Strict Nature Reserve (KSNR).
7.1.1.6 Forest 2020274
Ghana, through the Faculty of Renewable Natural Resource of KNUST, is among the six participating countries in
the Forest 2020 research. Ecometrica manages the project with expert contributions from UK institutions(Edinburgh University and Leicester University, and Carbomap). The contributions from the project would help
address forest monitoring needs in the areas of REDD+ and forest plantation development. Forest 2020 project inGhana would test spatial technologies to distinguish tree crops from the natural forest as well as to detect
deforestation near real-time. Currently, the Forest 2020 team is using drones to capture and develop three
dimensional (3D) images. The 3D photos would help to map the cocoa-growing region by highlighting thedifference between natural forest and shaded cocoa accurately.
7.1.1.7 Climate Smart Cocoa Systems for Ghana, CLIMCOCOA (University of Ghana, Legon)275
The Department of Geography and Resource Development, University of Ghana is collaborating with the Universityof Copenhagen, Roskilde University, World Agroforestry Center (ICRAF), and International Institute of Tropical
Agriculture (IITA) to implement the CLIMCOCOA research project.
272

https://csir-forig.org.gh/projects/donor-funded/138-savanna-forest-boundary-transition-in-west-africa-coupling-the-energy-balance-and-hydrologyand-carbon-cycles-across-the-biome-zot.
273
https://csir-forig.org.gh/projects/donor-funded/139-does-shifting-carbon-use-efficiency-determine-the-growth-rates-of-intact-and-disturbedtropical-forests-gathering-new-evidence-from-african-forests.
274
https://ecometrica.com/space/forests2020.
275
https://www.ug.edu.gh/geography-climcocoa/node/5.

Page | 260

The Government of Denmark funds CLIMCOCOA and aims to develop a comprehensive understanding of the impact
of climate change on the socio-biophysical basis of cocoa systems in Ghana and assesses the role of agroforestry
as a model for climate and carbon smart agriculture. The research output would contribute to improving farmer’s
resilience to the changing climate. It would also build the capacities of local researchers to use modelling tools toassess climate change impacts. The project would train three PhDs in cocoa and climate change.
7.1.1.8 The Planning for Drought (P4D) Project276
The Institute of Environmental and Sanitation Studies of the University of Ghana is leading the P4D research in
Ghana on water management for vulnerable communities in the Upper West Region of Ghana. Other partners of
the project include the University for Development Studies, Ghana Irrigation Development Authority, International
Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Mali and the University of East Anglia. The project
would run from October 2018 – June 2020 under the auspices of the Africa-EU Innovation Alliance for Water andClimate (AfriAlliance) with funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme.
P4D is to promote dry season farming in semi-arid Ghana by enhancing the capacities of vulnerable farmers andlocal agriculture stakeholders (extension officers, input dealers and marketers).
7.1.2 Climate Change and Society
7.1.2.1 Building climate resilience through risk communication in Ghana’s growing coastal cities - Regional
Institute for Population Studies (RIPS), University of Ghana, Legon
The objective of this research was to promote the use of climate change risk factors as common indicators for
integrating climate compatible development and policy processes in Ghana. This involved: risk and vulnerability
assessments; testing of a vulnerability identity matrix method; evaluating and testing the sensitivity of policy
frameworks to respond to community-level climatic risks; understanding specific drivers of risk reduction; anddisaster contingency planning. The research also helped to strengthen human capacity in risk assessment andmanagement of critical impacts of climate change. The outcome aimed to guide the mainstreaming of climate
science, policy and people. The United Kingdom Government, through the Climate and Development Knowledge
Network (CDKN) Innovation Fund, supported the project and ended in 2013.
7.1.2.2 DEltas, Vulnerability and Climate Change; Migration and Adaptation - DECCMA277, (RIPS)DECCMA is collaborative applied research on adaptation options, limits and potential in deltaic environments tocurrent weather variability and extremes, as well as climate change. Project countries are Ghana, India and
Bangladesh and selected partners in the United Kingdom and the FAO. In Ghana, RIPs led the implementation of
the project at the Volta delta. Some of the scientific publications of DECCMA relevant for Ghana are as follows:
•

276
277

Adjei, P.O-W., Cazcarro, I., Arto, I., Ofori-Danson, P.K., Asenso, J.K., Asmah, E.A., Appeaning Addo, K., Codjoe,
S.N. and Amponsah, S.K. 2019. Comparative analysis of the socio-economic characteristics of Delta and
Non-Delta spaces of Ghana: An input-output approach. African Review of Economics and Finance 11 (1),53-75.

http://iess.ug.edu.gh/projects/institutional/planning-drought-p4d-project
http://www.deccma.com/deccma/team/

Page | 261

•
•
•

•

Appeaning-Addo, K., Jayson-Quashigah, P-N., Codjoe, S.N.A. and Martey, F. 2018. Drone as a tool for coastal
flood monitoring in the Volta Delta, Ghana. Geoenvironmental Disasters 5, 17.
Appeaning-Addo, K., Nicholls, R.J., Codjoe, S.N.A. and Abu, M. 2018. A Biophysical and Socioeconomic
Review of the Volta Delta, Ghana. Journal of Coastal Research 34(5), 1216-1226.
Cazcarro, I., Arto, I., Hazra, S., Bhattacharya, R.N., Adjei, P.O-W., Ofori-Danson, P.K., Asenso, J.K., Amponsah,
S.K., Khondker, B., Reihan, S. and Hosser, Z. 2018. Biophysical and socioeconomic state and links of deltaic
areas vulnerable to climate change: Volta (Ghana), Mahanadi (India) and Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna(India and Bangladesh). Sustainability 10(3), 893.
Owusu-Daaku, K.N., 2018. (Mal)Adaptation opportunism: when other interests take overstated orunintended climate change adaptation objectives (and their unintended effects). Local Environment. The
International Journal of Justice and Sustainability 23(9), 934-951.

7.1.2.3 Building Climate-Resilience into Basin Water Management278 (CSIR-Water Research Institute -WRI)CSIR-WRI is leading a consortium of institutions in Ghana and Denmark on this research project. DANIDA is funding
the project from 2019 to 2024. The project sites are Pra and Densu basins, and integrated approaches are adopted
to evaluate the consequences of climate change, land-use changes and changes in socio-economic and politicaldevelopment. The output from the analysis can inform water resource management decision-making.
7.1.2.4 Climate Change Resilience in Urban Mobility (CLIMACCESS)279
DANIDA is also funding the CLIMACCESS research and capacity building project from 2018 to 2022. The research
partners are the University of Copenhagen, University of Ghana (Department of Geography and Resource
Development) and the CSIR. The purpose of the project is to identify strategies for increasing climate change
resilience within urban mobility, accessibility and transport in Accra, Ghana. CLIMACCESS would train three PhD
students. There are three workstreams on: (a) climate change and urban flooding, (b) urban planning andaccessibility analysis, and 3) mobility patterns and livelihood vulnerability.
7.1.2.5 Building Resilience on Lake Bosumtwi to Climate Change (RELAB)280
The University of Energy and Natural Resources, Aarhus University and the University of Ghana are implementing
the RELAB research project from 2018 to 2022. The project would resolve the complex interactions at theecosystem and watershed scale and investigate the dynamics within the socio-ecological system. This information
would be used for policy and management of the Lake Bosumtwi watershed. With high-resolution monitoring oflake physics, biogeochemistry, primary production, fisheries, land-use changes, sedimentation and livelihood
adaptive mechanisms, the project aims to collect the most comprehensive dataset in West Africa. The deliverablesof the research are: (i) assess various land use responses to fisheries decline, (ii) determine land-use changes using
remote sensing techniques and (iii) set up a SWAT model for Lake Bosumtwi watershed. RELAB would support thetraining of four PhDs and MPhil studies.

278

http://drp.dfcentre.com/project/building-climate-resilience-basin-water-management
https://ign.ku.dk/english/climaccess/280
https://www.relabproject.uenr.edu.gh/
279

Page | 262

7.1.2.6 Effects of Climate Change on Volta Lake Resources (VOLTRES)281
VOLTRES seeks to improve the understanding of the physical and biogeochemical functioning of Lake Volta andhow the lake and its resources (fish) would respond to climate change. VOLTRES aims to strengthen local research
capacity using new research approaches such as ecosystem and biophysical modelling; to ensure early
preparedness and response to climate change effects in the lake environment and to contribute to the effective
management of the entire lake system. VOLTRES is a joint project between CSIR Water Research Institute, Ghana
and Aarhus University, Department of Bioscience, Denmark, which was implemented from May 2014 to April 2017.
The research was supported by Danida (13-P04-GHA).
7.1.3 Climate Change Scientific Publications
The number of scientific research publications on climate change has recorded a significant increase in recent
years. Most of the research works that took place in the country in most cases produced scientific papers or greyreports. The publications are vital for gathering evidence to inform climate change policy and fill the scientificknowledge gap. Keyword search282 on “climate+change+ghana” from 2015 to 2019 in google scholar, ScienceDirect
and Francis and Tylor online returned 23,700, 3,641 and 8,258 publications respectively. Many of the reviewed
articles are on climate modelling and adaptation in human and natural systems. The adaptation topics ranged fromperception surveys, vulnerability and impacts assessment, gender and climate change, adaptation pathways, andmainstreaming at the local and national levels. Few of the publications focused on climate finance and mitigation,
particularly on green building, renewables, REDD+, agroforestry.
Table 83 shows selected scientific and grey literature publications on climate change in Ghana for the period
2011-2019. The information in the table is the updates of the list reported in Ghana’s NC3. The list of publications
since 2015 is lengthy, so only a representative sample of the literature to reflect the diversity of current knowledge
in the country is presented. As much as possible the list has captured new research topics and study sites. Although
the literature covers both reviewed and grey publications, most of them are journal grade.
Table 83: Selected scientific and grey literature publications on climate change in Ghana for the period 2011-2019
Authors (s)Title of publication
Sponsor/Collaborators Relevance
Präger et al. 2019 Biomass sources for sustainable energy supply
Hochschule fürEnergyin Ghana – A case study for Sunyani. Renewable Forstwirtschaft
mitigationand sustainable energy reviews. Volume 107,
Rottenburg,
June 2019, Pages 413-424
Schadenweilerhof
UNU-INRA
Africa’s development in the age of stranded
United nations
Oil and gas
assets. Discussions paper
university
and mitigation
actionNana Asare
Obeng-Darko,
2019

Why Ghana would not achieve its renewableenergy target for electricity. Policy, legal andregulatory implications. Volume 128, May 2019,
Pages 75-83

UEF Law School,
University of Eastern
Finland

Energymitigation
actions

Specific areas
Biomass
contributions to
mitigation
actions
Study in seven
Africancountries
including Ghana
Renewables
and NDC.

281

https://projects.au.dk/voltres/

282

The keyword search on both Google Scholar, ScienceDirect and Francis and Tylor online were on 12th December, 2019

Page | 263

Bunn et al. 2019

Dwomoh et al.
2019

Adzawla et al.
2019

Abokyi et al. 2019

Nuamah et al.
2019

Antwi-Agyei, P. etal. (2017)

Recommendation domains to scale-out climatechange adaptation in cocoa production in
Ghana. Climate services 16 (2019) 100123
Forest degradation promotes fire during a
drought in moist tropical forests of Ghana,
Forest Ecology and Management, Volume 440,
15 May 2019, Pages 158-168.
Effects of climate change and livelihood
diversification on the gendered productivity gap
in Northern Ghana. Climate and Development,
2019
Industrial growth and emissions of CO2 in
Ghana: The role of financial development andfossil fuel consumption
Understanding climate variability and change:
analysis of temperature and rainfall acrossagroecological zones in Ghana, Heliyon, Volume
5, Issue 10, October 2019.
Adaptation opportunities and maladaptive
outcomes in climate vulnerability hotspots ofnorthern Ghana, Climate Risk Management, 9,83-93.

Cocoa research
institute

Climatechange andagriculture
Forestmitigation

Cocoa andclimate change
impacts
REDD+

WASCAL

Economics ofclimate andgenderNorthern Ghana

Department of
Economics, Universita‘
Politecnica delle
Marche, Italy
Pan African
University, Cameroon

Emissions andindustry
growthIndustrialisationand climatechangeClimatevulnerability
assessment

Climatemodelling

Dept. ofEnvironmental
Science, KNUST

Adaptation
strategies

Adaptation infood systems innorthern Ghana

The University ofOklahoma

Antwi-Agyei, P.
et al. (2016)

Perceived stressors of climate vulnerability
across scales in the Savannah zone of
Ghana: a participatory approach, Regional
Environmental Change, 17(1), 213-227

Dept. ofEnvironmental
Science, KNUSTClimatevulnerability
assessments

Vulnerability
assessments innorthern Ghana

Antwi-Agyei, P. etal. (2015)

Impacts of land tenure arrangements on theadaptive capacity of marginalized groups: thecase of Ghana’s Ejura Sekyedumase and Bongo
districts, Land Use Policy, 49, 203–212
Livelihoods adaptations to climate variability:
insights from farming households in Ghana,Regional Environmental Change, 14(4) 16151626.
Mapping the vulnerability of crop production to
drought in Ghana using rainfall, yield andsocioeconomic data, Applied Geography, 32(2),324-334
Socio-economic and institutional drivers ofvulnerability to climate change in urban slums:
the case of Accra, Ghana. Climate andDevelopment, Volume 11, 2019 - Issue 8

Dept. ofEnvironmental
Science, KNUSTClimateadaptation
barriers

Dept. ofEnvironmental
Science, KNUSTClimateadaptations

Ghana’s Ejura
Sekyedumase
and Bongo
districts
Adaptations inUpper East andCentral Ghana

Dept. ofEnvironmental
Science, KNUSTClimatevulnerability
assessment

Whole country

Department, ofGeography,
Environment andPopulation, Universityof Adelaide
North Carolina State
University

Climatechange andcitiesClimatevulnerability of
Accra

Climatechange andfood security

Whole country

Antwi-Agyei, P. etal. (2014)

Antwi-Agyei, P. etal. (2012).

Mensah Owusu &Melissa NurseyBray, 2018

Wood et al. 2019

Examining climate change and food security in
Ghana through an intersectional framework.
The Journal of Peasant Studies

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Tetteh et al. 2019Musah-Surugu etal. 2018

Asiedu et al. 2017

Ahenkan, A., & I.J.
Musah-Surugu,
2014
Tachie-Obeng, E.,
P.B.I. Akponikp &S. Adiku, 2013
Fosu-Mensah et al

Afful-Koomson etal. 2012

EmmanuelTachie-Obeng, etal. 2014
Codjoe, S.N.A. et
al. 2015
Codjoe, S.N.A. et
al. (2015)
Codjoe, S.N.A. et
al. (2014)

Codjoe, S.N.A. et
al. (2014).

Perceptions of weather variability and climatechange on goat producers’ choice of coping andadaptation strategies: evidence from climatesmart and non-climate-smart villages in the
Jirapa and Lawra district. Climate andDevelopment, 2019.
Mainstreaming climate change into local
governance: financing and budgetarycompliance in selected local governments in
Ghana. Development in Practice, 28:1, 65-80,
Aquaculture in troubled climate: Farmers’
perception of climate change and theiradaptation. Cogent Food & Agriculture, Volume
3, 2017 - Issue 1
Financing climate change adaptation andmitigation in Ghana: Challenges and prospects
Considering effective adaptation options to theimpacts of climate change for maize productionin Ghana. Environmental Development 5 (2013)
131–145.
‘Modelling Impact of Climate Change on Maize(Zea mays L.) yield under Rain-fed Condition in
Sub-Humid Ghana’, UNU-INRA Working Paper
No 1/11Governance Challenges for Promoting theGreen Economy in Africa’ In J.A. Puppim de
Oliveira (ed), Green Economy and Governancefor Sustainable Development: Opportunities,
Promises and Concerns. Tokyo: United Nations
University Press
Downscaled Climate Change Projections for WA
District in the Savanna Zone of Ghana. Journalof Disaster ResearchVol.9No.4, 2014
Geophysical, socio-demographic characteristics
and perception of flood vulnerability in Accra,
Ghana. Natural Hazards.
Climate change/variability and schistosomiasis
transmission in the Ga District, Ghana. Climate
and Development.
Climate change and cerebrospinal meningitis in
the Ghanaian meningitis belt. International
Journal of Environmental Research and Public
Health, 11 (7), 6923-6939.
Climate change and internal migration
intentions in the forest-savanna transition zoneof Ghana. Population and Environment, 35, 341364.

University ofDevelopment Studies

Adaptation
strategies

Goat producers
in Jirapa and
Lawra district

The University of
Ghana, Department ofGeography andResource
Development
The University ofEnergy and Natural
Resources

Climatechangemainstreaming

Local
government
finance

Adaptation infisheries

SunyaniAquaculture
Zone

University of Ghana

Climatefinance

University of Ghana
and EPA

Agriculture
adaptation
optionMaize in
Northern Ghana

UNU-INRA

Agriculture
adaptation
optionMaize underrain-fed
conditions

UNU-INRA

Green
economyAfrica-wide

University of Ghana

Climatemodelling

District scale

RIPS, Legon

Floodvulnerability

Accra

RIPS, Legon

Climatechange andhealthClimatechange andhealthSchistosomiasis
transmission in
GA district
CSM andclimate change

Climatechange andmigration

Savannahforest
movement

RIPS, Legon

RIPS, Legon

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Codjoe, S.N.A. et
al. (2013).

Economic analysis of climate variability impact
on malaria prevalence: The case of Ghana.
Sustainability, 5(10): 4362-4378.

