Chapter 7: Wetlands

CHAPTER 7

WETLANDS

2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories

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Volume 4: Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use

Authors
P ea t land S ec t i o n
Dominique Blain (Canada), Clark Row (USA), Jukka Alm (Finland), Kenneth Byrne (Ireland), and Faizal Parish(Global Environment Centre, Malaysia)
Flooded Land Sectio n
Section based on the IPCC Good Practice Guidance for LULUCF
Append ix 2 – Possib le app roach fo r estima ting CO 2 em is s ion s f rom la nd s co nv e r ted top erma nently Flooded Land: Basis for future methodological development
Éric Duchemin (Canada), Jari T. Huttunen (Finland), Alain Tremblay (Canada), Robert Delmas (France), andCarlos Frederico Silveira Menezes (Brazil)
Append ix 3 CH 4 Em i ss io n s f ro m F lo o d ed La nd: Ba s is f o r f ut ur e me t ho d o log i ca ld ev e lo p m ent
Éric Duchemin (Canada), Jari T. Huttunen (Finland), Alain Tremblay (Canada), Robert Delmas (France), andCarlos Frederico Silveira Menezes (Brazil)

Contributing Authors
Tatiana Minayeva (Russian Federation), Luis Pinguelli Rosa (Brazil), and Andrey Sirin (Russian Federation)

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2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories

Chapter 7: Wetlands

Contents
7

Wetlands
7.1

Introduction ...........................................................................................................................................7.5

7.2

Managed Peatlands................................................................................................................................7.8

7.2.1

Peatlands Remaining Peatlands.....................................................................................................7.8

7.2.1.1

CO2 emissions from Peatlands Remaining Peatlands ..............................................................7.8

7.2.1.2

Non-CO2 emissions from Peatlands Remaining Peatlands ....................................................7.14

7.2.1.3

Uncertainty assessment..........................................................................................................7.16

7.2.2

7.3

Land Being Converted for Peat Extraction..................................................................................7.17

7.2.2.1

CO2 emissions on lands being converted for peat extraction.................................................7.17

7.2.2.2

Non-CO2 emissions from lands being converted to managed peatlands................................7.19

7.2.2.3

Uncertainty assessment..........................................................................................................7.19

Flooded Land ......................................................................................................................................7.19

7.3.1

Flooded Land Remaining Flooded Land .....................................................................................7.20

7.3.2

Land Converted to Flooded Land................................................................................................7.20

7.4

7.3.2.1

CO2 emissions from Land Converted to Flooded Land .........................................................7.20

7.3.2.2

Non-CO2 emissions from Land Converted to Flooded Land.................................................7.21

7.3.2.3

Uncertainty assessment..........................................................................................................7.21

Completeness, Time series consistency, and QA/QC .........................................................................7.21

7.4.1

Completeness ..............................................................................................................................7.21

7.4.2

Developing a consistent time series.............................................................................................7.21

7.4.3

Quality Assurance and Quality Control (QA/QC).......................................................................7.22

7.4.4

Reporting and Documentation.....................................................................................................7.22

7.5

Future methodological development .................................................................................................. 7.22

References...............................................................................................................................................7.23

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Volume 4: Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use

Equations
Equation 7.1

CO2 emissions from wetlands................................................................................................7.7

Equation 7.2

CO2 emissions in peatlands during peat extraction................................................................7.9

Equation 7.3

CO2 –C emissions from managed peatlands (Tier 1).............................................................7.9

Equation 7.4

On-site soil CO2–C emissions from managed peatlands (Tier 1) .......................................7.11

Equation 7.5

Off-site CO2–C emissions from managed peatlands (Tier 1) .............................................7.11

Equation 7.6

On-site CO2–C emissions from managed peatlands (Tiers 2 and 3)...................................7.12

Equation 7.7

N2O emissions from peatlands during peat extraction.........................................................7.15

Equation 7.8

CO2 –C emissions in peatland being drained for peat extraction.........................................7.17

Equation 7.9

CO2 –C emissions from soils in peatland being drained for peat extraction.......................7.18

Equation 7.10 Annual change in carbon stocks in living biomass on land converted topermanently Flooded Land..................................................................................................7.20

FigureFigure 7.1

Decision tree to estimate CO2–C and N2O emissions from Peatlands
Remaining Peatlands ...........................................................................................................7.10

Tables

7.4

Table 7.1

Sections addressing major greenhouse gas emissions from managed wetlands ..................7.5

Table 7.2

Guidance on emissions from wetlands managed for other uses ...........................................7.6

Table 7.3

Ramsar classes of human-made wetlands..............................................................................7.6

Table 7.4

Emission factors for CO2–C and associated uncertainty for lands managed
for peat extraction, by climate zone.....................................................................................7.13

Table 7.5

Conversion factors for CO2–C for volume and weight production data .............................7.13

Table 7.6

Default emission factors for N2O emissions from managed peatlands................................7.16

2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories

Chapter 7: Wetlands

7 WETLANDS
7.1

INTRODUCTION

This chapter provides guidance on estimating and reporting greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from managed
wetlands. Wetlands include any land that is covered or saturated by water for all or part of the year, and that does
not fall into the Forest Land, Cropland, or Grassland categories. Managed wetlands will be restricted to wetlands
where the water table is artificially changed (e.g., drained or raised) or those created through human activity(e.g., damming a river). Emissions from unmanaged wetlands are not estimated.
Methodologies are provided for:

Peatlands cleared and drained for production of peat for energy, horticultural and other uses (Section 7.2).
The estimation methodology, although essentially the same as in the IPCC report on Good PracticeGuidance for Land use, Land-Use Change and Forestry (GPG-LULUCF), now includes emissions from theuse of horticultural peat.



Reservoirs or impoundments, for energy production, irrigation, navigation, or recreation (Section 7.3). The
scope of the assessment now includes CO2 emissions from all lands converted to permanently Flooded
Lands. Flooded Lands exclude regulated lakes and rivers unless a substantial increase in water area has
occurred.

For simplicity, the remainder of this section will refer to peatlands managed for peat extraction as peatlands, andlands flooded in reservoirs as Flooded Lands. Table 7.1 clarifies the scope of the assessment, and thecorresponding sections of this chapter.

TABLE 7.1
SECTIONS ADDRESSING MAJOR GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS FROM MANAGED WETLANDS
Land-use category/GHG

Peatlands

Flooded Land

CO2

Section 7.2.1.1

No Guidance 1

CH4

No Guidance 2

Appendix 3

N2O

Section 7.2.1.2

No Guidance 3

CO2

Section 7.2.2.1

Section 7.3.2.1 andAppendix 2

CH4

No Guidance 2

Appendix 3

N2O

Section 7.2.2.2

No Guidance 3

Wetlands Remaining Wetlands

Lands Converted to Wetlands

NOTES:
1

CO2 emissions from Flooded land Remaining Flooded land are covered by carbon stock change estimates of land
uses and land-use change (e.g., soils) upstream of the Flooded Land.

2

Methane emission from peatlands is negligible after drainage during conversion and peat extraction.

3

N2O emissions from Flooded Land are included in the estimates of indirect N2O from agricultural or other run-off,and waste water.

Wetlands are frequently managed for other uses, such as forest and grassland management, or croplands.
Scientific level of knowledge on greenhouse gas balances of different kind of wetlands is still, in general, rather
low and uncertain, but the area is continuously studied further (e.g., see papers in Boreal Env. Res. 11, 2006).
Table 7.2 indicates where to find the guidance relative to these managed wetlands.

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TABLE 7.2
GUIDANCE ON EMISSIONS FROM WETLANDS MANAGED FOR OTHER USES
Land-use category

Volume/Section in these Guidelines

Wetlands already converted or being converted to:
Cropland, including “bogs” for cranberry andother ericaceous fruits

Volume 4, Chapter 5 (Section 5.3)

Managed Grassland

Volume 4, Chapter 6 (Section 6.3)

Managed Forest Land, including drained orundrained forested wetlands according to national
definitions

Volume 4, Chapter 4 (Section 4.3)

Rice cultivation

Volume 4, Chapter 5 (Section 5.5)

Some uses of wetlands are not covered, because adequate methodologies are not available. These include manure
management ponds, industrial effluent ponds, aquaculture ponds, and rewetting of previously drained wetlands
or wetland restoration (see Section 7.5, Future methodological development). Countries where these activities
are significant should consider research to assess their contribution to greenhouse gas emissions or removals.
N2O emissions from wetlands managed for the filtration of non-point source agricultural effluents, such as
fertilizers and pesticides, are included in indirect emissions from soil amendments (Volume 4, Chapter 11).
Most ecological classifications of wetlands, including those of the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, consider
many of these lands as Wetlands, even those disturbed by human activities or artificially built. The Wetlands
classification adopted by the Ramsar Convention (Ramsar, 1996) is widely used to address management issues.
Table 7.3 relates wetland classes in this report to selected definitions in the Ramsar Convention.

