USMCA 2015

ICUS Report 2015-02 (serial No. 80)
the 14th International Symposium
on New Technologies
for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia
October 29-31, 2015
at
Radisson hotel, Kathmandu, Nepal
Edited by
Eiko Yoshimoto
Organized by

National Society for Earthquake Technology- Nepal (NSET), Nepal&
International Center for Urban Safety Engineering,
Institute of Industrial Science, The University of Tokyo, Japan
Sponsored by

Myanmar Engineering Society (MES), Myanmar

The Foundation for the Promotion of Industrial Science, Japan

Cooperated by
Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA),
Nepal Office

SYMPOSIUM ORGANISERSCHAIRMAN and Co-CHAIRMAN

Amod Mani Dixit, Executive Director, National Society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal (NSET)
Kimiro Meguro, Director of ICUS, IIS, University of Tokyo (UTokyo), JapanSTEERING COMMITTEE

Shiva Bahadur Pradhanang, President, NSET, Nepal
Triratna Bajracharya, Dean Institute of Engineering (IOE), TU, Pulchowk, Nepal
Dhruba Raj Thapa, President, Nepal Engineers’ Association (NEA), Nepal
Khin Than Yu, Pro-Rector, Yangon Technological University, Myanmar
Mehedi Ahmed Ansary, Bangladesh University of Engineering Technology (BUET), Bangladesh
Sudhir Misra, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, India
Taketo Uomoto, Chief Executive, Public Works Research Institute, Japan
Teruo Fujii, Director General, IIS, UTokyo, Japan
Tsuneo Katayama, Adviser, Real-time Earthquake Information Consortium, Japan
Wei Cheng Fan, Director, Center for Public Safety Research (CPSR), Tsinghua University, China
Worsak Kanok-Nukulchai, Rector, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand
Yoshifumi Yasuoka, Fellow, Research Organization of Information and System, Japan
Haruo Sawada, President, Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, JapanTECHNICAL COMMITTEE

Ramesh Guragain, Deputy Executive Director, NSET, Nepal
Surya Narayan Shrestha, Deputy Executive Director, NSET, Nepal
Tuk Lal Adhikari, President, Nepal Geo-technical Society, Nepal
Nagendra Raj Sitoula, Program Coordinator, Master Program DRM, IOE, Nepal
Som Nath Sapkota, Senior Divisional Seismologist, Chief Department of Mines and Geology, Nepal
Dinesh Pathak, Associate Professor, Central Department of Geology, Tribhuvan University and former President,
Nepal Geological Society, Nepal
Kiang Hwee Tan, National University of Singapore, Singapore
Pradeep Kumar Ramancharla, International Institute of Information Technology Hyderabad, India
Kimiro Meguro, ICUS, IIS, UTokyo, Japan
Mafizur Rahman, BUET, Bangladesh
Pennung Warnitchai, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand
Somnuk Tangtermsirikul, Thammasat University, Thailand
Srikantha Herath, United Nations University, Japan
Taikan Oki, ICUS, IIS, UTokyo, Japan
Reiko Kuwano, ICUS, IIS, UTokyo, Japan
Akiyuki Kawasaki, Project Associate Professor, UTokyo, JapanORGANIZING COMMITTEE

Ramesh Guragain, Deputy Executive Director, NSET, Nepal
Kohei Nagai, ICUS, IIS, UTokyo, Japan
Dinesh Chandra Panthy, Deputy General Secretary, NEA, Nepal

SYMPOSIUM OFFICE

National Society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal (NSET)&International Center for Urban Safety Engineering (ICUS), Institute of Industrial Science (IIS),The University of Tokyo (UTokyo)
Email: usmca@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp

Contacts:

Eiko Yoshimoto, ICUS, IIS, the University of Tokyo, Japan
Rita Thakuri, NSET, Nepal

PREFACE
On behalf of the Organizing Institutes of the 14th International Symposium on New Technologies
for Urban Safety of Mega Cites in Asia (USMCA2015), I express our sincere welcome to all symposium
participants and distinguished keynote and plenary speakers.
In the Asia and Pacific-Rim regions, rapid economic development and population growth andconcentration has been fast accelerating the pace of urbanization. Unfortunately, the rapid expansion of
infrastructure for urbanization is not adequately balanced with appropriate measures for their maintenanceand management, and urban disasters have resulted. During the last ten years, there were many big
disasters in Asia and the Pacific Rim regions, such as killer cyclones Sidr in Bangladesh (2007), Nargis in
Myanmar (2008), and Aila in Bangladesh and India (2009), and Typhoon Ketsna (2009) and Haiyan (2013)
in the Philippines, flooding in Mongolia (2009) and Pakistan (2010), the devastating earthquakes in Sichuan,
China (2008), Sumatra (2009), Samoa (2009), Canterbury, New Zealand (2011), East-Japan, Japan (2011)
and Kathmandu, Nepal (2015), and heat waves in Russia and Japan (2010). The number of fatalities andmissing reported due to these disasters was well over 200,000. These unprecedented events illustrate theimportance of urban safety.
The International Center for Urban Safety Engineering (ICUS) was established in 2001 at theInstitute of Industrial Science (IIS), the University of Tokyo, with the objectives of carrying out research on
urban safety towards the realization of safer cities, especially in Asia and the Pacific Rim regions, in the 21st
century. For over a decade, ICUS has been actively tackling advanced research, as well as the enhancementof networking, information dissemination and collection in order to fully realize this vision. As a part of its
activities, ICUS has been annually co-organizing USMCA since 2002 with its partners in the Asian region.
In 2015, ICUS has jointly organized the 14th USMCA in Kathmandu, Nepal, with National Society for
Earthquake Technology-Nepal (NSET) after half year since the Kathmandu earthquake.
During the two-day symposium, 87 papers in eight parallel sessions were presented with sevenpapers by keynote and plenary speakers. We also had research exhibitions in 9 booths. The objective of thesymposium is to bring together decision makers, practitioners and researchers involved in the field of urban
safety to share their expertise, knowledge and experience in tackling the critical issues for safer cities in
Asia and the Pacific Rim regions. It also provides an environment to create and reinforce collaborative
networks among experts in the fields relevant to urban safety. The symposium focused on urban safety anddisaster mitigation, infrastructure management, and environment informatics.
I would like to thank all the members of the Steering, Technical and Organizing Committees aswell as the Symposium Secretariat for their hard work, time and effort in putting this symposium together. I
would also like to thank all our sponsors for their generous support and contribution. Thanks are also due toall those who have contributed towards making this symposium successful.

Kimiro MEGURO
Director of ICUS, IIS, The University of Tokyo(Co-Chairman of Organizing Committee, USMCA2015)
Copyright and Reprint Permission:
Photocopy of an article is permitted for authors and other researchers for their own reading and research. Abstracting and indexing of the papers are
permitted but acknowledgement should be given to “The 14th International Symposium on New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities inAsia” and the authors of each specific paper. Written permission should be obtained from the publishers prior to any other type of reproduction.
Please contact:
International Center for Urban Safety Engineering (ICUS),
Institute of Industrial Science (IIS),The University of Tokyo, Japan Tel: +81-3-5452-647 Fax: +81-3-5452-6476

PROGRAM OVERVIEW
Time
17:30-19:30
21:00-22:00

Wednesday, 28 October (काितर्क ११, २०७२)Welcome dinner at Wellness organic club
Registration at Radisson HotelTime

Thursday, 29 October (काितर्क १२, २०७२)08:00-08:50

Registration (Radisson Hotel)
Opening Ceremony (Nepa Dhuku Hall)
Chief Guest: Honorable Minister of Ministry of Federal Affairs and Local Development
Chair: Honorable Vice-Chairman of National Planning Commission

09:00-09:40

1. Address (Dr. Amod Mani Dixit, Executive Director of NSET, Nepal)
2. Address (Prof. Kimiro Meguro - Director of ICUS, IIS, The University of Tokyo, Japan)
3. Address (H.E. Mr. Masashi Ogawa, Ambassador of Japan to Nepal)
4. Address (Chief Guest, Honorable Minister, Ministry of Federal Affairs and Local
Development)
5. Address (Mr. Hiroyasu Tonokawa, Senior Representative, JICA Nepal)
6. Address and Closure of Opening Ceremony (Chair, Honorable Vice-Chairman of
National Planning Commission)

Keynote in Plenary Session 1 (Nepa Dhuku Hall)

09:40-10:10
10:10-10:30

Chair: Prof. Dr. Jib Raj Pokharel / Ms. Tomoko Matsushita
Prof. Kimiro Meguro

Lessons learned from past big earthquake disasters and comprehensive disastermanagement for implementation of disaster resilient society
Dr. Amod Mani Dixit

10:30-11:10

Two Decades of Earthquake Risk Management Actions Judged against Mw 7.8
Gorkha Earthquake of Nepal April 2015
Group photo – Coffee break & Exhibitions

11:10-11:25

Chair: Mr. Shiva Bahadur Pradhanang / Ms. Tomoko Matsushita
1. Prof. Reiko Kuwano

Keynote in Plenary Session 2 (Nepa Dhuku Hall)

11:25-11:55
11:55-13:30

13:30-15:10
15:10-15:50

Investigation into the multiple sinkholes in Pokhara, Nepal, occurred sinceNovember 2013
Mr. Suresh Prakash Acharya

Planning for Post-Earthquake Recovery and Rehabilitation
Lunch at Radisson
Room A
Room B
Session Chair :Dr. Somanath Sapkota
Prof. Kimiro Meguro
Session 1：
Gorkha Earthquake 1

Session Chair :Dr. Pwint
Prof. Sudhir Misra
Session 2 :Pre-event countermeasure in Disaster
Management 1

Coffee break & Exhibitions

15:50-17:30
18:30-20:00
Time

09:00-10:40

Session Chair :Mr. Padma Kumar Mainalee
Prof. Ansary Mehedi Ahmed
Session 3：
Gorkha Earthquake 2

Symposium Welcome Reception at Wunjala Moskva Restaurant
Friday, 30 October (काितर्क १३, २०७२)Room A
Room B

Session Chair :Dr. Ramesh Guragain
Prof. Osamu Murao
Session 5：
Pre-event countermeasure in Disaster
Management 3

10:40-11:10
11:10-13:00

13:00-14:30
14:30-15:00
15:00-15:30
15:30-16:00

Session Chair :Prof. Dr. Prem Nath Maskey
Dr. Takaaki Kato
Session 4：
Pre-event countermeasure in Disaster
Management 2

Session Chair :Mr. Tuk Lal Adhikari
Dr. Muneyoshi Numada
Session 6
Environment Informatics / InfrastructureManagement 1

Coffee break & Exhibitions
Room A

Session Chair :Mr. Yogeshwar K Parajuli
Dr. Koji Matsumoto
Session 7 :Post-event countermeasure in Disaster
Management

Room B

Session Chair :Mr. Suresh Prakash Acharya
Prof. Tan Kiang Hwee
Session 8：
Environment Informatics / InfrastructureManagement 2

Lunch at Radisson Hotel
Keynote in Plenary Session 3 (Nepa Dhuku Hall)
Chair : Prof. Dr. Gokarna Bahadur Motra

Dr. Somanath Sapkota

Paleoseismology of Nepal Himalaya and its implication in Seismic Hazard Assessment
Prof. Kazuki Koketsu

Integrated research on great earthquakes and disaster mitigation in Nepal Himalaya
Dr. Ramesh Guragain

Building Damage Patterns of Masonry and Non-engineered Reinforced Concrete
Buildings during April 25, 2015 Gorkha Earthquake in Nepal

16:00-17:00

18:00Time
09:00-18:00

Closing Ceremony (Nepa Dhuku Hall)
Chair : Dr. Yudai Honma
Young Award Ceremony
Announcement of USMCA2016
NSET’s Closing Speech
ICUS’s Closing Speech

Farewell Party
Saturday, 31 October (काितर्क १४, २०७२)Excursion (by bus) to the Earthquake Affected area Sankhu and Bhaktapur
Excursion In-Charge: Mr. Surya Prasad Acharya(Interested/Registered International participants only)

CONTENTS
Keynote Speakers
1. Prof. Kimiro Meguro

Lessons learned from past big earthquake disasters and comprehensive disastermanagement for implementation of disaster resilient society

page
1

2. Amod Mani Dixit, Ramesh Guragain and Surya Narayan Shrestha

13

3. Prof. Reiko Kuwano

15

4. Mr. Suresh Prakash Acharya

17

5. Soma Nath Sapkota, Laurent Bollinger and Paul Tapponnier29

6. Kazuki Koketsu, Soma Nath Sapkota, Sarbjit Prasad Mahato
and SATREPS Research Group31

7. Ramesh Guragain, Surya Narayan Shrestha, Dev Kumar Maharjan,
and Suman Pradhan

35

Two decades of earthquake risk management actions judged against
Mw 7.8 Gorkha Earthquake of Nepal April 2015
Investigation into the multiple sinkholes in Pokhara, Nepal,
occurred since November 2013
Planning for post earthquake recovery and rehabilitation

Paleoseismology of Nepal Himalaya and its implication in seismic hazard assessment
Integrated research on great earthquakes and disaster mitigation in Nepal Himalaya
Building damage patterns of masonry and non-engineered reinforced
concrete buildings during April 25, 2015 Gorkha Earthquake in Nepal

Session 1

Gorkha Earthquake 1
1. Arun Poudyal and Mahendra Subba

37

2. Tadashi Ise and Akhilesh Kumar Karna39

3. Deepak Chamlagain and Dipendra Gautam

47

4. Sangeeta Singh55

5. Tsuneo Ohsumi

63

6. Hari Ram Parajuli

71

7. Rohit Kumar Adhikari, Satish Bhagat and Anil C. Wijeyewickrema

79

Integrated safer settlements:GIS (Geographical Information System)
as a technological aid for its conceptualization
An introduction to disaster information sharing system and its possible utilizationin the aftermath of 2015 Gorkha Earthquake
Assessment of urban seismic hazard due to 2015 Gorkha seismic sequence
Ecological approach to post disaster settlement planning:a case of a traditional settlement Sankhu
Investigation of damage to buildings and ground truth verification for satellite datain Kathmandu Valley due to the 2015 Gorkha Earthquake
Estimation of seismic intensity at Lalitpur, Nepal
Damage scenario of reinforced concrete buildings in the 2015 Nepal earthquakes

8. Sujan Raj Adhikari, Gopi Krishna Basyal, Surya Narayan Shrestha
and Suman Pradhan

87

9. Maritess Tandingan, Sanju Sharma, Amod Mani Dixit and Ganesh Kumar Jimee

95

10. Netra P. Bhandary, Ryuichi Yatabe and Youb Raj Paudyal

105

Post-earthquake assessment of buildings using mobile technology
and Google imaginary plus GIS visualization
PEER impact on Gorkha Earthquake national response

Response of tall buildings to 2015 Gorkha Earthquake as seen from natural
frequency perspective

Session 2

Pre-event countermeasure in Disaster Management 1
1. Atsushi Numata and Nobuhiko Kotani

107

2. Gopi Krishna Basyal, Suresh Chaudhary and Surya Narayan Shretha115

3. Kenji Yoshitake, Kazuhiko Isoda, Daisuke Hayashi, Kazushi Takimoto,
Kentaro Kuraji, Arata WADA and Yuji Migitaka

129

4. Surya Prasad Acharya, Amod Mani Dixit, Ramesh Guragain,
Surya Narayan Shrestha and Jhapper Singh Vishokarma

137

5. Rajani Prajapati, Hima Shrestha and Ramesh Guragain

139

6. Pragyan Bhattarai

147

7. Shalini Jain

149

8. Muneyoshi Numada and Kimiro Meguro

157

9. Tetsuro Ito

165

10. Shinji Konishi, Tsutomu Ootsuka, Toshiki IMAMURA and Keiji Ooishi

171

Middle Floor slab support replacement beneath an operating subway line usedin the large-scale improvement of the Yurakucho Line between Kotake-mukaihara
and Senkawa
Open-spaces inventory and analysis in planning for safe evacuation sites
in earthquake emergencies for in Kathmandu Valley

New response reduction system for bridges using rotating inertia mass devices
Efforts on institutionalization of school earthquake safety
in Nepal: Experiences and achievements
Exploration of different retrofitting options
for RC frame buildings in Kathmandu

A pragmatic proposal for award of credit to qualify as a green building
for effective building code implementation in Nepal
Strengthening risk - governance & accountability
Process-based disaster management system “BOSS”
Considerations concerning “how should the central and local government
respond in emergency situations such as natural disasters”
Tokyo Metro earthquake countermeasures

Session 3

Gorkha Earthquake 2
1. Hiroshi Inoue, Ramesh Guragain, Gopi K. Basyal, Suresh Chaudhary,
Sujan Raj Adhikari and Tsuneo Ohsumi

Damage mapping of 2015 Gorkha Earthquake by low-altitude aerial photos

179

2. Hisila Manandhar and Yogeshwar K. Parajuli

185

3. Dr. Bhai Kaji Tiwari, Narendra Bahadur Shrestha, Jeny Shrestha
and Yogeshwar Parajuli

193

4. Hideomi Gokon, Makoto Fujiu, Kimiro Meguro and Muneyoshi Numada
and Shunichi Koshimura

203

5. Surya Narayan Shrestha, Nisha Shrestha, and Amod Mani Dixit

209

6. Satish Bhagat, Susumu Kono, Anil C. Wijeyewickrema, Koichi Kusunoki,
Seitaro Tajiri and Hisatoshi Kashiwa

211

7. Dipendra Gautam, Krishna Kumar Bhetwal, Hugo Rodrigues,
Pramod Neupane and Yasushi Sanada

219

8. Koichi Kusunoki, Susumu Kono, Seitaro Tajiri and Hisatoshi Kashiwa

227

9. Yasushi Sanada, Yukiko Nakamura, Takaya Nakamura, Yuebing Li
and Takeyuki Okubo

235

10. Yo Hibino, Naoki Onishi, Akihiro Nakamura and Yusuke Maida

243

Urban safety through the eyes of cultural heritage
Role of open space in strengthening communities’ resilience towards disaster:Case of Nandi Keshwor Bagaicha
Building damage estimation at Kathmandu using UAV photos and satellite
imageries

Lessons from response activities during April 25, 2015 Gorkha Earthquake, Nepal
Performance of a ten-story reinforced concrete building damaged in the 2015
Nepal Gorkha Earthquake

Observed damage patterns on buildings during 2015 Gorkha (Nepal) Earthquake
Field investigation in affected area due to the 2015 Nepal earthquake by AIJ
reconnaissance team: Outline of damage and damage classification resultof high-rise apartment buildings
Field investigation in affected area due to the 2015 Nepal earthquake by AIJ
reconnaissance team: Wall-to-floor area ratios of masonry school buildings
Field investigation in affected area due to the 2015 Nepal Earthquake
by AIJ reconnaissance team: damage assessment and seismic capacity evaluationof buildings in Gongabu, Kathmandu

Session 4

Pre-event countermeasure in Disaster Management 2
1. Mehedi Ahmed Ansary, B.S. Pushpendue Biswas and Abul Khair251

2. Kirti Tiwari, Hima Shrestha and Ramesh Guragain

261

3. Surya Bhakta Sangachhe

269

4. Kishor Timsina, Suman Pradhan and Ananta P. Senehang277

5. Anup Kumar Halder, Akira Inoue, Yosuke Nakajima and Md. Rafiqul Islam

287

Characterization of soil profile of Dhaka city using
electrical resistivity tomography (ert)Seismic vulnerability assessment and retrofit design of heritage buildingsof Kathmandu Valley
Urban regeneration as post disaster rehabilitation/reconstructionof historic core city and settlements
Building code implementation: Way to stronger Nepal

Seismic retrofitting of a garments factory building in Bangladesh

6. Shafinaz Sameen, Tamanna Rahman and Md. Tosnimul Hassan

295

7. Srijana G. Shrestha, Suman Pradhan and Surya N. Shrestha

303

8. Hideki Yamamoto

313

9. Shigeo Tatsuki

321

10. Nirakar Joshi, Surya Prasad Acharya, Amod Mani Dixit and Shiva Prasad Upreti

331

Emergence of alternative construction technologies: towards a safer Dhaka
Status of building code compliance: a case study in Karyavinayak municipality
Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) for the sustainable community
Life recovery models: cross overs between Kobe and Great East Japan Earthquake
recovery stories
Risk communication in schools, What worked and what not: experience from Nepal

Session 5

Pre-event countermeasure in Disaster Management 3
1. Takanobu Suzuki

333

2. Tao Wang, Koji Matsumoto and Kohei Nagai

339

3. Yogeshwar Parajuli, Hisila Manandhar and Jeny Shrestha

347

4. Genta Nakano and Rajib Shaw349

5. Yuya Tamamori, Makoto Fujiu, Shoichiro Nakayama, Junichi Takayama
and Kohei Hirako

355

6. Nilima Thapa Shrestha and Yogeshwor Krishna Parajuli363

7. Tomofumi Ikenaga, Hideomi Gokon and Kimiro Meguro

373

8. Yogeshwar K Parajuli, Padam K Mainalee, Saroj Basnet, Anish Joshi
and Gaurab Dawadi

381

9. Satoshi Takatsu and Muneyoshi Numada

383

10. Rajendra P Sharma, Prabhu Koirala and Yogeshwar K Parajuli

391

Detecting method for liquefaction of ground using strong ground motion
Simulations of the pull-out performance of mechanical anchorages in concretewith damaged cracks by the discrete analysis
Creating safer Kathmandu Valley: from the perspective of Kathmandu Valley
development authority
Institutionalization of disaster education in state of uttarakhand, India
Analysis of degree of regional health considering disaster risks～using national health insurance data～

Design of spatial decision support tool for understanding cumulative environmental
exposure
Distribution characteristics of vacant houses usable in future Nankai earthquake
disaster in Wakayama Prefecture
Land use planning as an effective tool for disaster management in Nepal

Development of evacuation facility management system "COCOA" for effective
evacuation facility operations by sharing information among stakeholders
Urban safety: role of law enforcement for better urban managementin Kathmandu Valley

Session 6

Environment Informatics / Infrastructure Management 1
1. Bishnu Prasad Devkota

401

2. Yudai Honma and Ryosuke Yabe409

3. Koji Matsumoto

417

4. Takahiro Minami, Makoto Fujiu, Shoichiro Nakayama, Jyunichi Takayama
and Yasuo Chikata

425

5. Dipendra Gautam and Hugo Rodrigues

435

6. Kenjiro Yamamoto, Muneyoshi Numada and Kimiro Meguro

443

7. Iuko Tsuwa, Takafumi Nakagawa and Mikio Koshihara

451

8. Mari Sato, Kazunori Fujisawa and Akira Murakami459

9. Bhaswati Ray and Rajib Shaw

467

Walking speed based on pedestrians’ behavior at mid-block cross in Kathmandu
Mathematical analysis of road blocking to improve evacuation time from tsunami
Flexural strengthening effect of pretensioned UFC panel on RC beams
with low reinforcement ratios
Effective analysis of soundness of bridges affected by environmental factors~Using bridge inspection data in Hokuriku region~

Architectural and structural characteristics of indigenous Newari Chhen: study ofseismic risk and resilience in the historic urban nucleus of Bhaktapur City, Nepal
Shake table tests on one-quarter scaled models of masonry houses retrofittedwith fiber reinforced paintEarthquake response analysis of five-storied pagoda considering rocking motion
Influence of frequency characteristics of dynamic seepage flow in a porous
medium containing a cavity
Community response to water stress in the megacityof Kolkata and implications to urban resilience

Session 7

Post-event countermeasure in Disaster Management
1. Osamu Murao, Takuma Usuda, Kazuya Sugiyasu and Kazumasa Hanaoka

477

2. Rishi Ram Parajuli, Junji Kiyono and Hitoshi Yatsumoto483

3. Dev Kumar Maharjan, Hima Shrestha and Ramesh Guragain

489

4. Koji Ogino, Kazuyuki Takada, Tomohisa Yamashita, Miho Ohara
and Makoto Fujiu

491

5. Ganesh Kumar Jimee, Amod Mani Dixit, Maritess Tandingan
and Sanju Sharma

499

Building damage due to 2013 Typhoon Yolanda in Basey, the Philippines

Analysis of vehicle running on elevated expressways during earthquake
Non-structural vulnerability mitigation in hospital and experience
in recent medium intensity earthquake

Evaluation of evacuation method through the pedestrian crowd evacuation
simulation - case study for Adachi-ku Senju district in TokyoStrategy for developing professional emergency responders in Nepal

6. Kenji Shibase, Shuji Osawa, Makoto Fujiu, Shoichiro Nakayama
and Junichi Takayama

511

7. Sharad Wagle, Ganesh Kumar Jimee and Sanjeev Ram Vaidya

517

8. Satomi Sugisawa, Junichi Takayama, Makoto Fujiu and Shoichiro Nakayama

527

9. Bimal Gadal

535

10. Tomoko Matsushita

537

11. Richard Sharpe, Yogeshwar Parajuli, Jibaraj Pokharel and Bijaya Upadhyaya549

A study of vulnerability of emergency transportation road network to various hazard
Significance of developing community responders in the context of Nepal
Development of support system for large area evacuation plan around of
nuclear power plant
Efforts of Nepal towards building a disaster resilient country
Comparison of housing reconstruction process after Typhoon Haiyan:“community-driven” vs. “production-based” approach
New technology for urban safety or more concentration on the fundamentals?

Session 8

Environment Informatics / Infrastructure Management 2
1. Mr. Padma Kumar Mainalee and Pragya Pradhan551

2. Kiang Hwee Tan, Emiko Lim and Tien Fang Fwa

557

3. Hiromi Sato, Mikio Koshihara, Tatsuya Miyake and Izuru Kawajiri

565

4. Nobuyuki Yamashita, Akira Murakami and Kazuyuki Nakahata573

5. Matsutaro Seki and Md. Rafiqul Islam583

6. Dipendra Gautam and Jyoti Prajapati

591

7. Akira Kodaka and Akiyuki Kawasaki

599

8. Suresh Chaudhary, Ganesh Kumar Jimee and Gopi Krishna Basyal

607

9. H. Kit Miyamoto and Amir SJ Gilani

617

10. H. Kit Miyamoto and Amir SJ Gilani

627

Building resilient urban system: approach of national urban development strategy
Steel fiber-reinforced previous concrete for urban roads
The evaluation for the structural performance of traditional townhouses
with timber through columns in Japan
Detection of deteriorated region in soil structures using particle filterand elastic wave survey simulation based on FIT
A proposal on the simplified structural evaluation method for existing reinforced
concrete buildings in Bangladesh
Distributional and cascaded reusability aspects of indigenous water management system
of Bhaktapur City, Nepal
Combination of different means for effective warning in a rural mountainous area
Trend and geographical distribution of landslides in Nepal based on Nepal DesInventar data
Performance based engineering by using seismic dampers for improved performanceand reduction in repair costComprehensive seismic risk reduction program for public buildings in Metro Manila,
Philippines

Photographs

ICUS Report 80

ICUS Report 80

Symposium Banner

Reception desk at Radisson hotel

Conference room

I

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

Opening Ceremony

H.E. Mr. Masashi Ogawa,Ambassador of Japan to Nepal

Mr. Hiroyasu Tonokawa, Senior
Representative of JICA

Mr. Ganga Lal Tuladhar, Minister of Ministry ofFederal Affairs and Local Development

Mr. Som Prasads Pandey, Minister ofIndustry, The Government of Nepal

Mr. Shiva Bahadur Pradhanang ,President of NSETLightening the Nepali traditional lamp to inaugurate the
USMCA2015

ii

II

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia
New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

ICUS Report 80

ICUS Report 80

Keynote Speakers

Prof. Kimiro Meguro, Directorof ICUS, IIS, UTokyo

Dr. Amod Mani Dixit, Executive
Director of NSET

Dr. Soma Nath Sapkota, Deputy
Director General, Dept. of Mines andGeology, Government of Nepal

Prof. Kazuki Koketsu, UTokyo

Prof. Reiko Kuwano, ICUS, IIS,
UTokyoDr. Ramesh Guragain,
NSET

Group photo at Radisson hotel on 29th OctoberIII

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

Closing ceremony

Mr. Christopher Rollo, Country Programme Manager
UN-Habitat Philippines

Closing speech from NSETBoothsIV

Young-Researcher-Award recipient, Mr. Hideki Yamamoto
was shaking hands with Dr. Amod Mani Dixit

Closing speech from ICUS

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

ICUS Report 80
ICUS Report 80

Break, Lunch, Banqet and Farewel Party

VOctober 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

VI

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

ICUS Report 80
ICUS Report 80

Excoursion to the Earthquake Affected area Shankhu and Bhaktapur

Visited to earthquake damage community, Sankhu Bazar and shelter

Visited to Shree Bhagawati Higher Secondary School at Sankhu

Visited to the shelter at Bhaktapur

VII

October
2015,
Kathmandu,
Nepal
October2015,
Kathmandu,
Nepal

Extended tour to Pokhara, 1st -3rd NovemberGroup photo at Heritage site of Bhaktapur on 31st October

Visited to Krishnabhir landslide

Visited to the village of Gajuri, Malekhu

Visited to the village of Gajuri Malekhu

Visited the Kharepani Area, where the flashflood
happened on 5th May 2012, Pokhara

VIII

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

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Report
ICUS
Report80 80

Visited sinkholes in Armala VDC, Pokhara, the village mayor explained the cause that there
were holes.

Rode on local bus around Kharepani Area

Lunch time

IX

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
USMCA2015
The 14th International Symposium on New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia
October 29-31, 2015
Radisson Hotel, Kathmandu, Nepal

ANNEX 1. INFORMATION ON EXCURSION (BY BUS) TO THE
EARTHQUAKE AFFECTED AREA IN SANKHU AND BHAKTAPURSCHEDULE

Time
9:00

Location
Hotel

Activity
Start travel to Shankhu

9:00 – 10:15

Travel time to Shankhu

10:15 – 11:15

Sankhu settlement

Visit earthquake damage
community, earthquake walk in
Shankhu Bazar, observe recovery
stage

11:15 – 12:00

Bhagyodaya School Shankhu

Observe disaster impact inSchool, compare the performanceof retrofitted and non-retrofitted
school building, interact withschool principal and teacher

12:00 – 13:00

Travel to NSET

13:00 – 14:00

NSET Bhainsepati

Lunch

14:00 – 15:00

NSET Bhainsepati

An Interaction on earthquake
response and activities of NSET

15:00 – 15:30

Travel to Bhaktapur

15:30 – 17:00

Bhaktapur

17:00 – 17:45

Travel back to hotel

17:45 onwards

Free time

Visit Heritage site of Bhaktapur,
observe earthquake impact andrecovery and reconstruction status

Note: Entry fee to Bhaktapur for Foreigners: US$ 10.

X

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia
USMCA2015 – Page 1

ICUS Report 80
USMCA2015
The 14th International Symposium on New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia
October 29-31, 2015
Radisson Hotel, Kathmandu, Nepal

ANNEX 2.
Schedule

INFORMATION ON EXTENDED TOUR TO POKHARA
November 1-3, 2015

Date
November 1

November 2

November 3

Time

Location

Description

8.00

Leave the Hotel in
Kathmandu

Heading towards Dhading

10.00 to 11: 00

Gajuri, Malekhu

Building Damage due toGorkha Earthquake (intensity
VII to VIII as of USGS)

12.00 to 12.30

Krishnabhir landslide

Stabilization of Krishnabhirlandslide13.00 to 13.45

Lunch

Venue TBC

14.00

Towards Pokhara

Around 17.00 reach to
Phokhara

8.00

Leave the hotel

Heading towards Kharepani

9.00 to 11.00

Kharepani Area

Flashflood of on 5th May
2012 caused death of 72
persons and a significant
damage to infrastructure andproperty

12.00 to 13.00

ArmelaSinkholes are appeared in theentire Thulibesi Phant, Armala
village.

13.30 to 14.00

lunch

Venue: TBC

14.00 to 17:00

Observation in
Phokhara

8.00

Leave the hotel

Heading towards Byas
Municipality Tanahu

9.30 to 10.30

Vyas Municipality

Observation of Building Code
Implementation program at
Municipal level.

12.00 to 12.45

Lunch

Venue: TBC

13.00

Heading towards Kathmandu

XI
USMCA2015 – Page 2

Keynote& Plenary Session

Lessons learned from past big earthquake
disasters and comprehensive disastermanagement for implementationof disaster resilient society.LPLUR0(*852


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ABSTRACT
There have been many big earthquakes causing numerous casualties and large economicalloss in the world. Even in the 21st century, there are nine earthquake disasters with more than
5,000 fatalities. For minimizing negative impact due to natural hazard, there is acomprehensive disaster management system, which is composed of seven-phasecountermeasures. They are three pre-event measures, ‘damage mitigation’, ‘preparedness’,and ‘disaster prediction and early warning’, and four post-event countermeasures, ‘damage
assessment’, ‘emergency disaster response’, ‘recovery’, and ‘reconstruction’. There are threeplayers for each countermeasure, individuals and companies for self-help effort, community
and/or group for mutual assistance, and national to local governments for public support.
Based on the experiences and lessons learnt from past disasters, I have developed a new
system that can support making proper regional disaster management plan and this will be abase for making action plans for each player and each phase of countermeasures considering
natural and social conditions of the target regions. With the proposed system, ideal andcurrent situation matrixes of disaster countermeasure can be created and by comparing thetwo, prioritized specific actions for each player can be indicated.
We cannot prevent earthquake occurrence. Earthquake does not kill people but structures do.
It is very difficult to save people by post-event countermeasures, such as search and rescue
operations. Today’s poor-quality structures will be negative inheritance in next generations
and attack their society. Today’s poor disaster management system will cause more damage
in the future. However we can drastically reduce earthquake damage by creating disaster
resilient society which is possible by implementing seven-phase structural and non-structural
measures, both of which are locally feasible and acceptable, in a well-balanced manner.
Keywords: disaster resilient society, comprehensive disaster management,
pre-event and post-event countermeasure, disaster life cycle1October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

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New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia
10 for implementation of disaster resilient society

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learnedfromfrom
past bigdisasters
and comprehensive
disaster management
Lessons
learnedpastearthquake
big earthquake
disasters
and comprehensive
disaster management
11
for for
implementationof disaster
resilientsocietysociety
implementationof disaster
resilientOctober 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

12

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Two Decades of Earthquake Risk Management Actions
Judged against Mw 7.8 Gorkha Earthquake of
Nepal April 2015


Amod Mani DIXIT1, Ramesh GURAGAIN2 and Surya Narayan SHRESTHA3
1
Executive Director, National Society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal (NSET), Nepal
adixit@nset.org.np
2
Deputy Executive Director, National Society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal (NSET),
Nepal
3
Deputy Executive Director, National Society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal (NSET),
Nepal

ABSTRACTThe 1988 M6.6 Udaypur Earthquake was the starting point of national efforts towards
earthquake risk management in Nepal. With international support, the government of Nepal
developed and in acted one of the most proactive building codes of developing countries inseismic region. This helped trigger better understanding of earthquake hazard and risk facedby the country and the need for developing and implementing organized approaches forearthquake risk management. The National Society for Earthquake Technology – Nepal(NSET) came into being during such national realization of the needs. NSET started a programfor earthquake risk management for Kathmandu Valley which taught several fundamental
lessons that became subsequently one of the most influencing directions in earthquake risk
management in Nepal and the region by initiating several milestone programs such as theschool earthquake safety program, annual earthquake safety days, mason training forearthquake resistant construction, program for enhancement of emergency response,
community-centered disaster risk management program, municipality earthquake safety
program, public private partnership for earthquake risk management, community level disaster
preparedness and planning and so on. These works were acknowledged positively nationallyand globally.
However, the real test of these methodologies and approaches took place during the devastating
M7.8 Gorkha Earthquake of April 25, 2015 that took a toll of more than 8000 human deaths
and several thousand injuries, and more than 8 million houses totally damaged in almost athird of Nepal’s territory.
The earthquake was the real test for the usefulness and contribution of the policies, regulations,approaches and methodologies as well as the preparedness and mitigation measures
undertaken by NSET and also by other stakeholders in the past two decades in aspects ofearthquake risk management in Nepal. The efficacy of the approaches were demonstrated inorganization of the emergency response by the government and by the people, in the results ofdamage assessment which showed that all school buildings retrofitted following a standard
process of design, quality control and construction not only didn’t get damaged but also served
as temporary although a majority of the school buildings was non-engineering stone or brickmasonry. The earthquake demonstrated the efficacy of earthquake awareness, earthquake
preparedness works in the school, non-structural mitigation works I hospitals and community
buildings and individual households, the use of light search and rescue capacity and the simple
tools in helping the victims and also the formal responders, the contribution of the formal
emergency response capacities in medical response and collapsed structure search and rescue.
The damage assessment guideline which was prepared a priori and dues for training engineers
were handy to immediately start the damage assessment and for the formulation of the PDNA.

13

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

The earthquake also identified areas of gaps and areas for further improvements. The paper
will provide evidence based cases on the implementation of global, national and local level
policies and strategies for disaster risk management at nominal costs in Nepal.
Keywords: Earthquake Risk Reduction, School Safety, Building Code Implementation, Programfor Enhancement of Emergency Response

14

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Investigation into the multiple sinkholes in
Pokhara, Nepal, occurred since November 2013
Reiko Kuwano
Professor, ICUS, IIS, The University of Tokyo, Japankuwano@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
ABSTRACT

Since November 2013, numerous sinkholes have been forming in the Armala area of
Pokhara Valley, Central Nepal, posing serious threat to local residents.
In order to provide countermeasures for reducing sinkhole risk, detailed investigations
into the cause and the formation mechanism of the sinkholes are crucial. Preliminary
surveys were conducted in June 2014 and November 2014. Comparison of photos, takenin the two surveys, clearly indicates not only the formation of new sinkholes, but also
the re-activation of filled sinkholes. By means of dynamic cone penetration tests andsurface wave investigations, qualitative characterization of the soil profile was attained,
and shallow weak soil layers which are believed to be the location for future sinkholes
could be identified. On the basis of the preliminary field investigation, possible sinkhole
formation mechanisms are considered.
Furthermore, no major apparent effect of the earthquake was observed in the sinkhole
damaged area due to the 2015 Gorkha Nepal Earthquake. But risk of sinkhole does notseem to disappear as white turbid water continuously springs. It indicates that theinternal erosion of white clayey silt layer is still in progress.
In August 2015, a boring was carried out beside one of the largest sinkholes. The
overall structure of ground layers was first revealed and a 2.5m high cavity at 7.5-10m
deep from the ground surface was found within a thick white clayey silt layer. Further
ground investigations including boring, surface wave exploration, ground water survey
and others will be conducted in December 2015.

15

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

16

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Planning for Post Earthquake Recovery
and Rehabilitation
Suresh Prakash Acharya 1
1
Chief Officer, GON, National Vigilance Centre
acharyasp@hotmail.com
ABSTRACTThe 7.6 magnitude earthquake of 25th April 2015, 7.3 magnitude aftershock of 12th
May and continuous aftershocks (more than 300) have caused heavy loss of shelters andphysical/social infrastructures in the hilly region of central and western Nepal. With aloss of lives of more than 8000 people and injuries to more than 22000 people, thiscatastrophe has shaken the Nepalese society posing a great challenge of recovery andrehabilitation to affected population. The destruction was widespread coveringresidential and government buildings, heritage sites, schools and health posts, trekking
routes and many physical/social infrastructures specially in rural hilly areas of central
and western region. Since a recovery programme involves implementing a large
number of activities in a relatively short period of time requiring enormous effort in the
preparation of institutional, financial and logistical support, we need to go forward in aunique Nepali way on the basis of previous experiences and our own legal framework.
The guiding principle for recovery planning needs to include a transparent working
system to address all the affected community with a focus on single women, children
who have lost their parents, disabled and elderly people without any discrimination on
the basis of caste, religion, race or political belief. Keeping in mind the enormous lossof settlement, the rehabilitation planning will focus on achieving a goal of safe andefficient settlement with adequate basic services.
Keywords: physical /social infrastructures, challenges, recovery and rehabilitation
programme, guiding principle
1. INTRODUCTION
Disaster Risk Management: Disaster causes major disruption in the life of peoplecausing death or injuries to the persons and or damage to the physical property. For
example the primary effect of Earthquake is massive destruction by ground shaking, andsecondary effects include liquefaction, land slides, ground ruptures, uplifts andsubsistence etc. Disaster risk management can be termed as use of administrative
directives, organizations and operational skills and capacities to lessen the adverse
impacts of hazards and possibility of disaster. It may consists of various management
steps such as mitigation, preparedness, response, recovery and reconstruction. The
various steps of DRM varies as per stages of disaster such as pre disaster, during
disaster and post disaster. Thus we need to understand clearly the stage of disaster andthen the steps and list of activities we need to perform in each step.

17

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepalz

Pre Disaster Stage: Mitigation and Preparedness are the two major steps
comprising of various activities. Mitigation Plan can be defined as taking actions to
reduce the effects of a hazard before it happens and it may consists of various
activities such as hazard assessment, vulnerability analysis, risk assessment, risk
evaluation, strategies for vulnerability reduction, integration of disaster risk
reduction activities in all development works etc.
Earthquake Mitigation can be done in two ways, structural mitigation can beachieved by implementation of National Building Code and also by retrofitting ofexisting structures. Non structural mitigation can be achieved by resilient land use
and settlement planning, preparation of microzonation map, enforcement of policy,
regulation and act. Similarly preparedness plan can be defined as several activities
related to prediction, forecasting, early warning, public awareness, training andcapacity building. Thus preparedness is more related to capacity building of thecommunity and the disaster volunteers and officials so that they can immediately
get activated during disaster event.

z

During Disaster Stage: Response and rescue is the main step to be taken into
consideration. The effectiveness of response lies in quick mobilization of response
and rescue team in the effected area. Immediately after that, damage assessment has
to be made and requirement analysis is needed for future action. Similarly rescue
and evacuation along with emergency health assistance are the major activities tobe done during the time of disaster. The effectiveness of response depends upon thecapacity and availability of skilled human resource as well as equipments andlogistics during the time of disaster.

z

Post Disaster Stage: The post disaster operation will run efficiently if the state iswell equipped and prepared with trained personnel, provisions in annual budget aswell as well defined legal institution to carry out rescue and evacuation efforts.
Immediate actions to bring back public life to normalcy has to be given first priority
by providing food, emergency shelter, and immediate health support in earlyrecovery stage. Then after post disaster need assessment, recovery works should bestarted without any delay with participatory approach and giving priority torecovery of livelihood. Schools need to be reopened as soon as possible. Recovery
means effort to improve the lives of the victims of the disaster. Short term, mid
term and long term plan for reconstruction and rehabilitation should be prepared inclose participation with the disaster victim people.

2. RECOVERY PROCESS
Early recovery is a multidimensional process of recovery that begins in a humanitariansetting. It is guided by development principles that seek to build on humanitarian
programmes and to catalyse sustainable development opportunities. It aims to generateself sustaining, nationally owned, resilient processes for post-crisis recovery. It
encompasses the restoration of basic services, livelihoods, shelter, governance, security
and rule of law, environment and social dimensions, including the reintegration of
displaced populations. (Extract from Guidance Note on Early Recovery, CWGER, April2008). The international Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) defines recovery as

18

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia
New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

ICUS Report 80

the decision and actions taken after a disaster with a view to restoring or improving the
pre disaster living conditions of the stricken community, while encouraging andfacilitating necessary adjustments to reduce disaster risks. Early Recovery can be started
while humanitarian response activities are ongoing.
2.1 Key Considerations in Recovery Process
Developing Disaster Recovery Frameworks, Sendai Conference Version, March 2015
recommends following considerations in the Recovery Process:z

Institutional Arrangements: A lead recovery agency should be designated early
into the recovery process. It should have a clear mandate and that it should bebacked by effective political and technical leadership.

z

Vision and Guiding Principle: Early setting of the vision and guiding principles
for recovery is important to ensure effective transition from the immediatehumanitarian response to the medium to long term recovery.

z

Programmatic Approach: The lead recovery agency may help the government
develop a framework that takes a programmatic approach to identify priority
sectors that are critical for restoring livelihood.

z

Financing the Recovery: Recovery may be funded through government funds,
international aid, private sector financing and community contribution. The
government need to have an effective fund tracking mechanism for both on- budget
and off-budget funds. This will enhance donor confidence and help in mobilizing
additional funds for recovery.

z

Simplified Procurement: Simplified procurement procedures can provide a robust
mechanism for the timely purchase of goods and services.

z

Communication: The government need to have a consolidated communication
system that conveys the progress of recovery and address the expectations of theeffected communities.

2.2 Disaster Recovery Framework
Developing Disaster Recovery Frameworks, Sendai Conference Version, March 2015
recommends following Framework in the Recovery Process. Disaster Recovery
Framework is arranged in six modules or units. These modules follow the sequence ofsteps required to develop and implement a framework.
z

Module 1 - Conducting Post Disaster Damage and Need Assessment: A Post
Disaster Needs Assessment (PDNA) is a pre requisite for developing a Disaster
Recovery Framework (DRF). The government must ensure participation andconsultation by relevant government departments (both horizontally and vertically),
civil societies, the private sector and face to face with people in the affected
communities.

Planning Planningfor Post Earthquake
RecoveryRecovery
and Rehabilitation
for Post Earthquake
and Rehabilitation

19

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
October 2015, Kathmandu, NepalzModule 2 - Policy and Strategy setting for Recovery: This module describes thevision, guiding principles, and appropriate strategies needed to achieve integrated,cross sectoral disaster recoveryz

Module 3 - Institutional Framework for Recovery: How institutions are set up is
critical for a successful recovery. A collective effort across government, NGOs, theprivate sector and communities promotes a successful recovery process.

z

Module 4 - Financing for Recovery: In post disaster recovery, there are four
major financing challenges. They are to quickly quantify the economic cost of thedisaster, develop recovery and reconstruction budgets, identify sources of financing
and set up the mechanisms to mange and track funds.

zModule 5 - Implementation Arrangements and Recovery Management:
Coordination brings together a larger number of partners and stakeholders to
support the recovery program. Existing project approval and procurement, reportingand staffing procedures need to be simplified to meet the pressing demand of therecovery process.

z

Module 6 - Strengthening Recovery System in National and Local
Governments: It refers to enhancing governmental capacity to help country andits people recover from disaster. The government needs to incorporate disaster risk
management (DRM) in its development planning.

3. PLANNING FOR RECOVERY AND REHABILITATION (Nepalese Context)
3.1 Post Disaster Need Assessment
Just after disaster, rescue and relief works are activated immediately. At this stage
Humanitarian aid agencies along with the army and security persons are activated for
rescue and relief works. Before the activities for Recovery start, Post Disaster Need
Assessment is done to ensure the level of damage and loss and also to get all the stakeholders including government agencies, NGOs, INGOs, development aid agencies etc
work together to understand the extent and type of damage due to the disaster. The main
steps to be followed for assessment can be listed as follows:20z

Develop Baseline for Assessment: To assess the damage, stock of physical assets
in the affected area prior to disaster need to be identified and to assess the loss, thedata of expected production and sales in the affected area need to be collected.

z

Estimate Post Disaster Situation: To have clear understanding of the post disastersituation, the government must identify damage and loss on sector by sector fashionand then an estimate can be made about the total values of damage and loss.
Damage to physical assets can be determined through field survey and or aerial
photo analysis. An estimation can be made dividing the whole scenario into four
major sectors such as social , infrastructure, productive and cross cutting sectors.

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia
New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

ICUS Report 80z

Estimate Disaster Impact: Such impact has to be estimated for macro economic
level such as GDP, BOP (Balance of Payment), and Fiscal Budget. Such impact
need to be calculated for affected population as well as personal and household
level.

z

Recovery and Reconstruction Need: Estimates on recovery and reconstructionneeds must be based on solid, quantitative analysis, take into account the affected
country’s recovery and reconstruction policy and strategy, include necessary risk
reduction measures, “Building Back Better” concept, needs for reconstruction ofdestroyed assets derived from the value of damage

In Nepal, the catastrophic earthquake of 25th April 2015 (7.6 magnitude) followed bymore than 300 aftershock (big one on 7th June) caused tremendous physical loss withcasualty of 8790 people, more than 22000 injuries and affected almost one third of
population of Nepal. The destruction was widespread covering residential andgovernment buildings, heritage sites, schools, health posts, rural roads, bridges, watersupply systems, hydropower plants etc. The PDNA covers 31 districts affected by theearthquakes, of which 14 districts are the worst affected. This assessment was led by
National Planning Commission covering 23 thematic areas as follows:zSocial Sectors: Housing, Health and Population, Nutrition, Education and Cultural
Heritagez

Productive Sectors: Agriculture, Irrigation, Commerce and Industry, Tourism and
Financial SectorszInfrastructure Sectors: Electricity, Communications, Community Infrastructures,Transport and Water Sanitationz

Cross Cutting Sectors: Governance, Disaster Risk reduction, Environment andForestry, Employment and Livelyhood, Social Protection, Gender Equity andSocial Inclusion, Poverty and Human Development and Macro economic Impact
Assessment

PDNA report on Nepal Earthquake has concludes that the total value of disaster effects
including damage and loss is US$ 7.065 Billion including US$ 5.404 Billion as private
property loss, 1.661 as Public loss and US$ 171 million as losses in personal income.
Social sector bears the biggest loss as 58% where as productive sector 25%,
infrastructure as 10% and cross cutting as 7% . In this way it gives a clear indicationthat social sector which include Housing and Human Settlements, Health, Education
and Cultural Heritage bears the biggest damage and Housing and Human Settlements
has suffered the highest damage amounting US$ 3.036 Billion which is almost 43% of
the total damage. PDNA Report prepared by NPC mentions that the earthquakes will
end up pushing an additional 2.5 to 3.5 % Nepalese into poverty in 2015-2016 whichtranslates into at least 700000 additional poor.
3.2 Guiding Principle

Planning Planningfor Post Earthquake
RecoveryRecovery
and Rehabilitation
for Post Earthquake
and Rehabilitation21

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

The main objective of the recovery and rehabilitation lies in guiding principle which isderived from PDNA report output. Keeping in mind the April earthquake , following
principles have been proposed :z

Centralised Policy, Decentralised Programme Formulationz

Build back betterz

Appropriate Technology based on indigenous knowledge has to be optimallyutilized with appropriate improvementz

Improved Settlement planning in the old place to be prioritized and the traditionand cultural values to be protected if resettlement done in new placez

All the stake holders including political parties, NGOs, INGOs, Professional
Societies, Donor agencies, Social organizations etc must follow the policy endorsedby the governmentz

All type of relief packages and supports must be uniform and standardized as per
government rules, no discrimination on the basis of cast or race or geographicalpocket should be madez

The policy and programme applied in earthquake affected area need to be replicatedin other part of the countryz

The government should give priority to get support from neighboring countries in
addition to others globally.

z

Social Sector must be given priority keeping in mind the biggest amount of loss inthis sector and also largest public demand as well.

3.3 Strategy for Recovery
Based on the report of PDNA, the strategy for recovery and rehabilitation for April
2015 Earthquake in Nepal can be written as following major areas:
3.3.1 Reconstruction, repair and rehabilitation of Housing and Public Building:
When a heading comes at the bottom of a page please try to adjust the length ofpreceding paragraphs, by slight rewriting, so that the title appears at the top of the next
page; it is often possible to shorten a paragraph with only one word on the final line.
You might also be able to resize a figure. Otherwise, add extra line spacing above
headings.
z

22

Owner Built approach is suitable for private building repair or reconstruction using
locally available construction materials with improved indigenous skill andtechniques.

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia
New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

ICUS Report 80z

The mass training campaign for local masons and junior technicians has to beorganized by the government. To make it implemented several NGOs and skill
development institutions could be mobilized at local level.

zRetrofitting campaign for those private buildings which are not damaged by the lastearthquake has to be made based on technical assessment by the experts.

z

For reconstruction of Public Buildings, priority will be given to school and healthpost building and integrated public building construction will be practiced to savethe precious land and cost of maintenance and quality control in construction.

z

All short of building construction will be strictly guided to make them compatible
to the provisions of National Building Code.

3.3.2 Resettlement Planning and Improvement of settlement Pattern andinfrastructures:z The government must focus on restoration of services as soon as possible andfacilitate return of internally displaced people (IDPs) back to their homes andvillages of origin.
z

The damaged settlement needs to be improved so that every settlement will haveopen space which could be used as rescue place (preferably equivalent helipad)
during the time of disaster and playground during normal timesz

Resettlement will be promoted only if the existing place is found to be highly
vulnerable from technical investigations and use of land readjustment techniquewill be widely used for resettlement.

z

The settlements will be connected to vehicular road network as far as possible andthe internal roads inside the settlement will be planned for vehicular purpose as far
as possible.

z

Repair and maintenance as well as new construction of physical infrastructures inaffected areas should be given sufficient budget for making the life comfortable e.g.
roads, bridges, hydropower plants, office buildings, communication systems,
schools, hospitals etc. and this development needs to be tied up with settlement
development.

3.3.3 Restoration and Conservation of historic and archaeological areas:z Various modalities of execution of regeneration of historic core areas has to be
discussed with the affected public before going for implementation.
z

Restoration and conservation of damaged world heritage sites can be implemented
with consultation of experts from different international organizations.

zHouse Pooling could be done for regeneration of historic core settlements to makethem disaster resilient without loosing their historic identity.

3.3.4 Support for earthquake affected family and renovation of economic
infrastructures:for Post Earthquake
and Rehabilitation
Planning Planningfor Post Earthquake
RecoveryRecovery
and Rehabilitation23

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepalz

Special programme for employment generation and skill development for ultra
poor and most vulnerable family.

zSpecial activities of saving and credit cooperatives and micro finance activities
among such families.

z

Improved varieties of seed and fertilizers to be made easily available to the affected
farmers.

z

Commercial Banks to be mobilized in affected rural areas to make easy access ofloan for affected family.

3.4 Institutional Arrangement
How institutions are set up is critical for a successful recovery. A collective effort
across government, NGOs, the private sector and communities promotes a successful
recovery process. To effectively manage the contributions of various stakeholders in therecovery, it is important to clarify their roles and responsibilities. Three different
options for the structure of lead agency for recovery could be as follows:z

Recovery programme can be done by making a coordination mechanism of existing
line ministries involved in reconstruction workz

Creating a new empowered new authority for managing recovery activitiesz

Hybrid model by establishing a new institution which could coordinate with all theconcerned stakeholders involved in recovery activities

The proposed bill for Post Earthquake Reconstruction work in Nepal has envisioned
provision of an Reconstruction Authority under the chairmanship of Rt. Hon. Prime
Minister with four ministers, chief executive officer, vice chairman of NPC, Chief
Secretary and three experts as members. This Reconstruction Authority will be fully
responsible for all the related works for recovery and reconstruction at post earthquakestage which can be listed as follows:24z

Assessment of damage and declaration of earthquake affected area according to theextent of damage and lossz

Prioritise the sectors for reconstructionz

Approve the policy, planning, budget and programmes for earthquake affected areaz

Keeping coordination with various stakeholders government, non government, UN
agencies and development partners involved in reconstruction work and guidingthem for their work and responsibilityzPlanning for resettlement and facilitate in acquiring land wherever neededzManaging the required budget for reconstruction

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia
New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

ICUS Report 80z

Monitoring the reconstruction work and keeping quality control

3.5 Miscellaneous Sectors to be addressed
In addition to the normal activities to be done during the recovery and reconstruction
stage, some cross cutting issues need to be taken into consideration such as:z

Involvement of media group and artists:z

Education, Research and Development of Earthquake Science and TechnologyzFacilitating supply of construction materialszConstruction of Earthquake memorials at worst affected areasz

Strict Supervision and Monitoring of Reconstruction Worksz

Honoring best practices in Rescue, Response and Recovery Activitiesz

Amendments of related existing acts, rules, regulations and directives forfacilitating recovery and rehabilitation

4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
The various available reports and studies predict that Nepal could face even bigger
catastrophic loss of human life and destruction of property in major earthquake of future.
The recent April 25, 2015 earthquake in central Nepal with hundreds of after shocks
have really shaken Nepalese people and they have realized the importance of
preparedness. All the machinery of government must be mainstreamed about such mega
natural disaster and appropriate budget needs to be allocated for preparedness. In
addition to the earthquake, Nepal have been facing series of other natural disasters suchas flood and land slides during rainy season, events of household and forest fire during
dry season, and in a high risk of earthquake any time. In addition to these, Nepal
experiences substantial amount of casualty by lightning, epidemics and road accident
every year. Recommendations can be summarized as follows:
4.1 Safety of Infrastructure
Building safety is major concern in Nepal because recent earthquake has clearly given
the message that most of the rural housing are seismically unsafe. Thus strict
implementation of National Building Code is recommended not only in urban but also
in rural area. Some amendments in NBC is very much essential in inclusion of seismic
retrofit code for buildings and infrastructure, national fire code , electrical, plumbing
and mechanical code, approval of NBC compliance system, monitoring and quality
control etc In addition to Building there are many other infrastructure sectors which
need to be taken into consideration such as Roads and Bridges Safety, Airport andHelipad Safety, Water Supply and Sanitation Safety, Hydropower Production and

Planning for Post Earthquake Recovery and Rehabilitation
Planning for Post Earthquake Recovery and Rehabilitation25

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

electrical Transmission Safety, Irrigation System Safety, and Factory Building and
Mechanical Safety etc.
4.2 Medical and Public Health Safety
There is an urgent necessity to train emergency rescue personnel, emergency healthworkers, doctors, public health professionals and volunteers for getting them ready all
the time for providing their service in case of disaster. Equally important is making theessential logistics items and equipment available, including ambulances, temporary
medical treatment facility, medical supplies, temporary health camp facilities andportable emergency communication facilities. For this purpose, a strong public private
partnership as well as strong coordination mechanism with international volunteer
organization is needed.
4.3 Communication System
Most of the Nepal's commercial communications infrastructure has been found to be
non functional during earthquake and people get panic trying to know the status of theirclose ones. The rescue team gets undecided how to move and where to move without
knowing the real status of event. Even the Emergency Operation Center becomes nonfunctional if the communication system does not work. Thus proper functioning ofcommunication system become so vital during disaster. At the same time the masscommunication media must broadcast the messages which are fact and real otherwise a
false message may create another disaster among the community.
4.4 Post Earthquake Preparedness
The importance of preparedness can be realized from the statement "It is estimated thatfor every $ 1 of investment in Disaster Risk Reduction saves as much as $100 inrecovery". The biggest challenge lies in coordinating and mobilizing the nationally andinternationally available resources properly and effectively. Effective preparedness help
to mobilize the heavy machinery and equipment for rescue and immediate repair ofessential facilities and transportation system.
4.5 Dedicated and Strong Institution
Existence of dedicated and well defined institution for Disaster Management is ofextremely high importance for country like Nepal where natural disaster is a regularphenomenon.
REFERENCESGFDRR, World Bank Group, 2015, Guide to Developing Disaster Recovery
Frameworks, Sendai Conference Version.
Malla Ramesh B, 2015, Earthquake Preparedness and Disaster Relief in Nepal,
Aposition Paper, A joint initiative of the American Society of Nepalese Engineers(ASNEngr), America Nepal Medical Foundation (ANMF) and Computer Association of
Nepal-USA (CAN-USA)

26

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New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

ICUS Report 80

Bermeo Miguel, 2008, UNDP Policy on Early Recovery
CWGER (Cluster Group on Early Recovery), 2008, Guidance Note on Early Recovery
IRP (International Recovery Plateform), Guidance Note on Recovery, UNDP/India
National Planning Commission Nepal, 2015, Nepal Earthquake 2015 Post disaster
Needs Assessment
Ministry of Physical Planning and Works, 2011, Recovery Principles and Guidelines,
Earthquake Risk Reduction and Recovery Preparedness Programme for Nepal

Planning Planningfor Post Earthquake
RecoveryRecovery
and Rehabilitation
for Post Earthquake
and Rehabilitation27

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

28

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Paleoseismology of Nepal Himalaya andits implication in Seismic Hazard Assessment
Soma Nath Sapkota1, Laurent Bollinger2, and Paul Tapponnier3
1
Deputy Director General, Department of Mines and Geology, Government of Nepal,
Nepal
2
Deapartment Analyse Surveillance Environment DASE, France
3
Earth Observatory of Singapore
ABSTRACT
Department of Mines and Geology in collaboration with Department Analyse Surveillance
Environment (DASE) France and Earth Observatory of Singapore (EOS) is conducting
many basics and applied researches to understand the process of earthquake nucleation in
Himalaya and return period of great earthquake in this region. Many fundamental question
regarding the seismotectonic model, seismic cycle, interseismic slip deficit and behavior ofMain Himalayan Thrust is understood as an outcome of this collaboration. Most of theepicenter of the Himalayan earthquake follow a belt of seismicity, at a depth of 10-20 km,
follows approximately the front of the higher Himalaya along the 3000-3500m
topographical contours. Past earthquake of the Himalayan region were also nucleated andtheir epicenter were located in this region. This midcrustal seismic cluster is well mappedat the surface by high uplift rate inferred from geodetic measurements and high conductive
zone which might be due to fluid circulation at the midcrustal depth. A network of 29
continuous GPS stations within the territory of Nepal Himalaya complement the seismic
network since 2002, monitoring the convergence rate between northward moving Indian
plate and the Tibetan plateau. Result from this network shows that the Main Himalyan
Thrust fault (MHT) is currently locked between the higher Himalaya and the Main Frontal
Thrust, 100 km southward, and accumulates a slip deficit in this part of the Himalaya at a
rate of approximately 1.8cm/yr, this slip is responsible for nucleation of big earthquake inthis region.
Himalayan region has been shocked by 6 great earthquakes in the past century including
recent April 25, 2015 Mw 7.8 Gorkha Earthquake: 2005 Muzzafarabad Pakistan (Mw 7.6),
1905 Kangra (Mw 7.8), 1934 Bihar Nepal (Mw 8.4), 1987 Shillong (Mw 8.3) and 1950
Assam (Mw 8.6) earthquakes. The region between 1905 Kangra Earthquake and 1934
Bihar Nepal Earthquake between 78°E and 84°E has not produced any major earthquake
since more than four centuries and stands for being a large seismic gap in the Himalayan
region. The high seismogenic potential of this locked fault zone exposes the North-Western
Himalaya and the densely populated region of nearby Ganges basin in India to a high levelof seismic risk. Better understanding the future seismic behavior within this seismic gap is
one of the major challenges to be taken up by the scientific community in the region. This
paper will focus on the present understanding of the seismicity of the Himalaya andimpending seismic hazard of the region.

29

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

To Assess the seismic history of the region, we should have complete history of pastearthquake this paper will describe the surface ruptures discovered and studied in Nepal. It
will try to answer some fundamental questions such as; How complete is the historic
record for M>8 earthquake in the region ? What structures generate these very large
earthquakes? and do they rupture to the surface or they stopped before reaching thesurface as 2015 Gorkha Earthquake? To address these questions will confront thehistorical records with the results of geomorphic and paleoseismic studies conducted along
the MFT in Nepal. The MFT has been chosen as a main target because deformed riverterraces show that late Pleistocene and Holocene deformation across the Nepal Himalaya
is expressed on the frontal fold above the MFT. The surface trace of the MFT therefore
provides an opportunity to document whether large earthquake in the MFT rupture thesurface, and if so, to determine there size and recurrence as demonstrated by the firstreport by Sapkota et al., 2013 of the surface ruptures on the same MFT segment of two of
the largest historical earthquakes that occurred in central eastern Nepal (AD 1934 (M8.4)
and AD 1255 (M>8)). For the strict purpose of accurate seismic hazard assessment in
Nepal, it is also important to know whether great earthquakes produce surface ruptures,
because this has strong implications on the kind of regional damage expected. The design
or retrofitting of major infrastructures directly depends on such information. Nepal should
put its step forward in this direction to find out the return period of great earthquake andsegmentation of Himalayan arc in relation to its length and width.

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New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Integrated research on great earthquakes anddisaster mitigation in Nepal Himalaya
Kazuki KOKETSU1, Soma Nath SAPKOTA2, Sarbjit Prasad MAHATO3,
and SATREPS Research Group
1
Professor, Earthquake Research Institute, University of Tokyo, Japan
koketsu@eri.u-tokyo.ac.jp
2
Deputy Director General, Department of Mines and Geology, Nepal
3
Director General, Department of Mines and Geology, Nepal
ABSTRACTThis project is now at the preparatory stage of making detailed research plans, and will
be carried out for five years from 2016 under the Science and Technology ResearchPartnership for Sustainable Development (SATREPS) program of the Japan Science
Technology Agency (JST) and the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). Its
overall goal is to mitigate future earthquake disasters in Nepal and the project willrealize this overall goal in association with the risk assessment project of JICA.
Therefore, the project will contribute to the overall goal through research activities onseismic potential evaluation, ground motion prediction, seismic hazard assessment,
earthquake information delivery, and education and policies. 1. We evaluate the seismic
potential of the Central Seismic Gap along the Main Frontal Thrust and construct thesource models of future great earthquakes. 2. We model the velocity structure in the
Kathmandu Valley and perform scenario ground motion predictions using theconstructed source and velocity structure models. 3. We assess the seismic hazards inthe Kathmandu Valley due to the future great earthquakes. 4. We build a monitoring
system for the future great earthquakes to enhance the existing observation network andinformation system. 5. We educate graduate students and experts on seismology andearthquake engineering, and recommend policies to Nepal.
Keywords: SATREPS project, seismic potential evaluation, ground motion prediction,
seismic hazard assessment, education and policies
1. INTRODUCTION
Nepal is an earthquake disaster-prone country because of its tectonic setting. The Indian
plate is moving northward at a rate of 5 cm/year. However, its continental lithosphere is
too buoyant to subduct, so that it is colliding with the Eurasian plate generating large
earthquakes and forming steep mountains in the Himalayan region including Nepal.
Urban areas in Nepal are mostly located in a few basins such as Kathmandu Valley.
Since basin sediments and steep topography in basins’ outskirts can amplify andlengthen seismic ground motions, it is important for hazard estimates and disastermitigation to explore not only earthquake sources but also the subsurface structures andtopographies of the basins. Moreover, the urban areas are highly vulnerable toearthquakes due to almost entirely non-engineered/very weak houses with root causes of
weak law enforcement of building codes, unplanned settlements and low economic

31

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

conditions. Even though under the conditions mentioned above, there are only few
experts in seismology, which is a geophysical discipline for earthquake studies.
Consequently, Nepal is one of the highest risk countries in the world against
earthquakes, and it is urgent for Nepal to perform an integrated research on earthquake
disaster mitigation in collaboration with Japanese researchers.
2. RESEARCH PLAN
2.1 Research areas
We focus on large future earthquakes in the “Central Seismic Gap” as the greatest
seismic threat to Nepal (e.g., Avouac, 2007). Research sites to be targeted are:Area 1 Around the Central Seismic Gap along the Main Frontal Thrust where a large
future earthquake is expected, for the source modeling and seismic andgeodetic monitoring.
Area 2 Kathmandu Valley and its surrounding areas for the modeling of velocity
structures and seismic hazard assessments.
2.2 Research components
Our overall goal is to mitigate future earthquake disasters in Nepal and the project willrealize this overall goal in association with “The Project for Assessment of Earthquake
Disaster Risk for the Kathmandu Valley” of JICA. The project will contribute to theoverall goal through the five research components: 1. Earthquake potential evaluation, 2.
Ground motion prediction, 3. Seismic hazard assessment, 4. Earthquake informationdelivery, and 5. Education and Policies, as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Master plan of the project32

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia
New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

ICUS Report 80

3. RESEARCH ACTIVITIES
3.1 Earthquake potential evaluation
It is proposed to (a) deploy a continuous GPS array in the Central Seismic Gap toprecisely monitor current crustal deformation field, (b) acquire past earthquake andcrustal deformation records along the Main Frontal Thrust and others throughgeological surveys, and (c) integrate geodetic and geological data together with seismic
data for developing earthquake source models. To carry out these objectives, threeresearch subjects are proposed as follows:
1-1 Crustal deformation monitoring and evaluation of relationship between earthquakes
and crustal deformations
1-2 Evaluation of fault activities by geological and geomorphological surveys
1-3 Evaluation of earthquake potential and development of earthquake source models.
3.2 Ground motion prediction
We build an array of strong motion seismometers. We then verify and upgrade thethree-dimensional (3-D) velocity structure model from Component 3 for Kathmandu
Valley, using strong motion records obtained by the array. We also use the strong
motion records of the Gorkha earthquake and its aftershocks. We conduct groundmotion prediction in Kathmandu Valley for scenario earthquakes, using the upgraded 3D velocity structure model. To carry out these objectives, two research subjects areproposed as follows:
2-1 Strong motion observation and verification and upgrade of velocity structure model
2-2 Study on scenario earthquakes and ground motion prediction.
3.3 Seismic hazard assessment
We collect geological information and results of boring, and conduct reflection or refraction, gravity,and microtremor surveys. Using the results of the collection and surveys, we constructvelocity structure and soil structure models for the deep and shallow parts of the
Kathmandu Valley basin, respectively. Based on the earthquake source models of
Component 1 and the results of the ground motion prediction performed by Component
2 using the structure models above, we make seismic hazard maps of Kathmandu Valley
and reevaluate seismic risks at high risk areas introducing the tools and parametersdeveloped by the risk assessment project of JICA. The consequences of the Gorkha
earthquake are used as actual data for making seismic hazard maps. To carry out theseobjectives, three research subjects are proposed as follows:
3-1 Development of velocity structure and soil structure models
3-2 Upgrade of ground motion prediction and seismic hazard assessment
3-3 Reassessment of earthquake disaster risk at high risk areas.
3.4 Earthquake information delivery
We build an earthquake observation network, which can be enhancement of the existing
network. We then build an earthquake information delivery system, which can also beenhancement of the existing system. This is ready to deliver rapid earthquake
information. If considerable aftershocks of the Gorkha earthquake still occur at thecompletion of a prototype of the system, we will examine to apply it to rapid

IntegratedYour
research
great earthquakes and disaster mitigation in Nepal Himalaya
paperontitle

33

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

information delivery for the aftershocks. To carry out these objectives, two researchsubjects are proposed as follows:
4-1 Enhancement of earthquake observation network
4-2 Enhancement of earthquake information delivery system
3.5 Education and policies
We provide opportunities of higher education in seismology for Nepalese graduate
students and those of expert education in seismology and earthquake engineering for
Nepalese researchers. From the standpoint of science and technology research, we makepolicy proposals based on the latest findings of our research project using state of art
scientific approaches mentioned above. During the project, we make the most use of thepeople’s experiences during the 2015 Gorkha earthquake. To carry out these objectives,
four research subjects are proposed as follows:
5-1 Higher education of seismology
5-2 Expert education of seismology and earthquake engineering
5-4 Recommendation of policies for earthquake disaster mitigation
4. Discussion
We are now carrying out the one-year J-Rapid project called “Investigation of groundmotion to damage relationship in the Kathmandu Valley from aftershock andmicrotremor observations.” We will make full use of its results in the SATREPS projectfrom 2016.
REFERENCES
Avouac, J.-P., 2007. Dynamic Processes in Extensional and Compressional Settings –Mountain Building: From Earthquakes to Geological Deformation, Treatise on
Geophysics. Vol 6, Elsevier, 377-439.