RIPS, Legon

Tanner et al. 2015

Political Economy of Climate Compatible
Development: Artisanal Fisheries and Climate
Change in Ghana.
An investigation of the evidence of benefits
from compatible climate development

Institute ofEnvironment andSanitation Studies
Institute ofEnvironment andSanitation Studies

Assessment of the vulnerability of river basinsin Ghana to water stress conditions underclimate change
Impact of climate change on streamflow inselected river basins in Ghana

CSIR-Water ResearchInstituteExploring the autonomous adaptation
strategies to climate change and climate
variability in selected villages in the rural
Northern Savannah Zone of Ghana. Local
Environment: The International Journal of
Justice and Sustainability).
Climate change adaptation mainstreaming at
the sub-national level development planning: A
Case of the Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolitan
Assembly (STMA), Ghana. Journal of Economics
and Sustainable Development www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1700 (Paper) ISSN 2222-2855(Online) Vol.4, No.11, 2013
Assessment of Patterns of Climate Variables
and Malaria Cases in Two Ecological Zones of
Ghana Open Journal of Ecology, 4, 764-775

Institute for
Statistical, Social andEconomic Research(ISSER)

Owusu et al. 2014

Changes in Expectations and Extremes in the
Rainfall Climatology of Accra, Ghana, 18952005. Applied Geography Vol.52, 99-109

Klutse et al. 2014

Rainfall variability over Ghana: model versus
rain gauge observation. International Journal of
Geosciences Vol 5, 673-683
Simulation of the Rainfall Regime over Ghanafrom CORDEX. International Journal of
Geosciences Vol. 4, 785-791
Identification of historical shifts in daily rainfall
regime, Wenchi, Ghana. Climatic Change Vol. 117(1-2) 133-147

Tompkins et al.
2013

Obuobie et al.
2012
Obuobie et al.
2013
Bawakyillenuo, S.,et al. 2014

Koforobour K. etal., 2013

Klutse et al. 2014

Owusu et al. 2013

Owusu et al. 2013

Climatechange,health, andeconomies
Fisheries andclimatechangeCross-cutting
issues forclimateplanning
Climatechange andwater
Climatechange andwater
Climatechangeadaptation
strategy

The economic
cost of climateinduced malaria

Department ofGeography andRegional Planning,
University of Cape
Coast, Cape Coast,
Ghana

Climatechangemainstreaming

Local
government

Centre for African
Wetlands, Universityof Ghana

Climatechange andhealthClimateinduced malaria
pattern

Geography andResource
Development,
University of Ghana
University of Ghana,
Ghana Atomic Agency,
and others
University of Ghana,
Ghana Atomic Agency

Climatemodelling

Changing
rainfall pattern

Climatemodelling
Climatemodelling

Comparison of
rainfallvariability
Rainfallprojections

Climatemodelling

Changing
rainfall patterns
in Wenchi

CSIR-Water ResearchInstituteGeography
andResource
Development,
University of Ghana

Artisanal
fisheries
National
climate change
policyVulnerability
assessment
Vulnerability
assessment
Rural
adaptation

Page | 266

Owusu et al. 2013

The changing rainy season climatology of midGhana. Theoretical and applied Climatology Vol.
112 (3-4) 419-430

Agarko et al. 2019

Removing barriers and promoting demand-side
energy efficiency in households in
Sub-Saharan Africa: A case study in Ghana.
Energy policy
Policy coherence for climate-sensitive planningin Ghana

Cárdenas et al.
2018
Atiah et al. 2019

Asare 2017

Geography
andResource
Development,
University of Ghana
Energy Commission

Climatemodelling

Rainfallseasonality

Energymitigation
strategy

Energyefficiency

Sustainability
Research InstituteClimate policy

NDCs

The Spatio-Temporal Variability of Rainfall over
the Agro-Ecological Zones of Ghana. 2019.
Atmospheric and Climate Sciences, 9, 527-544.

Physics Department,
KNUST

Climatemodelling

Rainfallvariability
Ghana

Assessing climate-driven malaria variability in
Ghana using a regional scale dynamical model, J.
Climate, 5(1)Physics Department,
KNUST

Climatechange health

Sectoral
impacts
assessment ofclimate changein

7.2 Systematic Observations
7.2.1 National Meteorological Observation Network
The Ghana Meteorological Agency283 manages the national systematic observation infrastructure and provides
climate services to the public, agriculture application, civil aviation, commercial airlines, military aviation andmaritime (Figure 79). The synoptic and automatic network of meteorological and radar stations support thesystematic observation infrastructure. The synoptic and automatic weather stations cover about 95% of Ghana’s
territory for the measurement and monitoring of atmospheric phenomena. The meteorological radar located in
Accra covers the remaining 5% of the country. The recent addition of radar monitoring and automatic stations tothe system observation network infrastructure has boosted observation capabilities of the GMet.

283

http://www.meteo.gov.gh/website/

Page | 267

Figure 79: Automatic weather station installed in Accra by GMet under the e-transform projectsource: GMET website

Now, GMet is implementing critical reforms to improve service efficiency. Some of the changes include data
commercialisation to increase internally generated funds, capacity development and modernisation of theobservation network. Nevertheless, the Agency is still facing numerous challenges, including:
•
•
•
•
•

Underfunding for the operations and maintenance of the observation network
Outdated technology for the gathering and forecasting of climate information.
No interconnectivity of weather stations.
Inadequate automatic weather stations.
Inefficient climate service product dissemination.

7.2.2 Earth Observation Research and Innovation Centre284
The University of Energy and Natural Resources, Sunyani, established Earth Observation Research and Innovation
Centre (EORIC) to research into the earth and atmospheric observation. The centre researches, trains and provides
services in carbon flux monitoring, aerial and satellite operations and fire monitoring. EORIC observation
infrastructure enables researchers to deliver cutting-edge satellite operations, weather and climate monitoring
and unmanned aerial services. The earth and meteorological observation infrastructure include:•284

Carbon flux tower – EORIC is collaborating with the Global Change Research Institute, Czech Academy of
Sciences to establish a carbon flux tower in the Bia Tano forest reserve at Gambia Number 1 in Mim tomonitor terrestrial carbon exchanges throughout the year.

https://www.eoric.uenr.edu.gh/about-us/

Page | 268

•Earth observation satellite-direct broadcast –EOS-DB ground station (UNER) - Installed in 2015 to acquire
earth observing satellite-direct broadcast data from Low Earth Orbit (LEO) and Medium Earth Orbit (MEO)
Satellites (Figure 80).

Figure 80: EOS-DB ground station mounted at the University of Energy and Natural Resources285

source: EORIC website•

EUMETCast-GEONETCast Reception Station – GEONETCast is a global network of satellite-based data
dissemination systems providing environmental data to a world-wide user community.

•

COSMIC285-2 Ground Station - The 3m X/Y Fibre antenna system was installed in 2016 to support COSMIC2 satellite operations (acquisition of data and Telemetry, Tracking and Command-TT&C). The station ispart of the network of nine (9) COSMIC-2A (Equatorial) Baseline Ground Station Architecture to support
the COSMIC-2 project. EORIC is hosting the ground station through a partnership agreement between the
University of Energy and Natural Resource and Atlas Space Operation Inc., USA.

•

Global Navigation Satellite System – GNSS Referencing Station - The GNSS receiving station was installed
in 2018 to support the COSMIC-2 program and other applications. The University of Energy and Natural
Resources and University Corporation for Atmospheric Research (UCAR) jointly operate the station
through a partnership (Figure 81).

Constellation Observing System for Meteorology, Ionosphere, and Climate

Page | 269

Figure 81: GNSS referencing station mounted at the compound of the University Energy and Natural Resources•

Automatic weather stations - EORIC established a network of automatic weather stations in 2014 tocollect daily weather data for agro-meteorological and climate change applications in the Bono region.

7.2.3 Centre for Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Services (CERSGIS)286
The Centre for Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System (CERSGIS) provides specialised services on
geo-information on earth observation monitoring and mapping on land and coastal resources. The centre iscompetent in web mapping, GPS mapping, optical and radar applications and skills training. CERSGIS has a 20-seat
capacity training laboratory equipped with modern equipment and resource library. CERSGIS is a partner in the
Ghana Agricultural GIS online Platform287 (Figure 82). The platform gives access to cross-sectional data and GIS
data collected by projects including USAID funded ADVANCE and TIPCEE, ADRA Ghana Food Security Programme,
the Ministry of Food & Agriculture and GIZ/MOAP projects. Application of GIS technologies in agriculture helps toprovide essential information such as locations of smallholder farms, aggregators, processors, tractor service
providers, warehouses and weather stations.
To achieve a meaningful developmental impact, it has become necessary to share data among various
stakeholders. This GIS online Platform has become the most appropriate means to make data available to specificend-users and potentially to the public. This is expected to increase the efficiency of all value chain actors andindustry leaders who, as managers base critical management decisions on reliable data. Ultimately, Ghana's
agricultural industry would become competitive in the domestic, regional and international markets. Data on thisplatform is available for six commodity value chains: Mango, Citrus, Maize, Rice, Soybean and Cashew. Most data
here are for public interest and free. However, a fee is charged for premium dataset upon request.
286
287

https://cersgis.org/
http://gis4agricgh.net/

Page | 270

Figure 82: Ghana Agriculture online GIS platform

CERSGIS is also the leading SERVIR-West Africa partner288 in Ghana. The platform has a host of decision-aid tools
and applications for local actors dealing with climate-induced issues such as disasters, water management,
agriculture, land-use and ecosystem protection. In this regard, the SERVIR platform has three information portals
that monitor and reports illegal mining289, land-use and land-cover dynamics290 and tree cover change and charcoal
production291.
7.3 Participation in international climate change activities
This section presents information on Ghana’s involvement in climate change programmes at the continental andglobal levels.
7.3.1 Continent-Wide Level (Africa Union Level)
Africa-wide climate change initiatives – Climate change is a top priority for the African continent. That is why
Africa Union is a champion in advocating for African governments to pay attention to climate change. Some of theclimate-related initiatives are below:288

http://servir.cersgis.org
http://tethyscer.servirglobal.net/apps/ssmportal/
290
http://tethyscer.servirglobal.net/apps/landdegradation/291
http://tethyscer.servirglobal.net/apps/charcoalportal/
289

Page | 271

•Climate for Development in Africa Programme (ClimDev-Africa)292 – It was put together by AfDB, UNECA
and the Africa Union Commission. Ghana is a regular participant in the annual ClimDev dialogue that
assembles stakeholders to discuss climate change issues about the continent.

•

Africa NDC hub293 – The AfDB hosts the Africa NDC hub as a resource pool to support countries in theimplementation of their Paris Agreement commitments. Currently, the hub assists countries in fostering
long-term climate action, mobilising means for implementation and coordination, advocacy andPartnerships.

•

African Adaptation Initiative (AAI)294 - Ghana is receiving support from AAI through the World Bank todevelop an investment strategy to back the implementation of the adaptation component of Ghana’s NDC.
AAI focuses on enhancing climate information services, strengthening policies and institutions, enhancing
ground action and climate finance and investments.

•

African Renewable Energy Initiative (AREI)295 – AREI is a continental initiative set to achieve at least 10
GW of new and additional renewable energy generation capacity by 2020, and mobilise the African
potential to generate at least 300 GW by 2030. In Ghana, the Ministry of Energy is the focal point for AREI.
Ghana is yet to benefit from the Africa Renewable Energy Facility initiative.

Participation in Africa Ministerial Conference on the Environment (AMCEN) – Ghana is an active member of AMCEN,
which is hosted by UNEP. Ghana participated in the seventeenth regular session of AMCEN in Durban South Africa.
The conference discussed issues on greening the economy in Africa; advancing the circular economy; thedevelopment of a blue economy; biodiversity loss; land degradation; desertification, drought and climate change.
AMCEN and the Committee of African Heads of State and Government on Climate Change (CAHOSCC) ultimately
shaped the African position at the UNFCCC negotiations.
African Group of Negotiators (AGN) 296- The AGN consists of technical negotiators of every African country. One
country is selected to chair the group for two years; Egypt currently chairs the AGN. Ghana is an active member ofthe AGN. Experts from Ghana coordinate issues on loss and damage, long-term review and global stock in the
UNFCCC negotiation on behalf of the AGN.
African Climate Policy Centre (ACPC)297 -The ACPC is a hub for knowledge generation on climate change in Africa.
It addresses the need for greatly improved climate information for Africa and strengthening the use of suchinformation for decision making, by improving analytical capacity, knowledge management and dissemination
activities. The ACPC is an integral part of the Climate for Development in Africa (ClimDev-Africa) programme, which
is a joint initiative of the African Union Commission (AUC), the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa and292

https://www.afdb.org/en/topics-and-sectors/initiatives-partnerships/climate-for-development-in-africa-climdev-africa-initiative
https://www.afdb.org/en/topics-and-sectors/initiatives-partnerships/africa-ndc-hub
294https://africaadaptationinitiative.org/295
http://www.arei.org/
296
https://africangroupofnegotiators.org/297
https://www.uneca.org/acpc
293

Page | 272

the African Development Bank. ClimDev-Africa has been mandated to influence continental climate policy atregional meetings of African Heads of State and Government, as well as by Africa’s Ministers of Finance, Ministersof Planning and Ministers of Environment. Ghana, as a member of the Africa Union, contributes to the activities of
the ACPC.
United Nations University – Institute for Natural Resource in Africa (UNI-INRA)298 – The University of Ghana is thehost of UNU-INRA. UNI-INRA conducts research relevant to Africa and offers training in natural resource
management, including topics on climate change. The institute recently published a climate change study on
stranded assets in Africa within the context of emerging global climate policy. In 2019, the Institute together with
the University of Ghana hosted the IPCC Outreach Programme on the Special Report on the impacts of global
warming of 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels
7.3.2 International Level
UNFCCC and Climate Change Negotiations - Ghana actively participates in the Climate Change negotiations bothat the UNFCCC, regional and the sub-regional levels. The country has contributed to the advancement ofmultilateral structures and mechanisms in the negotiation process. Ghana has contributed immensely to the Africa
Group level by leading negotiations on behalf of the Africa Group, especially on Technology Transfer, REDD+ andClimate Change Adaptation. At the regional and sub-regional levels, Ghana has contributed to the formulation andadvancement of common African positions on various negotiation issues, as well as participating in activities todevelop a joint climate change framework for the ECOWAS sub-region. Ghana is on the ECOWAS climate changecommittee. Ghana has also previously served on the following “groups” of the convention as a member or alternate
member: (a) Adaptation Fund Board (ADF)–Alternate member, (b) Consultative Group of Experts on National
Communications from Parties not included in Annex I to the Convention (CGE) – Member; (c) Expert Group on
Technology Transfer (EGTT) – Former Member; (d) Standing committee on Finance.
Besides, Ghana contributes to some of the technical activities of the UNFCCC secretariat such as the annual reviewsof national GHG Inventory from Annex 1 Parties and the technology committee. So far, Ghana has produced threelead reviewers, three energy experts, two industrial process experts, one agriculture expert and two waste experts.
In 2018, one LULUCF expert qualified as a reviewer of National Forest Reference Level for REDD+. Additional
Ghanaian experts also participate in the review of national communications and biennial update reports fromAnnex 1 parties. In all, four national experts are involved in the reviews of national communications and biennial
update reports.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) - Ghana is also present in the IPCC process. Under the Sixth
Assessment Report (AR6), Ghanaian scientists are working in Working Group II (WG II) and Working Group III (WG
III) as lead and contributing authors.

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Ghanaian scientists contributed to the IPCC Special Reports on climate change and land, and the impacts of global
warming of 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels299. Ghana is also a member of the IPCC’s Task Group on Data Support
for Climate Change Assessments (TG-Data)300.
7.3.3 Global Climate Change Partnerships
In line with Ghana’s strategy to contribute to efforts to combat climate change, the country has joined several
international partnerships. Joining such alliances offers the platform for like-minded countries to advance issuesof mutual interest at the global and national levels. The platforms also allow Ghana to work together with othercountries to raise funds and above all, share practical experiences on relevant climate change topics. The
partnerships are listed below:
Partnership on Transparency in Paris Agreement (PATPA)301 - The Partnership for Transparency in Paris Agreement(PATPA) is an informal forum on climate transparency matters and NDC implementation. Ghana joined thepartnership in 2012 with the view to learn and exchange practical knowledge on MRV and transparency issues.
PATPA also provides technical assistance to countries. Ghana has implemented the information matters project302
to support the preparation of Ghana’s first biennial update report and the international consultation analysis.
Besides, the country is also a regular participant of the annual partnership retreats.
Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC)303 - Ghana is one of six countries that formed the CCAC in 2012. Currently,
the coalition consists of more than 50 state and non-state members. Ghana joined the coalition at the early stages
to demonstrate the country's seriousness to take concrete action on SLCPs. The CCAC supports country partners toaccelerate and scale-up mitigation actions through its eleven initiatives. The Ministry of Environment, Science,
Technology and Innovation is the focal point of CCAC in Ghana and coordinates CCAC activities. The EPA acts as
the alternate focal point and provides a technical backstop to MESTI and other stakeholders involved in CCAC
related activities. As the focal point, MESTI leads Ghana's contribution to the activities of the coalition at theinternational level and facilitates the mobilisation of national efforts for integrating short-lived climate pollutants
mitigation measures into the overall national development process.
Ghana is participating in four of the 11 CCAC initiatives, and these are:
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Urban Health Initiative (Ghana Health Services and WHO).
Reducing SLCPs from Household Cooking and Domestic Heating (Global Cookstove Alliance);
Promoting SLCP National Action Plans (SNAP) (MESTI and EPA)
Reducing Black Carbon Emissions from Heavy-Duty Diesel Vehicles and Engines (Ghana Port Authority,
including the promotion of soot-free buses by EPA and UNEP).
Ghana is a sitting member of the CCAC steering committee until 2021.

299

https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/06/SR15_Full_Report_High_Res.pdf
https://www.ipcc.ch/data/301
https://www.transparency-partnership.net/
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https://www.transparency-partnership.net/network/information-matters
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https://www.ccacoalition.org/en
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NDC Partnership304 - The partnership has a focus on advancing the implementation of development and climate
actions. MESTI is Ghana’s focal point for the partnership and works closely with the UNDP to coordinate donor
support for the implementation of Ghana’s NDC. The country foresees its engagement with the NDC partnershipwould be efficient if it is worked through the existing institutional collaboration to avoid duplication.
Coalition for Rainforest Nations (CfRN)305- Ghana is among the twenty-three African REDD+ countries that are partof the CfRN. With the support of CfRN, Ghana improved its GHG inventory for the AFOLU sector by receiving quality
assurance checks by the Independent Panel review of the Reporting for Results-based REDD+ (RRR+) project. The
coalition has been a fulcrum for developing forest nations to champion their views in the UNFCCC negotiations.
Global Methane Initiative (GMI)306 – Ghana is a steering committee member of GMI and has representatives on the
biogas, agriculture and waste technical groups under the biogas sector as well as the committee on oil and gas
systems. GMI is an international public-private initiative that advances cost-effective, near-term methane
abatement and recovery and use of methane as a clean energy source.
UN-REDD307 – UN-REDD is also active in Ghana and has provided support to the country under the Warsaw
Framework for REDD+. The support was on “governance and synergies between REDD+ and FLEGT, as well as on
national forest carbon inventories in West Africa”. Currently, Ghana serves as a member of the UN-REDD board.
7.4 Capacity Building Needs
The EPA conducted an online survey308 from state and non-state actors to assess the capacity requirements for
effective implementation of climate change programmes in Ghana. In all fifty-five institutions were surveyed, of
which 70% responded to the questionnaire. Below are the key findings from the survey:
An unexpectedly high number of “cross-cutting” institutions – Majority of the respondents identified as crosscutting organisations making up 63.2% (Figure 83). The large proportion of cross-cutting institutions include thosethat are not directly working in the line ministries such as the Universities, CSO, private sector companies and thecoordination organisations (Ministry of Finance, National Development Planning Commission, Ministry ofEnvironment, EPA). Besides, the rest of the respondent institutions were mostly from the energy and forestry
sectors.