TABLE 7.3
RAMSAR CLASSES OF HUMAN-MADE WETLANDSRAMSAR class

Corresponding wetlands sub-categories
in the IPCC terminology

Methodologicalguidance

Aquaculture

Flooded Land

No 1

Ponds

Flooded Land

No 1

CroplandNo 2

Rice Cultivation

Yes (Vol. 4, Chapter 5)

Salt exploitation sites

---

No 1

Water storage areas

Flooded Land

Yes (this chapter)

Excavations (partly)

Peatlands managed for peat extraction

Yes (this chapter)

Wastewater treatment areas“Constructed wetlands” or Waste Sector

No 3

--

No 3

Irrigated land (if cultivated)
Seasonally flooded agricultural land

Canals and drainage channels, ditches.
NOTES:
1

No suitable default methodologies are available for these sources.

2

The Cropland Chapter includes this source.

3

Emissions of CH4 and N2O from wastewater discharges to canals, rivers, lakes, seas, and drainage channels or ditches, as well as
wastewater treatment areas, are covered in Volume 5, Chapter 3 though any additional emissions from new wetlands are not.
Emissions of N2O from leachate of nitrogenous fertilisers are covered in Volume 4, Chapter 11.

Source: Ramsar, 1996

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2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories

Chapter 7: Wetlands

Greenhouse gas emissions and removals from wetlands
Wetlands are ecosystems where the biological and geochemical processes, and resulting greenhouse gas
emissions and removals, are controlled by the degree of water saturation as well as climate and nutrient
availability.
As in other ecosystems, a net carbon flux to or from the atmosphere is a result from the balance between carbon
uptake from the atmosphere by photosynthesis and its release as a result of decomposition. Both the rates of C
uptake and decay losses are influenced by climate, nutrient availability, water saturation or oxygen availability.
In aerobic conditions (abundant oxygen), which are prevalent in most upland ecosystems, decomposition
releases CO2; while CH4 emissions prevail in anaerobic conditions (Moore and Knowles, 1989).
In most wetlands, some 90 percent of the carbon in gross primary production returns to the atmosphere by decay(Cicerone and Oremland, 1988). The undecayed material sinks to the bottom of the water body and accumulates
on top of previously deposited material.
Under saturated conditions 1 or in flooded environments, the activity of aerobic bacteria and other decayorganisms is limited by oxygen availability. Anoxic (oxygen-depleted) conditions commonly found at thebottom of water bodies prevent further organic matter decomposition by these organisms. Other bacteria,
methanogens, sulfurgens and others, are able to decompose at least part of the organic matter, which results inemissions of CH4 and other gases. If the methane diffuses up through the water column or top layer of aerated
soil, still another group of bacteria, methanotrophs, partially oxidize the methane into CO2, before it escapes.
Generally, wetlands are a natural source of CH4, with estimated emissions of 55-150 Tg CH4 yr-1 (Watson et al.,2000).
Generally, N2O emissions from saturated ecosystems are very low, unless there is a sustained supply ofexogenous nitrogen. When wetlands, especially peatlands, are drained, N2O emission rates are largely controlled
by the provision of nitrogen by mineralization, hence by soil fertility. In minerotrophic (nutrient-rich) conditions,other controls such as pH, temperature and water level will regulate the nitrification of mineral nitrogen, and its
subsequent reduction into N2O (Klemedtsson et al., 2005; Martikainen et al., 1995).
In summary, wetland drainage results in a reduction of CH4 emissions, an increase in CO2 emissions due toincreased oxidation of soil organic material, and an increase in N2O emissions in minerotrophic wetlands.
Conversely, the creation of wetlands through flooding alters the pattern of greenhouse gas emissions towards
greater CH4 emissions and less CO2 emissions. Depending on climate and reservoir characteristics, both CO2
and CH4 can be emitted from the decay of submerged biomass, and the decomposition of inundated soil organic
matter and other dissolved organic matter particles.
Methodological issues more specific to the two types of managed wetlands are discussed in the corresponding
sections of this chapter.

Summary of what to report
Total CO2 emissions from wetlands are estimated as the sum of emissions from the two types of managed
wetlands (Equation 7.1).
EQUATION 7.1
CO2 EMISSIONS FROM WETLANDS
CO2 _ W = CO2 _ Wpeat + CO2 _ Wflood
Where:
CO2_W = CO2 emissions from wetlands, Gg CO2 yr-1
CO2_Wpeat = CO2 emissions from peatlands managed for peat production, Gg CO2 yr-1
CO2_Wflood = CO2 emissions from (lands converted to) Flooded Land, Gg CO2 yr-1
Because of the nature of organic soils, saturated soils, and water-covered surfaces, the CO2 estimation
methodology generally relies on the development of emission factors and information on biomass stocks on landprior to flooding. Some activities, e.g., vegetation removal and its subsequent burning on Land Being Converted
for Peat Extraction, result in emissions that can be estimated as carbon stock changes, in which case reference isprovided to the generic methods of Chapter 2.
A default methodology for N2O emissions is provided only for peatlands managed for peat extraction.
1

The soil is saturated when all the air space between soil particles is filled with water, resulting in anaerobic conditions.

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7.2

MANAGED PEATLANDS

Peat accumulates in wetlands when the annual generation of dead organic matter exceeds the amount that decays.
The pattern of peat deposit development varies with climate and hydrology and the succession of peatland types
on any area may be complex (Mitsch and Gosselink, 2000). Carbon sequestration may be only 20 to 50 kg/ha peryear (Watson et al., 2000), which is rather small as compared with crop harvest yields. Most peat deposits havebeen accumulating for several thousand years, and many have been accumulating since the last ice-age glacial
retreat more than 8000 years ago.
The production cycle on a peatland area has three phases (Canadian Sphagnum Peat Moss Association, 2004;
Nilsson and Nilsson, 2004):(i)

Land conversion in preparation for peat extraction: Conversion begins by constructing main andsecondary draining ditches that allow the water to drain out of the area. Once the water table starts
dropping, the surface biomass, including any trees or shrubs and the living layer of peat-producing
vegetation, is removed and destroyed. This phase may take several years. Peat extraction areas arealso established on areas drained previously for other purposes. In general, this needs only some
improvement or refining of the drainage pattern. The major greenhouse gas flux in this process is
CO2 emission from the removal of biomass and the decay of the drained peat. This phasecorrespond to land conversion to peatlands, and is covered in Section 7.2.2.

(ii)

Extraction: One type of extraction annually “mills” or breaks up the surface of the peat into
particles, which then dry during the summer months. The air-dried peat particles are then collected
and transported from the area to stockpiles. An older type of extraction cuts the surface of the peat
deposit into small blocks that are allowed to dry. Regardless of the extraction technology, the rateof drying and annual peat production increase with the frequency of dry weather conditions.
Extraction may continue 20 to 50 years before the economic depth of the peat deposit is reached.
The major greenhouse gas emissions in this phase are those from the decay of peat, both on-site(drained, exposed peat) and off-site (peat extracted and used elsewhere). This phase correspond to
Peatlands Remaining Peatlands, and is treated in Section 7.2.1.
Since emissions from peatlands undergoing extraction differ substantially in scale and type fromemissions from Land Being Converted for Peat Extraction, countries with an active peat industry
should separate their managed peatlands accordingly.

(iii)

Abandonment, restoration or conversion to other use: Peat extraction stops when it is no longer
profitable to extract peat from the deposit. Generally, greenhouse gas emissions from these lands
continue and should be reported following the guidance of Section 7.2.1 as long as the land is notconverted to another use. Since no methodology is provided to estimate greenhouse gas emissions
or removals from restored peatlands, countries with extensive restored peatlands may consider
developing or gathering the scientific information to support the development of greenhouse gas
estimation methodologies (see Section 7.5 Future Methodological Development). Cut-overpeatlands that are afforested or cultivated should be reported under Land Converted to Forest Land
(Chapter 4, Section 4.3) and Land Converted to Cropland (Chapters 5, Section 5.3).

Peatlands undergoing extraction (i.e., Peatlands Remaining Peatlands) will be considered first, similar to otherchapters but contrary to the usual sequence of peat production as mentioned above.

7.2.1

Peatlands Remaining Peatlands

This section covers emissions from peatlands undergoing active peat extraction. Use of peat is widely distributed:
about half is used for energy; the remainder for horticultural, landscape, industrial waster water treatment, andother purposes (International Peat Society, 2004). Techniques for extracting the peat from deposits are similar,
and all on-site sources of greenhouse gas emissions should be reported under this category regardless of the enduse of peat. Emissions from the off-site energy use of peat should be reported in the Energy Sector, and are notconsidered in this chapter.