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New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia
New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Building Damage Patterns of Masonry andNon-engineered Reinforced Concrete Buildings
during April 25, 2015 Gorkha Earthquake in Nepal
Ramesh GURAGAIN1, Surya Narayan SHRESTHA2 , Dev Kumar MAHARJAN3 andSuman PRADHAN4
1
Deputy Executive Director, National Society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal (NSET), Nepal
rguragain@nset.org.np
2
Deputy Executive Director, National Society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal (NSET), Nepal
3

Earthquake Engineer, National Society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal, Nepal
Program Manger, Building Code Implementation Program in Municipality of Nepal, NSET

4ABSTRACTThe April 25, 2015 Gorkha Earthquake of Magnitude 7.8 in Nepal damaged about seven-hundred
thousand buildings. The main typology of buildings in the affected area are stone masonry with
mud mortar, some buildings with stone and brick masonry with cement/sand mortar and few
reinforced concrete buildings with masonry infill. Among the damaged buildings, about 96% of
the buildings were masonry and about 4% reinforced concrete buildings with masonry infill.
This study conducted detail damage assessment of over one hundred fifty thousand buildings ofdifferent type of Masonry and Reinforced Concrete (RC) buildings in Nepal. First, the buildings
were classified to different structural types like adobe, stone in mud, brick in mud, stone in cement,
brick in cement, wood, bamboo, RC and others. Other important parameters like type of floors
and roofs and occupancy of the buildings were noted before starting the detail damage assessment
in structural elements.
Damage to overall building as well as to different structural/non-structural elements werecategorized into four different categories mainly overall hazard, structural hazard, non-structural
hazard and geotechnical hazard. The damage level to different structural/non-structural elements
was assigned from insignificant damage to extreme damage in three categories considering theseverity of damage like crack widths, delamination, tilting etc. In addition to the severity of damage,extent of damage to that particular element of different severity was also noted. Each type ofdamage with different severity was estimated in terms of extent like less than 1/3rd of the total
area, 1/3rd to 2/3rd and more than 2/3rd. Considering the damage severity and extent, overall
damage grade to the building was assigned. Finally, based on the damage grade and extent ofdamage recommendation to the building either to demolish, repair and retrofit or just repair wasrecommended.
This study further analyze the main type of damage to different categories of the buildings andfinds out critical factors to be considered for making them earthquake resistant. Existing
traditional earthquake resistant elements like wooden bands and their effectiveness on earthquake
safety of masonry buildings are further studied. It is found that, corner separation, diagonal
cracking, out of plane failure, in-plane flexural failure and delamination are the main type ofdamage to masonry buildings while soft-story damage, joint failure, lap splice, columns shear
failure, beam failure and infill walls failure are the main types of damages to non-engineered RC
buildings.
Keywords: Low strength masonry, Non-engineered buildings, Damage Patterns

35

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

36

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Oral Sessions

Integrated Safer Settlements:
GIS (Geographical Information System) as atechnological aid for its conceptualization
Arun POUDYAL1 and Mahendra SUBBA2 Dr. Ing.
GIS/RS Specialist and Mapping Consultant, Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD)
Singhadurbar, Kathmandu, Nepal
arun.poudyal@gmail.com
2
Senior Urban and Regional Planner, Former Joint Secretary
Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD)
Singhadurbar, Kathmandu, Nepal
msubba1960@gmail.com

1

ABSTRACTIn Nepal, the hill settlements are largely characterized by low-density scattered settlements.
Several of these are situated in steep slopes with low accessibility. They are also remotely
located. In many instances, these settlements are found to be in the flood plains of rivers.
Since Nepal being located in an active seismic zone, these settlements are therefore exposed
to risk of multiple hazards such as earthquake, landslides, and floods. The recent Gorkha
earthquake of April 25, 2015 is an evidence to the prevalent vulnerability, as multitudes ofsettlements—just not the isolated buildings—succumbed to devastation including groundrupture and mounting threat of impending landslides. This has necessitated examining
location vulnerability of settlements closely. In this regard, spatial analysis of existingdatasets such as land-cover, terrain topography, slope and geological data provide key
insight into identifying the possible hazard/risk prone areas. Only by ensuring location safetyof settlements, enforcement of earthquake resistant building design will ensure safety of
precious human lives and physical assets.
Emerging from this background, this paper takes GIS (Geographical Information System) as
a technological aid for conceptualizing the integrated safer settlements. The published reports
and experiential knowledge are further combined for conceptualization. The paper takes on
Sindhupalchowk district as a case. It relies primarily on the census for the socio-economic
data, while spatial and geological analysis has been carried out using data from the Survey
Department and Department of Mines and Geology. Using GIS based analysis; this paper
systematically examines the natural hazard factors which are associated with the incidence ofearthquake, landslides and floods. These factors include (a) slopes (b) coverage of natural
resource areas such as water bodies (the forest area is also identified as this is unin-habitablearea) and (c) geological fault zones. These factors tend to primarily inhibit safety ofsettlements in the hill region. By excluding coverage and proximity of these areas, habitablearea of the district is determined. Such habitable area has a potential of lower risk of natural
hazards. Further, by incorporating the recent (freely available) satellite imagery of the
district, mismatches between the existing settlements and habitable area of the district are
examined and settlements exposed to higher risk are determined. The damage pattern of therecent earthquake reveals that the settlements which encountered greater devastation or suchthreat fall in higher risk zone. Based on this analysis, this paper further goes on torecommend reasonable norms and standards for the policy makers to ensure safer settlement
practices.
Keywords: spatial analysis, location vulnerability, hazard factors, location safety, safer
settlements, norms and standards

37

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

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New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

An introduction todisaster information sharing system
and its possible utilizationin the aftermath of 2015 Gorkha Earthquake
Tadashi ISE1 and Akhilesh Kumar Karna2
Principal Research Fellow, Disaster Risk Unit,
National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention (NIED), Japant-ise@bosai.go.jp
2Freelance Engineer,
Sunrise Cityhomes-B2, Anamnagar New Baneshwor, Kathmandu, Nepal
akhileshkk@gmail.com
1

ABSTRACTAn earthquake with a magnitude of 7.8 (MW) struck central Nepal at 11:56 NST (localtime) on 25 April 2015, with its epicenter in the central part of Nepal (Gorkha). The
National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention (NIED)
organized interviews to assess the utilization status of disaster information such as
damage situation and response situation. In order to understand the overall picture ofdisaster information during and after the disaster, interviews were conducted involving
various people, Central government staff, tent life victims, NPO staff assisting thevictims, the United Nations staff and so on. As a result, we found that there is no system
of information collection and sharing in place at the local government level. This isaffecting the whole information sharing network and the effective response to thedisaster.
NIED has been doing research and development of a rapid and smooth disaster
information sharing system at the local government level that is highly likely to besuitable for Nepal. In this paper, we review the interview results on the status of
utilization of disaster information. We will also introduce an overview and future effortsof the disaster information sharing system, which is under research and development by
NIED and its possible use in Nepal.
Keywords: Gorkha Earthquake, web-system, disaster information, disaster response,
disaster management
1. INTRODUCTION
An earthquake with a magnitude of 7.8 (MW) having its epicenter in the central part of
the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal (hereinafter Nepal) struck the central area ofthe country at 11:56 NST (local time) on 25 April, 2015, and created widespread
damage such as the collapse of brick constructions in a wide area around the capital of
Kathmandu.

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October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

The National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention (NIED)
integrates disaster information provided by various institutions, provides centralized
control over such information, and studies mechanisms to enable secondary use of theinformation. From the viewpoint of the utilization of disaster information with respect
to the recent Nepal earthquake, an interview survey was conducted as a basic
investigation to understand the status quo of the sharing and utilization of disaster
information and to make improvements. This paper, while providing an overview of theresults of the interview survey, introduces an approach using the public-private disastercontrol cloud system researched and developed by NIED for the sharing of disaster
information among local governments and the enhancement of its utilization.
2. Interview Survey
2.1 Outline of Interview Survey
The interview survey was conducted from 26 May to 1 June, 2015, about a month after
the occurrence of the earthquake. The subjects of the survey were people in various
position including central government clerks, disaster victims living in tents, Japanesepeople living in Nepal, and researchers at research institutes or officials of national
associations. The intended purpose was to gain a brief overview of how the disaster
information was shared across society. Table 1 shows the list of interviewees.
In addition to the central part of Kathmandu, people were also interviewed in Sankhu,
where the worst damage was observed within the Kathmandu Valley, and Dolakha
district, where the largest aftershock occurred on 12 May.
䑷 OpenStreetMap contributors

SankhuCharikot

Kathmandu

0

25km

NEPAL

Figure 1: Overview of the survey area
The interview survey concentrated mainly on the basic items listed below, but also
focused on collecting the opinions of interviewees without limitation, therefore a semistructured interview technique was adopted.
■ Basic Items○ Checking basic attribution (organization, department, position, name, gender,age)○ Whereabouts at the time of the earthquake[Approach as an organization]

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ICUS Report 80○ Was disaster information before the earthquake (such as hazard maps) wellorganized? In addition, were you aware of the hazards?
○ How did you obtain general disaster information (such as on damage andsupporting circumstances)?
○ Is disaster information shared? Is any utilization system provided?
○ What information did you obtain immediately after the earthquake? How did you
handle such information?
○ Please detail the damage to buildings, lifelines, establishment of safe shelters, andprovision of relief supplies.
[Personal Opinion]○ What are the current challenges to utilizing disaster information? What are theissues related to equipment for utilizing the information and operation of theinformation system?
○ From among the various pieces of disaster information, what is the one that“must be notified at all costs”?
○ How did schools or other institutions teach people about the risks of anearthquake equivalent in size to the latest case and other aspects related to disaster
response?
2.2 Results of Interviews
The results of the interview survey were summarized into survey slips. Please refer toIse (2015) for individual survey slips. Here, the results of the interview are sorted into
the following categories, and problems in disaster information utilization in Nepal aredescribed.
2.3 Sorting of Issues regarding Disaster Information Utilization
2.3.1 Education before Disaster Occurrence
Through an initiative of the National Society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal (NSET)
and other organizations, disaster prevention education is provided and the effect ispartially observed. However, among the general public of Nepal, hazard maps are notwell recognized and the level of understanding of the correct response to protect oneself
at the time of an earthquake is low, so disaster prevention education cannot be said to bevery effective.
2.3.2 Communication Environment after Disaster
As in Japan, mobile phones are the communication means most popular among thegeneral public of Nepal. In the central area of Kathmandu, some interviewees said thatmobile phone communication was available for 20 minutes after the disaster in someareas. Communications started becoming congested 30 minutes after the disaster andrecovered about a half day later (5 to 6 hours). However, even around Kathmandu
Valley, it took about three weeks for the restoration of service in some areas.
Internet services in the central part of Kathmandu recovered in a few hours, and no
significant damage was observed. However, use of smartphones or personal computers
was restricted due to electricity outages.

An introduction to disaster information sharing system and its possible utilization
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titleGorkha Earthquake
in the aftermathof 201541

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

Table 1: List of Interviewees

1
2

Date
26, May
26, May

Division
Government
Research institute326, May

Research institute

427, May

Japanese resident

527, May

Japanese resident

627, May

Electricity Authority

727, May

Electricity Authority

827, May

Electricity Authority

927, May

General public

10
11
12
13
14
15
16

28, May
28, May
28, May
28, May
28, May
28, May
29, May

General public
NPO
International agencies
Research institute
General public
International agencies
General public

17

29, May

Medical institution

18

30, May

Government

19
20
21
22

30, May
30, May
30, May
30, May

Research institute
General public
Japanese resident
Japanese resident

23

31, May

Local government

24

31, May

Local government

25

31, May

Local government

26

31, May

Government

27

1, JuneNews media

28

1, JuneResearch institute29
30

1, June1, JuneReligious groups
Mountaineer

Affiliation
JICA NEPAL OFFICE
Tribhuvan University Institute of Engineering
National Society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal(NSET)
Maharjan International Pvt. Ltd. Sales, PR &MarketingMonta Dio Consulting
Chief
Nepal Electricity Authority, Community and Rural
Electrification Department
Director
Nepal Electricity Authority Kathmandu Regional
OfficeChief
Nepal Electricity Authority Ratnapark Distribution
CenterQuantity Survey Engineer
GEOCE Consultants Pvt. Ltd.
Victim in Tundekhel Shelter
World Vision (NPO)
Nepal Risk Reduction Consortium (NRRC)7)
Nepal Health Research Council (NHRC)
Freelance Engineer
JPANESE RED CROSS SOCIETY
Grocery stores management in Charikot, Dolakha
Sindhu Sadabahar Hospital in Khadichaur,
Sindhupalchok
JICA NEPAL OFFICE, Nepal Electricity Authority,
JICA Expert―
Victim in Sankhu, Kathmandu
NPO, Tibetan children’s Project―
Senior Engineer
Lalitpur Sub-Metropolitan City Office
Disaster Management Section
Kathmandu Metropolitan City
Assistant Chief District Officer
Ministry of Home Affairs District Administration
OfficeJICA NEPAL OFFICEIT Officer
Sagarmata Television Pvt. Ltd.
Sineor Divisional
Department of Water Induced Disaster Prevention
Boudhnath―

2.3.3 Basic System of Response to DisasterIn the event of a large-scale disaster such as the 25 April earthquake, the Nepal
Emergency Operation Center (NEOC) of the Ministry of Home Affairs is officiallytasked with conducting overall risk management. However, due to the unstable politicalsituation that has pertained for a prolonged period, NEOC is not functioning effectively

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ICUS Report 80

and thus disaster response is in fact carried out with the help of the United Nations andgovernmental institutions of countries providing aid.
2.3.4 Collection and Sharing of Knowledge Regarding Damage (among central
governments)
Information sharing among central governments, such as between the Nepal
government and governmental institutions of various countries, is conducted relying on
the CLUSTER SYSTEM, which was developed through an initiative of the U.N. Officefor the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA). However, given the limited
capability of the Nepal government, the actual operation is conducted by the United
Nations.
The CLUSTER SYSTEM is used to summarize the activities of governmental
departments, and the information on deaths and injuries collected from the hospital
network overseen by the Ministry of Health and Population functioned relatively well.
Having the national hospital as the Hub-Hospital, damage in respective regions are
summarized and reported.
2.3.5 Collection and Sharing of Damage Information (among local governments)
Information sharing at the level of local governments between the site of a disaster andthe central government is realized mainly via mobile phones.
In Kathmandu City, 71 engineers are engaged in the task in 35 districts, in Lalitpur
City, and 17 engineers engaged in the task for 30 districts to understand the damage toconstructions. The information gathered by them is reported to their respective district
administration offices.
2.3.6 Provision of Information to Disaster Victims
With the support of the United Nations, central governments of various countries aretaking action, but due to the limited capability of local governments affected by thepolitical situation, which has been unstable for a long time, support for disaster victims
is not comprehensive enough. The information provided by the government isinadequate and, for the psychological ease of residents, more information is need.
In the city of Kathmandu, a system was launched whereby ID cards are distributed todisaster victims to control distribution of supplies, etc.
2.3.7 Others
One of the largest characteristics of the damage caused by the 25 April earthquake isthat many Nepalese people choose to sleep outdoors for more than a month as they wereafraid of damage to buildings caused by aftershocks. This generated anxieties overproperty loss and damage to health.
2.4 Summary of Issues in Utilization of Disaster Information
For information sharing among central governments, such as information linkage
between the Nepal government and governmental institution of various countries, amechanism to share information of damage and responding situations using theinformation sharing system called the CLUSTER SYSTEM is functioning with thesupport of the United Nations.
The CLUSTER SYSTEM, which was developed as a platform for humanitarian relief
operations by OCHA, is a system that has been used in a number of countries and was
An introduction to disaster information sharing system and its possible utilization
Your paper
titleGorkha Earthquake
in the aftermathof 201543

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

effectively applied to handle the 25 April Nepal earthquake situation. The intervieweesof this survey including staff of the Nepal Health Research Council (NHRC), which is a
research institute of MoHP; the JICA Nepal Office (Survey No. 26); and the National
Society of Earthquake Technology (NSET), which is a major earthquake research
institute in Nepal (Survey No. 2), said the CLUSTER SYSTEM was the main
mechanism used to share disaster information.
In particular, the health cluster (health section) seems to have worked very well. In
the health cluster, a hospital network having its core at the Health Emergency Operation
Center (HEOC) and Hub-Hospital is formed, and information on sick or injured people
is summarized by this hospital network. Not only the Nepal Health Research Council(NHRC) (Survey No. 13), but also the JICA Nepal Office (Survey No. 26) praised thehealth cluster.
However, disaster information gathering from the disaster site to the district
department level is mainly done orally via mobile phones, and thus currently,
information categories that should be communicated or the development of the format is
not advancing. In fact, with respect to the information summarized by the
aforementioned health cluster, a local private hospital testified that it has not provided
information through the Hub-Hospital (according to the testimony in Survey No. 17),and others pointed out the inadequacy of information sharing by the Ministry of Healthand Population and the District-Health Office (according to the testimony in Survey No.
15).
3. Approach toward Introduction of a Disaster Information System
At the local government level where the damage situation is ascertained and reported toa superior institute, and where disaster measures suitable to the damage situation aretaken, NIED has long studied and developed a disaster information sharing system(public-private risk-control cloud system) for use as a system to support the smoothutilization of disaster information.
The disaster information sharing system is a mechanism based on Web-GIS forsharing geospatial information indicating disaster situations and corresponding statuses
via the Internet.
This disaster information sharing system enables the visual organization andpresentation of disaster information, including to neighboring autonomous communities
as geospatial information.
In addition, as a characteristic of the system interface, two-layered tabs and menu
buttons enable the organization of disaster corresponding operations and guide the flowof procedures. Accordingly, the disaster information sharing system has an aspect of adisaster corresponding system that supports the elimination of manuals on disastercorrespondence.

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ICUS Report 80

Neighboring autonomous
communities

Target autonomous
communities of thissystemNeighboring autonomous
communities

Figure 2: Image of information sharing with neighboring autonomous communities(1) Tab format to classify
operations of emergency
disaster correspondence(3) Visually indicate items thatshould be entered(2) Display procedures ofeach operation with menu
buttons
Figure 3: Image of two-layered tabs and menu buttons
3.1 System Briefing Session
Including the cities of Kathmandu and Lalitpur, where this interview survey was
conducted, it is planned to establish a trial public-private risk-control cloud systemaiming at information linkage among four cities and one county.
In order to develop such a system, it is necessary to provide information about
disaster correspondence facilities, etc. to concerned autonomous communities and thus
a briefing session on public-private risk-control cloud system is scheduled to be held on
1 November in Kathmandu City.

An introduction
to disaster
Your paper
title information sharing system and its possible utilizationin the aftermath of 2015 Gorkha Earthquake

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October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

Table 2: Explanatory meeting Overview
Content
Date
Date: 1, Nov, 2015
Time: undecided
Place
Undecided (Kathmandu)
Participant
Kathmandu City
Lalitpur City
Baktpur City
Thimi City
Baktpur District Development Committee
3.2 Session for Operation Experience and Opinion Exchange
After checking the intention of participant organizations at the briefing session, asession for hands on experience of the system and opinion exchange is planned to beheld in January next year.
At the practical operation session, data such as a map of the area around Kathmandu,
important road maps and planned safety shelter maps will be made available to let staff
from each community experience the operation to enter damage information or
corresponding situations using a model disaster scenario of a flood.
4. Summary
This document, using the results of an interview survey conducted in May 2015, about
one month after the occurrence of a major earthquake, summarized the problems ofdisaster information sharing and utilization in Nepal and presented several approaches
toward the introduction of a disaster information sharing system to overcome current
problems. In the future, through the approaches described herein and by listening to theopinions of personnel in different communities, a development and implementation
method of a practical and effective disaster information sharing system needs to be
discussed.
REFERENCES
JICA (2014), The Project for Assessment of Earthquake Disaster risk for Kathmandu
valley, Japan International Coopereation Agency, 2014.11
Nepal Disaster Risk Reduction Portal, http://drrportal.gov.np/, 2015.6.14
Tadashi ISE (2015) Interview Survey about Disaster Information in the caseof Gorkha Earthquake, 25 April 2015, National Research Institute for Earth Science andDisaster Prevention (NIED), Japan, Research material No. 396, 2015.7.30

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Assessment of Urban Seismic Hazard due to2015 Gorkha Seismic Sequence
Deepak CHAMLAGAIN1 and Dipendra GAUTAM2
1PhD, Department of Geology
Tri-Chandra Multiple Campus, Tribhuvan University, Nepal
dchamlagain@hotmail.com
2 BE Civil Eng., Center for Disaster and Climate Change Studies, Kathmandu, Nepal

ABSTRACTOn April 25, 2015 at 11:56 am (local time) an earthquake of magnitude Mw 7.8 struck
the central Nepal. The epicenter was located near the Barpak village of Gorkha district
about 77 km NW of Kathmandu. The focus of the earthquake was about 15 km. The
main shock was followed by two major aftershocks; first Mw 6.7 epicenter in
Sindhupalchowk district some 69 km NE of Kathmandu and the second one withmagnitude 7.3 Mw was located in the boundary between Sindhupalchowk and Dolakha
districts. This continuous seismic sequence in the central Himalaya was the biggest
series of events after the 1934 Great earthquake that was located NE of Kathmandu
Valley.
The Gorkha seismic sequence has caused massive damages in the form human, socioeconomic and environmental losses. Till date, at least 8787 people are reported to be
killed and another 22,304 injured. The earthquake has damaged at least 469,539
houses partly or completely. Six districts of central Nepal were severely affected. Morethan 3600 landslides of small to mega scales were induced in central Nepal causing
enormous environmental loss. During the field observation, it was found that the main
reasons for extensive damages to the houses were local geology and local seismic site
effects along with the construction quality. In this contribution, it is therefore, aimed tofocus on urban seismic hazard assessment in the Kathmandu Metropolitan City.
Keywords: Gorkha earthquake,Uurban seismic hazard, Kathmandu Metropolitan City
1. INTRODUCTION
Study of urban seismic hazard is not adequate in Nepal. Only few studies regarding
seismic site effects analyses and microzonation have been done for Kathmandu valley,
Nepal. Though several constraints like, database and exact modelling of soil behaviour
have questioned the representative findings from such studies. Past studies by Maskey
and Dutta (2004), Paudyal et al. (2012), Chamlagain and Gautam (2015), Chaulagain etal. (2015), and Gautam and Chamlagain (2015), have attempted to delineate theunderlying seismic hazard in Kathmandu valley. After the uneven and more localized
nature of damage distribution during MW 7.8 Gorkha earthquake, the urban seismic
hazard assessment is more pronounced. The north-eastern parts of Kathmandu valley
observed severe damage in reinforced concrete and unreinforced masonry structures

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October2015,
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however many other areas remained intact being similar in workmanship, construction
technology and types of structures. This localized and uneven damage scenario has
further highlighted the urban seismic hazard assessment for densely populated
Kathmandu valley. During many past events like 1255, 1408, 1681, 1803, 1810, 1833,
1866, 1934, 1988 the damage concentration is more intense in Kathmandu valley bothdue to building concentration, their deficiencies as well as the stratigraphy (Chitrakar
and Pandey, 1986; Gupta, 1988; Bilham et al., 1995; Pandey et al., 1995). Many
heritage sites, urban centres, administrative centres, critical facilities, among others areconcentrated in Kathmandu valley. Thus, future earthquakes may be more devastating
than past events because of higher population concentration and haphazard urbanization.
The occurrence of big to great earthquake is also underpinned by the continuous
convergence of Indian plate beneath the Eurasian plate at the rate of 35-38mm/year(Chen et al., 2000; Holt et al., 2000; Paul et al., 2001; Sella et al., 2002; Jouanne, et al.,2004). Thus preliminary attempt has been done in this contribution so as to delineate
the first order urban seismic hazard assessment in terms of seismic site effects for the
Kathmandu Metropolitan City (KMC).
2.

STUDY AREA

Kathmandu metropolitan city (KMC) is chosen for performing the urban seismic hazard
assessment. KMC has the largest fraction of urban population (24.3%) housing
1,003,285 individuals, whereas total urban population in Nepal is 4,530,820 (17% of
total population) only (CBS, 2012). Majority of the medium to high rise constructions,urban centres, commercial complexes, hospitals, airport, administrative centres, historicand heritage sites along with traditional settlements are the common housing units
within KMC. During 2015 Gorkha earthquake, the Kathmandu durbar square wasseverely affected and the northern parts of KMC like Sitapaila and Gongabu observed
massive destructions in medium to high rise reinforced concrete (RC) structures.
Geologically, Kathmandu valley is located in the Lesser Himalayan zone. Theintermontane basin with young fluvio-lacustrine sediments of Pliocene to Quaternary         
age has thickness up to 500 m (Yoshida and Igarashi, 1984). The Kathmandu
valleyissurrounded by mountains, the Shivapuri in the north and Phulchoki in the south. The
basement rock in Kathmandu valley consists of Phulchoki Group and Bhimphedi Group of
the Kathmandu Complex (Stocklin andBhattarai, 1977). The valley is filled up by thefluvio-lacustrine unconsolidated sediments; moreover the distribution of sediments acrossKathmandu valley is not
uniform. The southern part of the valley consists of hill terraces
formed duringlate
Pliocene to middle Pleistocene (Yoshida and Igarashi, 1984),with thesediment
exposure along the terraces. In general, northern part of the
Kathmndu Valley has sand dominated soft sediments while southern part isofclay dominated (Fig. 1). KMC covers partly both clay and sand dominated units.

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New Technologies
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Safetyof Megain AsiaFigure 1: Geological map of Kathmandu valley (After Sakai 2001)

Geotechnically, KMC is characterized by the soft fluvio-lacustrine sediments withthickness variation from place to place. Moribayashi and Maruo (1980) estimatedsediment thickness up to 650 m in the central part. In addition, Katel et al. (1996),
based on drilling data has shwn more than 300 m thick muddy and sandy
sequence.
At the central part of the KMC, Bhrikutimandap, a drillhole reaches
the basement rock at a depth of 550m. Based on the observed shear wave velocity
in some bore holes and N-values of Standard Penetration Test, the average shear
wave velocity
has been found to be varying from 148 m/s to 297m/s(Chamlagain and Gautam, 2015). As there is no data onthedynamic
properties of the soil of Kathmandu
valley, for the modelling purpose, weused experimental soil curves given by Vucetic and Dobry (1991) for different
PI values.
1.

METHODOLOGY

Equivalent linear site response analysis has been performed within KMC choosing
37 borehole logs running up to engineering bedrock level. EERA-Equivalent Linear
Earthquake Site Response Analysis (Bardet et al., 2000) is used as an analysis tool.
Input motion is chosen from a component of 2015 Gorkha (Nepal) earthquakewith a peak ground acceleration of 0.26g (Fig. 2a). The corresponding response
spectra at 5% damping shows peak spectral acceleration about 0.98g at 0.25 sec
(2b).
1

0.3

0.26g

Spectral acceleration (Sa) g

0.2

Acceleration(g)ICUS Report 80

0.1
0
-0.1
-0.2
(a)

-0.3

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2
(b)

0
0

0

20

40
Time (sec)60

80

Assessment of Urban Seismic Hazard due to 2015 Gorkha Seismic Sequence

2

4

6

Period, T, (sec)49

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October2015,
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Nepal

Figure 2: (a) Acceleration time history (b) Corresponding response spectra at 5%
damping.
2.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Analysis of geotechnical observation logs from KMC is analyzed using EERA codeand the results of the analysis are presented and discussed hereafter. Parameterslike soil fundamental period, peak ground acceleration (PGA), response spectraand soil amplification are discussed.
3.1. Soil fundamental period

Soil fundamental in study area is observed to be varying from 0.40 sec to 0.70 sec(Fig. 3). While accounting the vibration resonance, the building period could beapproximately calculated as 0.1 times the number of stories, this suggests in KMC,
the buildings of 4 to 7 stories need higher seismic demand. Meanwhile, majority ofthe structures in KMC are of this type, so higher attention towards designing andmonitoring of constructions for the buildings of 4 to 7 stories are to be paid.

Figure 3: Distribution of soil fundamental period in KMC.
3.2. Peak ground acceleration (PGA)The PGA in KMC is estimated in between 0.11g to 0.46g (Fig. 4). The upper limit ofthis estimation is well within the USGS shake map maximum PGA (0.8g)
estimation however lower limit is lesser than that of the USGS estimation (0.28g).
The maximum value of PGA (0.46g) is obtained for Singh Durbar and least PGA(0.11g) is estimated at New Road. Majority of the studied logs have been observing
the PGA in the range of 0.11g to 0.25g and all except Singh Durbar lie between
0.26g to 0.33g. Areas like Gongabu, Sitapaila, Dhapasi which observed severe
damage during 2015 Gorkha earthquake are estimated with higher PGA values of
0.31g, 0.28g and 0.28g respectively. Conversely, the low PGA values in majority of
the locations are also consistent with the undamaged areas in many areas.

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Figure 4: Distribution of Peak Ground Acceleration in KMC.

3.3. Response spectra

The response spectrum for each site for the input motion is computed. The trendof response spectra is plotted in figure 5a. Leaving the outlier at Singh Durbar,
the maximum value of spectral acceleration lies in the range of 0.26g to 1.1g (Figs.
5 and 6), however for Singh Durbar it is estimated as 1.67g.
(a)

(c)

(b)

(d)

Fig. 5: Response spectra for (a) overall trend in KMC (b) Singh Durbar (c) Gongabu
and (d) New Road.

Assessment of Urban Seismic Hazard due to 2015 Gorkha Seismic Sequence51

October
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October2015,
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Figure 6: Distribution of peak spectral acceleration in KMC.

3.4. Seismic wave amplification

Among 37 borehole locations, 22 are found to be observing soil de-amplification
and rest of the areas are estimated to be amplified up to 8.5 times. The spectral
amplification/de-amplification trend is presented in figure 7. The soil deamplification within KMC strongly correlates with the soil nonlinearity. Thus soil
nonlinearity should be well accounted in order to predict the soil behaviour
exactly in KMC.
(a)

(c)

(b)

(d)

Figure 7: (a) amplification pattern in Baphal (b) amplification pattern in Sitapaila(c) de-amplification pattern in Kamaladi and (d) de-amplification pattern in New
Baneshwor

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3.

CONCLUSION

Analysis of 37 spatially selected geotechnical logs running up to 30m is performed
for the only metropolitan city of Nepal. As per the more localized trend of damage
distribution, this study coincides with localized soil behaviour in terms of soilamplification/de-amplification,
PGA,
spectralacceleration
andsoil
amplification/de-amplification. The soil fundamental period in KMC ranges from
0.4sec to 0.70 sec suggesting larger seismic demand to structures of 4 to 7 stories.
Likewise, the PGA variation in study area is found to be 0.11g to 0.46g. This is, inmany extents, consistent with the recorded database inside Kathmandu valley.
The wider variation of PGA, soil fundamental period, soil amplification/deamplification within small areas suggests the urgency of microzonation study.
Beside this, site specific design spectra are more suitable for such soil nonlinearity
led variation in soil behaviour. Due to concentration of medium to high rise
structures, large population concentration, critical facilities, urban centres,
administrative areas, heritage sites, among others, KMC may observe severe
devastation in case of future earthquakes.
Acknowledgement
We are thankful to the Hokkaido University, Japan and Central Department of
Geology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal for providing ground motion data for the
analysis.
REFERENCES

Bardet, J.P., Ichii, K., and Lin, C.H., 2000. EERA: a computer program for equivalent–
linear earthquake site response analyses of layered soil deposits. Department
of Civil Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA.
Bilham, R., Bodin, P., and Jackson, M., 1995. Entertaining a great earthquake inwestern Nepal: historic inactivity and geodetic tests for the present state ofstrain. Journal of Nepal Geological Society 11(1):73-78.

Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), 2012. Nepal Housing and Population Census.
National Planning Commission, Government of Nepal.

Chamlagain, D., and Gautam, D., 2014. Seismic hazard in the Himalayanintermontane basin: an example from Kathmandu valley, Nepal, In: R. Shawand H.K. Nibanupudi (eds.), Mountain Hazards and Disaster Risk Reduction
pp.73-103, Springer Japan.

Chaulagain, H., Rodrigues, H., Silva, V., Spacone, E., Varum, H., 2015. Seismic risk
assessment and hazard mapping in Nepal. Nat Hazards 78:583-602.
Chen, Z., Burchfiel, B.C., Liu, Y., King, R.W., Royden, L.H., Tang, W. E., Zhao, J., andZhang, X., 2000. Global Positioning Systems measurements from eastern
Tibet and their implications for India/Eurasia intercontinental deformation.
Journal of Geophysical Research 105(B7):16215-16227.
Chitrakar, and Pandey, M.R., 1986. Historical earthquakes of Nepal. Bulletin ofGeological Society of Nepal 4:7-8.
Assessment of Urban Seismic Hazard due to 2015 Gorkha Seismic Sequence53

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October2015,
Kathmandu,
Nepal

Gautam, D., and Chamlagain, D., 2015a. Seismic hazard and liquefaction potential
analysis of Tribhuvan International Airport, Nepal. 7th Nepal Geological
Congress, 7-9 April 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal, 48:90.
Gupta, S.P., 1988. Eastern Nepal earthquake 21 August 1988, damage andrecommendations for repairs and reconstruction. Asian Disaster
Preparedness Center, Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand.
Holt, W.E., Chamot-Rooke, N., Le Pichon, X., Haines, A.J., Shen-Tu, B., and Ren, J.,
2000. Velocity field in Asia inferred from Quaternary fault slip rates andGlobal Positioning System observations. Journal of Geophysical Research
105(B8):19185-19209.
Jouanne, F., Mugnier, J.L., Gamond, J.F., Le Fort, P., Pandey, M.R., Bollinger, L.,
Flouzat, M., and Avouac, J.P., 2004. Current shortening across the Himalayasof Nepal. Geophysical Journal International 157:1-14.

Katel TP, Upreti BN, Pokharel GS (1996) Engineering properties of fine grainedsoils of Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. Journal of Nepal geological Society
13:121-138
Maskey, P.N., and Dutta, T.K., 2004. Risk consistent response spectrum and hazard
curve for a typical location of Kathmandu valley. 13th World Conference on
Earthquake Engineering paper no. 3124, Vancouver BC Canada.

Moribayashi S, Maruo Y (1980) Basement topography of the Kathmandu Valley,
Nepal-An application of gravitational method to the survey of a tectonic
basin in the Himalayas. Journal of Japan Society of Engineering Geology
21(2):30-37.
Pandey, M.R., Tandukar, R.P., Avouac, J.P., Lave, J., and Massot, J.P., 1995.
Interseismic strain accumulation on the Himalayan crustal ramp (Nepal).
Geophysical Research Letters 22(7):751-754.
Paudyal, Y.R., Bhandary, N.P., and Yatabe, R., 2012. Seismic microzonation ofdensely populated area of Kathmandu valley of Nepal using microtremor
observations. Journal of Earthquake Engineering 16(8):1208-1229.
Paul, J., Burgmann, R., Gaur, V.K., Bilham, R., Larson, K., Ananda, M.B., Jade, S.,
Mukul, M., Anupama, T.S., Satyal, G., and Kumar, D., 2001. The motion andactive deformation of India. Geophysical Research Letters 28(4):647-650.
Sakai H (2001) Stratigraphic division sedimentary facies of the Kathmandu basingroup, Central Nepal. Journal of Nepal Geological Society 25 (special
issue):19-32.
Sella, G.F., Dixon, T.H., and Mao, A., 2002. REVEL: A model for recent plate
velocities from space geodesy. Journal of Geophysical Research 107(B4).
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Mahabharat range, Nepal Himalaya. HMG/UNDP Mineral Exploration
project, Kathmandu.

Yoshida M, Igarashi Y (1984) Neogene to Quaternary lacustrine sediments in the
Kathmandu valley, Nepal. Journal of Nepal Geological Society 4:73-100.
Vucetic, M., and Dobry, R.J., 1991. Effect of soil plasticity on cyclic response. Journalof Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE 117:89-117.

54

New Technologies
Urban
SafetyCities
of Mega
Cities in Asia
New Technologies
for Urbanfor
Safetyof Megain AsiaEcological approach to post disaster settlement
planning: a case of a traditional settlement Sankhu
Sangeeta Singh
Associate Professor, Institute of Engineering
sangeeta@ioe.edu.np
ABSTRACTThe increasing trend of urbanization is one of the salient features of the twenty first
century. With growing number of people residing in urban areas, the stresses on theecological systems of the earth have been increasing and as a consequence climatechange and its impacts are being realized on a global scale. Human settlement planning
can no longer be carried out in isolation without considering the ecologicalconsequences of the development efforts in the present context. The development
approaches in the past seems to have undermined the fact that human beings are part ofthe ecological cycle and the planning initiatives focused mainly on physical, social andeconomic development. It is only recently that various planning initiatives have been
propagated by planners such as eco city, sustainable city and so on to create cities inbalance with nature and this paradigm shift in planning cities have gained a lot ofsignificance. While planning ecologically sustainable cities is eminent for the survivalof human species, it is equally important to plan settlements that are resilient to naturaland manmade disasters especially in the disaster prone areas across the globe.
In the context of Kathmandu valley it has been seen that most of the traditional
settlements were planned in such a manner that the natural ecosystem is maintained toa great extent and this has been inculcated in the socio economic and cultural practices.
The traditional settlements of the Valley especially Sankhu, Chapagaun, Kirtipur, Tokha,
Khokana can be considered as good examples of settlements that are in balance withnature and are disaster resilient. However the recent earthquake on 25 April 2015 has
impacted most of the traditional settlements in the valley. This paper focuses on theimpacts of earthquake disaster in one of the traditional settlements, Sankhu ofKathmandu valley and seeks to explain the consequences. The results of the paper
indicate that although the traditional settlements of Kathmandu valley have beenplanned to be ecologically sustainable and resilient to disasters, there are significant
lessons to be learnt from the recent experience. It further elaborates that an ecologicalapproach linked with disaster resilience is the key to post disaster planning.
Keywords: traditional settlements, disaster resilience, ecological approach
1. INTRODUCTION
Planned and involuntary resettlement after natural disasters has been a major policy inpost disaster reconstruction in developing countries over the past few decades. Studies
show that resettlement can result in significant adverse impacts on the resettled
population. Conversely, a well-planned and managed resettlement process can produce
positive long-term development outcomes. (S. Ali Badri, 2006). Recovery is not55

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

considered complete until the domestic life has regained its pre-disaster state, and thatthe affected people should be the ones to determine whether domestic life has been
restored. Building damage levels have a great impact on domestic life recovery times.
The more serious the damage, the longer the recovery time will be. In addition,
government policy intervention also has important effects on the recovery process. Post
disaster recovery is a long process. Because affected families have different needs
during different recovery periods, accurate and meticulous studies of recovery processes
will provide important decision-making support, assisting the government in developing
efficient recovery policies. (Wang, Li, Chen, & Zou, 2014). Disaster recovery
operations that do not account for environmental sustainability (ES) risk exacerbating
the impact of the disaster and hindering long-term recovery efforts. (Abrahams, 2014).
The traditional settlements of Kathmandu valley have been among the worst affectedareas in the earthquake that hit the nation on 25 April 2015. The impact of theearthquake as in the other traditional settlements of the Kathmandu valley has been felt
in terms of destruction most of the buildings that were old from the medieval periods
leaving a general impression that the traditional buildings are neither resilient nor are
sustainable. However on a closer look this might not be true. An analysis of thephilosophy behind the design of the built form and provision of infrastructure in the
traditional settlements can provide meaningful insights to the issue of sustainability anddisaster resilience of the traditional settlements for which Sankhu has been taken as acase study.
Sankhu is one of the traditional
settlements of Kathmandu valley datingback to the ancient period (licchavi
period) in the history of Nepal whichflourished due to its strategic location in
the trade route to Tibet. Located at thefoothills of Manichud mountain range,
16 km towards North East ofKathmandu, this settlement has a unique
identity being a typical newar settlementwith a rich socio cultural environment.
Sankhu, also known as Sankharapur for
its famous ancient Sankha-shaped town Fig: location map of Sankhu ( google maps)
structure, was formerly divided into 3
Village Development Committee namely Pukhulachhi, Suntol and Bajrayogini.
Recently the town of Sankhu has been declared as Sankharapur Municipality merging 3
above mentioned VDCs and other neighbouring VDCs. Sankhu region is bordered by
Chhaaling and Nagarkot VDCs of bhaktapur district in the south, Lapsephedi andNanglebhare VDCs in north-east and Indrayani and Gagalphedi VDCs in west. With a
total population of 2277 in the area of 14.25 sq.km. The core settlement of Sankhu has
been severely affected with more than 95% of the buildings being damaged andresulting in 115 casualties (Sankhu reconstruction committee).

2. THE BUILT FORM AND OPEN SPACES

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Like
other
traditional
settlements within the valley theplanning is based upon vedic
and cosmic principles. There areseveral legends and stories
related to the establishment of
the Sankhu that was built in the
shape of a conc which isconsidered to be auspicious
according to Hindu mythology.
The land use and settlement
pattern of the traditional towns
reflects the fact that nature wasconsidered as an integral part of the daily life and was treated with respect. The
residential settlements were mostly located on elevated tar land and was a compact one.
The domain of the built area was surrounded by the agriculture domain and further
away towards the periphery was the domain of natural resources like forest.
The tangible and intangible cultural heritage played a key role in maintaining the built
form and in preserving the natural resources. The natural resources like forest and water
bodies were thus given due reverence with the placement of temples and idols of gods
which were considered to protect these elements. The location of Bajrayogini temple in
the forest premises in the outskirts of Sankhu and the Madhav Narayan temple and otherdeities on the banks of the Sali river are examples of treating the forest and river as
objects of respect. In a way the cultural traditions and belief systems acted as an
unwritten doctrine towards maintaining what we consider as sustainable settlements.

Fig: Bajrayogini for forest preservation

Fig: Temples at Sali nadi ( River)

The traditional towns of Kathmandu valley are “abodes of gods with various forms,
characters and qualities. Wonderfully, the gods do not always live their lives inside theirtemples; once in a while they come out to renew their relations with humans, just as
humans, as believers, visit the gods in their temples”. (Tiwari, 2002)
The built form in these towns were guided by cosmic entities and gods and power
places put in places and “streets laid out as if their function was to facilitate the passage
of gods rather than that of man”. The settlements were thus compact as the towns grew“ through the process of in-fill, thereby keeping the ritual infrastructure static andEcological approach to post disaster settlement planning: a case of a traditional settlement
SankhuEcological approach to post disaster settlement planning: a case of a traditional settlement Sankhu

57

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

unchanged” and were “ walled in towns, with a clear definition of the inside ( dune innewari) and outside ( pine in newari), neither was able to transgress upon the other.”(Tiwari, 2002) In the more ancient of the indigenous towns, the ritual structure
consisted of a dyoche, or house of god, in the town and pith, or aniconic power of place,outside the settlement limits in the domain of nature. (Tiwari, 2002). Suchcharacteristics can still be seen in Sankhu which is a walled town delimited by the gates
serving as the entry and exit points in the settlement.

Fig: Festival route of Bajrayogini jatra

Fig: asta matrikas

It is interesting to see that some of these gates are still seen in Sankhu which are still
being used for various purposes like Dyo Dhwakha for Lord Bajrayogini during
Bajrayogini festival, Bhau Dhwakha, for welcoming the bride during marriage
ceremony, Mhyaymach Dhwakha for seeing off the daughter when married, Magh
Dhwakha for the entry of god
Mahadev Narayan
during Magh
Bajrayogini festival, Si Dhwakha, fortaking funeral procession to the rivers
during the last right which is also
known as Mahadev Dhwakha.
The urban form which was inclusive of
public and private open spaces formed
an important element of the traditional
settlements which gave it a unique
identity. These open spaces usually inthe form of squares, Chowks,
Courtyards, Bahals, Bahils, Lachhi,
khyos, dabalis are the key elements ofurban settlements that define the urban
fabric and which act as the focal pointof social interaction, that knits the58

Fig: Gates depicting the boundary of the settlement

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communities together. The potential of the urban spaces in the contribution ofsustainable urban development and also in the growth of the economy is quite
significant. While parks (khyo) can foster the green environment and support the urban
ecosystem, various activities like evening markets, outside seating areas for restaurants
and pubs, street performances, occasional festival markets and so on not only enliven
the urban spaces but contribute towards strengthening the economy as well. Both the
public and private residential courtyard open spaces have been meticulously designed in
the traditional settlements not only to improve the micro climate in the dense residential
areas but also as spaces that areecologically significant and which
enhanced disaster resilience within
the settlement. Streets have also
been important open spaces where amyriad of activities happen and thefact the streets paving as well asthat of the open spaces were donewith open jointed bricks meant thatpeople in those times were aware of
the much needed water recharging
in the urban areas. The water bodies
like ponds, hitis, wells, stone spouts
etc were important elements in
these
open
spaceswhich
contributed to water recharging as
well. The open spaces also served
the purpose of safe zones in case ofearthquake disasters.
Fig: open spaces in Saknhu

The effective land use pattern, thecompact built form with its open
spaces as seen in Sankhu and othertraditional settlements of the valley
are the elements that are considered
to be desirable in ecological cities
in the modern context. Based uponthese and other aspects such as thesocio cultural traditions and belief
systems it can be stated that thetraditional
settlementsofKathmandu valley have beenplanned for sustainability anddisaster resilience. However theextent of destruction of thebuildings in the present earthquake
can be attributed to the fact that
there was lack of proper
maintenance. In fact the building
technology of the traditional Fig: open spaces in Saknhu
settlement can be considered assustainable as well looking at it from the point of disposability and reuse of materials
Ecological approach to post disaster settlement planning: a case of a traditional settlement
Ecologicalapproach to post disaster settlement planning: a case of a traditional settlement Sankhu
Sankhu59

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

which are of much significance. The building materials mostly used are bricks on mud
mortar, with wooden doors and windows and tile roofing which are mostly natural
materials that do not contribute to global warming. The buildings built in the traditional
period were meant to have a certain lifetime depending upon the life period of thematerials that were used and without maintenance these are bound to deteriorate. It has
to be noted that disposability and perishability is also a significant aspect ofsustainability and the traditional building materials unlike the materials of thecontemporary times could be disposed off without much stress on nature as such. In fact
due to the use of mud mortar the recycling potential of bricks were much higher.

Fig: Blocked roads and buildings in need of demolition

Fig: Internal roads blocked with debris

3. WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN AND THE TRADITIONALSETTLEMENTS
Water has always been at the core of human civilization and settlements were
historically located around water sources. With industrialization and development
especially the western countries have been using the nonrenewable natural resources
like water, fuel etc in an unsustainable manner. Water resources on which the modern
society depends not only for daily needs but also for various other purposes does notseem to have received much priority in planning, resulting in water shortages, pollutionof water bodies, flooding etc which is increasing at an alarming rate. “Conventional
methods for water management fail to help the city to promote the importance of water
resources. Under natural conditions, water operates in a cycle of precipitation,
infiltration, surface runoff, and evaporation. However, in urban areas, this cycle isdisturbed and cannot run its course. Urban water is polluted, cannot infiltrate the grounddue to paved surfaces and is rapidly collected and discharged to the public draining
systems leaving no time for evaporation. Finally, this negatively impacts groundwater
recharge, water supplies, the qualitative and quantitative state of receiving rivers, andurban climate ” (Hoyer, Dickhaut, & Kronowitt, 2011). With the paradigm shift in theplanning sustainable cities like the ecocities, green cities and so on, concerns have beenraised regarding the sustainable water and waste management and water sensitive urban
design and other concepts have started to gain significance. The objective of Water
Sensitive Urban Design is to combine the demands of sustainable stormwater
management with the demands of urban planning, and thus bringing the urban water60

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ICUS Report 80

cycle closer to a natural one (Hoyer, Dickhaut, & Kronowitt, 2011). The Green Water
Defense (GWD) has been developed as an extension of the ‘Green Growth’ concept in
the water sector. GWD is an adaptive management philosophy and approach whichseeks to spatially integrate natural forces and human interventions, and to balance
incentive-based and supply-driven measures, with minimum footprints and externalities
in sustainably providing water services and managing related climate risks. (Li, Turner,& Liping, 2012).The traditional societies especially in the East have been practicing thissustainable water management practices since the ancient times. Most of the traditional
settlements in Kathmnadu have a very well managed and sustainable water supply
system. The townships of the Lichchhavies located in the ridges and other high lands ofthe valley were away from the hill sources and at the same time the subsurface groundwater table was also fairly low for the technology of that time. This led to thedevelopment of ponds with deep wells or fed by canals brought over long distances orin some cases, fed by naturally available water veins, as reservoirs and depressed pit
conduits for water supply (Tiwari, 2001).

Fig: Raj kulo network of Sankhu

Fig: Ponds of Sankhu

Sankhu is one of the traditional settlements in Kathmandu valley where the water
system was well developed and sustainable management practices were inbuilt in theculture and traditions of the society. It is said that each and every household of Sankhu
was connected to water supply canals which were fed by the network of Raj kulo
(irrigation canal). The intricate network of rajkulo and ponds along with the deep wells
and hitis form the water supply network of Sankhu. The ponds and wells and hitis were
designed so as to recharge the aquifer in the ground which provided the source of water
for the supply at lower levels. Various rituals and cultural traditions related to the ponds,
wells and hitis were associated with maintaining the water quality. There were annual
festivals like sithi nakha where all the water bodies were cleaned. The communal watersupply points like stone water spouts, hitis etc were considered to be a sacred place
which was supposed to be clean and were usually decorated with deities and idols ofsnakes at these areas which were worshipped. On a deeper level we can assume that therole of biodiversity preservation was well understood by the traditional societies and therole of snakes in opening the clogged water conduits was well recognized. The element
Ecological approach to post disaster settlement planning: a case of a traditional settlement
Ecologicalapproach to post disaster settlement planning: a case of a traditional settlement Sankhu
Sankhu61

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepalof sustainability in managing the water supply system is worth preserving andrevitalizing in the modern context.
4. CONCLUSION
The world commission on Environment and Development recognized how muchindustrialized cultures have to learn from traditional people and at the same time howvulnerable the latter are to encroachment by the former (WCED 1987). The belief andbehavior pattern of the people, dictated by the native world views of the cultures havebeen supportive in sustainable patterns of resource use and management.
The post disaster settlement planning of the traditional settlements including Sankhu
needs to focus not only on the reconstruction of the buildings and infrastructure but
should be based on a wholistic approach considering the strengths and weaknesses of
the traditional planning practices that are both sustainable and disaster resilient. The
analysis of the traditional settlement planning of Sankhu shows that the settlements
have been well planned both form the ecological sustainability and disaster resilience
perspectives and that these are the basic parameters that are key to most of the planning
concepts of the twenty first century like the eco city, green city etc. The philosophy
behind the planning of traditional settlements can be adapted to suit the modern context
so that the traditional settlements can be regenerated rather than reconstructed.
REFERENCES
Abrahams, D. (2014). The barriers to environmental sustainability in post-disastersettings: a case study of transitional shelter implementation in Haiti. Disasters.
Hoyer, J., Dickhaut, W., & Kronowitt, L. (2011). Water Sensitive Urban Design:
Principles and Inspiration for SustainableStormwater Management in theCity of the
Future. Hamburg, Germany: HafenCity Universität Hamburg.
Li, X., Turner, G., & Liping, J. (2012). Grow in Concert with Nature: Sustaining East
Asia’s Water Resources through Green Water Defense. Washington DC: The WorldBank.
S. Ali Badri, A. A. (2006). Post-disaster resettlement, development and change: a casestudy of the 1990 Manjil earthquake in Iran. Disasters.
Tiwari, S. R. (2001). The ancient settements of the Kathmandu valley. Kathmandu:
Centre for Nepal and Asian Studies, Tribhuvan University.
Tiwari, S. R. (2002). The Brick and the Bull: An account of Handigaun, the ancient
capital of Nepal. Kathmandu: Himal Books.
Wang, Y., Li, J., Chen, H., & Zou, Z. (2014). The time process of post-earthquake
recovery: the Yao’an earthquake in China. Disasters, 38(4).
World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED). (1987). Our Common
Future, The Brundland Report. New York, United Nations: Oxford University Press.

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New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Investigation of damage to buildings and groundtruth verification for satellite data in Kathmandu
Valley due to the 2015 Gorkha Earthquake
Tsuneo OHSUMI
Principal Research Fellow, Disaster Risk Unit,
National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention (NIED), Japant_ohsumi@bosai.go.jp
ABSTRACTAn earthquake with a magnitude of 7.8 (MW) occurred at 11:56 NST (local time) on 25
April 2015, in the central part of Nepal (Gorkha). The National Research Institute for
Earth Science and Disaster Prevention (NIED) organized a damage survey team anddispatched it to the affected area for several periods following the earthquake (26 May
to 3 June, 17 to 24 June and 16 to 21 August) to investigate the damage and collect data.
This report outlines the findings of this investigation into various aspects of theearthquake disaster in the Kathmandu valley. We also carried out a first-hand building
damage survey in selected areas. The primary purposes of the first and second surveys
were to collect timely statistical information on the damage to brick and stone masonrybuildings and to confirm the availability of data and their sources for subsequent
surveys. The motivation for the thread survey was to obtain ground truth data tocalibrate.
Keywords: Gorkha Nepal Earthquake, Kathmandu, masonry, ground truth
1. INTRODUCTION
An earthquake with a magnitude of 7.8 (Mw) occurred at 11:56 NST (local time) on 25
April 2015 in the central part of Nepal (Gorkha). The epicenter was east-southeast of
Lamjung, 77 km southwest of Kathmandu, at 28.15°N, 84.71°E, and at a depth of 15
km (USGS). According to Nepal Police statistics, the number of deaths, as of 22 June,
was 8,660 with 21,952 injured in the main shock and 172 deaths with 3,470 injured in
the aftershocks. It was also reported that more than 5 million buildings were damaged,
with about half of them experiencing collapse. This earthquake is officially referred toas the 2015 Gorkha Nepal earthquake because the hypocenter was located in the Gorkha
region.
A major aftershock with a moment magnitude of 7.3 (Mw) occurred at 12:51 NST on 12
May 2015. The epicenter was 75 km northeast of Kathmandu, near the Chinese border,
at 27.82°N, 86.08°E, and at a depth of 19 km (USGS).
The National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention (NIED)
organized a damage survey team and dispatched it to the affected area for three periods
following the earthquake (26 May to 3 June, 17 to 24 June and 16 to 21 August) toinvestigate the damage and collect information and data. This report outlines thefindings of this investigation into various aspects of the earthquake disaster in the
Kathmandu valley (Figure 1) and compares vulnerability analyses for “The study onearthquake disaster mitigation in the Kathmandu Valley (JICA, 2002)”.

63

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

Figure 1: Survey Roots(OpenStreetMap
https://www.openstreet
map.org/)㻌

2. SEISMO-TECTONICS AND EARTHQUAKE GROUND MOTION
2.1 The Earthquake as Recorded in Kanti Path (KATNP), central Kathmandu
The strong-motion data set from the USGS Center for Engineering Strong Motion Data
(CESMD: http://strongmotioncenter.org/cgi-bin/CESMD/iqr1.pl) includes stations from
Nepal that continued to function during the main shock and several subsequent strong
aftershocks of the 2015 earthquake series.
Figure 2.1 shows the three components of acceleration and velocity recorded by the
CESMD station at the US Embassy in Kathmandu, which recorded the Mw 7.8 main
shock (06:11:26 UTC, 28.15°N 84.71°E, 15.0 km deep). Figure 2.2 shows the threecomponents of the tripartite response spectrum of the main shock and aftershocks. The
dominant periods in the Fourier spectra were approximately in the range of 4 to 5 s for
magnitude 7 class events. However, for magnitude 5 class events, the dominant periodsof the Fourier spectra were about 0.5 s. The response spectrum of the pseudo velocity
exceeds the 400 cm/s level of the response spectra in the case of the main shock.
In Figure 2.1, the vertical velocity motion waveform has two pulse-like ground motions.
The main parts of the velocity waveform can be seen centered at two points: 45.08 and53.07 s. The difference between the rupture start time and arrival time for the S-wave is
8 s. The dominant period of the body wave is about 4 s.
These sizes can be estimated for each strong motion generation area (SMGA) by directinterpretation of body waves.
The method followed is shown below;
R= Tp×Vr(1)
Vr = 0.72 Vs(2)
where R: Circular strong motion generation area
Tp: Pulse period
Vr: Rupture velocity
Vs: Share-wave velocity
Thus, two SMGA might exist near the city of Kathmandu.

Figure 2.1: Acceleration (left) and Velocity (light) Record of Mw 7.8 main shock

64

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Figure 2.2: Response Spectrum of main shock and Aftershocks.
3. DYNASTIES, HISTORICAL PALACES AND BUILDINGS IN SANKHU
During the Malla dynasties, prior to 1768, there were three kings in the Kathmandu
valley. Their palaces were in Kathmandu, Bhaktapur, and Lalitpur/ Patan.
3.1 Bhaktapur
͆Bhakta” means Devotee in Sanskrit, and pur means city. Thus, “Bhaktapur” is thecity of devotees. The central areas of these palaces are referred to as “Durbar Squares”.
Bhaktapur’s Durbar Square is a conglomeration of pagodas, and during the earthquake
series, many Sikhara style temples in Bhaktapur’s Durbar Square were severely
damaged (Figure 3.1).

Figure 3.1: Bhaktapur before /after the earthquake (Photo. by T.
Ohsumi), before / after the 1934
earthquakein
Bhaktapur(Courtesy of MoHA)

Investigation
to Buildings
andtruthgroundtruth verification
for data
satellite data in
Investigationof damageoftodamage
buildings
and groundverification
for satellite
Kathmandu
Valley
due
to
the
2015
GorkhaEarthquake
in Kathmandu Valley due to the 2015 Gorkha Earthquake

65

October
2015,
Kathmandu,
Nepal
October2015,
Kathmandu,
Nepal

3.2 Lalitpur/ Patan
The Patan Royal Palace complex (Patan in Sanskrit, or “Yela” in Newari) is found in thecity of Lalitpur, which means the city of beauty. The Patan palace was renovated in2013 with assistance from the Kathmandu Valley Preservation Trust (KVPT) and theSumitomo Foundation.
Thus, the palace had only partial damage during the earthquake at the top of structuralparts of the buildings (Gajur and Baymvah) (Figure 3.2).
ab

Figure 3.2: In Patan,
after the earthquake, thisplace (a) had partial
damage at top of structureparts (Gajur andBaymvah) (b) (Photo. by
T. Ohsumi).

3.3 Kathmandu
The old palace structures in Kathmandu’s Durbar Square, which had not undergone
renovations, had severe damage during the earthquakes (Figure 3.3). In the photo on
the left, the white structure is about 150 years old, built during the Rana Dynasty. In thephoto on the right side, the four-tiered brown temple is about 300 years old, constructedduring the Gorkha Dynasty.

After the earthquakea

Before the earthquakeb

Figure 3.3: Kathmandu Durbar Square after the earthquake (a), before theearthquake (b)(Photo. by T. Ohsumi)
3.4 Sankhu
Houses damaged by the earthquake have been demolished with the support of Canadian
Forces relief operations in Sankhu. Heavy equipment was brought for this purpose from
Canada. In general, RC buildings were partially damaged, whereas masonry buildings
were severely damaged.
The difference in damage as a result of building type was remarkable. Damage in
Sankhu was extensive. Brick and cement mortar houses without RC columns
experienced a lot of damage. In contrast, the damage to RC structures – particularly
those erected in recent years – was generally minor. These structures were mainly five66

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Urban
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to six story buildings. In contrast, many of the non-engineered masonry structures thatexperienced complete collapse or partial damage were two to four story buildings in
Sankhu (Figure 3.4:left). Damage in non-engineered masonry structures was initiatedby vertical cracks in the corners of the buildings (Figure 3.4:a), which contained no RC
columns (Figure 3.4:b). The outer wall structures of such buildings was generallyburned brick with cement mortar joints to withstand rain. In several cases, the innerwalls of buildings are adobe bricks with mud mortar.

Figure 3.4: The damage to RC structures was generally minor.These structures weremainly five to six story buildings. Many of the non-engineered masonry structures thatexperienced complete collapse or partial damage were two to four story buildings in
Sankhu (left). Damage in non-engineered masonry structures was initiated by verticalcracks in the corners of the buildings (a), which contained no RC columns (b).
(Photo. by T. Ohsumi)
4. LANDSLIDES
A numerous number of huge slope failures which occurred in the mountainous areaburied villages and valleys, and resulted in the loss of many lives. We visited a landslide
zone in Ramche, and it is located in the northwest of Kathmandu city in a mountainous
area. Many of fallen rocks were on the roads,
also we encountered a bus that hit by falling
rocks (Figure 4.1). Thick talus is depositedin the landslide area in Ramche, in Rasuwa
district (Figure 4.2). The town is located at
an altitude of 2,068 m. There are houses that
had been caught in a landslide, but thedamage was limited. However, the whole
scope of the slope failures is not clear at thepresent time, because any detailed and total
survey in the mountainous area has not been Figure 4.1: Bus was hit in falling rocks
carried out. Thus, causalities will in-crease in Dhikure,on Baglung Rajmara Highas they are found.
way.
(Photo. by T. Ohsumi)

Investigation of damage to buildings and ground truth verification for satellite data
Investigationof damageto Buildings
and ground truth verification for satellite data inin Kathmandu
Valley due
to the 2015
Gorkha Earthquake
Kathmandu Valley due to the 2015 Gorkha Earthquake

67

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

RamcheFigure 4.2: Thick talus is deposited in the landslide area in Ramche.
(Photo. by T. Ohsumi)

5. SUBURBANS AND RURAL AREAS
The number of casualties was concentrated to the northeast of the Kathmandu
Sindhupalchowk district. We visited Charikot, in the Bhimeshwar Municipality, roughly
50 km east of Dhulikhel. The town is located at an altitude of 1,554 m. The name of the
district Dolakha came from Dolakha Town, which is situated northeast of the capital
Charikot. These areas had many casualties. According to the locals, the large aftershock
felt stronger than the main shock. This is understandable as the aftershock’s hypocenter
is located just below this area. Many houses collapsed in the aftershock.
Urban and rural housing is significantly different. In the suburban and rural areas where
there are many stone houses, a lot of damage occurred. The collapse of heavy stones
used in house construction, resulted directly in deaths and property destruction.
In Dolakha district, adobe style houses collapsed. Primarily, adobe houses collapsed asa result of cracks in the gables and corner foundations as a result of ground motion.
Many adobe style houses were broken at their gables. Stone houses could also collapse
as a result of delamination (Figure 5).

Figure 5: Adobe style houses (left)
and Stone style house (right) in
Charikot, (Photo. by T. Ohsumi)

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6. DISCUSSION
According to Nepal Police statistics as of 22 June 2015, the number of deaths was 8,660
and injuries were 21,952 for the main shock. A total of 172 deaths and 3,470 injuries
were associated with the aftershocks. It was also reported that more than 5 million
buildings and houses were damaged – and about half of those collapsed; that number is
now increasing (Figure 6).

Figure 6: Casualties and injured people by Nepal Police.
Why did this area have concentrated casualties?
First, the dominant rural housing style in the area consists mainly of stone masonry. The
collapse of heavy stone buildings killed many. The damage to houses in themountainous region was typically concentrated in non-engineered structures. In rural
areas, unreinforced masonry, sourced from regionally available materials, was the main
construction material. Regardless of the masonry material used, serious damage
occurred with houses as a result of masonry cemented with mud mortar. This housing
construction method also exists in urban areas, primarily for constructions undertaken
more than 30 years ago. In the rural areas, this type of housing is still the most popularmethod of housing construction. Thus, the retrofitting of low-cost earthquake-damaged
housing without the consideration of engineering standards is a key issue.
Second, this earthquake involved major high-frequency (1 Hz) seismic energy that canbe observed in the earthquake waveforms (Yagi and Okuwaki (2015)). The area is northof the Kathmandu Valley and located near the North Bagmati scenario earthquake
model.
Investigation of damage to Buildings and ground truth verification for satellite data in
Kathmandu
Valleydue to theand
2015
GorkhaEarthquake
Investigationof damageto buildings
groundtruth
verification for satellite datain Kathmandu Valley due to the 2015 Gorkha Earthquake

69

October
2015,
Kathmandu,
Nepal
October2015,
Kathmandu,
Nepal

The major high-frequency (1 Hz) seismic radiation area was used for the hybrid backprojection analysis of Yagi and Okuwaki (2015). The area is north of Kathmandu
Valley, in the vicinity of the North Bagmati scenario earthquake model. This highfrequency seismic radiation caused much of the damage to buildings in the Kathmandu
Valley.
7. CONCLUSION
1) Although RC buildings were partially damaged, the difference in damage between
buildings with and without RC appears remarkable. Brick and cement mortar houses
without RC columns generally had a lot of damage. Structures having no RC columns in
the corners generally experienced vertical cracking in the brick masonry walls.
2) The casualties resulting from the earthquake were concentrated in the northeast ofKathmandu in the Sindhupalchok district. Many houses here collapsed in theaftershocks. The casualties were compounded by significant differences in urban andrural housing. In suburban and rural areas, there are many stone houses that were badly
damaged. The collapse of heavy stones used in house construction took many lives.
3) The three royal palace complexes in the Kathmandu valley (Kathmandu, Bhaktapur,and Lalitpur / Patan) had undergone significantly different renovation works over thelast few decades (although not for the historic structures within the old royal palaces).
This enables a means to assess how particular renovations can strengthen historicalstructures.
4) In rural areas, stone masonry is used as a current building technique. Retrofitting
such low-cost non-engineered housing is a key issue.
5) The dominant periods observed in the Fourier spectra of magnitude 7 class events areapproximately 4 to 5 s. However, for magnitude 5 class events, the dominant periods aremuch shorter 0.5 s. These differences in shaking periods / frequencies can have asignificant effect on the resulting damage.
7) The major high-frequency (1 Hz) seismic radiation caused much of the damage tobuildings and housing on the north side of the Kathmandu Valley.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT:This research was supported by Dr. Ganesh K Jimee, Dr. Gopi K Basyal and Dr.
Ramesh Guragain with NSET. We also thank Dr. Sujan Raj Adhikari with NSET who
provided valuable earthquake engineering information.
This work was (partially) supported by the Council for Science, Technology andInnovation (CSTI) through the Cross-ministerial Strategic Innovation Promotion
Program (SIP), titled “Enhancement of societal resiliency against natural disasters”(Funding agency: JST).
REFERENCES
Yagi, Y., and Okuwaki, R., 2015, Integrated seismic source model of the 2015 Gorkha,
Nepal, earthquake, Geophys. Res. Lett.,42,doi:10.1002/2015GL064995.

70

New Technologies
Urban
Safety Cities
of Mega
Cities in Asia
New Technologies
for Urbanfor
Safetyof Megain AsiaEstimation of Seismic Intensity at Lalitpur, Nepal
Hari Ram PARAJULI1
1
Dr. ENG, Earthquake Engineering, Kyoto University, Japan
Campus Chief, Institute of Engineering, Tribhuvan University, Nepal
hariparajuli@ioe.edu.np
ABSTRACTAn attempt has been made to estimate seismic hazard at rock level in terms of peakhorizontal acceleration (PHA) at two sites of Lalitpur district using probabilistic
seismic hazard analysis (PSHA). Earthquake data base for the site was preparedmerging the various data bases. Magnitude frequency relationship was developed torepresent the earthquake recurrences in the region. Then using Young's et al 1997
attenuation relation and with help of CRISS 2007 software peak ground acceleration
was estimated and probabilistic spectra for the two sites is obtained. The results show
the higher level of seismic risk at the sites which suggest the existing guideline ofearthquake resistant design considerations.
Keywords: peak ground acceleration, spectral acceleration, PSHA
1. INTRODUCTION
Lalitpur is one of the three districts of Kathmandu valley. The Kathmandu valley has
been reported to have experienced many earthquakes in the past. Records of past
destructive earthquakes date back up to 1255 AD (Chitrakar and Pandey, 1986). The
significant earthquakes around Nepal (NDGC, 2015) are shown in table 1. The
earthquakes on 1255, 1833 and 1934 have badly destroyed the Kathmandu valley (Pant,
2000, Rana 1935). A strong earthquake occurred and damaged eastern side of Nepal in1988 (ISC, 2015). The recent M7.8 earthquake in Barpak, Gorkha following M7.3 after
shock in Dolakha in 2015 severely damaged along 80 kilometer stretch of theHimalayan which lies just north side of Kathmandu valley. The study area falls in thewestern extremity of the source region that produced the 1934 great earthquake. It isbelieved that this region has to wait for some 5 hundreds of years before it gets matured
to produce great earthquake (M>8.0) again, but we should not ignore the possibility that
this region has collected some energy in the last about 80 years (after the 1934 BiharNepal Earthquake) and this energy might be equivalent to one ~M7.0 earthquake at thepresent.
The recent, Barpak M7.8 earthquake developed 240gal acceleration at Kathmandu.
Another very important aspect it has very long duration -56 seconds with period 4 - 5
seconds. Thousands of buildings were damaged, soil is liquefied in many places, groundfailure occurred and 8922 people (NDGC, 2015) died and 23000 people injured(Sherchand, 2015). Looking at history recurrence history of major earthquakes(magnitude greater than 7.5) has occurred in the interval of 80-100 years period. It is71

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

quite large and show big seismic risk in the region. From similar studies for other places,
it had been emphasized by many researchers (Maskey, 2004, Parajuli et al 2008, JICA
2003) which have proved urgent need to revise the seismic risk and make the decision
as per updated risk scenario.
Table 1 Significant Nepal earthquakes

Source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Nepal#cite_note-DPNET-Nepal-2

Date

Place

Latitude Longitude

Fatalities

Magnitude

Remark1255 Kathmandu

27.70

85.30

2,200

7.8

1260 Sagarmatha

27.10

86.80

100

7.1

1344 Mechi

27.50

87.50

100

7.9

1408 Bagmati

27.90

86.00

2,500

8.2

1505 Mustang

29.50

83.00

6,000

8.2

1681 Koshi

27.60

87.10

4,500

8.0

1767 Bagmati

28.00

85.50

4,000

7.9

1833 Gosaikunda

27.90

85.50

6,500

8.0

Ms

1869 Kathmandu

27.70

85.30

750

6.5

Ms

1916 Nepal/Tibet

30.00

81.00

3,500

7.7

Ms

1934 Sagarmatha

26.77

86.76

8,519

8.4

Mw

1966 Nepal/India border

29.55

80.85

80

6.3

Ms

1980 Pithauragarh

29.60

81.09

200

6.5

Ms

1988 Udayapur

26.78

86.62

1,091

6.6

Ms

2011 Sikkim, India

27.33

88.62

111

6.9

Ms

2015 Gorkha

28.15

84.71

8,922

7.8

Mw

2015 Dolakha

27.97

85.96

213

7.3

Mw

Mw

2. EARTHQUAKE CATALOGUE
The earthquake catalogue for this area was prepared by combining and consolidating
the available information from different sources and covers the period 1255-2014 AD.
The earthquake data were collected from different sources, i.e., United States
Geological Survey (USGS), Department of Mines and Geology (DMG), International
Seismological Centre (ISC). In addition to that, a few more data were collected from thecatalogues published by different researchers. Uniformity of data base was preparedusing Scordilis, 2006, Pant 2000. Catalogue was completed considering both- Historical
Catalogue and Seismicity (1255 – 1910 A.D.) and Instrumental Catalogue andSeismicity (1911-2014 A.D.)

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2.1 Declustering
In order to avoid repetition of dependent events such as fore and aftershocks were
removed by declustering. Declustering is the method of filtering the overlap events. As
the available earthquake data include fore shocks, main shocks and aftershocks, it isdifficult to identify main shock or background or dependent events. Hence, afterconverting reported magnitude (Ms or Mb) and intensity into moment magnitude (Mw),
all the dependent events (fore shock and aftershock) were removed by the windowing
procedure based on algorithm given by Gardner and Knopoff (1974).
2.2 Catalogue CompletenessThe collected earthquake data consists of different magnitude scales and intensities
which are finally converted into moment magnitude in order to keep uniformity incompleteness by using the empirical relationships given by Johnston, 1996 andScordilis, 2006. Residual catalogue obtained after declustering the dependent events,
containing independent earthquakes is finally prepared. Earthquake catalogue isprepared neglecting magnitude less than M5 because an earthquake with magnitude lessthan 5 contributes very less in seismic hazard assessment. In this work a total of 1900
unclustered main shocks were collected for the period of 1255 to 2014 A.D. Aftermaking completeness of the earthquake data, magnitude frequency relationship wasdeveloped for all sources.
2.3 Seismic Source Zone
The first step of seismic analyses is the definition of the earthquake sources that could
most probably affect the site of interest at which the seismic hazard will be calculated.
In fact, the characterization of seismic source zones depends on the interpretation of thegeological, geophysical and seismological data obtained by many tools such as tectonic
theory, seismicity, surface geological investigations and subsurface geophysicaltechniques. The discontinuity in the tectonic boundary of the study area has been
divided into a total of 25 quadratic and polygon shaped- areal sources.
2.4 Gutenberg – Richter Coefficients (a, b):
After characterizing the earthquake sources, logarithmic value of the rate of exceedanceof earthquakes falling in the particular sources are plotted against the earthquake
magnitude in order to find out the Gutenberg-Richter parameters. The slope of theplotted curve represents the “b” value while the rate of earthquake exceeding
magnitudes represents the “a” value (Stepp, 1972).
3. PSHA FORMULATIONThe Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Assessment (PSHA) refers to the estimation of somemeasure of the strong earthquake ground motion expected to occur at a selected site.
The PSHA is formulated following the procedure mentions in the Cornell 1968, Kramer
1996, Parajuli et al 2008. The seismicity is specied by a recurrence relationshipindicating the average rate at which an earthquake of a particular size will be exceeded.
The standard Gutenberg–Richter recurrence law is used for this purpose, that is,

Estimationof SeismicofIntensity
at Lalitpur,
Nepal Nepal
Estimation
Seismic Intensity
at Lalitpur,73

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

Om 10a bM exp(D  EM )Here, O m denotes the average return period of the earthquake of magnitude m. If(1)earthquakes lower than a threshold value m0 are eliminated, then the expression for O m
is modied as:(2)
Om Q exp > E m  m0 @Where, Q exp D  Em0 , m ! m0 ,D 2.303a , E 2.303b
Similarly, if both the upper and lower limits are incorporated, then O m is given by:
Q exp > E m  m0 @  exp > E mmax  m0 @(3)Om
1  exp > E mmax  m0 @The CDF (cumulative distribution function) and PDF (probability density function) of
the magnitude of earthquake for each source zone can be determined from thisrecurrence relationship as:fM m

E exp> E m  mmin @1  exp> E mmax  mmin @(4)

The uncertainties in earthquake location, earthquake size, and ground motion parameter
prediction are combined to obtain the probability that the ground motion parameter will
be exceeded during a particular time period. This combination is accomplished throughthe following standard equation (Kramer, 1996, McGuire, 2004).

Qy

Ns

*

Q y*

¦Q
i 1

i M min³³ P>Y ! y | m,r @f*

Ns Nr Nm¦¦¦Q
i 1 j 1k 1

i M min

>

Mi

(5)

m f Ri r dmdr@

Ui P Y ! y* | m,r P>M m@P>R r @'m'r

Where, Ns is number of sources in the region, Q iM min(6)

exp D  E i mmin is total rate of>@exceedences of threshold magnitude (M=5.0 is taken in this study). P Y ! y* | m, r isconditional probability that chosen acceleration exceeded for a given magnitude (M)and distance (R), and f Mi m and f Ri r are probability density functions for magnitude
and distance respectively. Here, M and m are used as random variable and specificvalue for magnitude respectively. The rst term within the integral considers theprediction uncertainty, the second term considers the uncertainty in earthquake size, andthe third term considers the uncertainty in location of the earthquake. The above
uncertainties for all source zones are considered by way of the double integration
summation. A seismic hazard curve is then constructed by plotting the rate ofexceedance of the seismic parameter for different levels of the seismic parameter andcalculated by using CRISIS 2007.
4. ATTENUATION EQUATION
Though there are hundreds of attenuation laws developed for various region of theworld, no earthquake attenuation relations have been developed for the Himalayan
region specially. Because of unavailability of sufficient data, here, instead of developing
new equation for the region, attenuation equations among already developed equations
for subduction zone Crouse 1991, Fukushima and Tanaka 1990, Molas and Yamazaki
1995, Young et al. 1997, Gregor et al. 2002, Atkinson and Boore 2003, Kanno et al.