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https://ndcpartnership.org/
https://www.rainforestcoalition.org/
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https://www.globalmethane.org/about/index.aspx
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https://www.unredd.net/regions-and-countries/africa/ghana.html
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The team used survey monkey instrument for the exercise
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70%
63%

60%
50%
40%
30%

26%

26%

Forestry

Energy

20%
13%

11%

10%

5%

8%
3%

0%
Cross-cutting

GenderTransport

Waste

Water

HealthFigure 83: Working sectors of respondent institutions

A high number of respondent institutions are involved in climate change – more than 90% of the respondents had
participated in the preparation of the actual NDC or the implementation plan as sector lead, supporting orcontributing institutions. More than half (55%) of the total number of institutions indicated their involvement assector lead. Sector leads are organisations that have the overall responsibility of coordinating climate change
activities in each line ministry.
For example, the institutional arrangement in the energy sector is characterised by three levels of involvement inclimate change. While the Ministry of Energy as the lead government institution in the sector provides broad
support and policy directions, the Energy Commission and the Volta River Authority operate at the regulatory(supporting) and facility-level (contributor) respectively. The involvement of a wide range of institutions in climatechange activities is a good sign of meaningful collaboration to work together as a whole community (Figure 84).
It also shows the potential for further strengthening of the partnership that already exists among actors.

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30.0%

32.5%
Sector Lead
Supporting
Contributor

55.0%

Figure 84: Description of the types of institutional involvement in climate change in Ghana

Segment and prioritise capacity needs - the institutions indicated that addressing the top capacity needs of mostof the actors would require greater participation in the implementation of climate change policies andprogrammes. The survey identified some of the institutional and individual capacity gaps as follows:
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Inadequate understanding of climate negotiations.
Difficulty in accessing international climate finance.
Insufficient capacity for preparing bankable climate projects and fundraising.
Limited skills for undertaking vulnerability and mitigation assessment, economic modelling, emission
projections, policy evaluations.
Inadequate capacity to develop viable investment plans.
Reduced visibility of climate change issues or climate awareness of high-level decisions makers

Furthermore, the institutions further suggested priority capacity needs:
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•
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Develop a national climate change capacity-building plan to guide the sourcing and coordination of
capacity support.
Organise climate change clinics for high-level technical and political office holders at the national, sector,
district and community levels.
Develop tools for tracking the progress of implementation of climate change policies and programme andtrain stakeholders on how to use them.
Organise regular training on topics on project preparation, climate fundraising, vulnerability andmitigation assessment, policy evaluation, economic and emission projection.
Support local experts to participate in international and national climate training organised by reputable
academic and non-academic organisations.
Develop a national programme on international experiential training for learning-on-the-job training for
local experts.
Prepare standard reporting template and an associated guidance tool.
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8. Information on Action for Climate Empowerment (ACE)Information on Action for Climate Empowerment (ACE) is the UNFCCC’s comprehensive programme on Articles 6of the UNFCCC and Article 12 of the Paris Agreement. The overall goal is to engage the whole society througheducation, training, public awareness, public participation, public access to information, and international
cooperation. Ghana’s ACE agenda is delivered through the EPA’s environmental education strategy and coordinatedby the ACE national focal point. The ACE focal point at the EPA collaborates closely with the Environmental
Education, Public Affairs Departments and other national stakeholders. The updates on the implementation of
Ghana’s ACE programme are below:
8.1 Efforts to Promote Access to Public Information
8.1.1 Installing Automatic Weather Stations in Senior High Schools
In 2015, the EPA signed a memorandum of understanding (MOU) with African hydro-meteorological Observatory(TAHMO)309 to install Automatic Weather Stations (AWS) in Senior High schools across the country (Figure 85). The
objective of the programme is to make climate data accessible to students and to keep them abreast with changes
in the climate, and available technology to educate students. As part of the EPA climate change education inschool’s programme, TAHMO Initiative in collaboration with the KNUST and Delft University of Technology (TUDelft), local NGOs, student and traditional authorities, launched the first automatic weather station at Accra
Academy Senior High School. The launching marked TAHMO initiative of establishing weather stations acrossGhana for improved access to accurate climate data in schools and the sustainable development of agriculture,
weather forecasting, as well as climate modelling in Africa.

Figure 85: Commissioning of Automatic weather station at Accra Academy senior high school309

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So far, the TAHMO initiative has installed more than 20 automatic weather stations nation-wide as part of theschool-to-school programme. The beneficiary schools expect to put the AWS to good use with the view to (a)encourage and stimulate the interest in climate change learning in schools, (b) conduct climate change educationin senior high schools, (c) provide data and information for climate change learning and (d) form climate change
clubs to manage AWS and sustain the programme.
8.1.2 Climate Change Information Sharing Platforms
Public access to climate information is essential to promote public interest in climate change activities. The
enactment of the Right to Information Act would further bolster the flow of climate information to the wide society.
Below are the relevant electronic climate information sharing platforms in the country:
8.1.2.1 Climate change data hub310 - Environmental Protection Agency
The EPA established an online database to serve as a climate change information depository. The hub, with five
portals, contains data on greenhouse gas inventory, project registry, policies and measures, NDC and GCF. The URL
for the hub is https://climatedatahubgh.com/ (Figure 86). The GHG portal hosts data on the latest GHG inventory,
including the activity data, emission factors, inventory results and all relevant documentation.

Figure 86: Screenshot of Ghana’s climate data hub

The project registry contains information about climate actions and effects, and the financial support received. The
dynamic search function allows users to look for specific project information on the fly. The policies and measuresportal is the dashboard for tracking the implementation and achievement of climate change programmes.
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The new additions to the hub are the NDC and GCF pipeline portals. The NDC portal is to report information on
the implementation of NDC actions per sector. The GCF page presents a central point to host GCF pipeline projects
allowing developers and the public to track the status of an application under the GCF. There are plans to add an
adaptation portal in the coming months as part of the national adaptation planning initiative.
8.1.2.2 National energy data processing and information centre311 - Energy commission
The Energy Commission’s database is a one-stop energy data platform and managed by the national energy dataprocessing and information centre (NEDPIC). The platform visualises information on electricity, renewable energy
and energy efficiency, natural gas, and petroleum industries in the country. The NEDPIC web page is underconstruction and would build on the previous Ghana Energy Access Database (GhEA Database). The GhEA databasesupplies information to aid sustainable energy planning in the country. The GhEA database can be accessed via
this web address http://energycom.gov.gh/GhEAdatabase/dataset/ (Figure 87).

Figure 87: Screenshot of the Ghana energy access database

8.1.2.3 Climate change and resilience information centre – Care International312
Ghana is one of Care International’s climate change operation hubs. The climate change and resilience information
centre contain critical information on the communities in Ghana within Care International’s project areas (Figure
88).

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http://www.energycom.gov.gh/planning/data-center/nedpic
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Figure 88: Screenshot of Care International’s Climate change and resilience information centre

8.2 Efforts to Promote Public Participation
8.2.1 National School Drawing Contest on Climate Change313
Ahead of COP21 in Paris, the National Focal Point for climate change education in Ghana, in collaboration with
the European Union, organised a national climate change contest to prepare unique drawings to highlight thevulnerability of climate change in Ghana to the global community at COP 21 in Paris. The competition was under
the theme “seed for change; plant your idea to deal with climate change in Ghana”. It was structured in three
categories according to the age of pupils, with each group focussing on an aspect of climate change observation,
impact and solution. The aim was to step up the climate change awareness outreach in Ghana to build a coalition
ahead of the COP21 to be held in Paris at the end of November and December. It also helped to raise the profile
of EU Climate Diplomacy to maximise the chances of success in COP21 and build up the awareness of all key
interest groups in Ghana on the impact of climate change in the country and possible measures to adopt. Over4,000 school children participated in the information sessions of the contest, resulting in 1, 866 drawings received
from 493 schools. The nine best drawings were used as illustrations in a brochure and presented during Ghana
Day at COP 21 in Paris. Some of the award-winning portraits are shown in Figure 89.

Figure 89: Award-winning drawings from the national contest

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The best Award Winner had a two weeks study tour in France. The Former President of Ghana H.E John Agyekum
Kufuor presented the awards at Alliance Francaise, Accra (Figure 90).

Figure 90: National contest award ceremony

8.3 Efforts to Promote Public Awareness8.3.1 Climate Change Week314
Ghana is implementing climate change and green economy learning strategy. In line with the plan, the EPA
introduced climate change and the green economy week in 2016. The first climate change week took place from24th to 30th of October 2016 to coincide with the month of the global climate change week. Activities of the week
included a procession on the principal streets of the capital city of Ghana with placards. There was also a national
symposium, community durbar, and political dialogue under the theme “climate change, a concern for all”. The
week helped to reach the wider Ghanaian audience and to create awareness of climate change and improveunderstanding of opportunities for green developments. About 5,000 participants took part in the week, including
school children, civil society, academia, private sector, MDAs and the general public (Figure 91).

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Figure 91: Pictures from the maiden climate change week in Ghana

8.3.2 REDD Eye Campaign315
In 2015, the Forestry Commission launched the REDD Eye to raise awareness among the Ghanaian youth on theneed to plant and nurture trees as one of the ways to mitigate climate change. The Forestry Commission organiseda national summit to engage the youth nationwide to educate them about REDD+. As part of the programme,“REDD EYE” clubs were formed in the various schools to undertake sensitisation on tree-planting programmes
across the country. Besides, the Forestry Commission organised the national REDD+ forum to sensitise Ghanaians
and solicit their support in the implementation of the national REDD+ programme.
The theme of the forum was “Conserving Our Forests for Better Lives and a Better Climate”. The second national
REDD+ forum316 took place in 2017 at the Accra International Conference Centre (Figure 92) with the theme“strengthening law enforcement for effective REDD+ implementation”. The forum brought together over a
thousand stakeholders ranging from students, development partners, private sector, community leaders, traditional
authorities and government officials. The government affirmed its support to combat deforestation. Further, iturged local communities to get involved in the fight against illegal logging and mining. The Judiciary also
reiterated the meaningful role of law enforcement in dealing with deforestation.

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Figure 92: Picture from the second REDD+ National Forum

8.3.3 Climate Change and Population Conference on Africa317
The University of Ghana’s Regional Institute for Population Studies (RIPS) introduced the CPOP in 2012. Since
then, RIPS has hosted seven CCOPs in Accra. CCOPs seeks to assemble climate change stakeholders to share value
and experiences in tackling climate change in Africa. The seventh CCOP was held in 2019 at the Accra Metropolitan
Assembly, Accra, Ghana with the theme “transforming cities' resilience to climate change”. After the official
opening, selected participants made oral and panel presentations of scientific papers under the following subthemes.
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•
•
•
•
•
•

Population – climate nexus
Population, health and climate change
Climate change and energy
Coastal zones and green growth
Cities and climate change
Climate finance and investment
Climate change negotiations and diplomacy
Adaptation and mitigation
Food security and agricultural/rural communities
Climate change and poverty
Sustainable development goals
Water resources management

The research findings and the issues elicited in the presentations informed the panel discussions and theconference conclusions.
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8.3.4 Africa Climate Change Week318
The Ghana Government successfully convened the 2019 Africa Climate Week (ACW) at the Accra International
Conference Centre under the Nairobi Partnership Framework. The theme for the week was “African Climate Action;
A Race We Can Win”. More than 2000 governments, businesses and CSOs joined the ACW. The conference called
on countries and non-state actors to rally around the collective agenda of fighting climate change at all levels.
During the high-level opening, Ghana’s President, HE Nana Addo Dankwa Akufo-Addo indicated that the urgency
needed for tackling climate change would require the involvement of the whole society. The ACW helped to raise
the level of awareness of the public on climate change (Figure 93).

Figure 93: Picture from the NDC investment forum during the 2019 Africa Climate Week

8.3.5 Renewable Energy Fair319
In 2015, Ghana instituted the renewable energy fair to promote investment opportunities for scaling up
renewables in line with Act 832 and as a climate change mitigation strategy. So far, the Ministry of Energy, Energy
Commission and their partners have organised five renewable energy fairs at the International Conference Centre,
Accra. The fair provides the platform for policy and academic discussions, an exhibition of innovation and trending
renewable energy technology, and business-to-business partnership. The 2019 edition had the theme“opportunities for renewable energy and energy efficiency in a constrained energy sector”. Often the fair involved
a symposium320 and exhibition321. However, in 2019, the organisers introduced a “high school renewable energy
challenge322” for selected schools in the Greater Accra region.
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http://mesti.gov.gh/ghana-launches-2019-africa-climate-week-celebration/
http://ghanarefair.com/en/

https://www.facebook.com/REFairGH/photos/a.313824722699073/331844430897102/?type=3&theaterhttps://www.facebook.com/REFairGH/photos/a.107505169997697/548010399280503/?type=3&theater322
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The 2019 renewable energy fair brought together more than two thousand participants, twenty speakers and about
thirty exhibitors to assess the progress, evaluate opportunities and challenges in the scaling up of renewables(Figure 94).

Figure 94: Photo from the high-level segment of the 5th renewable energy fair

8.3.6 Accra SDG Investment Fair323
The Ministry of Finance, the SDG Advisory Unit of the Presidency, the Ministry of Planning and Ghana Investment
Promotion Centre established the Accra SDG investment fair to promote awareness on the SDGs and encourage
private sector investments. Two investment fairs took place in 2018 and 2019 at Kempinski Hotel Gold Coast City,
Accra. More than two hundred participants attended the 2019 SDG fair, which focused on a panel discussion on“blended financing for sustainable development.” A breakout group followed panel discussion and treated topics
like “local level financing of the SDGs, developing bankable projects for impact financing and achieving the SDGs:
using a market approach (Figure 95).

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Figure 95: Photo from the 2nd Accra SDG Investment Fair

8.3.7 Climate Chance Summit - Africa324
The Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development led a coalition of local and international partners toorganise the second edition of the climate chance summit- Africa in Accra in 2019. The summit brought together
2,000 participants representing 50 different nationalities (including 34 African nationalities) and a variety of nonstate actors engaged in the fight against climate change: local governments, businesses, unions, environmental
NGOs, farmers, Women and Youth organisations, researchers (Figure 96).

Figure 96: Picture of the partners of the climate chance summit in Ghana324

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The President of the Republic of Ghana who opened the summit announced the implementation of two funds witha total value of US$300 million for the fight against global warming. The Government has established an Advisory
Group of prominent, private sector chief executives, who are setting up a US$100 million SDGs Delivery Fund anda US$200 million Green Fund, to complement the government’s efforts at tackling climate change and funding theimplementation of the SDGs.
8.3.8 Climate Change Dialogue with Political Parties and Parliamentarians
Ghana has a holistic strategy to address climate change. The immediate priority is to feature climate change issues
in national development plans regardless of which political party is in government. Therefore, the engagementwith political parties and the parliamentarians is critical to ensuring that climate change remains in thedevelopment plan of the country. In this regard, the EPA held a series of engagements with political parties andparliamentarians before Ghana’s 2016 general elections to assess how political parties have integrated climatechange and green economy issues into their manifestos. Those engagements also provided an opportunity for theUNDP, in collaboration with MESTI and EPA, to build their capacities and stimulate their interest in climate change
and green economy325. At these discussions were eight representatives of political parties and the selectcommittee. The meeting resulted in a fruitful debate among the representatives of the political parties on how
their manifestos address climate change issues. The major political parties took turns to highlight their climatechange commitments in their manifestos326327 (Figure 97).

Figure 97: The NPP and NDC political parties highlighting climate issues in their manifestos

8.3.9 National Climate Change and Green Economy Learning Strategy
In 2016, the MESTI launched the Climate Change and Green Economy Learning Strategy (CCGELS) to promoteclimate change education, awareness and learning in Ghana. The multi-sectoral Learning Strategy was developed
by MESTI and the EPA, with technical support from the UNDP and United Nations Institute for Training andResearch with funding support from the Swiss Government through the One UN Climate Change Learning
Partnership (UN CC Learn).
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https://www.gh.undp.org/content/dam/ghana/docs/Doc/Demgov/Undp_GH_Report%20of%20UNDP%20Nkitahodie%20Policy%20Dialogue%20on%
20Climate%20Change.pdf
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The Multi-sectoral Learning Strategy is a capacity-building component of the Climate Change Master Plan in
Ghana. It also seeks to promote awareness creation and help to build national capacity for the implementation of
Ghana’s NDC. The overall objective of the Climate Change and Green Economy Learning Strategy is to foster
systematic and country-driven processes to enhance climate change and green economy learning. The 10-year
learning strategy (2016-2026) was estimated to be implemented with a budget of US$ 103,073,000.
8.3.10 Integrated School Project on Clean Cooking Energy328
World Education Incorporated (WEI) responded to a call from the Clean Cooking Alliance, CCA (formerly Global
Alliance for Clean Cookstoves) to design and implement a pilot project on Clean Cooking Energy. The project
dubbed INSPOCCE (Integrated School Project on Clean Cooking Energy) was implemented in two communities
within the Amasaman Municipal Assembly in the Greater Accra Region (GAR). The rationale was to provide theeducation sector with a programme to reach teachers, students and communities to mitigate the risk associatedwith using traditional cookstoves. It also built capacity within the sector to support and sustain the programme.
The project educated Junior High School students about the dangers of cooking over open fires and the existenceof cleaner, more efficient solutions. As part of this pilot project, CCA through WEI designed and implemented an
integrated curriculum that was tested and evaluated against several outcomes such as increased knowledge andpositive attitudes towards clean cooking solutions. The project also raised awareness about the negative impactof traditional cooking practices among Ghanaian youth. It provided opportunities for girls and boys to be part ofthe change as their households transitioned to cleaner cooking solutions and enhanced their leadership skills.
The INSPOCCE pilot project worked closely with Curriculum Research Development Division (CRDD) of Ghana
Education Service (GES), the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NaCCA), The Amasaman Municipal
Education Directorate, the Municipal Assembly, traditional and religious leaders from both Christian and Islamicfaiths, opinion leaders, the Global Alliance for Clean cookstoves’ Ghana Team and the Ghana Alliance for Clean
Cookstoves and Fuels (GHACCO)
Highlights of INSPOCCE• 30 Community-Based Peer Educators trained in INSPOCCE’s entrepreneurial component to meet the risingcommunity demand and sale of clean cooking energy solutions.
• 181 School-Based Peer Educators successfully trained for in-school and out of school educationalsessions.
• Three thousand seventy-six students (1,506 males and 1,570 females) reached through classroom
teaching and in-school peer education sessions.
• Twenty-four thousand one hundred twenty-seven community members (9,648males, 14,479 females)
participated in clean cookstoves and fuel awareness activities.
• A draft clean cooking education curriculum that increases the awareness and knowledge levels of JHS
Students in Ghana has been developed to be integrated into the GES Basic School Education curriculum.
• The capacity of teachers in implementing schools built to effectively integrate cookstoves and fuel issues
into the basic education curriculum.
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•Developed a scale-up strategy for integrating the teaching and learning of clean cooking and householdenergy into the national curriculum. Currently working with the National Council for Curriculum andAssessment to develop content in various subject areas for a national scale-up.