7.2.1.1

CO 2 EMISSIONS FROM P EATLANDS R EMAINING
P EATLANDS

Estimating CO2 emissions from lands undergoing peat extraction has two basic elements: on-site emissions frompeat deposits during the extraction phase, and off-site emissions from the horticultural (non-energy) use of peat

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2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories

Chapter 7: Wetlands(Equation 7.2). Peat extraction starts with vegetation clearing (Section7.1), which prevents further carbon
sequestration, so only CO2 emissions are considered.

EQUATION 7.2
CO2 EMISSIONS IN PEATLANDS DURING PEAT EXTRACTION⎞⎟ • ⎛⎜ 44 ⎞⎟+ CO2 −CWW peat
CO2WW = ⎛⎜ CO2 −CWW peat
peat
off
−
site
on
−
site
⎝
⎠ ⎝ 12 ⎠Where:
CO2 WWpeat = CO2 emissions from land undergoing peat extraction, Gg CO2 yr-1
CO2–CWW peatoff-site = off-site CO2–C emissions from peat removed for horticultural use, Gg C yr-1
CO2–CWWpeat on-site = on-site CO2–C emissions from drained peat deposits, Gg C yr-1
Off-site CO2–C emissions are associated to the horticultural (non-energy) use of peat extracted and removed.
Off-site emissions from peat used for energy should be reported in the Energy Sector, and is therefore notincluded here.
Regardless of the end-use of peat, the choice of method, emission factors, and activity data for estimating the onsite emissions can be the same, so long as the data are disaggregated for type of peat, which is closely associatedwith nutrient level (rich and poor), and if appropriate climate zone.

CHOICE OF METHOD
Figure 7.1 presents the decision tree to estimate greenhouse gas emissions from peatlands.
Tier 1
A default methodology is provided that covers on-site CO2 emissions (without distinction between the phases ofpeat production), and the horticultural use of peat (Equations 7.3 to 7.5).

EQUATION 7.3
CO2 –C2 EMISSIONS FROM MANAGED PEATLANDS (TIER 1)

CO2 −CWWpeat = CO2 −CWW peatoff − site

+ CO2 −CWW peaton − site

Where:
CO2–CWWpeat = CO2 –C emissions from managed peatlands, Gg C yr-1
CO2–C WW peat on-site = on-site emissions from peat deposits (all production phases), Gg C yr-1
CO2–C WW peat off-site = off-site emissions from peat removed for horticultural use, Gg C yr-1
Equation 7.4 is applied to the total area of managed peatlands, including land being converted to peatlands andabandoned peatlands, unless abandoned peatlands were converted to another use, in which case emissions should
be attributed to the new land use, e.g., Cropland or Forest Land.
The Tier 1 methodology considers only emissions from biomass clearing. When the total area of managed
peatlands increases, conversion to peatland is occurring. The conversion of peatlands for peat extraction involves
clearing and removal of vegetation. The term ∆CWW peat B of Equation 7.4 is estimated as ΔCconversion, using
Equation 2.16 (Chapter 2 of this Volume). Other changes in C stocks in living biomass on managed peat lands
are assumed to be zero.

2

CO2–C refers to carbon emitted as CO2

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Volume 4: Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use

Figure 7.1

Decision tree to estimate CO 2 –C and N 2 O emissions from Peatlands
Remaining Peatlands

Start

Is detailed
information available onland conversion for peat extraction,
extraction methods, peat use, fertility,
and on-site
emissions?

Yes

Estimate emissions using
country-specificmethodology andemission factors (Tier 3).
Box 4: Tier 3NoAre
historicaland current data
available on the area of managed
peatlands and on peat
production?

Yes

Were
domestic studies
done on GHG emissions/removals on industrial
peatlands?

Yes

Estimate emissions
using default method
and country-specificdata (Tier2).
Box 3: Tier 2

No
No

Are
managed peatlands
a key category1?

No

Yes

Collect or compile historicaland current data from the national
peat industry, government
agency, or from the International
Peat Society

Estimate emissions
using default method
and emission factors
and national activity
data (Tier1).
Box 2: Tier 1

Estimate emissions
using default emission
factors and activity data
(Tier 1).
Box 1: Tier 1
Note:
1: See Volume 1 Chapter 4, "Methodological Choice and Identification of Key Categories" (noting Section 4.1.2 on limited resources), for
discussion of key categories and use of decision trees.

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Chapter 7: Wetlands

EQUATION 7.4
ON-SITE SOIL CO2–C EMISSIONS FROM MANAGED PEATLANDS (TIER 1)

CO2 −CWW peat

⎡ ( ApeatRich • EFCO2 peatRich ) + ( ApeatPoor • EFCO2 peatPoor ) ⎤=⎢⎥ + ΔCWW peaton − site
B
1000
⎢⎣
⎥⎦

Where:
CO2–C WW peat on-site = on-site CO2–C emissions from peat deposits (all production phases), Gg C yr-1
ApeatRich= area of nutrient-rich peat soils managed for peat extraction (all production phases), ha

ApeatPoor= area of nutrient-poor peat soils managed for peat extraction (all production phases), ha

EFCO2peatRich = CO2 emission factors for nutrient-rich peat soils managed for peat extraction or abandoned
after peat extraction, tonnes C ha-1 yr-1
EFCO2peatPoor = CO2 emission factors for nutrient-poor peat soils managed for peat extraction or abandoned
after peat extraction, tonnes C ha-1 yr-1
∆CWW peat B = CO2–C emissions from change in carbon stocks in biomass due to vegetation clearing, Gg C
yr-1
Off-site emission estimates are derived by converting the annual peat production data (either volume or air-dry
weight) to the weight of carbon (Equation 7.5). All carbon in horticultural peat is assumed to be emitted during
the extraction year. Countries may modify this assumption at higher tiers.

EQUATION 7.5
OFF-SITE CO2–C EMISSIONS FROM MANAGED PEATLANDS (TIER 1)
CO2 −CWW peatoff − site=

(Wt dry _ peat

• Cfraction wt _ peat )1000

or
CO2 −CWW peatoff − site=(Vol dry _ peat

• Cfractionvol _ peat )1000

Where:
CO2–C WW peat off-site = off-site CO2–C emissions from peat removed for horticultural use, Gg C yr-1
Wtdry_peat = air-dry weight of extracted peat, tonnes yr-1
Voldry_peat = volume of air-dry peat extracted, m3 yr-1
Cfractionwt_ peat = carbon fraction of air-dry peat by weight, tonnes C (tonne of air-dry peat)-1
Cfractionvol_peat = carbon fraction of air-dry peat by volume, tonnes C (m3 of air-dry peat)-1
Tier 2Tier 2 calculations use country-specific emission factors and parameters, spatially disaggregated to reflect
regionally important practices and dominant ecological dynamics. It may be appropriate to subdivide activity
data and emission factors according to extraction practices (e.g., the technology used to dry and extract peat),peat fertility and composition as influenced by previous vegetation cover, and the carbon fraction of air-dry peat
under local climates. Generally, peatland drainage leads to peat compaction and subsidence as well as oxidationand carbon losses other than as CO2. The acrotelm (upper, oxic zone of the peat) is susceptible to seasonalvariations in volumetric moisture content especially if the peat structure has been altered (Waddington & Price,2000). Hence, measurements of carbon stock changes in peat soils are difficult to make and are unlikely toestimate correctly CO2 fluxes from these soils, and are therefore not recommended unless data are carefully
calibrated.

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Tier 2 methodologies involve separating peatlands being converted for peat extraction from those alreadyproducing commercial peat. Section 7.2.2 describes estimation methodologies for Land Being Converted forPeat Extraction. Care should be taken not to double-count CO2 emissions from biomass clearing.
Tier 3
A Tier 3 approach involves a comprehensive understanding and representation of the dynamics of CO2 emissions
and removals on managed peatlands, including the effect of site characteristics, peat type and depth, extraction
technology, and the phases of peat extraction described at the beginning of Section 7.2. The methodology will
include all the known on-site sources of CO2 (Equation 7.6). The term CO2–CWW peatconversion of Equation 7.6
refers to emissions from the land conversion, including changes in biomass carbon stock and soil emissions. The
term CO2–CWW peatextraction corresponds to on-site emissions to be reported under Tier 1 (less the biomass term,
now included in CO2–CWW peatconversion). Emissions from stockpiles of drying peat (variable CO2–CWW peat stockpiling)
are much more uncertain. Higher temperatures may cause stockpiles to release more CO2 than the excavation field,
but data are not at present sufficient to provide guidance. CO2 emission patterns from abandoned peatlands (CO2–CWW peatpost) vary with restoration techniques and the rates of soil respiration and vegetation regrowth (Petrone etal., 2003; Waddington & McNeil, 2002; Komulainen et al., 1999); these patterns are therefore quite site-specific.
As in Tier 2, direct measurements of soil C stock changes are not recommended. Countries with a significant
peat extraction industry and restoration activities should undertake to document separately the three on-site
sources of CO2 of Equation 7.6.