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2008, Zhao et al. 2006 which supports the tectonics, geology and faulting system werestudied. Most of the earthquakes occurring in Nepal are considered to be interface
events due to subduction of Indian plate beneath the Eurasian plate. Hence, in thisresearch work attenuation relationship suitable for subduction zone proposed by Youngs
et. al. (1997) is used.
From the probability distribution of particular ground motion parameter, the probability
that this parameter Y exceeds a certain value, y*, for an earthquake of a given
magnitude, m, occurring at a distance, r, is given by:(7)
P>Y ! y* | m,r @ 1  Fy y*
Where, FY(y) is the value of the cumulative distribution function of Y at m and r. The
value of FY(y) depends on the probability distribution used to represent Y. In general,ground motion parameters are usually assumed to be log normally distributed (thelogarithm of the parameter is normally distributed).
3. RESULTS
Following the procedure explained preceding sections, uniform hazard spectrum (UHS)and PSHA of Tikathali area and Lubhu were estimated and the results are shown in the
Figures 1-4. Probabilistic spectra for 10% probability of exceedence in 50 years which
475 years return period (RP) and 2% probability of exceedence in 50 years which 2475
years return period (RP) are obtained using CRISIS software. The obtained results areshown in the respective figures. The results the higher level of seismicity at the twosites. It helps the planner and designers to act or higher level of safety.

Figure 1: Tikathali PGA of .30g showing Hazard Map and UHS Map, RP=475 yrs
Estimationof SeismicofIntensity
at Lalitpur,
Nepal Nepal
Estimation
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at Lalitpur,

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October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

Figure 2: Tikathali PGA of .58g showing Hazard Map and UHS Map, RP=2475 yrs

Figure 3: Lubhu PGA. 39g showing Hazard Map and UHS Map, RP=475 years.

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ICUS Report 80

Figure 4: Lubhu PGA. 39g showing Hazard Map and UHS Map, RP=475 years.
REFERENCES
Atkinson, G.M., and Boore, D.M., 2003. Empirical ground-motion relations for
subduction-zone earthquakes and their application to Cascadia and other regions. Bull.
Seismol. Soc. Am. , 93 (4), 1703-1729.
Bilham, R., 2004. Historical Study of Earthquakes in India, Analysis of Geophy., 1-26.
BECA World International (New Zealand) in association with SILT Consultants (P.)
Ltd. (Nepal), TAEC Consult (P.) Ltd. (Nepal), Golder Associates (Canada) and Urban
Regional Research (USA), 1993, Seismic Hazard Mapping and Risk Assessment for
Nepal.
Chitrakar G. R. and M. R., Pandey, 1986. Historical Earthquakes of Nepal, Bull. Geol.
Soc. Nepal, 4, 7-8.
Chen, W., and Yang, Z., 2004. Earthquakes beneath the Himalayas and Tibet: Evidence
for strong lithospheric mantle, Science, 304, 1949– 1952.
Cornell, C.A. 1968. Engineering seismic risk analysis,.Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am., 58 (5),1583-1606
Crouse, C. B., 1991. Ground-motion attenuation equations for earthquakes on the
Cascadia Subduction zone. Earthquake Spectra, 7, 201.
Fukushima, Y., and Tanaka, T., 1990. A new attenuation relation for peak horizontal
acceleration of strong earthquake ground motion in Japan. Bulletin of SeismologicalSociety of America , 80 (4), 757-783.
Gardner J. K. and L. Knopoff, L., 1974. Is the sequence of earthquakes in Southern
California, with aftershocks removed, Poissonian?, Bulletin of the SeismologicalSociety of America 64, 1,363–1,367.
Gregor, N. J., Silva, W. J., Wong, I. G., and Youngs, R. R., 2002. Ground-motion
attenuation relationships for Cascadia subduction zone. Bulletin of SeismologicalSociety of America , 92 (5), 1923-1932.
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Estimation of Seismic Intensity at Lalitpur, Nepal

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October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

ISC, 2015, ISC-GEM Global Instrumental Earthquake Catalogue (1900-2009), Version
2.0, International Seismological Centre
Japanese International Cooperation Agency (JICA). 2002. The study on earthquake
disaster mitigation in the Kathmandu valley, Kingdom of Nepal.
Johnston, A.C. 1996, Seismic moment assessment of earthquakes in stable continental
regions -II. Historic seismicity, Geophys. J. Int. 125, 639-678.
Kanno, T., Narita, A., Morikawa, N., Fujiwara, H., and Fukushima, Y., 2006. A new
attenuation relation for strong ground motion in Japan based on recorded data. Bulletinof Seismological Society of America , 96 (3), 879-897.
Kramer, S.L. 1996. Geotechnical earthquake engineering, Prentice-Hall International
series in Civil Engineering and Engineering Mechanics
Maskey, P.N., and Datta, T.K. 2004. Risk consistent response spectrum and hazard
curve for a typical location of Kathmandu valley,. 13th world conference on earthquake
engineering, Vancouver, B.C., Canada, Aug.1-6 , 3124.
Molas, G.L., and Yamazaki, F., 1995. Attenuation of earthquake ground motion in
Japan including Deep focus events. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. , 85, 1343-1358.
NGDC, 2015. National Geophysical Data Center
Pandey, M.R., Tuladhar, R.P., Avouac, J.P., Lave, J., Mossat, J.P., 1995. Interseismicstrain accumulation on the crustal Ramp (Nepal), Geophysical Research Letters, Vol22(7), p751-754.
Pandey, M.R., Chitrakar, G.R., Kafle, B., Sapkota, S.N., Rajaure, S., Gautam, U.P.,
2002. Seismic Hazard Map of Nepal, National Seismological Centre, Kathmandu Nepal.
Pandey, M., R. Tandukar, J. Avouac, J. Lave, and J. Massot 1995. Interseismic strain
accumulation on the Himalayan crustal ramp (Nepal), Geophys. Res. Lett., 22, 751– 54.
Pandey, M., R. Tandukar, J. Avouac, J. Vergne, and T. Heritier 1999, Seismotectonics
of the Nepal Himalaya from a local seismic network, J. Asian Earth Sci., 17, 703–712.
Pant, M. R. 2000. A step towards historical seismicity of Nepal. Fransco-Nepal
conference on people, environment and landscape of Himalayas.
Parajuli, H. Junji Kiyono, J., Ono, Y., and Tsutsumiuchi, T., 2008. Design Earthquake
Ground Motions from Probabilistic Response Spectra: Case Study of Nepal, Journal ofJapan Association for Earthquake Engineering, Vol. 8, No. 4.
Rana B. S. J. R., 1935. Nepal’s Great Earthquake 1934 (in Nepali). Sahayogi Press,
Tripureshwor, Kathmandu.
Scordilis, E.M., 2006. Empirical global relations converting MS and Mb to moment
magnitude, Journal of Seismology, 10, 225-236.
Sherchand J.B, 2015, Earthquake disaster-associated health effects and the need for
improved preventive measures. Journal of Institute of Medicine, 37:1
Stepp, J.C. 1972. Analysis of completeness of the Earthquake Sample in the Puget
Sound Area and its Effect on Statistical Estimates of Earthquake Hazard , National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Environmental Research Laboratories
Boulder, Colorado 80302.
Youngs, R.R, Chiou, S.J, Silva, W.J and Humhrey, J.R., 1997. Strong ground motion
attenuation relationships for subduction zone earthquakes. Seismological Research
Letters , 68 (1), 58-73.
Zhao, J. X., Zhang, J., Asano, A., Ohno, Y., Oouchi, Takahashi, T., Ogawa, H., Irikura,K., Thino, H. K., Somerville, P. G., Fukushima, Y., and Fukushima, Y. 2006. Bulletionof Seismological Society of America , 96 (3), 898-913.

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Damage scenario of reinforced concretebuildings in the2015 Nepal earthquakes
Rohit Kumar ADHIKARI1, Satish BHAGAT1
and Anil C. WIJEYEWICKREMA2
1
Graduate Student, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japanadhikari.r.aa@m.titech.ac.jp, bhagat.s.aa@m.titech.ac.jp
2
Associate Professor, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japanwijewickrema.a.aa@m.titech.ac.jp
ABSTRACTThe Gorkha earthquake of April 25, 2015 and its aftershocks caused extensive damage
to hundreds of thousands of building structures in Nepal. A reconnaissance survey was
carried out in the most affected areas to assess the damage to buildings due to theearthquakes. It was found that many old as well as modern reinforced concretebuildings including residential, school and high-rise apartments sustained minor to
major damage including collapse. Most of the well-designed reinforced concretebuildings sustained minor or non-structural damage. From the field observation, someof the main reasons of such a vast damage to building structures are found to be thelack of maintenance of old structures, negligence of building codes, and poor designand construction practices. This paper summarizes the damage to reinforced concretebuildings with specific focus on the causes and types of damage due to the earthquakes.
Most of the collapsed reinforced concrete buildings were seen to have soft-first story
failure mechanism. Non-structural damage mainly included heavy damage to the brickmasonry infill walls. Suggestions and research needs are also identified to improve theseismic performance of reinforced concrete buildings in Nepal.
Keywords: earthquake reconnaissance survey, reinforced concrete buildings, seismic
damage, 2015 Nepal earthquake
1. INTRODUCTION
A magnitude 7.8 earthquake occurred in the central region of Nepal on April 25, 2015 at
11:56 AM (Nepal Standard Time). The epicenter (28.147°N, 84.708°E) of theearthquake was located in the village of Barpak, Gorkha district which is approximately
77 km north-west of the capital city Kathmandu (Figure 1) and its focal depth was 15
km (USGS, 2015). The earthquake resulted in a maximum Mercalli Intensity of IX(Violent) and more than 8,700 deaths and over 22,300 injuries were reported. Somecasualties were also reported in the adjoining areas of India, China, and Bangladesh.
Over 350 aftershocks with magnitude greater than 4.0 have occurred, with somesignificant ones having a magnitude of 6.7 on April 26 and 7.3 on May 12 (Figure 1).
More than 500,000 houses were totally collapsed and over 200,000 houses werepartially damaged leaving over two million people homeless. Although Kathmandu andSindhupalchowk districts were far away from the epicenter, severe damages wereobserved in these areas.

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October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

Figure 1: Locations of the mainshock and major aftershocks. (Source: USGS)
Reconnaissance survey of the heavily affected regions (Kathmandu valley andSindhupalchowk district) were conducted by a team from Tokyo Institute ofTechnology, Japan to assess the extent and nature of damage to building structurescaused by the earthquakes (Wijeyewickrema et al., 2015).
This paper summarizes the cause and nature of the structural damage to RC buildings
due to the earthquakes. Some suggestions for improving the performance and future
research needs in the area of seismic design and construction practice of RC buildings
in Nepal are also presented. Since, the investigation was based on the visual inspection
without the information on actual design and construction details, there is a possibility
that the interpretation of the failure mechanism might not be accurate.
2. SEISMIC DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION PRACTICE IN NEPAL
In recent years, reinforced concrete framed structures are common construction practicein Nepal (JICA, 2002). Low-rise reinforced concrete buildings are designed using theseismic design code NBC-105 (DUDBC, 1994) whereas high-rise buildings aredesigned following the guidelines provided by the Indian seismic code IS1893 (BIS,
2002). Detailing for ductility is based on Indian standard IS 13920 (BIS, 1993).
Although various guidelines are prevailing for the seismic design of buildings in Nepal,
most of the low-rise structures do not follow the design codes. Owners themselves
compromise with the quality of construction materials, design and construction process
due to economic reasons. The construction practice in most of the cases is based on
thumb rules and the masons are not well trained. Due to the increasing urbanization andskyrocketing population in the Kathmandu valley, the owners opted for addition ofstories in the old construction, which were not well designed. These are some of the
weaknesses of the current building design and construction practice in Nepal.
Chaulagain et al. (2013) studied the seismic vulnerability of common RC buildings in
Nepal and found that the buildings constructed using current construction practice anddesigned with Nepal Building Codes (NBC) are highly vulnerable to earthquakes.

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3. DAMAGE TO REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Reinforced concrete moment-resisting frame buildings performed poorly in the 2015
Gorkha earthquakes. Many low-rise reinforced concrete buildings in the affected area
were either collapsed or sustained heavy damage. Most of the poorly designed
buildings not confirming to design standards suffered severe damage. But welldesigned reinforced concrete buildings suffered only minor non-structural damage. The
damaged reinforced concrete buildings included mostly residential buildings as well as
school and high-rise apartment buildings. Most of the high-rise apartment buildings
were subjected only to damage in the non-structural elements and are livable after
repairing.
3.1 Damage to residential buildings
Many poorly designed residential buildings collapsed or suffered heavy damage due tothe earthquakes. All the reinforced concrete framed constructions in Nepal have heavy
brick masonry infill walls increasing the seismic weight of the buildings. Typicaldamage scenario of reinforced concrete residential buildings in the Kathmandu valley
and Sindhupalchowk district are reported here.
Photo 1 shows a completely collapsed RC building. The failure is due to theinsufficient size and poor detailing of columns, beams and structural joints resulting in apancake failure.

Photo 1: Collapsed residential RC frame building in Sitapaila, Kathmandu.

2 stories collapsed 4 stories collapsed
Photo 2: Pancake failure of buildings in Gongabu, Kathmandu.
Damage scenario of reinforced concrete buildings in the 2015 Nepal earthquakes
Damage scenario of reinforced concrete buildings in 2015 Gorkha Earthquake81

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The buildings in Photo 2 lost their lower 2 stories and 4 stories due to the soft story
pancake failure. The heavy load of brick masonry infill walls and the cantileverprojection as seen caused the failure of columns. Photo 3 shows the pounding damage
between two adjacent building ‘A’ and ‘B’. Photo 4 shows the collapsed building withfractured reinforcement of the columns, which is due to the poor ductile detailing. The
first story columns of the 3 storied building (Photo 5) failed in shear in which the upper
2 stories were added recently on top of the original single story building.

A

B

Photo 3: Pounding damage between two adjacent building ‘A’ and ‘B’ in Lamosanghu,
Sindhupalchowk.

Photo 4: Collapse of a 3 storied RC building in Lamosanghu, Sindhupalchowk. Notethat all the longitudinal reinforcing bars of the column shown have fractured.

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Photo 5: Damage to the first story of the 3 storied building in Chautara, Sindhupalchowk,
in which upper 2 stories are added recently.
3.2 Damage to school buildings
More than 8,000 school buildings were destroyed due to the earthquake and its
aftershocks. Fortunately, the schools were closed on the day when main shock and its
major aftershocks occurred. Temporary shelters have been constructed to conductclasses in the Kathmandu valley as well as in remote areas. The damage to one of thereinforced concrete school building in Sindhupalchowk district is reported here.

(a)

(b)

Photo 6: (a) Collapsed building of the Shree Jana Jagriti Higher Secondary School,
Sangachowk, Sindhupalchowk and (b) Shear failure of columns.
Photo 6 shows a school building damaged heavily due to the earthquakes. Circularcolumns in this 3-story building had 300 mm diameter with 6 no. of 16 mm main bars,
while square columns had 300 mm x 300 mm size with 4 no. of 16 mm and 4 no. of 12

Damage scenario
reinforced
concrete buildingsin the 2015
NepalGorkha
earthquakes
Damage of
scenarioof reinforced
concrete buildings
in 2015
Earthquake

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October2015,
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mm bars as longitudinal reinforcements. Both circular and square columns had 5 mmstirrup with 150 mm spacing which is not sufficient (Photo 6(b)).

Photo 7: Heavily damaged brick masonry infill wall.
3.3 Damage to high-rise apartment buildings
Many high-rise apartment buildings in Kathmandu valley suffered mostly non-structural
damage. Only minor structural damage was observed in some buildings. None of thehigh-rise apartment buildings collapsed and almost all are usable after repairing.
Damage to one of the apartment buildings (Sunrise Apartment) at Nakkhu in
Kathmandu valley is shown in Photos 8 and 9.

Photo 8: Diagonal cracks in the masonry infill walls.

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Photo 9: Diagonal shear failure of a beam at the basement leading to seepage of water.

4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONSAs reported in this paper, many reinforced concrete buildings in the affected areas
suffered either collapse or severe damage due to the 2015 Gorkha earthquakes. Most of
the collapsed buildings suffered soft-first story failure. Similarly, the non-structural
damage mainly included the heavy damage to brick masonry infill walls. Besides someof the exceptional cases in which the earthquake effects exceeded the design limits due
to geological, site effects etc., the primary reasons of such a vast damage to reinforced
concrete buildings are negligence of seismic design codes and poor construction
practices. As observed by the authors, insufficient member size, inadequate shear
reinforcement, poor ductile detailing, strong-beam weak-column combination, weak
beam-column joints, large cantilever projections, heavy masonry infill walls wereamong the most common reasons for such a massive damage to reinforced concrete
structures.
There are many factors to be considered for improving the seismic performance ofreinforced concrete buildings in Nepal. The first and foremost step is to strictly
implement the building codes for the seismic design. The owners, contractors,
engineers, workers must be educated about the earthquake resistant constructions. The
seismic design code of Nepal is to be revised to include current practices anddevelopments in earthquake resistant constructions around the world. Lightweight
construction should be preferred. Use of reinforced concrete shear walls should bepromoted for better seismic resistance. Seismic strengthening and retrofitting works
should be implemented to old and partially damaged constructions.
Future research work is needed to improve the frame-infill wall connection to reduce
the non-structural damage as well as the replacement of masonry infill walls withlightweight materials. Seismic resistance of stone masonry walls should be studied asthese are economical construction materials in developing countries.

Damage scenario
reinforced
concrete buildingsin the 2015
NepalGorkha
earthquakes
Damage of
scenarioof reinforced
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REFERENCES
Chaulagain, H., Rodrigues, H., Jara, J., Spacone, E., & Varum, H. (2013). Seismic
response of current RC buildings in Nepal: a comparative analysis of different
design/construction. Engineering Structures, 49, 284-294.
IS 13920: 1993. Ductile detailing of reinforced concrete structures subjected to seismic
force – code of practice. Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.
IS 1893 (Part1): 2002. Criteria for earthquake resistant design of structures. 5threvision, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.
JICA (2002). The study on earthquake disaster mitigation in the Kathmandu valley,
Kingdom of Nepal, Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) and Ministry ofHome Affairs, His Majesty’s Government of Nepal.
NBC-105: 1994. Seismic design of buildings in Nepal, Nepal National Building Code,Government of Nepal, Ministry of Physical Planning and Works, Department of Urban
Development and Building Construction, Kathmandu, Nepal.
Wijeyewickrema, A. C., Samith Buddika, H. A. D., Bhagat, S., Adhikari, R. K.,
Shrestha, A., Bajracharya, S., Singh, J., Maharjan, R., 2015. Earthquake reconnaissancesurvey in Nepal after the magnitude 7.8 Gorkha earthquake of April 25, 2015. Field
Investigation Report. Department of Civil Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology,
Japan.

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New Technologies
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Safetyof Megain AsiaPost-earthquake assessment of buildings using
Mobile Technology and Google Imaginary plus
GIS visualization
Sujan Raj ADHIKARI1, Gopi Krishna BASYAL2, Surya Narayan SHRESTHA3
and Suman PRADHAN4
1
Geologist, National Society of Earthquake Technology, Nepal
sadhikari@nset.org.np
2
Geographer, National Society of Earthquake Technology, Nepal
3
Deputy Executive Director, National Society of Earthquake Technology, Nepal
4
Program Manager, National Society of Earthquake Technology, Nepal
ABSTRACTThe aim of this article is to present a computer-aided comprehensive strategy for thedetailed damage assessment of the buildings and the optimal prioritization ofstrengthening and remedial actions that are necessary after a major earthquake event.
Based on the visual screening procedures a building inventory was first compiled; thena vulnerability ranking procedure was specifically tailored to the prevailingconstruction practice implemented into a multi-functional, georeferenced computer tool,that accommodates the management, evaluation, processing and archiving of the data
stock gathered during the post-earthquake assessment process, and the visualization ofits spatial distribution. The methodology proposed and the computer system developed
was then applied to the Municipality of Chautara, Sindhupalchok, Nepal, city which
was strongly damaged during the overwhelming 2015 Gorkha earthquake.
Keywords: building damage assessment, GIS, mobile data transmission, Gorkha
earthquake, Nepal
1. INTRODUCTION
Nepal was shaken by magnitude Mw7.8 (ML 7.6, in terms of local magnitude,
Department of Mine and Geology (DMG)) Gorkha Earthquake on 25th April 2015 at
11:56 AM local time with the epicenter at Barpak, Gorkha, 80km North West ofKathmandu Valley. This Gorkha Earthquake was followed by thousands of aftershockincluding M6.6 and M6.7 within 24 hours and Mw 7.3 (ML 6.7, DMG) on 12th May
2015 which caused additional damage and casualties. The spatial distribution ofaftershocks occurred before 15 June 2015 is shown in Figure 1. According to official
reports the worst affected districts include Sindulpalchowk, Kavre, Nuwakot, Rasuwa,
Dolakha in the Central Region and Kaski, Gorkha, Lamjung in the Western Region. The
impacts caused by this event included 8,969 people killed, 22,321 injured and, many
more displaced (MOHA, 2015). In addition, significant damage to buildings,
infrastructure and other critical services were well observed.

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Figure 1 Spatial distribution of Aftershocks
Geoinformation technologies offer an opportunity to enhance real time situation
management, disaster response and subsequent post event (Gusella. L. et. al). To help
improve the usefulness of geoinformation in a post disaster context, information shouldbe freely available, up-to-date and provide in georefrenced format. Data requirements
have traditionally been met through ground based damage survey during the days andweeks following the events. However the integrations of remote sensing (google earth
imaginary) data and georefrenced damage information collected in the field caneffectively streamline, accelerate and increase the volume and diversity of data captured
during post disaster reconnaissance. Remote sensing (Google Imaginary) plays avaluable role to play when integrated within and used in conjunction with mobile
mapping technology which enable the collection of digital data of each house in thefield.
This paper aims to give detailed explanation of Chautara Municiplity of Sindhupalchok
District which have 9 wards, how technology (mobile and Google earth) inspired andalliance were used to speedily assess the amount of damage caused by Gorkha
earthquake. In less than a minute, devastating earthquake demolished approximately 90
percent of the buildings in Sindhupalchok killing 3,557 people; numerous injuries; andleaving 63,885 homeless (drrrportal, Nepal). Almost from the very onset of the disaster,high-resolution satellite imagery was available through Google earth to provide the first
insight of the devastation caused by Gorkha earthquake. Google Earth imaginary canform a base layer for buildings within the system, guiding the team to recognize eachdamaged building and proving the direction-finding support. The whole system is
integrated with mobile mapping ground based perspective to develop and validate
Google GIS imaginary based building damage scales, and to access the accuracy ofdamage assessment results.

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2. PAST WORKS
The frequency and magnitude of natural hazard and its occurrence is growing rapidly inthe country. The impact of disasters even small scale has left negative impacts at local
level. Municipalities have been spending significant amount of money for recovering
those losses from disasters. Advanced disaster management technology could provide a
critical support system for emergency authorities during crises. Such a technology canalso provide important inputs for any disaster management plan of action in modern
times (Mileti, 1999). There are growing recognition that a mobile disaster management
system could help minimizing the fatalities of human lives when natural disasters occur.
Because of this recognition, countries such as Australia, Czech Republic, France,
England, Hong Kong, Japan, Singapore, and others, have increased their efforts indeveloping disaster management applications which use mobile technology to enhancetheir response capabilities during a disaster (Cimellaro et al 2014). For correct
decision-making at any stage of natural disasters, from prediction to reconstruction andrehabilitation, a considerable amount of data and information is necessary. The mostimportant procedures relating information from disasters are monitoring, recording,
processing, sharing, and dissemination. Experience from Italy and Japan have provedthat information technology simplifies the receiving, classifying, analyzing, anddissemination of information for appropriate decision-making (Sextos, A 2008). A
critical component of any successful rescue operation is time. Prior knowledge of the
precise location of landmarks, streets, buildings, emergency service resources, anddisaster relief sites saves time and saves lives. Literature shows that mobile-based
information systems can be a greatest key to benefit responders in different ways.
Implementation of new information technologies in emergency response can potentially
improve communication and coordination (Comfort, 1999; Comfort and Kapucu, 2006).
A more robust information network with greater distribution will further improve
communication and coordination in major disasters (Comfort and Kapucu, 2006; Graber,
2003). The possibility of using mobile technologies and the Web to build and substituteresponse systems would aid communities’ disaster management cycle, uploading anddistributing information, and coordinating the responses.
3. METHODOLOGY
Traditional method of damage assessment comprise of walking survey, where damage
indicators together with the overall damage state, are logged on damage assessment
form in paper format. But for this study, questionnaire Survey of each buildings isdeveloped in odk android Mobile environment following documents of Guideline on
Seismic Vulnerability Evaluation Guideline for Private and Public Buildings which was
prepared by NSET, 2009.
The study area was divided into a grid (figure 2) of 200*200m square cells field paper
which consists base map of Google Imaginary. Surveyor locate each building andPost-earthquake assessment of buildings using Mobile Technology and Google Imaginary plus
GIS visualization
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October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

provide the ID of every building in field paper. And using mobile application they input
the damage information for buildings.

Figure 2 Grids of the Chautara Municipality
Mobile inspection form consists of five Section (figure 2). Section A contains building
identification data (id, city, address, ownership, no of resident etc.), Section B contains
building technical characteristic (no of stories, age of building, primary occupancy etc.),
Section C contains geotechnical hazard, Section D contains data related to the structural
type and Section E contains Damage grade, recommendations and building Photographs.

Figure 3 Digitization of the building in the google Earth90

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After completing of Buildings survey in one girds, surveyors handover the paper to the
GIS mapper so that they digitize each building as of filed paper in the Google earth
environment (figure 3). In the intranet server, all the information collected form each
Mobile device is uploaded and digital database is prepared. Later on, all information of
the building that are collected from the mobile devices were join with each building
digitized by GIS mapper in GIS Environment for the visualization of the assessment
results using QGIS software. Reason for choosing Google Earth as the platform for theimage analysis is because it is freely available across the globe and people are familiar
with it and have readily available pre-event imagery archive for selected area in Nepal
and can incorporate imagery captured at multiple dates.
4. RESULTS
It is observed that Chutara Municipality have 83% of Stone in Mud type building where
only 14% RCFrame structure considering Figure 4a and 4b.

Figure 4 a Building Typology vs Number of Buildings

Figure 4b Map Showing Construction type
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Also, 70% of buildings have been categorized under Grade5 whereas 15% falls under
Grade4 .Also, Grade1, Grade2 and Grade3 corresponds to 5%, 8%, 2% of sum
chronologically referring to figure 5a and 5b

Figure 5a Building Typology vs Damage Grade

Figure 5b Map showing Damage Grade.

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Table 1: Recommendation for different ward
WARD
Recommendation
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9 TotalNone
1 12 163
1 11
549
Repair
11 24 231 66 39
7 142 18 20558
Retrofit
7
7 26 163
50 15 16140
Demolish405 490 237 311 507 386 322 335 560 3553
Further Evaluation
25
1
8Grand Total
423 522 508 409 552 394 530 369 601 4308

Figure 6 Map showing Recommendation type
With regard to the above assessment and analysis Table 1 and Figure 6, 83% of totally
surveyed buildings are suggested to be demolished. Repairing is most for 13% of leftpart. Only 3% of buildings are recommended to get retrofitted.

5. CONCLUSION
Natural Disasters are not certain, could occur anytime and seriously disrupts thefunctioning of a community causing huge losses. However, during the time of crisis thecollection and dissemination of damaged data are crucial. This study positively support
the government to developed reconstruction strategy plan. Apart from it, this study will
monitor Chautara Municipality to differentiate the building which are possible to repair/retrofit and which needs demolition. Hence, GIS tools if properly utilized, saves time,labor and improve efficiency of work. Prompt data collection and its analysis resultsover time could prepare agencies to better response for future disasters. Thus, paper

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illustrates the utilization of technologies (mobile and google earth) to collect postdisaster damage information within short span of time.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to express heartily gratitude all the members of study team,without whose support, the study would not have been successful.

REFERENCES
Arcidiacono V and Cimellaro GP (2013), “Damage Report with Smartphones during
Emilia Earthquake, 2012,” 4th International Conference on Computational Methods in
Structural Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering (COMPDYN2013), Kos Island
Greece, 12−14 June, 2013.
Comfort Louise K (1999), Shared risk: Complex Systems in Seismic Response,
Emerald Group Publishing Limited (August 1, 1999)
Mileti Dennis (1999), Disasters by Design: A Reassessment of Natural Hazards in the
United States, Joseph Henry Press (May 18, 1999).
www.drrportal.gov.np

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PEER Impact on Gorkha Earthquake National
Response
Maritess TANDINGAN1, Sanju SHARMA2, Amod Mani DIXIT3 and Ganesh Kumar JIMEE4
1
Deputy Chief of Party, Program for Enhancement of Emergency Response (PEER),
National Society for Earthquake Technology- Nepal (NSET)
mtandingan@nset.org.np
2
Program Coordinator, PEER,
National Society for Earthquake Technology- Nepal (NSET)
ssharma@nset.org.np
3
Executive Director, NSET and Chief of Party, PEER
National Society for Earthquake Technology- Nepal (NSET)
adixit@nset.org.np
4
Director, Disaster Preparedness and Emergency Response (DPER) Division and Lead Trainer,
PEER,
National Society for Earthquake Technology- Nepal (NSET)
gjimee@nset.org.np
ABSTRACT
Nepal, one of the most vulnerable country to seismic hazard in South Asia was rocked
by a 7.8Ms earthquake in April 25, 2015. The tremblor wasn’t a surprise because Nepal
straddles highly active tectonic plates. Compounding the country’s vulnerability tonatural hazards are socio-political weaknesses and poor infrastructures. On the other
hand, Nepal has been preparing for any emergencies through capacity building of
emergency responders through the Program for Enhancement of Emergency Response(PEER) since 1998. PEER is a regional training program introduced in Asia andfunded by the United States Agency for International Development / Office of U.S.
Foreign Disaster Assistance. PEER’s main focus is to develop highly qualified
instructors who will cascade the knowledge and skills to train skilled emergency
responders. PEER began in Nepal several years prior to the crafting of a national
emergency response strategy. The national program partners have acknowledged that
PEER has been instrumental in shaping Nepal’s emergency response system. In 1998,
PEER introduced the Medical First Responder (MFR) and Collapsed Structure Searchand Rescue (CSSR) courses, which addresses the response needs in the event of anearthquake, especially in densely populated areas. Nepal pressed on to developing
instructors amid the program challenges of rapid human resource turnover, diaspora
and varying priorities or lack of commitment of program partners. PEER partners
responded to the increasing need of capacity building in emergency response and havemade PEER curricula part of their own training prospectuses. Over a period of time,
PEER trained professionals do not only deliver and facilitate trainings but were also
catalysts in the establishment of Disaster Management units in their respective
organizations. Seventeen years after Nepal’s induction into PEER, the country’s
emergency response capacity was put to test during the recent earthquake. A strategic
training program for emergency responders is key to timely and effective response.
Keywords: capacity building, emergency response, disaster management95

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1. INTRODUCTION
Earthquake is a sudden-onset natural hazard that when it takes place in a densely
populated area with infrastructure and other social vulnerabilities, would likely have adevastating impact on lives, properties, economy and development. For cyclones, early
warning systems are more commonly in place and widely used by countries that are in
the line of cyclone path, to further intensify information dissemination and prepare thepopulation ahead of a possible landfall. The coming of typhoon is more predictable andwith advanced technology for forecasting and tracking a cyclone path, people havesufficient time to collect items for emergency use and evacuate to a safer place, as
necessary. Earthquakes alone do not kill; people in poorly built structures may becometrapped, or catch fire in immediate post-earthquake consequences. In such situations,
there is very little or rarely time to evacuate and seek shelter in a safer area. Availability
and accuracy or such near-accuracy of historical chronicles can shed light on the extent
of damage, date and place of occurrence. Despite some notable exceptions, early
warning system is rarely effective for earthquakes (UNISDR, 2015). Earthquake risk
reduction and preparedness efforts rely heavily on available historical records of pastearthquake occurrences.
Nepal lies above two converging tectonic plates - the India and Eurasian plates. Thislocation puts the country to high earthquake risks. Based on recorded Nepal’searthquake history, records have shown that Nepal can expect two earthquakes ofmagnitude 7.5 to 8 on the Richter scale every forty years and one earthquake ofmagnitude of 8+ in Richter scale every 80 years. The country has witnessed major
earthquakes in the 20th century: Bihar-Nepal earthquake (1934), Bajhang earthquake(1980) and Udayapur earthquake (1988). With all these past earthquakes, the April 25,2015 Gorkha Earthquake was not an entirely new experience for Nepal.
This paper presents the impact of the Program for Enhancement of Emergency Response(PEER) in the 2015 Gorkha Earthquake. While the country is being fraught with sociopolitical strains and disaster risk reduction may be competing in the priorities of thegovernment, PEER has been implemented in Nepal since 1998. Since then, the Ministryof Home Affairs-Government of Nepal, the apex body of the government for disasterrisk reduction activities in the country, played a pivotal role as PEER nodal agency in
Nepal. The objective of this report is to dissect how PEER has influenced the emergency
response system of the country and how the program contributed during the recent
earthquake response.
This paper has referenced its findings from PEER program reports, country meetings,
personal accounts from April 2015 Gorkha earthquake response operations experienceof PEER trained professionals shared to NSET.
2. Nepal National Disaster Response Framework
The Government of Nepal has formulated the National Strategic Action Plan on Searchand Rescue (SAR) Capacity in 2013 based on recommendations from the series ofscoping missions on emergency preparedness and response in Nepal and also in linewith the National Strategy on Disaster Risk Management (NSDRM) and Nepal Risk
Reduction Consortium (NRRC). The National Strategic Action Plan on Search and96

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Rescue Capacity is a useful guide towards strengthening the country’s overall disasterand preparedness and response system, specifically supporting the capacity building of
emergency responders at all levels. The foundation of the action plan is based on the
Urban Search and Rescue (USAR) Response Framework of the INSARAG Guidelines,
i.e. first responders in an emergency are the community level then followed by the local
emergency services; these will be supplemented by national level rescue teams, which
are considered the professional responders. If the SAR needs are beyond the national
capacity, international SAR teams will support the national rescue efforts.
3. Program for Enhancement for Emergency Response (PEER)
Approximately 15 years prior to crafting of Nepal government’s national policies andplans on disaster risk management, some national or local NGOs in Nepal have begun
initiatives on emergency preparedness and response.
The Program for Enhancement of Emergency Response (PEER) is a regional training
program that assists program beneficiary countries to enhance their emergency response
capacities thereby reducing mortality rates from emergencies and disasters. The UnitedStates Agency for International Development / Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster
Assistance introduced PEER in Asia in 1998 and is providing the funding support sincethen. The first phase of PEER (1998-2003), was implemented by Asian Disaster
Preparedness Center (ADPC), targeted four earthquake-prone countries in the region –India, Nepal, Indonesia and the Philippines. PEER Phase 1 established linkages withnational governments, identified and initiated partnerships with key emergency responseorganizations; and developed regional instructors. PEER Phase 2 (2003-2009) was
implemented by the National Society for Earthquake Technology – Nepal (NSET) in thesame four original PEER countries, adding Bangladesh and Pakistan into the program
coverage. Program nationalization and institutionalization; and development of national
instructors, coordinators and monitors were the main focus of PEER Stage 2.
USAID/OFDA awarded PEER Stage 3 (2009-2014) to ADPC and NSET. ADPC
managed the implementation of Community Action for Disaster Response (CADRE)
and Hospital Preparedness for Emergencies (HOPE) in the six older PEER countries,
with expansion to selected countries in Southeast Asia, namely, Cambodia, Lao PDR,
Vietnam and Thailand. NSET managed the implementation of Medical First Responder(MFR) and Collapsed Structure Search and Rescue (CSSR). PEER Stage 3 continued
the successes and efforts initiated from previous PEER stages.
PEER Stage 4 (2014-2019) is being implemented by NSET in selected South Asian
countries, namely, Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and Nepal, all of which are highly
vulnerable to earthquakes and other natural and human-induced hazards. PEER Stage 4
objectives are to enhance emergency response capacity of South Asian countries by
providing training on MFR, CSSR, CADRE, HOPE and Swift Water Rescue (SWR)
courses and by providing networking and collaboration among relevant individuals andinstitutions in the region.
NSET, in collaboration with the Ministry of Home Affairs – Government of Nepal(MoHA-GoN), has trained numbers of emergency response personnel in MFR and
CSSR in the country. Since 1998, there are more than 1,100 PEER MFR-CSSR trained
professional responders in Asia, approximately 245 are from Nepalese Army, Nepal
Police, Nepal Armed Police Force and the Nepal Red Cross Society; all mandated with

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emergency first response tasks. Most of the PEER graduates/instructors belong toemergency response agencies, became catalysts in promoting PEER, designed similar
training curricula for their organizations and have delivered similar emergency response
trainings for their response personnel.
Since the induction of Nepal into the PEER program in 1998, the MoHA-GoN
designated Nepal Police/Nepal Police Academy as the focal partner training institute forthe implementation of MFR and CSSR courses in Nepal. To this extent, NSET, throughPEER support, has distributed sets of CSSR equipment were distributed to Nepal PoliceCentral Police Disaster Response Squadron, to complement the institutionalization of
CSSR course. NSET and PEER partner organizations labored much on how to make
PEER program best fit the country’s context. In 2014, NSET in collaboration withsenior PEER instructors from Nepalese Army, Nepal Police, Armed Police Force and
Nepal Red Cross Society, designed and developed the MFR-CSSR curriculum fortraining of end users. This initiative came at the right time when Nepal’s security forces
established their respective Disaster Management units and started to train emergency
response teams.
NSET, a premier national non-government organization, whose mandate is onearthquake engineering and earthquake risk management, has expanded its initiatives indisaster risk reduction since the organization’s establishment in 1994. In addition to
PEER implementation in the region, NSET is also at present carrying out emergency
preparedness and response trainings for institutional and community levels. NSET has
taken every possible step to inculcate a culture of preparedness and build earthquake
safer communities in Nepal.
4. PEER Reflections in Gorkha Earthquake
On mid-day of April 25, 2015, a 7.8 magnitude earthquake rocked Nepal, with epicenterat Lamjung District, 77 km west of Kathmandu. The earthquake’s energy caused
widespread destruction of residences, government and private buildings schools,
heritage sites, health facilities, rural roads, bridges, water supply systems, and trekking
routes. The tremor has prompted the Government of Nepal to declare a state of
emergency, activated a massive SAR operations and has appealed for international
assistance. More than 90% of the security forces were mobilized for SAR. (World Bank,2015).
The more than 15 years of PEER investment in Asia has been put to test during thischallenging episode in Nepal’s history. Nepal PEER partner organizations were on fullalert and have mobilized response teams for SAR, contributing to the national
government’s efforts to address the most critical needs. Trained and skilled emergency
response volunteers were also tapped to provide additional support to the alreadyoverwhelmed national search and rescue teams on ground zero. Regardless of themagnitude of an emergency, local and national responders are the country’s first line ofdefense, the first ones to save their own before any external help arrives.
PEER-trained professionals were mobilized by their respective organizations to respondin the earthquake search and rescue operations. Primary PEER partners in Nepal,
namely, Nepalese Army, Nepal Police, Armed Police Force, Nepal Red Cross Society

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and NSET were all in full force in earthquake response. Through PEER implementationin Nepal, the program has helped embed the basic SAR skills in local and national
responders; because of this foundation, national responders were able to assist and workside by side with international USAR teams and understood the same guidelines andtechniques in SAR operations, with the same goal of searching, rescuing victims using
the safest techniques and eventually saving lives. Apparently, the main difference
among national and international SAR teams is the use of heavy-duty and moresophisticated SAR equipment by the international teams. Some national response teams
worked independently on-site and also assisted the international USAR teams as theformer had the local understanding.
Based on reports received by NSET, response teams were deployed by Nepal PoliceCentral Police Disaster Response Squadron in Kathmandu. It was observed that during
the recent SAR operations, PEER-trained staff were assigned to lead their local SAR
teams. In a team of 15 – 20 responders, Nepal Police had made an arrangement to makesure the involvement of at least two to three PEER certified responders, and most of thetime the PEER responders led the team.
Armed Police Force (APF) dispatched a total of 45 emergency response teams for SAR
in Kathmandu and in affected areas outside the valley, namely, Bhakthapur, Lalitpur,
Gorkha, Sindhupalchok, Nuwakot and Dolakha . According to APF, there were a totalof 35 PEER graduates from APF who were deployed and mobilized for coordination andresponse within and outside Kathmandu Valley. APF has immediately responded to theaffected sites of Kathmandu Valley and other districts and saved 345 lives; jointly
recovered 340 dead bodies jointly with other national and international search andrescue teams (APF Report, June 2015). In addition to search and rescue efforts, APF
provided shelters within its premises for earthquake victims, distributed relief items,
cleared debris, retrieved historical artifacts of world heritage sites and now on theprocess of demolishing collapsed houses.
The Nepalese Army has reported that remaining PEER graduates still in active military
service were deployed during SAR operations in different locations in Kathmandu
Valley and also assigned its MFR graduates in Army Hospital and other field hospitals
established. Nepalese Army being a primary responder to disasters, its trained personnel
were deployed from the very first day of earthquake SAR operations within and outside
Kathmandu Valley. CSSR trained personnel were deployed in different locations where
there was need of heavy cutting and breaching equipment. Nepalese Army has extracted
1,336 live personnel and 357 dead bodies in earthquake affected areas. (Nepalese Army,
June 2015)
PEER’s main goal is to reduce the number of mortalities during disasters or emergencies
in the beneficiary countries. In Nepal, NSET also works in partnership with Institute ofMedicine (IOM) for Hospital Preparedness for Emergencies (HOPE) course and with
Nepal Red Cross Society (NRCS) for Community Action for Disaster Response(CADRE) course. Through HOPE Course, hospitals are prepared to respond and remainfunctional after a devastating natural disaster, such as after a huge earthquake injuringhigh numbers of victims, during major epidemics or during any mass casualty incidents.
Until date, there are a total of 415 HOPE graduates in Nepal since 2003. In addition to
HOPE Course, NSET provided additional technical assistance to some hospitals in
Kathmandu by way of securing non-structural elements of the healthcare facilities. The

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Tribhuvan University Teaching Hospital (TUTH) has significantly put into practicehospital preparedness and has a functional disaster preparedness plan. Hence, during the
Gorkha Earthquake, TUTH has functioned effectively post-earthquake and coped with
the increased number of patients from the disaster.
CADRE is a new PEER course introduced in 2009, targeting participants at thecommunity level. CADRE fills-in the gap in emergency response prior to the arrival onsite of professional responders. Until date, Nepal has a total of 164 PEER-certified
CADRE graduates. NRCS has conducted a number of CADRE courses in Nepal outsideof PEER support. Nepal Red Cross Society reported that 678 CADRE national
volunteers were mobilized in view of the Gorkha earthquake response.
5. Achievements and gaps/failures
The power of media, from television, radio, print, web/social networking sites, havecaptured overflowing images of search and rescue efforts by local and international
response teams. There may still be a long way until the country reaches the benchmarkof an efficient emergency response system, but this recent earthquake showed that
Nepal’s local responders have nailed it. It is very much worthy to note that the skills
applied in searching and safely extricating the trapped living and dead bodies,complemented by effectively using modern search and rescue equipment, are attributed
to the years of embedding the MFR and CSSR skills in PEER partner organizations in
Nepal. It was also evident that non-PEER certified responders followed the sameskills/life saving procedures that are delivered in PEER courses as they have used same
standards and curricula for their in-house training courses, facilitated by PEER-certified
instructors, such as in the case of Armed Police Force Disaster Management Training
Center which has adapted MFR and CSSR courses from PEER.
PEER training equipment, in principle, are primarily used for training purposes only tofacilitate maximum hands-on experience by the trainees. However, in view of thepressing need for searching and safely extricating trapped victims, NSET is aware that
PEER training equipment were also utilized by local response teams during theiroperations. In view of PEER institutionalization, NSET through PEER, has distributed
sets of equipment to Nepal Police and Armed Police Force, which were heavily usedduring the SAR operations in different locations in Kathmandu Valley. NSET observed
and received verbal feedback that these were definitely helpful for the teams and havebeen utilized in safely extricating live victims by Nepal Police and Armed Police
Force. One very important observation by the responders is that the present CSSR
equipment is still appropriate (especially for small residential areas) but should be
supplemented by heavier and more advanced equipment to be used in increasingly
bigger structures in developing cities like Kathmandu. Heavier and more modern SAR
equipment can spell a big difference for local responders to search for victims, breachand break structures safely and more swiftly. With this experience, NSET also realizedthat there is an apparent need for more professional emergency responders andcommunity volunteers to be trained and equipped.

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6. Lessons learned
While the road to recovery doesn’t stop at successful rescue stories, we must takeadvantage of the catastrophe, keep a tab on the lessons learned and continue raising thebar of emergency response in Nepal. The following are some of the lessons learned andrecommendations noted by NSET:- PEER serves part of the national strategy on emergency response. Accordingly,
there is an apparent need to scale up PEER trainings and expand to more
response organizations, districts, municipalities and communities in Nepal. The
cost of training for heavy teams, acquiring and maintaining a number of heavy
and high level SAR equipment can be costly and may not be practical for Nepal
economic situation. Therefore, training more light to medium-level emergency
response teams is more realistic and doable, considering the present capacities
and limitations of the country.
- Continue upgrading of knowledge and skills in emergency response; including
modernizing SAR equipment appropriate for megacities like Kathmandu.
Developing, training and developing SAR teams with modern equipment may
apply to a limited number of organizations identified by the Government of
Nepal, such as the Nepalese Army to develop heavy teams; and Nepal Police andArmed Police Force to develop medium teams.
- Strategically preposition trained and equipped response teams in different partsof the country. Light to medium search and rescue teams need to be developed
to respond in identified most vulnerable areas. During the early phase of postearthquake emergency response, the search and rescue efforts were focused
mostly in Kathmandu, with response to other heavily affected areas being
delayed. Rapid search and rescue is very critical in the minutes and hours
immediately following a big earthquake, especially if it is affecting a highly
populated area.
- Further intensify hospital preparedness to cope with the demand and remainfunctional during disasters or mass casualty events. Reports show that hospitals
within and outside Kathmandu Valley were functional, although most werepartially damaged. The hospitals were overcrowded with patients, but had
sufficient staff. The hospitals in the affected areas needed additional support on
medicines, equipment and other medical supplies, including body bags.
Secondary to hospital preparedness is psychosocial intervention to support andcare for disaster victims and responders alike.
PEER efforts in Nepal cannot be underestimated. The photos, reports and informal
sharing from the responders reflect the great impact PEER has entrenched among the
responders trained under the program. The immense damage of this recent earthquake,
actual experience of responders and lessons learned from this catastrophe, will
substantiate the increasingly continuous need to escalate public awareness, enforcementof risk reduction measures, to include scaling up of trainings on emergency preparedness
and response to empower the national and community levels.

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Nepalese people are ceaselessly grateful to all international and national responders,
medical professionals and volunteers; salute to the national responders for they may
also have become homeless or had missing loved ones but chose to perform their duties
as police, soldiers, doctors/nurses/medics, and volunteers in this time of great need by
the country.
7. CONCLUSIONS
If Gorkha Earthquake occurred say a decade ago, the scenario of SAR operations may
have been grim with more lives lost, and most likely less capable national level
responders.
Between 1980 and 2012, 42 million life years were lost in internationally reported
disasters each year. (The concept of “human life years” provides a better representationof disaster impact, as it provides a metric describing the time required to produce
economic development and social progress.) (UNISDR, 2015). Therefore, disaster risk
reduction, with efficient emergency preparedness and response measures must be
considered in reducing mortalities from disasters.
Capacity building of local or national responders is crucial in timely and efficient
response. It is not only because the locals are the first responders in an emergency. It is,in part, connected to the rise of the global risk reduction agenda, which asserts thathumanitarian action must be better linked to building the resilience and preparedness ofpeople, institutions and places affected by hazards. Even beyond this, there is a growing
feeling that strengthening the role of local actors may finally help to redress some of theperennial challenges of humanitarian aid, such as shrinking access, fragmentation andincoherency in operations, and the gaps between response, recovery and development.
(IFRC, 2015).
REFERENCES
Armed Police Force (APF), June 2015. APF Operation Search and Rescue inEarthquake 2015, Role of PEER Certified graduates from NSET, Nepal.
DisasterPreparedness
Network
Nepal(DPNet-Nepal),
Earthquakes,
http://www.dpnet.org.np/index.php?pageName=earthquake (accessed September 27,2015).
International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC), 2015.
World Disasters Report.
Ministry of Home Affairs-Government of Nepal (MoHA-GoN a), August 2013.
National Strategic Action Plan on Search and Rescue 2013.
Ministry of Home Affairs-Government of Nepal (MoHA-GoN b), Risk Profile of Nepal,
http://drrportal.gov.np/risk-profile-of-nepal (accessed September 27, 2015).
Ministry of Industry, Department of Mines and Geology, National Seismological Center,
Historical Earthquakes, http://www.seismonepal.gov.np/index.php?linkId=56 (accessed
September 27, 2015).
National Planning Commission, Government of Nepal, 2015. Nepal Earthquake 2015
Post Disaster Damage Needs Assessment, Kathmandu, Nepal.
National Society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal (NSET), September 2015. NSETPEER Experiences, PEER Country Planning Meeting, Nepal.
Nepalese Army, June 2015. Deployment of PEER Graduates, Nepal.

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Nepal Red Cross Society, June 5, 2015. NRCS Health Sector Response, Nepal.
Vaidya, P., September 18, 2015. Nepal HOPE Country Presentation, PEER Nepal
Country Planning, Lalitpur, Nepal.
UNISDR, 2015. Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction, Making
Development Sustainable.

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Response of tall buildings to2015 Gorkha Earthquake as seen fromnatural frequency perspective
1

Netra P. BHANDARY1, Ryuichi YATABE2, and Youb Raj PAUDYAL3
Associate Professor, Grad. School of Sci. and Eng., Ehime University, Japan
netra@ehime-u.ac.jp
2
Professor, Grad. School of Sci. and Eng., Ehime University, Japan
3
Civil Engineer, Department of Education, Nepal

ABSTRACTOn 25 April 2015 (11:56AM), the Gorkha Earthquake (M L : 7.8, Depth: 15 km) particularly
damaged old brick-mud built low-height buildings, brick masonry historical monuments,
poorly designed/constructed brick masonry-infill reinforced concrete buildings, andcomparatively newly built mass housing apartment type 10 or higher story reinforced
concrete buildings in the Kathmandu valley, about 80 km away from the epicenter.
Earthquake motion data recorded at various locations in the valley indicate that the valley
ground was shaken with low frequency cycles of 0.2 to 0.3 Hz, which are equivalent to 5 to 3
seconds of natural period of the ground points of data acquisition. Due to thick layers of soft
sediments composed mainly of clayey and silty soil layers, especially in the valley center,
where the sediment depth is estimated to be more than 500 meters, the natural period of thecentral sediment is estimated to be comparatively long, which is probably well demonstrated
by the recent earthquake motion data. As a basic principle of frequency resonance, long
period objects such as tall buildings, towered structures, long bridges, slender objects,
comparatively flexible structures, etc. built on a long period ground may sustain heavier
damage than the short period objects. So, in this paper we discuss the relation between thelocation of the damaged tall apartment buildings in Kathmandu valley and the frequencybased ground shaking map of the valley we have prepared out of a wide area ambient groundvibration survey back in 2012. Our analysis demonstrates that most of the damaged tallapartment buildings lie in longer period zones. Moreover, for crosscheck purpose, wemeasure the natural frequency of some of the damaged tall buildings in the valley and findthat the similar frequencies of the buildings and the corresponding ground locations are
similar, which probably resulted in resonance effect during the Gorkha Earthquake.
Keywords: Gorkha Earthquake, Kathmandu valley, Tall buildings, Frequency resonanceeffect, ambient vibration survey
Subject No.:First priority: 1. Urban Safety and Disaster Mitigation
Second option: 4. Special session105

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Middle Floor Slab Support Replacement beneathan Operating Subway Line used in the LargeScale Improvement of the Yurakucho Linebetween Kotake-mukaihara and Senkawa
Atsushi NUMATA1 and Nobuhiko KOTANI2
Design Section Chief of the Renovation & Construction Department at Railway
Headquarters, Tokyo Metro Co., Ltd.
a.numata@tokyometro.jp
2
Design Section Assistant of the Renovation & Construction Department at Railway
Headquarters, Tokyo Metro Co., Ltd.
no.kotani@tokyometro.jp
1

ABSTRACTThe Tokyo Metro Yurakucho Line connects Wakoshi in Saitama Prefecture to Shin-kibain Tokyo. It splits at Kotake-mukaihara Station from the Fukutoshin Line, which travels
through Ikebukuro, Shinjuku, and Shibuya Stations, and also provides through service
to the Seibu Yurakucho Line. The section of the Fukutoshin Line between Kotakemukaihara and Ikebukuro opened in 1994, and service over the entire line to Shibuya
began in 2008. The number of cars on each train was increased, and the level junctions
between Kotake-mukaihara and Senkawa Stations often slowed trains and significantly
disrupted schedules.
Tokyo Metro began construction to remove the level junctions in 2010 and completed
the Shin-kiba bound A Line connection by the time the through service between the
Fukutoshin Line and the Tokyu Toyoko Line began in March 2012. We decided to wait
until the connection was put into operation to install middle pillars in the open-cut
section on the Wakoshi side, and installed PC steel bars as temporary supports for the
middle floor slab to see this work through to completion.
We chose this support replacement method to enable workers to remove inner walls andreinforce side walls and floor slabs within three-hour overnight periods to ensure that
the Yurakucho Line could continue to serve nearly 1.5 million passengers per day. This
report explains the steps taken to use the support replacement method in a large-scale
improvement project beneath an operating subway line, and the measurement control
results of the work.
Keywords: hanger construction, prestressed concrete steel bar, displacement, tensileforce
1. INTRODUCTION
In 2010 Tokyo Metro began construction of a connection line to remove the level
junctions between Kotake-mukaihara and Senkawa Stations on the Yurakucho andFukutoshin Lines and ensure consistent passenger transportation. The Shin-kiba bound
A Line connection was completed and put into service by the time the through service107October
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between the Fukutoshin Line and the Tokyu Toyoko Line began in March 2012. Figure
1 is an overview of the construction work.
Open-cut work
135m

To Wakoshi

Shield work

Open-cut work

A Line side (put in service March 2012)

Measurement location

B Line side (under construction᧥

To Ikebukuro

Figure 1: Work Overview
The construction zone was a total of 425 meters long. The shield method was used for a
175-meter section in the middle of the zone, and the open-cut method was used for theend sections, which totaled 250 meters. The priority task in the 135-meter end section
on the Wakoshi side was to add a third span to the two-layer, two-span structure and put
it into operation to allow through service to begin via a connection line. Therefore, we
decided to wait until the connection was put into operation to install middle pillars inthis section, and used steel bars to temporarily replace the supports on the middle floorslabs (“middle floor slab hanger construction”) to see this work through to completion.
This report describes the procedure, details and measurement control results of thishanger construction.
2. WORK OVERVIEW AND GROUND CONDITIONS
Figure 2 is an overview of
the construction work andgroundconditions.
The
existing frame in the work
area is a two-layer, two-spanstructure with the B1 floor as
the facilities floor withvarious facilities installed onit, and the B2 floor as the
track floor. The figure showsthat only the left side has
been excavated. This is
Figure 2: Work Conditions
because construction on the
A Line side was the priority; the right side will be excavated for work on the B Line
side.
Ground conditions are as follows: Kanto loam from the surface to a depth of around 7
meters, terrace clay from 7 to 10 meters, terrace gravel from 10 to 17 meters and Tokyo
sand from 17 to 26 meters. Groundwater is present around 3.5 meters below the surface.
The earth covering over the frame is about eight meters.

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3. OVERVIEW OF MIDDLE FLOOR SLAB HANGER CONSTRUCTION
The following figures show various information about middle floor slab hanger
construction: Figure 3 shows procedures on order, Figure 4 is a cross-sectional view,
Figure 5 shows details and measurement locations, and Figure 6 is a floor plan.

Figure 3: Procedures for Middle Floor Slab Hanger Construction
As shown in Figure 4, the middle floor slabs are suspended from the upper beam (2 x
H-500 x 500) installed atop the upper floor by ȭ36-mm hanging PC steel bars, and theanchored parts are secured with anchor plates embedded in the reinforced concrete
poured on top of the middle floor slabs. We chose this method because of the hard
overhead lines installed just 10-20 cm below the underside of the middle floor slabs on
the track floor (the operating line); for this kind of work PC steel bars are often run
through middle floor slabs, whose undersides are supported by steel channel or the like.

Middle Floor Slab Support Replacement beneath an Operating Subway Line used in the LargeMiddle Floor
Slab
Support Replacement
an Operating
SubwayLine
Scale Improvementof theYurakuchoLine betweenbeneath
Kotake-mukaihara
andSenkawa109

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October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

Figure 4: Cross-Sectional View ofMiddle Floor Slab Hanger
Construction

Figure 5: Detailed Drawing of
Measurement Locationand Middle Floor SlabHCi

Figure 6: Floor Plan for Middle Floor Slab Hanger Construction
In addition, we inserted a steel channel between theanchored parts of hanging PC steel bars and used ȭ
23-mm anchored PC steel bars to join the reinforced
concrete to the middle floor slabs to limit sudden
deformation in case the anchored parts suffered
punching shear failure (Figure 4). This doubled as arobust safety measure by allowing the hanging PC
steel bars to function as anchors against middle floorslabs for later work1).
Picture 1: Middle Floor Slab Hanger Construction
Conditions within Figure 6 Area

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Work procedure(1) At new frame completion
Analytical procedurex

External forces and dead weight applied.
(2) At middle floor slab reinforcement after B1 wall removal
Work procedure
Analytical procedurexx

Remove the B1 wall model.
Apply axial forces from the upper and lower edges of the B1 wall as calculated
in analysis of (1) to the place the B1 wall will be installed.
Apply the tension to the hanging reinforcement of the middle floor slabs.
(3) At removal of B2 wall
Work procedure
Analytical procedure

x

x
x
x

Remove the B2 wall model.
Apply axial forces from the upper and lower edges of the B2 wall as calculated
in analysis of (1) and (2) to the place the B2 wall will be installed.
Make a model of hanging steel bars.
Figure 7: Step Calculation Procedure

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4. PREDICTIVE ANALYSISAs the middle floor slab hanger construction took place within the structure of an
operating subway line, it was critical to ensure the safety of the structure as well as therequired space on the track floor as not to interrupt subway operation. Thus, as wedrafted measurement control plans for this work we needed to predict the behavior of
the frame around the middle floor slabs and displacement of the hanging PC steel bars
for each stage of frame expansion and removal. To do so, we performed the twodimensional structural analysis (“step calculations”) that illustrated work procedures asshown in Figure 7, and used it as a guideline for determining the appropriateness of thework.
Step calculations express changes in behavior at each work stage through structuralchanges and changes in loads exerted due to frame expansion and removal, and focus on
the effects of vertical displacement of the middle floor slabs (middle floor slab
displacement).
Specifically, the first step is to analyze the initial frame at the time of completion interms of external forces, dead weight and the like. Load changes replace structuralchanges in Steps 2 and 3 and are applied to structural models. Thus, deformation at any
given step is the cumulative result of deformation in previous stages. In other words, thedeformation in Step 3 is the sum of the results from Steps 1, 2 and 3. Figure 8 shows
middle floor slab displacement at eachstep. We calculated the displacement of
middle floor slabs at each step
exclusive of subsidence and listing of
the entire frame by setting thedisplacement at Step 1 to 0 mm.
Based on these results, we determinedthat middle floor slab displacement ofs5 mm would not negatively affect thevarious facilities on the operating line,
and set the initial tension of the PC
steel bars to keep the frame within that
range of displacement. We compared
the stress levels of the materials andverified that stress levels encountered
were within the allowable range.

Figure 8: Distribution of Middle Floor Slab
Displacement (Predictive Values)

5. MEASUREMENT CONTROL
5.1 Measurement method
The step calculations showed that limiting the displacement of middle floor slabs
ensured the safety of the frame and operating subway line, thus we decided to measure
and control the displacement and the tension of the PC steel bars. Table 1 shows
measurement items and evaluation criteria.

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We used a system for measuring displacement through images to measure thedisplacement of middle floor slabs2). Specifically, we installed targets at reference
points and survey points within the ranges of the images, and camera units outside the±5-mm range of displacement impact collimated on each target to detect the relative
displacement of survey points from the reference points in order to measure vertical andhorizontal displacement.
The main idea was to detect the location of the target images, determine theircoordinates and use scaling factors, distance and other positional information to
calculate the vertical and horizontal displacement to a margin of error of ±0.5 mm at a
distance of 50 m.
If the measured displacement temporarily exceeded the control value of ±4.0 mm, anemail alert would be sent to the mobile phones of relevant personnel.
We used center-hole load cells to measure the tensions of both the hanging andanchored PC steel bars. To be specific, we used waterproof, differential-transformer
load cells that have performed well in measuring loads on earth anchors and othermeasures used in earth retention and landslide prevention work, and in measuring earthpressure and other forces acting in tunnel falsework and similar projects.
Table 1: Measurement Items and Evaluation Criteria
No. ofMeasurement
Focal point
Specifications locations
Evaluation criteria
frequency
System for
Middle floor
Initial control value:measuring
slab
25
Every
5
minutes±4.0 mm; Limit:
displacement
displacement through±5.0 mmimagesMaximum tension:
Tension of
228 kN
load
hanging steel Center-hole
49
Every
5
minutes
Suddenincreases incells (for 100t)bars
tension indicate aproblem
Maximum tension:
Tension of
144kN
load
anchored steel Center-hole
13
Every
5
minutes
Suddenincreases incells (for 100t)bars
tension indicate aproblemUpper floor slab Attach to center3
Every 5 minutes
temperature
hole load cells
Middle floor Attach to center1
Every 5 minutes
slab temperature hole load cells
Measure width of Sudden increases in
Cracks incracks at eachthe width or number
reinforced
Visual inspection49
inspection,
twice
per
of cracks indicate aconcreteweek
problem
5.2 Measurement results
Figure 9 shows the results of measuring displacement and tension. The horizontal axis
is time shown as dates. Part A is displacement from the removal of existing walls,
where the instruments measured 3.0 mm of displacement compared to actual measured
displacement of 1.8 mm. Part B is displacement from changes to overhead loads, where
the instruments measured 1.3 mm compared to actual measured displacement of 0.4 mm.
Middle Floor Slab Support Replacement beneath an Operating Subway Line used in the LargeMiddle Floor
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an Operating
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Scale Improvementof theYurakuchoLine betweenbeneath
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Subsidence progressed gradually over the long periods following Part B, and weestimate this was due to decreasing ambient temperatures, concrete creep and relaxationof the steel 3).
Despite a lack of extraordinary events during Part C, we observed changes too large toignore. Since this coincided with a sudden drop in ambient temperature, we magnified
Figure 9 and examined it as shown in Figure 10, and determined that the changes were
due to the change in ambient temperature. Similarly, we observed an increase in Part D
without extraordinary event, and we attributed the increase to the sudden change inambient temperature.

Figure 9: Change in Middle Floor Slab
Displacement and PC SteelBar Tension over Time

Figure 10: Middle Floor Slab
Displacement and Temperature(Part C, Expanded View)

6. CONCLUSION
Our measurements of middle floor slab displacement were smaller than thedisplacement determined from step calculations. Thus, we believe the support
replacement work is progressing smoothly. We will use the methods explained in thisreport to draft plans for construction work and measurement control for the upcoming
work on the B Line side, and expect to use the knowledge we gained from thesemeasurements to carry out the work even more safely.
Our method is unprecedented, but effective in widening open-excavated tunnels inservice and other large-scale improvement projects. Thus, we plan to use the various
measurement results obtained from this work to validate analysis of future designs andwork.
REFERENCES
1) Tomifuku, T., Amasaki, S., and Nakamura, I., 2009. Nyumon Ijikanri Kogaku(Introductory Maintenance Engineering). Morikita Publishing, 12-172) Kyoto University Society of Civil Engineering, 1970. Doboku Keisoku Binran(Handbook of Civil Engineering Measurement). Maruzen Co., Ltd, 41-51.
3) Murata, J., Kokubu, K., Tsuji, K., Ito, K., 2008, Konkuriito Kogaku (I) Seko
(Concrete Engineering (I) Construction). Shokokusha Publishing Co., Ltd., 95-105

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Open-spaces inventory and analysis in planningfor safe evacuation sites in earthquake
emergencies for in Kathmandu Valley
Gopi Krishna BASYAL 1, Suresh CHAUDHARY 2, Surya Narayan SHRESTHA 3
1
Geographer, National Society for Earthquake Technology – Nepal (NSET)
2
Geographer, National Society for Earthquake Technology – Nepal (NSET)
3
Deputy Executive Director, National Society for Earthquake Technology – Nepal (NSET)
gbasyal@nset.org.np
ABSTRACTAn essential piece of earthquake preparedness is ensuring safe and accessible open
spaces for emergency response. With the high rate of urban development in Kathmandu
Valley, open spaces are gradually decreasing. An effort, by the government andcommunity groups, is crucial to preserve the remaining open spaces in Kathmandu
Valley. In this regard, an inventory of open-spaces in Kathmandu Valley is an initiative
taken by National Society for Earthquake Technology – Nepal (NSET) as a part of Risk
Mapping for Shelter Response Project. This study is focused on mapping and analysis ofavailable public open spaces in Kathmandu Valley for possible use of temporary shelterand other facilities. There is a need of large open spaces considering possible displaces
people during emergencies while as the amount of open spaces is decreasing because of
several reasons. Recognizing that all open spaces do not show equal potential for use inpost-disaster emergency, possible use of different open spaces for emergency was
analyzed. The study was carried out with site visit and field verification including
several attributes as observed and discussed with local authorities and people including
use as parking, playground for children community use, drying food grains, fruit andvegetable vendors etc. Hence, preserving such public open spaces is essentially
protecting the culture also. Realizing the importance of preserving these available open
spaces, the Kathmandu Valley Development Authority (KVDA) and NSET has published
an inventory of open spaces in the form of this Atlas. The main objectives of this atlas
are: to help develop emergency response plans for a large earthquake disaster; and tohelp preserve the public open spaces. This paper presents the findings and challenges
with suggestion for protection and development of open-spaces for better emergency
response.
Keywords: open-spaces, Kathmandu Valley, earthquake preparedness, atlas
1. INTRODUCTION
This inventory and analysis of open spaces in Kathmandu Valley was carried out withthe purpose of assessing available open spaces for shelter requirement in emergencies.
This inventory was originally carried out as part of Risk Mapping for Shelter Response
Project implemented with the support from UN Habitat, Global Risk Identification

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Program (GRIP) of UNDP/BCPR, IFRC and ProVention Consortium; under the Global
Emergency Shelter Cluster of the UN/IASC context.
This study seeks to document and describe public open spaces available within
Kathmandu Valley. Rapid urban growth in one hand increases the need for more open
space (a larger displaced population requires more shelter space), and on the other reduces its supply (through development) – this is clearly an imbalanced equation.
Recognizing that all open spaces do not show equal potential for use in post-disasteremergency, we have specifically targeted public lands, as private lands are bothlogistically difficult to use, and they are quickly disappearing due to development.
Many of the sites visited were filled with people actively engaged in those spaces.
During the field visit, we observed various daily uses of the open spaces such as vehicle
parking, playground for children, meeting and chatting place for adults and retired
persons, drying food grains, fruit and vegetable vendors etc. Hence, preserving such
public open spaces is essentially protecting the culture also.
An essential piece of earthquake preparedness is ensuring safe and accessible open
spaces for emergency response. With the high rate of urban development in Kathmandu
Valley, open spaces are gradually decreasing. A concerted effort, by the governmentand community groups, is needed to preserve the remaining open spaces in Kathmandu
Valley. Realizing the importance of preserving these available open spaces, thisinventory was carried out. The main objectives of inventory were to help prepare
emergency response plans to be useful for a large earthquake disaster while preserving
public open spaces.
2. METHODOLOGY
There have been some works in the past for identification of large open spaces in
Kathmandu Valley. Those earlier works largely based on the documents, satellite image
or available maps, with least physical verification. However, the condition and actual
usable size of open spaces are different than as seen in the formal documents, maps andimages. Hence, a thorough verification of such sites at field is crucial for making themreally applicable during the disaster situations. The previous work a) Study on Seismic
Vulnerability of Drinking Water Supply System in Kathmandu Valley (NSET, 2003), b)
Disaster Preparedness and Response Plan Framework (DPRF) in Lalitpur SubMetropolitan City (NSET/UNICEF, 2007) and c) Identification of Open Spaces for
Humanitarian Purposes in Kathmandu Valley (IOM, 2008) were focused on theevacuation sites identification for emergency purposes. These works give an idea on its
background which emphasize on identification of open spaces to be used in emergencies.
2.1 Field preparation and surveys
Prior to the field visit, preliminary maps were prepared collected from different
secondary sources. Preliminary screening of potential open spaces was carried out using
such maps and images including cadastral maps, and Google Earth. Satellite images
from the Google maps were further captured for wider use for field purpose. A survey
form was developed for collecting information from the field. Major information of theeach site was collected are shown in the following table (Table 1) with explanation.

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Table 1 : Key information and attributes included in the survey of open spaces.
SN
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

10

11

12

Attributes
Name of site

Explanation
Local Name of the area (including with survey code - each surveysite was given unique identification code for further processing ofdata in GIS)
Geographic
Latitude and Longitude, Altitude of the site (using GPS
locationequipment)
Total area
Reported (in ropani) vs. calculated,(1 Ana = 342.25 sq. feet (31.8 sq. meter), 16 Ana= 1 Ropani)
Ownership
While all lands surveyed were public lands, not all were state ormunicipal properties. Many of the open spaces surveyed were
owned and managed by smaller community groups.
Contact
person If a community group owns the land, a representative will be(name,
phone contacted in the event of an earthquake to discuss shelter site
number)implementation.
Master plan
If a community group has a master plan for the development of
the site, when will development begin? How long with this landbe open and available for use as a potential shelter site?
Existing uses
Park, Courtyard, Roadside. Land use specifics of the site. Certain
existing uses are undesirable (e.g., garbage dumping).
PhysicalSlope of land, and drainage.
environment
Potential hazards
Fire: Due to proximity to fire pumps, gas depots, factories, or
high-voltage power lines.
Most of the areas surveyed in the denser parts of valley had alarge number of high-voltage power lines, some of which were
unprotected. Great caution must be taken when establishingshelter sites in these locations.
Landslide risk (especially along the river side as danger of undercutting by river and slope)
Flood risk (along the river, urban flood prone areas).
Pollution (River, Sewage, Soil, Garbage, Noise).
Infrastructure
Major Connecting Roads:
Proximity to a major road istremendously important for emergency vehicle access, aiddelivery, and removal of waste and rubble.
Water Supply System: brand, type, distance, and capacity. Stonetaps and wells were also observed, and could potentially bedamaged and put out of use in the event of an earthquake. We’ve
prioritized sites with clean and earthquake safe water supply
systems.
Electricity: Availability and capacity of generators, in the event of
power failure.
Proximity to other Hospitals (Number of available beds, medical specialty
facilities
Schools: Education must continue after disaster. Ideal school(type,
number sites will have large open spaces for sheltering students andavailable
in faculty.
Other Large Open Areas near Site: If small area does not work,
proximity,
distance, capacity) people can be moved to larger areas.
Security(type, Police Station: Police are needed for both evacuation assistancecount,
distance, and protection of those in the camp.
Fire Brigade: Fire brigade services are extremely limited incapacity)
Kathmandu Valley; an appropriate camp plan should be designed
accordingly.

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SN

Attributes

13

Implementation
issuesExplanation
Ambulance Service Availability: Where are ambulances
stationed, which is the nearest station to the site.
Fencing around site: Many of the open spaces within the denser
parts of cities are surrounded on all sides by large buildings, buton the city’s periphery, fencing may be useful in securing the
shelter area.
What other issues may help or hinder the implementation of apost-disaster shelter site in this location? Are their potential
governmental or political issues that could be in conflict with aplan for using a site for shelter purposes?

Before conducting survey, an extensive training on data collection and field verification
was provided to field surveyors. This includes process for conducting consultation withlocal government officers, local people, and other local stakeholders; steps for mappingand several other practical techniques required for the field survey. The university
students from the background in geography were chosen having prior knowledge on
mapping and surveys. The entire process was guided and monitored by NSET.
2.2 Field survey and verification
Field survey was carried out during three months period (in November 2010 – March
2011). Each team visited local government offices (VDC/Ward offices) and open spacesites as assigned prior. The field approach was taken as: a) meeting with local
government officials – VDC and Ward officers, especially the secretaries wereidentified to be the ideal informants for obtaining information about the sites. Therefore,
these key informants were met prior to survey of the actual open space. Surveyors
brought 24’’x36’’ satellite images of the ward areas, printed from Google Earth. The
ward officers were then requested to identify open spaces and draw the associatedboundary of the open spaces identified. Further information about the available open
space (e.g., public or private, site conditions, surroundings) were also provided by theseward officers. Most of the ward officials are local residents; this provided added benefit
and ease in doing the survey. If the ward officers were not-available, assistance wastaken from other local residents around. The preference was given in group discussion
for such inventories; and b) ground-truthing processes – after meeting with the ward
officers, and other local community members, the survey team physically visited eachsite for ground-truthing. The survey form was used to collect information from the field.
For the ground-truthing and collecting field information, representatives of thecommunity organization in-charge of the land were targeted; however, when they were
not available, nearest shopkeepers or local residents were interviewed. The satellite
images often attracted large crowds of local people, who further helped in providing
information more accurately about the site. Community members were asked to provide
information regarding a wide range of site-specific information, some of which can beused to prioritize shelter site locations: For each open space a single survey form wascompleted.