The I-SKIP Project329 was a follow-on to the INSPOCCE Project but focused on transforming school kitchens fromtraditional ones to cleaner ones. The overall project objectives were twofold. Firstly, the project sought totransform traditional cooking school kitchens to clean cooking school kitchens, and secondly, to develop a scaleup strategy for implementing a national school kitchen improvement project. The concept of Clean cooking
kitchens developed in I-SKIP had two purposes: as a pilot to establish best practices for adoption, integration andto scale up the use of clean cooking technology in school kitchens, and promote clean cooking technology as aliving laboratory where students, teachers and all other staff can observe and learn about benefits of clean cooking
technology and energy efficiency in schools.
Highlights of I-SKIP• 10 implementing school kitchens in the Northern and Southern parts of the country presently use clean
cookstoves for cooking. Each school has one highly efficient firewood (efficiency of 80%) stove and 3 LPG
stoves installed.
• Health-related issues experienced by kitchen staff have reduced to about 50% with the improved stoves.
• All kitchen staff agree that clean cookstoves use less fuel, produce less smoke and little ash, are easier touse, and helps to maintain a cleaner kitchen environment.
• 100% of kitchen staff know about clean cooking solutions while 80% presently use an IC at home.
• 78% of teachers use LPG, and 40% use an improved charcoal stove.
• 85% of pupils have knowledge of improved cookstoves.
• 80% of the pupils are aware of the negative environmental and health effects of using traditional
cookstoves.
• 72% of pupils got to know of a clean cooking solution through ISKIP.
8.4 Efforts to Promote Education
Climate change education is a central pillar of Ghana’s ACE agenda. The strategy is to get the whole society toembrace the necessity to deal with climate change head-on if Ghana wants to achieve sustainable development
goals. Therefore, Ghana’s climate change education targets both the formal and informal segment of society. While
the formal education programme focuses on developing the critical skills base from primary to tertiary school
training, the informal aspect highlights the need for increased public awareness on climate change with anemphasis on behavioural change and community action.
8.4.1 Formal Climate Change Education
8.4.1.1 Integration of climate change into school curricula
In September 2019, all primary schools across Ghana started teaching climate change (Figure 98). The EPA, inclose collaboration with the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NaCCA) and Ghana Education329

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Service, has incorporated climate change issues into school curricula. Currently, climate change is taught as partof the following subjects in lower and upper primary: English Language330, Science331, Our World and Our People332,
Creative Arts333 and Religious and Moral Education334. Integrating climate change into school curricula is in linewith the implementation of Ghana’s National Learning Strategy. Furthermore, climate change teaching andlearning materials (TLMs) in the form of posters, tailored to the new curricula have been developed by EPA andNaCCA to enhance practical training and learning. The EPA is currently training primary school teachers across thecountry to improve their understanding of climate change and how to use the materials. The integration of climatechange into school circular benefitted from the foundation work of Ghana’s Climate Change and Green Economy
Learning Strategy. The UNDP and the UNITAR supported the technical process for preparing the strategy as partof the CC learn to programme. Work is underway to facilitate the integration of climate change into school curriculaof junior and senior high schools.

Figure 98: National stakeholders during the initial meeting on the development of climate change school curricula

330

https://nacca.gov.gh/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/ENGLISH-B4-B6.pdf
https://nacca.gov.gh/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/SCIENCE-UPPER-PRIMARY-B4-B6.pdf
332
https://nacca.gov.gh/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/OUR-WORLD-AND-OUR-PEOPLE-B4-B6-1.pdf
333
https://nacca.gov.gh/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/CREATIVE-ARTS-B4-B6-.pdf
334
https://nacca.gov.gh/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/RELIGIOUS-AND-MORAL-EDUCATION-B1-B6.pdf
331Page | 291

8.4.1.2 Tertiary climate change education
Many public tertiary institutions offer courses on climate change as a stand-alone or integrated subject and as a
graduate programme. The University of Ghana, Legon and Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology,
Kumasi have introduced graduate programmes on “climate change and sustainable development” and “climate
science and meteorology” respectively. Also, WASCAL has introduced graduate and post-graduate programmes on
climate change. Some of the specialised areas are natural resources management, energy, economics, agriculture,geography and recently, international development. These programmes have produced skilled young natural andsocial scientists who can contribute to tackling climate change in Ghana. Besides, the University of Cape Coast,
University of Development Studies and the University of Energy and Natural Resources have bachelor and graduate
programme course structures to cover topics on climate change and sustainable development. Table 84 shows thetertiary institutions in Ghana that teach climate change and related courses at the degree level.
Table 84: Overview of climate change and related courses offered by Tertiary Institutions in Ghana
Course/ProgrammeInstitute/Department
University
MSc and MPhil in Climate Change School of social sciences,
University of Ghana, Legonand Sustainable Development
Business School
Bachelor in Geography
Department of Geography and University of Ghana, Legon
Resources Development
MSc. Climate Science andDepartment of Physics
KNUST
Meteorology
MSc. Environmental, Science,
Department of Urban andInstitute of Local
Policy and Management
Environmental Management
Government Studies, Accra
and Tamale
Post-graduate studies
Post-graduate studies
MSc. Renewable Energy
MA in Environment and Resource
Management
M.PHil/ PhD. Environmental
Management and Sustainability
MA Geography and Regional
Planning
MSc Sustainable Energy
Management
Dual Degree Programme in
Master of Science in Bio-Economy
and Natural Resources
HND Renewable Energy Systems
Engineering

335

Institute of Environmental
Studies and Sanitation
Regional Institute for Population
Studies
Mechanical Engineering andEnergy Centre
Faculty of Integrated
development studies
Navrongo campus
Department of Geography andRegional Planning

University of Ghana, Legon

Comments
Multi-disciplinary
Climatology
Relevant for climate
modelling
Climate change to inform
decision-making processes
Climate Change Adaptation

University of Ghana, Legon
KNUSTClimate mitigation

University of development
studies
University of development
studies
University of Cape Coast

Climate change policy

Department of Energy andEnvironmental Engineering
Forest Research Institute(FORIG) and KNUSTThe University of Energy
and Natural Resources
University of East Finland

School of Engineering

Koforidua Technical
University335

Climate change policy
Climate Adaptation andmainstreaming issues,
Climatology
Low carbon development
REDD+, Carbon Trading

Climate change mitigation

https://foe.ktu.edu.gh/programmes/programmes-renewable-energy-systems-dept/

Page | 292

Masters Programme in
Sustainable & Integrated Rural
Development
MPhil - Natural Resource &Environmental Governance
MPhil Geography & Rural
Development
BSc. Environmental Science
MPhil/PhD in Environmental
Science
MPhil/PhD Social Forestry andEnvironmental GovernanceMSc./MPhil Climate Change
MSc./PhD Sustainable Energy
Management
MPhil Environmental Science

College of Agriculture andNatural Resources Departmentof Agricultural Economics,
Agribusiness and Extension,
Department of Silviculture andForest Management
Department of Geography &Rural Development
Department of Environmental
Science
Department of Environmental
Science
School of Graduate Studies
School of Graduate Studies
School of Graduate studies
Department of Environmental
Science

KNUSTClimate-smart agriculture
policies

KNUST

Forest mitigation

KNUST

Climate change policy

KNUST

Climate change policy

KNUST

Climate change adaptation,
impacts and policy
Climate change policy

The University of Energy
and Natural Resources
The University of Energy
and Natural Resources
The University of Energy
and Natural Resources
University of Cape Coast

Climate change policy andclimate modelling
Climate change policy
Climate change policy

8.4.2 Informal Climate Change Education
Informal education generally targets the broader section of the Ghanaian society. Most of the informal education
Programmes on climate change are delivered in mass and print media such as radio and TV interviews, jingles,
documentaries, community durbars, information vans and dissemination of educational materials. Social media has
also become a useful tool in communicating with the public on climate change issues. Table 85 shows selected
institutions and their climate change awareness programmes.
Table 85: Institutions, public awareness and training programmes
Institutions
Public Awareness ProgrammeCentre for African Wetlands, Local community fora and stakeholder consultative
University of Ghana and Ghana meetings organised to seek and exchange views with
Wildlife Society
communities concerning climate-related issues.
Crop research institute
CLIMAFRICA; community members around the Ankasa
forest reserve were involved in an awareness Programmeon the identification of climate change coping strategies
and development of adaptation strategies.
Forestry Research Institute of
FORIG trained fifty-four communities around the Ankasa
CSIR
conservation area on forest carbon assessment
Forestry Commission
Series of sensitisation workshops organised for various
levels of stakeholders to enhance understanding ofclimate change issues targeting

Environmental Protection
AgencyLevel/Target
Community and district levels

Community-level

Community-level
The private sector, NGOs, CBOs, local
communities and traditional
authorities and Government agencies
including frontline staff of theForestry Commission.

District capacity programme
Climate Change awareness in ICT

Second cycle institutions

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University of Ghana Business
School (UGBS)
Africa Centre for Energy Policy(ACEP)

Greener Impact International(GII)

HATOF Foundation, Abibiman
Foundation, and Agorvie Youthfor Sustainable Development

CARE International in Ghana

Centre for Capacity
Improvement for the Wellbeingof the Vulnerable - CIWEDHATOF Foundation

Abibiman Foundation

Environmental programmes in secondary school /Climate change education in Schools programme.
Number of radio and TV interviews
Series of sensitisation programmes for students on
climate change issues
Number of regional level-Radio discussion
Developed a demonstration project using solar energy toundertake irrigation farming for the deprived community
in Karaga District of Northern region of Ghana. The
essence is to highlight the potential of using solar
energy as opposed to fossil fuel sources to draw water
for irrigation purposes
Currently developing animation concepts and articles topromote climate change adaptation using social media
Instituted a biannual conference dubbed Ghana Youth
Conference on Climate Change and Sustainable
Development to provide a platform for learning andshare ideas and experiences on issues related to climatechangeTraining and capacity building workshops focused on
Climate Smart Agricultural (CSA) Techniques to enhance
the resilience of Anloga Community to the threats ofclimate change
Collaborative, consultative workshop to assess andoutline climate adaptation actions for the youth,
challenges young people face and how to overcome
these challenges and feed results into the Global
Commission on Adaptation Flagship Programme336
Climate policy and adaptation/resilience technicaltraining under the “Yen Sore” natural resources
governance programme and “GCF-CSO Readiness ProjectConducted several sensitisation and training workshops
on good agronomic practices on Feed the Future
Agriculture Technology Transfer project, climate change,and gender.
Capacity building and knowledge management
workshops for CSOs towards the implementation ofMultilateral Environmental Agreement – climate change,
and national environmental policies, legal frameworks,
and climate finance337
Training and capacity building workshop for selected
media house towards the effective reporting andcommunication of climate change and climate finance338
Training on climate-smart agricultural techniques andmethods for farming chilli pepper

General publicFirst and second cycle institutions
General public
Communities

General public
Youth

Women and youth farmers

Youth

CSOs and local communities

community levelNGOs, CBOs, private sector, womenand youth groups.

Journalist

Women groups

336

https://citinewsroom.com/2019/03/workshop-on-youth-in-climate-adaptation-held-in-accra/
https://drive.google.com/open?id=0B90e9V2nuzitaWwwekFtR0VyQkQ3Q2pkT2hoS0ZoQ1lzRnlN
338
https://citinewsroom.com/2019/03/climate-change-would-retard-ghanas-development-gains-if-not-tackled-analyst/
337

Page | 294

Concern Health Education
Project
Agency for Health and Food
Security (AHEFS)

Strategic Youth Network forDevelopment (SYND

Private Enterprise Federation,
MESTI, EPA and UNDP incollaboration with the Centre
for Climate Strategies340

Sensitisation and awareness creation on climate change
among students
Tree planting exercise for the establishment ofwoodlots.
Training and outreach campaign on climate change andrenewable energy and sensitisation of schools andcommunities on Adaptation and Mitigation Plans
Embarked on in-school and out-of-school education on
climate mitigation and adaptation behaviours using
stakeholder engagement, public addressing, behaviouralchange communication, participatory learning andaction, and social change techniques339.
Organised training for youth leaders on climate change
bringing them to speed on national plans and how they
can contribute to the processes using their skills,
energies, and abilities
One-year certification program on building thecapacities of the Private Sector on financial de-risking
measures for the implementation of Ghana’s NDC.

First and second cycle schools
YouthStudents and local communities

Schools

YouthPrivate sector

8.4.2.1 Capacity Building for media practitioners
In the NC3, the following priority challenges were identified through the EPA’s media survey on environmental
training needs assessment for journalists:•••

Inadequate understanding of the concepts and terminologies used by scientists to discuss the issue ofenvironmental management and policies on climate change and chemicals.
Inadequate of training in skills to convert scientific information presented by environmental scientists
and experts into everyday parlance for the average Ghanaian, andInadequate knowledge of sources and sometimes resource persons on environmental management.

In addressing these challenges, the EPA organised three training workshops on enhancing knowledge andadvocacy of core Journalists on environmental issues for editors, producers and presenters on the topic“Demystifying Environmental Issues: The Role of Media Editors” in 2019 at the Institute of Environmental Studies(IES), Amasaman Accra, Ghana. The workshop aimed at improving the understanding of the participants onenvironmental issues and policies, including chemicals and climate change issues, and to empower them, as
advocates for environmental protection/ management in Ghana. The training enhanced the knowledge ofjournalists on environmental issues to equip them with the skills and materials needed to educate Ghanaians on
the need to protect and sustain our environment to guarantee the quality of human life. In all, about ninety media
persons from state and private media took part in the training. The participating journalists appreciated the breadthand depth of the topics covered and the strategies for reporting on environmental issues.

339
340

http://www.ghananewsagency.org/social/csos-call-for-stronger-partnerships-to-help-achieve-sdgs-1365648
http://www.climatestrategies.us/international_actions/international_actions/view/53

Page | 295

The resource persons noted, with excitement, an increase in media reports on different environmental and EPA
issues immediately following the training. At the end of the training, EPA signed a Memorandum of Understanding
with the Ghana Journalists Association to sponsor the Best Environmental Journalist annually for three years andequip and give knowledge on pertinent and emerging environmental issues and environmental reporting for 2025 fresh graduates from the Ghana Institute of Journalism and other accredited communication training institutions
annually (Figure 99).

Figure 99: Group picture of Editors and sub-editors and resource persons

Page | 296

9.0 Ghana’s first summary of information on how safeguards for REDD+ arebeing addressed and respected
In May 2019, as mandated by Decision 12/CP. 19 paragraphs 3-4, Ghana voluntarily provided its first summary of
information (SOI) on how safeguards for REDD+ are being addressed and respected via the UNFCCC website341. To
further strengthen the effective implementation of REDD+, Ghana has established an online safeguard information
system (SIS) to meet the national environmental regulations, Cancun, World Bank, and GCF safeguard requirements.
With the establishment of the SIS, Ghana wishes to update the SOI submitted to the UNFCCC consistent withDecision 12/CP. 19. The URL reference to SIS is http://reddsis.fcghana.org/ (Figure 100).

Figure 100: Screenshot of Ghana’s safeguard information system341

https://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2013/cop19/eng/10a01.pdf

Page | 297

10. Ghana’s Experience on Response Measures
Decision 2/CP.17 adopted guidelines in Annex III that determined objectives for the development of guidelines
for Biennial Update Report for non-Annex I Parties that included issues of Response Measures (RM) and in so doing
facilitating the reporting to take cognisance on any economic and social consequences of response measures.
Decision 3/CMA.1 (matters related to the implementation of PA) also states that each Party with an NDC thatconsists of adaptation action and/or economic diversification plans resulting in mitigation co-benefits, to submit
information on how the economic and social consequences of response measures have been considered indeveloping the nationally determined contribution. Furthermore, decision 18/CMA.1 also states that each Party
with an NDC that consists of adaptation actions and economic diversification plans resulting in mitigation cobenefits shall provide the information necessary to track progress on the implementation and achievement of thedomestic policies and measures implemented to address the social and economic consequences of RM, including:••••

sectors and activities associated with the response measures;social and economic consequences of the response measures;challenges in and barriers to addressing the consequences;
actions to address the consequences.