EQUATION 7.6
ON-SITE CO2–C EMISSIONS FROM MANAGED PEATLANDS (TIERS 2 AND 3)
CO2 −CWW peat

⎛ CO2 −CWW peatconversion + CO2 −CWW peatextraction + ⎞⎟=⎜⎜ CO2 −CWW⎟
on − site
+
−
CO
C
2
WW
peat stockpiling
peat post⎝⎠

Where:
CO2–CWW peat on-site = on-site CO2–C emissions from peat deposits, Gg C yr-1
CO2–CWW peatconversion = on-site CO2–C emissions from lands conversion for peat extraction, Gg C yr-1
CO2–CWW peatextraction = CO2–C emissions from the surface of peat extraction area, Gg C yr-1
CO2–CWW peatstockpiling= CO2–C emissions from peat stockpiles prior to off-site removal, Gg C yr-1
CO2–CWW peatpost= CO2–C emissions from soils of abandoned, cut-over peatlands, Gg C yr-1

CHOICE OF EMISSION FACTORS
Tier 1
Implementation of Tier 1 method requires the application of default on-site emission factors EFCO2peatRich andEFCO2peatPoor , and default carbon fractions of peat by weight (Cfractionwt_peat ) or by volume (Cfractionvol_peat,) toestimate off-site emissions from production data in weight or volume, respectively. Default values of
EFCO2peatRich and EFCO2peatPoor are provided in Table 7.4. Default carbon fractions of peat are provided in Table 7.5.
Nutrient-poor bogs predominate in boreal regions, while in temperate regions, nutrient-rich fens and mires are
more common. Types of peatlands can be inferred from the end-use of peat: sphagnum peat, dominant inoligotrophic (nutrient-poor) bogs, is preferred for horticultural uses, while sedge peat, more common inminerotrophic (nutrient rich) fens, is more suitable for energy generation. Boreal countries that do not haveinformation on areas of nutrient-rich and nutrient-poor peatlands should use the emission factor for nutrient-poor
peatlands. Temperate countries that do not have such data should use the emission factor for nutrient-richpeatlands. Only one default factor is provided for tropical regions, so disaggregating peatland area by soil
fertility is not necessary for tropical countries using the Tier 1 method.

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Chapter 7: Wetlands

TABLE 7.4
EMISSION FACTORS FOR CO2–C AND ASSOCIATED UNCERTAINTY FOR LANDS MANAGED FOR PEAT EXTRACTION, BY
CLIMATE ZONE

Emission factor(tonnes C ha-1 yr-1)

Uncertainty a(tonnes C ha-1 yr-1)

Reference/Comment b

Nutrient – Poor
EFCO2peatPoor

0.2

0 to 0.63

Laine and Minkkinen, 1996; Alm et al.,
1999; Laine et al., 1996; Minkkinen et al.,2002

Nutrient – Rich
EFCO2peatRich

1.1

0.03 to 2.9

Laine et al., 1996; LUSTRA, 2002;
Minkkinen et al., 2002; Sundh et al., 2000

2.0

0.06 to 7.0

Calculated from the relative difference
between temperate (nutrient-poor) andtropicalClimate zone
Boreal and Temperate

Tropical
EFCO2peataRange of underlying datab

The boreal and temperate values have been developed as the mean from a review of paired plot measurements, assuming thatconditions on organic soils converted to peat extraction are lightly drained only. Most of the data are from European peatlands notnecessarily under production.

TABLE 7.5
CONVERSION FACTORS FOR CO2–C FOR VOLUME AND WEIGHT PRODUCTION DATA

Cfractionwt_ peat

Cfractionvol_peat[tonnes C (tonne air-dry peat)-1](tonnes C m-3 air-dry peat)

Nutrient –Poor

0.45

0.07

Nutrient –Rich

0.40

0.24

0.34

0.26

Climate zone
Boreal and Temperate

TropicalTropical humus

Computed from US Geological Survey (2004): survey average bulk density, and typical moisture content and carbon contents. Based on
a 35-55% moisture content of air-dry peat.

Tiers 2 and 3
The uncertainty of emission factors can be reduced by measuring the moisture content and carbon fraction of
extracted peat under local climates and extraction practices, taking into account interannual climate variability.
Spatially disaggregated CO2 flux measurements should be used to develop more precise on-site emission factors,
correcting for carbon losses through leaching of dissolved organic carbon or runoff. In boreal zones, winteremissions can account for 10-30% of net annual emissions (Alm et al., 1999); and should be estimated.
Disaggregated CO2 flux measurements from peat stockpiles, abandoned and restored peat excavation sites would
assist in reducing further estimate of uncertainties. The literature is sparse and countries are encouraged to sharedata, when peat quality, environmental conditions and extraction practices are similar.

CHOICE OF ACTIVITY DATAAll Tiers require data on areas of peatlands managed for peat extraction (ApeatRich and/or ApeatPoor) and peat
production data by weight or volume of air-dry peat (Wtdry_peat or Voldry_peat).
Tier 1The default methodology assumes that a country has estimates of the total area on which peat is currently andwas extracted, including former commercial peatlands that have not been converted to other uses. In temperate
and boreal regions, this area should, where possible, be separated into nutrient-rich and nutrient-poor with the2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories

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default assumption consistent with the advice above on selection of emission factors. In addition, the quantity(by dry weight or volume) or peat extracted annually must be known to estimate off-site CO2 emissions.
International data sets on peat extraction sites and production vary in quality and consistency. The sources of
production and area data may not be the same and different definitions and years between sources and countries
will likely introduce inconsistencies. Because peat extraction methods rely on dry and sunny days for drying
peat, the annual production varies depending on suitable summer weather. For the purpose of estimating off-site
emissions, peat production data should be separated according to end-use, i.e., horticultural peat and combustion
peat, since the estimation methods of this Chapter only require the production of horticultural peat. If it is
impossible to separate the quantity of peat produced by end-use, emissions from peat consumption should be
accounted under the inventory sector corresponding to the predominant end-use of domestically produced peat.
Useful area data can be found in Joosten (2004); Joosten & Clarke (2002); Sirin & Minayeva (2001);
Lappalainen (1996); and inventories published by Wetlands International (http://www.wetlands.org/). Data on
peat production are available from World Energy Council (2004) (for combustion peat) and the United States
Geological Survey (http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/peat/). Additional information may beobtained from the International Peat Society (http://www.peatsociety.org/) or the International Mire
Conservation Group (http://www.imcg.net/).
When either areas or production data are missing, it may be possible to derive one from the other by using adefault conversion factor equal to an average production rate provided by the local industry. In a mature,industrialized peat industry, block-cut methods can yield up to 1750 tonnes of air-dry peat per hectare annually,
while the vacuum method can extract up to 100 tonnes per hectare per year (Cleary et al., 2005). Air-dry peat
contains between 35% and 55% moisture (World Energy Council, 2004).
Tiers 2 a nd 3
Countries using higher Tiers should obtain national peat production data and the corresponding peatland areas.
In boreal and temperate regions, these area data need to be disaggregated by soil fertility to correspond to
appropriate emission factors. Possible sources of such data are national energy statistics, peat extraction firms,
peat industry associations, landscaping industry associations, and government ministries responsible for land use
or geological surveys. If it is not possible to stratify by peat fertility, countries may rely on expert judgment.
Boreal climates tend to promote nutrient-poor raised bogs, while temperate and oceanic climates tend to promote
the formation of nutrient-rich peatlands. Priorities for the development of country-specific activity data include:i) areas of organic soils currently and formerly managed for peat extraction and disaggregated based on nutrient
status if relevant; ii) peat production data; iii) local moisture content that will reflect ambient conditions at thetime of peat extraction; and iv) country-specific carbon content, preferably by peat type.
More sophisticated estimation methodologies will require the determination of areas in each of the three phasesof the peat extraction cycle, including abandoned areas on which drainage or the effects of former peat extraction
are still present; and if warranted, areas characterized by different peat extraction technology, peat types andextraction depths. If site restoration is underway, countries are encouraged to report separately the areas ofrestored organic soils formerly managed for peat extraction and estimate emissions and removals from theselands. In addition, countries with a significant production of horticultural peat may develop data to monitor theoff-site fate of extracted peat in order to develop time-sensitive decay curves.

7.2.1.2

N ON -CO 2 EMISSIONS FROM P EATLANDS R EMAINING
P EATLANDSMETHANE
When peatlands are drained in preparation for peat extraction, the natural production of CH4 is largely reduced,
but not entirely shut down (Strack et al., 2004), as the methanogen bacteria thrive only in anaerobic conditions.
Under Tier 1, methane emissions are assumed to be insignificant in these drained peatlands. At higher tiers,
countries are encouraged to examine the pattern of CH4 emissions from topographic lows and drainage ditches,
which can contribute a significant proportion of the total greenhouse gas emissions from these managed
peatlands (Sundh et al., 2000).