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Open spaces available in all VDC/Municipalities Valley were surveyed with the aim ofdetermining potential sites for post-earthquake evacuation camps. So, the characteristics
of each site- population holding capacity, ownership (excluding private land), water
availability, sanitary conditions, and accessibility (proximity to major roads and health)
was collected. In addition, while collecting data in the field, the surveyors had theopportunity to discuss about earthquake risk and preparedness with both government
officers and members of the general public (see Table 1 for detail taken in toconsideration). People were found to be concerned and eager to help.

Figure 1 : Determining site boundaries and identifying open spaces with ward officials(left) and on-site discussion on site-features with community members (right).
2.3 Data verification and mapping
Collected information were checked again after the field visit. The collected data wasverified with the pre-field visit data. The identification number was recorded on boththe survey form and on the corresponding location on the satellite image. This allowed
for easily connecting the open site in the image with the data recorded. Then boundaryof the particular open space was drawn in map with some verification.
Based on the defined boundary of the sites, each site was digitized using Google Earth,because of the quality of map. After digitization of each site in Google Earth, this data
was exported into GIS for further processing and analysis. The location (coordinates –obtained from a handheld GPS device) of each site was also recorded on survey forms.
All the information of open spaces were presented in the form of maps. These maps areoverlaid on the topographic maps prepared and produced by Department ofSurvey/Government of Nepal (DoS/GoN). Since the open space database has been
stored in GIS formats, the maps thus prepared can be shared and it can be used withother databases compatible with the most common databases. These maps are highly
useful for further awareness-raising of common people on evacuation site and mostOpen-spaces inventory and analysis for planning of earthquake emergencies for safe evacuationsites in Kathmandu Valley
Open-spaces inventory and analysis in planning for safe evacuation sites
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importantly for the planning purposes for preparedness and risk reduction. Since allmaps are prepared in GIS environment, these could be easily updated in the future.
All surveys were conducted on foot, in neighborhoods with narrow, mazelike streets.
Locating ward offices and open spaces, was sometimes very time intensive. There is
likely little way around this due to the architecture of the street system and the lack ofstreet signage in Core city areas. Our experiences navigating the streets in core areas
furthered our worries regarding the difficulties of post-disaster navigation, when manyroads may be out of service.

Source: Joshi et al (2013)
Figure 2 : Open spaces in Kathmandu Valley then and now 1980-2012 period.
The community members who were interviewed were met spontaneously, and thequality of information provided varied greatly. Some interviewees were very
knowledgeable of the site and its surroundings, while others were less. If possible,
where the data is available, GIS could be used to confirm surface area and proximity tohospitals, schools, police departments, water sources, etc
3. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
3.1 Characteristics of available open spaces
The type of open spaces surveyed were: playgrounds, road right-of-ways, community
courtyards, temple areas, schoolyards, parks, river banks, pond margins, parking
grounds, historic sites, gardens, and government office premises. One of the mostcommon types of sites surveyed was the courtyard type settlement, called ‘Bahaa’ in
Newari, or ‘Bahaal’ in Nepali which are basically community courtyards, often
surrounding a temple or stupa at the middle, houses in the surrounding and large spacein between. The neighborhood manages these grounds, and the funds for the upkeep areoften provided by agricultural lands on the outskirts of the city. Thus bahaa represent
two separate open spaces – the urban courtyard and its associated rural agricultural land.
In the event of a major earthquake, the narrow access ways to many of these bahaa may

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be blocked by debris or fallen buildings. The access component of the survey form areespecially relevant for these sites. It may be worth recording which agricultural lands
are connected with which bahaa, so that if the bahaa is unsuitable for a shelter site, thecommunity could shelter on their rural lands.
Apart from the typical newari bahaa especially in city core area and in the oldsettlements of Kathmandu Valley, there are several types of public open spaces were
found during the survey. They are: open spaces used by religious purposes, i.e. temples,guthi, church, bihar etc. The other type is the land occupied by other public entities such
as Red Cross, public schools, ward offices. Land being used by government offices arealso holding significant amount of open spaces within the valley. In the survey, somelarger open spaces were also found which are unused in the present time; however, they
were separated for the public purposes in the past. Open space of oxidation pond andTribhuvan University compound in Kirtipur still remain larger open spaces within thevalley. A summary of main types of public open spaces and their key characteristics arepresented in Table 3.
Table 2 : Different types of open spaces and their key characteristics
Type of open space
Courtyard
Settlements(Bahaa, Bahaal)

Key characteristics
Mainly community courtyard located amongst Newar
communities. The major significance of this type of open
spaces can be taken as a primary collection point.

Playgrounds

Playgrounds can be found in many places in Kathmandu
varying in size and ownership.
Institutional areas are mainly owned by Government offices,educational institutions etc. These are found as major areas canbe used to establish emergency shelters. The size varies.

Institutional Areas

3.2 Distribution of open spaces
Total 887 public open spaces were identified and mapped within Kathmandu Valley.
Total area mapped was 15.5 square kilometers (sqkm) of open spaces of different sizes
ranging from small to large. The majority of open spaces found in Kathmandu District(numbers 488), followed by Lalitpur District (numbers. 346) and Bhaktapur District(numbers 53). The total usable area is 9 sqkm, which is about 58 % of the total open
spaces mapped.
The open spaces are categorized according to the size/area, ownership, present use,
purpose of open space etc.
3.2.1

Open spaces by size

According to the size, open spaces are categorized into 3 categories. These are a) Large
open spaces area with more than 10,000 sq meter; b) medium size open spaces - areawith 5000 - 10000 sq meters; and c) small size open spaces area with less than 5000 sq
meters.
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Figure 3 : Open spaces distribution in Kathmandu Valley.
Table 3 : Summary of open spaces in terms of size.
Size of open spaces by District /Municipalities
Kathmandu District
Kirtipur Municipality (19 Wards)> 10000
5000 - 10000< 5000Kathmandu Metropolitan City (35Wards)> 10000
5000 - 10000< 5000VDCs (56 VDCs)> 10000
5000 - 10000

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No. of open Total
area
spaces(sq.mt.)488
10,576,269
13
2,307,612
4
2,282,236
18,131
8
17,245Usablearea(sq.mt.)5,938,820
1,325,994
1,308,730
6,505
10,759

266
48
36
182
209
27
27

2,962,287
2,427,525
256,386
278,377
1,650,538
1,167,410
183,3135,737,268
4,576,185
553,718
607,366
2,531,389
1,731,134
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Size of open spaces by District /Municipalities< 5000Lalitpur District
Lalitpur Sub-metropolitan City (22Wards)> 10000
5000 - 10000< 5000VDCs (26 VDCs)> 10000
5000 - 10000< 5000
Bhaktapur District
Bhaktapur Municipality (17 Wards)> 10000
5000 - 10000< 5000Madhyapur Thimi Municipality (17Wards)> 10000
5000 - 10000< 5000VDCs (16 Wards)> 10000
5000 - 10000< 5000Total

Source: Field survey 2010.

3.2.2

No. of open Total
area
spaces(sq.mt.)155
519,865346
3,486,077

Usablearea(sq.mt.)299,815
2,092,636

137
23
14
100
209
20
17
172
53
17
6
3
8

1,850,728
1,468,261
180,893
201,575
1,635,349
940,417228,369
466,563
1,473,459
631,283
562,569
34,15734,5581,221,890
1,000,420
96,207125,263
870,746
535,044
116,318
219,384
998,819454,492
411,299
23,915
19,278

13
5
3
5
23
3
3
17
887

560,194
511,31036,852
12,033281,982
217,245
26,05838,67915,535,804

378,572
350,048
20,4708,053
165,756
123,890
20,127
21,7399,030,275

Open spaces by land ownershipLand ownership of the open spaces are categorized as a) Institutional, b) Nepal
Government Offices, c) Private in Lease, d) Educational (schools and colleges), e)
Religious Institutions (eg. guthi, temple, bihar, church etc), f) Hospitals or HealthInstitutions etc. The following table shows the summary by ownership in different
districts and according to total area as well as usable area.

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Figure 5 : Distribution of open spaces in core city areas of Kathmandu of different sizes.
Table 4 : Summary by ownership of identified open spaces.
Ownershipby
Municipalities

District

Kathmandu District
Kirtipur Municipality (19 Wards)
Institutional
Nepal Government
Private in lease
SchoolKathmandu Metropolitan City
Wards)
College
Guthi/Temple/Bihar/Church
Hospital
Institutional
Nepal Government
Private in lease
SchoolVDCs (56 VDcs)
College
Guthi/Temple/Bihar/Church
Hospital
Institutional
Nepal Government124/ No. of open
Total area (sq.mt.)
spaces(35

Usable(sq.mt.)

488
13
1
10
1
1

10576268.7
2307611.8
96550.4
2141353.2
65445.4
4262.75938819.5
1325993.928965.1
1275690.1
19633.6
1705.1

266
8
14
2
27
157
44
14
209
1
9
2
8
130

5737268.1
82238.8753226.945201.5339063.44388078.5
69849.1
59609.9
2531388.9
2522.9102152.6
14351.6
287470.6
1786078.7

2962287.4
39244.9454390.720446
1402682238706.3
35865
33366.51650538.2
1261.461923.6
6123.7169033.1
1183271.5

area

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Ownershipby
Municipalities

District/ No. of open
Total area (sq.mt.)
spacesPrivate in lease
SchoolLalitpur District
Lalitpur Sub-metrop. City (22 Wards)
College
Guthi/Temple/Bihar/Church
Institutional
Nepal Government
Private in lease
SchoolVDCs (26 VDCs)
College
Guthi/Temple/Bihar/Church
Institutional
Nepal Government
Private in lease
SchoolBhaktapur District
Bhaktapur Municipality (17 Wards)
College
Institutional
Nepal Government
SchoolMadhyapur Thimi Municipality (17Wards)
College
Nepal Government
Private in lease
SchoolVDCs (16 VDCs)
Nepal Government
SchoolTotal

Source: Field Survey

Usable(sq.mt.)

40
19
346
137
3
17
18
83
4
12
209
2
12
11
124
24
36
53
17
1
2
12
2

184381.3
154431.3
3486076.9
1850728.2
58353.444245.1
864936.5784002.4
5683.193507.6
1635348.7
29849.4
190962.9
108139.8775852.2
342022.8
188521.7
1473458.8
631282.929038.8394968.8
200343.3
6932

119189.9109735.1
2092636122189044712.928442.7
618073.4
474869.7
3042.752748.587074621145.8133192.4
66624.9395753.5
133683.2
120346.2
998819.2
454491.623231
275489.7
152025.7
3745.1

13
2
8
1
2
23
19
4
887

560193.8113312432352.8
9820.94708.3281982275002.4
6979.615535804.4

378571.5
87794.3281550.8
6383.62842.9165756.1
161150.84605.39030274.7

area

4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
4.1 Conclusion
Kathmandu Valley is the most populated region in the country. Population growth has
now reached 2.5 million, with nine to twelve percent new construction in the urban area
yearly. Rapid urban growth can be easily seen rapid change in the farmland, riverbank
and cultural sites too. The numbers of houses is in increase, but the amount of land islimited. Infrastructural facilities in the valley are in a pathetic state. Hence, the open
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spaces in the Kathmandu valley are decreasing very rapidly. We will barely be able tofind an open space in the valley, if this trend is continues.
Nepal is notoriously prone to earthquakes. If the large scale natural disasters occur in
Kathmandu valley (approximately 1.5 - 2.0 million displace population) might be major
challenge for the government and other humanitarian agency with the resulting
significant shelter need.
Through this process, many potential risk of the built environment were observed. The
need for stronger land use planning, and earthquake safe building code enforcement isof extreme importance. The safety of the city’s residents is under great threat, and thesteps to address it should be prioritized. Preservation for open spaces could in fact beused as a means of bringing greater cooperation into the political process.
Most of the community groups surveyed were happy to have their lands available for
emergency purpose; however, some showed concern regarding potential crowding andthe possible social impacts of such use.
4.2 Recommendations
The following specific recommendations are made to promote emergency planning andshelter management for the post-earthquake situation in the Kathmandu valley.
i.
The importance of open-spaces during the time of disaster is highly realized
throughout the world, it should integrate in local level planning and awarenessamong local level authorities is highly needed. The community is equallyimportant in this awareness of the importance and use of open-spaces.
ii.
Detail investigation of open spaces in Kathmandu is still not finished, and theregular update of the information is quite important. So regular update of
information is required, suggested every year.
iii. Comprehensive study is needed for the open spaces in Kathmandu as acontinuous process rather than onetime collection of data (repository).
iv.
Open-space cannot sustain alone. It requires basic infrastructure in the site.
Detail assessment of such open spaces should be carried out in terms of basic
infrastructure available around. Detail inventory of other facilities such asnearest hospital, drinking water facilities, road-accessibility etc. around suchopen-spaces is needed.
v.
Coordination among government partners and other institutions, associations,NGOs, INGOs and private sector to impart proper knowledge on open spaces isimportant.
vi.
MoU between stakeholders and Government can be one of the best way to keep
those places available during the post-disaster operation.
vii. Legal grounds for local government (VDC or Municipalities) to use inemergencies should be established. Cooperative partnership between local
government and owner of the land (if other than local government) and otherpartners should be established prior.
viii. For the care and maintenance of potential local evacuation sites, local CBOs canbe a part of this. Community Based Open Space Planning Management could be
an approach.

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ix.

x.
xi.

xii.
xiii.

Community awareness programs on the need of open-spaces around thecommunity should be carried, so that local people can preserve the open spaces
around them.
Improve the condition of open spaces wherever required
Prepare plans on how the open spaces can actually be implemented duringsituations, especially if the community disaster preparedness plan is prepared,
take consider of the locally available open spaces.
Preposition minimum required supplies in the open spaces for evacuation andemergency food and some non-food items.
Conduct periodic drills at local level.

REFERENCES
NSET/KVDA (2015), Open Spaces Atlas of Kathmandu Valley (in Nepali), publishedby Kathmandu Valley Development Authority (KVDA), Kathmandu.
National Society for Earthquake Technology – Nepal (NSET) 2012, Shelter Response
Strategy and Plan for Earthquake Disasters for Kathmandu Valley, Nepal, Submitted to
Global Risk Identification Programme (GRIP), UNDP/BCPR, Submitted by NSET.
http://www.gripweb.org/gripweb/sites/default/files/ReportonShelterResponseStrategyfor
KVOctober2010.pdf
Government of Nepal, Ministry of Finance (2014) Budget Speech for Fiscal Year
2071/2072 BS (in Nepali) www.ird.gov.np/irdgov/ird/uploaded/budgetspeech_207172.pdf
Government of Nepal (2014), Directives to the Ministry from ParliamentarianCommittee on Environmental Protection on Nepal’s Urban Environmental Condition
and Future Action Plan (in Nepali) http://kvda.gov.np/pdf/nirdesh.pdf
Government of Nepal, Ministry of Finance (2014) Policy and Programmes ofGovernment of Nepal for Fiscal Year 2071/2072 BS (in Nepali)
http://www.opmcm.gov.np/uploads/news/file/NititathaKaryekaramNepali_2014062910
1522.pdf
Government of Nepal (2014), Ministry of Home Affairs, Nepal Gazette, 62-59-5, Dated
2069-12-26 BS), in Nepali
NSET and UNICEF (2003) Study on Seismic Vulnerability of Drinking Water Supply
System in Kathmandu Valley www.un.org.np/system/.../2010-10-01-UNICEF-WASHFinal-Report.pd.
NSET (2007) Disaster Preparedness and Response Plan for Safe Drinking Water in the
Kathmandu
ValleySubmitted
to
UNICEF
http://www.nset.org.np/nset2012/images/publicationfile/20111220153148.pdf
International Organisation for Migration (IOM) and Ministry of Home Affairs,
Government of Nepal (MoHA/GoN) Report on Identification of Open Spaces for
Humanitarian
Purposesin
Kathmandu
Valley(nd)
http://www.un.org.np/sites/default/files/2011-11-21--Open-Space-HumanitarianPurpose.pdf
Joshi A, Basnet S, Dawadi GS, Duwal S, Pandey KR, & Irwin D (2013), Urban Growth
Pattern in Kathmandu Valley. Unpublished. In. Kathmandu: Genesis Consultancy (P)Ltd & Welink Consultants (P) Ltd.
Open-spaces
and inanalysisfor forplanningof earthquake
Open-spaces
inventoryinventory
and analysis
planning
safe evacuationsitesemergencies for safe evacuation
sites
inKathmandu
Valley127
in earthquake emergencies for in Kathmandu Valley

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

128

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

New response reduction system for bridges
using rotating inertia mass devices
Kenji YOSHITAKE1, Kazuhiko ISODA2, Daisuke HAYASHI3, Kazushi TAKIMOTO4,
Kentaro KURAJI5, Arata WADA5 and Yuji MIGITAKA6
1
Senior Research Engineer, Institute of Technology, SHIMIZU Corp., Japan
yoshitake@shimz.co.jp
2,4
Chief Research Engineer, Institute of Technology, SHIMIZU Corp., Japan
3
Research Engineer, Institute of Technology, SHIMIZU Corp., Japan
5
Deputy Manager, Engineering Department, Metropolitan Expressway Co., Ltd., Japan
6
Engineer, Engineering Department, Metropolitan Expressway Co., Ltd., Japan
ABSTRACTThe new vibration control system for bridges using rotating inertia mass devices has
been developed in order to reduce both the deformation of bearings and damage tocolumns. The seismic performance can be improved by using this mechanism without
reinforcement of columns and piles, which would require a significant time and costsuch as for access control or excavation of the bridge’s neighboring area 㸬 This
compact device consists of a ball screw mechanism including a flywheel and has
significant mass damping effects, even if the mass of the flywheel is small.
Time history response analysis was conducted to decide the specifications of thevibration control system and to investigate the response reduction effect for bridge
structures. Dynamic loading tests of the rotating mass devices were carried out toclarify the inertial mass and the damping ratio. In addition, we conducted an analytical
study of the dynamic tests to establish the design procedure of the rotating mass devices.
It has been proved that the devices have sufficient performance. The analytical results
show very good agreement with the dynamic test results regardless of vibration
frequency.
Keywords: vibration control, rotating inertia mass device, response reduction, dynamic
test, time history response analysis
1. INTRODUCTION
In the last few decades, various kinds of vibration control devices for tall buildings likeviscous dampers and non-linear hysteretic dampers have been developed and widelyused in Japan. A few compact devices with inertia effect have been developed for thevibration control of structures [1],[2],[3]. Inertial mass dampers generate an inertial
force thousands of times their mass weight, by utilizing the inertial mass effectdetermined by the outer diameter of the flywheel and the rotating ball screw lead. The
damper reduces the response that would be caused by having the inertial force act on the
structure. The authors have developed the new vibration control system for bridges
using rotating inertia mass devices to simultaneously reduce both the deformation of129

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Ball
bearing

Rotationangle㸸ȟBall nut

Flywheel㸸, ȟLead㸸/ G

Force㸸)Displacement㸸x
Ball screw

Figure 2. Inertia Mass Damper

Figure 1. Damper Installation

bearings and damage to columns. The inertia mass damper is installed between a bridge
girder and bridge as shown in Figure 1.
The seismic performance can be improved by using this mechanism without
reinforcement of the column and the pile, which would require a significant time andcost such as for access control or excavation of the bridge’s neighboring area㸬Time
history response analysis was conducted to investigate the dynamic parameters for thedamage control devices and response reduction effects. Moreover, we fabricated theinertia mass damper prototype and carried out the dynamic tests to ensure theperformance of the response reduction system. This paper describes the results of bothanalysis and experimental work.
2. MECHANISM OF INERTIA MASS DEVICE
The mechanism of the rotary mass device is illustrated in Figure 2. The device iscomposed of a ball screw, a ball nut, and a flywheel. The axial inertial force isgenerated through the moment of inertia of the flywheel. The torque of the rotating
mass, T, and the axial inertial force, F, are calculated from the following equations byneglecting the friction force:
T§ 2S ·S
IT T ¨x
D12  D2 2 mx¸ IT 
L
L
4
d
© d ¹

F

§ 2S ·¨¸T© Ld ¹S 2 D12  D2 2
2 Ld 2mx \ 
x

(1)

(2)

where F denotes the axial force; x, axial displacement; I ș , rotational inertia; L d , lead ofball screw; D 1 , external diameter of the flywheel; D 2 , internal diameter of the flywheel;and m, mass of the flywheel, and Ȍ in Eq.(2) corresponds to the induced axial inertial
mass. Equation (2) indicates that the value of Ȍ can be greatly enlarged by themechanism. Since this mechanism can generate inertial mass hundreds to thousands oftimes as large as the real mass of the flywheel, the device is considered to be very
effective as a response control system of an actual bridge structure. The inertia massdamper can follow the expansion or shrinkage of the superstructure subject to changesof temperature with almost no reaction.

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Figure 3. Bridge Specification
3. ANALYSIS FORENSURING THE
PERFORMANCE OF THERESPONSE REDUCTIONSYSTEM

mass of the superstructure
vibration control systemlinear springinertia mass

bearingcolumn3.1 Bridge Specifications

superstructure
stiffness of the bearing

vibration
controlsystemmass of the column
stiffness of the column

G.L

Figure 3 shows the outline of
the bridge. This bridge has aacceleration
continuous girder structure
formed of three simple girder
Figure 4. Analysis Model
bridges. The span length is 37
meters and the weight of thebridge girder is 5,840 kN. The column is reinforced by steel plate lining. The diameterof the column is 3.0 meters, and its height is 13.1 meters. The natural period of thelongitudinal direction is 0.92 sec.
3.2 Outline of the Study
The vibration control system consists of the inertia mass damper and damping elementsin parallel, and the linear spring elements aligned in series (Figure 4)㸬The inertia mass
is assumed to conduct a parametric study as well as to determine the tuning ratio Ț anddamping ratio h of the optimum damping unit for the target bridge. These specifications
are used to verify the response reduction effects by analyzing the bridge with a nonlinear model㸬
3.3 Result of the Study
3.3.1 Settings of Inertia Mass
The natural period of the vibration control system is decided according to inertia massand serial spring. The vibration control system is designed to be tuned to the primarynatural period of the target bridge. The analysis model of the vibration control system isshown in Figure 4. The authors studied various combinations of damping coefficientand spring stiffness for 8-28% of inertia mass ratio, in order to have the response ratioof the bearing displacement achieve an almost equivalent bimodal around the natural
frequency level. Figure 5 shows an example of the transfer function of the bearing
displacement against the design seismic motion. The result of the linear analysis, using
New response
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mass
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inertiamass devices

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Figure 5. Transfer Function of Bearing
Displacement(a) Type I Seismic Movement (I-III-1)

Figure 6. Displacement of Inertia Mass
Damper Displacement(b) Type II seismic wave (II-III-2)

Figure 7. Reduction Effect of Bearing Displacement
the inertia mass ratio as the parameter, is as shown in Figure 6㸬It results in larger
inertia mass and smaller damper displacement. According to the results, the inertia mass
ratio is determined as 25%㸬3.3.2 Parametric Study for Specifications of the Damping Unit
The features of the vibration control system are to reduce the displacement and momentof column at the same time. However, it is not practical to define the optimum value formultiple required performances since the optimum values for responses such as bearing
displacement and moment of column would vary. Moreover, the optimum value shouldchange against the input seismic motion㸬Therefore, we have conducted the detailed
parametric study with various spring stiffness and damping values against the six typesof input seismic waves [4]. The maximum values of the spring displacement and inertia
mass displacement, which should impact on the size of the damping units, are preset as
the parameter.

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6000040000
20000

Bending moment(kN*m)

20000-20000 0

No damping(max=58045kN*m)
Damping (max=49079kN*m)-60000-60000-40000-20000 040000

No damping(max=51211.1kN*m)
Damping䚷㻌㻌㻔㼙㼍㼤㻩㻠㻟㻥㻣㻢㻚㻞㼗㻺㻖㼙-40000

Bending moment(kN*m)

60000

ICUS Report 80-0.004-0.002

0.000

0.002

0.004

-0.006-0.004-0.002

Curvature(1/m)

0.000

0.002

0.004

0.00

Curvature(1/m)

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

300
100

200

No damping(max=347.6mm)
Damping (max=233.8mm)-300 -200 -100 0

Bearing displacement(mm)300-100 0100

200

No damping(max=280.0mm)
Damping (max=181.8mm)-300

Bearing displacement(mm)(a) Type I Seismic Movement (I-III-1)(b) Type II seismic wave (II-III-2)
Figure 8. Non-linear Response History of the Bridge Base

0

10

20

30

40

50

Time(sec)

Time(sec)(a) Type I Seismic Movement (I-III-1)(b) Type II seismic wave (II-III-2)
Figure 9. Response Wave of Bearing Displacement
With the upper limits as 200mm and 300mm for each, the authors explored the
combinations of the specifications to reduce bearing displacement and bridge moment.
Figure 7 shows the contours for the maximum values of the reduction of the bearing
displacement. Each axis of the figure is organized with the parameters as shown inEquations (3), (4). The subscript d refers to the damping unit, and s is a parameter for
structures㸬J

fd f sZd 2S f sh

cd 2 \ d k d

k d \ d 2S f s

(3)
(4)

Here㸪Ȗ㸸tuning ratio㸪h㸸damping ratio㸪f㸸natural vibration㸪Ȧ㸸natural angular frequencyThe values of the contour show the maximum bearing displacement of a parameter. The
maximum bearing displacement decreases toward red in the color bar chart. According
to the result of the bearing displacement and moment of bridge to six different types of
input seismic motions㸪the value of the black dot in Figure 7 (Ț=1.37㸪h=0.26) is
considered to be the optimum value㸬

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load

㹕㸸areab㸸inclinationaaFigure 11. Evaluation Method

Figure 10. Test Device

4. Dynamic Test of Inertia Mass Damper
PrototypeFigure 12. Analysis Modelequivalent inertia mass(ton)

3.3. 3 Verification of Response Reducing Effect
The results of the non-linear analysis are shownin Figures 8 and 9㸬It reveals that the maximum
plastic deformation of the column decreased toalmost the elastic range level with Type I seismic
motion (plate boundary earthquake), to almost
half the value with Type II seismic motion(inland earthquake). And it shows about 30%
decrease of the maximum displacement of the
bearing regardless of the seismic waves ofType I or II compared to the non-damping 㸬

displacement

4.1 Outline of the Test and Evaluation
Method






      

frequency(Hz)Figure 13. Equivalent Inertia Mass

damping ratio hAccording to the analysis above, we designed
a prototype with the target specification per
one unit of the inertia mass damper as theequivalent inertia mass 35(ton)㸪the damping

ratio 0.26. The inertia mass damper is placedin parallel to the oil damper, which is thenconnected to the spring device in series(Figure 10)㸬The total lengths of the inertia        
mass damper and spring are 1,280mm andfrequency(Hz)770mm, respectively㸬The end of the spring
Figure 14. Damping Ratio
device is fixed and the damper devices are
installed into the 2,000kN hydraulic test unit
to carry out the sinusoidal vibration. The test
was conducted at the frequency around the resonance point (1.2Hz), combining theinertia mass and the spring unit. The combinations of the excitation frequency and theamplitude are: 0.8Hz-100mm, 1.1Hz-60mm, 1.2Hz-60mm and 1.4Hz-60mm. The axis
displacement of the inertia mass damper and spring is measured using the laser
displacement sensor. The input load to the testing device is measured with the load cell㸬

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reaction force (kN)reaction force (kN)















Experiment
Analysis













displacement of the inertia mass damper(mm)




Experiment
Analysis

















displacement of the linear spring (mm)Figure 15. Inertia Mass Damper Displacement (left) and Spring
Displacement (right) at 1.2Hz-amplitude 60mm 

\
Ceq

F
x

F
(2  S  f ) 2  xW
2  (S  a) 2  fb(2  S  f ) 2

(5)



reaction force (kN)

For calculation of the inertia mass 㸪
inclination b of Figure 11 and the value arecalculated from Equation (5).
For the equivalent damping coefficient, thevalues led by W of Figure 11 and Equation(6) are used㸬








(6)

The test results related to the equivalent
inertia mass and the damping ratio areshown in Figure 13 and Figure 14㸬The
average values of the equivalent inertia
mass and the damping ratio were 34.0 (ton)and 0.25 respectively, which were almost
the same as the target values, and not muchaffected by excitation frequency oramplitude㸬 Figure 15 shows the result ofcomparison of the testing and analysis forthe reaction force, inertia mass damper
displacement and spring displacement as
excitation frequency 1.2Hz and amplitude
60mm as an example㸬While the damperorspringdisplacement
increased,

reaction force (kN)







input displacement (mm)








Experiment
Analysis











input displacement (mm)(b) 1.2Hz-60mm
㸧reaction force (kN)

4.2 Test Result

(a) 0.8Hz-100mm㸧In order to validate the analysis model, we
compared the results of the tests and theanalyses using the model shown in Figure
12.

Experiment
Analysis








Experiment
Analysis











input displacement (mm)(c) 1.4Hz-60mm
㸧Figure 16. Reacting Force – Input

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compared to the input displacement, the analysis shows very good agreement with the
behavior of the inertia mass damper and spring. Figure 16 shows the comparison of thetesting and analysis on the relation of the reaction force and input displacement㸬The
total inertia mass damper displacement and spring displacement is referred to as the
input displacement㸬With lower frequency than the excitation frequency, the inertia
mass damper displacement become larger than the spring displacement. With a higher
frequency than the excitation frequency, the inertia mass damper displacement becomes
smaller than the spring displacement. The inclination of the reaction force and input
displacement change at the border to the excitation frequency㸬 The analysis wasvalidated to show the various behaviors of the structure subject to the excitation
frequency.
5. Conclusions
The new vibration control system for bridge using rotating inertia mass devices in orderto reduce both the deformation of bearings and the damage to columns was proposed inthis paper.
We decided the specifications of the vibration control devices and confirmed the
response reduction effect for bridge structures using time history response analysis. We
fabricated the inertia mass damper prototype and conducted both experimental andanalytical study of the devices. It has been proved that the devices have sufficientperformance in regards to the equivalent inertia mass and the damping ratio. The
analytical results show very good agreement with the dynamic test results regardless ofvibration frequency.
We have a plan to conduct the shaking table test that modelled the bridge
superstructures, columns and bearings to investigate the response reduction effect for
both the deformation of bearings and damage to columns.
REFERENCES[1] Hanzawa, T. and Isoda, K., 2009. Experimental Study on Vertical Vibration Control
by a TMD Using a Rotating Inertia Mass (in Japanese), J. Struct. Constr. Eng., AIJ,
No.576, 1047-1054.
[2] Nakaminami, S., Kida, H., Ikago, K. and Inoue, N., 2011. Application of viscous
mass damper with force restriction mechanism to base-isolated structures and its
effectiveness, Journal of Structural and Construction Engineering, AIJ, Vol.76 No.670,
2077-2086.
[3] Sugimoto, K., Fukukita, A. and Yamamoto, S., 2013. Response Reduction Effect ofUsing Inertial Mass Dampers in a Base Isolated Structure, 13th World Conference on
Seismic Isolation, Energy Dissipation and Active Vibration Control of Structures.
[4] Japan Road Association, 2012. Specifications for Highway Bridges Part V Seismic
Design.

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New Technologies
for Urban
Megacities
in AsiaEfforts on institutionalization of school
earthquake safety in Nepal: Experiences andachievements
Surya Prasad ACHARYA , Amod Mani DIXIT , Ramesh GURAGAIN , Surya Narayan
SHRESTHA , Jhapper Singh VISHOKARMA
Director, National Society for Earthquake Technology - Nepal (NSET)
sacharya@nset.org.np
Executive Director, National Society for Earthquake Technology - Nepal (NSET)
Deputy Executive Director, National Society for Earthquake Technology - Nepal (NSET)
Senior Divisional Engineer, Department of Education, Nepal
ABSTRACT
Making schools safer means developing and implementing the technical curriculum, financial
curriculum, management curriculum and governance curriculum with participation of many
stakeholders for ultimate achievement for making schools safer against seismic hazards in thehigh seismic prone countries like Nepal.
The concept of school earthquake safety was initiated by NSET in 1999. As a result of decade
long efforts of NSET in piloting School Earthquake Safety Program (SESP), in 2010,
Government of Nepal and the development partners including financial Institutions identified
school DRR program as one of the five flagship programs of Nepal Risk Reduction
Consortium (NRRC) which is led by the Ministry of Education/ Department of Education andcoordinated by the Asian Development Bank. The school safety of flagship is focus on theseismic vulnerability reduction of schools and institutional capacity building of different stakeholders of the department of education (DEO) such as engineers, technicians, masons andteachers on earthquake vulnerability reduction and preparedness.
Government of Nepal with the support from ADB through NSET developed and endorsed an
action plan for retrofitting of 260 buildings along with developing capacity of stakeholders
like engineers, masons, teachers and school management committee. ADB and Governmentof Australia provided financial support to the Government of Nepal to implement the Action
Plan by July 2015. The Government has incorporated SESP in the National Plans andprograms with adequate budget since 2012 and is being implemented in different 23 districtsof Nepal.
This paper aims to discuss the experiences of the implementation of SESP throughinstitutionalization, achievement, lessons, challenges faced and way forward. This paper also
highlights on the contribution of SESP in demonstration of best practices for technology
transfer and earthquake risk reduction in the country
Key words: Institutionalization, Earthquake risk, Earthquake safety, Vulnerability, Risk
Reduction137

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138

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Ûxploration of different retrofitting
options for rc frame buildings inÕathmandu
Rajani PRAJAPATI 1, Hima SHRESTHA2 and Ramesh GURAGAIN3
1
Structural Engineer, National Society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal, Nepal
rprajapati@nset.org.np
2
Director, Earthquake Engineering Research and Training, National Society for
Earthquake Technology-Nepal, Nepal
3
Deputy Executive Director, National Society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal, Nepal
Rajani Prajapati1, Hima Shrestha1
ABSTRACT
Various study reports on the seismic vulnerability of Nepal have revealed that morethan 60% of the buildings in Kathmandu valley are unsafe and extremely vulnerable tothe large impending earthquake (IX MMI intensity). National Society for Earthquake
Technology-Nepal (NSET) has been involved in earthquake vulnerability assessment of
hundreds of private and public buildings in Nepal for the past two decades which showsthat most masonry buildings and more than 36% of RC frame buildings are noncompliant to construction standards with seismic consideration.
Recent Gorkha Earthquake 2015 has already shown the vulnerability of existingbuildings in Kathmandu valley. Many buildings got severely damaged even at MMI VI
intensity Earthquake or below. Since reconstruction of all unsafe buildings is notpossible economically, retrofitting of these buildings could be better option to makethem seismically safe. NSET has been doing retrofitting of many masonry and RC
Frame type school, residential and commercial buildings. This paper mainly focus on
retrofitting of RC Frame buildings. It presents different retrofitting techniques explored
and implemented along with their feasibility for retrofitting of RC Frame buildings suchas RC jacketing of frame; Steel profile jacketing of frame; Addition of reinforced
masonry wing walls; Strengthening of infill masonry.
Keywords: Vulnerability assessment, retrofit, RC Frame Buildings, Kathmandu,
jacketing
1. INTRODUCTION
Past seismic records of Nepal show that many destructive earthquakes have occurred
throughout the country, claiming thousands of lives and property. In 1934AD, a strong
earthquake shook the Kathmandu Valley, destroying 20 percent and damaging 40
percent of the buildings in the valley. Many earthquakes have since followed causing
further damage to the buildings of Kathmandu Valley, warranting the fact that future
destructive earthquakes are unavoidable. (KVERMP, 1998)
Through development and rapid urbanization, the seismic vulnerability of Kathmandu
valley has increased a great deal over the past century. With an increase in population to139

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about 1 1/2 million, construction of new buildings and infrastructure has increased at anextremely fast rate. The majority of this new infrastructure especially that withbuildings of poor construction, does not meet basic seismic requirements hence
increasing the seismic vulnerability of Kathmandu. If an earthquake of similar intensity
to that of 1934AD ( IX MMI Intensity) were to occur in modern day Kathmandu Valley,
the lost estimate study of the valley reveals that as many as 60 percent of all buildings inthe Valley are likely to be damaged heavily, many beyond repair. (KVERMP, 1998)
National Society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal (NSET) has been involved inearthquake vulnerability assessment of hundreds of private and public buildings in
Nepal for the past two decades. Assessment results show that most masonry buildings
and more than 36% of RC frame buildings assessed were also found non-compliant.
The problem lies with the configuration of the building as well as lack in strength andductility.
Recent Gorkha Earthquake 2015 has already shown the vulnerability of existingbuildings in Kathmandu valley. Many buildings got severely damaged even at MMI VI
intensity Earthquake or below claiming thousands of life and huge property loss. Since
reconstruction of all unsafe buildings is not possible economically, retrofitting of thesebuildings could be better option to make them seismically safe.
NSET has been doing retrofitting of many school buildings under different projects; andmany residential buildings and commercial buildings upon request of clients. Thoughretrofitting of both masonry and RC Frame buildings have been done, this paper mainly
focus on retrofitting of RC Frame buildings. This paper presents different retrofitting
techniques explored and implemented for retrofitting of RC Frame buildings. RC
jacketing of frame; Steel profile jacketing of frame; Addition of reinforced masonry
wing walls; Strengthening of infill masonry walls are the most common methods ofretrofitting used to retrofit of RC Frame buildings along with their feasibility.
2. SEISMIC RETROFIT
Seismic retrofit of a structure is the correction of the major weakness in the structure
relating to seismic performance. It refers to a process of enhancing the structural
capacities such as strength, stiffness, ductility, stability and integrity of a building to
mitigate the effect of future earthquakes. The need of seismic retrofitting of building
arises under two circumstances: (i) earthquake damaged buildings and (ii) earthquake
vulnerable buildings that have not yet experienced severe earthquakes. Due to the lackof standards and guidelines for retrofit design, problems in designing andimplementation of retrofitting works are faced by engineers.
Seismic behaviour of a structure can be enhanced by adopting different retrofitting
strategies. The choice of the optimal retrofitting strategy depends on goodunderstanding of the dynamic behavior of the building, cost of the chosen retrofit
strategy and also on the future use of the building.
In structures where many of its members do not have adequate strength and ductility, aneffective way to retrofit the structure would be to add new lateral load resistingelements. Additions of infill walls, shear walls and braces are examples of global
retrofit strategies. Improving regularity and mass reduction can also be categorizedunder global retrofit strategy.
In structures where only few members lack adequate strength or ductility and thestructure has got sufficient level of strength or ductility at the global level, local retrofit

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strategy is adopted. Strengthening of individual beams, columns, joints and walls areexamples of local level retrofit strategy.
Seven strategies have been identified to retrofit building. They are: Improving regularity,
Strengthening, Increasing ductility, Softening, Damping, Mass reduction and Change inuse.
3. RETROFIT DESIGN OF RC FRAME BUILDINGSFor purpose of strengthening RC Frame Building, at first the deficient frame members
and joints are identified during the detailed evaluation of the building. Depending upon
the deficiencies identified, retrofitting strategies either to increase strength, ductility or aproper combination of both is employed.
3.1 Strengthening Options
Various options are available for retrofitting of the deficient RC building. RC Jacketingof Columns and Beams, Steel Profile Jacketing of beams and columns, Addition of
Infill wall, Addition of Shear Wall, Addition of Wing walls, Strengthening of infill
masonry walls, Addition of Steel Braces, Retrofitting of Shear Walls, Addition of
Frames, Fiber Reinforced Polymer Wrapping, Reduction of Irregularities, Reduction ofmass, Energy dissipation devices and base isolation techniques Addition of Buckling
restraint braces are the most common methods.
NSET has retrofitted a large number of school buildings, some residential buildings andfew commercial buildings. Even though many retrofitting techniques are available, only
few of them are feasible for retrofitting of residential buildings considering technicaldifficulties and socio-economic condition and of Nepal.
Among the different retrofit options, mostly used four retrofit options are presented
here: RC Jacketing of Columns and Beams, Steel Profile Jacketing of beams andcolumns, Addition of Wing walls and Strengthening of infill masonry walls.
3.2.1 RC Jacketing of Columns and Beams
RC Jacketing involves placement of new reinforcement and concrete overlay around theexisting beam and column member. It increases the flexural strength, shear strength aswell as ductility of the column. Size of columns, size of beams, quantity of longitudinal
reinforcement, transverse reinforcement can be increased in deficient columns andbeams as per design requirement.
After RC jacketing of beams and columns, their size increase, minimum 100mm fromall faces. This retrofitting technique is suitable only for medium rise school buildings
and commercial buildings. It is not feasible for low rise residential building where thereis space limitation. Such size increased columns and beams also reduces the aesthetic
value of the residential buildings. NSET has retrofitted few School buildings using thistechnique.

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Figure 1: Different typical sectional details of RC column jacketing

Photo 1: RC Column jacketing

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3.2.2 Steel Profile Jacketing of beams and column
Steel profile jacketing of beams and columns is the process of encasing these memberswith steel plates. It is basically used for remedy of inadequate shear strength and also toprovide passive confinement to frame members. As the steel plates cannot be madecontinuous through the floor slab and frame members, it cannot be used forenhancement of flexural strength of the columns in which the beams are of same size ofcolumns or beams are flushed with columns. Steel jacketing can also be used tostrengthen the region of faulty splicing of longitudinal bars.
Considering the space limitation in residential building, this method is more feasible
than RC column jacketing as there is no much increase in column and beam sizes andtheir stiffness. NSET has used this technique to retrofit residential buildings.

Photo 2: Steel profile jacketing to increase flexural strength in column
3.3.3 Addition of Wing Wall
The lateral strength of existing columns can also be increased by adding walls segments
on each side of the column and reinforcing them or reinforcing the existing walls
surrounding the column. These walls are called wing walls. Wing walls generally havethickness considerably less than the width of adjacent column. While designing wing
walls, adequate connection to existing structure needs to be ensured. Wing walls should
be anchored to all beams and at foundation level also. The wing wall will shorten theclear span of the beam creating large reversal moment in the beam at the face of thewing wall. If the beam is not detailed for the reversible moment at that location,
strengthening of the beam or make other provision is required to ensure that beam does
not fail.
In RC and Steel profile jacketing of columns, walls surrounding the columns needs tobe demolished to carry out the retrofitting work. But this method includes lessinterventions compared to RC and Steel profile jacketing of columns since walls neednot to be demolished to carry out retrofitting work.

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Photo 3: Strengthening of wing wall in RC Frame Building
3.3.4 Strengthening of infill masonry walls
In RC building, specially non-engineered residential buildings built 10-15 years ago,columns are very lean and non-ductile. Longitudinal reinforcements provided are highly
insufficient and stirrups are provided are large spacing about 600mm- 800mm c/c. In
such condition, the contribution of RC Frame is very less. But 230mm infill masonry
are provided around most of the columns. Such buildings can be retrofitted using thecontribution of infill masonry. The existing RC columns and beams will act as masonrywall confining elements. Reinforcing the unreinforced masonry walls through Splint
and Bandage method or Full Jacketing method as per requirement are the better options
for such types of buildings. Another advantage of this retrofitting technique is that it
not only strengthen the RC Frame, but also ties all the masonry walls to RC frame,
hence preventing it’s out of plane failure as well.
Splint & Bandage: In this method, steel reinforcing bars are provided at criticallocations of the wall. The reinforcing bars along with 40 mm thick micro-concrete
overlay are provided in the form of vertical and horizontal elements. Vertical elements
are known as splints and horizontal elements are known as bandage. Splints areprovided at wall corners, wall junctions and adjacent to openings of the wall. Splints
resists in plane forces. Bandages are run all around the walls a plinth, sill, lintel, floor
and roof levels of the building. Bandages integrate various walls together and prevent
out-of-plane collapse of walls. Splint & bandages are provided on both faces of the wall.
Splint and Bandages at inner and outer walls are tied together at places by steel wires(G.I. wires) at 450mm interval and anchor bars at 450mm alternatively
Jacketing of walls: Steel reinforcement mesh of vertical and horizontal bars are appliedon both faces of the wall surface. The mesh is tied at places by steel wires (G.I. wires) at
450mm interval and anchor bars at 450mm alternatively. 40 mm thick layer of microconcrete overlay is applied on to the wall. The jacketing is designed to resist both inplane and out-of-plane forces. Jacketing helps to basket the walls and thereby increasing
integrity and ductility.

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Figure 2: Splint and Bandage techniqueFigure 3: Jacketing on both faces

Photo 4: Strengthening of infill masonry wall through Splint and Bandage method
Explorationof different
options forOptions
rc framein Buildings
Kathmandu
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RC Framein Kathmandu

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4. CONCLUSION
For retrofit of RC Frame buildings, RC Jacketing of Columns and Beams, Steel Profile
Jacketing of beams and columns, Addition of Wing walls and Strengthening of infill
masonry walls have been found to be most feasible options technically andeconomically.
REFERENCES
Agrawal, P. and Shrikhande, M., 2006. Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures.
Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi.
ATC-40, 1996. Seismic Evaluation and Retrofit of Concrete Buildings, Volume 1 and 2.
Applied Technology Council, California.
Central Public Works Department, Indian Building Congress in associate with IIT
Mandras, 2008. Handbook on Seismic Retrofit of Buildings. Narosa Publishing House,
New Delhi.
FEMA-273, 1988. NEHRP Guidelines for the Seismic Rehabilitation of Buildings.
Federal Emergency Management Agency, Washington D.C.
FEMA-274, 1988. NEHRP Commentary On the Guidelines For The Seismic
Rehabilitation Of Buildings. Federal Emergency Management Agency, Eashington D.C.
FEMA-356, 2000. Prestandard and Commentry for the Seismic Rehabilitation of
Buildings. Federal Emergency Management Agency, Washington D.C.
JSCE, 1999. Guideline for Retrofit of Concrete Structure (Draft).
Rai, D.C., 2005. IITK-GSDMA Guidelines for Seismic Evaluation and Strengthening of
Buildings. Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur,
Kanpur.
Sugano, S. Seismic Retrofit of Existing R/C Buildings in Japan (Lecture Note).
International Institute of Seismology and Earthquake Engineering, Building ResearchInstitute, Ministry of Construction, Japan.
Tomazevic, M., 1999. Earthquake-Resistant Design of Masonry Buildings. Imperial
College Press, 57 Shelton Street, Covent Garden, London.

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New Technologies
for Urbanfor
Safetyof Megain AsiaA pragmatic Proposal for Award of Credit to Qualify as
a Green building for effective Building code implementation in Nepal
Pragyan Bhattarai
Research Engineer, Planning and Review Engineering Consultancy,Kalanki, Nepal
Pragyan.bhattarai@gmail.com
ABSTRACTOf late construction industry is undergoing a lot of change and eco-friendly materials are slowly
replacing the conventional construction materials in an attempt to protecting the environment andhuman health and recent earthquake in Nepal also have indicated the need of updating in thebuilding code. The trend of man overuse and abuse of natural components and unaware about theforthcoming catastrophic calamities and our deeds and construction techniques in accordance withthe environment and consideration of calamities and acting accordingly is also widely understoodas Green Building concept. However due to lack of awareness and misconception about the green
building, the use green building technology has remained mainly within the domain of developed
countries and has not been very widely received in the developing world. It is imperative that theconcept is spread in developing countries too because in these the rate of development is currently
going on at a fast rate. To make this happen Governments in developing countries should take thelead in educating the masses, and should make basic grounds rules so people can start embracing
the technology. It is important that government defines rules and protocols forcertification/registration of buildings at a basic level which we term as a building code but the
recent earthquake and the effectiveness of the building code also have seen the necessities for the
upgrading and regular monitoring for future flexibility. Some of these basic levels could be as
simple as Sustainable site development, Water saving, Energy efficiency, use of locally available
material, Indoor Environmental quality and eco-friendly designs, etc. This paper forwards theconcept of green buildings and basic categories which can be promoted by governments ofdeveloping countries like Nepal to start the Green building concept in a bid to save the environment
and future earthquake’s effect in the building. This paper also forward the basic steps and protocolthat can be followed to take up the concept not only within a rich people but also within a domainof poor people
Keywords: Nepal’s Earthquake, Green Building, Building code, Energy efficiency, Environment
protection

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Strengthening Risk-Governance & Accountability
Shalini JAIN
Research & Advocacy - Head,
Asian Disaster Reduction & Response Network (ADRRN)
New Delhi
shalini@seedsindia.org
ABSTRACT
Cities are the engines of national growth. However, they are overwhelmed by rapid
population increases and unplanned development. Rising impacts of climate change andincrease in frequency of disasters make our cities more vulnerable. Significant progresshas been made in mobilizing communities for Disaster Risk Management (DRM), withvisible signs of improved preparedness. Still, this has often occurred on fragmented andshort-term basis and the underlying vulnerabilities persist.
Presently, a chasm prevails between local initiatives and national policy. The reasonsfor limited progress are manifold, significantly being weak or unclear institutional
mandates, limited capacity and resources for DRM at the intermediary scales. Nonbinding and lack of enforcement mechanisms calls for stronger accountability processes
and advocacy strategies to ensure governments to act to fulfill their commitments.
Hence, further increased attention to partnerships and longevity of efforts are required.
The research attempts to explain how to enhance risk - governance and accountability
in urban areas for building resilient communities. The research looks at progress madeso far in maintaining accountability process i.e. at upwards and downward levelemphasizing on the involvement of community. Further, the paper explores ways toenhance and strengthen risk- governance and accountability to reduce impacts ofdisasters in urban areas of Asia
Keywords: Risk-Governance, accountability, urban planning,transparency, disaster management, mitigation, disaster safety

participation,

1. INTRODUCTION
Asia is going through an unprecedented wave of urbanization. Secondary and tertiary
cities are seeing the most rapid changes in land-use and ownership, social structures,and values as peri-urban and agricultural land become part of metropolitan cityscapes.
The key factors that enhance disaster risks are fast population growth, urbanization,
expansion of economic activities in hazard prone areas and environmental degradation.
All the while, climate change and its variability - is an emerging risk in the region andmaking many of these fast growing cities more vulnerable to disasters.
Urban areas need separate consideration because their very character – the concentrationof population, homes and other buildings, transport infrastructure and industry –presents both problems and opportunities for disaster risk reduction (DRR) and149

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humanitarian assistance. In low-income and most middle-income nations, there is also
more ‘government’ in urban than in rural areas, as urban populations and enterprises are
subject to more rules and regulations, and state institutions are more likely to be present.
Such government activities should reduce disaster risk but in reality,
they may often exacerbate it. Thus, the rapid pace of development across South Asia
requires greater commitments and efforts to increase resilience to disasters and climatechange1.
2. WHAT IS RISK-GOVERNANCE & ACCOUNTABILITY?
There is a growing cry among the development policymakers to build urban “resilience”.
HFA implementation since 2005 has advanced Disaster Risk Management (DRM)
understanding that disasters are intrinsically linked to development choices, which
either can increase or decrease people or communities’ vulnerability to hazards.
Significant progress has been made in mobilizing urban communities for DRM, withimproved preparedness, building an extensive knowledge base about what contributes torisk reduction in different settings. However, this has occurred on fragmented and shortterm basis and the underlying vulnerabilities persist. Governance is the umbrella underwhich DRR takes place. Hence, mainstreaming of DRM is a governance process
enabling the systematic integration of DRM concerns into all relevant development
spheres.
Risk Governance is the way in which national and sub national actors arecoordinating their actions to manage and reduce disaster and climate related risks.
These actors involve public authorities, civil servants, media, private sector andcivil society organizations.
There are good laws, regulations, and people in place, but they are too constrained by
the fact that cannot effectively and fairly reconcile competing needs and interests. Many
cities already struggle to maintain core systems and services like water, energy, andtransportation. Preparation for natural disasters is difficult as single sector government
departments are unable or unwilling to work with one another, making citywide
solutions difficult.2The gap between initiatives and policies is further corroborated byweak or unclear institutional mandates, limited capacity and resources for DRM at theintermediary scales. Hence, further increased attention to multi-sectoral coordination,
partnerships and longevity of efforts are required.
Progress so far…
National legal frameworks for improved accountability with strong enabling
environments can be found in India, Indonesia and Philippines. Indonesia’s legislation
makes official authorities directly responsible for disaster losses. In the Philippines, theDRR and Management Act of 2010 call for greater responsibility and resources to beprovided for stakeholders’ involvement. New risk focused legislation is currently underdiscussion in Bhutan, Cambodia, Nepal and Viet Nam (IFRC, 2011). Throughout1

http://saarc-sdmc.nic.in/pdf/hfa-2%202014.pdf

http://www.newsecuritybeat.org/2014/07/dont-forget-governance-risk-tunnel-vision-pursuing-resilienceasias-cities/

2

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Indonesia, more than 337 local community and 33 provincial platforms have been
Indonesia,
thaninvolvement
337 local community
33 provincial
platforms
have been
established morewith theof multiple andstakeholders.
Following
the Wenchuan
establishedwiththeinvolvementof
multiplestakeholders.
FollowingtheWenchuanearthquake centered in Sichuan, China in 2008, an unique partnership model wasin Sichuan,
in and2008,cities
an uniquepartnership
model
was
earthquake
devisedforcentered“twinning”
affected China
countieswith thosein other
Chinesedevisedfor“twinning”
affected
countiesandcities
with
those
in
other
Chineseprovinces specifically to assist affected areas with additional resources and personnel
provinces
specificallyto assistaffectedareas 2009).
with additional
resources and personnel
3
for monitoring
the recovery
process(Hoyer,
3 The summary report of the 2009
formonitoring
the recovery(Hoyer, 2009).
The summary
report of for
the DRM
2009
GlobalAssessment
Report onprocess
DRR highlighted
that governancearrangements
GlobalAssessment
Reporton
DRRhighlighted
that
governancearrangements
forDRM
in many countries do not facilitate the integration of risk considerations intoinmany countries
facilitate
integrationof ofrisk
intodevelopment.
Further dothe not
initiationof thethe
mid-term
review
the considerations
HFA at the Global
development.
Furthertheinitiationofthe
mid-term
review
of
the
HFA
at
the
GlobalPlatform for DRR (hosted by the United Nations International Strategy for disaster
Platform
DRR (hosted
thealsoUnitedNations
International
Strategy particularly
for disaster
Reduction for(UNISDR)in Juneby
2009
identified
areasof limited progress
Reduction(UNISDR)
in
June
2009
also
identified
areasoflimitedprogressparticularly
in mainstreaming DRM into development and tackling underlying drivers of povertyinDRM
into development
and tacklingunderlying
drivers of poverty
andmainstreaming
vulnerability. The
reasons
for limited progress
are manifold,but significantly
it wasandvulnerability.
Thereasonsforlimitedprogressaremanifold,butsignificantly
it wasfound that the HFA is voluntary and non-binding and therefore lacks an enforcement
foundthat the HFA is voluntary and non-binding and therefore lacks an enforcement
mechanism.
mechanism.
Need to shift from Response to integrated DRM…
Need
to shiftculturalfrom Response
to integrated
To achieve
and practice
shifts fromDRM…
disaster response and relief to integrated
To
achieveculturalandpractice
shiftsfromreliefto integrated
DRM in a changing climate, work needsdisasterto takeresponse
place andacrossvariousscales.
DRM
in a changing
climate,work needscan
to help
takecitizens
place toacrossvariouswith
scales.
Establishmentof different
forms participation
fully engage
theEstablishmentofdifferent
forms
participation
canhelp
citizens
tofully
engagewiththeprocess and claim their spaces for expressing their views and needs that relate to risk
processandEnactment
claim theirofspaces
for expressing
their views
and needs
that relate
to risk
reduction.
implementationof relevant
legislation
providesinstitutional
reduction.
Enactmentof
implementationofrelevant
legislation
providesinstitutional
mechanisms, ensuring more responsive state for DRM delivery. Besides, building
mechanisms,
ensuring throughmore responsive
state for DRM
delivery.
Besides,building
capacities of claimants
access to information,awarenessof rights
and standards
capacities
ofclaimants
throughaccesstoinformation,awarenessofrightsandstandards
relating to risk reduction and holding government institutions accountable for theirrelating
to riskthree
reductionand holding
government
for their
actions. These
interrelated
components
will help institutions
in ensuring accountablebetter transparency
inactions.
These threeinterrelated
will help inandensuring
better transparencyindevelopment
planning,
and components
greater complianceresponsivenessamongstdevelopment
planning,
andgreatercomplianceandresponsivenessamongstgovernments to obligations to ensure the safety and resilience of communities.
governments
obligations to andensurethe safety ofandresilienceof Itcommunities.
Accountabilitytois ‘answerability’‘enforceability’actorsin power.
occurs when
Accountability
is‘answerability’and‘enforceability’of
actorsinpower.
Itwhen
an individual’s actions come under review, and when that person receivesoccurs
a higheroranindividual’s
actions
come ifunder
and when
thatnot
personreceivesor
lower
degree ofsanction
theirreview,
performance
does
come
up toa higher
standard.
lower
degreeofsanction
if
their
performance
does
not
come
up
to
standard.
Transparency is considered a tool of accountability because its presence enables theTransparency
is considereda tool ofof certain
accountability
becauseits presence
enables andthepublic to be informedof the results
actions. This
includesboth procedures
publictobeinformedoftheresultsofcertainactions.
This
includesboth
procedures
andfinance.
finance.
Accountable, Participatory and Efficient governance structures create the
Accountable,environment
Participatory
and Efficient
structures create thewhere
DRM cangovernancebe institutionalized
environment where DRM can be institutionalized
A central criterion of good governance for effective DRM and sustainable disasterA
centralshould
criterionof goodensure
governanceforvoices
effective
DRM
and andsustainabledisasterrecoveryessentiallythat theof theweakestthe poorest
arerecoveryshouldessentiallyensurethatthevoicesoftheweakestandthepoorestareheard in decisions about the allocation of resources affecting them. Besides, generating
heard
decisionstoabout
the allocationof resources
them. will,
Besides,
generating
public inawareness
recognize
and address
risk alongaffectingwith politicalpolicybacking
publicawarenesstorecognize
andaddress
risk
along
with
political
will,
policybacking4
and allocation of resources, is the key to efficient DRM governance. 4
and allocation of resources, is the key to efficient DRM governance.

3
UNESCAP, UNISDR; Reducing Vulnerability and Exposure to Disasters ; The Asia Pacific Disaster
3

UNESCAP,
Report2012 UNISDR; Reducing Vulnerability and Exposure to Disasters ; The Asia Pacific Disaster
4
Report20124
http://www.undp.org/content/dam/undp/library/crisis%20prevention/disaster/4Disaster%20Risk%20Redu
http://www.undp.org/content/dam/undp/library/crisis%20prevention/disaster/4Disaster%20Risk%20Redu
ction%20-%20Governance.pdf
ction%20-%20Governance.pdf

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The need for Community Involvement…
Development policies are made by the respective organs of the state which can copewith as well as create new risk geographies. Most of the disasters appear to be thecollateral damage of growth-driven development approaches persuaded by successive
governments.5 Despite this, we found there is often implicit assumption by development
policy makers that urban governance is representative and accountable. This is simply
not true in many Asian cities and intervening in the name of resilience- particularly byproviding finance and support for infrastructure development has the potential to do
significant harm in many places.
Research demonstrates that community engagement is important because it can lead tobetter local ownership, uptake, and improved programme outcomes. Downward
accountability by the government means including the community in the policy design
and implementation process in some way: either by sharing information with them atvarious stages in the process or by working with the community to determine its
priorities in order to shape programming6.The affairs of local governments are normallyrun through ad hoc measures and local bureaucracy which normally consider themselves
answerable or accountable to higher tiers of government, instead of citizens they aremeant to serve.7Hence, there is a general deficit in local government accountability to
the communities they serve. Participation is one of the cornerstones of our democracy
and has equal benefits for politicians, officials and civil society. Mayor & Councillors
can only claim to be accountable if they have regular interactions with the people they
represent and if they consult and report back on key council decisions. Government
cannot address all the development needs on its own and partnerships are needed with
communities, civil society and business to improve service delivery and development.8
3. COMPONENTS OF ACCOUNTABILITY & RISK GOVERNANCE IN
URBAN CONTEXT
Devolved Structures that enable participation: There is a need to build stronger
linkages between national and local governments including the alignment of national
policies with local needs. Efforts should be made for effective decentralization of
responsibilities and resources to local government. 9 Establishing genuine forms ofparticipation is fundamental for citizens for taking a proactive role in engaging andclaiming spaces and developing meaningful forms of representation. This pertains to thesetting of democratic space like local forums for citizen-led initiatives. Freedom of
association allows collective action that increases the chances that participation can be
Bhatti 2012; Decentralized Disaster Risk Governance: Case studies of Indonesia andPakistan ;Background paper , UNISDR

5Johnson C and Janoch E, Aug 2011:The Partnerships for Child Development; Engaging Communities,
Evaluating Social Accountability in school Feeding Programmes
7
Sindhu A. S., Risk Governance and Accountability; Lessons from South Asia and Recommendations for
New Global Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction HFA2,A background paper(Draft) by Duryog
Nivaran8
http://www.etu.org.za/toolbox/docs/localgov/account.html
6

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citizen-led.10 Further, there is a need to integrate mechanisms training sessions on DRM
as part of official training programmes for senior and middle level officials of national
and provincial governments and agencies.11 Learning networks need to be nurtured forcity authorities, urban professionals and citizen groups
Access to Information: Clearer and more consistent dissemination of Disaster Risk
information, including national policy decisions that impact local level decision making
is crucial. In many countries legislations mandates access to information by thecommunity for example, The Right to Information Act in India grants powers to citizens
to learn about decisions taken by government departments about development activities.
The Lebanon Citizens’ Charter has proven to be a useful instrument to pursue
accountability issues related to the delivery of public services at local levels. There is
growing interest in some quarters to consider drafting a citizens’ charter for DRM in the
expectation that it could become effective in forging more beneficial partnerships
between governments and civil society in local communities.12
Public participation & Communication strategy: Maximizing (and expanding)opportunities for participation in DRM and capacity building of the citizens to holdgovernment institutions accountable for their actions is necessary. Public awarenesscampaigns specific to citizen needs and are locally owned or managed should belaunched. Local media can play a significant role, publicizing various strategies andhow they would be implemented at the local level. Awareness could also be generated
as to how the local communities can question and hold the service providers
accountable for their actions.
Inclusion of Vulnerable groups in Decision making:Deeply rooted and deeply problematic urban governance issues mean that evenmechanisms designed to reach the most marginalized are often easily subverted,
allowing elite capture of resources, legitimized by rubber stamped regulation anddecision- making processes. Studies carried out reveal that there is differential impact ofdisasters on women and men. Therefore, it is necessary to take specific measures tofacilitate the inclusion of women and girls in local level decision making.
Listening to people’s voices: A number of countries have called to enhance monitoring
systems for an HFA2. Monitoring at local level was also raised. Social accountability
can be defined as an approach towards building accountability that relies on civic
engagement, i.e., in which it is ordinary citizens and/or civil society organizations who
participate directly or indirectly in extracting accountability. Mechanisms of social
accountability can be initiated and supported by the state, citizens or both, but very often
they are demand-driven and operate from the bottom-up.
High level of volunteerism for DRM: The training of communities and volunteers
would significantly strengthen the country’s capacity to prepare for relief and recovery
efforts. By carrying out community and volunteer training programmes, we are
Polack E., Luna E.M., Bercilla J.D. 2010; Accountability for Disaster Risk Reduction; Lessons from thePhilippines, CDG working paper
11
http://www.undp.org/content/dam/undp/library/crisis%20prevention/disaster/4Disaster%20Risk%20Red
uction%20-%20Governance.pdf
12
UNESCAP, UNISDR; Reducing Vulnerability and Exposure to Disasters; the Asia Pacific Disaster
Report 201210

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EDUCATING, ENGAGING AND EMPOWERING individuals and communities tomaximize their response to future disasters and to increase their knowledge andawareness of DRR (Japan CSO coalition for 2015 WCDRR – contribution towards
AMCDRR for key area 3, December 2013)
Strengthening Regulatory Framework: Effective regulatory frameworks are needed
to enforce laws, and can provide key instruments for DRM implementation in public
spending such as disaster risk assessment protocols, building codes, municipal
regulations, zoning, land use regulation, emergency procurement policies, and minimum
standards and checklists for development and humanitarian relief. To implement
national disaster risk reduction legislation, a government agency must be accountablefor providing regulations on how legislation will be implemented. These will set
minimum requirements for the public and the authorities to meet, specifying penalties
for lack of enforcement
Capacity and skill sets: the pervasiveness of urban governments lacking authority,
funding, knowledge and capacities limit the success of urban governance as long as
national organisations/government do not participate. Thus, while an urban governancenetwork may be appealing and seem more “manageable,” it cannot reach its potential
and reduce risk if stakeholders do not have decision-making powers and adequate
funding.
4. TOOL FOR INCREASING RISK GOVERNANCE & ACCOUNTABILITY
Citizens ForumThe concept of “Citizens ‘Forum”
is evolved to ensure thatheterogeneous communities are
represented by their local leaders,
who ensure that the gap between
policy and practice is reduced, bymaking the local government
more accountable and ensuringthat the resources are leveraged atits best to reduce the day to day
stress of these communities. The
primary group of the forum is thecitizens group represented by theFig 1: Figure Depicting the Mechanism ofresident welfare societies, ward
the Forum
members, market associations,school representatives, hospital representatives and others who are the local advocacy
networks, who would act as major influence to the local government such as local
administrators such as City offices or offices at the district offices. The facilitators to
the local advocacy networks are the Local Ngos and the Civil Society members.
Their role is to sensitize the participants of the local advocacy network to ensure that
DRR is embedded in the development schemes, thereby helping them to reduce the
day-to-day stresses. The facilitators also at the same time crystalize and analyze thefactors creating vulnerabilities for the communities and thereby present them in the154

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manner, which the local advocacy network groups understand and provoke them topresent with substantial evidence to the local government. The initiatives such as
school safety, community based
disaster risk reduction and climatechange adaptation, taken jointly
Purvi Delhi Apada Prehri [PDAP], East Delhi
District:by the local government and the
Purvi Delhi Apda Prehri, which primarily means
citizens and facilitated by theEast Delhi Disaster Vigilantes, are the group ofngos becomes the drivers for theactive citizenry of East Delhi District. East Delhi
local resilience. The local
is prone to frequent floods, fire and earthquake.
advocacy networks can further be
East Delhi District is faced with number ofproblems such as slum developments in the low
devolved to creating the network
lying area,
un engineered construction ofofvolunteers
togeneratebuildings,narrow lanes, road encroachments,
awarenessamongstthelack of solid waste management unplannedneighborhoods and set in thedevelopment, water storage and contamination,planning
and
implementing
lack of proper sanitation facilities in the slumareas and other problems related to rapid
processes of the disaster risk
urbanization. The District forum is the platform,
preparedness.
which has created network of the volunteers in
the district to sensitize and generate awarenesson risk reduction through road shows, rallies andcommunity fairs. Moreover, the district has
trainers these volunteers on First Aid, Fire Safety
and Search & Rescue and have made them partof civil defense team. District government works
closely with this forum to address the issues ofrisks and try to take proactive action on reducing
risks. The Forum jointly with the District
government takes up joint activities to sensitize
and bring awareness amongst the local citizens
on Disaster Risk Reduction. The forum also has
initiated with pilot projects to set an example forsolid waste management. PDAP is recognized by
the local government as a citizens’ group and are
d
h
fd
d f

Citizens’ Forums are in particulareffective in urban environment,
where the communities arelocatedinthedefinedadministrative units of wards andrepresented by groups of residents,
associations such as markets,
unions, elected ward members or
small local based civil society or
Ngos. Moreover, these citizens
utilize the same resources such as
schools and hospitals and otheressential services. The collective
platform such as “Citizens’
Forum” acts as an informed group
to take collective actions to ensure effective implementation of the development
schemes, such that it integrates risk reduction features and also ensure continuously
maintaining accountability of the local governance. The issues such as solid waste
management, open drainages, lack of disaster preparedness in the public places, lackof implementation of the building codes, lack of proper sanitation and drinking water
facilities and many such vital issues can be advocated by these citizens’ forums to the
local government and thereby force these local government bodies to take necessary
steps and actions to provide adequate services.
5. CHALLENGES
In the urban areas complex layers of governance exists involving multiple agencies.
As a result of which the efficiency and accountability is reduced considerably
amongst these institutions. The planning, delivery and maintenance are with different
departments and therefore there is no way that the efficiency and the quality ofservices can be measured. There is rapid growth in the urban periphery. It is
important to create a dialogue between the local government and the community, toStrengthening Risk-Governance & Accountability
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ensure that both of them are equally accountable and the resources are utilized
effectively to minimize the risks. There is no disaster management department within
the city government. For effective city disaster management plan, it is imperative,that the government involves community in developing plan and taking actions
towards reducing risks. Hence, the grass root level disaster management platformformation acts as an effective body to ensure disaster safety.
REFERENCES(April l2014); Asia –Pacific Inputs to the post-2015 Framework for Disaster Risk
Reduction (HFA2); Key Area 6 Paper, Strengthening Risk Governance andAccountability, Developed by ADRRN for UNISDR
Agarwal S., Heltberg R., Diachok M., (May 2009); Scaling up Social Accountability inWorld Bank Operations
Better laws, safer communities? Emerging themes on how legislation can support
disaster risk reduction, May 2013, International Federation of Red Cross and Red
Crescent Societies
Cima O., 2013; Accountability at the local level in fragile contexts; Nepal Case study;
IDS Working Paper: 2013 Vol No 421
Coppola, Damon (2013), Integration of Climate Change Adaptation, Disaster risk
Reduction, and Sustainable Development in the Pacific: Informing the HFA2 Process
Equality in Aid: Addressing caste Discrimination in Humanitarian response; Sept 2013,
IDSN
Gibson P.D., Lacy D.P., Dougherty M.J., (2005); Improving Performance andAccountability in Local Government with Citizen Participation; the innovation journal;
the public sector Innovation Journal Vol 10(1)Hallek J and Poisson H, (Eds), Governance in education: transparency andaccountability, UNESCO, International Institute for Educational Planning Johnson C
and Janoch E, Aug 2011: The Partnerships for Child Development; Engaging
Communities,
Evaluating Social Accountability in school Feeding Programmes
Mapping for better Accountability in service delivery: Nov 2007, ODI Pg 29 , Briefing
paper
Polack E., Luna E.M., Bercilla J.D. 2010; Accountability for Disaster Risk Reduction;
Lessons from the Philippines, CDG working paper
Sindhu A. S., Risk Governance and Accountability; Lessons from South Asia andRecommendations for New Global Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction HFA2,A
background paper(Draft) by Duryog Nivaran
Social Accountability Mechanism: a generic framework: a guide for consideration inpolicy design;NIAR, Dept. of ARPG, Govt of India

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Strengthening Risk-Governance & Accountability
New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Process-based disaster management system“BOSS”
Muneyoshi NUMADA1 and Kimiro MEGURO2
1

Lecturer, ICUS, Institute of Industrial Science, The University of Tokyo, Japannuma@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
2
Professor, ICUS, Institute of Industrial Science, The University of Tokyo, Japan
ABSTRACTThis research defined the standard response process for the local governments anddeveloped IT disaster management system based on the standard disaster response
process. Developed IT system in this research was named BOSS (BOSai System, Bosai
means the disaster management in Japanese). BOSS can show the total disaster processwith database of historical disaster knowledge. About 500 processes are defined by theinterview for staffs in Yabuki town in Fukushima prefecture and Ishinomaki city in
Miyagi prefecture where was heavily damaged by the 2011 Tohoku disaster. And the
database of people, houses, industry, law, land etc. are defined the relationship to thedisaster responses. In post disaster phase, BOSS can be used the simulation of disaster
responses to show the critical path and bottle neck response according to different
cases of input conditions. Then stakeholders can understand all disaster processes withpriority, difficulty or level for the effective human resources management.
For the verification of this system, the staffs of Ishinomaki city have used this system.
The results show that the analyzed responses can clearly explain the role of eachstakeholder in the emergency and recovery phase.
Over the whole Japan, as most local governments are small population (53% of local
governments have less than 30,000 population), this small local governments don’t haveenough budget and knowledge to develop and manage their original IT system.
Therefore, BOSS has huge potential to apply small local governments with the pastknowledge in Japan.