Each Party is encouraged to provide detailed information, to the extent possible, on the assessment of economic
and social impacts of response measures. Therefore, Ghana opted to report RM information in its BUR2 and has
further provided an update in this NC4 as follows:
10.1 State of Response Measures Efforts in Ghana
There are a series of climate and green policies, strategies and initiatives which have been implemented in recent
years in Ghana. It is believed that the climate and green policies initiative would contribute to the broader socialand economic development plan. There was the need for a planning tool that can assess how green and climate
policies affect job creation, for women and youth, income distribution, skills development and economic growth.
Therefore to provide for better planning and coherence of policies with multiple objectives, and to maximise job
growth and minimise losses, and protect those in transition to sustainable development and a Just Transition forAll, EPA partnered the International Labour Organisation (ILO) to offer support in the provision of the tool-Green
Jobs Assessment Model (GJAM). This partnership provides quantitative and qualitative employment estimates forevidence-based decision making using the tool GJAM. The tool, currently being used by Ghana has provided forbetter planning and coherence of Ghana’s climate change policies with multiple objectives.
10.2 Responding to the Gaps
A training was organised from 11th to 14th March 2019 with the overall objective to help the country better
understand the social and employment implications of climate policies and their NDC. The training targeted
nineteen institutions and twenty-nine persons from research, statistics, labour, employment, Union, Policy,
Financial, Pensions Fund, Ministries and Agencies. Most of the institutions listed are members of the Response
Measures Technical Working Group (Figure 101).
Page | 298

10.2.1 What Has Been Done So Far• ILO and core climate change negotiators have built the capacity of the response measures technicalworking Group on global perspective and contextual issues of climate change and the UNFCCC process.
• ILO has developed a Green Jobs Assessment Model for Ghana following the methodology as described in
the “Guidebook on How to Measure and Model Social and Employment Outcomes of Climate andSustainable Development Policies• ILO has built the capacity of the response measures technical working group on the elements of the InputOutput Table model, interpretation of multipliers and basic applications. Also, the expansion of a
traditional Input-Output table with physical quantities.
• Build capacity of the technical working group of the NDC to model and measure the job impacts of national
climate plans and policies (focusing on NDCs).
10.2.2 Challenges• Lack of current data for the model - The current Supply and Use Table (SUT) for Ghana was constructed
in 2004. The oil and gas sub-sector under the mining and quarrying sector is not part of 2004 SUT since
Ghana started producing commercial quantities of oil in 2010.
• Lack of data on the green and conventional Industries

Figure 101: Participants in the ILO-EPA training workshop on response measures

10.2.3 Activity for the Next Steps to Address the Gaps
• Development and update of SUT/IOT/SAM to latest GDP.
• Data collection of Green industry structure in terms of intermediate demand, import, value-added andemployment and spilt of ISIC into green and conventional industries (Small sample survey of Green
industry from Ghana Statistical service business register (out of a total of 638,000 establishments).
• Data collection of additional labour, social and environmental statistics, cleaning and interpolation inconcordance with ISIC and Green Industry extension of SUT/IOT.
Page | 299

•
•
•
•
•
•
10.2.2••••••Yearly SUT/IOT baseline business as usual projection up to next 10-15 years, such as up to 2030 oraligning to the national development plan, using IMF or another forecast.
Review of climate and green policies, developing several scenarios and quantification of those in termsof investment and final demand up to 2030.
Yearly SUT/IOT ‘green’ projection up to 2030 using IMF forecast but modelling structural shift andconsidering quantified green and climate policies.
Analysis of employment, social and the environment, such as CO2 outcomes of policies, a model report ina spreadsheet, a summary of the report and technical report.
Report and relevant policy briefs.
Presentation and discussion of results in a national workshop.
Targeted Groups for the Presentations and Discussion of the Findings:
NDPC Commissioners
Media
Parliamentary Select Committees on Environment; Employment; Energy; and Land;
Economic Management Team
Financial, Investment and Pensions Institutions; and theLeaderships of relevant Workers and Employment Organisations

Page | 300

Constraints, gaps, related financial,technical and capacity needs

Source: https://unsplash.com/photos/Y5biRJCR-Q4 Kakum Canopy, Cape Coast, Ghana

Page | 301

11. Updates on Financial, Technical and Capacity Needs
The preparation of the national communication has been beneficial in many ways to Ghana. First and foremost,the involvement of national experts in the compilation processes has led to substantial capacity improvements
in climate change. Since 2000, more than 100 experts have received training on the UNFCCC guidelines forthe preparation of national communication. It has also contributed to raising a high level of awareness andvisibility of key climate change issues. Besides, national communication helps to highlight the critical problems
for policy-makers to act on.
One unique characteristic of the national communication process is the ability to use the networks that havebeen created over the past ten years to collect feedback on ways to improve the national communication
process continuously. It is also possible to use the existing network to monitor the implementation of activities
and measures envisaged under the convention and the challenges confronting them. Nonetheless, the country
faces technical and financial difficulties in implementing climate change activities and preparing national
communications. In this regard, the EPA conducted a national survey to collect data on constraints and gaps
in implementing climate change activities and the preparation of the national communication. The exercise
revealed a wide range of issues in the following areas:
11.1 Financial Constraints, Gaps, and Needs
Access to finance and capacities are vital ingredients for climate actions and reporting. They are critical aidsin implementing climate interventions and preparing national communications. Therefore, during the survey,
stakeholders pinpointed some of the significant financial and capacity needs the NC4 must highlight asfollows:•

Difficulty in tracking climate financial inflows – several organisations in the country receive climate
funding from multiple sources that do not pass through the Ministry of Finance. It is because most of
the programmes take place at different levels and unless it is held at the national level, it is difficult
to track. The Ministry of Finance and the EPA are putting in place a national climate finance tracking
tool that would sufficiently track all climate support expenditure from the Ghana government anddonors. So far, the Ministry of Finance is finalising the work on developing budget codes formonitoring government expenditure on climate change. The EPA has incorporated the climate financeportal into the climate change hub.

•Duplication of activities and funding – weak institutional coordination within government and among
donors, leads to duplication of climate change interventions, and in most cases, resources are notapplied to where they are needed most. In Ghana, regular sharing of information among donors isalready paying off in building synergies and avoiding duplication.

•

Lack of transparency on reporting on non-financial support for training and technical assistance– It
is difficult to monitor and report non-monetary supports. Many institutions receive training andtechnical assistance support from donors without financial disclosure because the source of funding
is part of the global budget. When such situations arise, it becomes difficult to report because therecipient organisation does not have full access to the funding and accounting information.

Page | 302

•Inadequate financial allocation in national budget –funding for climate change activities, including
preparation of national communication in the country, is mostly donor-driven and project-based.
Domestic financing of climate change activities is difficult to estimate over a given time frame. Thisis because in the national budget, there is no clear demarcation of climate expenditure items, andthis leads to challenges in tracking actual expenditures during the implementation of climate change
activities and Programmes. The Ministry of Finance has collaborated with the ISSER, the University of
Ghana to undertake Climate Public Expenditure and Institutional Review (CPEIR), which is expected
to streamline how climate change expenditure issues are addressed.

11.2 Technical and Capacity Constraints and Gaps including Needs
Climate change capacity needs vary widely. In 2005, Ghana undertook capacity self-assessment for Global
Environmental Management with support from GEF. The assessment informed the selection of priority capacity
improvement areas in climate change that required considerable attention. The areas that were identified wereused in subsequent capacity planning in the country. Since then, many institutions have benefited from several
capacity development programmes (Table 86). Most of the programmes are either packaged into a moresignificant project or tailor-made to meet specific needs. The challenges that confront Ghana borders on theinability to monitor capacity and technical assistance regularly.
It, therefore, means that information on the capacity that is reported is not detailed enough to help in future
capacity planning. Additionally, there is a problem with retention of enhanced capacity and usually arises frominstitutions where individuals who received capacity leave their jobs without transferring the capacity toanother person. The country is currently making efforts to reduce the risk of creating gaps in institutions bymaking sure that at least two or more people benefit from training so that in the event one leaves, the other
can transit smoothly to take over.
Table 86: Summary of the technical and capacity constraints and gaps
Activity
Capacity needed
Capacity received
Use of 2006 IPCC
Data processing andTraining on AFOLU data collection
guidelines and ALU
management strategies
and management.
software for AFOLU GHG QA/QC Protocols &Workshop on QA/QC andAccounting
Management ofUncertainty Assessment.
Uncertainty Management
Development of LULUCF
standard operating procedures.

Improvements in GHG
national system

Strengthening national system
for GHG
GHG and mitigation action data
management and institutionalarrangement

Training on Land use mapping
using Google map engine tool.
Development of GHG Manual.
Development of QA/QC Plan andUncertainty Assessment Plan.
Establishment of an online climatechange data hub.
Development of sector-specific MRV.
Introduce corporate carbon
accounting to VRA.

Source of support
RRR+ Project,
Rainforest Coalition
Nations
Forest Carbon
Partnership Facility,
World BankWest Africa GHG
Management Project
Low Emission Capacity
Building Project, UNDPNDC Support
Programme, UNDPNDC Support
Programme, UNDP
Integrated Resource
and Resilience

Page | 303

NDC progress tracking tool

Development of marginal
abatement cost curve

Training on marginal
abatement curves

Continuous training of
GHG Experts

Training new technical expert
on GHG at the international
level
Improving on
emission baselines

Development of
mitigation scenario
for the non-energy sector
Climate impacts
assessment
Monitoring andevaluation of climate
adaptation actions

Use of statistical and dynamic
crop and hydrologicalmodelling model
Methodology for monitoring
adaptation action

Training on GACMO tool for thedevelopment of marginal abatement
curves
One expert participated intraining Annex 1 GHG review
and qualified as LULUCF reviewer
Training on mitigationassessment using LEAP-IBC tool

Planning, USAID, IRRP
NDC Support
Programme, UNDP and
ICAT Project
ICAT Project, UNEPDTU Partnership
UNFCCC GHG Review
Training Programme-

Stockholm
Environment Institute
(SEI)
-

-

-

11.3 GEF, Annex II Parties, multilateral/bilateral financial contributions
11.3.1 Data collection
The Government of Ghana and many donors have committed resources to support Ghana to meet the cost ofaddressing climate change. As a result, direct and indirect climate change supports had seen significant
increases in the last ten years in Ghana. Most of the support Ghana received came through several development
aid channels. Data on financial contributions from GEF, Annex II Parties, and multilateral/bilateral agencies
and the Government of Ghana have been collected through a national survey and the website of donors. The
data collected covered one hundred and one climate-specific projects (direct climate benefits) for the period
2011-2019. The projects that are not considered climate-relevant (indirect climate benefits) have been
excluded because of the lack of clarity on the definition of scope and sources of funding.
In future, Ghana is planning through the Ministry of Finance and the EPA to put in place an efficient tracking
and disclosure database system which would be available online. In the analysis of the data, the following
assumptions were made; (a) to ensure consistency in the unit of analysis, non-US dollar-denominated projects
have been converted to US$ using averages of exchange rates for each year and the period 2011 to 2019; (b)projects without adequate funding information are excluded; (c) for projects classified as active, “committedfund” is reported. Actual amounts disbursed may differ; (d) for projects classified as complete, total funds
disbursed is reported; and (e) projects that are less than US$ 30,000 are excluded because of incomplete data.
11.3.2 Analysis of financial contributions
The financial contributions have been analysed “with” and “without” loans, Ghana has contracted to invest in
the development of the gas industry. Except explicitly stated, all the financial flows are reported without theloan investment in the development of the national gas market. Total climate-related financial inflows for theperiod 2011-2019 amounts to US$ 15.5 billion (the equivalent of GHC 29.7 billion). The financial investmentin the natural gas industry development alone amounts to US$14.2 billion in three oil and gas fields andPage | 304

processing plants. When the loan investments in the natural gas industry development are excluded, total
climate inflows for the period hover around US$ 1.3 billion (GHC 2.5 billion). Of the total amount of climate
finance for the period, the grant component made up the largest share of 72.1% and followed by loans (19.1%),
national budget (8.5%) and result-based payments (0.4%)(Figure 102).
0.4%
8.5%
Grant
19.0%

Loan
National budget
72.1%

Result Based Payment

Figure 102: Share of climate financial inflows for the period 2012-2017

As shown in Table 87, the financial flows through bilateral channels were the largest (45.1%), followed bymultilateral (29%), global projects (11.6%), national funds (7.1%), GEF (4.4%). The remaining 2.8% are private
foundations (1.3%), private sector (0.13%) and technical cooperation (0.02%).
Table 87: Breakdown of climate change finance flows for the period 2011-2019
Climate finance flow channels
Grant
Loan
National budget

Result-based
payment

total

Bilateral
Adaptation
Adaptation (MOI**)
Mitigation
Mitigation (MOI)

591,529,884
7,979,847
1,113,558
516,648,586
48,581,393

591,529,884
7,979,847
1,113,558
516,648,586
48,581,393

SD* (MOI)
Co-financing
Mitigation
GEF
Adaptation
Adaptation (MOI)

17,206,500
58,366,182
13,418,182
70,00017,206,500
18,000,000
18,000,000
58,366,182
13,418,182
70,000

Enabling Activities
Mitigation
Global Project
Mitigation
Multilateral
Adaptation

1,678,000
43,200,000
152,000,000
152,000,000
125,348,308
22717296

Mitigation
Mitigation (MOI)

68499128.24
31020894

18,000,000
18,000,000

249,500,000
249500000-

5,200,000
5,200,000

1,678,000
43,200,000
152,000,000
152,000,000
380,048,308
22,717,296
323,199,128
31,020,894

Page | 305

Finance (MOI)
Adaptation (MOI)SD

938,679
68,96650,000938,679
68,96650,000SD (MOI)National Funds
Mitigation
Private Foundations
Adaptation (MOI)
Mitigation (MOI)

2,053,345
16,921,063
16,445,100
475,963

2,053,345
93,280,000
93,280,000
16,921,063
16,445,100
475,963

Private Sector
SD (MOI)
Technical Cooperation
Grand Total

1,700,000
1,700,000
249,000
946,114,437

93,280,000
93,280,000

249,500,000

111,280,000

1,700,000
1,700,000
249,000
1,312,094,437

5,200,000* SD: Sustainable development, **MOI: Means of Implementation

In terms of sectors, the energy sector is leading in the receipt of climate inflows. The total climate funds tothe sector projects over the eight years amounted to US$ 758.8 million, making up 57.8% of total funds
committed (Table 88). Almost all the funds allocated to the energy sector went to mitigation interventions.
The forestry sector is the second biggest recipient (25.7%) of the climate funds for the same period. In thesame vein, mitigation activities had more than the rest. Agriculture is the third biggest sector recipient ofclimate inflows over the same period.
Table 88: Overview of committed climate fund per sectors
Sectors
Adaptation Adaptation
Enabling
MOI
Activities
Agriculture
18,844,847
Development
6,000,000
Planning
Education
16,509,965
EnergyEnvironment
11,054,629
1,142,558
1,678,000

Mitigation
31,550,004

Mitigation
MOI
392,000

756,060,574

2,720,000
3,787,633

Finance

5,000,000

Forestry

45,100.00

Health1,918,182

Interior

5,162,667

268,717,135

Transport

Finance
MOI

SD

SD MoI

50,00018,059,84
52,900,000

50,00020,959,84
5

938,679

68,178,616

90,000,000

Water

1,384,000

Grand Total

44,364,324

17,697,623

1,678,000

1,146,327,714

80,078,250

938,679

Generally, there is considerable disparity between mitigation and adaptation of the climate fund allocations.
Mitigation inflows constituted 87.4% of the climate inflows, followed by adaptation (3.4%). The remainder
went into supporting means of implementation activities, especially capacity-building efforts. Table 89
indicates that the majority (92%) of the climate flows went through government organisations. Out of the totalthat was committed to the government, the public cooperation and the ministries received the largest share.

Page | 306

Besides, international NGOs operating in the country and the Universities followed with 3.3% and 2.6% shares
respectively. Regarding their status, about 75% of the projects are still under implementation. Also, 23.5% of
the projects are closed, whereas 1.6% is planned.
Table 89: Breakdown of the committed climate funds according to institutions
Organisations
Project status
ActiveComplete
Phased-out
Government Corporations
708,742,004
252,244,849
Government Ministries
199,890,834
14,250,312
3,527,571
70,000Total
Pipeline
10,400,000
9,147,317
1,100,000

971,386,853
226,816,034

Government Regulators
International NGO
NGO International
NGO Local
PrivateResearch National

18,213,657
5,500,000
9,100,224
3,500,000
658,716

7,974,990

19,383,657
5,500,000
42,705,624
521,0633,500,000
8,633,706

University
Total

33,606,500
979,211,935

41,000308,707,614

33,647,500
1,312,094,437

33,605,400
521,0633,527,571

20,647,317

Page | 307

12. Concluding Remarks
Preparing the NC4 had been another opportunity to fortify the national arrangements for climate reporting.
On this reporting round, more institutions and experts joined the NC4 to provide data and underwent training
in the country and abroad. The training covered topics on vulnerability and adaptation assessment, GHG
emission projections and evaluation of mitigation actions. Despite taking the initial commendable steps todevolve climate reporting to the relevant key line ministries, the institutionalisation process has not reached
the desirable levels. So, during the NC4, the team took meaningful steps to get the line ministries toincorporate climate reporting into their annual work plans.
Another critical area that the preparation process afforded the team to focus on is the strategies for the policy
uptake of the NC4 findings. This issue is vital when it comes to the discussion of the long-term sustainabilityof climate reporting. About the way forward, the team considered two aspects. First, the NC4 methodology andfindings must be credible before policy-makers can confidently use them to inform policy. The team also
recognised that NC4 results must be properly packaged for widespread dissemination to create the desired
awareness among policy-makers so they can factor them into future climate policy planning. In this regard,
the team plans to vigorously engage the potential users of the NC4 on how best to package the findings for
future use, including through the preparation of infographics for dissemination. Additionally, there will be
policy engagements with key stakeholders.
High-integrity data and adequate financing are the lifelines for the regular preparation of national
communications. Regarding access to data, Ghana would continue to support the effort at strengthening thenational data platforms and work closely with the Ghana Statistical Service to improve regular data collection.
The GEF enabling fund is the primary funding source for the preparation of the national reports. Presently,
Ghana does not provide direct funding to support national communications but covers some of the operational
cost through in-kind contributions. The current level of funding arrangement is not enough to cover the fullcosts of running an efficient national system that can produce high-quality national reports timeously. In the
coming years, Ghana would consider applying for a medium-size project fund window from GEF or develop a
specific project proposal to seek funding from other donors to complement the GEF funding. Another option
Ghana is considering is the possibility to raise funding from the national budget through collaboration withthe key line ministries and the Ministry of Finance.