NITROUS OXIDE
Depending on site fertility, peat deposits may contain significant amounts of organic nitrogen in inactive form.
Drainage allows bacteria to convert the nitrogen into nitrates, which then leach into the surface where they are
reduced to N2O. In drained peatlands, the potential quantity of N2O emitted depends on the nitrogen content of
the peat. At C:N ratios exceeding 25, the N2O emissions may be considered insignificant (Klemedtsson et al.,2005).

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Chapter 7: Wetlands

Currently, there are no estimation methods that would allow separation of N2O emissions from organic matterdecay during the off-site use of horticultural peat. Nitrogen fertilizers are commonly added to horticultural peat
before use, and this source would likely dominate N2O emission patterns. In order to avoid double-counting N2O
emitted from the use of fertilizers, the default approach for estimating N2O emissions from lands managed forpeat extraction excludes emissions from the decay of organic nitrogen in horticultural peat.

Choice of method
Use the decision tree of Figure 7.1 to determine the appropriate methodological tier for N2O emissions.
Tier 1The Tier 1 method for estimating N2O emissions from drained wetlands is similar to that described for drainedorganic soils for agriculture or forestry, but emission factors are generally lower. The default methodology only
considers nutrient-rich peatlands.

EQUATION 7.7
N2O EMISSIONS FROM PEATLANDS DURING PEAT EXTRACTION(

N 2 OWW peatExtraction = A peatRich •EFN 2O − N peatRich) • 4428 • 10

−6

Where:N2OWWpeat Extraction = direct N2O emissions from peatlands managed for peat extraction, Gg N2O yr-1
ApeatRich = area of nutrient-rich peat soils managed for peat extraction, including abandoned areas in which
drainage is still present, ha
EFN2O–Npeat Rich = emission factor for drained nutrient-rich wetlands organic soils, kg N2O–N ha-1 yr-1
Tier 2
Under Tier 2, the activity data are disaggregated by additional factors such as peat type and fertility, phase ofpeat extraction, and time since the onset of drainage activities. The corresponding emission factors are countryspecific and take into account conditions and practices of peat extraction, drainage depth, and changes in the C:Nratio down the peat profile.
Tier 3Tier 3 methods involve a comprehensive understanding and representation of the dynamics of N2O emissions
and removals on managed peatlands, including the effect of site characteristics, peat type and depth, extraction
technology, and the phases of peat extraction as described at the beginning of Section 7.2. The methodology will
include all the relevant sources of N2O. Both on-site and off-site emissions will be considered, and take into
account the rate of peat decay under common extraction and utilization conditions. Methods should be consistent
with the estimation procedures for CO2 emissions, e.g., the same off-site decay rates should be used. If processbased models are used, they should be calibrated and validated against independent measurements which are
representative of the national conditions.

Choice of emission/removal factors
Tier 1
Default emission factors for the Tier 1 method are provided in Table 7.6.
Tiers 2 and 3
Countries applying Tier 2 methods develop country-specific emission factors, which may be able to differentiate
emission rates during land conversion to peat land and the ongoing emissions during peat extraction. Tiers 2 and3 require country-specific emission data that account for site characteristics, peat type and depth, extraction
technology, the phases of peat extraction or other relevant factor. Peat type is especially relevant to its
decomposability and the ensuing N2O emissions. Emissions from the off-site use of horticultural peat should be
included in Tier 3 methods. Currently, the literature is sparse and results are sometimes contrasting. Countries
are encouraged to share comparable data, when environmental conditions and extraction practices are similar.

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TABLE 7.6
DEFAULT EMISSION FACTORS FOR N2O EMISSIONS FROM MANAGED PEATLANDSEmission factor
EFN O(kg N2O-N ha-1
yr-1)

Uncertainty
range(kg N2O-N
ha-1 yr-1)

Nutrient-poor organic Soil

negligible

negligible

Nutrient-rich organic Soil

1.8

0.2 to 2.5

2Climate zone

Reference/ Comments

Boreal and Temperate Climate

Tropical Climate

3.6

0.2 to 5.0

Alm et al., 1999; Laine et al., 1996;
Martikainen et al., 1995; Minkkinen etal., 2002; Regina et al., 1996
The value for tropical areas is twice thatfor northern climates, based on therelative difference between temperate andtropical N2O EF in Table 11.1, Chapter
11.

Most of the data are from European peatlands not necessarily under production. Climate zones are as described in Chapter 3.

Choice of activity data
Tier 1The same activity data should be used for estimating CO2 and N2O emissions from managed peatlands.
Information on obtaining these data is provided in Section 7.2.1 above. For countries in boreal and temperateregions using the Tier 1 method, area data should be stratified by soil fertility, since only nutrient-rich peat soils
are considered. If the available information does not allow stratification by peat fertility, countries may rely on
expert judgment. Boreal climates tend to promote nutrient-poor raised bogs or fens, while temperate and oceanic
climates tend to promote the formation of nutrient-rich peatlands. Low fertility peatlands are generally acidic(with low pH). Under Tier 1, additional uncertainty arises from the use of unique default CO2 and N2O emission
factors, applied to both Land Being Converted for Peat Extraction and Peatlands Remaining Peatlands, as thenitrogen content and bioavailability of organic C and N may change with depth.
Tiers 2 and 3
Priorities for the development of country-specific activity data include areas of organic soils managed for peat
extraction, disaggregated based on nutrient status if relevant, and annual peat production data. Moresophisticated estimation methodologies will require the determination of areas in each of the three phases of thepeat extraction cycle, including abandoned areas on which drainage or the effects of former peat extraction are
still present; and if warranted, areas characterized by different peat extraction technology, peat types andextraction depths. If site restoration is underway, countries should report separately the areas of restored organicsoils formerly managed for peat extraction and estimate emissions and removals from these lands. In addition,
countries with a significant production of horticultural peat may develop data to monitor the off-site fate ofextracted peat in order to develop time-sensitive decay curves (see also Section 7.2.1).

7.2.1.3

U NCERTAINTY ASSESSMENT

Emission factors
For both CO2 and N2O, the key uncertainties in Tier 1 estimation procedures are the default emission factors(Tables 7.4 and 7.6), and other parameters such as moisture content of air-dry peat. Emission factors andparameters have been developed from only a few (less than 10) data points, mostly in temperate and boreal
regions, and may not be representative for large areas or climate zones. The standard deviation of the emission
factors easily exceeds 100% of the mean, but underlying probability functions are likely to be non-normal. The
variability in peat specific gravity and its moisture holding capacity accounts for a significant component of thisuncertainty. Depending on peat characteristics, the interannual variability in precipitation can alter the rate oforganic matter decay by 25% to 100% (Waddington et al., 2002). Variability in peat moisture content and peat
quality accounts for a 20% uncertainty on the carbon content of air-dry peat. In general, countries are encouraged
to use the range rather than the standard deviation.
Many organic soils have been drained and converted to other uses, e.g., agricultural or forestry production. Thesesoils are frequently on more fertile sites, and thus emission factors are higher. In addition to drainage,
management activities will alter the distribution of organic matter along the soil profile, and consequently thegreenhouse gas emission patterns. Hence, greenhouse gas emission patterns from organic soils under different

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Chapter 7: Wetlands

land management practices are expected to differ. When country-specific factors are developed, countries should
use sufficient sample sizes and techniques to minimize standard errors. Ideally, probability density functions (i.e.,
providing mean and variance estimates) should be derived for all country-defined parameters. At a minimum,
Tier 2 approaches should provide error ranges for each country-defined parameter. Such data can be used inadvanced uncertainty analyses such as Monte Carlo simulations.
Under Tier 3, emission factors and their associated probability density functions are used to develop means andconfidence intervals for the entire category, with advanced procedures (e.g., Monte-Carlo). Process-basedmodels will in principle provide more realistic estimates but need to be calibrated and validated against
measurements. Uncertainties arising from the use of models need to be quantified with similar procedures. Refer
to Volume 1, Chapter 3 of these Guidelines for guidance on developing such analyses.

Activity data
Countries that used aggregated activity data for managed peatlands should factor in an uncertainty of 50% in
Europe and North America, but a factor of 2 in the rest of the world. Uncertainty can be higher if managed
peatland areas are based on total (managed and unmanaged) peatlands, or on production data, since peat
production strongly depends on good weather conditions. Under Tiers 2 and 3, the spatial disaggregation ofpeatland areas by relevant eco-climatic parameters and/or management practices, information on the end-use ofpeat, and the distinction between recently converted peatlands and those under ongoing production andrestoration, will enable more accurate estimation procedures.