Keywords: disaster process, knowledge, database, IT system

1. INTRODUCTION
Japan has suffered from many different kinds of natural disasters. And now the country
has entered a seismically active period, damage mitigation is addressed as the major
national issue. The 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake disaster has taught us the value ofsafety and sustaining the quality of life.
As one of the solutions to minimize damage, we suggest a total disaster response cyclefeaturing measures on the following: pre-disaster damage prevention, damage reduction,
disaster prediction, alert system, damage assessment, emergency response according todamage assessment, and smooth recovery/reconstruction. Current efforts by regions and157

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2015,
Kathmandu,
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October2015,
Kathmandu,
Nepalorganizations should be reviewed in terms of hard/software and disaster response, while
different kinds of hazard and its levels (in terms of intensity, extension and frequency)
should also be taken into consideration. Weak points in a region are analyzed after aregional survey. Extracted problems are improved under the limitations of time andbudget. This process is the most effective and efficient way to solve the problems what
they need to be in the future".
Our research aims to develop a process based “sustainable disaster/ emergency
management system” to accomplish the above-mentioned process. By following thissystem, problems will be solved accurately, improvements made at ordinary times, alert
will be heightened before urgent situation, damage precisely assessed after disaster, anddamage response conducted appropriately according to the assessments. It realizes“seamless transfer from ordinary times to emergency situations”.
The biggest challenge lying ahead is to develop a "model which accurately estimatesspatio-temporal disaster transition". Because no such model exists in Japan, many
disaster management stakeholders have no idea what they should actually do or how
their activities contribute to disaster reduction. When they all become aware of themeaning of their roles, effective disaster management cycle would be put into practice.
The key factor in developing the spatio-temporal disaster transition model is to makeaccurate estimation ahead of time even from limited information, and then making thebest response. Needless to say, no matter how well we grasp the spatio-temporaltransition, it is essential that each stakeholder has the correct understanding of his/her
assignment, or else appropriate disaster response will never be possible.
Effective initial responses in crisis management are important to reduce or minimize theimpact of large-scale disasters such as the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake for theprevention of secondary disasters and rescue.
However, it is difficult to operate initial disaster responses effectively for the disaster
response headquarters just after the disasters under the condition of the limitation ofhuman and product resources. In order to solve these problems, there are the current
researches such as standardization and system of disaster responses1,2).
This research defined the standard response process for the local governments anddeveloped IT disaster management system based on the standard disaster response
process. Developed IT system in this research was named BOSS (BOSai System, Bosai
means the disaster management in Japanese, Business Operation Support System).
BOSS can show the total disaster process with database of historical disaster knowledge.
About 500 processes are defined by the interview for staffs in Yabuki town ofFukushima prefecture and in Ishinomaki city of Miyagi prefecture where was heavily
damaged by the 2011 Tohoku disaster. And the database of people, houses, industry,law, land etc. are defined the relationship to the disaster responses. In post disaster
phase, BOSS can be used the simulation of disaster responses to show the critical pathand bottle neck response according to different cases of input conditions. Then
stakeholders can understand all disaster processes with priority, difficulty or level forthe effective human resources management.
2. Analysis of Initial response during the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake
disaster

158

New Technologies
Urban
Safety Cities
of Mega
Cities in Asia
New Technologies
for Urbanfor
Safetyof Megain AsiaICUS Report 80

To develop the BOSS, the balance of workload during initial responses needs to beanalyzed. This paper provides the case study that the initial responses of Yabuki town inFukushima prefecture are analyzed during the 5days after the Tohoku earthquake toachieve the effective disaster system. The analysis data in this paper is obtained fromthe staffs who worked for the disaster response immediately after the earthquake from11th to 15th March 2011 for 5 days in Yabuki town of Fukushima prefecture.
The analysis data is obtained from staffs which are divided into six time sections for one
day as the early morning, morning, daytime, afternoon, evening, night.
The around half numbers of staffs answered to that with the exception of the staffs who
could not engage in disaster responses at the time and who have already left or retired
after the earthquake. If the staffs transferred to the new department from the department
at the disaster, we collected the data as that staffs belongs to previous department.
Table 1 shows the change of the time history of disaster emergency responses. The
number inside of this table is the total number of working staffs during the time division.
The vertical line is ordered from the higher total numbers of working staffs for a
response category item.
According to this result, "food supply", "water supply", "damage investigation" and"evacuation management" are frequent in the order during the five days. 33 staffs
worked for the damage investigation on March 11. Many staffs worked for the foodsupply from March 11.
The number of staffs gradually increased for the water supply and the most of the staffs
worked for that on March 14. Because the water in the water tank on the roof of thegovernment building was used up immediately after the disaster, it was necessary tosupply water to the people. The water supply was carried out by the truck with watertank at the entrance of the government building.
For evacuation centers, in addition to the distribution of goods, the staffs walked aroundthe all evacuation places to check the number of evacuee.
Due to the damage of JR (Japan railways), some passengers could not move on March
12. Yabuki town received the people who could not go home, and Yabuki town
transferred the people to the Shinshirakwa station by the bus of town on the next day ofthe earthquake
We analyzed the disaster responses for the each department of the town. Table 2 showsthat all numbers of working staffs for the each department during 5 days totally. The
number in the table describes the working load in each department that the total
working people times the total working hours (people × working hours) assumed as
three hours for each time sections.
For the project management division, "food supply (138 [people × time])" is the highest,"water supply (90 [human × time])" followed by it. As the management of "Conference"is the one of the role of the disaster response headquarters, this was controlled by the
project management division. The "meeting" by the school education division meansthat they discussed about how to response to the students and restart the classes.
The project management division takes a role of the wide-area supports from themunicipalities located in outside of damaged area (9 [human × time]) as well. Yabuki
town were received the supports from Mitaka city, Towada city, Kawaminami city andthe others.

Process-based disaster management system “BOSS”
Process-based disaster management system “BOSS”

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Table 2: disaster response and division (unit: people times hours)㻿㼡㼙㻼㼞㼛㼖㼑㼏㼠㻌㼙㼍㼚㼍㼓㼑㼙㼑㼚㼠㻳㼑㼚㼑㼞㼍㼘㻌㻭㼒㼒㼍㼕㼞㼟㼀㼍㼤㻾㼑㼟㼕㼐㼑㼚㼠㼕㼍㼘㻌㼘㼕㼒㼑㻴㼑㼍㼘㼠㼔㻌㼍㼚㼐㻌㼃㼑㼘㼒㼍㼞㼑㻵㼚㼐㼡㼟㼠㼞㼕㼍㼘㻌㼐㼑㼢㼑㼘㼛㼜㼙㼑㼚㼠㼁㼞㼎㼍㼚㻌㼏㼛㼚㼟㼠㼞㼡㼏㼠㼕㼛㼚㻿㼏㼔㼛㼛㼘㻌㼑㼐㼡㼏㼍㼠㼕㼛㼚㻸㼕㼒㼑㼘㼛㼚㼓㻌㼘㼑㼍㼞㼚㼕㼚㼓㻷㼕㼚㼐㼑㼞㼓㼍㼞㼠㼑㼚㻌㻝㻟㻤 㻥㻜 㻝㻡 㻞㻣

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New Technologies
Urban
Safety Cities
of Mega
Cities in Asia
New Technologies
for Urbanfor
Safetyof Megain AsiaICUS Report 80

The General Affairs Division mainly worked for "water supply", "goods supply","Recovery". In addition, the operation of evacuation centers and the understanding of
the number of the evacuees are managed. The Tax Division mainly worked for watersupply, operation of evacuation centers and food supply. The evacuation guidanceshows that the division induced the people who came to the governmental building justafter the earthquake. The residential life division mainly worked for the community
wireless system, food supply, building inspection survey, disposal of wastes, issuancesof a victim's certificate. With regard to the community wireless system, three kinds ofthose systems those of Yabuki town, volunteer fire group and Fukushima prefecture
were used.
On March 11, information was provided to the people in every one hour, and then on
March 12 the frequency of information was provided in every two hours.
Immediately after the disaster, information about severed road was send to thegovernment from a volunteer fire group, and then the staff in the room of thecommunity wireless system sends its information to the urban construction division.
The room of the community wireless system played the role of the information hub in
the town. The Health and Welfare Division worked for care of evacuees and provide
food in evacuation centers. The Industrial Promotion Division conducted a damage
survey and water supply mainly. For damage investigation, they checked the function ofagricultural related facilities. The Urban construction division conducted a damaged
survey of infrastructures, recovery of infrastructures. The School Education Division
conducted a damage survey of school facilities, food supply, and operation ofevacuation center.
3. Overview of Process-based disaster management system “BOSS”
To analyze what kinds of disaster responses are experienced or not experienced isimportant for effective disaster responses. It is necessary to build the regional disasterprevention plans according to the experiences.
The standard response process for the local governments is defined following to theinterview for staffs in Yabuki town of Fukushima prefecture and in Ishinomaki city ofMiyagi prefecture.
We found that many officials worked for the responses (food supply, water supply, andetc.) most of those are available not only government people.
Then, we can apply the responses in accordance with the characteristics.
In this paper, the disaster responses are divided into four types.
(1) the responses by everyone can work immediately after disaster such as such as
management of the Volunteer Center etc., (2) the responses by government staff at firststage of disaster but gradually shifting to the other people such as food supply, watersupply etc. (3) the responses by every government staff such as residents support,
issuance of certificate, etc., (4) the responses by government staff with a special skills
such as restoration of infrastructure and lifelines, health issues etc.
It is important to make a category for each disaster response according to these kinds oftypes in a regional disaster prevention plan. Then we can understand what kinds ofdisaster responses are necessary by staffs with special skills or without those, andmanage the limited resources effectively.

Process-based
disaster management
system “BOSS”
Process-based
disaster management
system “BOSS”

161

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2015,
Kathmandu,
Nepal
October2015,
Kathmandu,
Nepal

The database of people, houses, industry, law, land etc. are defined the relationship tothe disaster responses. In post disaster phase, BOSS can be used the simulation ofdisaster responses to show the critical path and bottle neck response according todifferent cases of input conditions. BOSS can show (1) Evaluation of amount of work
(work load), (2) Effective distribution of human resources with skill level and work loadand (3) Management of response schedule. Figure 1 shows the web based BOSS system.
After the hazard level is estimated, the damage level is calculated by the hazard level.
Then, the work load, time schedule of staffs and the flow of responses are shown by
BOSS. Then stakeholders can understand all disaster processes with priority, difficultyor level for the effective human resources management.
Table 3 explains the effects of BOSS in the points of quality, cost and duration/deliver.
Quality can be achieved in (1) Prioritizing responses and (2) Difficulty of responses(required qualification and skill). Cost can be reduced by (1) Response that requires
large human resource (2) Spending on Equipment purchases, support for residents torecover from disaster. Duration can be described with (1) Duration of response, (2)Retention time between processes and (3) Gap between supply and demand.

Response

HazardWork load

Time

Tsunamisimulation

Phase

Activities

Organization

Activities

500 processes
are defined.

Organization

Load (days)

DamageDamageassessment

Flow

Time line (Schedule)

Figure 1: Web based BOSS system
QCD

Q
qualityC
cost

Table 3: Effects of BOSS system
SUMMARY(1) Prioritizing responses(2) Difficulty of responses (required qualification and skill)
Effective and necessary support for residents can be achieved byeffective deployment of staff by this system.
Considering support staff from other municipalities, prioritizing
responses and level of difficulties, this system is used for efficient humanresource allocation.
(1) Response that requires large human resource(2) Spending on Equipment purchases, support for residents to recoverfrom disaster
Activities like disaster risk assessments of buildings, post disasterdamage evaluation etc. responses with large human resources.
Securing financial resources through government expenditure (not for

162

New Technologies
Urban
Safety Cities
of Mega
Cities in Asia
New Technologies
for Urbanfor
Safetyof Megain AsiaICUS Report 80

D
duration

personal fee). Also, implementing mitigations for proper evaluation ofthese cost-effective measures.
(1) Duration of response(2) Retention time between processes(3) Gap between supply and demand
The completion of responses in a shorter period of time depends on the
improvement of time during the bottlenecked work schedule.
Supply/demand variation is the difference in occurrence time of demand
and the actual supply time to completely meet the demand. It is asituation where the changing need of goods are not met by the left overgoods.

4. CONCLUSIONS
Our research aims to develop a “sustainable disaster/emergency management system” toaccomplish the above-mentioned process. By following this system, problems will besorted out accurately, improvements made at ordinary times, alert will be heightened
before urgent danger, damage precisely assessed after disaster, and damage response
conducted appropriately according to the assessments. It realizes “seamless transferfrom ordinary times to emergency situations”.
This study analyze the patterning the kinds of disaster response, defining its flow andevaluating its amount of volume which are expected in advance to build effective thespatio-temporal disaster responses model. By understand these operations for eachdifferent actors, it will be possible to carry out disaster responses4immediately under
the condition of confused disaster phase.
Over the whole Japan, as most local governments are small population (53% of local
governments have less than 30,000 population), this small local governments don’t haveenough budget and knowledge to develop and manage their original IT system.
Therefore, BOSS has huge potential to apply small local governments with the pastknowledge in Japan.

REFERENCE
1) IWASA Yuichi, HAYASHI Haruo and KONDO Tamiyo: Business Activity Analysisof the "Basic Plan for Disaster Prevention" for More Standardized Emergency
Response, Institute of Social Safety Science (5), pp.193-202, 2003. (in Japanese)2) Muneyoshi Numada, Shinya Kondo, Masashi Inoue, and Kimiro Meguro:
Analysis of Description of Local Disaster Management Plan for Smooth andEffective Wide-Area Support System During Large-Scale Disaster, JDR (Journalof Disaster Research), Vol.7 No.2, pp. 147-159, 2012.

Process-based disaster management system “BOSS”

Process-based disaster management system “BOSS”

163

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

164

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Ý±²­·¼»®¿¬·±²­ Ý±²½»®²·²¹ çØ±© Í¸±«´¼ ¬¸»Ý»²¬®¿´ ¿²¼ Ô±½¿´ Ù±ª»®²³»²¬ Î»­°±²¼ ·²
Û³»®¹»²½§ Í·¬«¿¬·±²­ Í«½¸ ¿­ Ò¿¬«®¿´ Ü·­¿­¬»®­Œ
Tetsuro Ito
Visiting Professor, Institute of Industrial Science, the University of Tokyo
Abstract
In Japan, at the times of natural disasters such as the Ise Bay Typhoon many years
back in 1959 and the Great Hanshin Awaji Earthquake in 1995, the national emergency
response system was not adequate that the government agencies failed to cooperate as
one entity in establishing a disaster response system, initial response system,
supervision structure for on-site disaster relief teams and the central government,cooperation system between rescue teams, information gathering and aggregation
structure, and in accepting foreign rescue teams immediately after the occurrences ofdisasters.
Based on the lessons learned from the past disasters, Japan has improved the practices
each time disaster strikes in order to enhance the emergency response system, including
an initial response system, in which the government agencies cooperate as one entity,
and an emergency response system has also been established in each central
government agency and local authority. The accumulation of these efforts functioned toa great extent in the Great East Japan Earthquake.
It has been observed in the recent earthquake in Nepal that the government and local
authorities had no adequate emergency response systems just as what Japan used to be,interfering disaster expansion prevention, rescue of disaster victims, and acceptance of
foreign rescue teams.
This paper therefore presents the view on establishing a crisis management system inanticipation of possible emergency situations that may arise in Nepal by considering
Japans experiences to derive what are necessary and what are important in generalwhen establishing an emergency response system, capable of responding to disasters
appropriately, in the central government and local authorities in Nepal.
1. Introduction
In order to enhance governments crisis management system, it is required to analyze
how the actual crisis situations in the past were responded to clarify problems andchallenges, and to make efforts to overcome such challenges. In Japan, disaster response
situations have been evaluated each time disaster struck. The causes of failures found in
the evaluation are analyzed to reflect the result in the aspect of organizational structureof the central government and local authorities, to prepare necessary equipment andmaterials, and to facilitate legislation. In the meanwhile further evaluation on the effects
of improvements of systems has been conducted in the actual occurrences of subsequentdisasters.
As a result, the emergency response system of the central government and local
authorities at the times of disasters has been enhanced over the years, allowing
emergency response operations to be performed appropriately in order in the actual
major disasters. These experiences of Japan clarify principles common to all regions

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October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

and at any time with regard to the role of initial response operations that the central
government and local authorities should conduct in the event of disasters.
For this reason, the principles derived from lessons learned through experiences may
not only be applied in Japan, but also to central governments and local authorities ofany country in the world. According to the present writer’s experiences in responding tonatural disasters and even other various crisis and emergency situations as the Deputy
Chief Cabinet Secretary for Crisis Management within the Cabinet Secretariat, theprinciples may also be applied to various incidents, accidents, and life-threatening
emergency situations other than natural disasters.
This paper describes, basing on Japan’s experiences, disaster response systems that
central governments and local authorities should adopt, the significance of setting up offacilities and provision of equipment and materials in anticipation of disasters, andconsiders the role of governments common to disaster response in any country.
1. Actions That the Government Should Take in Emergency Situations Such as
Disasters
In general, actions that government should take in terms of crisis management when an
emergency situation such as a disaster arises include rescue of disaster victims,
prevention of damage expansion, and maintenance of governance. To achieve theseobjectives, it is required for government to function as one entity to respond tosituations by providing human and material resources of the country, yet the following
actions are required at all times regardless of type and scale of emergency situations.
z Establishment of a system where the government functions as one entity
z Assessment of situations by prompt information-gatheringz Prompt initial response operationsz Decision-making by the governmentz Emergency response operationsz Accurate crisis communication
In order to undertake these operations promptly and accurately, and to carry out the
government’s responsibility to protect the lives, bodies and properties of the citizens, it
is important for government to make its organizational structure prepared to respond topossible emergency situations such as disasters in advance.
Although not mentioned in this paper, it is needless to say that government should
always engage in national land planning that is resistant to disasters including soil andwater conservation, and construction of earthquake resistant buildings.
I. Organizational Structure of the Government in Emergency Situations
What is most important for government in responding to emergency situations is tofunction as one entity to perform meticulous operations without omissions or
redundancy rather than central and local government administrative agencies respond tosituations separately.
Additionally, in order for government to perform operations as one entity it isimportant that the information is concentrated to the highest official of the government,
and orders and instructions are issued in an integrated manner to ensure a structure
where no contradicting or duplicate orders are issued to the scenes of response
operations.
Naturally, this structure is completely different from the structure to carry out usual
routine work and members of an emergency headquarters of the government will be

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temporary. Also, a flat and simple organization is required for information sharing.
When emergency situations occur, it is important that the highest official and all thestaff who works under the highest official assemble to share information reported andorders issued there.
Needless to say, a structure and legislation that allow delegation of full authority to
the highest official of the government are essential to clarify where responsibility lies
and to allow prompt decision-making by the government. There should also be
legislation that allows issuance of orders to local governments from central government
in emergency.
In Japan, the Headquarters for Emergency Disaster Control based on Disaster
Countermeasure Basic Act set in time of disaster serves as such structure. The members
are comprised of prime minister, cabinet ministers and the Deputy Chief Cabinet
Secretary for Crisis Management, and they assemble together with staff from ministries
at the Prime Minister’s Official Residence to make prompt decisions and implement
prompt emergency measures.
Needless to say, a prior establishment of legislation that facilitates building of such
structure and creation of a structure that actually functions are required.
II. Assessment of Situations by Prompt Information Gathering
It is not straightforward for government to assess what is actually happening
immediately after the occurrence of emergency situations. This is especially true forsituations where affected sites are in a state of confusion and reporting arrangements are
not functioning properly. Government is therefore required to develop arrangements togather information promptly at any time of the day or night and report to the highest
official of the government in advance of emergency situations. Often these reporting
arrangements do not function due to severity of emergency situations, and therefore, it
is important to develop twofold or even threefold redundant reporting arrangements.
Besides development of information lines, provision of communication equipment in
anticipation of a power failure and damage to communication networks becomes
important. In case of emergency, inadequate information delivered quickly is valued
more than detail information delivered slowly. It is important to develop and train
reporting arrangements that force to report even unconfirmed or inaccurate information.
In Japan, the Crisis Management Center has been set up at the underground floor of
the Prime Minister’s Official Residence from where all sorts of information aregathered 24 hours a day on a daily basis while connections of communication lines withministries and agencies allow centralized information gathering through TV, wireless
and wired networks, and data communication.
III. Prompt Initial Response Operation
What is crucial when an emergency situation is identified is a prompt initial response
operation. In order to gain control over the situation, to calm down the situation and torescue victims as quickly as possible before it becomes worse, it is necessary forgovernment to have built a structure which can promptly assemble government
personnel for responding to situations in advance.
Securing of communication means between personnel and readiness of personnel are
important, and it is necessary for the government to promptly conduct initial response
operation including first reporting from the personnel to the relevant parties including
the highest official, calling of additional personnel, gathering of additional information,
development of initial response system, and issuing of orders to emergency relief teams

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to be ready for mobilization. Moreover, an operation room equipped with equipment
and materials required to conduct these activities is needed.
As a consequence, there is a need to set up facilities for performing operations
concurrently with securing personnel for emergency response at the center of central
government, and facilities that serve as accommodation, resting and waiting places
where equipment and materials, and personnel can be gathered promptly. The similar
structure is also needed in local governments.
In Japan, crisis management personnel is on duty 24 hours a day at the Crisis
Management Center located at the Prime Minister’s Official Residence, andaccommodation equipped with communication equipment for crisis management
personnel is prepared within the periphery of the official residence, allowing all thecrisis management personnel to assemble at the Prime Minister’s Official Residence
where the Crisis Management Centre is located within half an hour. Similar standby andemergency assembly plans of crisis management personnel are adopted in the local
governments.
IV. Decision-Making of the Government
In emergency situations, government has to perform decision-making on how to deal
with the situation. In starting response activities including information gathering andestablishment of initial response system, it is important for government to decide
response guidelines that set objectives of situation response and to inform the guidelines
to the public and organizations within the government. The response guidelines should
be decided by the highest decision-making organization of the government such as theheadquarters led by the highest official of the government. In this case, the government
usually has the full responsibility over emergency response and parliaments normally do
not involve.
It is desirable to specify the purpose of activities, immediate objective, measures, planand order of priority in the emergency response guidelines. These serve as guidelines
for relevant parties of the central government, local authorities and relevant agencies incharge of situation response while these serve as a message to the nation.
In Japan, various disaster drills including rehearsals of development of thegovernment’s response guidelines and press conference by the prime minister are
carried out each year and several of drills are with the prime minister in presence.
V. Emergency Response Operation
In the event of emergency situations such as disasters, central government together
with local police, fire authority, military, and agencies of medical and welfare, national
land planning and food aid should immediately respond to the situations. However,there is a need for a central control to assign and coordinate tasks to each agency
depending on the nature of situations and changing conditions.
In addition, the role of coordinating acceptance of and assigning tasks to foreign
agencies and international support organizations, and coordinating tasks between
domestic agencies is necessary.
In Japan, top officials of each central government agency assemble at the Crisis
Management Center located at the Prime Minister’s Official Residence to gather
information, assign and coordinate tasks, and issue orders while disaster headquarters
located at local prefectural offices perform the same information gathering and task
assignment and coordination.

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In the event of emergency situations, the occurrence is sudden and unpredictable, andthe damage situation is serious. Therefore, decisions and handling of the situation
should be performed in a short time while there are enormous tasks to handle.
Although the emergency response system becomes temporary and large-scalecompared to the usual routine work, the main role and system are almost same in any
emergency situations with only difference in a part of members depending on the natureof situations. It can be said that patterns of crisis management are similar in any types ofcrisis.
On the other hand, the party in charge of responding to emergency situations is theon-the-scene operational team. The team responds to the situation onsite based on task
assignment by emergency headquarters and the central government. In this case, it isimportant to establish a coordination mechanism and a center onsite to prevent
redundancy and omissions of onsite operations by government agencies.
VI. Accurate Crisis Communication
In the event of a national emergency situation, it is essential for government to
explain the public what is currently happening, what the government is going to do andwhat the government requires the public of.
It is vital for government to explain accurately and straightforwardly what the
government has been doing and will do, and for this to happen, government should
communicate with the public frequently and in detail from ordinary times.
Particularly, it is important to inform all sorts of information gathered with regard to
emergency situations, to disclose prospects on situations, to address actions expected ofthe public, and to provide information that may help the public remove the fearassociated with the occurrence of emergency situation.
In Japan, information is provided to the public through press conferences by the
Chief Cabinet Secretary and technical press conferences by the Japan Meteorological
Agency in case of case of natural disasters.
What is important in this regard is to conduct crisis communication as quickly as
possible to make efforts not to cause public’s anxiety and dissatisfaction due to lack of
information.
In addition, addressing of actions expected of the public is essential for the sake of
prevention of further damage.
2. Conclusion
In order for government to conduct right response in the event of emergency situations
such as disasters, it is important for government to function as on entity to respond to
the situation promptly. To enable this to happen, prompt and accurate information
gathering and prompt onsite actions of agencies and relief parties, in other words,
prompt initial response, are required. What becomes important here is to develop amechanism to aggregate information under supervision of the government’s highest
official, to issue orders based on decisions made, and for government agencies
including local agencies to perform prompt and efficient emergency response operations.
For the realization of this plan, there is no way other than to make efforts inestablishing systems including government’s emergency legislation, setting up facilities,
providing equipment and materials, and to go over drills many times, hence increasing
the consciousness and practical proficiency of government agencies including local
agencies and emergency response personnel.
Furthermore, all these efforts begin by not disregarding but valuing the importance ofregrets and lessons learned from hard experiences including disasters over the years.
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Tokyo Metro earthquake countermeasures
Shinji KONISHI1, Tsutomu OOTSUKA2, Toshiki IMAMURA3, Keiji OOISHI4
1 Senior General Manager, Maintenance Division, Tokyo Metro Co., Ltd., Japans.konishi.r4r@tokyometro.jp
2 Senior Manager, Maintenance Division, Tokyo Metro Co., Ltd., Japan
3 Structure Maintenance Division, Tokyo Metro Co., Ltd., Japan
4 Deputy General Manager, Maintenance Division, Tokyo Metro Co., Ltd., Japan
ABSTRACTTokyo Metro has 9 lines, with a total length of 195.1 kilometers. The total tunnel lengthis 166.5km, which is about 85% of all the lines. Each day, 6.84 million passengers use
our lines. To keep the passengers feeling safe and secure, Tokyo Metro gives highpriority to structure maintenance and disaster measures.
In Tokyo Metro, earthquake-proof measures were carried forward based on a
notification by the former Ministry of Transport in 1995, and measures against thestructures that are the target of reinforcement were completed. In addition, earthquakeproof measures are carried forward based on a major earthquake which will hit theTokyo metropolitan area. In regard to judging the necessity for reinforcement, anexamination of fracture morphology and damage level was performed.
This paper describes our earthquake countermeasure activity. Specific contents of thepaper are the view of this judgment, seismic reinforcement which were already partly
finished, seismic wave scenarios of an earthquake which has an epicenter directly
below Tokyo and earthquake risk maps of our structures.
Keywords: subway, RC rigid-frame viaduct, earthquake countermeasure, earthquake
risk map, seismic reinforcement
1. INTRODUCTION
Many railway structures were greatly damaged by the Great Hanshin Earthquake inJanuary 1995, for example, reinforced concrete viaducts were damaged and a cut &cover tunnel in Daikai station collapsed due to shear failure of the center pillar. With
this as a starting point, the former Ministry of Transport put out a notification for
emergency seismic reinforcement methods to railway companies1). It showed a policy toperform urgent seismic reinforcement regarding existing railway structures, as a step forthat time until establishment of a new seismic designing method, hereinafter referred toas emergency seismic reinforcement. The notification showed that subject line sectionsof emergency seismic reinforcement are high priority line sections considering effects
on human life, basic activities of residents living in the area, the regional economy andrestoration due to a big earthquake. Subject structures of the emergency seismic
reinforcement shown are shear failure precedence type-RC structures, namely RC rigidframe viaducts, rigid-frame abutments and the center pillars of cut & cover tunnels, aswell as devices to prevent bridges from falling.

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October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

Tokyo Metro Co., Ltd., (hereinafter, Tokyo Metro), proceeded with seismic
reinforcement2) that were subject to the notification of the Ministry of RC pillars of
rigid-frame viaducts (hereinafter, RC pillars), RC center pillars of cut & cover tunnels
and instillation of devices to prevent bridges from falling2). At present, the seismic
reinforcements for all our structures that were the target of reinforcement were alreadycompleted. In addition, now, Tokyo Metro is advancing with further seismic
reinforcement based on a major earthquake which will hit the Tokyo metropolitan area.
The subject structures of seismic diagnosis are RC pillars which were judged to notneed seismic reinforcements in 19953). Seismic Diagnosis is basically carried out basedon the current design standard of railway seismic design and considers early restoration
after a large-scale earthquake and measurement of shear failure after flexural yielding.
Moreover, we have made risk maps which show the priority of places that need seismic
reinforcement, because of policy formulation of future seismic reinforcement.
This paper describes our earthquake countermeasure activity, namely an outline of afurther seismic reinforcement method for RC pillars and the seismic reinforcement work
which is already finished, as well as risk maps.
2. OUTLINE OF SEISMIC DIAGNOSIS
2.1 Seismic Diagnosis Procedures
The procedures of seismic diagnoses regarding RC pillars, which were carried out in1995 and recently, are described in this section. Figure 1 (a) shows a flowchart in 1995
and Figure 1 (b) shows it this time. The subject structures are RC pillars which were
judged to not need seismic reinforcement in 1995. Thereafter, checking of the damagelevel for subject pillars was carried out by fracture morphology analysis and a nonlinear spectrum method.
2.2 Fracture Morphology Analysis
Initially, fracture morphologies were
judged by a simple judgment methodwith applying corresponding judgment
results of seismic reinforcement
necessity in 1995, because there were
too many subject pillars to check indetail. The procedure of the simple
judgment is shown below.
A) Select typical cross sections of
RC pillars from 1200 RC pillars
which were judged not to needseismic reinforcement in 1995.
21 cross sections were selected
this time.
B) Calculate the shear capacity ratio
in a current standard, Vyd/Vmu,of the selected RC pillars.

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Figure 1: RC column seismic diagnosis flow

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C) Compare the value of the Vyd/Vmu in B) and Vu/V that was already calculated,
and lead a conditional expression of Vu/V which is satisfied with Vyd/VmuӍ1.0,
the current standard.
D) Judge that the pillar needs reinforcement, when the pillar does not meet theconditional expression of Vu/V obtained in C). Calculate Vyd/Vmu, when thepillar satisfies the conditional expression in the next flow.
We could reduce the cost and required time to calculate Vyd/Vmu in the current seismic
measure design standard of all RC pillars due to seismic diagnosis with the flow, shownin A) - D).
Figure 2 shows the results of the comparison with the shear capacity ratio Vu/V for the
standard of emergency seismic reinforcement in 1995 and this in the current standard,
Vyd/Vmu. The lateral axis shows a shear capacity ratio Vu/V and vertical axis shows
Vyd/Vmu. Through the figure, it is clear that Vu/V becomes 1.4 when Vyd/Vmu is 1.0.
Therefore, we set a threshold to 1.4. It is also judged that a pillar needs reinforcement
when Vu/V is greater than 1.4. When Vu/V is less than or equal to 1.4, we judged thisby the equation Vyd/Vmu Ӎ1.0, shown in Figure 1(b).
Moreover, seismic performance was checked by the non-linear spectrum method, whena structure satisfied checks of these fracture morphologies.
3. SEISMIC DIAGNOSIS RESULTS
3.1 Fracture morphology analysis results
RC pillars, which were judged to not needreinforcement, consist of only 60 of the1200 subject pillars, as a result of fracture
morphology analysis. The cause isconsidered that the volume of tiehoops isinsufficient, because almost all of thestructures were designed before 1983,
using an old design standard. In addition,
structures which satisfy the fracture
morphology analysis are the viaducts
which were designed after 1995 4).

Figure
Fi
F
igu
ure
r 2:
2 S
Strengtht engttr
gth ratiratio
tio calculation
calc
l ullatition
formula compcomparison㻌parisonFigure 2: Strength ratio calculation formulacomparison

3.2 Damage Level Check Results
A check of the damage level was carried out on about 60 RC pillars which satisfied thefracture morphology check. From the results, it was clear that all 60 of the pillars did
not satisfy necessary conditions and needed seismic reinforcement.
Figure 3 shows an example of an RC pillar which needs seismic reinforcement. The
subject structure is an RC rigid framed viaduct with one story and three spans, and witha single pillar for a perpendicular to a bridge axis. The subject ground consists ofmainly soft, clayey soil and is G5 class in the Japanese seismic measure design standard.
Cast-in-place piles and footings are connected by underground beams in the direction of
the bridge axis.
Table 1 shows the response in a perpendicular direction to the bridge axis, and theresults of the seismic performance check against the RC pillar, on the a-a cross-sectionin Figure 3. The fracture morphology was flexural failure type. However, it did not
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October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

satisfy the damage level check, because the damage level of the viaduct is 4 against its
limit value of 3.
From the above, it became necessary to carry out seismic reinforcement which improvesdeformation performance and satisfies the damage level.
Table 1: Seismic performance evaluation results
Direction
Ground Conditions
Teq(sec)
Response value

Figure 3: General shape ofthe structure㻌

Gy

khy

P
Gmax(mm)Element/place
Vmu/Vyd
Fracturemorphology study
DecisionTd(rad)JixTd/Tyd
JixTd/Tmd
JixTd/Tmd
Damage level
Damage level
verification
Damage level limit
value
Reinforcement
necessity

Bridge axis
perpendicular
direction
G5 ground
1.623
305
0.463
2.29
698
Pillar lower end
0.48
Flexural failure type0.07259
26.39
3.59
2.18
4
3
The mainreinforcement

4. OUTLINE OF SEISMIC REINFORCEMENT WORK FOR RC PILLARS
4.1 Construction Outline
This section describes the outline of the finished seismic reinforcement work in places
where some reinforcement work was finished, within RC pillars that were diagnosed toneed reinforcement through seismic diagnosis
Steel plate reinforcement on all four sides was basically applied for improving thetoughness ratio. However, in some cases, the method waschanged due to problems in the surrounding environment or features of the pillar. It wasvery difficult to advance the seismic reinforcement work due to several obstacles. In
particular, about 800 subject pillars are in station offices or commercial stores under
viaducts. In such cases, we negotiated with facility users, consulted with suspension ofbusiness in stores, removed pieces of equipment or the interior before seismic
reinforcement work, and restored everything after the work. Photos 1, 2, and 3 show theremoval of the interior, seismic reinforcement, and restoration of a store, respectively.

Photo 1: Before removalof interior㻌

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Photo 2: Seismic
reinforcement

Photo 3: After restorationof store

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Figure 4 shows the construction process of steel plate reinforcement on the all four sides
method.
4.2 Quality control
Quality control items of the seismic reinforcement are described below.
1) Material inspection of reinforcement steel
x Since reinforcement steel was processedin a factory, only plates which passed
factory inspection are shipped.
x Acceptance inspection is carried out at
the site when the steel plate is carried in.
Thickness, size, and the mill sheet are
confirmed.
2) Steel plate welding
x Plates are welded by qualified persons,skill tests are performed in advance, andconstruction is implemented throughitems that have passed the tests.
x The quality of the steel plate welding ischecked by an ultra-sonic test andpenetration test (color check).
3) Infilling of highly workable mortar
For mortar infilling, premix type mortar
is applied, and it is kneaded and mixed onsite. For this reason, we confirm the qualityof the mortar through a bleeding test,
mortar flow-down test and compressive
strength test. Table 2 shows specifications
and control values of the bleeding test andcompressive strength test.

Figure 4: 4-side reinforced steel plate
construction flow
Table 2: Test specifications andmanagement values
Management items
Bridging
experimentCompressiv
e strength test

Specifications

Management values

3h,20h0%σ2824N/mm2

4) Coating
Steel plates are coated 4 times. In other words, under coating in the factory, undercoating on site, intermediate coating on site and top coating on site are carried out.
The thickness of the coat is confirmed by coating thickness gauges.
4.3 Other methods
Pillars which are not suitable for steel plate reinforcement on all four sides due to work
conditions are reinforced by the following
methods.
1) Concrete jacketing method
It is difficult to apply steel plate
reinforcement on all four sides of pillars
that are in a river, like the one in Figure 5,
Figure 5: Concrete jacketing method㻌
Tokyo Metro
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Metro earthquake
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October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

due to the constraints of construction and quality assurance. For this reason, theconcrete jacketing method shown in Figure 5 would be applied.
2) Steel plate reinforcement with the one
side method
When subject pillars are in the building or
close to the building, as shown in Figure
6,
construction
of
steel
plate
reinforcement on all four sides requires
the demolishing or removal of a building.
If the method with four sides is impossible, Figure 6: 1 side + 4 side surface
reinforcement construction
steel plate reinforcement on one side ismethod㻌applied.
However, because steel plate reinforcement of one side requires drilling holes with adiameter of about 40mm in a subject pillar, there is a high possibility that the holesinterfere with the reinforcing bars of the pillar. This is especially the case withreinforcing bars that are dense in the under part of the top haunch. Therefore, thesteel plate reinforcement hybrid method that incorporates 1-side and 4-side
reinforcement is shown in Figure 6.
5. APPROACH FOR FUTURE SEISMIC MEASUREMENT
5.1 Risk map outline
It is considered that the risk of structural collapse due to earthquake has now been
drastically reduced as seismic measurements against structures of the Tokyo Metro,
which were subject by the notification of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure andTransport in 1995 were completed.
In addition, Tokyo Metro is now advancing further approaches for seismic
reinforcement based on a major earthquake which will hit the Tokyo metropolitan area.
Viewpoints of the approach are shown in the following.
1) For structures which were reinforced or judged that seismic reinforcement was
unnecessary, how large of an earthquake can they withstand?
2) Is there no overlooked weak point in any place that should have been preferentiallyreinforced?
The degree of damage to structures in all of the Tokyo Metro lines due to a certain
earthquake can be assessed in order to discuss and verify the viewpoints, and byorganizing all the lines in places that seem to be empirically dangerous due toknowledge of past earthquakes, this is considered to be good to have an overhead viewof how much risk remains against earthquakes.
Therefore, we have created a risk map as shown below for all of the Tokyo Metro lines
as a decision support tool for determining the future of earthquake resistance measures,or to understand if there are no places where seismic performance is insufficient orwhether there are any weak points for earthquakes in the structure of Tokyo Metro.

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I) Map based on numerical analysis
The map shown in a macro suggests the magnitude of seismic motion in Tokyo Metrolines area and structural damage against seismic motion.
II) Map based on experience
The map shows the results of places that fall under special conditions, such as a map
based on numerical analysis that cannot be covered and is empirically suspected to be
dangerous.
5.2 Outline of forming risk maps
The section describes the outline of making: I) a map based on numerical analysis; and,II) a map based on experience.
5.2.1 Map based on numerical analysis
Seismic performance evaluation (fragility evaluation) was carried out in the target
structure and in magnitudes of earthquakes that might occur in the future (hazard
evaluation), damage assessment of the structures was performed by superimposing theresults, and the results were mapped. Viaducts, bridges, and cut & cover tunnels wereselected as structure to be evaluated in the map based on numerical analysis, and wecreated the following two types of maps for these structures.
I) Seismic performance map
Extract suspicious places that are considered to relatively lack seismic performance by
evaluating the damage level of the subject structure in a macro-viewpoint due touniform seismic motion of all points of the subject location.
2) Scenario earthquake map
As seismic motions are different at each location during an actual earthquake, we
performed per-location evaluations of the damage level of subject structures based on
the largest imaginable seismic motion. Suspicion locations, based on macro assessmentsof how much damage will occur in a subject area in which damage from actual
earthquakes is expected to be large, were extracted.
5.2.2 Map based on experience
We selected places under special conditions and structure types which are empiricallysuspected to be dangerous due to earthquakes. Moreover, we extracted these places andmade a map by organizing existing documents and drawings.
For making the map based on numerical analysis, we evaluated the hazard of seismic
motion, and selected minimum seismic motion for evaluation of the seismic
performance map and the seismic motion for evaluation of the scenario seismic map.
The minimum seismic motion was set at the seismic motion which arrived when an
earthquake of magnitude 6.5 occurred directly underneath that place. An earthquakewith magnitude 7 occurred in the southern Kanto area, which is considered to have thebiggest rise in acceleration in the Tokyo Metro lines area and was targeted on theseismic motion for evaluation of the scenario seismic map. After that, the groundmotion intensity on the surface was set by evaluating the magnification degree ofseismic motion due to the ground, which is based on ground motion intensity on thesurface on seismic design and the natural period of the ground due to nearby boring data.

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October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

The maps which were made by the procedure above are effective as a decision support
tool to judge future seismic reinforcement measures.
6. CONCLUSION
We carried out seismic diagnosis of unreinforced viaducts as a further advancement ofseismic reinforcement based on a major earthquake which will hit the Tokyo
metropolitan area in future. The seismic diagnosis was carried out by a check withfracture morphology analysis and a detailed check with static non-linear analysis inreference to current standard.
As the structures which had satisfied the fracture morphology check could not pass thedetailed check, all structures were judged to need seismic reinforcement.
Seismic reinforcement work has progressed to the structures, mainly through steel plate
reinforcement of all four sides. When subject pillars are in a river or close to a building,construction of steel plate reinforcement on all four sides is impossible to apply. In sucha case, the concrete jacking method, or steel plate reinforcement hybrid method thatincorporates 1-side and 4-side reinforcement would be applied.
Moreover, risk maps were made as a decision support tools to comprehensively makefuture seismic reinforcement plans against large scale earthquakes, such as anearthquake which has an epicenter directly below Tokyo.
From now on, we intend to implement measures continuously by prioritizing thoseplaces which need seismic reinforcement due to risk analysis based on the risk maps.
REFERENCES
1) For example, the Kanto District Transport Bureau: Immediate measures relating torailway structure seismic performance based on suggestions of the Railway facility
seismic structure Exploratory Committee, August 1995
2) Yoshihiko MUTO, Masahiro YOSHIMURA: Teito Rapid Transit Authority seismic
measures, Concrete Institute, Vol.41, No.5, May 2003) (Foundation) Railway Technical Research Institute: Design standards/samecommentary for railway structures, etc. (seismic design), October 1999
4) (Foundation) Railway Technical Research Institute: Reference materials related totentative seismic designs of new structures, March 1996

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Damage Mapping of 2015 Gorkha Earthquake
by Low-altitude Aerial Photos
Hiroshi INOUE1, Ramesh GURAGAIN2, Gopi K. BASYAL3, Suresh CHAUDHARY4 ,Sujan Raj ADHIKARI5, and Tsuneo OHSUMI16
1
Principal Senior Researcher, Disaster Risk Unit, National Research Institute for
Earth Science and Disaster Prevention (NIED), Japaninoue@bosai.go.jp
2
Deputy Executive Director, NSET, Nepal
3
Geographer/Urban Planner, NSET, Nepal
4
Urban Planner/Geographer, NSET, Nepal
5
Geologist, NSET, Nepal
6
Principal Research Fellow, NIED, Japan
ABSTRACT
We are mapping earthquake damage by the Mw 7.8 Nepal Gorkha Earthquake, 25
April, 2015 using low-altitude aerial photographs. We planned to take aerial photos ofresidential areas in Kathmandu Valley and surrounding districts affected by theearthquake using a small Styrofoam fixed-wing UAV (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle, ordrone), which is a safe and efficient way of taking high-resolution image from 50-150m
ground altitude in the sky. We could not use the UAV soon after the earthquake because
authorization of using drone was not given by the Nepalese Government. While wewere waiting for permission, we flew a real helicopter for the same purpose before
losing information of the earthquake damage as much as possible. The first flight wasmade on August 20th, four months after the earthquake, above the central areas of thecities of Sankhu and Chautara. Sankhu is one of the most affected cities in Kathmandu
Valley, partly because of the concentration of old buildings with traditional architecture.
Chautara is the capital of the Singdhupalchok, the most damaged district by theearthquake, located in a mountain area outside Kathmandu Valley. The aircraft flew
over the core areas of each city at about 150m above the ground. We took few hundred
photos from both sides of the craft by handheld cameras at 1 or 2 seconds of shutterintervals. Data are processed by a SfM/MVS software to make orthomosaic photos formapping purpose, and 3D models for building database. The high resolution obliquephotos are most useful for assessing the damage of individual buildings, which canresolve a single piece of brick. We plan to conduct the aerial photo survey in otherareas in few more months, either in selected areas by a helicopter, or wider areas by
UAV, depending on when UAV permission will be given.
Keywords: Gorkha Earthquake, Building Damage, Mapping, Aerial Photo, UAV
1. INTRODUCTION
We propose UAV photogrammetry survey in Kathmandu Valley and surrounding
areas to map the buildings and damages caused by the April, 2015 Nepal Earthquake.
NIED and NSET will work with Kathmandu Valley Development Authority (KVDA),

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and local governments outside the valley to provide the data for damage assessment forthis earthquake, and for risk sensitive land-use planning for the future earthquakes andother disasters. NIED and NSET will use the data for research on building damage
distribution, calibration of satellite imagery by the ground-truth data, and more detailed
risk assessment of the cities and rural communities.
2. Equipment
We fly a small, battery powered plane with on-board digital camera in auto-pilot mode
to take aerial photos from 50m to 150m above the ground. The plane cruises at a speedof about 60 km/h for about 20 minute flight time to cover an area of two square
kilometers in one flight. Pictures are processed by photogrammetry software to create
orthomosaic photos for mapping. 3D digital surface models of buildings will be created
to measure building heights and shapes. The raw photos with oblique views can beused to investigate more detailed damage and the structures.
Safety of the flights and compliance to the regulations are of primary importance. Our
fixed wing foam plane is much safer than popular multi-rotor drones. It will not injure
people when it crashes because 1) fuselage is made of soft Styrofoam, 2) propeller isfacing rear, and 3) it can glide when it falls. Another big advantage of fixed wing drone
is long-range flight. It can fly in 60km/h cruise speed for 40 minutes maximum and 20
minutes on the safe side, i.e., 20km distance range, which is several times longer thanmulticopters. Autopilot flight can be programmed to avoid prohibited zones and above
the height limit directed by Civil Aviation Authority.

Figure 1: Fix wing drone(right) and catch net(left) we use in this study
3. Original Plan
We first planned to carry out a pilot survey in Bhainsepati, Lalitpur near NSET office,followed by a full-spec survey for the Kathmandu Valley. An area of 100 square
kilometers in central part of the valley can be photographed by fifty flights in about ten
non-rainy days. We thought we might be able to start the survey in middle of June atearliest because applications of flight permission from KVDA to the authorities (CAAN
and MoIC) were in process. Taking into account the weather conditions in monsoon

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season from June through September, we would be able to finish photographing of thecentral area of Kathmandu Valley by the end of August, and provide orthomosaic
photos on GIS system by the end of September.
After the central flat part of the Kathmandu Valley, we continue to map hilly areas in
the valley, and selected mountain areas in the districts of Nuwakot, Rasuwa andSindhupalchok after the monsoon season. We also propose an alliance with other groups
who have similar UAV mapping initiatives in Nepal.
Ministry of Home Affairs of Nepal (MoHA), however, banned to fly UAV of any
purpose, by anybody, of any size, after the earthquake because of the security, safety,
and privacy problems.
4. Helicopter Survey
By August 2015, we had no good prospect of obtaining the flight permission. We thencarried out an alternative survey using a manned helicopter. Our first target was
Chautara, the capitol city of Sindhupalchok District located north east of Kathmandu
Valley. We chose the city firstly because the Sindhupalchok district had large andextensive damage of buildings and hoses among other districts, and closest from
Kathmandu. We also targeted Sankhu, which is one of the most heavily damaged areas
in Kathmandu Valley and on the way to Chautara, so that we can take aerial photos of
the city by making few turns above it.

Figure 2: Flight path from Kathmandu, Sankhu, Chautara and Kathmandu of thehelicopter (top left). The pilot (top right) follow the waypoint we shoed on PC
display.

Damage Mapping of 2015 Gorkha Earthquake by Low-altitude Aerial Photos
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Figure 3 Flight path above Sankhu

Figure 5 Oblique aerial photos of
SankhuWe made few turns above Sankhu at around 150m ground altitude (Fig 3). Fig 5 showssome of the few hundred photos taken from both sides of the passenger window in timelapse mode at 1 second interval using Ricoh GR, a compact and high resolution fixed
focus camera suitable for UAV mapping.

Figure 6 Orthomosaic photo of Sankhu

Figure 7 Damage mapping using
satellite, UAV and ground survey(Ohsumi et al. 2015)

The photos were processed using PhotoScanTM, an SfM/MVS 3D modeling software to
produce orthomosaic photo for mapping. The coordinates of GCP (Ground Control
Points) were taken from existing GoogleEarth model. Precise measurements using
RTK GPS is not necessary for the damage mapping purpose.
Building damages cannot observed by the orthomosaic photos, firstly because thedamage is not always visible from the top, and secondly, the processed and stitchedphotos are considerably deformed in small scale which is difficult to distinguish fromthe deformation caused by the earthquake. We instead use original oblique photos forthe purpose. Fig.7 shows a building damage map by Ohsumi, et al., obtained by groundsurvey, satellite image processing, and UAV photos.

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Figure 8 Flight path above
Chautara, Sindhuplchok.

Figure 9 Collapsed building in Chautara.

Fig.8 shows a flight path above Chautara, the district capitol of Singdupalchok. Fig 9 is
one of hundreds of oblique photos showing the detailed damage of the buildings. 3Dmodel of the area is given in Fig.10.

Figure 10 3D model of central part of Chautara, Sindhuplchok.
5. Updated plan
Ministry of Home Affairs set up the policy of regulation, application and permission at
the end of September 2015 and we applied the detailed flight plan for Bhainsepati,
Kokhana, Bungmati of Lalitpur and the city center of Bhaktapur. Our new plan ismaking UAV aerial photo survey in Kathmandu Valley by December, process the data
to map the building by February, and analyze the original images of the photos to map
the earthquake damages. We carry out further studies of regional characteristics of thedamage by April 2016.
Six months have passed after the earthquake and many damaged buildings werealready demolished. The meaning of the damage survey has been largely reduced, but
we pursue the project because we will still be able to do meaningful surveys, and wehave another purpose, mapping buildings for the future land-use planning and urban
developments.
We also have to transfer the UAV operation technology to the counterpart NSET andother government agencies of Nepal to be prepared for the use for emergency responses
and for more rapid damage assessment for natural disasters.
Damage Mapping of 2015 Gorkha Earthquake by Low-altitude Aerial Photos
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Urban safety through the eyes of cultural
heritage
Hisila MANANDHAR1 and Yogeshwar K. PARAJULI2
1
Urban Planner, Kathmandu Valley Development Authority,Anamnagar, Kathmandu, Nepal
hisila_man@hotmail.com
2
Development Commissioner, Kathmandu Valley Development Authority,Anamnagar, Kathmandu, Nepal
ykp.kvda@gmail.com
ABSTRACT

All developing countries are facing the phenomenon of urbanization. From the 1970s
onward, Nepal has observed one of the highest rates of urbanization in Asia and thePacific. Historically, Kathmandu Valley has enjoyed sustainable development practiceand maintained an ecological balance of urban development through various physicalfeatures; cultural practices as well as sustainable opportunities for economic
development. The valley reflects its long history through a variety of cultural heritage
sites comprising of settlements, monuments, religious sites and traditional
infrastructures. The cultural practice of worships and processions are embedded into
the people’s lives. Looking from the disaster risks viewpoint, cultural and naturalproperties are increasingly affected by the events. At times of stress, the significant roleof heritage in contributing to social cohesion and sustainable development has stressed
the importance of its safety. Open spaces of various scale, size and geometry were
integral parts of traditional settlements in Kathmandu Valley. This paper tries to review
on utilization of cultural heritage, especially traditional open spaces in risk reduction
and disaster mitigation.
Keywords: culture, heritage, urban safety, disaster mitigation
1. INTRODUCTION
All developing countries are facing the phenomenon of urbanization. From the 1970s
onward, Nepal has observed one of the highest rates of urbanization in Asia and thePacific. Historically, Kathmandu Valley has followed a sustainable development
practice and maintained an ecological balance of urban development through various
physical features (e.g. mixed-use urban settlement pattern, indigenous architectural
styles and construction techniques); cultural practices as well sustainable opportunities
for economic development (Adhikari, 2012; IUCN, 1999).
Kathmandu Valley presents a rich history of city planning and space making. As far as
recorded in the history, the Kiratis are mentioned to be the early settlers of the Valley
from around the 7th century BC till the 2nd century AD. Even in those early times, theValley appears to have reached a relatively advanced stage of urban culture, with the185

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Nepalline of settlements probably following the Bagmati River. From the 3rd century
onwards, four ruling dynasties – the Lichhavis, Mallas, Shahs and Ranas have set a
trend of their own building trail in Kathmandu Valley. The Lichhavi period and theMalla period are supposedly the eras of city establishments. The ancient art, culture andtraditional customs have flourished and enhanced during their reign (Pruscha, 1969).
Over the years, this primary gateway for major economic opportunities in the country
has experienced haphazard urban development, rapidly increasing population andenvironmental threats in the absence of a clear and comprehensive planning and land
use policy (Haack & Rafter, 2006). Moreover, the valley is highly vulnerable to natural
hazards, such as earthquake, flood and landslide (NDR, 2011). Rapid urbanization,haphazard construction, lack of emergency facilities and lack of effective policy
implementation further add to the vulnerability mainly in the city core area (Bhattarai &Conway, 2010).
Since many years, Kathmandu Valley has been claimed to be highly prone toearthquakes by various national and international studies. Most of the infrastructure andbuildings in the Valley are not strong enough to resist a high magnitude quake. To
address the issue, a joint assessment was conducted by Ministry of Home Affairs(MOHA) and the International Organization for Migration (IOM) with the support from
United States Agency for International Development (USAID)/ Office of Foreign
Disaster Assistance (OFDA) and identified 83 open spaces suitable for Shelter, Aid andMedical Help in the Valley. These open spaces are designed to provide the initial
response framework for rescue and relief to those in immediate need by the Government
and partner agencies (Shrestha P. , 2015).
While Nepal was anticipating for another big earthquake after the one of 1934 NepalBihar earthquake (ML 8.4), a M 7.8 earthquake occurred at 11:56 NPT with its
epicenter about 80 km west of Kathmandu near Barpak, Gorkha, at the depth of 15 km
on April 25th 2015. A total number of 1,735 people died and 13,102 people were injured
in Kathmandu Valley alone (Nepal Disaster Risk Reduction Portal, 2015).
2. OPEN SPACES IN KATHMANDU VALLEY
In all ancient cities of Kathmandu Valley, it can be seen that the settlement is located onan elevated land. Usually a town in the valley would be a high density compact planned
settlement with natural buffer zone created of field/ forest or river. These settlements
highly encouraged walking and the use of public open spaces. Traditionally, open
spaces of various scale, size and geometry ranging from street scale to courtyard scaleand even urban squares have been endowed as integral parts of designated urban spaces.
The concept of garden/ green space inside the settlement is rarely located. Instead, one
finds open spaces in the form of paved courtyards, street squares or water bodies (RaiR. , 2011). Provisions of large open spaces (khyo) for public benefit were also made attown peripheries. These dynamic and functional spaces regulated and shaped urban
forms as well as catered to socio-cultural activities (Sharma, 2013).
2.1 Types of traditional open spaces

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It can be perceived that the traditional architectural spaces in the Valley were designedwith the purpose of holding feasts, festivals, and rituals. Basically every temple andshrine has some open space within and around it, along with patis1 and other attachedbuildings (Rijal).
Public open spaces in the Valley are more defined as social spaces that follow
traditional and cultural trends. Some exist due to the natural design whereas others aredelineated by architectural design predating the modern urban design. Following are thetypes of open spaces found in traditional towns of Kathmandu Valley (Sharma, 2013):- Street Network- Closed courtyards (Bahal/ Bahil)- Neighborhood squares (Nani/ Chowk)- Palace Squares- Open space at town periphery (Khyo)

Figure 1: Examples of Closed courtyards (Bahals):
Tebahal, Kathmandu at left and Nagbahal, Lalitpur at right(Source: www.pinsta.me and www.panoramio.com)

Figure 2: Example of neighborhood
square: Pottery Square at Bhaktapur(Source: www.panoramio.com)

Figure 3: Example of palace square: Patan
Durbar Square(Source: www.nepalonetours.com)

The major backbone of a traditional town is the street network which connects all theclosed courtyards (bahal / bahil), open courtyards (chowk or nani) and public squares.
1

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All these spaces are the focus of social settings used for multipurpose activities in daily
life as well as during festival seasons. They were also utilized as a place to gather in an
event of any natural or man-made disasters such as earthquake and fire (Shrestha B. K.,2011). There also used to be public agricultural land belonging to various community
groups or temples and monasteries called guthi lands. The incomes generated fromthese lands were used for festivals and maintenance of temples and monasteries(Bhandari & Okada, 2009). The space called “khyo” were a type of architecturalrequirement of the Malla era. They were vast open spaces located near to any densely
populated settlement so as to mark the boundary and space for performing larger socialand cultural events. For example, Tundikhel alone remained open even when the rest of
the Kathmandu city expanded to accommodate new settlements (Rai H. , 2002). Its use
has ranged from holding feasts, place for making public announcements, performanceof festivals like Ghode jatra and it has even been designated as one of the major spot forevacuation during disaster emergencies.
Thus the composition of these narrow streets, house blocks, numerous courtyards andplazas along with bordering open spaces of our traditional towns modeled sociable,
cooperative, safe and secure neighborhoods of ancient times (Shrestha B. K., 2011).
2.2 Traditional open spaces and cultural practices for disaster risk mitigation
The concept of traditional compact settlement planning with settlement boundaries
helped to preserve agricultural land that protected primary occupational base of thelocals. This way the inhabitants were self-sustained in food products and could survive
in the event of natural disaster for a longer period (Bhandari & Okada, 2009).
As per a research done in Kathmandu Valley by Nepal Engineering College (NEC) andCenter for Disaster Management Informatics Research, Ehime University, Japan in June
2006, 70% of the respondents affirmed about having knowledge of a safer place in theircommunity in case of a disaster event. This has been credited to the fact that traditional
houses in Kathmandu Valley were built with large open spaces surrounded on all sides
by residential buildings (Shaw, Srinivas, & Anshu, 2009). The rituals and festivals
practiced throughout the traditional cities in the Valley also make local inhabitants
familiar to the open spaces around them. Either they pull chariots for various jatras2 orgather for feasts and festivals, people get a chance of making observational learning ofcity routes and spaces that are useful for life saving during disasters like earthquake(Bhandari & Okada, 2009).
In addition, the traditional houses were built with earthquake resistance measures suchas symmetrical windows, double framing of windows, as well as the use of timberwedges called chuku that helped in creating earthquake resilience (Tiwari, 1998).
Pradhan (n.d.) has pointed out that traditional residential buildings built with brick, mudmortar and timber were rather constructed with much rational thoughts put to withstandearthquakes. In comparison to brick and timber, mud is very weak in strength but the
mud mortar cracks easily in case of greater thrust and helps to displace the wall thus
absorbing the thrust. This causes only partial collapse of the building preventing it fromfalling down completely and hence giving time to residents to evacuate. It has also been
2

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stated that traditional building practice of Kathmandu Valley reflects “local culturalvalues, reduce the threat of seismic risk to lives of people and address the specific needsof the population” (Bhandari & Okada, 2009, p. 147).
Furthermore, the open spaces in the traditional settlements are well endowed with good
infrastructures such as resthouses (patis) and water supply (stone water spouts – hitis).
The large size of the open spaces and their proximity from neighboring households
made them functionally appropriate as evacuation spaces. One can find a correlation
between the intangible cultural practices and the network of open spaces too. Local
residents are obliged to be informed about and manage their surrounding spaces due tothe repeated communication and active participation while performing the ritual
activities. This space cognition ultimately helps in building community coping capacity
against disaster events like earthquake (Shaw, Srinivas, & Anshu, 2009; Bhandari &Okada, 2009).
3. USE OF OPEN SPACES IN CASE OF DISASTER
Open spaces in urban areas primarily serve as breathing space for the citizen. Necessityof urban open space for recreational facilities is universally agreed. Alongside various
recreational and social uses of open spaces, their importance in the disaster
preparedness is increasingly being recognized. Open spaces are required to provide
emergency and basic services on the aftermath of disasters.
Kathmandu Valley was exposed to the outside world after the construction of modern
highway in late 1950s, coupled with the fast development of communication, rapid
population growth and improvement in the economic condition. Rapid demographic
change in Kathmandu’s old city core has resulted in the apparent loss of traditionalsocial networks that encouraged the provisions of mutual support during any kind ofdisaster. In the past, neighborhoods were homogenous with families and relatives living
near to each other. The citizens of core city have either shifted outside the city in themodern style buildings or started interfering the traditional architecture and urban
spaces. The core settlements have been replaced by renters and more diverse ethnic
groups. There have also been massive physical changes in the city center. The former
chowks or courtyards, and even the neighborhood squares have been encroached bymodern commodities and buildings. Practices of adding new floors or projections to the
traditional houses without proper enforcement of building codes and diminution of open
spaces have led to lack of light and ventilation on the streets and adjacent open spaces
as well as added to the likelihood of casualties and injuries in case of earthquake(Shrestha B. K., 2011; Bajracharya B. N., 2013).
The news that followed the recent Gorkha earthquake and the blogs from various
sources shows how traditional open spaces were utilized as shelter space after thedisaster. A round sample survey done in those spaces illustrated that the ones whoneeded to take shelter due to collapse of their homes were not the original dwellers of
the core city areas. The rich have left the core for residing in sprawled but still unsafe
conglomerates, creating other vulnerable zones, in so called modern dwelling,
personally abandoning the buildings to poor and working class floating migrants. The
new dwellers do not have any understanding or attachment to traditional cultural

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Nepalvalues/practices and this has made heritage preservation advocacy more difficult in theValley.
Many inhabitants in the Valley, both locals and outsiders, have started understanding
the significance of the indigenous concept of chowk (courtyard) after the April 25 quake.
The chowk offered the residents of the surrounding houses open space to escape thedisaster or any danger (Bajracharya G. B., 2015; Leve, 2015).

Figure 4: People taking shelter in a pati in
Ason Tole, after April 25 Quake(Source: proof.nationalgeographic.com)

Figure 5: People taking shelter in
Yetkha Bahal, following April 25 Quake(Source: www.anthropology-news.org)

The large open spaces such as Tundikhel served as a major evacuation space. It was oneof the 83 gazetted open spaces marked for evacuation and refuge in case of disaster. It
provided refuge to thousands of people after the recent Gorkha earthquake and is still
providing shelters to many families who have lost their homes due to the earthquake.

Figure 6: Tent houses in Tundikhel(Source: earthquake-report.com)
These spaces also brought the society and neighboring communities together at one
place so that they can help each other. From building makeshift shelters to collecting
necessary supplies, people came together at one place and helped each other. Thus these
traditional open spaces also helped in building social and cultural resilience. The recent
quake has reawakened the value of provision of open spaces for various daily uses andcultural practices. The provision of multi-purpose spaces used by communities is not

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limited to serving only for mundane daily activities. They act as refuge area in case ofdisasters such as earthquakes and fires. This has been proven during earthquakes that hit
the Valley time and again.
4. CONCLUSION
This paper discussed on the traditional open spaces of Kathmandu Valley and theirusage in case of disaster such as earthquake. With a rich history of city planning andspace making, the Valley boasts a variety of open spaces that caters to specific needs ofthe population. These open spaces have helped in providing the much needed physicalspace for evacuation and refuge during disasters. Furthermore, the daily use as well as
cultural practices and rituals have made the locals familiar to these places. As a result,people know where to evacuate when there is a threat to their homes. The cultural
practices have also brought the communities together and helped in building sociocultural cohesiveness and resilience towards disasters.
Rapid population growth and haphazard urbanization have put these spaces at danger.
These spaces are being encroached upon and decreasing very quickly. Despite theirdiminution, the still present traditional open spaces provided shelter to many in the caseof the recent Gorkha earthquake event. People have started again to value their designand existence. It is high time to preserve whatever is left of these spaces and create newspaces learning from the old city design experience. It is imperative to preserve the open
spaces not only for retaining our identity but also to create urban safety and continue
our heritage based economy. Both national and international commitment forconservation of our heritage spaces is the prime need of the hour.
REFERENCES
Adhikari, N. (2012, May). Air pollution and human health in Kathmandu valley. Public
Health Perspective Nepal, 2(5).
Bajracharya, B. N. (2013, Oct 26). Protect your head. The Kathmandu Post.
Bajracharya, G. B. (2015, May 21). Quake highlights value of Newari 'Chowk'. Setopati.
Bhandari, R. B., & Okada, N. (2009). Formulating Time Tested Knowledge for
Sustainable Disaster Risk Reduction; A Case Study of Kathmandu. Annuals of Disas.
Prev. Res. Inst.(52 B), 145-151.
Bhattarai, K., & Conway, D. (2010). Urban Vulnerabilities in the Kathmandu Valley,
Nepal: Visualizations of Human/Hazard Interactions. Journal of Geographic
Information System, 63-84.
CEN, CANN & UN-HABITAT. (2013, October). Urban Mobility in Kathmandu: Status
and Trends.
Haack, B., & Rafter, A. (2006). Urban growth analysis and modeling in the Kathmandu
Valley, Nepal . Habitat International, 30(4), 1056- 1065.
IUCN. (1999). Environmental Planning and Management of the Kathmandu Valley.
Kathmandu: Government of Nepal, Ministry of Population and Environment.
Leve, L. (2015, June 8). Strength, Security, Resilience and Nepal’s Great Earthquake.
Anthropology News.
NDR. (2011). Nepal Disaster Report. Policies Practices and Lessons. Nepal:
Government of Nepal, Ministry of Home Affairs.
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Nepal Disaster Risk Reduction Portal. (2015). Retrieved June 6, 2015, fromhttp://drrportal.gov.np/
Pradhan, R. (n.d.). Seismicity and Traditional Buildings of Kathmandu Valley, Nepal.
Pruscha, C. (1969). The Physical Development Plan of Kathmandu Valley. Nepal:
Department of Housing and Physical Planning.
Rai, H. (2002). Shrinking Tundikhel. Nepali Times(107).
Rai, R. (2011, Jan 22). Historic City Core of Kathmandu. Retrieved from Ruprama's
blog: https://ruprama.wordpress.com/2011/01/22/historic-city-core-of-kathmandu/
Rijal, S. (n.d.). Visiting Vikramshil Mahavihāra: Redefining Urban Spaces in
Kathmandu.
Retrieved
March
12,
2015,
from
webimap.org/docs/paper/c9fbfa86264b4bc1f5074298f570b96c.docx
Sharma, B. P. (2013). Morphology of Open Spaces in Towns, Study of Roles of
Traditional Open Spaces in Safeguarding Urban Environment of Kathmandu.
Tribhuvan University: Ph.D. Dissertation.
Shaw, R., Srinivas, H., & Anshu, S. (2009). Urban Risk Reduction: An Asian
Perspective. Emerald Group Publishing.
Shrestha, B. K. (2011). Street typology in Kathmandu and street transformation. Urbani
izziv, 22(2), 107-121.
Shrestha, P. (2015). 83 open spaces to S.A.M, setting an Example in Nepal how parksand open spaces can strengthen communities’ resilience toward disaster.
Tiwari, S. R. (2015). FROM PAST PATHS TO FUTURE WALKS: Reading and
Learning From the Traditional Streets of Kathmandu Valley Towns.
Tiwari, S. R. (1998). Traditional Architecture of Kathmandu valley -Responsiveness toearthquakes through empiricism. Pulchowk, Lalitpur: Workshop on Seismic Design of
Buildings organized by CEC, Institute of Engineering on April 8-12, 1998.

Image Sources:
www.proof.nationalgeographic.com
www.earthquake-report.com
www.panoramio.com
www.pinsta.me
www.nepalonetours.com

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communities’ resilience towards disaster: Caseof Nandi Keshwor Bagaicha
Dr. Bhai Kaji TIWARI1, Narendra Bahadur SHRESTHA2, Jeny SHRESTHA3and
Yogeshwar PARAJULI4
1
Deputy Development Commissioner, Kathmandu Valley Development Authority
bhaikajitiwari@gmail.com
2
Chairman, Community Service Center, Narayanchaur
nbsbahadur@gmail.com
3
Urban Planner, Kathmandu Valley Development Authority, Nepal
jenyshrestha@hotmail.com
4
Development Commissioner, Kathmandu Valley Development Authority, Nepal
ykparajuli@hotmail.com
ABSTRACTOpen spaces not only contribute in improving the quality of everyday urban life, in
megacities but also increase communities’ resilience in case of disaster if properly
integrated in urban design and planning. This paper examined the case of Nandi Keshwor
Bagaicha, a pilot project for open space revitalization through public-private partnershipapproach. While appreciably contributing to urban ecosystem based adaptation andcultural significance, the project led to development of the space as highly beneficial fordisaster recovery, particularly after the Gorkha earthquake (7.8 magnitude). The paper
documented major historic changes in daily usage of the space and analyzed how therevitalized open space proved successful in providing post-disaster facilities, including
shelter and first aid, to more than 7000 inhabitants in a day through the active
participation of local community. It further discussed the lessons learnt from theearthquake response to stimulate inter-disciplinary discussion regarding the critical roleof open space that might encourage communities and government participation in thedevelopment of ample and adaptable number of such spaces. The paper, thus, highlighted
the crucial role of multi-purpose open spaces as essential post-disaster recovery support
in disaster prone megacities, while promoting urban safety through the development ofdynamic public space that acts as a catalyst for civic engagement and revenue generation.
Keywords: open space, disaster recovery, Public Private Partnership, Gorkha
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1. INTRODUCTION
Increasing population and haphazard urban development has led to poorly managed open
spaces in Kathmandu Valley, the primary gateway for major economic opportunities in
the country. Historically, the Valley has followed a sustainable development practice andmaintained an ecological balance of urban development through its abundant open spaces,
mixed-use urban settlement pattern, indigenous construction techniques cultural practices
as well sustainable opportunities for economic development (Adhikari N. , 2012; IUCN,
1999). However, with the rise in urban sprawl over the years, open spaces are beingheavily encroached by built up areas, thereby, compromising with the community’s needfor open spaces. This notion has highlighted the need to conserve, develop, protect andrehabilitate open spaces- not only to enhance environmental and socio-cultural values of
the area but also to strengthen communities’ resilience in case of disaster. In order toemphasize on the importance of open spaces, the Kathmandu Valley Development
Authority (KVDA) has been working on facilitating the development of multi-purpose
open spaces, which could be utilized in case of disaster and for leisure purpose as well.
The importance of preservation of open spaces has been stated in the Policies andPrograms of the Government of Nepal for Fiscal Year 2014-15 (GoN, 2015) as
Pt. 43: "…. Based on the notion of open and clean Kathmandu, parks andplaygrounds will be constructed in different places of the Kathmandu valley”.
This was followed by the Budget Speech for Fiscal Year 2071-72 (2014-15) stating in its
point no. 103 that"…. Agency wise responsibilities will be clarified for preservation of government,
public and Guthi lands. No local agencies can provide public lands for private or
any other uses without having a certain plan and cost benefit analysis."1
The Environment Conservation Committee of the Parliament had also given direction to
KVDA on June 29, 2014 about identification, conservation and management of parks andgardens. In accordance to all these statements, the 7th Management Committee meetingof KVDA had passed the Nandi Keshwor Bagaicha Revival Project on Jan 10, 2014 as amajor multi-purpose open space for recreation and emergency response.
In this context, this paper examines the case of Nandi Keshwor Bagaicha, one of the 83
identified open spaces identified by the Government of Nepal for emergency responsesite in case of disaster. The area has been developed as a pilot project for open space
revitalization through public-private partnership approach. This paper, thus, analyzes its
highly significant role in post- disaster recovery support during the Gorkha Earthquake(7.8 magnitude) on 25 April, 2015 and the subsequent aftershocks, which could further
be an impetus for the development of more multi-purpose open spaces and help to build
community resilience to disaster.
2. NANDI KESHWOR BAGAICHA
2.1 Location
Nandi Keshwor Bagaicha is an open space, located in Naxal, the heart of Kathmandu
Valley. Nandi Keshwor is a temple of Lord Shiva and Bagaicha in Nepali means a garden.
So it is a garden dedicated for flowers to worship Lord Shiva. The space covers about
1

194(Ministry of Finance, 2014, p. 22)

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10,266 sq. m. of land area. The area is surrounded by historical Narayanhiti Palace
Museum, Nagpokhari Pond, Shankha Kirti Mahavihar, Nepal Police Headquarters,
educational institutions, residential buildings and apartments, along with major corporate
offices and financial institutions. Due to the diversity of land use around the area, thelocality remains mobile most of the time.
2.2 Historical Background
Historically, Nandi Keshwor Bagaicha (Nandi Keshwor Garden) held a significant value
as an important part of the Nandi Keshwor Bahal. The Bahal consists of ‘Nandi Keshwar
Temple’ of Lord Shiva, built in 1801 AD by then queen Subarna Prabha Devi, along withresidential buildings, resthouses and garden areas. As per the scriptures in the Temple
area, the queen used to worship the deity using the flowers from the garden, which wasnamed as the Nandi Keshwor Bagaicha (NCSC, 2013; SP, 2013). In 1947 AD, the entire
Bahal was brought to use as a school, after which the garden space was heavily neglected.
Until 2012 AD, the space was mainly used as a solid waste dumping site, and frequently
as a playground and parking lot, thus negatively affecting the environment and outlookof the area.

Figure 1 Site Condition before Project Development
2.3 Efforts to preserve the Nandi Keshwor Bagaicha
Considering the socio-cultural value of the open space and the depleting environmental
condition of the area, various efforts had been made to preserve the entire temple
surroundings, including the open space. However, the efforts until 2012 AD had been lessappreciated in the past mainly due to ineffective participation of major stakeholders(NCSC, 2013). Thus, a social organization, Community Service Center Naxal, led thepreservation efforts in collaboration with KVDA, local community and the community
police. The initiatives were kept in line with the efforts to deal with the problem ofRole of open space in strengthening communities’ resilience towards disaster:Role ofopen spacein strengthening communities’ resilience towards disaster
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pollution and building community resilience to disasters through community
beautification and development. The continual efforts over the years not only started torescue the deserted space, but also acted as an impetus to make positive changes in thesociety by setting an example of cooperation, coordination and responsibility towards
community through Public-Private Partnership, which would be an example for thepreservation of such neglected space in other parts of the Kathmandu Valley as well.
As an initial step, collaborative efforts were made to raise the need for the preservationof the open space for enhancing the environment of the area and mainly for its utilizationin case of disaster, considering the increasing vulnerability of Kathmandu Valley withrespect to natural hazards like earthquake. Interaction with major stakeholders andgovernment bodies, utilization of local media, hoarding boards display and tree plantation
campaigns were fruitful in raising awareness. Regular clean up campaigns were organized
to eliminate the piles of garbage. Involvement of youth was encouraged throughinteraction programs, painting competitions to make them aware of the importance ofpreserving such unattended spaces to create a green park that enhances the environmentand supports the community during emergency. The regular interactions with major
stakeholders clearly emphasized on the need for careful planning of the open space.
Hence, the KVDA initiated the Nandi Keshwor Bagaicha Revival Project to establish theopen space as a multi-purpose park that further strengthens the community’s resilience tocope with disaster.
3. REVIVAL OF NANDI KESHWOR BAGAICHA FOR URBANRESILIENCE
3.1 The Nandi Keshwor Bagaicha Revival Project
The Nandi Keshwor Bagaicha Revival Project has been initiated by Kathmandu
Valley Development Authority using Public- Private- Community partnershipmodel. The park exists within a densely populated mixed use zone that consists ofnumerous residential areas and important properties of public concern within its 1
km radius; these include 4 Hospitals, 15 education centers and 4 Police Stations,along with numerous financial institutions, corporate houses and foreign diplomatic
offices. Hence, there is a huge potential to develop the area as a multi-purpose open
space. The project gained momentum from 2012 AD and eventually developed intoa beautiful garden by the end of 2014 AD (Smrit, 2015).
Objectives
The project has been designed with the following major objectives:

Incorporate the park as Disaster Risk Management zone, equipped withfacilities required for post-disaster related activities

Provide a dynamic public space that fosters socio-cultural interactions
and promotes citizen’s engagement in preserving cultural heritage
Cater the need of people from different age groups: such as playgroundfor children, recreational area for youth and resting space for elderly
Develop the area as a multi-purpose Health parkMake it a unique example of a Minimum Maintenance Park196

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Maintain a Positive Environmental Impact in the area with respect tosurrounding development through incorporation of urban EbA ( Ecology based
Adaptation) Concepts
Community Involvement in the Process
The revival project has been designed with considering the outcome of a series
consultation meetings with local communities along with other stakeholders. Suchmeetings helped to understand the major challenges faced by the area. These include theneed for a dynamic public space for all ages, issues of environmental and noise pollution
within the area and the potential for ground water recharge system that could be utilizedin case of emergency. These requirements have been addressed using suitable landscapedesign for the area.
Considerations and Components of Design
The central area of the space has been left open as green space for multipurpose use as
well as for post disaster recovery. Sitting areas have been created for children and elderly.
A walkway has been constructed around and connected with four access point at north,south, east and west. The park is especially designed to help ground water recharge,
promote rain water harvesting and decrease air pollution. As the one of the firstemergency rescue spaces in the Kathmandu Valley, the space includes the constructionof recharge well, grease chamber, rapid sand filter, and soak pit that could be highly usefulin case of emergency.