Page | 308

13. Annexes
13.1 Annex 1: Summary Table A (2016)
Emissions(Gg)
Categories

Emissions
CO2 Equivalents (Gg)

Emissions(Gg)

Net CO2

CH4

N2O

HFCs

PFCs

SF6

NOx

CO

NMVOCsBC

PM2.5

Total National Emissions and Removals

27,285.46

309.9924.86

613.0033.32-

121.26

1,751.42

270.49234.80598.86

1 - Energy

13,973.47

31.34

1.24

-

-

-

97.21

1,207.71

261.00234.53594.74

1.A - Fuel Combustion Activities

13,965.23

30.58

1.24

-

-

-

97.21

1,207.71

261.00234.53594.74

1.A.1 - Energy Industries

5,098.01

1.70

0.23

9.16

320.71

108.181.29

8.88

1.A.2 - Manufacturing Industries and Construction

1,065.70

0.31

0.04

7.73

37.35

5.36

23.85

1.66

1.A.3 - Transport

6,918.61

1.68

0.68

66.52

270.64

37.41

87.76

236.001.A.4 - Other Sectors

882.90

26.89

0.28

13.80

579.01110.05

121.63348.20

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1.A.5 - Non-Specified

-

-

-

1.B - Fugitive emissions from fuels

8.24

0.76

0.0001---

1.B.1 - Solid Fuels

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1.B.2 - Oil and Natural Gas

8.24

0.76

0.0001----

1.B.3 - Other emissions from Energy Production

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1.C - Carbon dioxide Transport and Storage

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1.C.1 - Transport of CO2

-

-

-

-

-

1.C.2 - Injection and Storage

-

-

-

-

-

1.C.3 - Other

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

2 - Industrial Processes and Product Use

394.89--613.00

33.32

-

-

-

-

-

2.A - Mineral Industry

334.08

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

2.A.1 - Cement production

21.85

-

-

-

-

2.A.2 - Lime production

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

312.23

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

2.A.3 - Glass Production
2.A.4 - Other Process Uses of Carbonates-

2.A.5 - Other (please specify)

-

-

-

2.B - Chemical Industry

-

-

-

-

-

-

Page | 309

2.B.1 - Ammonia Production

-

-

-

-

2.B.2 - Nitric Acid Production

-

-

-

-

-

2.B.3 - Adipic Acid Production

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

2.B.4 - Caprolactam, Glyoxal and Glyoxylic Acid Production
2.B.5 - Carbide Production--

2.B.6 - Titanium Dioxide Production-

2.B.7 - Soda Ash Production-

2.B.8 - Petrochemical and Carbon Black Production

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

2.C - Metal Industry

58.74

-

-

-

33.32

-

-

-

-

-

2.C.1 - Iron and Steel Production

3.87

-

-

-

-

-

2.C.2 - Ferroalloys Production

-

-

-

-

-

-

2.C.3 - Aluminium production

54.86

-

-

-

-

2.C.4 - Magnesium production

-

-

-

-

-

-

2.C.5 - Lead Production-

2.C.6 - Zinc Production-

2.B.9 - Fluorochemical Production
2.B.10 - Other (Please specify)

33.32

2.C.7 - Other (please specify)

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

2.D - Non-Energy Products from Fuels and Solvent Use

2.08

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

2.D.1 - Lubricant Use

2.08

-

-

-

-

2.D.2 - Paraffin Wax Use

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

2.D.3 - Solvent Use
2.D.4 - Other (please specify)

-

-

-

2.E - Electronics Industry

-

-

-

2.E.1 - Integrated Circuit or Semiconductor

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

2.E.2 - TFT Flat Panel Display

-

-

-

-

-

-

2.E.3 - Photovoltaics

-

-

-

-

-

2.E.4 - Heat Transfer Fluid

-

-

-

-

2.E.5 - Other (please specify)

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

2.F - Product Uses as Substitutes for Ozone Depleting Substances

-

-

-

613.00

-

-

-

-

-

-

2.F.1 - Refrigeration and Air Conditioning-

613.00----2.F.2 - Foam Blowing Agents

-

-

-

-

-

2.F.3 - Fire Protection

-

-

-

-

-

-

Page | 310

2.F.4 - Aerosols

-

-

-

-

-

2.F.5 - Solvents

-

-

-

-

-

-

2.F.6 - Other Applications (please specify)

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

2.G - Other Product Manufacture and Use

-

-

-

-

-

-

2.G.1 - Electrical Equipment

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

2.G.2 - SF6 and PFCs from Other Product Uses

-

-

-

-

-

-

2.G.3 - N2O from Product Uses

-

-

-

-

-

2.G.4 - Other (Please specify)

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

2.H - Other

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

2.H.1 - Pulp and Paper Industry

-

-

-

-

-

-

2.H.2 - Food and Beverages Industry

-

-

-

-

-

-

2.H.3 - Other (please specify)
3 - Agriculture, Forestry, and Other Land Use
3.A - Livestock

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

12,908.42

156.76

21.69

-

-

-

22.00

527.75---121.14

3.03

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

3.A.1 - Enteric Fermentation

114.66

3.A.2 - Manure Management

6.48

3.03

-

-

3.B - Land12,872.05

-

-

-

-

3.B.1 - Forest land

(4,668.07)

-

-

-

-

3.B.2 - Cropland

8,331.46

-

-

-

-

3.B.3 - Grassland

8,804.18

-

-

-

-

3.B.4 - Wetlands

30.48

-

-

-

-

3.B.5 - Settlements

173.75----

3.B.6 - Other Land200.25

3.C - Aggregate sources and non-CO2 emissions sources on land

36.37

3.C.1 - Emissions from biomass burning
3.C.2 - Liming
3.C.3 - Urea application

-

-

-

-

35.62

18.66

25.18

1.42

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

22.00

527.75

-

-

22.00

527.75

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

36.37

-

-

-

-

3.C.4 - Direct N2O Emissions from managed soils

13.36

-

-

-

-

3.C.5 - Indirect N2O Emissions from managed soils

3.68

-

-

-

-

3.C.6 - Indirect N2O Emissions from manure management

0.19

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

3.C.7 - Rice cultivations

10.44

3.C.8 - Other (please specify)
3.D - Other

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Page | 311

3.D.1 - Harvested Wood Products-

3.D.2 - Other (please specify)

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

4 - Waste

8.68

121.89

1.93

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

4.A - Solid Waste Disposal

-

55.01

-

-

4.B - Biological Treatment of Solid Waste

-

2.45

0.15

-

-

-

2.06

15.96

9.49

0.27

-

-

-

-

-

-

4.C - Incineration and Open Burning of Waste

8.68

2.75

0.04

-

-

-

2.06

15.96

9.49

0.27

4.D - Wastewater Treatment and Discharge

-

61.69

4.E - Other (please specify)

-

-

1.75

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

5 - Other-

5.A - Indirect N2O emissions from the atmospheric deposition of nitrogen in NOx and NH3

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

5.B - Other (please specify)

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

International Bunkers

346.560.0031

0.01

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1.A.3.a.i - International Aviation (International Bunkers)

339.06

0.002

0.01

-

-

-

-

1.A.3.d.i - International water-borne navigation (International bunkers)

7.50

0.001

0.0002----

1.A.5.c - Multilateral Operations

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

4.12
4.12

Memo Items (5)

-

-

-

Page | 312

13.2 Annex 2: Energy sectoral table (2016)
Emissions
(Gg)
CO2

CH4

N2O

C0

BC

NOx

NMVOC

PM2.5

1 - Energy

Categories

13,973.47

31.34

1.24

912.21116.25109.16202.37300.92

1.A - Fuel Combustion Activities

13,965.23

30.58

1.24

912.21116.25109.16202.37300.92

1.A.1 - Energy Industries

5,098.01

1.698

0.23

320.801.29

9.13

108.188.88

1.A.1.a - Main Activity Electricity and Heat Production

4,785.57

0.16

0.03

1.75

0.67

8.41

0.12

0.32

1.A.1.a.i - Electricity Generation

4,785.57

0.16

0.03

1.75

0.67

8.41

0.12

0.32

1.A.1.a.ii - Combined Heat and Power Generation (CHP)

-

-

-

-

-

1.A.1.a.iii - Heat Plants

-

-

-

-

-

1.A.1.b - Petroleum Refining

252.700.007

0.00130.12

0.00180.12

0.00004-

1.A.1.c - Manufacture of Solid Fuels and Other Energy Industries

59.74

1.53

0.20

318.940.63

0.59

108.07

8.56

1.53

0.20

318.940.63

0.59

108.07

8.56

1.A.1.c.ii - Other Energy Industries

59.74

0.0018524

0.000326

0

-

-

-

-

1.A.2 - Manufacturing Industries and Construction

1,065.70

0.31

0.04

40.061625.33417.82469

6.083

4.53

0.000180.000020.004020.118525

0.031280.00150.027389

-

-

-

-

-

2.71035

1.486875

0.09233

0.3831-

1.A.1.c.i - Manufacture of Solid Fuels

1.A.2.a - Iron and Steel
1.A.2.b - Non-Ferrous Metals
1.A.2.c - Chemicals

6.68

0.01930.0026

1.A.2.d - Pulp, Paper and Print

4.31

0.00010.000020.00270.000262

0.01

0.00060.010619

1.A.2.e - Food Processing, Beverages and Tobacco

93.38

0.20790.028030.26110.281384

1.10261

4.16230.381761

1.A.2.f - Non-Metallic Minerals

-

-

-

-

-

1.A.2.g - Transport Equipment

-

-

-

-

-

1.A.2.h - Machinery

-

-

-

-

-

1.A.2.i - Mining (excluding fuels) and Quarrying

694.740.028130.00563

0.61878

19.38524.8096

0.2344-

1.A.2.j - Wood and wood products

32.20

0.001300.00026

0.02868

0.004986

0.222940.01090.203526

1.A.2.k - Construction

163.350.006610.00132

0.14549

0.025293

1.13086

0.05511.0323811

1.A.2.l - Textile and Leather

7.80

0.02490.00333.494421.698952

0.11188

0.49370.0092812

1.A.2.m - Non-specified Industry

58.73

0.02140.00302.796092.332629

0.30850.7414-

1.A.3 - Transport

6,918.61

1.68000.6837272.92987.3847

83.1755

40.1217292.0438

Page | 313

1.A.3.a - Civil Aviation

56.72

0.00040.00160.03570.17281.25111.4405

3.1024

1.A.3.a.ii - Domestic Aviation

56.72

0.000400.00160.03570.172769

1.251081.4405

3.102408

1.A.3.b - Road Transportation

5,918.52

1.63

0.32

269.75

87.02

66.52

37.32

239.16

1.A.3.b.i - Cars

2,844.40

0.935

0.137

126.932

37.73230.81917.986123.231

1.A.3.b.i.1 - Passenger cars with 3-way catalysts

129.99

0.047

0.02

11.28

0.42

1.25

1.44

7.33

1.A.3.b.i.2 - Passenger cars without 3-way catalysts

2,714.42

0.89

0.12

115.65

37.31

29.57

16.55

115.901.A.3.b.ii - Light-duty trucks

922.07

0.167

0.069

33.84815.64610.142

4.675

41.054

1.A.3.b.ii.1 - Light-duty trucks with 3-way catalysts

37.21

0.02

0.00

3.23

0.12

0.36

0.41

2.10

1.A.3.b.ii.2 - Light-duty trucks without 3-way catalysts

884.86

0.15

0.07

30.62

15.52

9.78

4.26

38.95

1.A.3.b.iii - Heavy-duty trucks and buses

1,235.64

0.09

0.07

29.42

30.67

16.74

4.50

23.16

1.A.3.b.iv - Motorcycles

916.410.44

0.04

1.A.3.a.i - International Aviation (International Bunkers) (1)

79.55

2.97

8.82

10.16

51.71

1.A.3.b.v - Evaporative emissions from vehicles

-

-

-

-

-

1.A.3.b.vi - Urea-based catalysts

-

-

-

-

-

1.A.3.c - Railways

941.96

0.05

0.36

3.14

0.15

15.37

1.36

49.71

1.A.3.d - Water-borne Navigation

1.41

0.00010.00004

0.00320.03690.03440.00120.07431.41

0.000130.00004

0.00325

0.036930.034430.00120.074306

1.A.3.e - Other Transportation

-

-

-

-

-

1.A.3.e.i - Pipeline Transport

-

-

-

-

-

1.A.3.e.ii - Off-road

-

-

-

-

-

278.41

2.24

9.03

47.98

-

1.A.3.d.i - International water-borne navigation (International bunkers) (1)1.A.3.d.ii - Domestic Water-borne Navigation

1.A.4 - Other Sectors

882.90

26.89

0.28

1.A.4.a - Commercial/Institutional

36.94

1.12

0.01

19.06

0.13

0.40

1.26

-

1.A.4.b - Residential

436.67

25.72

0.27

259.35

2.11

8.64

46.72

-

1.A.4.c - Agriculture/Forestry/Fishing/Fish Farms

409.290.0577515

0.003465

-

-

-

-

-

1.A.4.c.i - Stationary

0.43

0.00010.000003

-

-

-

-

-

1.A.4.c.ii - Off-road Vehicles and Other Machinery

170.530.02390.0014

-

-

-

-

-

1.A.4.c.iii - Fishing (mobile combustion)

238.340.03380.0020

-

-

-

-

-

1.A.5 - Non-Specified

-

-

-

-

1.A.5.a - Stationary

-

-

-

-

1.A.5.b - Mobile

-

-

-

-

-

Page | 314

1.A.5.b.i - Mobile (aviation component)

-

-

-

-

-

1.A.5.b.ii - Mobile (water-borne component)

-

-

-

-

-

1.A.5.b.iii - Mobile (Other)

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1.A.5.c - Multilateral Operations (1)(2)
1.B - Fugitive emissions from fuels

8.24

0.76

0.0001

1.B.1 - Solid Fuels

-

-

-

-

-

-

1.B.1.a - Coal mining and handling

-

-

-

-

-

-

1.B.1.a.i - Underground mines

-

-

-

-

-

-

1.B.1.a.i.1 - Mining

-

-

-

-

-

-

1.B.1.a.i.2 - Post-mining seam gas emissions

-

-

-

-

-

-

1.B.1.a.i.3 - Abandoned underground mines

-

-

-

-

-

-

1.B.1.a.i.4 - Flaring of drained methane or conversion of methane to CO2

-

-

-

-

-

-

1.B.1.a.ii - Surface mines

-

-

-

-

-

-

1.B.1.a.ii.1 - Mining

-

-

-

-

-

-

1.B.1.a.ii.2 - Post-mining seam gas emissions

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1.B.1.b - Uncontrolled combustion and burning coal dumps
1.B.1.c - Solid fuel transformation

-

-

-

-

1.B.2 - Oil and Natural Gas

8.24

0.75990.0001----

1.B.2.a - Oil

8.24

0.76

0.00013

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

8.24

0.01

0.0001

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1.B.2.a.iii.1 - Exploration

-

-

-

-

1.B.2.a.iii.2 - Production and Upgrading

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1.B.2.b.i - Venting

-

-

-

-

1.B.2.b.ii - Flaring

-

-

-

-

1.B.2.a.i - Venting
1.B.2.a.ii - Flaring
1.B.2.a.iii - All Other

0.75

1.B.2.a.iii.3 - Transport
1.B.2.a.iii.4 - Refining

0.75

1.B.2.a.iii.5 - Distribution of oil products
1.B.2.a.iii.6 - Other
1.B.2.b - Natural Gas

0.00

0.0020-Page | 315

1.B.2.b.iii - All Other

-

-

-

-

1.B.2.b.iii.1 - Exploration

-

-

-

-

1.B.2.b.iii.2 - Production

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1.B.2.b.iii.6 - Other

-

-

-

-

1.B.3 - Other emissions from Energy Production

-

-

-

-

1.B.2.b.iii.3 - Processing

0.00

0.000820

0.00201.406E-06--

1.B.2.b.iii.4 - Transmission and Storage
1.B.2.b.iii.5 - Distribution

0.00006

0.00204-

1.C - Carbon dioxide Transport and Storage

-

-

-

-

-

1.C.1 - Transport of CO2

-

-

-

-

-

1.C.1.a - Pipelines

-

-

-

-

-

1.C.1.b - Ships

-

-

-

-

-

1.C.1.c - Other (please specify)

-

-

-

-

-

1.C.2 - Injection and Storage

-

-

-

-

-

1.C.2.a - Injection

-

-

-

-

-

1.C.2.b - Storage

-

-

-

-

-

1.C.3 - Other

-

-

-

-

-

Page | 316

13.3 Annex 3: IPPU sectoral table (2016)(Gg)
Categories

CO2 Equivalents (Gg)

CH4

N2O

HFCs

PFCs

2 - Industrial Processes and Product Use
2.A - Mineral Industry

394.81334.08--613.00-33.319---2.A.1 - Cement production
2.A.2 - Lime production

21.85
-

2.A.3 - Glass Production
2.A.4 - Other Process Uses of Carbonates

312.23

-

-

-

-

-

-

2.A.4.a - Ceramics
2.A.4.b - Other Uses of Soda Ash

0.02

2.A.4.c - Non-metallurgical Magnesia Production
2.A.4.d - Other (please specify)

312.22

2.A.5 - Other (please specify)
2.B - Chemical Industry

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

33.32

-

-

2.B.1 - Ammonia Production
2.B.2 - Nitric Acid Production

SF6

Other halogenated gaseswith CO2 equivalent
conversion factors

CO2-

2.B.3 - Adipic Acid Production
2.B.4 - Caprolactam, Glyoxal and Glyoxylic Acid Production-

2.B.5 - Carbide Production
2.B.6 - Titanium Dioxide Production--

2.B.7 - Soda Ash Production
2.B.8 - Petrochemical and Carbon Black Production--

2.B.8.a - Methanol
2.B.8.b - Ethylene--

2.B.8.c - Ethylene Dichloride and Vinyl Chloride Monomer
2.B.8.d - Ethylene Oxide--

2.B.8.e - Acrylonitrile
2.B.8.f - Carbon Black--

2.B.9 - Fluorochemical Production
2.B.9.a - By-product emissions

-

-

-

2.B.9.b - Fugitive Emissions
2.B.10 - Other (Please specify)
2.C - Metal Industry
2.C.1 - Iron and Steel Production

58.65
3.79

-

2.C.2 - Ferroalloys Production
2.C.3 - Aluminium production

54.86

-

2.C.4 - Magnesium production
2.C.5 - Lead Production-

2.C.6 - Zinc Production
2.C.7 - Other (please specify)-

2.D - Non-Energy Products from Fuels and Solvent Use
2.D.1 - Lubricant Use

2.08
2.08

2.D.2 - Paraffin Wax Use
2.D.3 - Solvent Use-

2.D.4 - Other (please specify)
2.E - Electronics Industry
2.E.1 - Integrated Circuit or Semiconductor

-

-

-

33.32
-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Page | 317

2.E.2 - TFT Flat Panel Display-

2.E.3 - Photovoltaics
2.E.4 - Heat Transfer Fluid
2.E.5 - Other (please specify)
2.F - Product Uses as Substitutes for Ozone Depleting Substances
2.F.1 - Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
2.F.1.a - Refrigeration and Stationary Air Conditioning