7.2.2

Land Being Converted for Peat Extraction

Under a Tier 1 approach, the activity data do not distinguish between peatlands under peat extraction (Peatlands
Remaining Peatlands), and those being converted for peat extraction (see the beginning of Section 7.2 for a
description of the three phases of peat extraction). Countries using such an approach should refer to Section 7.2.1
for methodological guidance. Countries using a Tier 2 methodology should make the separation. This section
provides guidance specific to peatlands being drained and converted for peat extraction.

7.2.2.1

CO 2 EMISSIONS ON LANDS BEING CONVERTED FOR PEATEXTRACTION

As described in the introduction of Section 7.2, the peat extraction cycle has three phases, the first one of whichbeing the development or conversion for peat extraction, characterized by extensive drainage work (if the area
was not already drained for other purposes), but little peat extraction. This conversion phase typically lasts for 2
to 5 years. In contrast with other land-use conversions in these Guidelines, the recommended default transition
period for Land Being Converted for Peat Extraction is five years.
Greenhouse gas emissions from lands being cleared and drained for peat extraction are significantly different
from the emissions of lands currently undergoing peat extraction or have been exhausted and abandoned. The
major emissions during the conversion process arise from the removal and destruction of the living biomass ofthe peatland ecosystem, and from soils during drainage. Since these lands are not yet into production, there is nopeat extraction and therefore no off-site emissions from extracted peat.
Equation 7.8 represents the main sources of CO2–C emissions during land conversion for peat extraction.
EQUATION 7.8
CO2 –C EMISSIONS IN PEATLAND BEING DRAINED FOR PEAT EXTRACTION(

CO2 −C LW peat _ on − site = − ΔCWW peatB

) + (− ΔC

WW peat DOM) + CO −C
2

LW peat _ drainage

Where:
CO2–CLWpeat_on-site = CO2–C emissions from land being converted for peat extraction, Gg C yr-1
∆CWWpeat B = CO2–C emissions from change in carbon stocks in living biomass, Gg C yr-1
∆CWWpeatDOM = CO2–C emissions from change in carbon stocks in dead organic matter pool, Gg C yr-1
CO2–CLWpeat drainage = CO2–C emissions from soils during drainage, Gg C yr-1

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CHOICE OF METHOD
Tier 2
None of the procedures for estimating these quantities is unique to this category, except for emissions from soils
during drainage. If pre-clearing standing vegetation is Forest Land or Grassland, the estimation procedures foremissions from the living biomass from the conversion of Forest Land or Grassland to Cropland is discussed in
Chapter 5, Section 5.3. Where fires are used to clear vegetation, emissions of non-CO2 gases, i.e., CH4 and N2O
will also occur. These emissions can be estimated following guidance also provided in Chapter 2. Biomassburning and decay of unburned biomass and dead organic matter can be estimated, if country-specific emission
factors are available. The areas of land being drained can be broken down according to peat fertility, peat type,
and previous land-use or land cover. Countries may be able to refine emission factors accordingly.
Equation 7.9 provides the general approach to estimate emissions from soil during drainage. Conceptually, it is
the same as Equation 7.6 used to determined CO2–C WW peaton-site for managed peatlands.
EQUATION 7.9
CO2 –C EMISSIONS FROM SOILS IN PEATLAND BEING DRAINED FOR PEAT EXTRACTION⎡ Adrained _ peat Rich • EFCO2drained _ peatRich + ⎤⎢⎥⎢ Adrained _ peat Poor • EFCO2drained _ peat Poor ⎥CO2 −C LW peat _ drainage = ⎢
⎥
1000
⎢
⎥
⎢
⎥
⎣
⎦

(
(

)
)

Where:
CO2–CLW peat _drainage = CO2–C emissions from soils on lands converted for peat extraction, Gg C yr-1
Adrained peatRich = area of nutrient-rich peat soils being drained, ha
Adrained peatPoor = area of nutrient-poor peat soils being drained, ha
EFCO2drained peatRich = emission factors for CO2–C from nutrient-rich peat soils being drained, tonnes C ha-1
yr-1
EFCO2 drained peatPoor = emission factors for CO2–C from nutrient-poor peat soils being drained, tonnes C ha-1
yr-1
Tier 3Tier 3 methods involve a comprehensive understanding and representation of the dynamics of CO2 emissions
and removals on Land Being Converted for Peat Extraction, including the effect of peat type and fertility, sitecharacteristics such as blanket or raised bogs, and previous land-use or land cover if relevant, which could be
combined with appropriate emission factors and/or process-based models. The methodology includes the fate of
C in all pools, C transfers between pools upon conversion (e.g., biomass to dead organic matter), anddistinguishes immediate and delayed emissions. Estimates based on changes in stocks should be corrected forcarbon losses due to the leaching of dissolved organic carbon, losses of dead organic matter through runoff, or as
CH4 emissions.

CHOICE OF EMISSION/REMOVAL FACTORS
Tier 2
Countries applying Tier 2 methods will develop country-specific emission factors EFCO2drained peatRich and EFCO2
drained peatPoor to differentiate emission rates during land conversion, from the ongoing emissions during the peat
extraction phase. It may be possible to differentiate emission factors further by type of peat, its fertility, anddrainage depth, previous land use or land cover, and climatic zones.
Tier 3
Under Tier 3, all parameters should be country-specific. The literature is sparse and it is good practice to derivecountry-specific emission factors and data should be shared between countries with similar environmental
conditions.

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Chapter 7: Wetlands

CHOICE OF ACTIVITY DATA
Tier 2The basic activity data required are the area of organic soils converted for peat extraction and disaggregated bynutrient status (or fertility). Possible sources of area data are peat extraction firms, peat industry associations, andgovernment ministries responsible for land information. Under Tier 2, countries can also incorporate information
based on the original land use, peat type and peat fertility of the lands being converted. This information could
be gathered from regular updates of the national peatland inventory.
Tier 3
Under Tier 3, detailed information on the original land use, peat type, and peat fertility of areas converted forpeat extraction, is needed. More specific data needs may be defined depending on the estimation procedures.

7.2.2.2

N ON -CO 2 EMISSIONS FROM LANDS BEING CONVERTED TO
MANAGED PEATLANDS

The discussion of methodological issues in Section 7.2.1.2 “Non-CO2 Emissions from Peatlands Remaining
Peatlands” will also apply here with the exception of non-CO2 emissions from the off-site decay of horticultural
peat; since there is no peat extraction during the phase of land conversion and preparation. Under higher tiers,
methane emissions may no longer be assumed negligible on lands being drained. Equation 7.7 of Section 7.2.1
also describes the default approach to estimate N2O emissions.

7.2.2.3

U NCERTAINTY ASSESSMENT

Emission factors
Refer to the discussion on emission factor uncertainties in Section 7.2.1.3
Uncertainty attached to the carbon content of pre-conversion vegetation cover, as affected by the previous landuse, should be included in the uncertainty assessment of CO2 estimates. The uncertainty probability distributionof the emissions is likely to be non-normal, so the 95% interval of a log-normal distribution is assumed here as
default uncertainty (see Tables 7.4 and 7.6). It is recommended to use this range rather than a symmetricalstandard deviation.

Activity data
Agencies providing area data should have information on area uncertainties; otherwise default uncertainty dataassociated with the advice on area estimation in Chapter 3 can be used.

7.3

FLOODED LAND

Flooded Lands are defined as water bodies where human activities have caused changes in the amount of surface
area covered by water, typically through water level regulation. Examples of Flooded Land include reservoirs forthe production of hydroelectricity, irrigation, and navigation. Regulated lakes and rivers that do not havesubstantial changes in water area in comparison with the pre-flooded ecosystem are not considered as Flooded
Lands. Some rice paddies are cultivated through flooding of land, but because of the unique characteristics ofrice cultivation, rice paddies are addressed in Chapter 5 (Cropland) chapter of the Guidelines.
Flooded Lands may emit CO2, CH4 and N2O in significant quantities, depending on a variety of characteristic
such as age, land-use prior to flooding, climate, and management practices. Emissions vary spatially and overtime.
While there is evidence, especially in tropical areas, of increased CH4 emissions due to flooding, the hightemporal and spatial variability of CH4 emissions has so far precluded the development of default emission
factors for all climatic regions. The available information regarding CH4 emissions is provided in Appendix 3.
Nitrous oxide emissions from Flooded Lands are typically very low, unless there is a significant input of organic
or inorganic nitrogen from the watershed. It is likely that such inputs would result from anthropogenic activities
such as land-use change, wastewater treatment or fertilizer application in the watershed. In order to avoid
double-counting N2O emissions already captured in the greenhouse gas budget of these anthropogenic sources,
and in light of the very limited contribution of N2O emissions from Flooded Lands reported in the literature, thecurrent section will not consider these emissions.