Figure 2: Conceptual plan and Present state of the area
Recharge wells are constructed in Nandi Keshwor Bagaicha to conserve and use theexcess water runoff in order to recharge the ground water table using underground storage.
To facilitate accessibility, 3.5 m wide footpaths, with trees on both sides, have been
constructed in and around the site using interlocking concrete block. For differently abled
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population, altogether 8 ramps, two on each gate (size 2.5m x 1m x 0.45m), have been
constructed. In addition, railings have been erected along the outer boundary walls of thepark, with the provision of entry points at four corners. The concept of railings was not
fully accepted initially considering the usage of the space as emergency evacuation zone.
However, its construction was considered important mainly to safeguard the park from
unattended animals, and illegal usage of the area for commercial purpose. Additionally,
to reduce acoustic disturbance from surroundings using landscape design, mounds ofapproximate height 1.8 m have been built at the four corners of the garden; and trees areplanted along the periphery of the space, which further act as visual barrier and facilitate
vehicular noise diversion.
As one of the 83 emergency evacuation sites designated by the Government of Nepal, thedesign for the park also integrates the key elements forpost- disaster need. In
collaboration with National Society for Earthquake Technology- Nepal (NSET), the park
has been provided with Community Level Search and Rescue (CSLR) boxes to be used
for post disaster situation. Local youths were provided with trainings on local leveldisaster management and operation of equipment stored in the box. Moreover, solar lights
shall be installed in cooperation with Alternative Energy Promotion Center (AEPC) and
Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA), being facilitated by KVDA.
Hence, Nandi Keshwor Bagaicha has been developed as one of the first parks withmultiple uses - as a beautiful green park for general public, playground for children andmost importantly as an emergency shelter during a large earthquake disaster, which inturn aids in building community resilience to disasters.
3.2 Challenges and Further Improvements
Following are some of the issues and challenges faced during the park development andconstruction:
 As the site was being used as a mini-transfer station to dump solid waste by informal
sectors, the related groups were against the construction of garden because the site
was used as a medium for easy access to dump waste.
 The source of funding was also major challenge in the initial phase.
 Local community also raised questions about the security due to the construction ofmounds at four corners. Representatives from KVDA and the community policeconvinced local people about the security system, such as establishment ofsurveillance cameras at strategic locations and deployment of community police atthe park and explained the salient features of those mounds.
4. NANDI KESHWOR BAGAICHA IN POST GORKHA EARTHQUAKEThe revitalization project of Nandi Keshwor Bagaicha is an outcome of the continual
support from various stakeholders ranging from local communities to central Government
bodies. The developed park was handed over to the Community Service Centre on 6 July,
2015. Since its operation, the park has been offering respite to its users as a major
recreational space and health park. The park has already served as one of the evacuation
spaces during Gorkha Earthquake that hit Nepal on 25 April, 2015. Immediately after theearthquake, the space was used as an evacuation zone for more than 7 thousand people,
including locals and tourists. The Community Service Center Naxal along with Nepal

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Police and local youth made full utilization of the recently refurbished open land.
Supports from various agencies were also witnessed in supplying tarpaulins, tents, foodand water to the population. Since the earthquake, the Community Service Center and theCommunity Police established a community command post within the site area in orderto address the issues related to shelter, water supply, waste management, food supply andpsychological recovery from the shock. Being one of the first pioneer projects on park
revitalization for the purpose of emergency rescue during a disaster, the objectives of the
project were fully met. Provisions of community disaster tool box were made andtrainings on local level disaster management and operation of equipment stored in thetool box were given to the community there. This project has led way to identificationand planning of other similar spaces in Kathmandu Valley. Table 1 provides timeline ofthe post disaster activities at the site.

Figure 3 People taking Shelter at Nandi Keshwor Bagaicha after the Gorkha Earthquake
Table 1. Time line of activities at the area after the April 25 Earthquake
Date
Time
Activities
11.56 AM
1:00 PM
25 April2015

1:30 PM7.30 PM
8:00 PMNight

A 7.8 Magnitude earthquake hit the Kathmandu Valley, withepicenter at Barpark, Gorkha at the depth of 15 km.
Around 7000 local population, including 24 foreigners use the parkas an evacuation zone and shelter space
Medical facilities provided at the site through the collaborative
effort of Community Service Center, Satya Sai Center and Local
youthsConsidering the climatic condition, Catering tents provided at thesite by local catering service
Free Food supplied at the site from the catering service
Generator used at the site for electricity supply
Security at the site for nighttime provided by Metropolitan Police
Force and Armed Police Force Nepal

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26 April2015

27 April2015
May 11
May 12
May 20
May 22

May 23
May 245:00 AM

Community Service Center contacted various agencies to support
organized shelter space in the park area
Water supply at the park managed by Nepal Police and KUKLFree food supply provided for the entire day at the site byCommunity Service Center
1: 00 PM
Tarpaulin sheets provided in the area for shelter:
Metropolitan Police: 25 sets; Nepal Red Cross : 53 sets;
Community Service Center: 8 sets; Save the Children : 10 sets
Temporary shelter constructed using local bamboo
10: 30 AM
Meeting held with Secretary, Ministry of Cooperatives and Poverty
Alleviation; Secretary, Nepal Trust; Joint Secretary, Ministry of
Urban Development to manage the shelter space
9.30 AM
10 set of tents provided at the site by tourist from Argentina
Ms.Maria Alejandra Ulehla, CEDISUR S.A
12.50 PM
7.3 Magnitude hit the Kathmandu Valley
48 sets of Tarpaulin sheets provided at the site by NRN
6.20 AM
Cleaning campaigns conducted at the site by locals
10 AM to 3 Assessment conducted regarding the condition of the people at thePMshelter along with Recreational programs for children
5.30 AM
Yoga classes conducted for the people in the temporary shelters
7:00 AM
Cleaning campaign at the site
Assessment of condition of 104 children and 10 pregnant ladies bycommunity police; Sanitary pads and Soaps distributed at the site
7:00 AM
Cleaning campaign at the site
4:30 PM
Reconstruction of temporary sheds damaged by the heavy rainfall
and storm
5.30 AM
Yoga classes conducted for the people in the temporary shelters
7:00 AM
Cleaning campaign at the site
10: 00 AM

May 255.30 AM
7:00 AM
10: 00 AM

May 26and 27
May 287:00 PM
11:00 AM
11.30 AMMay 26 –May 30
May 30

4:00 PM
10:00 AM

Art, Play Program organized at the site to provide psychological
comfort for the people in the area, targeting small children
Yoga classes held at the site
Cleaning campaign conducted at the site
Art, Play Program organized at the site to provide psychological
comfort for the people in the area, targeting small children
Removal of unattended tents at the site by Community police andlocal youth
3 boxes of Sanitary Napkins and 6 boxes of Masks provided for thepeople at the park
Representatives from Community Police and Maiti Nepal, NGO
helping victims of sex trafficking, visited the site to assess theliving condition of the people in the park. The condition of thepeople in the area was normal
Musical program organized at the site to provide psychological
comfort for the people in the area, targeting small children
One day Self Defense Training program conducted for 35 female ofage group 16 to 35

5. CONCLUSION
Rapid urbanization and haphazard sprawl has put a lot of stress on the existing open
spaces in Kathmandu Valley. Considering the need of such spaces for recreational
purpose and emergency response site as evident during the April 25 Gorkha earthquake,their revitalization is seen as a prioritized task for the safe and organized development of200

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the Valley. The revival of Nandi Keshwor Bagaicha Park had a highly significant value
as a post-disaster recovery support that highlighted the need for preservation of more open
spaces for future, while promoting urban safety through the development of dynamic
public space. Thus, the success of Nandi Keshwor Bagaicha park revival project and its
satisfactory usage is an initial step taken by KVDA that would pave way to preserve theold and develop new multi-purpose spaces mainly for essential post-disaster recovery
support in disaster prone megacities. It is clearly understood that collaboration of all
stakeholders is necessary to implement such projects even in the future. Thus, the lessons
learnt from the project would help to stimulate inter-disciplinary discussion regarding thecritical role of open space that might encourage communities and government
participation in the development of ample and adaptable number of such spaces. Thismight further act as a catalyst for civic engagement and revenue generation that are crucial
for sustainable maintenance of the park. The project was initially designed as a revenue
efficient model and this will be possible only if the community plays a proactive role insustainable maintenance of the park. Simultaneously, KVDA looks forward to replicate
such projects so that more breathing spaces are provided to the Valley residents.
REFERENCES
Adhikari, N. (2012). Air pollution and human health in Kathmandu valley. Public Health
Perspective Nepal , 2 (5).
Bhattarai, K., & Conway, D. (2010). Urban Vulnerabilities in the Kathmandu Valley,
Nepal: Visualizations of Human/Hazard Interactions. Journal of Geographic
Information System , 63-84.
GoN. (2014). Policies and Programmes of the Government of Nepal for Fiscal Year
2071-72 (2014-15). Government of Nepal.
Haack, B., & Rafter, A. (2006). Urban growth analysis and modeling in the Kathmandu
Valley, Nepal . Habitat International , 30 (4), 1056- 1065.
IUCN. (1999). Environmental Planning and Management of the Kathmandu Valley.
Kathmandu: Government of Nepal, Ministry of Population and Environment.
KVDA & NSET. (2015). Atlas of Open Spaces. Kathmandu: KVDA.
Ministry of Finance. (2014). आिथर्क वषर् २०७१।७२ को बजेट व����. Government of Nepal.
NCSC. (2013). Nandi Keshwor Bagaicha Revival Project. Naxal Community Service
Center , 5.
NDR. (2011). Nepal Disaster Report. Policies Practices and Lessons. Nepal: Governmentof Nepal, Ministry of Home Affairs.
Smrit. (2015). Nandi Keshwor Bagaichako Antarkatha. Hot Nepal, 19, 22-23.
SP. (2013). Sthan Parichaya. Gauri Adhyatmik Masik , pp. 16 - 18.

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Building damage estimation at Kathmandu
using UAV photos and satellite imageries
Hideomi Gokon
Assistant Professor, ICUS, IIS, the University of Tokyo, Japangokon@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
Makoto Fujiu
Assistant Professor, Institute of Science and Engineering, Kanazawa University, Japanfujiu@se.kanazawa-u.ac.jp
Kimiro Meguro
Professor, ICUS, IIS, the University of Tokyo, Japanmeguro@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
Muneyoshi Numada
Associate Professor, ICUS, IIS, the University of Tokyo, Japannuma@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
Shunichi Koshimura
Professor, IRIDeS, Tohoku University, Japan
koshimura@irides.tohoku.ac.jp
ABSTRACTIn this research, the feasibilities of several types of remote sensing technologies toearthquake disaster have been investigated in the case of the 2015 Nepal-Gorkha
earthquake. First, the city center Kathmandu were observed using several types ofremote sensing sensors; optical sensor and synthetic aperture radar of satellites, andoptical sensor at Unmanned Aerial Vehicle. First, the quick damage estimation was
conducted with pre- and post-event ALOS-2/PALSAR-2 data. Next, the result of damage
estimation was compared with the result of the visual interpretation of pre- and postevent high-resolution optical satellite images provided by Google earth. Some parts of
the Kathmandu cities were investigated with the Unmanned Aerial Vehicle. Finally,feasibilities of the damage estimation by several types of sensors were studied in thecase of the 2015 Nepal-Gorkha earthquake. L-band SAR data obtained by ALOS2/PALSAR-2 sensor was useful to comprehend the building damage in the affectedareas, but might not be enough sensitive to find the moderate damage, even the time forprocessing is short. Visual interpretation of the optical satellite image was good tointerpret the collapsed buildings, but not sufficient to know the slight damage. UAVphotos could be good to interpret the slight or moderate damage.
Keywords: remote sensing, Unmanned Aerial Vehicle, the 2015 Nepal-Gorkha
earthquake

1. INTRODUCTIONOn April 25, 2015, a Mw 7.8 earthquake attacked the Kathmandu valley. After that, theaffected areas were observed by several types of sensors equipped on satellites, or
Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV). These results are useful to comprehend the building

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October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

83° E



84° E

85° E

86° E

(B)

28° N

29° N

(A)

27° N

Detail in B

0

50

100
km

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"%""# # 
"!$#&Fig. 1 Study area (Kathmandu valley, Nepal)
damage in the affected area. To utilize these platforms for the earthquake disaster, it isnecessary to understand the advantages of these respective platforms.
Several types of method to detect building damage in the areas affected by natural
disaster based on the several types of platforms (Miura et al.,2005, Liu et al., 2012).
However, few studies have been conducted to discuss the advantage and disadvantageof these approaches by comparing to each other at the same location.
The objective of this study is to investigate the feasibilities of three types of remotesensing platforms to detect building damage in the areas affected by the earthquake, incase of the 2015 Nepal-Gorkha earthquake.

2. Data set and study area
The study areas encompassed Kathmandu valley and the surrounding region as shownin Fig. 1. The affected areas were observed by three types of approaches; satellite
imageries observed by Synthetic Aperture Radar or optical sensor, and aerial photos
captured by UAV. The satellite images include pre- and post-event high-resolution
optical satellite images that were provided on Google earth, and pre- and post-event Lband Synthetic Aperture Radar (ALOS-2/PALSAR-2). The set of optical images were
captured on 2 November 2014, and 3 May 2015. The ALOS-2/PALSAR-2 data were
captured on 21 February 2015 and 2 May 2015. An example of optical satellite image,
SAR data, and a UAV photo is shown in Fig. 2. To identify the building outline, OpenStreet Map was used (Open Street Map, 2015).

3. Method
3.1 Comparison of three types of imageries captured by satellites and UAV
Destroyed buildings at Bhakutapur in Kathmandu valley were observed by Pre- andpost-event optical satellite image, pre- and post-event SAR data and a UAV photo asshown in Fig. 3. These imageries were compared to each other by focusing on the samebuilding that was destroyed by the earthquake.

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Fig. 2 An example of (A) Optical satellite image, (B) ALOS-2/PALSAR-2 data, and(C) UAV photo.
The pre- and post-event optical satellite images show the clearly differences between
pre- and post-event (Fig. 3 (A), (B)). The spatial resolution is quite high, which is up to
50 cm, and it could be easy to classify the collapsed and survived buildings. With regard
to the ALOS-2/PALSAR-2 data, it was more difficult to interpret. However, the samebuilding on pre- and post-event SAR showed the small differences in the pixel value,
which is circled by red line (Fig. 3 (C), (D)). The UAV photo showed a good quality toidentify the building damage clearly, as shown in Fig. 3 (E). Based on the UAV photo,
it could be found that, it is possible to identify the building damage in more detailed andaccurate manner.

3.2 Building damage estimation by using SAR data
Building damage was estimated using pre- and post-event ALOS-2/PALSAR-2 data,
based on the method proposed by Gokon et al.(2015). Originally, the method wasdeveloped to estimate the damage ratio of buildings that were washed away by thetsunami. Therefore, the applicability of this method to earthquake disaster wasinvestigated in this research.
This is based on the relationship between the building damage ratio and the mean valueof correlation coefficient of pre- and post-event pixel values on L-band SAR data. First,
pre-processing was applied to these data, including calibration, speckle noise filtering,and co-registration. Next, change detection of pre- and post-event ALOS-2/PALSAR-2
data was conducted by calculating correlation coefficient. Then, built-up areas wereidentified by making envelopes around building footprint data, which was obtained
from Open Street Map. Next, object-oriented image processing was applied to thecorrelation coefficient image within the built-up areas, to estimate the local
homogeneities in terms of building damage. Finally, the damage ratio in terms of

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October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal


Fig. 3 An example of building damage at the same location; (A) Pre-event opticalsatellite image, (B) Post-event optical satellite image, (C) Pre-event SAR data, (D)Post-event SAR data, (E) UAV photo.
collapsed buildings was estimated by applying damage function proposed by Gokon etal.(2015), that shows the relationship of the mean values of correlation coefficient and
damage probability of destroyed buildings. An example of building damage ratio
estimated by SAR data is shown in “Fig.4 (B)”.

3.3 Visual interpretation of building damage using optical satellite images
To identify the building damage at a building unit scale, visual inspection of highresolution optical satellite images was conducted. The pre- and post-event satellite
images were extracted from Google earth. These layers were displayed at the same
coordinate system on GIS. The vector data of building outline was created by handbased on the pre-event satellite image. Then, pre- and post-event buildings werecompared one by one, and the building damage were categorized into two classes as“collapsed” and “survived”. The damage class was given to each building as an attributeon GIS data. The example of building damage interpretation is shown in “Fig. 4 (C)”.

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Fig. 4 An example of building damage estimated/interpreted by (B) pre- and postevent SAR data, and (C) high-resolution optical satellite image.
4. Results and discussion
Three types of sensors were tested to identify the building damage, and compared toeach other to investigate the advantage and disadvantage.
The high-resolution optical satellite images were useful to identify the collapsedbuildings at a building unit scale. And, it would be inferred that the accurate result could
be obtained in case of the buildings that were completely collapsed and the shape of theroof was changed. However, a building with the small change at roof might be difficult
to classify the damage category. In addition, it is not possible to classify more detailedbuilding damage. Furthermore, it is difficult to interpret the building damage due to thereason of weather condition, observation angle of the image, and the color of the roof.
The ALOS-2/PALSAR-2 data might be useful to comprehend the building damage in a
extensive area with a short time. The result of damage estimation as shown in Fig.4 (B),showed the slight damage in the Kathmandu valley. The validation of the damage
estimation based on the ground truth data could not be conducted, yet. This study
applied a method to estimate the regional damage ratio, therefore the result showed
relatively lower damage ratio at Kathmandu valley. To identify the built-up areas, OpenStreet Map was used, and the method was applied only to the built-up areas. Therefore,
if the building data was not created on the map, the building damage could not be
identified properly. This might be one of the problems to be solved.
The UAV photos showed the detailed damage situation, the slight damage or moderate
damage could be investigated, that could not be identified by using satellite imageries.
Not only the damage level, but also more detailed damage situation could be confirmed
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with high accuracy. It could be inferred that, the data has almost same quality as thedata obtained in the field survey by foot.

4. Conclusion
Feasibilities of the damage estimation by several types of sensors were studied in thecase of the 2015 Nepal-Gorkha earthquake. The summaries of this study are as follow;
L-band SAR data obtained by ALOS-2/PALSAR-2 sensor might be useful tocomprehend the building damage in the affected areas, however, might not be enoughsensitive to find the moderate damage, even the time for processing is short. Visualinterpretation of the optical satellite image was good to interpret the collapsed buildings,
but not sufficient to know the slight damage. UAV photos could be good to interpret theslight or moderate damage.

Acknowledgement
This research was financially supported by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research(Project numbers: 25242035, 24241059), Core Research for Evolutional Science andTechnology (CREST) ProgramEstablishing the most advanced disaster reduction
management system by fusion of real-time disaster simulation and big data
assimilation”, and J-RAPID program related to the April 2015 Nepal earthquake byJapan Science and Technology Agency(JST). The authors received the
ALOS2/PALSAR-2 data from Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) as acollaborative project.

References
Gokon., H., 2015. Estimation of tsunami-induced building damage using L-bandsynthetic aperture radar data, Journal of Japan Society of Civil Engineers, Ser. B2(Coastal Engineering) Vol.71, No.2, published online on November 12th, 2015 (InJapanese)
Liu., W., F. Yamazaki, H. Gokon and S. Koshimura, 2013. Extraction of TsunamiFlooded Areas and Damaged Buildings in the 2011 Tohoku-Oki Earthquake from
TerraSAR-X Intensity Images, Earthquake Spectra, Vol. 29, No. S1, S183-S200
Miura, H., Wijeyewickrema, A. C. and Inoue, S., 2005. Evaluation of Tsunami Damage
in the Eastern Part of Sri Lanka Due to the 2004 Sumatra Earthquake Using HighResolution Satellite Images, Proceedings of 3rd International Workshop on Remote
Sensing for Post-Disaster Response, 1-4.
Open Street Map, 2015. Web mapping service published by Open Street Map
contributor©, https://www.openstreetmap.org/, online

208

New Technologies
Urban
of Mega
Cities in Asia
Building damage estimation at Kathmandu
using UAVforphotosandSafety
satellite
imageries

Lessons from Response Activities during April 25,2015 Gorkha Earthquake, Nepal
Surya Narayan Shrestha1, Nisha Shrestha2, and Amod Mani Dixit3

1

Deputy Executive Director, National Society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal (NSET), Nepal
sshrestha@nset.org.np
2

Program Analyst, National Society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal, Nepal

3

Executive Director, National Society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal, Nepal

ABSTRACTThe Gorkha Earthquake of M7.8 hit Nepal on April 25, 2015. The epicenter of this earthquake was
Barpak, Gorkha, 80 km northwest of Kathmandu Valley. The main shock was followed by hundredsof aftershocks including M6.6 and M6.7 within 48 hours and M7.3 on May 12, 2015. According to
the Government of Nepal, a total of 8,686 people lost their lives, 16,808 people injured, over
500,000 buildings completely collapsed and more than 250,000 building partially damaged.
The National Society for Earthquake Technology – Nepal (NSET), a not-for-profit civil society
organization that has been focused on earthquake risk reduction in Nepal for past 21 years,
conducted various activities to support people and the government in responding to the earthquake
disaster. The activities included: i) assisting people and critical facility institutions to conduct
rapid visual building damage assessment including the training; ii) information campaign toprovide proper information regarding earthquake safety; iii) support rescue organizations on
search and rescue operations; iv) support local organizations in coordinating and managing relief
supplies; and v) provide technical support to common people on repair, retrofit of damaged houses.
NSET is also involved in carrying out studies related to earthquake damage, geotechnicalproblems, and causes of building damages. Additionally, NSET has done post-earthquake detaildamage assessment of buildings throughout the affected areas.
Prior to the earthquake, NSET has been working with several institutions to improve seismic
performance of school buildings, private residential houses, and other critical structures. Such
activities implemented during the past decade have shown the effectiveness of risk reduction.
Retrofitted school buildings performed very well during the earthquake. Preparedness activities
implemented at community levels have helped communities to respond immediately and save lives.
Higher level of earthquake awareness achieved including safe behavior, better understanding ofbuilding code, and improvement of skills towards safer construction, helped in saving lives andassets, and also helped to understand better the gaps and shortcomings.
The Gorkha earthquake provided an opportunity to test the effectiveness and impact of the
response activities carried out in the backdrop of the preparedness and mitigation actions
implemented during the past several years by NSET and many other organizations. Many
important lessons have been learned which will be helpful in paving further course of action for
the future.
This paper will discuss key response activities, achievements, lessons learned, and optimal
directions for future activities.
Keywords: Awareness, Response activities, resilience209

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

210

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Performance of a ten-story reinforced
concrete building damaged in the2015 Nepal Gorkha Earthquake

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ABSTRACT
An earthquake of moment magnitude Mw = 7.8 occurred in Gorkha district, Nepal on
April 25, 2015 IROORZHGE\DQDIWHUVKRFNRIMw = 7.3 in Dolakha district on May 12,
2015. The earthquake resulted in damage to more than 700,000 houses leaving over two
million people homeless. A majority of the buildings in the affected regions were either
load bearing masonry or reinforced concrete frame structures. In this paper, a ten-story
reinforced concrete residential building that sustained damage in the 2015 Gorkha
Earthquake is considered as a case study. The building comprises of moment resisting
frames with core walls for the elevator shafts. The structural members suffered minor
flexural and shear cracks, while the non-structural brick walls suffered multiple shear
cracks. The building was investigated by the authors one month after the earthquake andinformation on damage was collected. A three-dimensional finite element model of thebuilding was created and pushover analysis and nonlinear response history analysis
under bidirectional seismic excitation were carried out. Although, the building was
designed following the Indian Standards, the seismic resistant capacity of the building
was found to be inadequate from the analysis.

Keywords: bidirectional seismic excitation, lateral load carrying capacity, pushover
analysis, reinforced concrete building, 2015 Nepal Gorkha Earthquake,1752'8&7,21
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211

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

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212

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Performance of a ten-story reinforced concrete building damaged in the 2015 Nepal Gorkha
EarthquakePerformance of a ten-story reinforced concrete building damaged
in the 2015 Nepal Gorkha Earthquake

213

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

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in the 2015 Nepal Gorkha Earthquake

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in the 2015 Nepal Gorkha Earthquake

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New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

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New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Observed Damage Patterns on Buildings
during 2015 Gorkha (Nepal) Earthquake
Dipendra GAUTAM1, 2, Krishna Kumar BHETWAL3, Hugo RODRIGUES4,
Pramod NEUPANE5 and Yasushi SANADA6
1
Center for Disaster and Climate Change Studies, Kathmandu, Nepal
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Asian Institute of Technology and Management,
Lalitpur, Nepal
strdyn@yahoo.com
3
Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Engineering, Thapathali Campus,
Tribhuvan University, Nepal
4
School of Technology and Management, Polytechnic Institute of Leiria, Leiria,
Portugal
5
Urban Governance and Development Program, Emerging Towns Projects,
Dhankuta Municipality, Nepal
6
Department of Architecture Engineering, Osaka University, Japan
ABSTRACTThis paper outlines the common observed failure patterns in the buildings of Nepal afterM7.8 Gorkha (Nepal) earthquake. Several types of damage patterns were observed forreinforced concrete buildings, as well as for unreinforced masonry and adobe houses
during the reconnaissance survey performed immediately after the earthquake of 25
April 2015. Several field visits in the affected districts have been performed andassociated failure/damage patterns have been reported and analyzed. This paper also
covers damage patterns in non-engineered buildings, middle and high-risebuildings,
commercial complexes, administrative buildings, schools and other critical facilities
from Kathmandu valley as well as other affected districts. The construction andstructural deficiencies are identified as the major causes of failure, however local soil
amplification, foundation problems, liquefaction associated damages and local
settlement related damages are also significantly observed during this earthquake andreported in the present paper. In the end, the lessons learned from the field survey are
resumed in order to give some guidelines for future construction practices.
Keywords: Gorkha earthquake, building damage, reinforced concrete structures,
unreinforced masonry buildings, adobe houses
1. INTRODUCTION
On 25 April 2015 a strong earthquake of M7.8 hit central Nepal and its vicinity (USGS,
2015) causing 8787 casualties and 20000 injuries. Around 500000 buildings, 4000
government offices and 8200 school buildings are damaged due to this earthquake. The
hypocentral depth was about 15km and it was immediately followed by strong
aftershocks of M6.9 and M6.7. The earthquake was located at Gorkha district of central219

October
2015,
Kathmandu,
Nepal
October2015,
Kathmandu,
Nepal

Nepal near the Barpak village around 77 km NW of Kathmandu. A strong aftershock ofM7.3 also jolted central Nepal on 12 May, which further enhanced the damage andcasualties. Total of 8 million population was affected by this earthquake and several
thousands of aftershocks everyday for around three months. Six of the fourteen districts
in Nepal were severely damaged causing enormous property and infrastructural damage.
People remained outside their house under tarpaulins/tents for around a month due tofrequent aftershocks and also prevailing minor to severe damages.
A general description of Nepalese building construction frameworks and associateddeficiencies in terms of structural as well as construction scenario has been discussed inthis paper. Furthermore, this paper attempts to correlate the building damage patternassociated with structural and construction deficiencies. Moreover, the failure types andidentified causes are presented drawing conclusions from extensive field reconnaissancein 11 districts in central Nepal.
2. BRIEF HISTORY OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION IN NEPAL
Building construction in Nepal dates back to several thousand years, though thereminiscent of bricks from Buddha’s period are the most reliable sources. It could besaid that before 2500 years, there used to be masonry construction system in Nepal.
Most of the traditional settlements of Kathmandu valley are of around 13th century andthe history of villages dates back to similar time. The adobe construction and random
rubble masonry constructions are more popular in villages of Nepal, however most of
the urban and suburbs constitute majority fraction of masonry buildings with around
20% of reinforced concrete (RC) construction. So, it is obvious that 80% of thebuildings are non-engineered construction; however majority fraction of RC
construction is also covered by non-engineered or pre-engineered construction as ownerbuilt houses (CBS, 2012). Past studies have shown the vulnerability of buildings to bevery high and predicted a severe damage (JICA, 2002; Chaulagain et al., 2014;
Chaulagain et al. 2015). After 1980, the trend of RC construction was evolved in Nepal
and most of the RC buildings are of 2-6 stories with exception of a few 7 to 11 stories
buildings. The trend of RC construction is being more popular than any otherconstruction types though economic constraints, availability of construction materials
and technology, lack of optimized design, lack in enforcement of building regulations
are some of the loopholes that are degrading the quality of construction ultimately
increasing vulnerability of buildings. Regarding other types of structures, it is obviousthat older and non-engineered constructions are enhancing the vulnerability. With
exception to some severe but localized damages in RC buildings, most of the damage
was concentrated in masonry, random rubble and adobe constructions during 2015
Gorkha Nepal earthquake. This earthquake also correlates with the severe damage of
unreinforced masonry (URM) structures during 1934 earthquake (Rana, 1935) and also
the damage patterns are similar for many urban fabrics and outskirts.
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Immediately after the earthquake of 25 April, many field observations were carried out
within and outside the Kathmandu valley. Affected districts namely; Kathmandu,
Lalitpur, Bhaktapur, Kavrepalanchowk, Sindhupalchowk, Dolakha, Nuwakot, Gorkha,
Dhading, Solukhumbu, Makwanpur, Tanahun and Kaski were covered in field visits at
different times. The damaged buildings were analyzed in terms of construction history,

220

New Technologies
Urban
Safety Cities
of Mega
Cities in Asia
New Technologies
for Urbanfor
Safetyof Megain AsiaICUS Report 80

structural adequacy, building components, binding materials and adopted technology forconstruction. Non-structured interviews were conducted during reconnaissance andassociated failure types were pictured. The pictures were analyzed for identifying thecauses of failure. The reconnaissance covered mainly four types of building; RC, URM,
random rubble construction and adobe. As completely wooden constructions were not
identified during reconnaissance, performance of those four types of buildings was
judged under the basis of common earthquake resistant construction bases.
4. STRUCTURAL AND CONSTRUCTION DEFICIENCIES AND ASSOCIATEDDAMAGES IN BUILDINGS DURING 2015 GORKHA EARTHQUAKE
4.1. Construction and structural deficiencies and associated damages in RC
buildings
About 20% of buildings in Nepal are RC buildings (CBS, 2012). The construction of
RC buildings only started after 1970, though the mushrooming number of RC
construction was started only after 1990. Even though the RC construction was started
in 1970s, engineered construction was only felt after enforcement of building codes in2006 and almost 70% of existing RC buildings are either owner built constructions withthe help of contractors or constructed as per the mandatory rules of thumbs (MRT).
Smaller fraction of buildings are structurally analyzed, designed and constructed. After
more localized concentration of RC building damage during 2015 Gorkha earthquake,several field visits and case studies have reflected many of the deficiencies associatedwith construction or structural aspects have been highlighted in recent dates.
4.1.1. Soft storey
During the fieldwork performed immediately after the 2015 Gorkha earthquake, it has
been observed that soft storey failure in RC construction is dominant over any othertype of structural deficiencies. The common type of building framing is moment
resisting with monolithic slab casting in beams and columns. The foundation typeusually adheres as isolated footing in residential level. The ground floor in almost 90%
RC buildings is used for commercial purpose and provided with shutters (Fig. 1(a)). The
upper stories of such houses are provided with infill brick masonry walls. Similarly, incase of high-rise constructions, the ground floor is left open for parking or evensometimes basement parking is provided without infill walls (Fig. 1(b)). Such practices
have led the soft storey failure during 2015 earthquake in most of the damaged RC
buildings (Fig. 1(c)). Due to lack of infill wall on ground floor, the increased flexibility
has clearly led the increased displacement in first floor thus majority of the cracks orminor damages are found to be concentrated therein during reconnaissance.
4.1.2. Horizontal and vertical re-bars
The vertical rebar are mostly limited to 12mm diameter to 16mm diameter and usuallyin four in number (Fig. 1(d)). In most of the collapsed buildings, the vertical rebar wereusually four in number, however majority of the building columns were found to beconstructed with six rebar in vertical direction. The intense damage was significantly
governed by the horizontal rebar (Fig. 2(a)). The horizontal rebar were found to be 6mm
diameter bars usually gaped in regular interval of 0.15m or more. The horizontal rebar
in infill walls are not found to be provided in residential constructions with exception to
Observed Damage Patterns on Buildings during 2015 Gorkha (Nepal) Earthquake
Observed damage patterns on buildings during 2015 Gorkha (Nepal) earthquake

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Nepalsome apartments. More significantly, the connection between various structuralcomponents was also found to be poor. In some cases, it has been observed that people
preferred welding for connection of vertical reinforcements rather than anchoring thus
failures were observed in those columns.

(b)

(a)
(c)

(d)

Fig. 1(a) Ground floor of residential buildings without infill walls (b) Ground floor ofan apartment building without infill wall (c) Soft storey failure of buildings and (d)exposed detailing showing insufficient rebar
4.1.3. Floating columns
In order to cover up maximum area, upper stories are constructed more in balconies. In
such practices, floating columns from first storey are commonly observed in residential
construction within as well as outside Kathmandu valley (Fig. 2(d)). Due to lack ofcontinuous load path during earthquakes, the lateral forces are not effectivelytransferred to the foundation. The overturning forces developed lead to buckle thecolumns of ground floor and subsequent damage was noticed in some buildings.
4.1.4. Soil investigation and foundation site selection
Soil investigation before construction is seldom performed for residential buildings in
Nepal. Even metropolitan cities, sub-metros and municipalities are not able to enforce
mandatory geotechnical investigation before construction. The severely damaged areasof Sitapaila and Gongabu have soil bearing capacities of 52 KN/m2 and 106 KN/m2
respectively. As per Nepal building code these sites are classified as weak to soft
foundation types (NBC, 1994) though effective remedies weren’t incorporated for222

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building constructions. Instead of foundation improvement, additional stories wereconstructed in weak columns of 0.23*0.23m.
Due to lack of microzonation and site-specific design spectrum, construction practices
are similar for all over Nepal. Though MRT is mandatory in many urban areas, most of
the recently declared municipalities lack the basic earthquake resistant features inresidential level. The effect of topographic amplification, ridge effect and local site
effects are clearly identified due to the more localized nature of damage during 2015
Gorkha earthquake.

(a)
(c)

(b)

(d)

Fig. 2: (a) Damage due to large gap between stirrups (b) beam-column joint defect (c)collapsed column due to welded stirrups and (d) floating column failure
4.1.5. Other damages and causes-

Building asymmetry
Load accumulation in upper stories
Building proximity
Non-structural element failure (staircases, water tanks and parapet walls, etc.)
Inclined and stepped foundation
Construction material and workmanship deficiencies (Fig. 2(b) and 2(c))

4.2. Construction and structural deficiencies and associated damages in URM
buildings
Most of the urban center in Kathmandu valley and older settlements outside Kathmandu
valley consists larger fraction of unreinforced masonry buildings constructed fromburnt-clay bricks.
4.1.6. Structural integrity
Almost all, except some URM buildings do not consist bands at various levels like; sill,
lintel or gable. Due to lack of proper bonding in masonry load bearing wall, out of plane
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collapse was more commonly observed in Kathmandu valley and other settlementsabundance of URM buildings (Fig. 3(a), 3(b)). In most of the URM building, theorthogonal walls were found to be behaving differently due to lack of proper tie
between such walls. Also due to lack of integration of several members within the
structural components, out of plane failures were more intense than any other type of
failure.

(a)

(b
)

(c)

(d)

Fig. 3(a) Out of plane collapse of brick masonry building due to lack of structural
integrity (b) out of plane collapse of dressed stone masonry building due to lack ofstructural integrity at Solukhumbu (c) Failure of masonry units due to lack of proper
binding and (d) Mud mortar used for reconstruction of URM building destroyed during
2015 Gorkha earthquake at Bhaktapur
4.1.7. Binding materials
The structural integrity depends also on monolithic and homogenous behavior ofmasonry structures; however the mud mortar used for binding the brick/stone units were
found to detached already and brick/stone units were found to be behaving separately(Fig. 3(c)). This binding problem led the severe devastation during 2015 Gorkha
earthquake in the historic settlements of Kathmandu, Lalitpur, Bhaktapur, Sankhu,
Harisiddi, Barpak, among others. Even after the earthquake damage people were foundto be using the same binding material for reconstruction (Fig. 3(d)). This could be
detrimental in future events.
4.2.3. Load path discontinuity
The reentrant corners and diaphragm discontinuities are also noticed in masonry
construction practices in Nepal. Masonry buildings up to six stories have been found

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inside Kathmandu valley and outside Kathmandu, the number of stories for masonrybuildings is limited to four. Sometimes in upper stories, projections were noticed andthe load transfer mechanism was not made continuous. Struts in some masonrybuildings performed the work of transferring the load into structural wall, but inmajority of buildings do not constitute struts.
4.2.5. Other damages and causes-

Shared walls and wall thickness
Inclined foundation and soil problems
Heavy roofs (roof tiles)
Age of buildings
Pounding and progressive failures

4.3. Construction and Structural deficiencies and associated damages in random
rubble masonry buildings
This building type in Nepal constitutes majority of buildings fraction in Nepal. These
are non-engineered constructions without following any earthquake resistantconstruction guideline. The rural construction is either guided by adobe or random
rubble masonry construction in terms of dry stone masonry buildings. Though rural
constructions are isolated type building units with lower height, preferably from one tothree stories yet deficiencies in terms of structural composition and construction
technology are widely noticed during field reconnaissance. Heavy wall of rubble stones
with irregular shape and size up to 0.53m thick was observed. Beside the irregularstones, in majority of houses, there was no cornerstone so out of plane failure in allorthogonal walls was commonly observed. Timber bands were seldom noticed in mostof the damaged houses in all reconnaissance sites, however the heavy roof like in theepicentral area of Barpak constructed from stone was also responsible for causing
severe damage. Smaller chips to heavy stone pieces were found to be used to constructwalls, sometimes such arrangement itself was found to be triggering the pancake
destruction houses due to lack of structural integrity. Those houses with timber elements
were found to be less damaged than the homogenously constructed stone houses.
4.4.Construction and Structural deficiencies and associated damages in adobebuildings
Adobe buildings are also non-engineered constructions prevalent in many urban fabrics
as well as in suburbs and villages in Nepal. Most of the adobe constructions constitute
either non-burnt clay brick walls or even sometimes clay units of irregular shapes. The
roofing may be of tiles, thatched or sometimes stones as well. The structural integrity is
not justified in adobe houses due to poor binding and non-homogenous construction.
Somehow, the brick units behave separately rather than combined action against theearthquake motion. The roof if provided with tiles is also heavy thus damages were
frequent in such houses during 2015 Gorkha earthquake. Adobe constructions are also
found to be one to three storied and houses with more heights were affected more than
the single storied adobe houses.
5. CONCLUSIONThe Gorkha earthquake of 25 April 2015 reflected the performance of various types ofbuildings. After field reconnaissance in buildings of various types, many types of
construction as well as structural deficiencies were identified. The RC, URM, random
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rubble construction and adobe construction were found to be the dominant construction
systems of Nepal. The majority fraction of damage was found to be consisted bydamage in URM, random rubble and adobe buildings of central Nepal. Moreover, RC
damage is found to be localized so many reasons except structural and construction
deficiencies like liquefaction, local site effects, and ground amplification, among others
may have contributed in building damage. The common types of failures in RC
construction were identified as the soft storey, pounding, shear failure, and otherfailures associated with construction as well as structural deficiencies like building
symmetry, detailing and others. Moreover, for URM constructions, the structural
integrity, heavy load accumulation, age, lack of bracing and pounding were the major
cause of complete collapse or out of plane failure. Similarly, binding and structural
integrity, lack of tying members, heavy gable and roof construction were the leading
cause of damage in random rubble construction and adobe constructions.
About 95% damage is shared by URM, random rubble and adobe buildings, so thisearthquake was more devastating towards such buildings in comparison to theperformance of RC buildings in affected districts. All the damage was noticeably
concentrated into non-engineered or pre-engineered buildings with major flaws inconstruction or structural components so it could be inferred that engineered
constructions should be plausible solution for seismically active regions like Nepal.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors are grateful to Prof. Dr. Steven Wesnousky (University of Nevada, Reno), Asst.
Prof. Dr. Deepak Chamlagain (Tribhuvan University, Nepal), Prof. Dr. Pennung
Warnitchai (Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand) and the local respondents andauthorities for their kind support during field reconnaissance in many districts of central
Nepal.
REFERENCES
Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), 2012. Nepal Housing and Population Census.
National Planning Commission, Government of Nepal.
Chaulagain, H., Rodrigues, H., Jara, J., Spacone, E., and Varum, H., 2014. Seismic
response of current RC buildings in Nepal: A comparative analysis of different
design/construction. Engineering Structures 49(2013):284-294.
Chaulagain, H., Rodrigues, H., Silva, V., Spacone, E., Varum, H., 2015. Seismic risk
assessment and hazard mapping in Nepal. Nat Hazards 78:583-602.
Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), 2002. The study on earthquake
disaster mitigation in the Kathmandu valley kingdom of Nepal.
UnitedStatesGeological
Survey(USGS)(2015)
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/us20002926#general_summary

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Safetyof Megain AsiaField Investigation in affected area due to the2015 Nepal Earthquake by AIJ reconnaissanceteam: Outline of damage and damage
classification result of high-rise apartmentbuildings
Koichi KUSUNOKI1, Susumu KONO2, Seitaro TAJIRI3,
and Hisatoshi KASHIWA4
1
Associate Professor, Earthquake Research Institute, the University of Tokyo, Japankusunoki@eri.u-tokyo.ac.jp
2
Professor, Materials and Structures Laboratory, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan
3
Associate Professor, Faculty of Engineering, the University of Tokyo, Japan
4
Senior Researcher, Structural Engineering Dept., Building research Institute, Japan
ABSTRACTDuring the 2015 Mw 7.8 and Mw 7.3 Nepal earthquakes, R/C and masonry buildings
were significantly damaged. After the event, Architectural Institute of Japan (AIJ)
dispatched several reconnaissance teams to the affected area to conduct field
investigation. In this paper, discussion is concentrated on the damage of the high-riseapartment buildings, which have 9 to 18 stories. Eleven apartment complexes, which have
36 apartment buildings, were investigated. Most of all buildings suffered slight or very
minor damage. Non-structural brick walls were, however, severely damaged and some
portion fallen down, which is crucial to residents. The outline of their damage will bepresented. Damage level of 5 apartment buildings were classified according to theJapanese Damage Classification Method. The method classifies all members into 5
damage levels, then calculates the ratio of residual seismic capacity to the original one.
The ratios of the buildings were 96%, 90%, 94%, 97%, and 98%, respectively. Three ofthem were classified as “slight damage”, and two of them were done as “minor damage”.
It can be said that the structural damage level of the high-rise apartment buildings was
low.
Keywords: reinforced concrete, high-rise apartment buildings, earthquake damage,damage classification
1. INTRODUCTION
The earthquake of Mw7.8 occurred at 80km north-west from Kathmandu city at 11:56,
April 25th, 2015. After that, anther earthquake occurred at north east of Kathmandu city
at 12:51, April 12, 2015. It was reported by Nepalese government that number of casualty
was 8,460 and more than 20,000 people were injured due to earthquakes (as of May 15th).

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October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

Facing this catastrophic events, the research committee on earthquake disaster ofArchitectural Institute of Japan (AIJ) started to gather information on the disaster, andsummoned an emergent meeting. During the meeting, it was decided to dispatch a disasterreconnaissance team to the affected area led by Dr. Kusunoki (Earthquake ResearchInstitute, the University of Tokyo). The reconnaissance team had three groups. This paper
introduce outline of the AIJ reconnaissance team and presents the investigation result ofteam A, of which target was the damage investigation of high-rise apartment building.
2. OUTLINE OF AIJ RECONNAISSANCE TEAM
Table 1 shows the member list of the AIJ reconnaissance team. Fifteen researchers joined
the team. Field investigation of main team was conducted during May 23rd to May 31st.
Ground motion team conducted field survey during May 1st to 10th. The objectives of the
AIJ reconnaissance team were to investigate the followings;
1. The damage of middle- to high-rise buildings
2. The damage of the buildings outside of Kathmandu City
3. The damage of historical and monumental buildings/structures
4. The damage of the buildings inside of Kathmandu City
5. The damage ratio in a specific area inside Kathmandu City
6. The strong motion records
Table 1. Member list
Leader, Team A Leader

Team B Leader

Team C Leader

Ground motion

Koichi KUSUONKI
Susumu KONO
Seitaro TAJIRI
Hisatoshi KASHIWA
Yasushi SANADA
Yuebing Li
Yukiko NAKAMURA
Takaya NAKAMURA
Ayako MAESHIMA
Takeyuki OKUBOYo HIBINO
Akihiro NAKAMURA
Naoki ONISHI
Yusuke MAIDA
Nobuo TAKAI

ERI, Univ. of Tokyo
Tokyo Tech. InstituteUniv. of Tokyo
BRI
Osaka Univ.
Osaka Univ.
Chiba Univ.
Niigata Univ.
Meikai Univ.
Ritsumeikan Univ.
Hiroshima Univ.
Nagoya Univ.
Hokkaido Univ.
Chiba Univ.
Hokkaido Univ.

In order to achieve the objectives, the main team was divided into three teams, Team A,
Team B, and Team C. Team A investigated damage of high-rise apartment buildings. In
total, 13 complexes (38 buildings) were investigated. Architectural/structural drawings,
calculation documents, and soil test reports of 4 complexes (13 buildings) were obtained.
Damage classification was conducted for 5 buildings according to Japanese standard(JBDPA, 2001). This paper introduce the investigation results of Team A.
Team B investigated damage of seven world heritages and two historical districts in
Kathmandu City. Masonry buildings and R/C frame structure with brick infilled wall

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buildings were mainly investigated in 4 districts outside of Kathmandu city. Some schoolbuildings were retrofitted before the earthquakes. The effectiveness of the retrofitting was
also investigated. Damage ratio of the buildings in 4 world heritages was also measured.
Team C investigated damages of R/C and masonry buildings in Kathmandu city
(Gongabu district). Twenty-one severely damaged buildings were investigated in details
and damage classification method was applied for one of these buildings. Damage levelsof all buildings in five 500mൈ350m blocks in Gongabu district were classified according
to EMS-98 method. The total number of classified buildings was about 1,200.
3. Damage outline of investigated high-rise apartment buildings
3.1 Outline of the investigated buildings
Table 2 shows the investigated building list by Team A. Figure 1 shows the locations of
the investigated buildings. Thirteen complexes with 38 buildings, of which number ofstories was 8- to 17-story, were investigated. All buildings are in Kathmandu city. They
are R/C frame structures with continuous shear wall mainly around elevator shaft. Nonstructural brick walls are used as partition walls and exterior walls, which are not fixed tosurrounding structural members. Architectural/structural drawings, calculation
documents, and soil test reports of 4 complexes (13 buildings) were obtained. Damage
classification was conducted for five buildings according to Japanese standard (JBDPA,
2001). The structural damage levels of the buildings without damage classification wereclassified according to the visual investigation. The damage of non-structural brick walls
was not taken into account. As shown in Table 2, the most damage levels of theinvestigated buildings were slight to light except Building E. It can be said that most of
all investigated buildings have enough seismic capacity to the occurred earthquakes. Non-

Table 2. Investigated building list
Building
Building A
Building B*1
Building C*1
Building D
Building E
Building F
Building G
Building H
Building I
Building J*1, *2
Building K
Building L*1, *2
Building M

Number of Buildings
Number of Stories
3, 13-story
3, 15-story
2, 15-story
1, 11-story
5, 15-story and 16-story
3, 15-story
1, 8-story
1, 9-story4, 8-story, 11-story, and 13-story
4, 10-story, 12-story, and 13-story
4, 11-story, 13-story, and 16-story
2, 14-story
5, 17-story

Structural Damage level
SlightSlightSlightSlightLight to Moderate
SlightSlightSlightSlight2: Slight, 2: Light
Slight to Light
SlightSlight*1: Building information such as structural/architectural drawings, calculation documents and/or soil test reports areavailable.
*2: Damage classification was conducted

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October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

structural brick walls were, however, severely damaged as shown in Figure 2. The
damage of brick walls was observed in the all investigated buildings.

GongabuE)

Ring road

A)

H)

M)

F)

D)

G)

I)
L)
B)
C)

J)
K)

Figure 1: Location of the investigated buildings

Figure 2: Damage of non-structural brick walls
4. Damage classification
4.1 Calculation method
According to the Japanese Standard (JBDPA, 2001), the damage level of building is evaluatedusing the residual seismic performance ratio, Ʉ, which is calculated according to damage level ofvertical structural members and the failure mode of members. At first, the damage of verticalmembers are classified according to Table 3. The standard does not consider the damage of beams,
since beams of Japanese old buildings tend to be stronger than columns. In this study, damage ofbeams are also classified with Table 3. If the damage class of beam is severer than that ofconnecting column, the damage class of beam is applied for that of connecting column. The
damage of non-structural brick walls was ignored in the calculation.

The residual seismic capacity ratio, R, is calculated with considering the effect of damage
according to its class. In order to consider the effect of damage, flexural and shear

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strengths are reduced by multiplying the seismic capacity reduction factor, Ʉ, which isdefined according to their damage classes. Seismic capacity reduction factor for brittle
column and shear wall are shown in Table 4. Seismic capacity reduction factors for otherfailure modes are defined in the standard (JBDPA, 2001).
Table 3: Damage class of columns and walls
Damage
Class
I
II
III
IV
V

Description of Damage- Visible narrow cracks on concrete surface (Crack width is lessthan 0.2 mm)- Visible clear cracks on concrete surface (Crack width is about 0.2-1.0 mm)- Local crush of concrete cover- Remarkable wide cracks (Crack width is about 1.0 - 2.0 mm)- Remarkable crush of concrete with exposed reinforcing bars
- Spalling off of concrete cover (Crack width is more than 2.0 mm)- Buckling of reinforcing bars
- Cracks in core concrete- Visible vertical and/or lateral deformation in columns and/or walls

Table 4 Seismic capacity reduction factor, Ʉ, for brittle column and shear wall

Damage
Class
I
II
III
IV
V

Brittle column
DamagedAfter repair
Damaged
0.95
0.95
0.95
0.6
0.95 (crack grouted)
0.6
0.3
0.9 (crack grouted)
0.3
0.8 (concrete
00jacketing)
0.7 (concrete
00jacketing)

Shear wall
After repair
0.95
0.95 (crack grouted)
0.9 (crack grouted)
0.8 (replaced by newwall)
0.7 (replaced by newwall)

The damage class of the building is defined as follows according to the calculated R;
Slight95 % d R
Light
80 % d R < 95 %Moderate
60 % d R < 80 %Heavy
R < 60 %Collapse
deemed to have R | 0 due to overall/partial collapse
4.2 Damage classification for Building J
Damage level of Building J was classified according to the Japanese Standard (JBDPA, 2001).
The Building J has 4 towers, Tower A to D. They have 12-story+2-BF, 10-story+2BF, 13story+2BF, and 13-story+2BF, respectively. Basement floors are for parking space and they are
all connected. Since most of all members in the first story did not have finishing, the damage
classification was conducted for the first story. The damage class of all members in the first story
are shown in Figure 3 to Figure 6. The Roman number shows the damage level of each member
as shown in Table 3. The subscripts of “F”, “S”, and “B” mean “flexural damage”, “shear
damage”, and “classified by the damage level of connecting beam”, respectively. The calculated
R indexes were 93%, 90%, 94%, and 98%, respectively. Although classified damage levels ofField Investigation in affected area due to the 2015 Nepal Earthquake by AIJ reconnaissance team:
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Tower A, B, and C are “Light”, the R values are close to border of 95%, and it can be said thatthe damage is not serious.

Figure 3: Damage classification result of Tower A

Figure 4: Damage classification result of Tower B

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Figure 5: Damage classification result of Tower C

Figure 6: Damage classification result of Tower D
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October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

Figure 7 shows the damage of non-structural brick walls. Although the damage level ofthe structure was slight, the non-structural brick walls were severely damaged and somebricks fell down to floor or even streets. No anchor was observed to fix the brick wall tothe surrounding R/C structural members. From the reparability viewpoint, developmentof retrofitting technique for the brick walls is urgent. Severe damage of non-structural
brick walls was observed in the all investigated buildings.

Figure 7: Damage of non-structural walls

7. CONCLUDING REMARKS
Damage of 13 high-rise apartment complexes (38 buildings) due to 2015 Nepal
Earthquake was reported in this paper. Structural damage of most buildings were slightto light, which means that the buildings have enough seismic capacity against theoccurred earthquakes. The damage of non-structural brick walls were, however, severe,and some of them fell down to the streets, since they were not fixed to the surrounding
structural members. Prompt measure to prevent collapse of non-structural brick wall isurgent.
SYMPATHY NOTE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The investigation members would like to express deepest sympathy to all victims. The
investigation was organized by Architectural Institute of Japan. We appreciate Prof.
Kabeyasawa, the chair of research committee on earthquake disaster for his arrangements.
The Japan Building Disaster Prevention Association also financially supported theinvestigation. Dr. Prakirna Tuladhar, Senior Divisional Engineer, Department of Urban
Development and Building and Dr. Krishna, Tribhuvan University with his colleagues
kindly contributed our onsite investigation.
REFERENCES
The Japan Building Disaster Prevention Association (JBDPA), 2001. The standard ofdamage evaluation and the guidance of repair technology for the buildings hit byearthquakes, Tokyo, Japan. (in Japanese)234

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Field investigation in affected area due tothe 2015 Nepal earthquake by
AIJ reconnaissance team: Wall-to-floor area
ratios of masonry school buildings
Yasushi SANADA1, Yukiko NAKAMURA2, Takaya NAKAMURA3,
Yuebing LI4 and Takeyuki OKUBO5
1
Associate Professor, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University, Japansanada@arch.eng.osaka-u.ac.jp
2
Associate Professor, Graduate School of Engineering, Chiba University, Japan
3
Associate Professor, Faculty of Engineering, Niigata University, Japan
4
Assistant Professor, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University, Japan
5
Professor, College of Science and Engineering, Ritsumeikan University, Japan
ABSTRACTDuring the 2015 Mw 7.8 and Mw 7.3 Nepal earthquakes, R/C and masonry buildings
were significantly damaged. After the event, Architectural Institute of Japan (AIJ)
dispatched several reconnaissance teams to the affected area to conduct field
investigation.
The authors’ post-earthquake field investigation was conducted in the end of May 2015
to obtain specific data on buildings damaged by the earthquakes. The investigation
covered Kathmandu, Bhaktapur, Dhading, Lalitpur, Nuwakot, Sindhupalchok districts.
This paper reports the investigation results on earthquake damage to masonry schoolbuildings in the above affected area. Severe damage was observed to masonry schoolbuildings constructed by vulnerable materials—namely, stone masonry with mud
mortar. Moreover, the paper summarizes the Japanese seismic performance evaluation
method for screening seismically vulnerable buildings based on an index of wall-tototal floor area ratio (wall ratio). Therefore, focusing on severely damaged buildings,
the wall ratios were evaluated for several types of masonry school buildings. The upperbounds of the wall ratios are feasible for prospective application to a simple screening
method for seismically vulnerable school masonry buildings in Nepal.
Keywords: building structure, earthquake damage, EMS, masonry construction, seismic
vulnerability assessment
1. INTRODUCTION
During the 2015 Mw 7.8 and Mw 7.3 Nepal earthquakes, R/C and masonry buildings
were significantly damaged. After the event, Architectural Institute of Japan (AIJ)
dispatched several reconnaissance teams to the affected area to conduct field
investigation.

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2015,
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Nepal
October2015,
Kathmandu,
Nepal

The authors’ post-earthquake field investigation was conducted in the end of May 2015
to obtain specific data on buildings damaged by the earthquakes. The investigation
covered Kathmandu, Bhaktapur, Dhading, Lalitpur, Nuwakot, Sindhupalchok districts,
as shown in Figure 1. This paper reports the investigation results on earthquake damage
to masonry school buildings in the above affected area. Figure 2 shows the route map of
the investigation.

Area of Figure (b)(a) Map of Nepal

Epicenter of main shock

Investigated districts

Epicenter of aftershockon 12/May/2015(b) Investigated districts on map
Figure 1: Investigated districts

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Epicenter ofmain shock

Area of Figure (b)20 km

Epicenter ofaftershock on
12/May/2015(a) Map with the epicenters

20 km(b) Route map
Figure 2: Investigated route
The objectives of the authors’ investigation were
1) to obtain data on building characteristics and damage in the suburbs of Kathmandu,
where the epicenters of the main shock or aftershock on 12/May/2015 were closer
than Kathmandu, and2) to compare the intensity of ground motions based on damage to similar buildings in
the investigated area.
In particular, the investigation was performed focusing on school buildings to complete
the second objective, by1) collecting structural drawings of school buildings (standard design and retrofit
design) from the local boards of education of the investigated districts,
Field investigation
inareaaffected
to the2015
Nepal earthquakebyField investigationin affected
due areato thedue
2015
Nepal
earthquake
by AIJ reconnaissance
team:
AIJ
reconnaissanceteam:
Wall-to-floorarea
ratiosofmasonryschoolbuildings
Wall-to-floor area ratios of masonry school buildings237

October
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Kathmandu,
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October2015,
Kathmandu,
Nepal2) evaluating quantitative data on e.g. wall ratio (introduced below)-damage
relationship based on onsite investigation results on structural characteristics anddamage of school buildings, and3) performing inventory surveys to obtain damage ratios at some limited areas aroundthe investigated schools.
In this paper, the investigation results focusing on the second item above are mainly
summarized as follows.
2. WALL-TO-TOTAL FLOOR AREA RATIOThe Japanese seismic evaluation standard (JBDPA, 2005) provides a rapid screening
method to judge seismically safer (or more vulnerable) reinforced concrete (RC)existing buildings with sufficient (or insufficient) amounts of walls as well as columns.
A threshold for the judgement was given based on the statistical data from the pastearthquake disasters in Japan. The basic concept had been originally proposed by Shiga(1969) presenting an application of wall-to-total floor area ratio (hereafter, wall ratio),
Aw/ȈAf, where Aw is the wall area in the first story (cm2) and ȈAf is the total floorarea above the first story (m2), to estimating seismic resistances of earthquake-damaged
RC buildings.
The above index of Aw/ȈAf is simple and effective for screening seismically vulnerable
RC buildings. Therefore, the authors evaluated wall ratios in several masonry schoolbuildings to apply the index to masonry buildings in Nepal in the future.
3. EARTHQUAKE DAMAGE TO MASONRY SCHOOL BUILDINGS
Ten masonry school buildings were investigated in detail during the limited period of
the onsite investigation, as listed in Table 1.
The damage grades were classified into five grades according to European
Macroseismic Scale 1998 (EMS98) (1998), as illustrated in Figure 3. Figure 4 shows
the distribution of the damage grades obtained as above. 80% of the investigatedbuildings completely or partially collapsed.
Moreover, the wall ratios for several severely damaged buildings are calculated andpresented in Table 1, however, where the calculated values are shown in percentage
terms. Consequently, the maximum wall ratios for severely damaged buildings were
12.5% and 26.6% for Brick-Mud and Stone-Mud buildings, respectively.
Typical damage to masonry school buildings are summarized in the following.
3.1 Complete collapse
Several masonry school buildings had completely collapsed, which corresponded to
Grade 5 in Figure 3. Figure 5(a) exemplifies a typical collapsed building. The complete
collapses of the investigated buildings seemed to be caused following brittle out-ofplane failure of masonry walls mentioned below.

238

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3.2 Out-of-plane failure
Out-of-plane failure was observed to masonry walls in completely or partially collapsedbuildings, as shown in Figure 5(b). Poor seismic resistances in the out-of-plane
direction seemed to aggravate damage to masonry buildings. It sometimes resulted inloss of roof supports, as shown in the figure.
3.3 Vertical crack opening at corner
Vertical cracks were also observed at the corners of the investigated buildings, as shownin Figure 5(c), which might be an initial stage to the out-of-plane failure. Traditional
strengthening material installed at corner between orthogonal masonry walls which isapplied to historical buildings such as Newalese architecture, as shown in Figure 6, canbe effective to prevent/reduce this type of damage, then the out-of-plane failure.
3.4 Shear crack
Shear cracks on masonry walls in the diagonal direction were also typical damage,which indicated that the walls resisted seismic forces in the in-plane direction.
Therefore, masonry walls may be a lateral force-resisting element if the out-of-plane
failure can be prevented.
Table 1: Investigated masonry school buildings
Name

Location

Number of Type of wall
story
construction*1
Brick3
MortarBrick2
Surki*2
Brick1
MortarBrick1
MortarBrick3
UnkownDamagegrade

Wall ratio*3(%)

27.67°N4
ʊ85.43°E
B school
27.67°N4
ʊ(1)85.43°E
B school
27.67°N1
ʊ(2)85.43°E
B school
27.67°N1
ʊ(3)85.43°E
27.69°N
C school4ʊ85.39°E
27.69°N
L: 12.5
D school1
Brick-Mud5
85.41°E
S: 7.827.78°N
L: 26.6
E school
1
Stone-Mud585.71°E
S: 18.1
27.77°N
L: 2.7F school3
Stone-Mud585.72°E
S: 2.927.78°N
L: 11.1
G school
1
Stone-Mud485.02°E
S: 11.5
27.85°N
L: 12.2
H school
1
Stone-Mud585.04°E
S: 12.7*1 The former and latter materials indicate masonry unit and joint, respectively.
*2 Surki is a mixture of brick powder, lime, and rice husk.
*3 L and S mean the longitudinal and span directions of the buildings.
A school

Field investigation in affected area due to the 2015 Nepal earthquake by AIJ reconnaissance team:
Fieldarea
investigationin affected
areabuildings
due to the 2015 Nepal earthquake byWall-to-floor
ratios of masonryschool
AIJ reconnaissance team: Wall-to-floor area ratios of masonry school buildings239

October
2015,
Kathmandu,
Nepal
October2015,
Kathmandu,
Nepal

Figure 3: EMS98

Figure 4: Distribution of classified damage grades

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Safetyof Megain AsiaICUS Report 80(a) Complete collapse(c) Vertical crack opening at corner(b) Out-of-plane failure(d) Shear cracks

Figure 5: Typical damage observed to the investigated masonry school buildings

Figure 6: Strengthening material used for historical buildings
4. CONCLUDING REMARKSThis paper summarizes the authors’ post-earthquake field investigation results
performed in the suburbs of Kathmandu, and reports major findings on earthquakedamage to masonry school buildings from the investigation, as follows:¾ Completely and partially collapsed masonry school buildings occupied 80% of ten
investigated buildings.
Field investigation
inareaaffected
to the2015
Nepal earthquakebyField investigationin affected
due areato thedue
2015
Nepal
earthquake
by AIJ reconnaissance
team:
AIJ
reconnaissanceteam:
Wall-to-floorarea
ratiosofmasonryschoolbuildings
Wall-to-floor area ratios of masonry school buildings241

October
2015,
Kathmandu,
Nepal
October2015,
Kathmandu,
Nepal¾ Typical failure patterns observed to the investigated buildings were complete
collapse, out-of-plane failure of walls, vertical cracking at corner, and shear
cracking. The first three damage patterns seemed to be caused by seismic forces in
the out-of-plane direction. Traditional strengthening material provided at corner
between orthogonal masonry walls for historical buildings can contribute toprevent/reduce these failure patterns. On the other hand, the last pattern resulted
from in-plane forces, which indicates that masonry walls can contribute to resist
seismic forces if the out-of-plane failure is prevented.
¾ The maximum wall area-to-total floor area ratios, Aw/ȈAf calculated for several
completely or partially collapsed buildings were 12.5% and 26.6% for Brick-Mudand Stone-Mud buildings, respectively. Collecting more data may provide athreshold for rapidly screening seismically vulnerable masonry buildings in Nepal.
SYMPATHY NOTE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The investigation members would like to express deepest sympathy to all victims. The
investigation was organized by Architectural Institute of Japan. We appreciate Prof.
Toshimi Kabeyasawa, the chair of research committee on earthquake disaster for his
arrangements. The Japan Building Disaster Prevention Association also financially
supported the investigation. Dr. Prakirna Tuladhar, Senior Divisional Engineer,
Department of Urban Development and Building and Dr. Krishna Bhetwal, AssistantProfessor, Tribhuvan University with his colleagues kindly contributed our onsite
investigation.
REFERENCES
Grunthal, G., 1998. European Macroseismic Scale 1998, Conseil de l’Europe Cahiersdu Centre Europeen de Geodynamique et de Seismologie, Luxembourg. Available on:
http://www.franceseisme.fr/EMS98_Original_english.pdf.
The Japan Building Disaster Prevention Association (JBDPA), 2005. English Version,
1st, Standard for Seismic Evaluation of Existing Reinforced Concrete Buildings, 2001.
Shiga, T., 1969. Earthquake Damage and the Amount of Walls in Reinforced Concrete
Buildings. Fourth World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Chile, 2467-2472.

242

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New Technologies
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Field Investigation in affected area due to the2015 Nepal Earthquake by AIJ reconnaissanceteam: Damage assessment and seismic capacity
evaluation of buildings in Gongabu, Kathmandu<R+,%,121DRNL21,6+,$NLKLUR1$.$085$DQG<XVXNH0$,'$
$VVRF3URI*UDGXDWH6FKRRORI(QJLQHHULQJ+LURVKLPD8QLYHUVLW\-DSDQKLELQR#KLURVKLPDXDFMS
$VVLVW3URI)DFXOW\RI(QJLQHHULQJ+RNNDLGR8QLYHUVLW\-DSDQ$VVLVW3URI*UDGXDWH6FKRRORI(QYLURQPHQWDO6WXGLHV1DJR\D8QLYHUVLW\-DSDQ$VVLVW3URI*UDGXDWH6FKRRORI(QJLQHHULQJ&KLED8QLYHUVLW\-DSDQABSTRACT

During the 2015 Mw 7.8 and Mw 7.3 Nepal earthquakes, reinforced concrete andmasonry buildings were significantly damaged. After the event, Architectural Instituteof Japan (AIJ) dispatched several reconnaissance teams to the affected area to conduct
field investigation. The team of authors conducted field investigation in Gongabu,
Kathmandu to collect information with respect to damage of buildings in Nepal toassess the damage of buildings and to predict seismic capacity of buildings in Nepal.
Most of the severely damaged buildings, have similar structural details: reinforcement
arrangements; anchorage; and joint, except difference of number of floors, dimensions
and use application, were collapsed due to soft first story mechanism formed.
According to damage classification of buildings, severely damaged buildings wereconcentrated in some small areas. The mechanism of soft first story in one of five story
reinforced concrete buildings with non-structural brick walls was investigated bystructural strength considering failure mechanism with Japanese structural calculation
method and inelastic response analysis of members. The predicted failure mechanism
was almost agreed with observation and seismic capacity of the building was predicted.
Keywords: Seismic capacity, Reinforced concrete buildings, Masonry buildings,
Damage evaluation, Failure mechanism,1752'8&7,21
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243

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
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assessment
and toseismic
capacityof bybuildings
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Field Investigationin affectedarea duethe 2015
Nepalevaluation
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AIJ reconnaissance245
Kathmandu
Damage assessment and seismic capacity evaluation of buildings in Gongabu, Kathmandu

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
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Nepal Earthquake
by AIJ reconnaissance
Field Investigationin affected
due areato thedue
2015
Nepal
Earthquake
by AIJ reconnaissance
team:
team:
Damageassessment
andseismic
capacity
evaluationofbuildings
in Gongabu,
Damage assessment and seismic capacity evaluation of buildings in Gongabu, Kathmandu
Kathmandu

247

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
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New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia
New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Ýharacterization of soil profile ofÜhaka city using electrical resistivitytø ÷Mehedi Ahmed ANSARY1, B.S. Pushpendue BISWAS2 and Abul KHAIR3
1
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering& Director BNUS, BUET, Bangladesh
ansary@ce.buet.ac.bd
2
Research Engineer, BNUS, BUET, Bangladesh
3
Research Engineer, BNUS, BUET, Bangladesh
ABSTRACTOver the past 45 years, Dhaka city has experienced a rapid growth of urban populationand it will continue in the future due to several unavoidable reasons. As a result,different new areas are being reclaimed inside and near Dhaka city. In most cases, thedredged material is silty sand with high fines content and since Dhaka city exists inseismic Zone-II(BNBC1993) of Bangladesh, this silty sand layer may liquefy if anearthquake of sufficient magnitude occurs. The main aim of the study is to characterize
the sub soil profile based on resistivity. Three reclaimed locations and one original soil
location within Dhaka city have been selected as the study area. The Electrical
Resistivity Tomography (ERT) method have been undertaken with several different
electrode spacing. WennerSchlumberger array has been used as electrodes array.
Measurement has been performed with electrodes positioned on the surface. Primarydata have been processed through a 2-D inverse method, using the program Res2DInv.
The data have been processed by creating a pseudo-section of the apparent resistivity
values using RES2DINV software. Computer iterations have been then carried out and
two dimensional (2-D) resistivity contour maps have been created. For the threereclaimed locations, three distinct soil layers have been identified namely Filling Sand,
Clay and Sand Mixture and a Sand layer. Sometimes an additional clay layer has been
observed. The original ground is underlain by mainly by clay layers and below that asand layer exists.
Keywords: electrodes, iterations, pseudo-section, resistivity, soil profile.
1. INTRODUCTION
Ground Resistivity survey methods have been widely used in order to solve engineering,archeology, environmental and geological problems in the last decades. Subsurface
resistivity distributions are measured by applying electrical current into the ground byusing two current electrodes. The potential differences caused by the flow of current
between any two points in linear line with the current electrodes are then measured by apair of potential electrodes. From the measured voltage (V) and current (I) values, theresistance at the specified point in the subsurface can be determined.

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Electrical geophysical methods have proven to be fairly effective in delineating
inorganic contaminants in the subsurface. The mechanism and responses are fairly wellunderstood. Their application for mapping organic contaminants in the subsurface, inparticular non-aqueous phase liquids is not as well accepted nor the mechanisms as wellunderstood. Various surveys have reported results conducted over subsurface organic
contamination; however the actual anomaly associated with the organic contamination
has been difficult to ascertain over other factors caused by variations in the porosity,
degree of saturation, mineralogy, and structure (Pitchford et al., 1989).
Electronic conduction, which is conduction through the rock’s mineral compositions,occurs mainly through metallic ore minerals, providing that these minerals exist in
dense enough concentration. However, most conducting minerals rarely exist in
sufficient quantity in a rock composition, especially granite, to have considerable effecton the electrical properties of host rock. This conduction is controlled by matrix
properties (semi conduction, lattice defects, and conductive accessories) which often
resulted in very high resistivity values (Parkhomenko, 1967).
For 2D resistivity imaging, it is important to have a large set of data recorded along asurvey line to effectively map the complex resistivity distribution of subsurface
structure. The most practical way to acquire such large amount of data is by using
automated multi-electrode data acquisition system. In the interpretation of groundresistivity survey, it is important to differentiate between apparent resistivity and true
resistivity. Apparent resistivity can be defined as the volumetric average of aheterogeneous half-space, except that the averaging is not done arithmetically but by acomplex weighing function dependent on electrode’s configurations (Dahlin, 2001)
2. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDYIn practice, there are a lot of factors that can affect resistivity pseudo section imaging.
Apparent resistivity is measured instead of true resistivity due to unknown near surface
strata with different resistivity. This affects the conduction of current through earthmaterial and thus affects the resistivity measurement. Most of field resistivity surveys
conducted by geophysicist are not always validated by laboratory measurement. The
difficulty in obtaining the core sample, where the drilling works should be preceded byresistivity survey has made it difficult for geophysicist to analyze samples in laboratory(Nguyen and Garambois, 2005).
The electrical resistivity method allows the calculation of the resistivity present in soil.
The calculation of resistivity makes it possible to obtain information about the subsoil
nature and structure. Applying a potential difference ('V) to the two poles of aconductor, in it will pass a current of intensity (I) which is related to the potential
difference from Ohm's law:
R = 'V/I
Where,
R= electrical resistance that depends on the nature and geometric characteristics of the
conductor.
ΔV = difference of potential measured between M and N [V]
I = current injected into soil [A]252

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For each acquisition performed in the selected spreading, the following formula isgenerally applied:ρ = (ΔV/I). K
Where,
ρ = apparent resistivity [Ω m]
ΔV = difference of potential measured between M and N [V]
I = current injected into soil [A]K = geometric coefficient related to the sounding being usedρ (spell it ‘rho’) is known as resistivity, is measured in Ω*m and provides usefulelements for identifying the nature of the rock types investigated.
2.1 Electrode array
Common array types are Wenner array Wenner-Schlumberger array Dipole-dipole array Pole-dipole
 Multiple gradient array
Figure 1 show the Wenner- Schlumberger array which has been used in this study.