-

-

-

-

613.00

-

-

-

-

-

-

613.00613.00----2.F.1.b - Mobile Air Conditioning
2.F.2 - Foam Blowing Agents-

2.F.3 - Fire Protection
2.F.4 - Aerosols-

2.F.5 - Solvents
2.F.6 - Other Applications (please specify)

-

-

-

-

-

2.G.1.a - Manufacture of Electrical Equipment
2.G.1.b - Use of Electrical Equipment--

2.G.1.c - Disposal of Electrical Equipment
2.G.2 - SF6 and PFCs from Other Product Uses

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

2.G - Other Product Manufacture and Use
2.G.1 - Electrical Equipment

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

2.G.2.a - Military Applications
2.G.2.b - Accelerators
2.G.2.c - Other (please specify)
2.G.3 - N2O from Product Uses

-

-

-

2.G.3.a - Medical Applications
2.G.3.b - Propellant for pressure and aerosol products-

2.G.3.c - Other (Please specify)
2.G.4 - Other (Please specify)-

2.H - Other
2.H.1 - Pulp and Paper Industry

-

-

-

-

-

2.H.2 - Food and Beverages Industry
2.H.3 - Other (please specify)

Page | 318

13.4 Annex 4: AFOLU sectoral table (2016)(Gg)
Categories

3 - Agriculture, Forestry, and Other Land Use
3.A - Livestock
3.A.1 - Enteric Fermentation
3.A.1.a - Cattle

Net CO2emissions /removals

CH4

N2O

NOx

CO

NMVOCs12,908.42-

156.76121.14

21.73
3.07

0
0

0
0

0
0

-

114.66
56.27

-

-

-

-

Emissions3.A.1.a.i - Dairy Cows
3.A.1.a.ii - Other Cattle

56.27

-

-

-

3.A.1.b - Buffalo
3.A.1.c - Sheep

23.72

-

-

-

3.A.1.d - Goats
3.A.1.e - Camels

33.70
-

-

-

-

3.A.1.f - Horses
3.A.1.g - Mules and Asses

0.05
0.15

-

-

-

3.A.1.h - Swine
3.A.1.j - Other (please specify)

0.78
-

-

-

-

3.A.2 - Manure Management (1)3.A.2.a - Cattle

-

6.48
1.82

3.07
1.36

-

-

-

3.A.2.a.i - Dairy cows
3.A.2.a.ii - Other cattle

1.82

1.36

-

-

-

3.A.2.b - Buffalo
3.A.2.c - Sheep

0.95

0.71

-

-

-

3.A.2.d - Goats
3.A.2.e - Camels

1.48
-

0.95
-

-

-

-

3.A.2.f - Horses
3.A.2.g - Mules and Asses

0.01
0.02

0.00
0.00

-

-

-

3.A.2.h - Swine
3.A.2.i - Poultry

0.78
1.43

0.02
0.03

-

-

-

3.A.2.j - Other (please specify)
3.B - Land12,872.05

-

-

-

-

-

3.B.1 - Forest land
3.B.1.a - Forest land Remaining Forest land

(4,668.07)(3,562.51)

-

-

-

-

-

3.B.1.b - Land Converted to Forest land
3.B.1.b.i - Cropland converted to Forest Land

(1,105.57)(465.91)

-

-

-

-

-

3.B.1.b.ii - Grassland converted to Forest Land
3.B.1.b.iii - Wetlands converted to Forest Land(603.22)(1.24)---

3.B.1.b.iv - Settlements converted to Forest Land
3.B.1.b.v - Other Land converted to Forest Land(31.84)(3.37)---

3.B.2 - Cropland3.B.2.a - Cropland Remaining Cropland

8,331.46(506.42)

-

-

-

-

-

3.B.2.b - Land Converted to Cropland3.B.2.b.i - Forest Land converted to Cropland

8,837.88
10,334.45

-

-

-

-

-

3.B.2.b.ii - Grassland converted to Cropland3.B.2.b.iii - Wetlands converted to Cropland(1,182.72)
2.17

-

-

-

3.B.2.b.iv - Settlements converted to Cropland3.B.2.b.v - Other Land converted to Cropland(302.83)(13.19)---3.B.3 - Grassland
3.B.3.a - Grassland Remaining Grassland

8,804.18
0

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Page | 319

3.B.3.b - Land Converted to Grassland

8,804.18---

3.B.3.b.i - Forest Land converted to Grassland
3.B.3.b.ii - Cropland converted to Grassland

10,847.35(1,951.47)

-

-

-

3.B.3.b.iii - Wetlands converted to Grassland
3.B.3.b.iv - Settlements converted to Grassland(8.59)(52.51)---3.B.3.b.v - Other Land converted to Grassland
3.B.4 - Wetlands(30.59)
30.48

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

3.B.4.a - Wetlands Remaining Wetlands
3.B.4.a.i - Peatlands remaining peatlands

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

3.B.4.a.ii - Flooded land remaining flooded land
3.B.4.b - Land Converted to Wetlands

30.48

3.B.4.b.i - Land converted for peat extraction
3.B.4.b.ii - Land converted to flooded land-

3.B.4.b.iii - Land converted to other wetlands
3.B.5 - Settlements

30.48
173.75

3.B.5.a - Settlements Remaining Settlements
3.B.5.b - Land Converted to Settlements

173.75

3.B.5.b.i - Forest Land converted to Settlements
3.B.5.b.ii - Cropland converted to Settlements

88.98
71.54

-

-

-

3.B.5.b.iii - Grassland converted to Settlements
3.B.5.b.iv - Wetlands converted to Settlements

13.23
-

-

-

-

3.B.5.b.v - Other Land converted to Settlements
3.B.6 - Other Land200.25

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

3.B.6.a - Other land Remaining Other land
3.B.6.b - Land Converted to Other land

200.25

3.B.6.b.i - Forest Land converted to Other Land
3.B.6.b.ii - Cropland converted to Other Land

136.04
37.22

-

-

-

3.B.6.b.iii - Grassland converted to Other Land
3.B.6.b.iv - Wetlands converted to Other Land

26.99
-

-

-

-

3.B.6.b.v - Settlements converted to Other Land
3.C - Aggregate sources and non-CO2 emissions sources on land (2)36.37

3.C.1 - Emissions from biomass burning
3.C.1.a - Biomass burning in forest lands-

3.C.1.b - Biomass burning in croplands
3.C.1.c - Biomass burning in grasslands
3.C.1.d - Biomass burning in all other land
3.C.2 - Liming
3.C.3 - Urea application
3.C.4 - Direct N2O Emissions from managed soils (3)

-

35.62

18.65

-

-

-

25.18
2.30

1.42
0.21

-

-

-

14.17
8.71

0.42
0.79

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

36.37
13.36
3.68

3.C.5 - Indirect N2O Emissions from managed soils
3.C.6 - Indirect N2O Emissions from manure management

0.19

3.C.7 - Rice cultivations
3.C.8 - Other (please specify)
3.D - Other
3.D.1 - Harvested Wood Products
3.D.2 - Other (please specify)

10.44
-

-

-

Page | 320

13.5 Annex 5: Waste sectoral table (2016)
Emissions [Gg]
Categories
4 - Waste
4.A - Solid Waste Disposal

CO2

CH4

N2O

NOx

CO

8.68
-

121.89
55.01

1.93
-

-

-

NMVOCs
-

-

-

-

-

4.A.1 - Managed Waste Disposal Sites
4.A.2 - Unmanaged Waste Disposal Sites
4.A.3 - Uncategorised Waste Disposal Sites
4.B - Biological Treatment of Solid Waste

SO2
-

2.45

0.15

-

-

-

-

4.C - Incineration and Open Burning of Waste
4.C.1 - Waste Incineration

8.68
2.16

2.75
0.02

0.04
0.00

-

-

-

-

4.C.2 - Open Burning of Waste
4.D - Wastewater Treatment and Discharge

6.52
-

2.73
61.69

0.04
1.75

-

-

-

-

32.04
29.65

1.75

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

4.D.1 - Domestic Wastewater Treatment and Discharge
4.D.2 - Industrial Wastewater Treatment and Discharge
4.E - Other (please specify)

Page | 32113.6 Annex 6: Multi-decade minimum and maximum temperature trends

Page | 322

Page | 323

13.7 Annex 7: Analysis of committed bilateral financial flows for the reporting period 2011-2019
Name of Project

SectorClimaterelevance

Promotion of integrated
approaches for climate risk
management and transfer
Energizing Development(EnDEV) - Energy Access
Program
Adaptation of AgroEcological Systems to
Climate Change
PEER Science Project

Multiple

Ghana Energy
Development and Access
Project (GEDAP)
Millennium Development
Challenge AccountCompact 2 – Ghana Power
Pact
Energy, Poverty and Genderin Agro Processing (EPGAP)
Developing Sustainable
Energy Value Chains in Fish
Smoking Markets in Ghana
Integrated Clean
Cookstoves and Biomass
Fuel Market Assessment
Project
Solar Lantern Saving
scheme for Ghana

Means of
Implementation (MoI)

Recipient

Start
Date

End Date

Donor Institution

Implementing
AgencyChannel

Adaptation

MoF

2015

2018

BMUB, Germany

GIZ

Bilateral

Unknown

EnergyMitigation

SNV

2006

2018

BMZ, Germany

GIZ

Bilateral

Unknown

Grant

Agriculture

Adaptation

MoFA

2012

2017

BMUB, Germany

GIZ

Bilateral

3,448,276

Grant

ActiveEducation

UCC

2012

2014

Bilateral

41,000

Grant

Complete

ECG

2007

2017

USAID, UnitedStates
Switzerland

USAID

EnergyAdaptation
MoI
Mitigation

WB

Bilateral

11,000,000

Grant

Complete

EnergyMitigation

Ministry ofEnergy20142019

United States

MiDA

Bilateral

498,200,000

Grant

ActiveNational Energy
PolicyEnergyMitigation

SNV

2014

2015

Netherlands

SNV

Bilateral

517,241

Grant

ActiveEnergyMitigation

SNV

2014

2015

Netherlands

SNV

Bilateral

747,126

Grant

ActiveRenewable Energy
Act
Renewable Energy
Act

EnergyMitigation

SNV

2014

2015

Netherlands

Bilateral

206,897

Grant

ActiveRenewable Energy
Act

EnergyMitigation

SNV

2014

2015

Netherlands

Sustainable
EnergySolutions for
AfricaSustainable
EnergyBilateral

206,897

Grant

ActiveRenewable Energy
Act

Capacity
Building

Amount(US$)

Type

StatusSupporting Policies

ActiveFASDEP 2

National Energy
PolicyFASDEP 2

National climatechange policy
Renewable Energy
Act

Page | 324

Energy, Poverty and Gender(EnPoGen)
Ghana Climate Innovation
Centre (GCIC)

EnergyMitigation

Environment

Sustainable Dev. MoIFinance

Ghana Climate Change andEnvironmental GovernanceGreen Facility

Environment

Technical
Assistance
Finance

Forest Preservation
Programme
Coastal Sustainable
Landscapes Project
Does shifting Carbon Use
Efficiency determine thegrowth rates of intact anddisturbed tropical forests?
Gathering new evidence
from African forests
Mapping forest landscaperestoration in Ghana
Pro-poor REDD+ initiativein Ghana
Facilitating countries andcommunities in the designof pro-poor REDD+ Benefit
Sharing Schemes
Towards Pro-Poor REDD+
Project (Phase II):
Promoting Rights-based
Approaches to Strengthen
the Conservation,

Forestry

Mitigation
MoI
Mitigation
MoI
Mitigation
MoI
Mitigation

Forestry

Mitigation
MoI

Finance

Forestry

Mitigation
MoI
Mitigation
MoI
Mitigation
MoI

Finance

Mitigation
MoI

Finance

Environment

Forestry

Forestry
Forestry

Forestry

Technical
Assistance

FinanceFinance

Solutions for
AfricaSNV

Bilateral

172,414

Grant

Complete

SNV

2013

2013

Netherlands

Ashesi Uni.
SNV, EY,
UNU-INRA
MESTI

2014

2019

DANIDA,
Denmark

WB

Bilateral

17,206,500

Grant

ActiveRenewable Energy
Act
Climate finance

2012

2013

DFID

Bilateral

274,075

Grant

Complete

Climate strategy

MESTI

2011

2014

DFID, United
Kingdom
Denmark

Bilateral

96,000

Grant

Complete

Climate strategy

FC

2012

2014

Japan

UNEP-DTU
Partnership
JICA

Bilateral

8,500,000

Grant

Complete

US$A/USAI
D
FORIG

2013

2016

United States

USAID

Bilateral

3,500,000

Grant

Active20112014

NaturalEnvironment
Research
Council, United
Kingdom

Bilateral

134,280

Grant

Complete

National Forest &Wildlife Policy
Forest and Wildlife
PolicyNational Forest &Wildlife Policy

IUCNGhana
IUCNGhana
IUCNGhana

2010

2012

Germany

GIZ

Bilateral

97,701

Grant

Complete

2009

2012

Denmark

DANIDA

Bilateral

504,598

Grant

Complete

2013

2015

Germany

Bilateral

703,448

Grant

ActiveIUCNGhana

2014

2017

Denmark

Bilateral

3,961,655

Grant

ActiveNational Forest &Wildlife Policy
National Forest &Wildlife Policy
National Forest &Wildlife Policy

National Forest &Wildlife Policy

Page | 325

Governance andSustainable Managementof Landscapes in
Cameroon, Ghana,
Guatemala, Papua Provinceof Indonesia and Uganda
Advancing REDD+:
mobilising private
investment for communitybased, carbon-intensive
landscape restoration
Climate Change Adaptationin Northern Ghana
Assets Creation for
Resilience
Advancing REDD+:
Mobilising private
investment for thecommunity - based,carbon-intensive landscaperestoration NORAD PILAR)
Support transition towards
climate-smart agriculture
food system
REDD+ benefit-sharing
Project
Towards Pro-Poor REDD+
Project
Partnership for
Productivity, Protection &Resilience in Cocoa
Landscapes (PPPRCL)
Operationalising National
Safeguards for Results-

Forestry

Mitigation
MoI

Water

Adaptation

Agriculture

Adaptation

Forestry

Finance

Construction

Mitigation
MoI

Finance

Agriculture

Adaptation

Forestry

Mitigation
MoI
Mitigation
MoI
Mitigation

Forestry
Agriculture/Forestry

Forestry

Mitigation

IUCNGhana

2013

2015

Norway

WRC

2009

2012

Denmark

MOFA

2013

2017

Government of
CanadaIUCNGhana

2013

Finance

MoFA

2015

2017

Finance

IUCNGhana
IUCNGhana
SNV,
NCRC, FC
and
Touton
SNV

2013
2013

Finance2017

Bilateral

658,949

Grant

ActiveNational Forest &Wildlife Policy

DANIDA

Bilateral

884,000

Grant

Complete

WFP

Bilateral

Grant
Grant

Phasedout
Complete

National Water
PolicyNational Water
PolicyNational Forest &Wildlife Policy

3,527,571.00
NORAD

Bilateral464,330.00

NorwayFAO

Bilateral

120000

Grant

Complete

2017

BMUM

Bilateral

772230

Grant

Complete

2017

DANIDA

Bilateral

Grant

Complete
ActiveNational Forest &Wildlife Policy
National Forest &Wildlife Policy
REDD+ strategy

ActiveREDD+ strategy

31,594,127

2015

2018

DFID,
United Kingdom

Touton SA

Bilateral

BMZ, Germany

SNV

Bilateral

Grant
496,315

Page | 326

Based Payments from
REDD+
Full Sun to Shaded Cocoa
Agroforestry Systems(SCAFS)
Forest Governance, Markets
and Climate

Forestry

Mitigation

SNV

2016

2018

BMZ, Germany

SNV

Bilateral

Grant

ActiveREDD+ strategy

ActiveForest and Wildlife
PolicyGrant

ActiveNational climatechange policy

Grant

Complete

National climatechange policy

1,601,697
Forestry

Mitigation

Nationally determined
contribution-support
programme (NDC-SP)
UN CC: Learn Initiative

Environment

Mitigation
MoI

Capacity
Building

Environment

Green Cooling Initiative I

IPPU

Adaptation
MoI
Mitigation

Green Cooling Initiative II

IPPU/Energy

Mitigation

Capacity
Building
Technology
transfer/capaci
ty building
Technology
transfer/capaci
ty building

Forestry
Commissio
n
MESTI

2011

2021

UKAID, United
Kingdom

DFID

Bilateral

2017

2019

Germany

UNDP

Bilateral

MESTI

2015

2017

Switzerland

UNDP

Bilateral

EPA/MESTI

2016

2018

BMUB, IKI

GIZ

Bilateral

1,072,558.00
Unknown

EPA/MESTI

2018

2021

BMUB, IKI

GIZ

Bilateral

Unknown

820,000

Page | 327

13.8 Annex 8: Analysis of committed multilateral financial flows for the reporting period 2011-2019
Name of Project

SectorClimaterelevance
Adaptation

Type of
MoI

RecipientType institution

CARE Adaptation
learning programme for
Africa
CLIMAFRICA Project

Development
Planning

Ghana Energy
Development and Access
Project GEDAP (formerly)
Development ofRenewable Energy andEnergy Efficiency
Ghana Energy
Development and Access
Project GEDAP (formerly)
Development ofRenewable Energy andEnergy Efficiency
Ghana Energy
Development and Access
Project GEDAP (formerly)
Development ofRenewable Energy andEnergy Efficiency
Ghana Energy
Development and Access
Project GEDAP (formerly)
Development ofRenewable Energy andEnergy Efficiency

Start
Date
2010

End
Date
2014

Donor
Institution
DFID, DANIDA,
Finland

Implementing
AgencyDFID

Channel

Care
International

Research,
National

Education

Adaptation
MoI

Capacity
Building

Mitigation

CSIR, CRI,SRI & FORIG
for Ghana
ECG

EnergyEnergyMitigation

EnergyEnergyMultilateralAmount(US$)
6,000,000

Research,
National

2010

2014

European
Union

Govt.
Implementation

2007

2017

ECG

Govt.
Implementation

2007

Mitigation

ECG

Govt.
Implementation

Mitigation

ECG

Govt.
Implementation

StatusComplete

EU

Multilateral

68,966

Complete

FASDEP 2

IDA

WB

Multilateral

100,000,000

Complete

Renewable
Energy Act

2017

Africa Catalytic
Growth Fund

WB

Multilateral

50,000,000

Complete

Renewable
Energy Act

2007

2017

AFDB

AFDB

Multilateral

18,250,000

Complete

Renewable
Energy Act

2007

2017

GlobalPartnership on
output-based
aid

WB

Multilateral

6,250,000

Complete

Renewable
Energy Act

Page | 328

Supporting
Policies
National climatechange policy

China-Ghana SouthSouth Cooperation on
Renewable Energy
Technology Transfer
Institutional Support to
the Implementation of
the Sustainable Energy
for All (SE4ALL) Action
Plan
Low Emission Capacity
Building Project (LECBP)
Africa Adaptation
Programme
Integrating Green
Economy into Ghana's
Medium-Term
Development Plan
Facilitating
Implementation &Readiness For Mitigation
Green Climate Fund
Readiness Programme
Increased Resilience to
Climate Change inNorthern Ghana Throughthe Management Of
Water Resources andDiversification ofLivelihoods”
Support for Development
and Operation of
COCOBOD’s Ghana Cocoa
Platform

EnergyMitigation
MoI

Finance

Ministry ofEnergyGovt. Regulatory

2015

2018

Denmark

UNDP

Multilateral

2,720,000

ActiveRenewable
Energy Act

EnergyMitigation

FinanceEC

Govt. Regulatory

2013

2018

UNDP

UNDP

Multilateral

730,000

ActiveNational Energy
PolicyEnvironment

Mitigation
MoI
Adaptation

Finance

MESTI

Govt. Ministry

2013

2017

UNDP

Multilateral

1,072,558

ActiveClimate strategy

Finance

EPA

Govt. Regulatory

2010

2013

EC, Germany,
Australia
Japan

UNDP

Multilateral

2,760,657

ActiveClimate strategy

Environment

Sustainable
Dev.