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7.3.1

Flooded Land Remaining Flooded Land

No methodologies are provided for Flooded Land Remaining Flooded Land. As explained above, it is assumed
that CO2 and N2O emissions occurring on flooded lands are already covered by methodologies described in othersectors. The default methodology for Land Converted to Flooded Land provides guidance for estimation of CO2
emission due to flooding. Available information on CH4 emissions is provided in Appendix 3 but it is notpossible, at present, to recommend a default methodology. Countries seeking to report CH4 emissions fromflooded lands should, where feasible, develop domestic emission factors. Guidance on the development of suchfactors is provided in Appendix 2, Box 2a.1.

7.3.2

Land Converted to Flooded LandFor reasons already explained, this section provides guidance only on estimation of CO2 emissions from Land
Converted to Flooded Land.

7.3.2.1

CO 2 EMISSIONS FROM L AND C ONVERTED TO F LOODEDL AND

CHOICE OF METHOD AND EMISSION FACTOR
The method for estimating carbon stock change due to land conversion to permanently flooded land is shown inEquation 7.10. The carbon stock of the land prior to conversion can be estimated following the method for living
biomass described for various land-use categories in other sections of this volume. Here, it is assumed that the
carbon stock after conversion is zero.
EQUATION 7.10
ANNUAL CHANGE IN CARBON STOCKS IN LIVING BIOMASS ON LAND CONVERTED TO
PERMANENTLY FLOODED LAND⎤⎡
ΔC LWflood LB = ⎢∑ Ai • ( B Afteri −B Beforei )⎥ • CF
⎦
⎣i
− 44
CO2 _ LWflood = ΔC LWflood LB •12

Where:
ΔCLWfloodLB = annual change in carbon stocks in biomass on Land Converted to Flooded Land, tonnes C
yr-1
Ai = area of land converted annually to Flooded Land from original land use i, ha yr-1
BAfteri = biomass immediately following conversion to Flooded Land, tonnes d.m. ha-1 (default = 0)
BBeforei = biomass in land immediately before conversion to Flooded Land, tonnes d.m. ha-1
CF = carbon fraction of dry matter (default = 0.5), tonnes C (tonne d.m.)-1
CO2_LWflood = annual CO2 emissions on Land Converted to Flooded Land, tonnes CO2 yr-1
It is possible that the carbon remaining on the converted land prior to flooding may be emitted over several years
after flooding.
No guidance is provided on carbon stock changes from soils due to land conversion to Flooded Land at this time.
The stock change method assumes that all the carbon in biomass that existed prior to flooding is emitted and thismay lead to overestimates. Countries are encouraged to develop higher tier country-specific methods based onmodels, measurements and associated parameters. A possible approach is given in Appendix 2. Generic guidanceon the development of country-specific methods based on models and measurements is available in Chapter 2,
Section 2.5.
Emissions of non-CO2 gases from Land Converted to Flooded Land are covered in Appendix 3.

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Chapter 7: Wetlands

CHOICE OF ACTIVITY DATACountries can obtain their flooded land area from a drainage basin cover analysis, from a national dam database,from the International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD, 1998) or from the World Commission on Dams
report (WCD, 2000).

7.3.2.2

N ON -CO 2 EMISSIONS FROM L AND C ONVERTED TO
F LOODED L AND

Available information on CH4 emissions for Land Converted to Flooded Land can be found in Appendix 3.

7.3.2.3 U NCERTAINTY ASSESSMENT
National statistical information on the flooded area retained behind large dams (> 100km2) should be available
and will probably be accurate to within 10 percent. Where national database on dams are not available, and otherinformation is used, the flooded land areas retained behind dams will probably have an uncertainty of more than
50 percent, especially for countries with large flooded land areas. Detailed information on the location, type andfunction of smaller dams may be also difficult to obtain, though statistical inference may be possible based on
the size distribution of reservoirs for which data are available. Reservoirs are created for a variety of reasons that
influence the availability of data, and, consequently, the uncertainty on surface area is dependent on country
specific conditions.
Uncertainty in biomass stocks is discussed in Chapters 4, 5 and 6.

7.4

COMPLETENESS, TIME SERIESCONSISTENCY, AND QA/QC

7.4.1

CompletenessComplete greenhouse gas inventories will include estimates of emissions from the two types of managed
wetlands as described in Sections 7.2 and 7.3 above, unless these wetland types do not occur on the national
territory.
As in other land categories, countries are encouraged to monitor the fate of managed wetlands, and avoid doublecounting with lands in other categories. It is good practice to document the extent of reservoir areas. Oncepeatlands are brought under peat extraction, they remain managed peatlands even after peat extraction activities
have ceased, until they are converted to another use. Rewetting of soils, or the return of the water table to predrainage levels, do not change the status of peatlands. See Section 7.5 “Future Methodological Development” foradditional discussion of restored peatlands.
Countries using advanced methods and data should take care not to report greenhouse gas emissions alreadyaccounted for in other AFOLU chapters, or in other Volumes of these guidelines. In particular, wetlands may
receive non-point source effluents and sediments with high nutrient contents; organic or inorganic N, andorganic C emitted from these wetlands may have already been included in the estimation methodologies for
Forest Land or Cropland, or the Waste Sector. When there is evidence of such non-point source of carbon or
nitrogen to wetlands, it is good practice to ensure that the associated greenhouse gas emissions are reported
under the proper inventory sectors and categories; countries are encouraged to develop, compile or use theavailable information in order to avoid biased estimates.

7.4.2

Developing a consistent time series

General guidance on consistency in time series can be found in Volume 1, Chapter 5 (Time Series Consistency).
The emission estimation method should be applied consistently to every year in the time series, at the same levelof spatial disaggregation. Moreover, when country-specific data are used, national inventories agency should use
the same measurement protocol (sampling strategy, method, etc.) throughout the time series. If this is notpossible, the guidance on interpolation techniques and recalculation in Volume 1, Chapter 5 should be followed.
Differences in emissions between inventory years should be explained, e.g., by demonstrating changes in areasof peatlands or flooded lands, by updated emission factors.

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7.4.3

Quality Assurance and Quality Control (QA/QC)

Quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC) procedures should be developed and implemented as outlined inVolume 1, Chapter 6 of this report. The development of additional, category-specific quality control and quality
assurance activities may also be applicable (Volume 1, Chapter 6), particularly if higher tier methods are used toquantify emissions from this source category. Where country-specific emission factors are being used, theyshould be based on high quality experimental data, developed using a rigorous measurement programme, and beadequately documented.
It is, at present, not possible to crosscheck emissions estimates from organic soils managed for peat extraction
with other measurement methods. However, the inventory agency should ensure that emission estimates undergo
quality control by:•cross-referencing reported country-specific emissions factors with default values, and values published in
the scientific literature or reported by other countries;•

checking the accuracy of activity data with data of peat industries and peat production; and•assessing the plausibility of estimates against those of other countries with comparable circumstances.

7.4.4

Reporting and Documentation

It is appropriate to document and archive all information required to produce the national emission/removal
inventory estimates as outlined in Volume 1, Chapter 8 of these Guidelines.

EMISSION FACTORSThe scientific basis of new country-specific emission factors, parameters and models should be fully describedand documented. This includes defining the input parameters and describing the process by which the emission
factors, parameters and models were derived, as well as describing sources of uncertainties.

ACTIVITY DATA
Sources of all activity data used in the calculations (data sources, databases and soil map references) should berecorded, plus (subject to any confidentiality considerations) communication with industry. This documentation
should cover the frequency of data collection and estimation, and estimates of accuracy and precision, andreasons for significant changes in emission levels.

TREND ANALYSIS
Significant fluctuations in emissions between years should be explained. A distinction should be made betweenchanges in activity levels and changes in emission factors, parameters and methods from year to year, and thereasons for these changes documented. If different emission factors, parameters and methods are used for
different years, the reasons for this should be explained and documented.

7.5

FUTURE METHODOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

Other types of managed wetlands may emit or sequester significant amounts of greenhouse gases, notably
restored or constructed wetlands. Restored wetlands are wetlands which have been drained and perhaps
converted to other uses in the past, but have recently been restored back to functioning wetland ecosystems byraising the water table to pre-drainage levels. In recent decades, public, non-profit and other programs innumerous countries have begun to restore former wetlands and construct others from uplands. A primary
purpose is to reduce the runoff from agricultural fields and settlements which causes eutrophication, algal
blooms, and hypoxic dead zones in lakes, estuaries, and enclosed bays and seas. Other important benefits
include reducing flood damage, stabilizing shorelines and river deltas, retarding saltwater seepage, recharging
aquifers, and improving wildlife, waterfowl, and fish habitat.
Most operational wetland restorations have occurred since 1990. The technical literature describes programs or
projects in some 15 countries in North America, Europe, Asia, and Australia and New Zealand, in particular theriver deltas. This literature suggests that wetland ecosystems can be restored, but over variable periods of time
and with variable resemblance to natural wetland ecosystems. Currently, there is no available compilation of the
global area of wetland restoration and construction. The IPCC Special Report on Land Use, Land-Use Change
and Forestry estimates that maximum areas available for restoration are in the range of 30 to 250 Mha (Watson
et al., 2000).