Figure 1: Wenner- Schlumberger array (www.geoelectrical.com)
2.2 Types of surveys and models
In geophysical inversion, the finding is a model that gives a response that is similar to
the actual measured data. The models used can be classified as 1-D, 2-D and 3-D.
2-D electrical imaging survey: A 2-D imaging survey is usually carried out with acomputer controlled resistivity meter system connected to a multi-electrode cablesystem. The control software automatically selects the appropriate four electrodes foreach measurement to give 2-D coverage of the subsurface. Figure 2 below shows theSequence of measurements to build up a pseudo-section using a computer controlled
multi-electrode survey setup.
2.3 The software RES2DINVRES2DINV is a computer program that will automatically determine a two-dimensional(2-D) resistivity model for the subsurface for the data obtained from electrical imaging
surveys (Griffiths and Barker, 1993). This program is designed to invert large data sets(with about 200 to 21000 data points) collected with a system with a large number ofelectrodes (about 25 to 16000 electrodes). The 2-D model used by the inversion
program which consists of a number of rectangular blocks. A forward modelingsubroutine is used to calculate the apparent resistivity values, and a non-linear leastCharacterization of soil profile of Dhaka city using electrical resistivity tomography (ERT)
Characterization of soil profile of Dhaka city using electrical resistivity tomography (ert)253

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squares optimization technique is used for the inversion routine (deGroot-Hedlin andConstable, 1990; Loke and Barker, 1996).

Figure 2: Sequence of measurements to build up a pseudo-section using a computer
controlled multi-electrode survey setup (source: PASI –2014)
3 METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY
The research has been conducted with the following methodology:
3.1 Study Area
Four different points of Dhaka city is selected as the study area. Table 1 presents thename, dates and location names of the survey points and Figure 3 shows the points (redstar marked) of the study area of Dhaka city.
Table 1: Details of the study area
Sl.
no

Date

Name of the point ofstudy area

01
02
03
04

13/10/2014
16/11/2014
17/11/2014
18/11/2014

Kamrangir Char
BosilaAftab Nagor
BUET Play Ground

Location
LatitudeLongitude
23°42’34” N
90°22’04” E
23°44’32” N
90°21’10” E
23°45’38” N
90°27’02” E
23°43’19” N
90°23’48” E

City
Dhaka
Dhaka
Dhaka
Dhaka

3.2 Data collection
The Electrical Resistivity Tomography data have been gathered through electrodes oflength equal to 50 cm, partially driven into the ground. The electrodes were thenconnected through multichannel cables, adopting the Wenner-Schlumberger array
configuration.

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Figure 3: shows the points (red star marked) of the study area of Dhaka city.
The details of the data collection points are discussed below.
Kamrangir Char
 Low land area which is situated at a distance of about 500m-600m fromthe Buriganga River.
 Number of Electrodes used = 32
 Electrode spacing = 1m
 Three data acquisitions were made, two parallel acquisitions @ 5m apartand one cross acquisition across the center of the parallel acquisitions.

Characterization of soil profile of Dhaka city using electrical resistivity tomography (ERT)
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Bosila

Number of electrodes used = 32
Two data acquisitions were made, one parallel acquisition and one crossacquisition across the center of the parallel acquisition.
Spacing between electrodes of parallel acquisition is 2m and spacing
between electrodes of cross acquisition is 1.5m

Aftab Nagor Semi-submerged land during rainy season
 Number of electrodes used = 31
 Electrode spacing = 3m
 Two data acquisitions were made, one parallel acquisition and one crossacquisition across the center of the parallel acquisition.
BUET Play Ground Number of electrodes used = 32
 Electrode spacing = 3m
 Four data acquisitions were made, two parallel acquisitions @ 5m apartand two cross acquisitions @ 5m apart across the center of the parallelacquisition.
3.3 Data processing and analysis
The data collected from the survey have been analyzed with the software RES2DINV.
RES2DINV is a computer program that automatically determines a two-dimensional (2D) resistivity model for the subsurface for the data obtained from electrical imaging
surveys.
4 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
Primary data were processed through a 2-D inverse method, using the program
Res2DINV. The presented figures are the results of smoothness-constrained inversion;these outputs best fit the situation observed in the sites. The validity of these results is
supported by the low RMS error. Table 2 presents reference resistivity values forvarious materials.
Table 2: Reference resistivity values for various materials
Type of soil or waterSea water
Clay
Ground well and spring water
Clay and sand mixtures
Shale, Slate, Sandstone etc.
Peat, Loam and Mud
Lake and brook water
Sand
Moraine gravel
Ridge gravel
Solid granite
Ice

256

Typical Resistivity (Ωm)
2
40
50
100
120
150
250
2000
3000
15000
25000
100000Usual limit (Ωm)
0.1-108-70
10-1504-300
10-1005-250
100-400
200-3000
40-10000
30-30000
10000-50000
10000-100000

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1) Kamrangir CharThe soil profile of the Kamrangir Char is shown in the Table 3 along with analysed
resistivity values. Figure 4 and Figure 5 show the model resistivity of ERT at
Kamrangir Char for parallel acquisition and cross acquisition respectively.

Figure 4: Model resistivity of ERT at Figure 5: Model resistivity of ERT at
Kamrangir Char Parallel acquisition
Kamrangir Char Cross acquisition
Table 3: Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) result at Kamrangir Char
Depth (meter)
0 to 2.62
2.62 to 4.99
4.99 to 5.76

Soil Description
Filling Sand
Clay and Sand mixture
Sand

Resistivity ranges (Ω m)
200-666
10-200198-2239

2) Bosila
The soil profile of the Bosila is shown in the Table 4 along with analysed resistivity
values. Figure 6 and Figure 7 show the model resistivity of ERT at Bosila of parallelacquisition and cross acquisition respectively.

Figure 6: Model resistivity of ERT at
Bosila, Parallel acquisition

Figure 7: Model resistivity of ERT at
Bosila, Cross acquisition

Characterization of soil profile of Dhaka city using electrical resistivity tomography (ERT)
Characterization of soil profile of Dhaka city using electrical resistivity tomography (ert)257

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Table 4: Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) result at Bosila
Depth (meter)
0 to 2
2 to 4.88
4.88 to 6.75
6.75 to 10.5

Soil Description
Filling Sand
Clay
Clay and Sand mixture
Sand

Resistivity ranges (Ω m)
68.9-223
1-68.968.9-273
273-7233) Aftabnagar
The soil profile of the Aftabnagar is shown in the Table 5 along with analysed
resistivity values. Figure 8 and Figure 9 show the model resistivity of ERT at
Aftabnagar of parallel acquisition and cross acquisition respectively.

Figure 8: Model resistivity of ERT at
Aftabnagar, Parallel acquisition

Figure 9: Model resistivity of ERT at
Aftabnagar, Cross acquisition

Table 5: Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) result at Aftabnagar
Depth (meter)
0 to 2.98
2.98 to 7.28
7.28 to 10.1
10.1 to 20.4

Soil Description
Filling Sand
Clay
Clay and Sand mixture
Sand

Resistivity ranges (Ω m)
100-30910-70
10-309309-922

4) BUET Play GroundThe soil profile of the BUET Play Ground is shown in the Table 6 along with analysed
resistivity values. Figure 10 and Figure 11 show the model resistivity of ERT at BUET
Play Ground of parallel acquisition and cross acquisition respectively.

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Figure 10: Model resistivity of ERT at Figure 11: Model resistivity of ERT at
BUET Play Ground, Parallel acquisition
BUET Play Ground, cross acquisition
Table 6: Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) result at BUET Play Ground
Depth (meter)
0 to 5.18
5.18 to 7.85
7.85 to 15.8
15.8 to 19.7

Soil Description
Clayey silt
Clay
Clay and Sand mixture
Sand

Resistivity ranges (Ω m)
3-74
34.2-76.8
76.8-389
389-1097

5 Conclusions
Four locations are selected within Dhaka city to characterize local soil profile using
Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT). Out of those four, three are reclaimed landand one is original soil. The data have initially been processed by creating a pseudosection of the apparent resistivity values using RES2DINV software. Computer
iterations have then carried out and two dimensional (2-D) resistivity contour maps
have been created. For the three reclaimed locations, three distinct soil layers have been
identified namely Filling Sand, Clay and Sand Mixture and a Sand layers. Sometimes anadditional clay layer has been observed. The original ground is underlain by mainly byclay layers and below that a sand layer exists.
REFERENCES
deGroot-Hedlin, C. and Constable, S. (1990). “Occam's inversion to generate smooth,
two-dimensional models form magnetotelluric data,” Geophysics, 55, 1613-1624.
Dahlin, T. (2001).“The development of DC resistivity imaging techniques” Computer &Geosciences 27 pp. 1019 – 1029.
Griffiths D.H. and Barker R.D., 1993, “Two-dimensional resistivity imaging andmodelling in areas of complex geology,” Journal of Applied Geophysics, 29, 211-226
Loke M.H. and Barker R.D. (1996). “Rapid least-squares inversion of apparent
resistivity pseudo-sections using a quasi-Newton method,” Geophysical Prospecting,44, 131-152
Loke, M.H. Tutorial, “2-D and 3-D electrical imaging surveys” (2004), pp. 13
Characterizationof soilDhakausing electrical
tomography(ERT)
Characterizationof soil profile
ofprofile
Dhakaofcity
usingcity
electricalresistivityresistivity
tomography
(ert)

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Nguyen, F. and Garambois, S. “Image processing of 2D resistivity data for imaging
faults,” Journal of Applied Geophysics 57 (2005), pp.260 –277
Parkhomenko, E.I. (1967). “Electrical Properties of Rocks,” Plenum Press, pp. 121
PASI Geophysics, “Geotechnical Resisitivity Methods” (2010)
Pitchford, A.M., A.T. Mazzella, and K.R. Scarbrough (1989). “Soil-Gas andGeophysical Techniques for Detection of Subsurface Organic Contamination,” Final
Report, Air Force Engineering and Services Center Report, ESL-TR-87-67, 172 p
www.geoelectrical.com, “Geoelectrical Imaging 2D & 3D” (2010).

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Safetyof Megain Asia

Seismic Vulnerability Assessment and Retrofit Designof Heritage Buildings of Kathmandu Valley
Kirti TIWARI 1, Hima SHRESTHA2 and Ramesh GURAGAIN3
1
Structural Engineer, National Society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal, Nepal
ktiwari@nset.org.np
2
Director, Earthquake Engineering Research and Training Division,
National Society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal, Nepal
3
Deputy Executive Director, National Society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal, Nepal

ABSTRACT
There are many cultural heritage buildings in Nepal made of burnt clay brick in mud mortar dated
more than 100 years of age. Considering the high seismic hazard of Nepal preservation of its
architectural and archeological values is very important. This paper focuses on seismic
vulnerability assessment and retrofit design of one of such historic buildings Keisar Mahal carried
by NSET just few months before the Gorkha Earthquake.
Although the principles for evaluating the historic structures are similar to those for other buildings,
the comprehensive assessment plan was prepared to study the special condition and considerations
that existed in historic buildings of Rana period in Nepal. Different detailed non- destructive andintrusive tests were carried out in the building to find the condition and properties of materials
used. Detail structural analysis shows that the critical vulnerable factor is large out-of-plane
moments at higher intensities of shaking. Out of various alternatives of seismic strengthening,
adding of some cross walls and buttresses and increasing the rigidity of floors by means of bracing
are effective means to reduce out-of-plane moments. Similarly, steel plates are suggested to resist
in-plane stresses: at critical locations near jambs of door/window openings and corners withspacing limiting to 1m-1.2m.
Keywords: historic building, Rana building, seismic assessment, retrofitting
1

DESCRIPTION OF HERITAGE BUILDING UNDER STUDY

Kaiser Mahal is a Rana Palace in Kathmandu built in 1895 by Chandra Shamsher Jung Bahadur
Rana for his son Kaiser Shamsher Jung Bahadur Rana. It is one of the historic durbars ofKathmandu with Neoclassical architecture. Such Rana palaces are made of burnt brick in mud
mortar with lime plaster and arresting French windows. They have Grecian columns and fourwings with a large courtyard in middle for religious and ceremonial purposes, so is Kaiser Mahal.
It has a courtyard in the middle with projected wings at the South-East and South-West portion.
The building is three stories at East, South and North portion, the original structure and four storey
at West portion which was added later. Wall thicknesses are in the range of 900mm, 850 mm, 650
mm, 600 mm, 550 mm, 500 mm, 450 mm, 350 mm and 250 mm, mostly thick walls in first threestories. Floor/roof structures are made of Jack Arch and timber flooring.

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Fig 1: Front View of the Building2

Fig 2: Building Foot Print

VISIBLE PHYSICAL CONDITION OF THE BUILDING BEFORE GORKHA
EARTHQUAKE

From the inspection of the building, visible cracks were found on the walls of the building at many
locations. Near the North-West and North-East corners of the building there were large verticalcracks throughout the walls and floors initiated from the ground floor walls to the roof level of thebuilding. However, there was no crack seen in plinth level of the building and below. Crack width
increases from average of 1.0 mm at ground floor level to 5-10 mm and more at roof level. The
nature of crack indicates it may be due to settlement. The settlement could have been occurred asa result of improper drainage and leakage leading to foundation erosion and subsequent crack inupper parts of the building which is further aggravated due to vibration in the building. Similarly,
there were several vertical and diagonal minor cracks above the door/window openings. This is
more likely due to the difficulty in load transfer on the wall due to the presence of openings anddegradation of material strength with time. In addition, there were leakages in the building fromtoilets and water and sanitary pipelines, which made the wall damp resulting in decay of wood
structures and growth of lichen and trees on the walls.
3

FIELD INVESTIGATIONS AND OBSERVATIONS

Field investigation was carried to verify the details at site and to determine the actual conditionand strength of different structural elements. This was done by visual observation, non-destructive
and intrusive tests such as foundation exploration, making inspection holes on walls, in situ inplane shear test, micro tremor test, wood decay test and flat jack test.
3.1 Inspection Hole on Walls
Brick lay pattern is an important parameter to determine the integrity of brick masonry wall. An
opening of size 450mm x 450mm x450mm were created at two places, and observed the brick lay
pattern. It was found that walls are constructed using burnt clay brick in mud mortar. Average
thickness of mortar is 10 mm. All bricks are laid properly with offset along the length and breadthof the wall as in English bond

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3.2

In Situ In-plane Shear Test

It provides a direct measurement of the shear resistance of mortar joints in masonry. The test
locations were prepared by removing the brick, including the mortar, on one side of the brick to
be tested. The head joint on the opposite side of the brick to be tested was also removed. With carethat the mortar joint above or below the brick to be tested was not damaged. The hydraulic ram
was inserted in the space where the brick was removed. A steel loading block was placed between
the ram and the brick to be tested so that the ram will distribute its load over the end face of thebrick. The dial gauge was inserted in the space. The brick was then loaded with the ram until thefirst indication of cracking or movement of the brick. The ram force and associated deflection on
the dial gage were recorded. Twenty Six test locations, at least one location at each wing eachfloor, were selected based on different wall thickness, internal and external locations. The test was
carried out at 13 locations at ground floor, 7 locations at first floor and six locations at second floor.
From the observation, final corrected shear strength of brick masonry is obtained as per ASTM
standard and IITK- GSDMA Guideline and the corrected shear strength obtained are 0.0718N/mm2
and 0.042 N/mm2 respectively. The difference in these values from two standards, ASTM and
IITK-GSDMA Guideline, is due to the coefficient of friction between the brick and mortar that isassumed as per the site condition. Lower value 0.042 N/mm2 is used for design purpose.

Fig 3: Inspection Hole on Wall
3.3

Fig 4: In-situ In-Plane Shear Test

Micro-tremor Test

Micro Tremor measurements were taken to calibrate the numerical computer analysis. The Micro
Tremor measurements were obtained at 18 locations in second floor and 1 location in first floor.
As far as possible, measurements were taken at four corners and near CG of second floor of all
four wings of courtyard building. The average fundamental frequency in East-West (X) direction
was found to be 2.56 Hz, while in North-South (Y) direction was 2.74 Hz. The fundamental time
period at X and Y-directions was found to be 0.39 sec and 0.36 sec respectively. Despite their thickwalls, the fundamental time period is slightly higher, this may due to the cracks on walls, flexibilityof floors or insufficient bracing of walls.
3.4

Wood Decay Test

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Timber is extensively used in different forms in the building. Its current condition is very importantparameter during the assessment of the building. Besides inspecting the surface visually, thecondition of wooden members: beams, girders, rafters, posts, windows, doors, etc were tested withthe help of decay detection instrument, IML PD Series.
During the test, a drilling needle with a diameter of 1.5mm and 3 mm cutting tip is inserted intowood under constant drive. While drilling, the resistance was measured as a function of drilling
depth of the needle. The data was plotted on a scale 1:1 simultaneously. The high amplitude graphs
represent the higher intact of wood. The test was carried out only on the exposed wood surface at
86 different locations. From the observation, except few beams most of the wooden members areof good quality.

Fig 5: Microtremor Test
3.5

Fig 6: Wood Decay Test

Flat Jack Test

Flat jack testing is the direct and in-situ testing method to determine the local compressive andstress-strain behavior of the masonry and requires only the removal of portion of mortar from the
bed joints. This test is intrusive since the damage is temporary and can be easily repaired after
testing. Flat jack testing was carried as per ASTM Standards (ASTM C1196 and ASTM C1197)
by using two flat jack plates of size R-6-16 (0.15” X 6” X 16”). Two slots of size 6.5” x 17” wereprepared at 18.5” apart (5 layers of brick) and gauge point pairs were selected to measure thedeflection of the masonry units. Flat jacks were then introduced into both slots, and the initial
distance between gauge points were measured. By pressuring the flat jacks, loads applied to thewall specimen. With a pressure increase in the flat jacks, the distance between gauge point pairs
decreased. By gradually increasing the pressure, the pressure and deformation were recorded andstress-strain curve was developed. The pressure was increased till there was failure in the masonry
specimen. From the three different flat jack tests the average value of Modulus of Elasticity ofMasonry and Compressive Strength of Masonry was found to be 943.8 N/mm2 and 1.21 N/mm2
respectively.
3.6

Brick Test

Three brick samples were taken from the building wall, compressive strength and water absorption
test was carried out at Central Material Testing Laboratory, Institute of Engineering, Nepal. The

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average breaking strength of brick was found to be 10.68 N//cm2 and water absorption of threesamples are 14.29%, 15.62% and 18.76%.

Fig 7: Flat Jack Test
4

Fig 8: Brick Test

DETAIL STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

Finite Element Modeling of the Kaiser Mahal building was done using structural analysis anddesign software program, SAP 2000 Advanced 14.2.2. For simplicity, only the west portion of thecourtyard was modeled (red rectangular mark on building plan). Load bearing brick masonry walls
were modeled as single layered shell elements. Since the flooring of the building is made of brickand mud with timber girders, only the main timber girders were modeled.
Seismic coefficient method was used to analyze the building. Indian Seismic Code IS 1893:2002
was used for lateral load calculation and seismic coefficient value was also compared with the
Nepal National Building Code NBC 105:1994. 3D view of the SAP model is shown below.

Fig 9: 3D model of West Portion of the Kaiser Mahal Building in SAP2000

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In-plane and out-of-plane stresses are studied. From the analysis, large amount of out of planebending moments are produced on the walls due to the large span of wall, height of the building
and flexible floor diaphragm. While in-plane stresses are also not to be ignored.
5

CONCEPTUAL RETROFIT STRATEGY

Since the building is a national heritage, preservation of architectural and archeological value isvital. The main strategy of seismic strengthening is to intervene as less as possible. The proposed
strategy to bring the building performance within the acceptable level of life safety are i)Additionof internal buttresses and cross walls to reduce the span of the wall, ii) Increase floor rigidity andiii) Addition of tension resisting members on the piersSome cross walls and buttresses are added on second and third floor of the building to reduce theout-of-plane moments of load bearing walls. Similarly, floor bracings are added to improve therigidity of floor diaphragm. Modified building plan significantly reduces out-of-plane bending inwalls both horizontally and vertically and also the building deformation (See fig 10). Further toimprove the integrity and ductility in the building and also to resist tension force in the wall panels
vertical tension resisting elements, Splints of steel straps are introduced at corners and junction ofwalls and at jambs of door/window openings; Horizontal bands of tension resisting element ofsteel straps, are provided at lintel and floor levels. Schematic sketch is shown below (Fig 11 &
12):
16
14

Storey Height (m)12After addding Buttresses, crosswalls and floor bracing

108existing building

6
4
2
0
0

20

40

60

80

100

Maximum Deformation (mm)Fig 10: Comparison of Out-of-plane Deformation of the West Portion due to Earthquake Loading

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Fig 11:Wall Elevation showing Metal Plates used as Vertical Splints and Horizontal Bands

Fig 12: Wall Plan with Metal Plate as Vertical Splints and Horizontal Bandages

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6

DAMAGE TO THE BUILDING IN GORKHA EARTHQUAKE 2015 AND WAY
FORWARDThe detail damage assessment and retrofit design of the building was done just before the Gorkha
Earthquake 2015 and implementation was yet to be taken. The building is further damaged due tothe Gorkha earthquake 2015. Rapid visual damage assessment indicates the building has sufferedmoderate structural damage with minor and major shear and flexural cracks at many locations
which would require more repair works. The building having historical and cultural value, it isvery necessary to maintain and strengthen the building structure to preserve the value of its time
though the cost of intervention is slightly high. For this, a detail damage assessment along with theappropriate retrofit scheme is necessary to safeguard the building with national importance.
REFERENCESNSET [2015] A report on “Seismic Vulnerability Assessment and Retrofit Design of Kaiser
Mahal Building”
Dr. Rai, D.C. [2005] “IITK-GSDMA Guidelines for Seismic Evaluation and Strengthening of
Buildings: Provisions with Commentary and Explanatory Examples”, IIT, Kanpur
Varum, H. et al. [2006] “Seismic Evaluation of Old Masonry Buildings: Performance andStrengthening”, Paper 85, Proceeding of the Eighth International Conference on
Computational Structures Technology, Civil-comp Press, Stirlingshire, Scotland.
Romeu Vicente et al. [2011], Evaluation of strengthening Techniques of Traditional masonrybuildings: Case Study of a Four Building Aggregate”, Journal of Performance of constructed
Facilities ASCE/May/June/2011
Department of Archeology [1998] “An Assessment of the Structural Condition of 55 Windows
Palace, Durbar Square, Bhaktapur” Investigation Team’s Report Volume 1, Kathmandu.
Ceroni Francesca et al. [2012] “Assessment of Seismic vulnerability of a historic masonrybuilding”, Buildings 2012, 2,332-358; doi:10.3390/buildings2030332
Look W. David et al. [1997] “The seismic retrofit of historic buildings: Keeping preservationin the forefront”, US Department of the Interior, National park service cultural resources,
heritage preservation services.
ASTM C1197-04 [2013] “Standard Test Method for In Situ Deformability Properties Using
Flat Jack Measurements”, ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, WestConshohocken, US
ASTM C1196-09 (2013) “Standard Test Method for In Situ Compressive Stress Within Unit
Masonry Estimated Using Flat Jack Measurements”, ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor
Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, US
ASTM C1531-09 (2011) “ Standard Test Methods for In Situ Measurement of Masonry Mortar
Joint Shear Strength Index”, ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, WestConshohocken, US
RILEM MDT.D.4 [2004] “In-situ Stress Tests based on the Flat Jck”, RILEM TC 177-MDT:
Masonry Durability and On-site Testing, Material and Structures, Vol. 37.
RILEM MDT.D.5 [2004] “In-situ Stress-strain Behavior Tests Based on the Flat Jack”,
RILEM TC 177-MDT: Masonry Durability and On-site Testing, Material and Structures, Vol.
37.

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Urban regeneration as post disaster rehabilitation /reconstruction of historic core city and settlements
Surya Bhakta Sangachhe
NSET, 3 PERM, Program Manager
sbsangachhe@nset.org.np

ABSTRACTThe impacts of recent earthquake of 25 April 2015 are devastating and widespread in thehistoric core city and settlements of Kathmandu valley. Because of the historical,
archaeological, artistic, cultural and touristic value of core city structures and settlements,
a fundamental principle of its reconstruction and redevelopment should be theconservation of its unique character and earthquake risk management. In post earthquake
scenario the National Society for Earthquake Technology Nepal (NSET) has been
implementing post earthquake damage assessment of these settlements, safe shelter
planning and design and earthquake risk reduction initiatives such as Urban Regenerationof Historic core city and settlements. It is a model for sustainable redevelopment of historicurban areas, pilot program in a small block within dense settlement. This is a continuationof feasibility study conducted in 2012-2014 in core city of Kathmandu. This feasibility study
is being carried out by NSET as a part of Public Private Partnership for Earthquake Risk
Management with core funding from the office of Foreign Disaster Assistance of USAID.
Keywords: Earthquake, Historic core city and settlements, Earthquake Risk
Management, Urban Regeneration, Conservation

1 BACKGROUND
On 25th April, 2015, at 11:56 local time, a massive 7.8 magnitude earthquake struck Nepal,
with the epicenter in Gorkha District north-west of Kathmandu and south of the China
boarder. Dozens of aftershocks followed, including a 6.7 magnitude earthquake on 26th
April 2015 at 12:54 local time. The earthquake has been found with a maximum Modified
Mercalli Intensity (MMI) of IX (Violent). Epicenter of main shock is approximately 34 km(21 mi) east-southeast of Lamjung, Nepal, and its hypocenter at the depth of approximately
15 km (9.3 mi). It is the most powerful disaster to strike Nepal since the 1934 Nepal-Bihar
Earthquake.

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The impacts are devastating and widespread. Among the most affected areas are densely
populated city core areas, historical settlements of Kathmandu valley and also remotevillages perched on hilly areas. As of June 19, the Government reports 1,733 deaths and13,103 injured people in Kathmandu Valley. Major chunks of this casualty belongs to theearthquake devastated historic core city areas of Kathmandu, Lalitpur and Bhaktapur andtraditional settlements like Sankhu, Bungamati, Chapagaon, Khokana, Harishidi, Lubhu,
Sunakothi, Tokha, Sitapaila Thankot, etc. Centuries of Kathmandus architectural heritage
was destroyed in 80 seconds Saturday on 25th April, 2015. In Kathmandu Valley onlyaround 73000 buildings are collapsed and 67000 buildings are partially damaged.
The existing urban structure in Kathmandu Valley is characterized by two salient features:
existence of old historic parts full of unparalleled artwork and architecture, which are being
threatened by haphazard and unplanned modern development in the historic city core andunplanned sprawl development in urban fringe areas and orientation of the urban life
towards urban fringes. And if we look at our tightly packed street pattern and tall, slenderbuildings which are being constructed without following building codes, the potential
threat here is massive. Due to the recent big quake of 25 April, 2015 there have beensignificant loss of lives, buildings and a large part of the city are on the ground in rubble
mostly in the historic core city and settlements . The historic core city and settlements,
which has an extraordinary culture and extraordinary history, the source of great
philosophy, great thought and great architecture is at risk of haphazard demolition,
rebuilding and replacement with modern concrete structure. This valley, which is unique,is at risk because we are not planning to protect ourselves, the culture and the buildings.
Kathmandu Valleys risk has increased significantly since the recent big quake. It is clearthat a large earthquake near the Kathmandu Valley today would cause significantly greater
human loss, physical damage, and economic crisis than caused by the recent big quake.
The main issues of Kathmandu Valley historical core city and settlements are:- Dense settlement- Highly vulnerable buildings without or limited possibility of seismic retrofitting- Poor accessibility, especially for emergency services- Inadequate Infrastructure and urban service- Underutilized tourism and economic potentials- Historic Heritage at high risk due to natural and manmade hazards, and also due to thecurrent trend of building repair & replacement- Vernacular Architecture is in the verge of disappearance due to the current trend ofbuilding demolition & replacement

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2 URBAN REGENERATION AS A TOOL FOR POST EARTHQUAKEREHABILITATION AND RECONSTRUCTION
The cities in which we are living need safe housing and a better infrastructure plan
altogether; our houses are very vulnerable to fire and earthquake risk, our built heritages
are encroached upon and are dilapidated, the roads are very narrow, there is no scope offurther improvement at all, and there are cities which are badly managed altogether. Herecomes urban regeneration into scene.
More ever, we have to reconstruct the recent earthquake devastated historic settlements
and core city areas. The reconstruction activities should include safe housing and a better
infrastructure plan altogether. If we dont build back better our houses and settlements as
we did in the past, our buildings, settlements and infrastructure will be very vulnerable tofire and earthquake risk. If we dont take care of our built heritages which are damaged,
encroached upon and dilapidated, they will be lost forever. In this situation urban
regeneration comes into scene.
Urban regeneration is a land redevelopment in moderate to high density urban land use toimprove citys infrastructure, to create more economic activities, to transform oldearthquake-vulnerable building stock into earthquake-resistant neighborhood, to improved
quality of life, to preserve historic & architectural heritages and to ensure social inclusionand cohesion. In many countries it is taken as Pre-disaster shelter planning (Urban Seismic
Risk Management) of historic city core as well as post disaster reconstruction planning.
The purpose of urban regeneration is to take into consideration the complexity of urban
dynamics. It is applied through horizontal approaches which comprise several fundamental
rules:
It is location-specific, as it dispenses with the difficulties specific to all urban
factors. But it aims at reducing disparities, within the global vision of a morehomogeneous social environment.
It covers different time frames, as it responds to the social needs at present, andthen those of long-term sustainability, aimed at predicting the future change. It
likewise includes the lessons of the past, since in most Kathmandu Valley cities
today; consensus is mostly in favor of the preservation of urban heritage following
a period of destruction to cater to modernization, in the 1970s onwards.
It is multidimensional, as it is used by many different public and individual
stakeholders. Urban regeneration must serve to overcome contradictions, throughnegotiation, and priority of the targets. Priorities depend on the alignment between
national policies and local schemes.
Urban regeneration strategies are implemented in one sector and cause positiveeffects elsewhere.

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2.1 Objective
Priority objectives of urban regeneration should be:
Economics: to attract investors, create employment, renew the urban economy
Social: to enlarge the supply of safe urban housing and develop local infrastructure.
Environmental: to improve living conditions, combat pollution, while taking into
accounts the values and preferences of society and each social group
Cultural: to enhance the architectural heritage of historic urban areas and urban
tourism,
Urban regeneration has been examined and enforced in the most advanced and developing
countries and may be the solution to the burning issues like post earthquake damage
assessment and the reconstruction of earthquake devastated historic core city andsettlements. The analysis and assessment of the problems faced by these core city andsettlements before and after the quake highlight the ways and means favorable to thegeneralized implementation of urban regeneration in our urban development system, while
respecting historical and institutional characteristics, as considerably as the uniqueness ofeach case and locality.
2.2 TrendsCities are potential engines of economic growth, as well as celebrations of collective
human hope, imagination and efforts. While cities in the developed world are readjusting
to post-industrial economies and shrinking populations at this time in history, cities in thedeveloping world like Nepalese cities are swelling with rural-urban migrations, slum andsquatter areas alongside rising prosperity.
At either end of the spectrum, there is pressure for cities to engage in the global economy
just as new information and communication technologies make it increasingly easy to do
so. Cities now compete for financial investments, multinational companies and talented
human resources, all of which that are becoming increasingly mobile across the global
stage. Urban regeneration and economic development, those related to urban
environmental sustainability and social inclusion are the longest lasting in their impact.

2.3 People's Perception
It is too early to reckon that regeneration is possible in Nepal. Before the earthquake of 25
April 2015, the government and local authorities as well as the people living in thehistorical urban areas do not seem too bothered about it. The attitude to shout around forchange prevails only after a disaster and not before it. Until then everyone seems to enjoy
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importantly safety & wellbeing of the entire community. But after the recent devastating
earthquake peoples, community, local authority and concerned government agencies haveshown interest in urban regeneration. Local communities of Khokana of Karya Vinayak
municipality, Panga of Kirtipur municipality and Dambu chowk, Kilagal,of KMC haverequested NSET to provide technical assistance on urban regeneration. Ministry of Urban
Development (MOUD), Kathmandu Valley Development Authority (KVDA) havedeclared urban regeneration programs in their recently announced post earthquake
rehabilitation and reconstruction plan. Thus, until we change we can't see any change.
2.4 Lesson learned from past studies
Nothing is impossible, even it is be read as "I'm-possible", but yes it would require brain
storming and fore thought with meticulous planning, keeping in view the changing socioeconomic developments and future requirements of at least next 50 years. At this juncture
it will be better to share the lessons learned by NSET while carrying out feasibility studyof urban regeneration of a part of the Kathmandu Core City. They are:2.4.1 Lesson 1
One has to identify the historic urban areas and settlements and have strong proposal ofregeneration keeping in the mind without a loss of any ones interest. For this to happen weneed to have a Community Habitat Forum or Community discussion Forum. Local
Authorities as a Local Planning and Development Authority should plan to establish suchforum. Community Habitats Forum is a public awareness platform in partnership with core
city community leaders, local municipal authority, Kathmandu Valley Development
Authority (KVDA), Department of Urban Development and Building Construction(DUDBC), Department of Archaeology (DOA), Academia, Civil Societies and designed
as a collaborative network of multidisciplinary thinkers and change-makers to push forinnovation in shaping and saving the historical settlements of Kathmandu Valley. The
forum aims to mobilize action through intelligent discourse, impactful research and resultdriven advocacy.
2.4.2 Lesson 2
The City government (Municipal Board) should pass a resolution declaring Core City areasand historic settlements as historic conservation areas under the provisions of special
purpose zones and should be delineated in land use map of municipalities. They should
establish a Neighborhood Management Program as part of City Core Management (CCM)
in historic settlements with special problems of safety and development requirements.
Specific tasks characterizing the neighborhood management program are:
Networking and coordination between various interest groups in the area;
Motivation and organization of residents, to make them more actively involved;

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Initiation of projects aiming at the social, environmental, economic and cultural
stabilization of the neighborhood;
Monitoring and evaluation of these different projects
2.4.3 Lesson 3
International experiences of urban regeneration plan implementation demonstrate that a
clear understanding of institutional responsibilities along with supportive legal provisions
is crucial for the effective implementation of urban regeneration activities.
3. WAY FORWARD
Because of the historical, archaeological, artistic, cultural and touristic value of structuresand settlements within the preserved historic area, a fundamental principle of its
regeneration and redevelopment will be the preservation of its unique character in terms ofstyle, scale, building materials and activities. Considering the potential seismic risk anotherimportant aspects are to ensure the earthquake safety of all manmade structure and tostabilize economy of the settlements. Based on the lessons learned from domestic
experience and international practices on reconstruction and rehabilitation, Government of
Nepal, specifically High Powered Nepal Reconstruction Authority, National Planning
Commission, Ministry of Urban Development, Ministry of Federal Affairs and Local
Development, Department of Urban Development and Building Construction, Departmentof Archaeology, Kathmandu Valley Development Authority and municipalities shouldhave policy, plans and programs on urban regeneration as a tool for post earthquake
rehabilitation and reconstruction of these historic urban core areas and settlements.
References

Asian Development Bank. 2006. Environment Assessment of Nepal  Emerging Issues
and Challenges.
Kathmandu Valley Environment Outlook, ICIMOD, International Centre for Integrated
Mountain Development, Kathmandu. 2007
Pradhan, Riddhi. 2004. Seismicity and Traditional Buildings of Kathmandu Valley,
Nepal.
Shrestha, 2000. Building a Disaster Resistant Community in Kathmandu: A Community
Based Approach
World Bank. 2001. City Diagnostic Report for City Development Strategy. Kathmandu
Metropolitan City, Nepal.

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Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Reduction in Megacities; Risk Sensitive Land Use Plan
Final Report, KMC, Nepal, January 2010Urban Risk Management: The Earthquake Master Plan of Istanbul (EMPI), Turkey,
Murat Balmir 2004
Urban Regeneration A Handbook, Peter Roberts& Hugh Sykes 2000
.Spangle, W. and Associates (1991) Rebuilding after Earthquakes: Lessons from
Planners, Spangle and Associates Inc., CA.
Kreimer, A., ET. al. (1999) Managing Disaster Risk in Mexico: Market Incentives for
Mitigation Investment, the World Bank, Washington D.C.

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Building Code Implementation: Way to Stronger
Nepal
Kishor TIMSINA1, Suman PRADHAN2, Ananta P. SENEHANG3
1
Civil Engineer, NSET-Nepal, ktimsina@nset.org.np
2
Program Manger, BCIPN, NSET-Nepal, spradhan@nset.org.np
3
Civil Engineer, Damak Municipality, senehangananta@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Nepal National Building Code, prepared in 1994, announced for implemented in 2003,
was introduced in Damak Municipality in 2012. In these two years of period, Damak
did significant work and progress in implementing building code.
During the implementation, the road up to here was not so easy but the approaches
adopted for the implementation helped the municipality to mark this success. The initial
work was the identification of stakeholders. The main four stakeholders for the
implementing process are Municipality, House owners, Mason groups and Technicalsociety. The first and most challenging work is to increase the level of understanding ofthese stakeholders to the same level and maintain that equilibrium state during theentire process. So, after identification of stakeholder, three level of work was done, firstis increase awareness level of the people of municipality, second capacity building
trainings for masons, technical groups and most importantly house owners, and third
institutionalization of the process by municipality. The strong monitoring and guiding
system of the municipality and equal responsibility distribution between thestakeholders for this process was key of the success.
In around two years of period, Damak transformed itself from a municipality without
any building code provisions in building permit system to an example municipality toeffectively implement the building code. As a result, most of the newly constructedbuildings in Damak are compliant to building code. But, still there are challenges tokeep this momentum for long period.
From Damak municipality, other municipality of Nepal can understand that buildingcode implementation process is difficult but not impossible.
Keywords: implementation, stakeholders, awareness, trainings, institutionalization
1. AN INTRODUCTION TO BUILDING CODE IMPLEMENTATION
Building Code is a technical document with minimum standard which guides theconstruction of structures. And the code is prepared by any country as per identified
hazards, and economical acceptance of the individual country. In Nepal, National
Building Code regulates the construction of all the buildings to be constructed in Nepal
which specially guides the structures to an improved seismic performance level. It was
prepared in 1994, after the feel of need after 1988 earthquake as Nepal lies in an
earthquake prone zone, which consists of four levels as per type of structures to beconstructed:
1.
International State of Art: It is for those buildings/structures, designed using
the building codes of other countries. Nepalese Engineers and international consultants
can use the code but structure should maintain minimum Nepalese standards.

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2.
Professionally Engineered Buildings: It is the code which can be used byqualified Engineers for the design of buildings. And this is a minimum standard fordesigning any structures in Nepal.
3.
Mandatory Rule of Thumb: In Nepal, there is limited access of professional
engineers to design all the buildings and it is practically not possible to design allbuildings by a professional Engineer. Mandatory Rule of Thumb is a ready to use code
which covers those residential buildings with limited height, span, and no. of storey,and floor area but can be constructed both RC frame and Masonry load bearing
structures. This part of building code covers most of the residential buildings of Nepal.
The explanatory documents are such that an experienced junior engineer is able tounderstand them and present sufficient details at the time of permit application andconstruction process.
4.
Guideline for remote rural Buildings: This guideline focuses on thosechanges that should be made to current practices to improve the seismic resistant ofrural buildings which are not subject to modern quantitative analysis and rational
design consideration. These structures are normally of earthen construction (unfired
masonry, mud mortar, rubble, dry stone etc.).
And this mandatory rule of thumb part and guidelines for remote rural building covers
more than 80% buildings of Nepal.
After the decision of government to implement the building code in Nepal in 2003,
Damak municipality decided to implement it in 2012 with the continuous guidance andtechnical support from NSET through Building Code Implementation Program in
Municipalities of Nepal (BCIPN). With the reference to the experience of NSET on
implementation of building code in different municipality projects like Municipal
Earthquake Risk Management Project suggests that the Building Code itself is atechnical document but when it comes to the time of implementation it is more social
issue than technical.
2. APPROACHES ADOPTED
The proper coordination between all the stakeholders is the key to success in buildingcode implementation. Municipality had decided that following should be mandatory
to be sure for proper implementation of building code practically:a) There should be appropriate design of building as per National
Building Code. Also the maps which comes under building permit
process must be as per NBC.
b) Quality construction at field as per permitted map.
c) Use of quality materials at field with good workmanship.
To get the expected success in the implementation proper strategy is necessary. As
this building code implementation part is a function of all the stakeholders, if any
variables of this function turns negative building code implementation is impossible.
So, following is the strategy adopted:

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Figure. 1 Strategy for effective building code implementation
Building code implementation is a process which can be compared to a building as
shown in Figure.1. For proper and successful implementation of building code every
element of above building should be strong enough.
Four main stakeholders identified by Damak municipality which may influence thebuilding code implementation are as follows:
1. Technical Society
2. Masons and Petty contractors
3. House Owners
4. Municipality
Other stakeholders which may act as catalyst; positive catalysts when used properly andnegative catalysts if not used properly are:
5. Media
6. Political Society
7. Community
2.1 Raising AwarenessIn a building, foundation is most important part, without strong foundation no any
superstructure can perform well. Just like that in the process of building code
implementation raising awareness is the base of the entire process. But it is necessary
to find out the proper stakeholders to be oriented for this. It contains not only what todo, it must contain why to do. This answer is given in the awareness programs. The
main purpose of this part is to create a desire to construct earthquake resistantbuilding as per building code. There may be additional stakeholders to be oriented
but from the experience of Damak basic stakeholders to be oriented are as follows:
2.1.1 Political Leaders
Political leaders can play a pivotal role in any of the social decisions. Without therealization by political leaders, the importance of the implementation of building
code, it is not even possible to announce the implementation of building code. Thereis need of intensive interaction between political leaders and municipality, and createa same positive perception to implement the building code for easy implementationof the building code.
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2.1.2 House Owners
For effective implementation of the building code self-realization by the houseowners to construct earthquake resistant building is necessary. Everybody want tobuild their house safe, stronger and earthquake resistant. The only thing that leads
house owners not to build the earthquake resistant building is due to the fear of cost.
But, in Damak and in most of the Nepal, just 5-10% addition in the cost of normallyconstructed buildings results the earthquake resistant building. If the design, materials,
and manpower are carefully managed than it may cost even less. So, there isnecessity of creating a situation of craving for earthquake resistant buildings from thehouse owners. This can be created by orienting them on how to construct suchbuildings, why to construct, and how much it costs. These kind of orientation is must
because during implementation of building code, if a house owner wants to build anearthquake resistant building than no one is there to restrict him on constructing safer
building but if this group stands against the implementation than it would be very
difficult to implement. A house owner is the one which is most important stakeholder
in building construction but the most immature one, because a house ownerconstructs a building in his lifetime and believes his/her nearest one, his/her hired
masons, technical personnel. So, if they are oriented to the better direction before
they go to wrong one then building code implementation also goes in right direction.
The right time to orient them is just after they come to building permit process.
The only purpose of these kind of orientations is to make the house-owners
understand and accept the importance of the safety of the buildings in which they are
investing, make prepare them to pay a little extra for safety and suggest them to hirequalified and experienced designers and trained masons or contractors.
2.1.3 Social Mobilizers, Tole leaders
These groups are the secondary stakeholders but can influence the primary
stakeholders. People believe what they say, people copy what they do, and people
follow their footsteps in most of the case. If this group spread a good vibes about thebuilding code in the community can create demand of building code implementation.
2.1.4 MediaMedia can reach the every people around. If it passes the right message effectively,
then it can create a good environment. But it is necessary to orient this group during
the implementation process such that they pass right message to the audience. Also,
municipality can spread some messages related to building code implementation, alsomessages regarding safer building constructions which may influence the public.
Right use of the media will be a positive catalyst for the implementation process.
2.1.5 Community Awareness
Unless all people of the community are not aware to the safer construction, buildingcode implementation is difficult. As neighbor of any house owner can influence mostthan any other to build a building safer or not. Because anyone believes his/her
relatives, neighbors more than any other and if that relatives and neighbors who are
not aware to the building code may affect negatively to the house owners resulting
ineffectiveness of building code implementation.
Other alternatives for raising the awareness level of the community used bymunicipality are:
1. Mobile clinic: The concept of “Mobile Clinic” is to provide onsite consultationin aspects of earthquake- resistant building construction. A team of Engineers

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from municipality, consultants visit different locations / building construction
sites in specific areas and provide technical advice. The aim of the clinic is toimprove seismic performance of buildings being constructed by the untrained
masons.
2.
Earthquake Safety Day Awareness Programs: Government of Nepal has
declared Magh 2, January 15 (or 16) as the Earthquake Safety Day of Nepal. Using thisday as a day for raising awareness, municipality does different activities like Rally
covering municipalities, distribution of informative publications, symposium between
stakeholders, talk programs related to earthquake safety and Shake table demonstration.
3. Informative visual display in municipality office: Municipality has installed TV
for the information sharing about the municipality news, which also covers theinformation regarding building code and other tips regarding earthquake resistantbuilding construction.
4. PSA through TV and Radio: Regular informations through TV and Radio
regarding building code implementation help to reach the community.
2.2 Capacity Enhancement
This is like the superstructure of the building which is most needed and visible
requirement by everyone. As building code is a technical document, so for proper
implementation most of the implementing agencies and people needs their capacity
enhancement. First work was to identify the stakeholders who needs the capacity
enhancement trainings. It was identified the following as the potential stakeholders to
be trained:
1. Masons
2. Petty contractors
3. Municipal Engineers
4. Consultant Engineers
NSET focused on capacity enhancement of local champions and municipality staff
for sustainable long run of the implementation process. NSET provide technicalassistance to the municipality throughout this process.
2.2.1 Masons/ Petty Contractors
More than 90 % buildings in Damak municipality constructed by the owner at theguidance and involvement of petty contractors and masons who lacks any
modern knowledge on earthquake resistant construction. Most of the buildings
constructed in the municipality area constructed can be covered by mandatory rule ofthumb (MRT) part of the building code but unfortunately they were all constructed
only with the help of untrained masons and contractors resulting unsafe construction.
It shows that, after the announcement of building code implementation, without the
special consideration of this group more than 90% buildings cannot be constructedearthquake resistant. So, this is one of the main stakeholder for building code
implementation.
But, the real scenario is that this group which governs 90% of the building
construction have got no any formal education for earthquake resistant building
construction. They have only learned to construct buildings through their seniors,
they have learned what their seniors taught them. But, the thing is that the seniors
who taught them are also unaware of earthquake resistant building construction. So,
more and more trainings on earthquake resistant building construction for masonsand contractors is necessary to make those buildings safe. These trainings are for themasons who are already masons but constructing buildings in their own traditional
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way.
Municipality of Damak decided as mandatory to be at least one mason who is trainedon earthquake resistant building construction. Such that, the trained mason can guideother untrained masons in the field. Damak municipality trained more than 50% of
the masons in different series of trainings.
The trainings are basically in form of interaction, photographs display, site visit andpractical model exercises on key elements of seismic safe construction for different
building types.
2.2.2 Municipal and Consultant Engineers
As Building Code itself is a technical document, so role of technical manpower in its
implementation is primary. In case of Damak and also in most of the municipality of
Nepal, understanding the building code itself technically by the consultant engineers
and self-realization of importance of its implementation by them is the first step tothe journey of implementing the building code. As in Damak municipality, wherebuilding permit was mandatory before the announcement of implementation ofbuilding code, the role of Engineers and Technicians was to make a plan of Buildings
and clear the building permit process. In that time, building permit systems only
concern was to make sure of compliance of building By-Laws. After announcementof the Building Code, structural design of the building and its structural drawing withaddition of architectural drawing requirement is to be done as per the Nepal Nationalbuilding code and this most initial work of implementing building code is entirely
technical part and it goes under the arm of the technical society.
The buildings should be properly designed first of all such that to build the building
earthquake resistant in the field also. The faulty design leads to a faulty construction,
so it is necessary to train the engineers who designs and draws the buildings and it isalso necessary to train the engineers within the municipality for the checking ofsubmitted designs and drawings of the buildings. Damak municipality decided to givethe trainings to the consultants and municipal engineers firstly on basic course on
earthquake resistant building design and construction, which course contains thebasic things that must be considered during designing the buildings and focuses
mostly on buildings which lies under mandatory rules of thumb. Because, according
to municipality, more than 80% of building constructed inside the municipality lies
under this category.
It is also necessary to design the buildings through consultancies which are registeredin the municipality. And the building construction supervision also should be done
through the consultant engineers. Municipal Engineers assures the every stage of thebuilding permit process is going as per the building code.
2.3 Institutionalization
As much the roofing of the building is important to protect the superstructure,
institutionalization of the whole building code implementation process is necessary
for the effective implementation for the long term.
Most of the responsibility for the institutionalization of this process falls under thearm of municipality. The entire work for the proper institutionalization of thebuilding code implementation by the municipality are as follows:
Announcement of Building Code Implementation:¾
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proper background development. Before the announcement intensive interaction
with political leaders, technical society, and other intellectual groups is necessary.
¾
During the same time awareness programs to the stakeholders and capacity
enhancement trainings for masons and engineers are to be coordinated by themunicipality.
Incorporation of Building Code and Building By-laws In the Same Building
Permit System:¾
Incorporation of building code in building permit process is the mostimportant and critical work. As municipality already have the building permit
process which contains mostly the by-laws, it is felt necessary to incorporate thebuilding code also within the permit process and municipality was successful for that.
Masons and Consultants Regulation System:¾
It is necessary to bring all the main stakeholders of the implementation of thebuilding code under the same umbrella.
To assure that, municipality needs to register and license the trained masons within
the municipality and give them the appropriate responsibility. Damak had licensed
the trained masons and at least one trained mason in one building construction sitewas maintained. It was ensured by taking the responsibility signatory by the trained
mason in the building permit process and also regular field monitoring by themunicipality. Also, there must be the rules and regulations to regulate the masons
such that they will not do any works against the building code.
Another group is the group of consultant engineers who designs the buildings.
Municipality needs to register the consultancies who can design the buildings within
the municipality area. Municipality also confirms the capacity of the consultants andprovides capacity enhancement trainings if needed. Damak has decided that every
new building designs and maps must come through these registered consultancy suchthat they will be responsible for any consequences. Also there must be availability of
consultants during the construction for the supervision but it need not to be theconsultant who designed the building.
Hiring the masons, consultants and complete the entire building permit process
through the municipality, this responsibility lies under house owner. Municipality is
now planning for contracting house-owners, masons and technical consultant with
their responsibility to make each of them more responsible.
Monitoring by Municipality in Field¾
Under the municipality, creation of a section which checks the map andassures the design to be correct is necessary. Also, it also confirms the construction of
the building is running as per the design and drawing or not in every stages of
construction. In Damak, mainly three times the buildings are monitored by municipal
engineers: 1. At the time of layout 2. Before the start of superstructure 3. After thecompletion of superstructure. This monitoring system also ensures the quality of theconstruction.
Supporting Groups for Building Code Implementation¾
Development of building code implementation supporting groups is the onethat other municipality can learn from Damak. There are building code
implementation supporting group of masons and technical cell of consultant
engineers, whose main purpose is to support municipality during this entire process.
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And this is the strength of Damak municipality to be so successful in short period oftime. These groups lies under the umbrella of the municipality.
Role of supporting organization¾
During the implementation process collaboration with the organizations like
National Society for Earthquake Technology –Nepal (NSET) for the technicalsupport to train the masons and consultant engineers, orient different stakeholders,develop strategies throughout the process of implementation ease the implementation
process through its Building Code Implementation Program in Municipalities of
Nepal (BCIPN). As NSET had already work for effective building code
implementation in other municipalities with same socio-economic status, thestrategies developed by NSET for effective implementation of Building Code through
BCIPN guide Damak to the road of success in building code implementation.
NSET did support municipality in almost all of the municipal activities; awareness,
capacity enhancement, and institutionalization process during this period.
3. LESSON LEARNT AND CHALLENGES
From the learnings of the Damak, it is proved that building code implementation
process obviously is difficult but not unachievable. Building Code Implementation in
Damak municipality is running smoothly now. But still there are more challenges toresolve and works to do:
1. Technical community, masons, municipality, house owners, political leaders,
media and community are the main stakeholders for the building code
implementation process. The synergetic cooperation between all stakeholders is
key to success of building code implementation and it is required to maintain theequilibrium state between all the stakeholders for long run. Controlling thebuilding construction by enforcing the building code through strict rules andregulations is important thing but capacity enhancement of technical community
and masons and convincing other stakeholders for safer construction should bepromoted for sustainable implementation.
2. An auto running mechanism within the municipality for the implementation ofbuilding code is necessary. Incorporation of building code within the building
permit system, make the stakeholders more responsible by creating supportinggroups like technical cells and masons group of Damak, regulation of technicalmanpower and masons through licensing, strict field monitoring system, aresome of the works that can be learnt from Damak municipality.
3. Approaches must be in a sequence of not increasing the earthquake risk by
constructing new buildings safe and then decreasing the earthquake risk byretrofitting the old vulnerable buildings. According to Damak municipality, morethan 75% of the buildings which are newly constructed are according to buildingcode but still there are old building which are constructed before theimplementation of building code and are very vulnerable to the earthquake.
There is challenge to make them safe and Damak is focusing on retrofitting ofsuch buildings.
4. High priority must be given to local manpower and resources in order to ensuresustainable implementation. Till now, NSET or DUDBC is supporting for thecapacity enhancement and awareness program but for the sustainable long run,development of local champions for conducting such trainings is felt necessary.

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For this, NSET has developed some of the trainers inside and outside municipal
office also but is not sufficient and needs to develop more of them for sustainable
long run of the implementation.Still there are more masons and contractors who
are to be trained on earthquake resistant building construction. And this training
process is a regular task which needs to be continued for a long time.
5. House owners are the key for the safer building construction, so orientation onearthquake resistant building construction for the house-owner should be regular.
They should be oriented in such way that they not only be convinced to the safer
construction, they can also supervise and monitor the construction.
6. Program like Building Code Implementation in Municipalities in Nepal (BCIPN)
of NSET should be continued. The approaches adopted in Damak municipality by
BCIPN is successful in Damak and its impact is replicated in the nearby VDCs
and municipalities as well.
4. IMPLICATIONS
Obviously, Building Code implementation process is difficult but it is still achievable.
It is a process which cannot be achieved over a night but if there is strong monitoring
and guiding system of the municipality and equal responsibility distribution between thestakeholders, it is possible. From Damak municipality, other municipalities of Nepal
can learn and replicate it for easy implementation of building code.

REFERENCES(2012-2015). Building Code Implementation Program in Municipalities of Nepal.
Kathmandu: NSET.
Dixit, A. M. (2004). Promoting Safer Building Construction in Nepal. 13th World
Conference on Earthquake Engineering. Vancouver.
Kandel, R., Shrestha, S., & Dixit, A. (n.d.). Bottom Up Approach for Building Code
Implementation in Nepal. 14th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering. Beijing.
Technology-Nepal, N. S. (1999). The Kathmandu Valley Earthquake Risk Management
Action Plan. Kathmandu.
Technology-Nepal, N. S. (2003). Municipal Earthquake Risk Management Program.
Kathmandu.

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Emergence of Alternative Construction
Technologies: towards a safer Dhaka
Shafinaz SAMEEN1,Tamanna RAHMAN2 and Md.Tosnimul HASSAN3
1
Research Fellow, Housing Division, Housing and Building Research Institute, Dhaka,Bangladesh
shafinaz.arch@gmail.com
2
Research Fellow, Housing Division, Housing and Building Research Institute, Dhaka,Bangladesh
trisha.arch.07@gmail.com
3
Research Fellow, Housing Division, Housing and Building Research Institute, Dhaka,Bangladesh
himalay24@gmail.com

ABSTRACTThe Urban center of Bangladesh, Dhaka, being the mega city offers diverse livelihood
opportunities. Amalgamation of large amount of population in this city is thus
foreseeable. Higher standard for living is completely centralized within Dhaka; it
attracts people from all over the country with bright lights of hope, employment
opportunities, better living condition, educational and health facilities. Despite this pull
factors, natural disaster, environmental degradation, insecure livelihood and housing
facilities push people towards the city with opportunities. Though they thrive for anamelioration of their livelihood, they eventually end up engaged in informal sector andreside in informal settlements. This results in uncontrolled increase in informal sectors
devoid of basic living standards. However Dhaka cannot offer a support mechanismthat allows citizens to avail all the facilities of a megacity. Housing is a vital measurefor standard living; it is considered as an all-inclusive system of finance, livelihood,affordability and Infrastructure. In megacities the system becomes more crucial
because it faces a dichotomous scenario of formal and informal living. This paper
attempts to address housing as an important factor for economic, social andenvironmental development of this megacity. The emergence of affordable andenvironment friendly alternate construction technologies and building materials arebeing considered to ensure housing for the privileged and under- privileged. Regarding
impact of urban hazard, sustainable building technologies can play an important role
towards resilience. The persisting damage to our environment can be reduced for
instance by introducing non-burnt construction elements. The application of thesetechnologies in rural housing as well will mitigate its vulnerability against disasterrisks and ensure secured livelihood; consequently the rate of rural-urban migration will
be demised. In Dhaka while rapid urbanization, centralization and massive pressure of
population prevails, making the megacity safer becomes an agenda that this paper
addresses in relation to sustainable construction technology.
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1. INTRODUCTION
Dhaka, the only mega city of Bangladesh is among the six South Asian cities with atleast 15 million inhabitants and included as one of the twenty mega cities of the world(UN HABITAT 2008). More than 60% of urban population lives in four main cities in
Bangladesh and Dhaka alone accommodates one third of it (Parvin et al, 2013). With
this rate capital Dhaka is projected to become the 4th largest city with 22 million
populations by 2025 due to urban migration (Rashid, 2013).
The level of urbanization in Bangladesh is 28.4% (Islam, 2015) and the growth rate is
3.5% per year (Parvin, 2013). Rural urban migration causes 40% of increase in urban
population and in some cities of Bangladesh this figure is as high as 70% (Parvin et al,2013). After migrating to cities these migrant people arrange their accommodations inmarginal settlements with substandard housing, limited infrastructure and services. As aresult cities are being congested by squatters and slums and at present there about 4,966
slums alone in Dhaka city (CUS, 2005). The fast paced growth has resulted inwidespread urban poverty. Unplanned and uncontrolled urbanization is exacerbating
environmental problems and disaster risks. All these issues are directing Dhaka to be
one of the most unplanned urban centers giving rise to the need of efficient managementof limited resources. The provision of adequate shelter is an important parameter ofurban safety which is certainly a major concern in the face of such rapid increase in city
population.
This paper therefore focuses on the unplanned growth of population in the city and its
area of concern is secure living and housing. Four factors have been addressed toanalyze urban safety with respect to adequate shelter for Dhaka city population, which
are interrelated and acting both as cause and effect. First, we are discussing on the
betterment of the substandard living of the informal sectors by introducing new
affordable technologies; considering the fact that in a mega city which provides
standard livelihood opportunities, such settlements are devoid of minimum living
quality. Secondly, we are addressing the urban hazard issue and its relation to housing.
The more the population- more is the impact of disaster. Disaster resilient housing canensure safer Dhaka city. Thirdly, we are pointing out the negative impact of building
materials on environment and discuss the advantages of alternatives to it. Utilization ofwastes is also high lightened ensuring a less polluted city. Safe environment in longterm will ensure a safer Dhaka city. Finally we are addressing the insecure housing
condition in rural areas as one of the major causes of migration to cities which in turnincreases city population and informal settlements. We therefore emphasize on securerural living and betterment of rural housing with sustainable technologies as well. Thisin long term will control the rural-urban migration resulting in population control in thecity and thus will limit the growth of informal settlements. The less the population theless is the risk of disaster and higher percentage of people will be living a standard life.
2. AFFORDABLE TECHNOLOGY AND URBAN SAFETY
Center for Urban Studies, Bangladesh 2005 census of low income settlements finds that,a large proportion of slum residents in the city corporation towns had migrated fromother districts or their rural hinterlands. Right now 37.4% of the total population of
Dhaka is occupied in informal sector. To accommodate this increasing pressure of huge
population, it is a must to provide or extend civic facilities and services like housing,

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transportation etc. Though concerned authorities are offering its urbanites a number ofbasic services but housing facilities are far from being adequate in terms of bothquantity and quality. The result is, all the urban people feel the consequences of
inadequately planned and managed urbanization, but it is the poorest are more
vulnerable to any kind of risk of urban hazards. For instance 11 people including five
women were killed as a two-story makeshift house caved in the swampy soil by the
Jheelpar in Rampura, Dhaka. A devastating fire destroyed more than 150 makeshifthouses in a crammed Shyamoli area slum in Dhaka. About 100 houses were destroyedin the fire hazard occurred in a slum at Mohakhali.

Fig 1: Building collapse and fire hazard incidents in Rampura and Rai Shaheb Bazar, Dhaka

Betterment of the substandard living of the informal sectors can be achieved byintroducing affordable technologies which in turn can provide secure housing, minimum
standard living and disaster resilience. Some examples of cost effective technology
could be ferrocement and compressed earth block. The production cost of this block isfound to be 25% lesser than normal brick, whereas ferrocement channel can be 25-30%
cost effective than traditional RCC slab. These cost effective technologies can help toreshape the informal settlements in terms of durability and resilience.
3. DISASTER RISK REDUCTION THROUGH SAFE HOUSING
Cities with high population density naturally have high risks of mortality and number ofpeople affected by any disaster, which eventually lead to higher level of economic
losses (Parvin et al. 2013).Similar to the most other bustling cities in Asia, cities in
Bangladesh are growing along the river bank, low lying marshy lands, mining or
industrial hubs and steep slopes. Inevitably these cities are emerging as hub of disasterrisks (Parvin et al. 2013). While Dhaka city is said to be one of the worst affected cityby impact of climate change, human habitat and physical infrastructure remains a key
challenge to address (Mallick 2013).
3.1 Earthquake Resilient housing
An emerging threat today is the risk of earthquake. There goes a saying that it is thebuilding that kills people, not the earthquake. Comprehensive Disaster Management
Program (CDMP) study reveals that out of 326,000 buildings in Dhaka city 125000 will
suffer no damage, 43000 slight, 53000 moderate, 33000 extensive and 72000 complete
damages considering worst scenario earthquake. Our traditional building technology,
lack of awareness of proper construction is reason behind this vulnerability.
One of the considerations to way forward can be selection of material. It is mostimportant to consider the inherent energy and absorption capacity of a material. The
materials must have the ability to undergo large processes of plastic deformations. Brickand concrete for example are not good materials in this regard due to their low ductility;
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they absorb very little energy. The closely-spaced and uniformly-distributed
reinforcement in ferrocement, transforms the otherwise brittle material into a superior
ductile composite (Sadeque, 2015).
Another concern is the building mass; the more the mass of a building the more theseismic induced force. This force can be reduced by application of lightweight materials(Sadeque, 2015). Some of the lightweight materials emerging in Bangladesh today are
Cellular Lightweight Concrete block, Poly Concrete Brick, EVG 3D Panel, Sandwich
panel, Hollow concrete block and some HBRI products using Ferrocement.
Ferrocement channel is found to be 20-30% lighter than RCC floors. Sandwich panel
weighs 60-65 lb per cft; whereas, weight of traditional bricks is 120 lb. per cft. Suchlightweight materials can add advantage to high-rise structures which ultimately will
result in higher percentage of free land and reduced encroachment of natural drainage.
3.2 Lessening impact of fire hazard through technology
Risk of fire hazard is immense in dense urban environment. A total of 1,040 fire
accidents occurred within Dhaka City only in 2007, of which 4, 129, 302 and 252
occurrences were respectively in slum, industrial, residential and commercial areas(BFSCDA, 2008).
Considering the fire hazard, ferrocement jacket in structures can be a satisfactory
solution due to its post fire flexural strength and toughness as compared to those ofplain mortar or concrete cover. The post fire mechanical properties of ferrocement
subjected to heating for both long and short period were found to be more or less similar
under the same maximum temperature.
3.3 Reducing vulnerability of housing to water logging and flood
Flooding and water logging is another major concern in context of Dhaka. The
traditional materials such as brick under standing water are liable to degrade. As analternative to such susceptible conventional materials, endurable technologies likeferrocement, sandwich panel and EVG 3d panel can prove to be effective under
prolonged flood.
4. EMERGENCE OF ENVIRONMENT FRIENDLY MATERIALS
4.1 Alternative to burnt bricks
Using burnt brick as the main component of construction has severe damaging
properties on the environment. Production of brick involves agricultural top soils posing
serious threat to our agricultural land as well as food security. Secondly it involves
cutting of trees for burning fuel. Moreover, emission of huge quantity of toxic elementsfrom brick kilns is causing serious health hazards. There are about 45000 of brick kilns
in Bangladesh which were found to be producing 79% of CO2 in the last 10 years(Imran, 2007).In the city, brick kilns are a major source of pollution. A majority of thebrick kiln clusters are to the North of the city and the measured peak values represent
the worst scenario of the maximum wind blowing towards the city. The clusters accountfor ~700 brick kilns (UrbanEmission.info, 2013). Today alternatives to burnt brick aremuch looked for in our environmental context. Development of cost effective andenvironment friendly non-burnt compressed earth block can be a better example of298

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alternative to conventional brick. It involves low energy input in processing andhandling soil. Moreover use of river dredged soil as substitute to top soil into brickproduction can ensure environmental safety in the long run.
4.2 Alternative to Cement Concrete
In the case of cement manufacturing, it is an energy intensive process which is also amajor source of greenhouse gas emissions: and close to 5.8 GJ of energy is consumed in
the production of a ton of cement (Nassar, 2012).In the last decade, significant progresshas been made in understanding the performance of Steel Mesh Reinforced
Cementitious Composites (SMRCC) (traditionally known as Ferrocement or thin
reinforced cementitious composites as it uses minimum natural resources (Sakthivel etal, 2014). The absence of course aggregates further add to its benefits (Sadeque, 2015).
Ferrocement can be an alternative to cement concrete. Its versatility and advantageous
properties such as strength, toughness, water tightness, lightness, durability, fire
resistance, and environmental stability cannot be matched by any other thin construction
material.
4.3 Utilization of industrial waste (ETP sludge) in building material
The textile industry is one of the oldest and largest sectors in Bangladesh. 70% of theGarment industries are located in Dhaka city (BGMEA, 2011). Treatment of theeffluent as per parameter of ECR-1997(Environment Conservation Rule) produces large
quantity of sludge each year from various industries. So disposal of sludge has becomea major issue. Usage of Textile ETP sludge as substitution for cement can beconsidered. The use of Textile ETP sludge in these applications could serve as analternative solution to disposal leading to safer urban environment.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Fig 2: Alternative building Materials by HBRI. (a) Compressed earth block of dredged soil(b) Thermal block (c) brick from ETP sludge (d) Ferrocement Sandwich panel

5. SECURE HOUSING IN RURAL AREAS TO CONTROL RURAL-URBANMIGRATION
5.1 Disaster resilient housing
Bangladesh is geographically a disaster prone country and almost every year there areoccurrences of flood, cyclone, Norwester’s, river bank erosion severely affecting
people’s life and properties. Along with all the other factors acting as causes of
migration of rural people to urban centers, insecure living and livelihood is an importantone. Poverty driven temporary houses are vulnerable to any type of disaster.
Housing is highly threatened in areas that are erosion prone. A study showed that one
family have to migrate 5.5 times in average in a life time due to river bank erosion
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Nepal(Walsham, 2010). Considering cyclone hazard, housing is the major sector faced bydestruction. Cyclone Sidr destroyed 12.4 million houses in affected areas. Following
Aila 2009, 40% inhabitants migrated from affected area. In a lower intensity cyclone
Mohasen in 2013, one lac houses were damaged.
Among the people moving out to save themselves from such disastrous situation, amajor percentage ultimately end up in Dhaka city in search of ensured living andlivelihood. By ensuring secure living in the rural areas, it can be assumed that reductionin the migration rate can be achieved to an extent; which in the long term can result in acontrolled path of urbanization.
The discussed technologies can contribute to this matter. The ferrocement technology,
being versatile, easy technique, cost effective and durable can ensure resilient living in
the rural areas and reduced vulnerability towards disaster. Promoting these technologies
to rural areas can also create employment opportunities. In this regard studies areundergoing in HBRI towards disaster resilient housing. For flood prone area a floatinghouse made of ferrocement has been designed as community housing and anotherindividual house has been designed with treated materials that will not degrade under
prolonged flood. Ferrocement is lightweight and durable under water; so it can be abetter material option. It is also used for housing in erosion prone area to produce
dismantlable components.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig 3: Housing by HBRI. (a) Dismantlable house (b) Treated bamboo house(b) Floating school
cumflood shelter

5.2 Concepts of multistoried rural housing
It is claimed that every year about 1% of farm land in the country is being converted to
non-agricultural uses. The converted land is predominantly used for unplanned
construction of houses, followed by roads, establishment of business enterprises as wellas brick fields (Quasem, 2011).There is a loss of 694 acre of agricultural land of which
97% responsibility goes to housing sector of which 80% is due to the unplanned growthof informal housing. The major cause behind the unplanned growth is lack ofinstitutional control, mostly in rural areas, and awareness regarding environment issues.
This percentage of loss of cultivable land is leading to reduction in livelihood
opportunities as well as in long term may lead to food insecurity. Consequence of these
phenomena is ultimately migration to cities and mega city. So again, ensuring acontrolled growth of housing in rural areas can ensure a reduced rate of migration tocities in the long term, leading towards safer cities in terms of controlled population.
In this regard, multistoried housing for rural areas is an emerging concept today and
HBRI has proposed a Multistoried Ferrocement Rural House prototype. A
Questionnaire survey was conducted prior to the finalization of design and it revealed

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that major percentage are eager to go with the concept as it involves very little expense
compared to its life span. A project is also undertaken by the government to house all
the villagers in a compact land with multistoried housing which is to be constructedwith ferrocement.

(a)

(b)

Fig 4: Multistoried rural model house (a) Typical floor Plan (b) perspective view

6. CONCLUSION
To ensure sustainable living for the inhabitants of megacity, fostering application andimprovement of alternative techniques should be emphasized. Lesser environmental
impact and promotion of a disaster risk reduction culture towards housing can offer asafer Dhaka city. Moreover, if cost effective technologies, as a whole, can emerge,
public will be encouraged to build safer structures following minimum technicalrequirements within minimum budget. In parallel with the comprehended parameters ofurban safety such as urban planning, responsive built environment, urban mobility,
economic stability and environmental safety, “alchemy of construction technology” orexperimentation of possible technologies needs to be equally emphasized.
REFERENCESBGMEA Members Directory, 2011.
BFSCDA Annual Report 2001-2007. Published by Bangladesh Fire Service and Civil
Defense Authority, Dhaka.
Center for Urban Studies, 2005.
Imran, M., 2014. Carbon dioxide emission from brickfields around Bangladesh.
International Journal of Agricultutal Research Innovation and Technology, Vol 4.
Islam, N., 2015. Urbanization in Bangladesh: Challenges and opportunities. Paper
Prepared for the Conference Towards Sustained Eradication of Extreme Poverty in
Bangladesh, Dhaka.
Mallick, F.H., 2013. Habitat and Infrastructure: A Localized Approach to Resilience.
Shaw, R., Mallick, F.H. and Islam, A. (editors), Climate Change Adaptation Actions in
Bangladesh, Springer, Japan, 331-340.
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October2015,
Kathmandu,
Nepal

Nassar, R. and Soroushian, P., 2012. Green and durable mortar produced with milledwaster glass. Magazine of Concrete Research, Vol 64, 605-615.
Parvin, G.A., Ahsan, S.M. Rezaul, and Shaw, R., 2013. Urban Risk Reduction
Approaches in Bangladesh. Shaw, R., Mallick, F.H. and Islam, A. (editors), Disaster
Risk Reduction Approaches in Bangladesh, Springer, Japan, 235-257.
Quasem, M.A., 2011. Conversion of Agricultural Land to Non-agricultural Uses in
Bangladesh: Extent and Determinants, Bangladesh Development Studies, Vol. 34.
Rashid, S.F., Gani, S. and Sarker, M., 2013. Urban Poverty, Climate Change and Health
Risks for Slum Dwellers in Bangladesh. Shaw, R., Mallick, F.H. and Islam, A. (editors),
Climate Change Adaptation Actions in Bangladesh, Springer, Japan, 51-70.
Sadeque, M. A., 2015. Earthquake Vulnerability and Way Forward: Bangladesh
Perspective, International Conference and Expo on Earthquake Resistant Structure,
Nepal.
Sakthivel, P.B., Ravichandran, A. and Algumurthi, N., 2014. An Experimental Study on
Mesh and Fiber Reinforced Cementitious Composites. Concrete Research Letter, Vol.
5.
UN HABITAT, 2008. State of the world’s cities 2008/2009—harmonious cities. UN
HABITAT, Nairobi.
UrbanEmissions.info, 2009. Impact Analysis of Brick kilns on the Air Quality in Dhaka,Bangladesh,form
http://urbanemissions.info/model-tools/sim-air/dhakabangladesh.html.
Walsham, M., 2010. Assessing the Evidence: Environment, Climate Change andMigration in Bangladesh, Published report, IOM, Dhaka, Bangladesh.