Finance

MESTI

Govt. Ministry

2014

2015

Netherlands

UNDP

Multilateral

50,000

ActiveNational
Environment
PolicyEnvironment

Mitigation
MoI

Finance

MESTI

Govt. Ministry

2013

2015

Denmark

UNEP/DTU

Multilateral

300,000

ActiveClimate strategy

Environment

SD MoI

Finance

MESTI

Govt. Ministry

2015

2016

Germany

Multilateral

853,345

Pipeline

Climate finance

Environment

Adaptation

MESTI

Govt. Ministry

2015

2019

Adaptation
Fund Board

UNDP/UNEP/W
RI
UNDP

Multilateral

8,293,972

Pipeline

National Water
PolicyFinance

SD MoI

Cocoa Board

Govt.
Implementation

2013

2015

UNDP/UNREDD and
Mondelēz
Cocoa Life.

UNDP

Multilateral

1,200,000

ActiveNational Forest& Wildlife
PolicyEnvironment

Finance

Page | 329

Natural Resource andEnvironmental
Governance Program
Technical Assistance
Forest Investment
Program (FIP)

Finance

Mitigation
MoI

Forestry

Forest Investment
Program (FIP)

Technical
Assistance

MoF

Govt. Regulatory

2014

2016

World BankWB

Multilateral

5,000,000

ActiveNaturalResource
Sectors

Mitigation

MLNR

Govt. Ministry

2015

2020

WB

Multilateral

29,500,000

ActiveForestry

Mitigation

MLNR

Govt. Ministry

2015

2020

AFDB

Multilateral

15,000,000

ActiveForest Investment
Program (FIP)

Forestry

Mitigation

MLNR

Govt. Ministry

2015

2020

IFC

Multilateral

10,000,000

ActiveREDD+ R-PP
Implementation

Forestry

Mitigation
MoI

FinanceFC

Govt.
Implementation

2010

2013

ClimateInvestment
Funds
AfricaDevelopment
Fund
ClimateInvestment
Funds
Word Bank,
FCPF

WB

Multilateral

3,400,000

ActiveFCPF REDD+ Readiness
Additional financing

Forestry

Mitigation
MoI

FinanceFC

Govt.
Implementation

2015

2017

Word Bank,
FCPF

WB

Multilateral

5,200,000

Pipeline

Ghana Cocoa REDD+
Programme

Forestry

Mitigation

FC

Govt.
Implementation2015

20162036

World BankWB

Multilateral

5,200,000

Pipeline

Advancing REDD+ in
Ghana: Preparation of
REDD Pilot schemes in
Off-Reserve Forests andAgro-Forests
Reducing Emissions from
Deforestation and Forest
Degradation throughCollaborative
Management with Local
Communities

Forestry

Mitigation
MoI

Finance

FORIG

Research
National

2013

2014

ITTO

ITTO

Multilateral

366,954

Complete

National Forest& Wildlife
PolicyNational Forest& Wildlife
PolicyNational Forest& Wildlife
PolicyNational Forest& Wildlife
PolicyNational Forest& Wildlife
PolicyNational Forest& Wildlife
PolicyNational Forest& Wildlife
PolicyForestry

Mitigation

Finance

FORIG

Research
National

2010

2014

ITTO

ITTO

Multilateral

760,408

Complete

Page | 330

National Forest& Wildlife
PolicyCapacity building for
CDM forestry in theframework of SFM
emphasizing community
forests and poverty
alleviation in Ghana
REDD
throughstakeholder engagement

Forestry

Mitigation
MoI

Forestry

Mitigation

Community Resiliencethrough Early Warning

Interior

Adaptation

Ghana Urban Transport

Transport

Ghana Urban Transport
ForestCarbonPartnership Facility
Ghana Forest Investment
Programme
Capacity Building forTransparency Initiative(CBIT)
Environmentally
Sustainable Production
Practices in Cocoa
Landscapes (ESP II)
Advocacy and capacity
building for disaster risk
reduction andpreparedness in Ghana
Green Climate Fund
Readiness Programme

FORIG

Research
National

2011

2014

ITTO

ITTO

Multilateral

CSIR-FORIG

Research
National

2009

2012

ITTO

ITTO

Multilateral

NADMO

Govt.
Implementation

2012

2017

NorwayUNDP

Mitigation

MoT

Govt. Ministry

2005

2015

FDA

Transport

Mitigation

MoT

Govt. Ministry

2005

2015

Forestry

Mitigation
MoI
Mitigation
MoI
Mitigation
MoI

FC

Govt. Regulatory

2015

COCOBOD,
MLNR, FC
EPA

Govt.
Implementation
Govt. Regulatory

Agriculture/
Forestry
Environment

FinanceFinance

Capacity
Building

644,382

Complete

National Forest& Wildlife
Policy658,716

ActiveMultilateral

5,162,667.00

Complete

WB

Multilateral

20,000,000

ActiveIDA

WBMultilateral

45,000,000

Active2018

FCPF

World Bank

Multilateral

5,200,000

ActiveNational Forest&
Wildlife
PolicyNational
Disaster
Risk
Reduction
Action Plan
National
Transport Policy
National
Transport Policy
REDD+ strategy

2015

2020

CIF

Multilateral

392,000

Active

2019

2021

GEF

World Bank/
AfDB
UNEP

Multilateral

1,100,000

Pipeline

Nationallydetermined
contributions
FASDEP 2,
REDD+ Strategy

Agriculture/
Forestry

Mitigation

Ghana Cocoa
Board

Govt.
Implementation

2016

2020

Mondelēz
Cocoa Life

UNDP

Multilateral

1,850,004

ActiveWater

Adaptation

NADMO

Govt.
Implementation

2015

2016

World Bank

UNDP

Multilateral

500,000

Complete

National
Adaptation
Strategy

FinanceFinance MoI

MESTI

Govt. Ministry

2015

2017

BMUB

UNDP

Multilateral

938,679

Complete

National climatechange policy

Finance

Page | 331

Dedicated Grant
Mechanism for Local
Communities
Ghana Energy Sector
Transformation Initiative
Project
Initiative on Climate
Action Transparency

Forestry

Mitigation
MoI

EnergyMitigation

Environment

Mitigation
MoI

Capacity
Building

Capacity
Building

Solidaridad

International
NGO

2017

Unkno
wn

World BankWorld Bank

Multilateral

5,500,000

ActiveREDD+ strategy

MOE

Govt. Ministry

2018

2022

World BankWorld Bank

Multilateral

20,000,000

ActiveNational Energy
PolicyEPA

Govt. Regulatory

2017

2019

MultipledonorsUNEP DTU
Partnership

Multilateral

125,000

ActiveNational climatechange policy

Page | 332

13.8 Annex 9: Analysis of GEF financial flows for the reporting period 2011-2019
Name of Project

SectorExpanded Sustainable Landand Water Management
Project
Promoting the value chain
approach to climate change
adaptation in Ghana
Ghana Energy Development
and Access Project GEDAP(formerly) Development ofRenewable Energy andEnergy Efficiency
Technology Needs
Assessment (TNA) update
Third National
Communication to UNFCCC
First Biennial Update Report
to UNFCCC
Climate Change and Health
Project
Ghana Urban Transport
Fourth National
Communication/BUR2 to
UNFCCCCapacity Building Initiative
for Transparency

Type of
MoI

Recipient

Start Date

End

Donor
Institution
GEF

Amount(US$)
29,700,000

Type

StatusSupporting policies

2020

Implementing
AgencyWB

Agriculture

MESTI

2011

Grant

ActiveFASDEP 2

Agriculture

MoFA_RTIMP

2012

2017

IFAD

GEF /IFAD

11,500,000

Grant

Complete

FASDEP 2

Energy

ECG

2007

2017

WB

GEF

6,500,000

Grant

Complete

Renewable Energy Act

Environment

Finance

EPA

2012

2013

UNEP/DTU

GEF

70,000

Grant

Complete

Climate strategy

Environment

Finance

EPA

2011

2014

UNEP

GEF

500,000

Grant

ActiveClimate strategy

Environment

Finance

EPA

2013

2014

UNEP

GEF

352,000

Grant

ActiveClimate strategy

MoH

2010

2013

UNDP

GEF

1,918,182

Grant

Complete

National Adaptation Strategy

MoT
EPA

2005
2016

2015
2019

WB
UNEP

GEF
GEF

7,000,000
826,000

Grant
Grant

ActiveActiveNational Transport Policy
Climate strategy

EPA

2020

2022

UNEP

GEF

1,100,00

Grant

ActiveClimate strategy

HealthTransport
Environment

Environment

Capacity
Building
Capacity
Building

Page | 333

13.10 Proposed projects for funding
Project idea - Rainwater collection from ground surfaces
Project description - Provision of 100 run-off storage facilities (dug-outs and small reservoirs) each of 1 million m3
maximum storage capacity for 100 rural communities to provide water for such multiple uses as domestic, livestock
watering, vegetable irrigation, fish production and other income-generating activities in the communities.
Targets – 100 mainly farming rural communities and fisher folks in the Savannah regions (the three northern regions
and the Coastal Savannah regions) of the country
Duration - Ten years
Total Cost - US US$ 12.2 million
Proposed funding sources
Authority (SADA)- Government of Ghana, Development partners, Savannah Accelerated Development

Project deliverables- 100 dugouts/small reservoirs;- 100 community management committees trained in water systems management and maintenance; and- 500 artisans trained in maintenance works
Main activities to implement the project- Project co-ordination setup- Selection of sites, feasibility studies and design of the runoff collection systems- Construction of 100 run-off storage facilities- Ensuring post-construction management and maintenance system,- Sensitisation and awareness creation in beneficiary communities and district assemblies- Setup and training of water systems management committees in the communities- Training of artisans for systems maintenance- Setup and training of monitoring and supervisory teams at the district assemblies
Stakeholder mapping- Project co-ordination - MLGRD- Project monitoring and evaluation (MWRWH as lead; other members from MLGRD, MESTI, WRC, GIDA and
EPA)- Beneficiary communities - for direct management, operation and maintenance of the systems- District Assemblies – for training, monitoring and supervision of communities

Page | 334

Project idea: Post-construction support (PCS) for community-managed water systems
Project description - Empowering rural communities to properly manage to operate and maintain their water systems
through technical training and capacity building in financial and systems management at the district and community
levels.
Targets - Rural communities made up of mainly farmers and fisherfolks across the country with active water systems
for multi-use.
Duration - Five (5) years
Total Costs - US$ 12.2 million
Proposed funding sources - Government of Ghana, Development partners, Savannah Accelerated Development
Authority (SADA)
Project deliverables• 500 rural communities trained in the technical and financial aspects of management, operation andmaintenance of multi-use community water resource systems;• Start-up capital provided to 500 rural communities for emergency water systems repairs;• Monitoring and supervisory teams, set up at the district assemblies to monitor and supervise communities
in the use and management of their water systems
Main activities to implement the project• Selection of communities and water systems, identification of training needs of district assemblies,
developing technical procedures/manuals for water facility operations and management, developing bookkeeping and financial procedures/manuals;• Training district assemblies and communities;• Setup of management systems including coordination, monitoring and evaluation at all levels – community,
district, regional and national;• Provision of starter capital for the 500 communities.
Stakeholder mapping• Project co-ordination – Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development (MLGRD)• Project monitoring and evaluation (Ministry of Water Resources and Sanitation as lead; other members from
MLGRD, MESTI, WRC, GIDA and CWSA)• Beneficiary communities - for direct management, operation and maintenance of the systems.
• District Assemblies – for training, monitoring and supervision of communities.

Page | 335

Project idea - CBEA model in Ghana nationwide, training community-based extension agents for the transfer ofknowledge and innovation into agricultural practices
Target - Crop and livestock farmers, fisherfolks and other agricultural producers in rural communities
Duration - Five years
Total Costs - US$ 13 million
Proposed funding Sources- Government of Ghana and development partners
Project Deliverables- 500 rural communities participating in the CBEA project- 5,000 CBEA trained in their agricultural practices and providing extension services to other farmers intheir communities.
- Farmers in the project communities benefiting from the community-based extension services.
- Publications on the CBEA project
Main activities to implement the project- Selection of 500 communities in all the ten regions of Ghana to participate in the project;- Identification and selection of CBEAs to be trained for the various communities;- Training of agricultural extension officers in the regions and respective districts;- Training of CBEAs for the communities;- Facilitating the extension service provision of the CBEAs in their communities;- Setting up of project office for co-ordination, monitoring and evaluation at all levels – community, district,regional and national.
- Research and development to support the extension services.
Stakeholder mapping- Project co-ordination – Ministry of Food and Agriculture- Oversee implementation of the project in communities – District Assemblies- Research and development – Research team from research institutes and universities- Organisation of targeted agricultural producers – beneficiary communities

Page | 336

Project idea - Demand- and Supply-Side Measures for Adapting the National Energy System to Impacts of Climate
ChangeProject Context - Ghana’s energy supply is vulnerable to climate change. At present, 67% of electricity generation
comes from hydropower and by 2020 as much as 41% could still be derived from hydropower. This dependence onhydropower also makes it vulnerable to fluctuations in supply due to changes in annual precipitation and increased
evapotranspiration. At the same time, hydroelectric generation limits the country’s vulnerability to oil price shocks aswell as its greenhouse gas emissions. This project proposes both demand-side measures, through increased efficiencyof electricity use, and supply-side measures, through increased use of low-head run-of-river hydro and otherrenewable energy sources, to make the national electricity supply more resilient to climate change.
Rationale and Justification - The electricity supply is currently vulnerable to climate change. At present 67% ofelectricity generation in the country is from hydropower. The vulnerability of the hydroelectric sector to climatechange is highlighted by the output of hydroelectricity in 2003, a mainly dry year. The output was 3,885 GWh, orabout 60% of the level of 6,610 GWh in 2000, which was a relatively wet year. An emergency supply of thermallygenerated electricity was brought online in 2003 to compensate for the decrease in hydroelectric generation partially.
If average rainfall decreases, and temperature increases, as is expected under climate scenarios, then runoff would
decrease, with consequences for hydroelectric generation. According to the National Energy Plan for 2006-2020, theelectricity supply is expected to continue to rely heavily on hydropower into the future, even as demand expands andthe electricity supply becomes diversified. In the scenario where the contribution is lowest, 31% of electricity would
be generated from hydropower in 2020. However, the Plan did not take reduced runoff through climate change into
account, and instead maintained the installed capacity at a constant level in the simulations. Despite the upgrade of
the turbines at the Akosombo hydroelectric dam, which increased output, changes in average annual flow from climatechange could make it challenging to meet the National Energy Plans goals.
Project Description - The proposed project focuses primarily on small-scale initiatives through the off-grid generationand efficiency improvements. These initiatives should lead to an improved economic situation for the potential
beneficiary, which raises the question of why the beneficiaries have not made the necessary investments themselves.
The reason is that both off-grid generation and efficiency improvements represent investments that have multi-year
payback periods. Where capital is scarce, and access to credit is limited, it is not sufficiently economically attractive
to make the necessary investments.
Overall goal and objectives - The overall goal is to enhance the resilience of the national energy systems to climatechange impacts through the implementation of demand and supply-side measures. Within the pilot communities, theobjectives are to:- Increase the use of off-grid alternative energy resources;- Increase the use of efficient domestic appliances;- Develop low-head run on hydroelectric river schemes.
At the national and system level, the objective is to encourage large-scale energy conservation
Development context - This project supports one of the strategic targets in the National Energy Plan for 2006-2020,
which is that by 2020 there would be 100% universal electrification, with 30% penetration of rural electrification via
renewable energy technologies. The project is geared toward increasing the resilience of both local communities andthe national electricity supply through diversification of energy supply and increased efficiency. While the focus ison adapting to climate change, the proposed measures would make the system more resilient to current climate
variability, changes in trans-boundary river flow, and fluctuations in global energy prices. The environmental impactsof the proposed activities should be minimal compared to alternative electricity generation options but are stillpresent.
Page | 337

Short-term output - Short-term outputs refer to the outputs produced during the project, which is expected to run
for five years-

Run-of-river hydro implemented in five communities;
Buy-back scheme for inefficient appliances;
Provide off-grid wind and solar installations;
Rural energy-efficiency improvement scheme;
Whole-Country Educational Programme on Energy Efficiency Labelling.

Duration: 5 years implementation-horizon. This is a conservative estimate.
Financial resources - Conservative cost estimates of the project (investment, implementation and transaction costs)
ranges between US$ 4million and US$ 5million.
Stakeholders - Ministry of Power, Volta River Authority, Environmental Protection Agency, Electricity Company of
Ghana, Ghana GRIDCo Company and District Assemblies.

Page | 338

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