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Chapter 7: Wetlands

At the time of preparation of these Guidelines, published studies based on observational data are too recent andlimited to develop default emission factors for any of the major greenhouse gases--- CO2, CH4 or N2O. Better
understanding of the biogeochemical fluxes within drainage basins will be needed to prevent double-counting
emissions due to fertilizer application and waste treatment. Hence, the estimation of greenhouse gas emissions
and removals from restored or constructed wetlands remains an area for further development.
An increase in CH4 emissions is expected to occur upon the rewetting of organic soils. A first approximation ofCH4 emissions on rewetted organic soils with a forest cover is from 0 to 60 kg CH4 ha-1 yr-1 in temperate andboreal climates, and from 280 to 1260 kg CH4 ha-1 yr-1 in tropical climates (Bartlett and Harriss, 1993).
However, in the short term these emissions may not return to their pre-drainage levels (Tuittila et al., 2000;
Komulainen et al, 1998).
The effect of non-point nutrient sources to flooded lands (reservoirs) also remains poorly documented. Countries
using advanced, domestic approaches should implement cross-sectoral checks, ideally using mass-balance, toensure that the fate of all carbon and nitrogen released in a watershed is properly accounted for. The lack ofobservational data from reservoirs in Asia is a notable gap in the data samples used to develop CO2 emission
factors for flooded land. It may be possible, in future editions of these guidelines, to incorporate more
information from this region.

References
SECTION 7.1: INTRODUCTION & SECTION 7.2: PEATLANDS MANAGED OR BEINGCONVERTED FOR PEAT EXTRACTION
Alm, J., Saario, S., Nykänen, H., Silvola, J. and Martikainen, P.J. (1999). Winter CO2, CH4, and N2O fluxes onsome natural and drained boreal peatlands. Biogeochemistry 44: 163-186.
Bartlett, K.B. and Harriss, R.C. (1993). Review and assessment of methane emissions from wetlands.
Chemosphere 26:261-320.
Canadian Sphagnum Peat Moss Association (2004). Harvesting Peat in Canada http://www.peatmoss.com/
Cicerone, R.J. and Oremland, R.S. (1988). Biogeochemical aspects of atmospheric methane. Global
Biogeochemical Cycles 2: 288-327.
Cleary, J., Roulet, N.T. and Moore, T.R. (2005). Greenhouse gas emissions from Canadian peat extraction,
1990-2000: A life-cycle analysis. Ambio 34(6):456-461.
IPCC (2003). Good Practice Guidance for Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry. Penman J., Gytarsky M.,
Hiraishi T., Krug, T., Kruger D., Pipatti R., Buendia L., Miwa K., Ngara T., Tanabe K., Wagner F.
(Eds).Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), IPCC/IGES, Hayama, Japan.
International Peat Society (2004). Environmental Assessment of Peat Production www.peatsociety.fi
Joosten, H. (2004). The IMCG Global Peatland Database. http://www.imcg.net/gpd/
Joosten, H. and Clarke, D. (2002). Wise Use of Mires and Peatlands.Internation Mire Conservation Group andInternational Peat Society, Saarijarvi, Finland, 304 p.
Klemedtsson, L., Von Arnold, K., Weslien, P. and Gundersen, P. (2005). Soil CN ratio as a scalar parameter topredict nitrous oxide emissions. Global Change Biology 11:1142-1147
Komulainen, V.-M., Nykänen, H., Martikainen, P.J. and Laine, J. (1998). Short-term effect of restoration onvegetation change and methane emissions from peatlands drained for forestry in Southern Finland. Can. J.
For. Res. 28:402-411.
Komulainen, V-M., Tuittila, E-S., Vasander, H. and Laine, J. (1999). Restoration of drained peatlands insouthern Finland : initial effects on vegetation change and CO2 balance. J. Appl. Ecol. 36:634-648.
Laine, J. and Minkkinen, K. (1996). Effect of forest drainage on the carbon balance of a mire--a case study.
Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research. 11: 307-312.
Laine, J., Silvola, J., Tolonen, K., Alm, J., Nykänen, H., Vasander, H., Sallantaus, T., Savolainen, I., Sinisalo, J.
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Lappalainen, E. (1996). Global Peat Resources.International Peat Society Saarijarvi, Finland, 368 p.
LUSTRA (2002). Land-use Strategies for Reducing Net Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Annual Report 2002
Uppsala, Sweden.162 p.

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Martikainen, P.J., Nykänen, H., Alm, J. and Silvola, J. (1995). Change in fluxes of carbon dioxide, methane, andnitrous oxide due to forest drainage of mire sites of diferent trophy, . Plant and Soil 169: 571-577.
Minkkinen, K., Korhonen, R., Savolainen, I. and Laine, J. (2002). Carbon balance and radiative forcing of
Finnish peatlands 1990-2100 the impact of forestry drainage. Global Change Biology 8: 785-799.
Mitsch, W.J. and Gosselink, J.G. (2000). Wetlands.3rd ed, . Wiley, New York, 920 p.
Moore, T.R. and Knowles, R. (1989). The influence of water table levels on methane and carbon dioxide
emissions from peatland soils. Canadian Journal of Soil Science 69 (1): p. 33-38.
Nilsson, K. and Nillson, M. (2004). The Climate Impact of Energy Peat Utilsation in Sweden--the Effect ofFormer Land-Use and After Treatment. IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute. Report
B1606. Stockholm, 91 p.
Petrone, R.M., Waddington, J.M. and Price, J.S. (2003). Ecosystem-scale flux of CO2 from a restored vacuum
harvested peatland. Wetlands Ecology and Management 11:419-432.
Ramsar (1996). The Ramsar Convention definition of "wetland" and classification system for wetland
type. Appendix A of Strategic framework and guidelines for the future development of the list of
wetlands of international Importance of the Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar, Iran, 1971). Available atwww.ramsar.org/key_guide_list_e.htm.
Regina, K., Nykänen, H., Silvola, J. and Martikainen, P.J. (1996). Fluxes of nitrous oxide from boreal peatlands
as affected by peatland type, water table level and nitrification capacity. Biogeochemistry 35: 401-418.
Sirin, A and Minayeva, T. eds (2001). Peatlands of Russia: towards the analyses of sectoral information GEOS,
Moscow, 190 pp. (in Russian).
Strack, M., Waddington, J.M. and Tuittila, E.-S. (2004). Effect of water table drawdown on northern peatland
methane dynamics: implications for climate change. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 18, GB4003.
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dioxide on peat-mining areas in Sweden. Ambio. 29: 499-503.
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Waddington, J.M. and McNeil, P. (2002). Peat oxidation in an abandoned cutover peatland. Can.J.Soil Sci.
82:279-286.
Waddington, J.M., Warner, K.D. and Kennedy, G.W. (2002). Cutover peatlands: a persistent source of
atmospheric CO2. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 16(1) 10:1029é2001GB001398
Waddington, J.M. and Price, J.S. (2000). Effect of peatland drainage, harvesting, and restoration on atmosphericwater and carbon exchange. Physical Geography 21(5):433-451.
Watson, R.T., Noble, I.R., Bolin, B., Ravindranath, N.H., Verardo D.J. and Dokken D.J. (Eds.) (2000). Special
Report of the IPCC on Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry. Cambridge University Press, UK. pp
375
World Energy Council (2004). http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-geis/publications/reports/ser/peat/peat.asp

SECTION 7.3: FLOODED LAND
Bartlett, K.B. and Harriss, R.C. (1993). Review and assessment of methane emissions from wetlands.
Chemosphere 26:261-320.
International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD) (1998). World register of Dams 1998. Paris. International
Comittee on large Dams (Ed.). Metadatabase.
Komulainen, V-M., Tuittila, E-S., Vasander, H. and Laine, J. (1999). Restoration of drained peatlands insouthern Finland : initial effects on vegetation change and CO2 balance. J. Appl. Ecol. 36:634-648.
Tuittila, E-S., Komulainen, V-M., Vasander, H., Nykänen, H., Martikainen, P.J. and Laine, J. (2000). Methane
dynamics of a restored cut-away peatland. Global Change Biology, 6: 569
Watson, R.T., Noble, I.R., Bolin, B., Ravindranath, N.H., Verardo, D.J. and Dokken, D.J. (Eds.) (2000). Special
Report of the IPCC on Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry. Cambridge University Press, UK. pp375
WCD (2000). Dams and Development a new framework for Decision-Making, The report of the World
Commission on Dams, Earthscan Publications Ltd, London and Sterling, VA, 356 p.

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