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Status of Building Code Compliance: A casestudy in Karyavinayak Municipality
Srijana G. SHRESTHA1, Suman PRADHAN2, Surya N. SHRESTHA3
1
Strutural Engineer, NSET-Nepal, sgurung@nset.org.np
2
Program Manger, BCIPN, NSET-Nepal, spradhan@nset.org.np
3
Deputy Executive Director, NSET-Nepal, sshrestha@nset.org.np
ABSTRACTThis paper is outcome of building code compliance observations on the building designs
that were filed in for approval at Karyavinayak municipality. On the request frommunicipality, National Society for Earthquake Technology (NSET) – Nepal has been
providing technical support and suggestions for the correction to be made. In a periodof six months (November 2014 – April 2015), 200 building drawings and reports havebeen checked. Out of the designs, 78% of the buildings are C class that can be designed
as per Nepal Building Code (NBC):205 while the rest are B class that require detailanalysis and design accordingly. Most of the building designs of both class haveductility related problems like stirrups spacing, anchorage of bars, number of bars incolumn, detailing in staircase and bar diameter. Also, the configuration related
problems like short columns, columns not in grid lines, and discontinuous beam werecommonly observed deficiencies in both type of building drawings. However, most of thebuildings were compliant to strength related checks like size of column, beam, slab
thickness and concrete grade. The study concludes that designers should focus more on
configuration and ductility criteria of building and their implications. Efforts as this not
only help in timely correction of faulty building designs, but also raises awareness andhighlights the importance of compliance with building code especially in urban areas
lacking technical support.
Keywords: building code, municipality, ductility, configuration, strength
1. INTRODUCTIONIn Nepal, earlier the building permit system generally required only the architectural
drawings of building in most of the village development committees (VDCs) andmunicipalities. It has been more than a decade now that government has enforced thebuilding code in Nepal. However due to lack of technical team and proper policy,
municipalities and VDCs are struggling to effectively implement the building code.
Karyavinayak is one of such municipality which is in its struggling phase to incorporatebuilding code in its building permit system. Since, the Karyavinayak has recently beenmunicipality from VDC, there lacks the technical capacity to effectively implement thebuilding code. Therefore, under the program BCIPN (Building Code Implementation
Program in Nepal) implemented by National Society for Earthquake Technology(NSET) with funding support from USAID/OFDA, provided technical support to checkbuilding drawings that come in municipality. BCIPN is the program which focuses on

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assisting the municipal governments in Nepal in enhancing their capacities to develop
and administer the building permits and control system for ensuring improved seismic
performance of all new building constructions.
Objectives of this study are- To understand the major problems in building designs and preparation of construction
drawing.
- To get the idea of scenario of building code implementation in newly establishedmunicipality.
- To identify the solutions for code compliant building drawings documents.
2. METHODOLOGY AND DATA
2.1 Study area
Since, November 2014 NSET has been providing technical assistance on the building
drawings check in the Karyavinayak Municipality under the program BCIPN of NSET.
Karyavinayak is located at southeast part of Kathmandu valley, very close to the capital
city Kathmandu of Nepal. Its administrative status had been recently moved up theranks from VDC to municipality in April 7, 2015. Owing to its influencing proximity to
the metropolis, the place bears high scope for new settlements. In recent years, the rateof building construction has been quite alarming and so is the inflow of building
drawings for construction permit at the municipality with around 24 building drawing
per month.
2.2 Research gap
Every building construction require permission from the local government authorities.
Building permit system demands construction documents and building drawing is an
important part of it. Building drawing such submitted should be guided by the principleof building code (A Guide to Creating Building Code Compliant Documents n.d.)Though the government has enforced the building code, the code compliant status ofbuilding drawing that comes in municipality have not been studied/addressed till now.
This paper presents the non-compliancy issues observed in building drawings. In orderto understand the major problems in building drawings, regular observations and reviewof the drawings that come in municipality were done and the kind of errors andnegligence were recorded.
The present owner-designer situation in Karyavinayak is such that the house ownerconsults engineer for building drawing. Engineer prepares the drawing and houseowner/designer submit it in the municipality for building permit. Most of the drawings
even designed by the engineers are observed non-compliant to building code. The
building drawings often lack lintel and sill band details, lacks the detailing of beamcolumn joint, foundation tie beam. Irregular building plan and buildings withdiscontinuous beam which require structural analysis are being designed using thumbrule of simple buildings. This indicates engineers and designers should updatethemselves on seismic design requirements of buildings. However, it’s hard expecting acompliant building drawing because:- The designers/engineers are not up-to-date with the current building code

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Implementation of building code in building permit system without prior awareness,training programs and guidelines creates frustration and confusions among theregular designers as well as house owners.
House owners are not aware about the importance of assessment of their building
drawing plan that it is usually cheaper and easier to correct a non-code compliant
condition in the design phase than construction phase.
There is no technical person in municipality and VDCs to check the building
compliance check of drawings.

Many works are being done to implement the building drawing, however the analysis ofcurrent situation of municipality regarding the building code implementation andcommon problems not yet addressed. This study aims to conclude the common
mistakes/ mal practice trends in building drawings and brew suggestions for the
stakeholders of building code implementation.

Figure 1: Analysis of research gap for building code compliance in Karyavinayak
municipality
In order to effectively implement building code there require technical person inmunicipality to check the building code compliancy of the building drawing that inflow
in municipality. Since there was lack of technical personnel in Karyavinayak
municipality for building code compliancy check, this technical gap was fulfilled bytechnical assistance from NSET.
2.3 Methodological framework
NSET technical assistance in co-ordination with municipality is within the building
permit system and allows the NSET technical personnel to approve or disapprovebuilding drawing as per building code. However this study is a just a part of thisprocess.

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Figure 2: NSET’s contribution in building compliance in Karyavinayak municipality;
Framework of methodology (dashed box)
Step wise brief description of methodology of the study
1. NSET technical person scrutinize the building drawing according to codal
provisions and conceptual requirements of earthquake engineering.
2. If the drawing neglects or violates any of the building code compliancy check anddoesn’t meet the seismic requirements then those issues were recorded in a database.
Along with that corrections to be made are suggested to the designer of the drawing.
3. Categorization of the mistakes/errors/negligence were done from the database into
different parameters of building code checks.
4. Analysis of those categorization were done to identify the major and common issues
observed in building drawings regarding the building code compliancy.
5. From the analysis the degree and frequency of shortcomings in building drawings
were known which helps to visualize the situation of building code implementationin one of the municipality of Kathmandu valley. This brew the suggestions for
effective implementation of building code and issues to be focused on.
2.4 Compliance parameters
For systematic checking of building drawings a checklist has been prepared. This
includes different provisions of building code and other attributes affecting the seismic
performance of the building. The four major conceptual parameters of seismic resistantbuilding were considered in the compliance check. (Scawthorn, et al. 1988), (Hom and306

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Poland 2004). The Table 1 summarizes the compliance check parameters considered forbuilding drawing check in the municipalities.
Table 1: Compliance check parameters
A. Configuration checks
Length/Breadth ratio of building Redundancy
Beam discontinuity
Length of wings of building
Setback
Vertical discontinuity
Length of cantilever
Torsion
Short column
B. Strength check
Size of beam
Thickness of slab
Strong column weak beam
Size of column
Grade of concrete
Size of shear RC wall(if any)
C. Ductility Check
Minimum number of bars in Shape of stirrups
Detailing of staircase
columnSpacing of stirrups in column Beam column joint Detailing of slab
and beamdetailing
Bar splice detailing in column Anchorage length
Bars in beamand beam
D. Connection Check
Wall connection
Foundation connection- Lintel/sill band
- Tie beam
- Parapet wall band
- Strap/combined footing in eccentric footing
Apart from this building drawing is also checked if there is any missing documents orincomplete drawing. For building Class B, software analysis and structural report arealso checked.
2.5 Compliance check
Buildings are checked on the basis of the building class type. Nepal Building code NBC
000-1994 addresses the four level of design and construction. (Nepal Building Code000, 1994)
1 International state-of-art (A class building): Such buildings which are designed
using sophisticated design philosophies analytical techniques reflected in the codesof wealthy counties are taken into consideration of International State-of-the-Art.
2 Professionally engineered structures (B class building): Building whose plinth area
is greater than 1000 square feet / storey greater than 3 / the building having no
redundancy in any one direction / the building with structural irregularity / cantilever
greater than 1 meter is classified as B class building. This type of building need to
be analyzed and designed by professional engineers.
3 Buildings of restricted size designed to simple rules-of-thumb (C class building):
Building with regular configuration, cantilever not greater than 1 m, plinth area lessthan 1000 square feet and number of storey up to 3 as well as beam not spanning
greater than 4.5m are classified as C class building. Mandatory Rule of Thumb has
been provided in NBC 205 for design of such buildings.
4 Remote rural buildings where control is impractical (D class building): Low strength
masonry and Earthen buildings designed as per the guidelines
All the buildings in Karyavinayak were found to be either of B or C class. C classbuilding design drawings were checked on the basis of NBC 205. Whereas B class
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3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Figure 3: Pie charts showing proportion of the building classes (middle) and the
proportion of the compliant and non-complaint of B class (left) and C class (right)
buildings design drawings.
Out of the building design applications assessed, the proportion of B class building issignificantly less than C class buildings in Karyavinayak municipality (refer Figure 3).
As per the building compliance rules, B class building application requires analysis andthe supporting reports making it a rigorous task for the designers. C class building
application on the contrary can be designed as per mandatory rule of thumb provided in
NBC 201 & 205 wherein the configurations and design are simpler. This serves as the
major reason for the existing trend in the designer community for bypassing the extra
effort and time requirement. Designers recommend C class building design application
to the owners who in turn get lured by simple and quick building compliance checkprocedure. Lack of technical support at the municipality had been adding furthermore to
this decision among the applicants.
The status of building code compliance of B and C class buildings permit applications
as checked by NSET has been illustrated in Figure 3. More than 4/5th of the B classbuilding permit applications and almost 3/4th of the C class building application havebeen assessed to be non-compliant during NSET’s current tenure at the Municipality.
Thus it is evident that significanlty large numbers of non-compliant designs applications
get collected at Karyavinayak Municipality. The following paragraphs and the rest of
the paper analyze the details of the non-compliance and provide suggestions. However,
it is up to the stakeholder entities to devise mechanisms based on these suggestions andtimely improvement of this situation.

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Figure 4: Radar Plot of Performance of B Class Building for various Compliance
Parameters
From the radar plot below (Figure 4) it is seen that more than half of the non-compliant
B class building applications were ill designed in ductility department. Common
shortcomings include insufficient number of bars, improper lap detailing, andinsufficient development and anchorage length. The compliance negligence in ductility(and other criteria) is attributed to the fact that even after many years of professional
practice, most of the designers are still not updated on what the building code demands
for compliance. In contrast to the ductility parameter, building drawings fulfill strength
criteria in most of the cases.
Strength criteria such as size of the column and beam, thickness of slab, etc. are better
understood and practiced by designers as its compliancy was observed in most of thedrawings. From these two contrasting practice it can be said that during the design, thedesigners prioritize the size of the structural elements rather than the detailing within.
The proportion of B class building seems quite fewer than C class buildings. The major
reason is that the B class building require analysis and the supporting reports whereas Cclass building can be designed as per mandatory rule of thumb provided in NBC 201&205. It’s been observed that most of the designers or consultants don't want to analyze
and design the building since it require extra effort and consumes more time than thatfor C class building. Also, there are not enough technical persons available for analysis
of buildings. C class building is quite simpler in configurations and its design too isquite simpler there fore most of the designers prefer going for C class buildings.

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Figure 5: Radar Plot of Satus of C Class Building Drawings for various Compliance
Parameters
The radar chart below (Figure 5) deals with the compliancy status of C class buildings.
Like the B class buildings the major shortcomings in C class building drawings were
mostly of ductility parameters like number of bars, spacing of stirrups, anchorage ofbars, lap detailing etc. It’s been observed that majority of the designers involved in C
class building types are mostly sub-engineers (Diploma level engineer). The ductility
criteria are mostly neglected and only concerned in strength parameters like size of thecolumn and beams. Such drawings mostly lacks the lap detail of bars in column andbeams, insufficient number of bars in columns and beams, improper detailing instaircase etc. Another shortcomings were observed in configuration criteria. Though thecode restrict improper configuration in C class buildings, the drawing often seems
violating the configuration criteria. This has been observed mostly due to irregularshape and size of proposed building land. Therefore, designers end up designing thebuilding with irregular configurations to match up the land plot.
4. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONSThis paper is based on the experience of building drawing check in Karyavinayak. Outof 200 building drawings checked, 22% were B class buildings and the rest were C classbuildings. In both category, building drawings were mostly non-compliant to ductility
related checks. However, strength related check was found compliant except in 15%
building drawings. Configuration problems were also another parameter neglected inmost of the drawings. Configuration problems were observed mainly due to irregularshape of land plot.
Extent of non-compliant building drawings coming in municipality indicates an urgent
need for capacity building of engineers and sub engineers as well the implementation
authorities. In this context, training for different level of engineers for different class ofbuildings seems necessary. Training for B class building design should focus on
structural analysis of the building whereas, for C class building designers training

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should focus on how to use the mandatory rule of thumb from the updated NBC 205.
Since in most of the buildings the very common negligence were seen in ductility andconfigurations related check, training should focus on parameters that influence ductilityof the buildings. Fancy buildings which often lacks the proper configurations must be
guided by the principles addressed in the applicable building code volumes. This study
also suggests to develop a guide to creating building code compliant document which
help the designers understand the information that needs to be included in a code
compliant set of construction documents.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work described in this paper is a part of the Building Code Implementation Programin Nepal (BCIPN) project at NSET, which is funded by United States Agency forInternational Development (USAID).
REFERENCES
A Guide to Creating Building Code Compliant Documents. BOAF / AIA̺Florida /FES Joint Task Force, n.d.
Hom, Darrick B. , and Chris D. Poland. Seismic Evaluation of Existing Buildings(31-03).
American Society of Civil Engineers, 2004.
Nepal Building Code. DUDBC, Ministry of Physical Planning and Works, Governmentof Nepal, 1994.
Scawthorn, C., T. Anagnos, K. Wong, and C. Poland. Rapid Visual Screening of
Building for Potential Seismic Hazards: A Handbook, FEMA 154,. Washington, DC:
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA),, 1988.

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Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) for
the Sustainable community
Hideki YAMAMOTO MD, MPH, PhD
Professor, School of Public Health, Teikyo University,
Tokyo, Japanhideki-yamamoto@umin.ac.jp
ABSTRACT
Climate change and Disaster are the challenges to the sustainable society. The conceptof Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) was declared at the WSSD (World
Summit for Sustainable Development) that was held in Johannesburg, South Africa in
2002. United Nations proclaimed the 10year period (2005-2015) as the United Nations
Decade of ESD (UNDESD) to promote ESD worldwide. In the UN decade of thedisaster (2005-2015), Community disaster preparedness program in the aspect of ESD
was done at public schools of Miyagi prefecture before the Great Eastern Great
Earthquakes and saved the lives of the school children from the Tsunami disaster. The
roles of the non-formal education and life-long learning are as important as the formal
education system. Community Learning Centers (CLCs) that were introduced into the
Asian Countries by the initiatives of the UNESCO Asia-Pacific Office. This program isbased on the social learning system of “Kominkan” (public- citizen-hall) in Japan. In
the Kominkan summit 2007, Kominkan-CLC was acknowledged as the platform of thecommunity to link the CBOs (Community Based Organizations) for the learning activity
promote ESD as “Okayama Declaration”.
In the final year of the decade of ESD (2005-2014), the World Congress on Education
for sustainable Development was held in Nagoya and Okayama. One of the
stakeholders meetings of the congress, International Community Learning Center and
ESD was held in Okayama. The roles of Community Learning Centers (CLCs) werediscussed among the 650 international participants. Disaster Risk Reduction was one of
the specific topics of the agenda. In the conference document of “Okayama
Commitment2014”, Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) and the ESD in the community werementioned in the document. In the charter of Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA), therole of the community was emphasized to create the resilient community to mitigate thedamages of the disaster and prepare for the future disaster. ESD should be integrated
with HFA and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) as a community based strategy
against the disaster to create the resilient community and society.
Keywords: ESD (Education for Sustainable Development), CLC (Community Learning
Center), UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization),
Okayama Commitment 2014, HFA (Hyogo Framework for Action), (MDG) Millennium
Development Goals, SDG (Sustainable Development Goal)

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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1

Challenge of Sustainable Development (SD)Climate change and Disaster are the challenges to the sustainable society. Sustainable
development (SD) is needed for the adaptation of the climate change and reduction of
the damage of the disasters. The concept of the sustainable development is understoodas environmental, economic and economical well being for today and tomorrow. The
World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), known as Brundtland
Commission, initially proposed the idea of “sustainable development” in 1987. In the“Common Future “ of the commission’s reports, it was defined as “Development thatmeets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations tomeet their own needs”. To discuss the economic development and find ways to halt thedestruction of the natural resources and population of the world, The United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), known as Earth summit in
Rio De Janeiro was organized by the UN in 1992. In the conference documents,“Agenda 21 “, gave worldwide impacts to the international community to achieveenvironmentally sustainable development. In the chapter 36 of Agenda 21 is devoted to‘Promoting Education, Public Awareness and Training’.
1.2 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) to Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs)
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) was introduced in the global development
agenda in the UN general assembly in 2000. MDGs are based on the publicmanagement systems. The target period was set as 2000 to 2015. The objectives andtargets have become clear and the progresses have been visible – 8 goals and 21 targets
with 60 measurable indicators. After the MDGs target period, the new development
agenda (post MDGs) was proposed. The concept of the “sustainable development” wasemphasized. The new global agenda, “Sustainable Development Goals”, was proposedin the Rio+20 summit in 2012 as the Post-Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) thatstarts in 2015.
In this article, the role of “Education for Sustainable Development (ESD)” shall be
discussed to reduce the disaster risk, minimize the vulnerability and create the resilient
society.
2. Education for Sustainable Development (ESD)
2.1 ESD as the international agenda
In 2002, 10 years after the Rio summit in 1992, the WSSD (World Summit for
Sustainable Development) was held in Johannesburg, South Africa. That affirmed UN
commitment to "full implementation" of Agenda 21 and achievement of the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) that started in 2000. The role of Education was reaffirmed
and emphasized as the foundation of the sustainable development. Education for
Sustainable Development (ESD) was main idea of the congress that was declared in the
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global society, Japan and Sweden government proposed the agenda of UN Decade of
ESD in the general assembly of UN in 2002. The United Nations launched the Decadeof ESD (2005-2014). UNESCO was designated as the lead agency of the UN systems
for the decade of Education for Sustainable Development (DESD). In the final year of
DESD, Japanese Government hosted the “UNESCO World Conference of Education for
Sustainable Development” to evaluate the progress of DESD and prepare the strategy
after the UNDESD. The main congress was organized in Aichi, Nagoya and series of
stakeholders meetings were organized in Okayama, Japan in October - November 2014.
2.2 ESD and community
High quality of education should be provided at primary level to higher level, formal
and non-formal, school children to life-long learning. Education for Sustainable
Development (ESD) is beyond the environmental education, broader and interdisciplinary learning process. ESD contains the 3 pillars plus one; 1) environment, 2)
economy, 3) society and culture. The contents of education and teaching should be reoriented and re-designed for the sustainable development. This teaching model shouldseek critical thinking, problem solving and understanding the complexities. The linkageof the stakeholders in the community and educational institutions are encouraged by thescheme of the UNU-RCE (Regional Canters of Expertise’s). (Fig 1)

Fig 1: Model of ESD - Linkage of the stakeholders of formal and non-formal education

2.3 Community Learning Centers (CLCs) and Kominkan
In Asia-pacific region, Community Learning Centers (CLCs) were introduced by
UNESCO Bangkok office for the Education for All (EFA) initiatives in the 1990s.
The original model of CLC is Japanese Kominkan (public-citizen’-hall) that was
institutionalized as social education Act in 1949. After the 2nd world war, Japanese
government introduced this Kominkan system to promote the education for the adults tolearn democracy and social development in their close community. In Japan, most of theKominkan were usually built and maintained by the expense of municipal governments.
The local governments have the responsibility for the proper managements of the
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Kominkan – maintaining of the buildings, staff and boarding committee of theKominkan. Kominkan has given marvelous effects on the hosting Community Based
Organizations (CBOs) and linkage of the community citizens that empower the people
to solve the problems of the community and improve the lives of the community- suchas public health or income generation. The number of the Kominkan has reached about
18,000.
The experience of Kominkans has been shared with CLCs in ASEAN countries and
CLCs have been well recognized and utilized in the communities of those countries.
Although CLCs were initially introduced for the adult literacy program, the learning
contents has been modified and upgraded based on the needs of the community. They
have been interested in the environment issues (waste, energy, forest, agriculture),
public health, income generation, computer skill etc. Disaster is an important topic tothem as well. Since the Asia-Pacific areas are disaster prone area, they pay strong
attention for the natural disaster.
2.4 Linkage of CLC-Kominkan for the model of ESD in the community
When the Decade of ESD began in 2005, UNESCO has assigned the lead agency of UN
organization. United Nations University (UNU) also has a role to promote ESD throughthe research, train, exchange and advocacy activities. UNU acknowledged the model
area of ESD as the Regional Centers of Expertise (RCEs). Two areas, Greater Sendai
and Okayama, were chosen as the initial 7 RCEs. These 2 RCEs are unique in theirmodels of the promotion of ESD. In the Greater Sendai area, it is based on the public
educational system and school plays the center of the ESD promotion in the community.
On the other hand, Okayama city promoted the community based ESD promotion
program that were based on Kominkan. Kominkan plays the central role to facilitate thelinkage of the people and promotion of ESD in the community.
In 2007, UNESCO Bangkok office and Okayama University UNESCO chair programof “Research and Education for Sustainable Development” organized the Kominkansummit Okayama 2007- Community Development and Promoting Education for
Sustainable Development” in collaboration with Okayama city, United Nations
University (UNU), Asia/Pacific UNESCO Cultural Center for UNESCO (ACCU),
Conference of Okayama International NGO Networks (COINN). International experts,
government officials of life-long learning or CLC in 8 Asia and Pacific regions, wereinvited. They visited the Kominkans in Okayama and discussed with the participants on
the role of Kominkan/CLC for the promotion of ESD. All the participants of theconference agreed and committed to promote ESD in the Kominkan or CLCs. It is
documented as ”Okayama Declaration” on Nov 1, 2007. The contents of the declaration
were implemented in their countries. Follow up meeting on ESD-CLCs were hosted in
Okayama by COINN and Okayama University UNESCO chair program in 2008-2013
as RCEs Okayama activities.

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Fig2: Location of RCE of ESD and UNESCO congress
2.5 Final year Congress of the Decade of ESD (2005-2014)- Okayama commitment
2014
Upon those initiatives, Okayama city was selected as the host city of the stakeholder
meetings of ” UNESCO World Conference on Education for Sustainable Development”
in Oct – Nov 2014 as the final year event of the UNDESD (2005-2014). One of the
stakeholders meeting on “Kominkan-CLC and ESD “ was organized on Oct 9-12, 2014.
650 delegates participated in this conference. (Fig 2: Group of Disaster Risk Reduction
session at Mitsu Kominkan). The products of the conference was documented as“Okayama Commitment 2014- Promoting ESD beyond DESD through CommunityBased Learning –“.

Fig 3: Participants at Mitsu Kominkan, Okayama, Japan

3. Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) and role of the community for the DRR
In the congress of the “World Conference for Disaster Reduction” that was held in 2005
at Kobe, Hyogo, Japan. Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) was adopted to build theresilience of Nations and communities (HFA: 2005-2015). In the charter 3 of the HFA,
disaster preparedness should be linked with sustainable development. International
EducationEducationfor Sustainable
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Strategy of Disaster Reduction (ISDR) recommended that disaster risk reduction would
be incorporated in the framework of the “sustainable development”. The strategyemphasized the role of the community to be prepared. Education on Disaster risk
reduction should be organized in all the community. UNESCO described that ESD is
the most appropriate framework for disaster preparedness in the following reasons: 1)
Interdisciplinary and holistic, 2) critical thinking and problem solving, 3) locally
relevant and acknowledging local language and culture.
Although the linkage of CLC and educational activities for disaster risk reduction(DDR) was not mentioned in the HFA, the DDR incorporated with ESD could be
implemented at the CLCs.
4. Great East Earthquake- community and ESD
4.1 Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) and ESD
Ichinose, T, (2014) mentioned that community and school based education for disasterrisk reduction has been successfully saved the lives of the school children at the
Kesennuma-city. Tsunami attacked the Kesennuma-city as high as 9 meter and 1,479
people out of 73,494 citizens were killed or missing. Kesennuma is the part of the Great
Sendai Regional Center of Expertise (RCE) of ESD that was acknowledged by United
Nation University in 2005. Various kinds of ESD promotion activities were practiced at
public school. Before the Great East Earthquake in 2011, school based education for thedisaster risk reduction that included the disaster drill that was designed in the aspect of
the ESD – oriented in the local culture and history of the community. Several Tsunamis
attacked this area and they were recorded in the historical documents or fork tales ashistorical wisdom.
4.2 Reconstruction of the community with the ESD
Citizens’ earthquakes reconstruction committee of Kesennuma City (2011) reported,
Great East Earthquake and Tsunami caused complete destruction of the towns.
Although the public buildings, School, Kominkan and Gymnasium, were supposed tohost the evacuees who lost the houses during the early phase of the disaster, themagnitude of the damage were much terrible than local government planned for the
preparation of the Tsunami disaster. In case of Kesennuma city, School and Kominkans
and community houses were completely damaged or washed away by Tsunami. Where
those facilities do not exist, those communities lost the center of the platform of thelocal residents and community based organizations (CBOs). Since ESD was widelypracticed in the Kesennuma city, Education of Sustainable Development (ESD) was
recommended as the key concept of the reconstruction of the community. As
Yamamoto, H., and Chiba, H., reported in 2014, the linkage among the local
stakeholders that were based in the Community Learning Center resulted in the close
communication and collaboration with different sectors and creation of the resilient
community against the disaster. In case of the Maehama-District of the Kesennuma city,
Kominkan of “Maehama Marine Center “ was washed way by Tsunami. This is the oneof the 54 Kominkan that was washed away out of 194 Kominkan/community houses in
Kesennuma-city. The community people in Maehama district organized the great efforts

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to relocate to the safer place and rebuilt the new building in the safer place in thiscommunity area.

Fig 3: Reconstruction of the Kominkan (Maehama Marine Center) after washed away
5. Recommendations/Conclusion
The community is crucial for the disaster risk reduction and building resilient
community. Strengthen the community is the challenge. Community based learning is
one of the solutions. As the ”Okayama Declaration“ and ”Okayama Commitment 2014”
show, the Community Learning Centers (CLCs) are appropriate place to host the local
stakeholders and promote the autonomous learning activities. They can learn thepeculiar contents of the local community. In the Okayama Commitment 2014, it
mentioned that “We have developed and maintained communities’ resilience against
natural and human-induced disasters through relevant learning and cultivating humanrelationships anchored on selflessness, empathy and mutual-help. The role of CLC(community learning center) will be the keys to strengthen the community to stimulate
bridging function of the social capitals that are necessary for the resilient community”.
Through this learning process, the capacity of the local community will be developed.
This capacity will be the enriched resources for the resilience against the disaster incommunity. This mechanism should be ubiquities for the global community.
Those attempts should be integrated with HFA and SDGs. As UNIDSR (2015)
mentioned, Promotion of ESD was “use knowledge, innovation and education to build aculture of safety and resilience at all levels” as articulated in the Hyogo Framework for
Action 2005-2015. Although the specific name was not mentioned in the 17 goals of theSDGs (2015-2030), 10 out of 17 goals are related to the disaster risk reduction. In the
4th goals of SDGs, it is mentioned as; Ensure inclusive and equitable quality educationand promote lifelong learning opportunities for all. This is reflected the core concept of
ESD.
As IDSR recommended, the ESD should be understood properly and integrated withother international development agenda such as HFA and SDGs to create resilient
community, region and country.

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REFERENCES
Agenda 21, United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio deJaneiro, Brazil, in 1992
(https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/Agenda21.pdf)
Citizens’ earthquakes reconstruction committee of Kesennuma city, Shinsai Fukko
Keikaku (Plan for the reconstruction of the Earthquakes in Kesennuma city), Miyagi,
Oct 2011
Ichinose T., Disaster-Affected Schools and School districts after the East Japan
Earthquake and Tsunami, Rajib Shaw and Yukihiko Oikawa (eds.), Education for
Sustainable Development and Disaster Risk Reduction, Disaster Risk Reduction:
Methods, Approaches and Practices, Springer Japan, 2014
The UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction, Disaster Risk Reduction and Resilience inthe 2030 agenda for sustainable development, 2015
United Nations, General Assembly, Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction
2015-2030, A/RES/69/283, June 2015
United Nations, General Assembly, Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development, A/70/L1, and Aug 2015(https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/post2015/summit)
Yamamoto H., Aoyama I., and Hashimoto T., Local NGOs and ESD: International
Conferences on ESD and Kominkan/CLs, pp187-195, Okayama ESD Promotion
Commission and UNESCO Chair at Okayama University (Eds.), Education for
Sustainable Development (ESD) and Kominkan/Community Learning Centre (CLC),
Okayama University Press, Okayama, Japan, 2013,
Yamamoto H., and Chiba H., Community Initiatives for the reconstruction ofautonomous Kominkan in the Tsunami affected area-Case of Maehama Marine Centerat Kesennuma city, Miyagi prefecture (in Japanese), Nihon Kominkan gakkai nempo(Bulletin of the Japan Society for the study of Kominkan), 11(1),16-22,2014

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Life recovery models: Cross overs between Kobe
and Great East Japan Earthquake
recovery stories
Shigeo TATSUKI1
1
Professor, Department of Sociology, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan
statsuki@mail.doshisha.ac.jp
ABSTRACT

Recovery of individual lives has never been a major post-recovery agenda until the
1995 Kobe Earthquake. The author has been involved in social research projects that
aimed to identify life recovery facilitating factors and its mechanism, and in the
advocacy of individual life recovery policy and programs. Based on these activities, theSeven Critical Element Model (SCEM) of life recovery was formed. The seven
facilitating factors consist of housing, social ties, community involvement,
physical/mental stress management, preparedness, livelihood, and relations togovernment. After the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake, the author has been closely
working with the life recovery department of Natori city, Miyagi prefecture. This paper
reports the results of the 2015 population survey of Natori survivors (1,533 households,
3,513 individuals) and compares these results with Kobe Earthquake life recovery
surveys. It discusses the cross over between the two mega-disaster recovery findings,
and examines what can be utilized in order to formulate life recovery policies andprograms for future disasters.
Keywords: life recovery, Kobe Earthquake, Great East Japan Earthquake, Seven
Critical Elements model
1. INTRODUCTION
Life recovery as opposed to livelihood recovery is a relatively new and more holistic
construct. Although livelihood has been promoted by income assistance programs of the1998 Act Concerning Support for Reconstructing Livelihood of Disaster Victims, life
recovery has been interpreted in more vague terms. It had not been clearly spelled out
until Kobe city conducted the fifth year review on 1995 Kobe Earthquake recovery. As
a part of the review, a series of grass-roots recovery assessment workshops with
impacted citizens were held in order to identify factors that would help each participant
to feel that “I am no longer a disaster victim.” Out of this review, the Seven Critical
Elements Model (SCEM) of life recovery was formed. The seven facilitating elements
consist of housing, social ties, community involvement, physical/mental stressmanagement, preparedness, livelihood, and relations to government (Tatsuki, 2007).
After the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake (GEJE), the author’s team has been closely
working with the life recovery support department of Natori city, Miyagi prefecture.
Our team collaborated with the Natori city administration to conduct the 2013 Natori

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grass-roots assessment workshops on life recovery, which later confirmed that SCEM
was also applicable to Natori people’s life recovery (Tatsuki, 2015a). The team and thecity then jointly designed the questionnaire and the city administered a population
survey on life recovery to all impacted citizens. The first purpose of this paper is to
examine if SCEM is empirically capable of predicting a large proportion of life
recovery variance as reported by Natori people. Second, it aims to identify thesimilarities and differences between the 1995 Kobe Earthquake and the 2011 GEJE in
terms of which critical elements were relatively more important to determine life
recovery in each respective event. Third, it tries to portray the unique aspects of life
recovery processes of the 2011 GEJE impacted citizens that were not found or reported
before.
2. METHOD
2.1 Subjects
The research subjects of the survey were all 1,533 households and their 3,513 members
over the age of 18 that were registered by Natori city as temporary housing residents.
The subject households included 1) those who were residing in Natori city prior to the
GEJE and 2) those who were residing outside (mostly in Fukushima) and had moved toNatori after the 311 Fukushima disaster. They were residing in two types of temporary
housing accommodation: conventional prefabricated temporary housing (PTH) complex
units or newly introduced designated temporary housing (DTH) units, which werenothing but private rental units paid for by the prefectural government. Provision of
DTH has become mainstream national policy since the GEJE, with 57,825
apartment/housing units rented and 47,839 prefabricated temporary housing units were
newly constructed in East Japan prefectures. As of December 2014, 55 % of temporary
housing households resided in DTH and 45 % in PTH in Natori city.
2.2 Instrument
The life recovery scale measures the degree to which one feels that he/she is no longer adisaster victim.
The scale is a 5 point Likert scale consisting of 6 life
readjustment/fulfillment, 7 life satisfaction and 1 future prospect items whose
unidimensionality and reliability LH &URQEDFK¶V Į > .80) have been established in
Hyogo Life Recovery Surveys in 1999, 2001, 2003 and 2005 (Tatsuki, 2007).
Demographic variables included age, gender, family size, disability/vulnerability status,and house damage. With regard to SCEM, housing was measured by temporary
housing type (PTH or DTH) and concerns/worries about current and future housing
issues, social ties by the number of people having social conversation/contact pre andpost disaster, community involvement by a community outlook scale that measures thedegree of neighbors’ engagement in community affairs, physical/mental stressmanagement by a physical and psychological stress scale, preparedness by concerns for
future disaster risk, livelihood by financial impact and leeway scales as well as
occupation pre and post disaster, relations to government by a communitarian/liberal
attitude scale as well as levels of awareness on and attention to local government PR
information. In addition, 1 impact alleviation and 2 event evaluation items were used tomeasure life recovery process variables which were known to intervene between SCEM
and life recovery outcomes (Tatsuki, 2007).

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2.3 Procedures
The survey questionnaire package consisted of a 2-page household questionnaire and 6
sets of a 4-page household member questionnaire. Both household and its member
questionnaires were included in an official Natori city envelope and were sent to all
registered temporary housing households during the second week of January in 2015.
Each household was asked to answer one household questionnaire and each household
member was asked to respond to an individual member questionnaire. A returnenvelope addressed to Natori city office was included in each package. Postcards
reminding the return of questionnaires were sent on January 26th. Furthermore, new setsof questionnaires were mailed again on February 19th to those households that had not
returned the questionnaires by February 5th. All those responses that arrived at the cityby the first week of March in 2015 were used for the analysis.
In order to compare the current study results with 2001 Hyogo Life Recovery Survey
results, a general linear model (GLM) was used to test and estimate the effects ofdemographic, SCEM and life recovery process variables on life recovery. SPSS version
23 was used for the statistical analyses.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Demographics and house damage
1,107 (702 PTH and 831 DTH) households returned the household questionnaire(72.2 % response rate) and 1,971 (820 PTH and 1,151 DTH) residents returned thehousehold member questionnaire (56.1 % response rate). The average ages of the
respondents were 54.4 and 56.1 for males and females, respectively. The average ages
by temporary housing type was 59.8 and 52.1 for PTH and DTH, respectively
suggesting that nearly half of PTH residents were over the age of 60 while the majorityof DTH residents were working age, possibly with school age children.
Table 1: House damage by 2015 Natori and 2001 Hyogo Life Recovery Survey

Full Damage
Large Scale Half Damage
Half Damage
Partial Damage
No Damage
Missing
Total

2015 Natori Life
Recovery Survey
N1503( 76.3% )58( 2.9% )80( 4.1% )330
1971( 16.7% )( 100.0% )2001 Hyogo Life
Recovery Survey
N
195( 16.2% )
231
554
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( 19.2% )( 46.1% )( 18.5% )1203( 100.0% )Table 1 compares proportions of house damage categories between the two life
recovery surveys. While 2001 Hyogo Life Recovery Survey sampled those who wereresiding in the most severely earthquake-hit areas and therefore their house damages
varied widely from no damage to full damage, 2015 Natori Survey subjects wereheavily (almost 5 times higher) concentrated in the full damage category (those who did
not answer house damage were mainly those who moved from Fukushima) because
Natori survey specifically focused on those who lost their houses due to the 311 tsunami
and following Fukushima nuclear power plant disaster and were residing in temporary
housing units at the time of the survey. The damage comparison suggests that house
Life recovery models: What cross over between Kobe and Great East Japan Earthquake
Life recovery
models:
Cross overs between Kobe and Great East Japan Earthquake recovery stories
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damage effects need to be partialed out before comparing SCEM effects on life
recovery between the two surveys.
Table 2: Multiple regression (GLM) analysis of house damage and SCEM effects on lifre recovery
Hazard Exposure and Seven Critical Elements for Life Recovery

Parameter
Model Intercept

Model 1B
51.438 ***Model 2B
51.454 ***Model 3B
48.161 ***.544 **-0.1662.058 *

1.384 **
-0.0082.173 **

1.305 ***
.067
2.039 *

HOUSE DAMAGE
Full House Damage
Large Scale Half House Damage
Half House Damage
No Answer
HOUSING
Temporal Housing Type Prefabricated Temporary Housing (PTH)
Designated Temporary Housing (DTH)
Temporary Housing Type by Person with Disability PTM*No Disability
PTM*Disability
DTH*No Disability
DTH*Disability
Temporary Housing Type by Single Elderly Household PTH*Any Household Other Than Single Elderly Person Household
PTH*Single Elderly Person Household
DTH*Any Other Than Single Elderly Person Household
DTH*Single Elderly Person Household
Temporary Housing Type by Household with/without Physically Vulnerable Person PTH*Household with Physically Vulnerable Person
PTH*Household without Physically Vulnerable Person
PTH*Household with or without Physically Vulnerable Person Unknown
DTH*Household with Physically Vulnerable Person
DTH*Household without Physically Vulnerable Person
DTH*Household with or without Physically Vulnerable Person Unknown
Concerns about Housing Issues Scale Concerns/Worries about Public Housing (factor score)
Concerns/Worries about Current Temporary Living Arrangements (factor score)0a-0.870 *0a0a-0.746 (p =.107)
0a0a5.014 *
0a-.765
0a4.136 **
0a
-3.492 **0a-1.0290a
1.303
1.772 **
0a-1.252 *.084-0.420 *-0.337 *0a-.406 **-.338 *

1.819 **
2.728 ***
0.873

1.532 *
2.650 ***
0.759

1.516 *
2.812 ***
.820

0a-1.759 **-2.979 ***-1.626 ***0a-1.555 **-2.834 ***-1.593 ***0a-1.600 **-3.024 ***-1.522 ***0a2.832 ***
1.471
0.870

0a
2.980 ***
1.472
0.936

0a
2.908 ***
1.310
1.182

0a
-3.430 ***-0.737-0.4330a-3.588 ***-0.849-0.4570a-3.309 ***
-.840
-.742
0a
-3.425 ***SOCIAL TIES
Number of Neighbors/Relatives/Friends having social conversation with before 311 None
1 to 45 to 9more than 10
Number of Neghbors/Relatives/Friends having social conversation with after 311 None
1 to 45 to 9more than 10
Number of People meeting in hobby/circle/social gatherings before 311 None
1 to 45 to 9more than 10
Number of People meeting in hobby/circle/social gatherings after 311 None
1 to 45 to 9more than 10
COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT
Residents do not socialize with each other and live by themselves0a-3.133 ***0a-3.212 ***Residents do not socialize but neghborhood representatives seem to be more or less active-3.320 ***-3.403 ***-3.632 ***Residents socialize to a certain degree and some greet each other
Residents socialize very often and participate well in community events-1.968 ***-1.966 ***-2.201 ***

a

0

a

0

0a

4.886 ***
2.463 ***

4.739 ***
2.299 ***

4.373 ***
2.231 ***

0a-2.656 ***0a-2.621 ***0a-2.598 ***PHYSICAL/MENTAL STRESS MANAGEMENT
Subjective Evaluation on one's health condition GoodOK
Bad
Physical and Mental Stress Scale Physical and Mental Stress (factor score)
PREPAREDNESS
Concerns for Future Disaster Risks Low concerns for future disaster risk (optimal scaling score)

0.513 ***

0.496 **

Financial Impact Score Household Financial Impact (optimal scaling score)
Financial Leeway Score Household financial Leeway (optimal scaling score)
Financial Leeway Score by Age Financial Leeway by Age less than 18
Financial Leeway by Age between 19 and 64
Financial Leeway by Age between 65 and 74
Financial Leeway by Age 75 and over
Occupation Proprietor (before)
Proprietor (present)
Retired (before)
Retired (present)
Unemployed (before)
Unemployed present-0.819 ***0.934 *
1.775
0.077
-1.945 **-0.849 ***0.909 (p =.103)
1.891
0.100
-1.673 **-.720 ***
.988 *
1.826-.025-1.724 **.474 **

0a-3.582 ***3.076 ***
1.907 **
-2.960 ***2.316 ***
-3.475 ***0a-3.547 ***3.074 ***
1.808 **
-2.807 ***2.168 ***
-3.306 ***0a-1.991 ***-4.402 ***-1.008 *-1.100 ***.098 ***-5.060 ***Relation to Government Scale Communitarian vs. Liberal Attitude Score (optimal scaling score)Attention to Local Government Public Relation Information Scale Low Attention to Local Government Public Relation Information (optimal scaling score)
Recovery Process Score (factor score)-0.316
0.541 ***
4.004 ***
.547 (.534)-0.327 (p =.103)
0.535 ***
3.944 ***
.548 (.534)-.362 *
.332 ***
3.885 ***
.555 (.538)

LIVELIHOODRELATION TO GOVERNMENTRECOVERY PROCESS

R 2 (df adjusted R 2)*** p <.01, ** p <.05, * p <.10

3.2 Effects of seven critical elements on life recovery
3.2.1 Model fit
Table 2 summarizes multiple regression (GLM) analysis results. It compares results of3 models where varying degree of housing parameters were successively added. In
Model 1, only temporary housing type (PTH or DTH) was entered. Concerns andworries about current and future housing issues were entered in Model 2, and finally
temporary housing type by social vulnerability (e.g., household with person withdisability, single elderly, or physically vulnerable person) interactions were added inModel 3. Although the interpretation of the housing variable parameters will be
discussed in the later section, it should be noted that the final Model 3 predicted highest
55.5 % of the total variance in observed life recovery scores (R 2 =.555, adjusted

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R2=.538) compared with Model 1 (R2=.547, adjusted R2=.534) and Model 2 (R2=.548,
adjusted R2=.534). Figure 1 illustrates an observed by Model 3 predicted values plot at
16%
14%
12%

Observed

10%
8%
6%
4%

Predicted

2%0%Standardized Residual

Observed

Predicted

Standardized Residual
2001 Hyogo Life Recovery Survey N=1203

Figure 1: Observed by Model 3 predicted (top center) bystandardized residuals (bottom center) plot.

2015 Natori Life Recovery Survey N=1312

Figure 2: Comparisons of each SCEM parameter effect
VL]H SDUWLDO Ș2) on life recovery between 2015 Natoriand 2001 Hyogo Life Recovery Surveys.

the top center which shows a linear fit. At the bottom center of Figure 1, standardized
residuals by predicted values were plotted, which showed that residuals were evenly
scattered against low to high predicted values without any particular patterns. Those
two plots displayed that the final Model 3 showed a good fit (R2=.555), which iscomparable to 2001 Hyogo Life Recovery Survey (R2=.470 (Tatsuki and Hayashi,2001) or R2=.593 (Tatsuki and Hayashi, 2002)), to the observed life recovery scores andtherefore affirmed the first research question í ZKHWKHU 6&(0 LV FDSDEOH RI D ODUJHSURSRUWLRQ RI OLIH UHFRYHU\ VFRUH YDULDQFH DPRQJ 1DWRUL LPSDFWHG SHRSOH í RI WKHcurrent paper.
3.2.2 Parameter effects on life recovery
Partial regression parameter estimates for house damage and each of SCEM were listed
at the last 3 columns of Table 2. Because the effects of other parameters were partialed
out when interpreting a given parameter, the effects of other parameters such as housedamage categories were controlled. This made it possible to compare SCEM
parameters between Natori and Hyogo Life Recovery Survey results despite that Natoristudy subjects were heavily skewed toward heavy house damages.
With regard to effects of housing parameter, Model 1 and 2 demonstrated that PTH on
average tended to have negative impacts on life recovery in comparison to DTH. This
seems to support the validity of the newly introduced DTH policy for prefecture
government’s renting privately owned housing units and designating them for disastersurvivors’ use as temporary housing units. It should be noted that Model 3 PTH
parameter became positive suggesting PTH rather than DTH tended to positively
promote life recovery. This reversal of effect direction from negative to positive could
be interpreted as the result of multicollinearity that were caused by entering 14
additional housing parameters (social vulnerability and temporary housing typeinteractions) into Model 3.
For such SCEM parameters as social ties, community involvement, physical/mental
stress management, preparedness and livelihood as well as intervening life recovery
process, their effect directions were similar to 2001 Hyogo Life Recovery Survey
results. With regard to social ties, those who used to socialize with more than 5neighbors/relatives/friends in daily conversations or in social gatherings before theLife recovery
overs
between
Kobebetween
and Great
East
Japan
stories
Life models:
recoveryCross
models:Whatcross over
Kobe
andGreatEarthquake
East Japanrecovery
Earthquake
recovery stories

325

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

disaster showed better life recovery. However, this threshold value increased to morethan 10 in order for socialization or social gathering to have positive impacts on betterrecovery after the disaster. While social ties are an ego-centric and personal social
capital indicator, community involvement measures levels of communal social capitalthat are shared by a network of people in a community as a whole. On this ground,
better life recovery was predicted only by those who reported that one lived in acommunity where “residents socialize very often and participate well in community
events.” With regard to a subjective evaluation of one’s own health, a measure ofphysical/mental stress management, those who reported “Good” or “OK” showedsignificant positive impacts on life recovery in comparison with those who answered“Bad.” These findings were further supported by more reliable measures of the 6 item
physical and mental stress scale scores. Preparedness was measured by how optimistic
one was to future disaster losses and the better recovery was predicted by the optimistic
attitudes to disaster risks. The similar effect was also observed in 2001 Hyogo Life
Recovery Survey. These results seem to support an old saying “danger past and God
forgotten.” Disaster’s impacts on household finance and the current financial leeway
were very strong livelihood predictors of life recovery. Those “younger” elderly
between 65 and 74 years old who showed less financial leeway were the least recovered
among all ages. With regard to occupation, the proprietors, the retired and theunemployed on average showed significantly lower life recovery scores. Finally, anintervening life recovery process measure, a composite of 1 impact alleviation and 2
event evaluation items, showed significant positive impacts upon life recovery as has
been demonstrated in 2003 and 2005 Hyogo Surveys (Tatsuki, 2007).
The 2015 Natori Life Recovery Survey like the 2001 Hyogo Life Recovery Survey
showed the tendency that the respondent’s attitude toward government (relation to
government) mattered. Unlike the Hyogo Survey, however, the less communitarian andmore self-reliance (liberal) oriented Natori temporary housing residents tended to show
better recovery. Nature of pre-disaster government-people relationships seems being
different between Natori and Hyogo areas and this difference needs to be further
examined in future studies.
The second research question of the current paper was to identify the similarities anddifferences between the 1995 Kobe Earthquake and the 2011 GEJE in terms of which
critical elements were relatively more important to determine life recovery in each
respective event. Figure 2 directly answers to this question. It compares effect sizes ofthe seven critiFDOHOHPHQWVXSRQOLIHUHFRYHU\DVPHDVXUHGE\SDUWLDOȘ2 between 2015
Natori and 2001 Hyogo Life Recovery Surveys. The direct comparison of Ș2 values in
two surveys should be supported because goodness-of-fit estimates were comparable in
2 studies (R2=.555 for Natori and R2=.470 (Tatsuki and Hayashi, 2001) or R2=.593(Tatsuki and Hayashi, 2002) for Hyogo surveys). Figure 2 illustrates that the top 3 mostpowerful influences upon life recovery were physical/mental stress management,
livelihood, and social ties in both surveys. Between-comparisons of effect sizes foreach parameter, however, indicated that livelihood as well as community involvement
mattered more in Natori survey while physical/mental stress management, social ties
and housing (housing variance was much smaller in Natori Survey because all subjects
lived in temporary housing units) were more valued in Hyogo survey. This may suggest
relative importance of livelihood assistance programs for Natori impacted citizens.
3.3 Designated versus prefabricated temporary housing

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At the onset of the GEJE, National government needed to provide more than hundred㻴㼛㼡㼟㼑㼔㼛㼘㼐㻌㼣㼕㼠㼔㻛㼣㼕㼠㼔㼛㼡
㻼㼃㻰

㻡㻝㻚㻜㻜

㻴㼛㼡㼟㼑㼔㼛㼘㼐㻌㼣㼕㼠㼔㼛㼡㼠㻌㻼㼑㼞㼟㼣㼕㼠㼔㻌㻰㼕㼟㼍㼎㼕㼘㼕㼠㼥㻴㼛㼡㼟㼑㼔㼛㼘㼐㻌㼣㼕㼠㼔㻌㻼㼑㼞㼟㼛㼚㻌㼣㼕㼠㼔㻌㻰㼕㼟㼍㼎㼕㼘㼕㼠㼥㻡㻝㻚㻜㻜Life Recovery Score

㻡㻜㻚㻜㻜

㻡㻜㻚㻜㻜

㻠㻥㻚㻜㻜

����

����

Life Recovery Score

㻡㻜㻚㻡㻜

㻠㻤㻚㻜㻜

㻠㻥㻚㻡㻜

F1, 1287 =3.593, p =.058

F2, 1280 =3.238, p =.040
㻠㻣㻚㻜㻜

㻠㻥㻚㻜㻜
㻼㼞㼑㼒㼍㼎㼞㼕㼏㼍㼠㼑㼐㻌㼀㼑㼙㼜㼛㼞㼍㼞㼥㻌㻴㼛㼡㼟㼕㼚㼓㻼㼞㼑㼒㼍㼎㼞㼕㼏㼍㼠㼑㼐㻌㼀㼑㼙㼜㼛㼞㼍㼞㼥㻌㻴㼛㼡㼟㼕㼚㼓 㻰㼑㼟㼕㼓㼚㼍㼠㼑㼐㻌㼀㼑㼙㼜㼛㼞㼍㼞㼥㻌㻴㼛㼡㼟㼕㼚㼓㻰㼑㼟㼕㼓㼚㼍㼠㼑㼐㻌㼀㼑㼙㼜㼛㼞㼍㼞㼥㻌㻴㼛㼡㼟㼕㼚㼓

Temporary Housing Type

Temporary Housing Type

Figure 3: Life recovery score by temporary housing type

Life Recovery Score㻡㻟㻚㻜㻜㻴㼛㼡㼟㼑㼔㼛㼘㼐㻌㼣㼕㼠㼔㻛㼣㼕㼠㼔㼛㼡㻼㼔㼥㼟㼕㼏㼍㼘㼘㼥㻌㼂㼡㼘㼚㼑㼞㼍㼎㼘㼑㻌㻼㼑㼞㼟㼛㼚

㻡㻞㻚㻜㻜㻴㼛㼡㼟㼑㼔㼛㼘㼐㻌㼣㼕㼠㼔㻌㻼㼔㼥㼟㼕㼏㼍㼂㼡㼘㼚㼑㼞㼍㼎㼘㼑㻌㻼㼑㼞㼟㼛㼚㻴㼛㼡㼟㼑㼔㼛㼘㼐㻌㼣㼕㼠㼔㼛㼡㼠㻌㻼㼔㼥㼟㼕㼏㼍㼘㼘㼥㻌㼂㼡㼘㼚㼑㼞㼍㼎㼘㼑㻌㻼㼑㼞㼟㼛㼚
㻺㻭

Figure 4: Life recovery score by temporary housing typeby household with/without person with disability

㻡㻝㻚㻜㻜

㻡㻜㻚㻜㻜

����

㻠㻥㻚㻜㻜

㻠㻤㻚㻜㻜

F4, 1287 =2.065, p =.083

F2, 1287 =2.702, p =.067

㻠㻣㻚㻜㻜㻼㼞㼑㼒㼍㼎㼞㼕㼏㼍㼠㼑㼐㻌㼀㼑㼙㼜㼛㼞㼍㼞㼥㻌㻴㼛㼡㼟㼕㼚㼓 㻰㼑㼟㼕㼓㼚㼍㼠㼑㼐㻌㼀㼑㼙㼜㼛㼞㼍㼞㼥㻌㻴㼛㼡㼟㼕㼚㼓

Temporary Housing Type

Figure 5: Life recovery score by temporary housing typeby household with/without physically vulnerable person

Figure 6: Life recovery score by temporary housing typeby single elderly household or not

thousand temporary housing units urgently nearby the disaster area. Because it was
impossible to construct such a large number of prefabricated temporary housings in alimited time, National government allowed prefectural governments to rent out privately
owned housings and to use them as temporary housing units to the disaster victims. For
the first time in Japanese disaster management history, the impacted citizens had tomake decisions whether to dwell in conventional prefabricated temporary housing
complex units or in designated private rental housing units that were situated in widelydispersed locations. Japanese disaster research has been mainly focusing on life
recovery assistance for prefabricated temporary housing inhabitants who live in a close
proximity and not much is known about “diaspora” survivors. The third researchquestion of the present paper was to portray the unique aspects of life recovery
processes of DTH residents in comparison with those who were residing in PTH units.
Our research team decided to work with the life recovery support department of Natori
city in early May of 2011 with the concerns that DTH dwellers would have much harder
time for them to form mutual support networks, and to obtain necessary public
information and assistance, due to the fact that they resided in widely dispersed areas
inside and outside of the city/township of their original residence. As was briefly
discussed in the previous section and also shown in Figure 3, however, life recovery
scores of DTH residents on average tended to be higher than PTH residents (F 1, 1287
=3.593, p =.058). This seems to support in general the validity of the newly introduced
DTH policy. Geographical dispersion seemed not to matter much among the surveyed
average Natori impacted citizens. This finding partly supported earlier finings made by
Life recovery models: What cross over between Kobe and Great East Japan Earthquake
Life recovery
models:
Cross overs between Kobe and Great East Japan Earthquake recovery stories
recoverystories327

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

ethnographic interviews with impacted Natori DTH residents (Tanaka and Shigekawa,
2014, 2015; Tatsuki, 2015a) which identified 3 groups of DTH households (Tatsuki,
2015a, p. 943):
1) Younger, self-reliant and upward mobile families, 2) families with individuals
such as PWD and frail elderly that required reasonable accommodations in theireveryday functioning, and 3) vulnerable households that would have been
benefited from group living conditions in prefabricated housing complexes but
failed to submit applications in time.
Figure 3 seems to imply that DTH was a better choice for “1) younger, self-reliant and
upward mobile families” according to the classification made by Tanaka and Shigekawa(2014).
In order to examine life recovery situations among the next two categories of“households with persons with disability” and/or “vulnerable households”, Model 3
tested temporary housing type by social vulnerability (PWD, physically vulnerable andsingle elderly household) interactions. Figure 4 and 5 showed that those householdswith PWD or physically vulnerable members respectively were better recovered at PTH
while any other households’ showed higher life recovery average at DTH. Similarly,
Figure 6 demonstrates that such vulnerable households as single elderly households
seemed to “have been benefited from group living conditions” in PTH showed betterrecovery at PTH than at DTH.
In conclusion, the current study affirmed 1) that SCEM was capable of a large
proportion of life recovery measure variance among Natori impacted people; 2) that the
top 3 most powerful influences upon life recovery were physical/mental stressmanagement, livelihood, and social ties in both 2015 Natori and 2001 Hyogo Life
Recovery Surveys while livelihood as well as community involvement mattered more in
Natori survey; and that 3) DTH was better suited to “younger, self-reliant and upward
mobile families” while those households with social vulnerabilities were benefitted
from PTH group living conditions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research project was supported by a grant from JST, RISTEX as “Optimal life recovery assistancefor disaster survivors living in designated temporary housing in a widely dispersed area” (Principal
Investigator, Shigeo Tatsuki).

REFERENCES
Tanaka, S. and Shigekawa, K., 2014, Housing recovery processes of the temporary housing dwellers forthe 2011 great east japan earthquake: Natori city case study, Proc. of the 3rd Int. Conf. on Urban Disaster
Reduction, 2014.
Tanaka, S. and Shigekawa, K., 2015, Life Recovery Process Analysis of Designated Temporary Housing
Dwellers, (Japanese), Proc. of the 36th Institute of Social Safety Science Meeting, 55-56.
Tatsuki, S. and Hayashi, H., 2001, General Linear Model analyses of life recovery factors in the 2001
Kobe Panel Survey data. Proceedings of U.S.- Japan Cooperative Research in Urban Earthquake
Disaster Mitigation Third Grantees’ Meeting, 557-574.
Tatsuki, S. and Hayashi, H., 2002, Seven Critical Element Model of Life Recovery: General Linear
Model Analysis of the 2001 Kobe Panel Survey data. Proceedings of 2nd Workshop for Comparative
Study on Urban Earthquake Disaster Management, 27-46.

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Tatsuki, S., 2007, Long-term life recovery processes among survivors of the 1995 Kobe Earthquake: 1999,
2001, 2003, and 2005 Life Recovery Social Survey results. Journal of Disaster Research, 2(6), 484-501.
Tatsuki, S., 2015a, Optimal life recovery assistance for those who are residing in designated temporary
housing in widely dispersed locations, Journal of Disaster Research, 10(5), 939-947.

Life recovery
overs
between
Kobebetween
and Great
East
Japan
stories
Life models:
recoveryCross
models:Whatcross over
Kobe
andGreatEarthquake
East Japanrecovery
Earthquake
recovery stories

329

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Risk Communication in Schools, What Worked andWhat not: Experience from Nepal
Nirakar JOSHI1, Surya Prasad ACHARYA2, Amod Mani DIXIT3and Shiva Prasad UPRETI4
1
Project Manager, National Society for Earthquake Technology - Nepal (NSET),
njoshi@nset.org.np
2
Director, National Society for Earthquake Technology - Nepal (NSET)
3
Executive Director, National Society for Earthquake Technology - Nepal (NSET)
4
Deputy Director, Department of Education, Nepal
ABSTRACT
School is a community center in Nepal. Schools are largely established, operated and ownedby the local community. So there is close linkage between the community and school system.
Disaster awareness is very low in the country at all level. So innovative approach and selfpropelling process is the need. For transmitting minimum of knowledge about hazard and riskearn more individual and collective survival in case of disasters such as earthquake.
The school is its design targets the entire community where school is located. Knowledge on
disaster risk reduction is transmitted to the teachers in the form of teachers training.
Teachers are encouraged to further transmit the knowledge to students through formal andinformal teaching and learning process through promotion of environmental and culturalplus social activities such as hazard hunt in the household and family disaster plan in thecommunity. Thus the strategy is transmitting the knowledge for teachers, from teachers tostudents and from students to parents and community.
The Gorkha earthquake 2015 showed that the approach worked wonderfully well in terms ofmaking the school buildings safe and making the school system safer and by virtue making thecommunity safe against earthquake.
This paper will describe the innovative approaches of risk communication built in to aa
majority of those field program activities implemented in the area of earthquake risk
reduction. What we learned is that building up of mutual trust and trust to science andtechnology and fighting the various prevalent myths that hindered the preparedness should be
the main thrust for DRR strategy for schools.
Keywords: Disaster, hazard and risk, public relations, risk communication, DRR strategy

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Detecting method for liquefaction of groundusing strong ground motion
Takanobu SUZUKI
Professor, Toyo University, Japantsuzuki@toyo.jp
ABSTRACT

Subsoil liquefaction is disastrous phenomenon affecting houses or infrastructures in acity, especially on underground structures. If liquefaction can be judged at the time ofearthquake, this information is useful for estimating damages and planning quick
restoration. This study proposes a simple detecting method for non-linear
characteristics of surface layer of the ground using accelerometer records at the
ground surface. Ground motion’s records can be gathered via telecommunication
system over the nation. Calculating time variation of dominant period and acceleration
amplitude from ground motion record, relative displacement is calculated. The changeof acceleration and displacement can be expressed in the characteristic diagram, which
represents apparent ground rigidity or deformation characteristics. Then non-linear
characteristics is known from the shape of the diagram. In the case of subsoil
liquefaction, the shape is widely spread and some values which indicate non- linear
characteristics can be known. This information can be used for early warning.
Keywords: strong ground motion, detecting liquefaction
1. INTRODUCTION
High quality infrastructure is essential for supporting productivity growth. High quality
means safety, durability, low cost, avoiding any risk etc. Infrastructure changes itself
due to over time deterioration or natural disasters. Monitoring is effective to find outchanges of infrastructure to maintain or restore. Simple method to detect damages isneeded for keeping high quality.
Liquefaction is one of newly noticed disasters, so as that many infrastructures are
installed at liquefiable land, and in fact, damages due to liquefaction are reported in allover Japan. We know that liquefaction will occur near water side or low land, but haveno measures for it.
In Japan, observation network of strong ground motion has been installed all over thenation, if liquefaction can be known after the earthquake, we can act immediately to
reduce earthquake disaster.
In this report detection method for liquefaction is proposed, which uses strong groundmotion. Liquefaction can be detected by the change pattern of amplitude and period ofground surface motion.

333

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Nepal
October2015,
Kathmandu,
Nepal

2. Methodology
2.1 SDOF model
A simple SDOF model can be used for wave analysis in order to formulate therelationship between amplitudes of wave and decreased rigidity from earthquake
records at liquefied sites. Two assumptions are adopted below.
1) Shear rigidity changes smaller gradually, in the short time of motion, linear equationof motion is feasible, which has constant frequency and damping2) Vibration of surface layer of the ground is approximated as SDOF which has timevariant frequency
Equation of SDOF motion is below.
2§ 2S ·¸ u 0
ug  u  2hnu  ¨
¨T ¸
© g ¹
Absolute acceleration of the first member is observation data. The peak period ofground motion can be calculate by FFT analysis then to be approximated as natural
period. Usually damping is small so as that amplitude of acceleration is in proportion todisplacement. Expressing equation is below.
2u§ Tg ·¨¸  
¨ 2S ¸ u g  u©
¹

Then we can know amplitude of relative displacement u. Fig.1 shows outline of SDOF
motion.
Observed data㻌
Acceleration #1㻌
u㻌
 m㻌

2

k=mω 㻌

H, Vs㻌Fig. 1 Outline of SDOF motion
2.2 Non-linear response model
Assuming as bi-linear shear deformation for surface layer, increasing inertia force a(static acceleration), then surface layer is yielded from bottom, displacement of thesurface becomes larger according to spreading yielded area. Fig.2 shows outline of pushover analysis of surface ground. In the figure, relationship between acceleration anddisplacement is similar to the shape of stress and strain characteristics. In the case of
periodical repeating, motion of large deformation with long period is generated.

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We can know some useful information from a-U graph shown as Fig.2. One is natural
period before liquefaction from inclination of small value. The other is natural period
after liquefaction from inclination of large value. Connection of two lines meansyielding point which is affected by depth of layer and yielding stress.
a㻌㻌㻌ay㸻τy/ρH㻌2
H㸫h, ρ㸪G1㻌
2G2/ρH 㻌z㻌2h, ρ㸪G2㻌

2G1/ρH 㻌

Acceleration 㻌
Fig.2

U㻌

τyH/2G1㻌

3. Liquefaction detection
Some data of strong ground motion observed at the 2011 Great Tohoku Earthquake areused for verification of this method. Liquefaction has occurred near Inage station whichis installed in Chiba Prefecture and located near Tokyo Bay. The wave shapes inhorizontal direction are shown Fig.3. Time of ground vibration is longer than 300
seconds, and maximum acceleration is about 2m/s/s.
Calculation steps are below. Data of 16 seconds of total 300 seconds are used anddominant period and acceleration amplitude are defined as representative values of time
window. Same calculations are resumed shifting time window.
1) Set 16 seconds time window to calculate dominant period by FFT
2) Average 2 graphs of horizontal directions to determine change of period T
3) Calculate maximum acceleration A in time window as acting force
4) Calculate relative displacement using T and A (U㸻㸦T/2π㸧^2*A)
5) Shift time window at 1 second, continue same calculation to draw (U,A) plot graph
200
100
0
100
200
200

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

100
0
100
200

Detecting method for liquefaction of ground using strong ground motion
Detecting method for liquefaction of ground using strong ground motion335

October
2015,
Kathmandu,
Nepal
October2015,
Kathmandu,
Nepal

period s5

Fig.3 Acceleration forms in horizontal direction

4
3
2
1
0

50

100

150

200

250

50

100

150

200

250

50

100

150

200

250

5

10

15

20

acc cm s s
300time sFig.4(a) Change of dominant period

250
200
150
100
50
0
disp cm30

time sFig.4(b) Change of amplitude of acceleration

25
20
15
10
5
0

time sFig.4(c) Assumed amplitude of displacement

acc cm s s
300
250
200
150
100
50
0

0

25

30

disp cm

Fig.5 U-A plot graph of Inage station (Liquefied site)

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Figures 4 show calculation results. (a) shows change of dominant period, (b) shows
maximum amplitude and (c) shows estimated relative displacement. Using Fig.4(b) and
Fig.4(c), changing pattern of acceleration and displacement can be drawn, shown in
Fig.5. From this, we can know that yielding acceleration is 1.7m/s/s and yielding
displacement is 0.02m, maximum acceleration is 2.3m/s/s and maximum displacement
is 0.2m. Period before liquefaction is estimated to 0.7 sec, and period after liquefactionis 1.6 sec. It is kwon that non-linear response makes wide shape which means changing
period in the time of large acceleration.
For comparing with this, Fig.6 shows calculation result of non-liquefied site which isinstalled at Urayasu City near Tokyo Bay. Linear response makes narrow shape in U-Agraph.
acc cm s s
300
250
200
150
100
50
0

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

disp cm

Fig.6 U-A plot graph of Urayasu station (Non-liquefied site)
4. Conclusion
Monitoring is effective to find out changes of infrastructure including surrounding
ground to maintain or restore Liquefaction is ground failure by strong shaking. Groundfailure generates motion of long period and large displacement same as urban structures.
Ground failure can be detected by vibration data at surface of ground calculating
frequency and amplitude time by time. Difference of graph shapes which are narrow orwide, informs us ground liquefaction to decrease disaster.
REFERENCES
Takanobu SUZUKI: DETECTING METHOD FOR NON-LINEAR CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUND USING STRONG GROUND MOTION, Journal of JSCE, 2015
(in Japanese)
National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention: Strong-motion
Seismograph Networks (K-NET)

Detecting method for liquefaction of ground using strong ground motion
Detecting method for liquefaction of ground using strong ground motion337

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Simulations of the pull-out performance of
mechanical anchorages in concrete withdamaged cracks by the discrete analysis
Tao WANG1, Koji MATSUMOTO2 and Kohei NAGAI3
Graduate Student, School of Engineering, the University of Tokyo, Japan
tao@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
2
Project Assistant Professor, ICUS, Institute of Industrial Science, the University ofTokyo, Japan
3
Associate Professor, ICUS, Institute of Industrial Science, the University of Tokyo,
Japan
1

ABSTRACT

Mechanical anchorages can solve the problem of congestion of rebar arrangement in
concrete structures. However, under the condition of complicated earthquake and thincover concrete, damaged cracks will easily occur and their effect on the pull-out
performance of mechanical anchorages is still unknown. In this paper, based on theprevious experimental result, the residual pull-out performance was investigated by
Rigid Body Spring Model, which is one of the discrete analysis methods. The geometryof knots of rebars is modeled and cracking behavior can be realistically captured.
In both of the experiment and analysis, damaged cracks parallel to the reinforcing bar
were firstly induced from cover side by bending. After that, pull-out loading was applied.
The analysis revealed the mechanism of damaged cracks which develop from one sideof rebar. Also, comparing to the undamaged case, transverse rebars have a different
impact during the pull-out stage. The confined effect becomes smaller with damaged
cracks increasing because transverse rebars are deformed during bending and cannot
easily restore to their original state after unloading. In addition, an eccentric loading
occurs and bending stress is induced to the reinforcing bars near the mechanicalanchorages due to the damaged cracks in one side of the rebar, indicating that further
investigations are necessary including fatigue problems.
Keywords: bond performance, discrete analysis, mechanical anchorage, damaged
cracks, transverse bar
1. INTRODUCTION
In structural concrete, conventional anchorages such as straight bars and hooks need thelong development lengths and large bend diameters due to the provisions. Especially,
the arrangement of rebars at beam-column joints becomes complicated and causes someproblems which are difficult to fill concrete and spend times for bending works of steel
bars. Mechanical anchorage can be used to shorten the lengths of development and339

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create less congestion, but they require careful attention at thin cover concrete. Whenearthquake happens, cracks will easily take place from the sides of thin cover concrete.
When the damage occurs, the residual bond performance will directly associate with thesafety of whole structure, especially at the anchorage parts.
In the previous research, side splitting failure of concrete cover has been examined by
Oomori et al., 2009. He reported strain (direction was paralleling to the reinforcing bar)at surface of cover concrete changed from compression to tension near the maximum
load. It meant cover concrete began to expand and split closing to the maximum load.
However, pullout tests of mechanical anchorage placed in thin cover of concrete withlateral reinforcement were conducted by experiments (Nagai et al., 2010). Fromexperiments, the performances of bond were investigated under damaged cracks.
Damaged cracks which were paralleling to the reinforcing bar were created by bending.
After that, pull-out loading were applied. But, crack patterns during bend and an
eccentric loading occurring near the mechanical anchorage during pull out stage cannot
be observed by experimental method. For deeper understanding of bond behaviors andtestifying the unsolved problems, numerical simulation at meso-scale is beneficial. In
this study, based on the experimental results, numerical simulations with mechanicalanchorage are performed by a three dimensional discrete analysis method. Especially,knots of rebar are directly modeled to simulate local fine cracks in the bond region.
Through analysis, the residual performance of bond is investigated along with width ofdamaged cracks changing.
2. ANALYSIS METHOD
2.1 Rigid Body Spring Model (RBSM)
The Rigid Body Spring Model (RBSM), which is a discrete numerical analysis method,is used to simulate the crack propagation of concrete in this study. Hayashi et al. (2013)used RBSM to simulate the crack propagation of RC according to the reinforcement
arrangement and the anchorage type. For concept of RBSM, three springs (one normal
spring and two shear springs) are placed at the boundary between two adjacent elements
shown in Figure 1. Mesh design strongly affects the crack pattern when the cracks occur
and propagate through the interface. Therefore, geometry of concrete is randomly
generated by a Voronoi diagram (Figure 2a), which reduces mesh bias on the
propagation of cracks. Geometry of rebar (Figure 2b) is created by a method which
factitiously controls the position of Voronoi point to achieve the regular shape of rebar.
For concrete elements, size is set to 10u10u10 mm3a20u20u20 mm3 in volume,
considering the size of coarse aggregate in order to simulate the roughness of thesurface of crack. Figure 2 shows random shape of concrete element.
Three springs (normal spring and shear springs)

2 elements

Six degrees of freedom

Figure 1: RBSM model

340(a) Voronoi Diagram(b) Regular shape of rebar

Figure 2: Shape of element

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㻌

㻌

V

V

ft
Tension Field

Wmax
0.2 f tCompression

W

H/l
Z㼙㼍㼤㻌

Zc㼙㼍㼤㻌

3fft

ft

Controlled by crack(a) Normal spring model(b) C
Criterioni i off concrete ffailure
il

W

W

Wmax
Z
b
(c) Softening coefficient of shear

Z’max

Zmax

(d) Model of shear reduction

Figure 3: Constitutive model of spring
2.2 Constitutive model of spring(1) Concrete constitutive model
For normal spring (Figure 3a), relationship of strain-stress keeps elastic in thecompression filed. However, compressive failure behavior can be simulated by shear
springs, which follow the criterion of concrete failure (Figure 3b). The tensile behavior
of concrete is modeled as linear elastic up to the tensile strength. After cracking, abilinear softening behavior is assumed. In the model, stress is reduced according to thewidth of crack. Zcmax and Zmax are set to 0.03 mm and 0.3 mm, respectively. In shear
springs, it shows elasto-plastic behavior shown in Figure 3c. Yield strength of shear
spring is calculated by the formulation (1) when stress is less than or equal to ft andgreater than or equal to -3ft. The maximum shear stress keeps the same value after
compressive stress surpassing 3ft.㻌 In addition, calculated shear stress is reduced
according to the change of width of crack (Figure 3d) like the normal spring after
cracking.
Wmax=1.6uft2.0u(-V+ft)0.4+0.15uft(-3ft d V d ft)(1)(2) Steel constitutive model
Normal spring of steel behaves elasto-plastic model according to the yield stress of thematerial properties. Also, strain hardening model is introduced after 1.6% of tensile
strain. Shear spring behaves always elastically.
Simulationsof theperformancepull-out performanceof mechanicalanchorages
in concretewith damaged
Simulationsof the pull-out
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Table 2: Properties of material

Table 1: Case of analysis
Width of crack during bend (mm)CaseExperiment

AnalysisMax

UnloadMax

Unload

T0

-

-

-

-

T5

1.04

0.63

0.97

0.72

T15

2.76

2.34

2.75

2.44

Concrete

Rebar

2

33

2

f 'c (N/mm )52

f sy (N/mm )f t (N/mm2)

3.7

Es (N/mm2)

Ec (kN/mm )

2

D25

D13

D6

547

397

374

190

Size of specimen

Stirrup D6@100mm
Unbond length(a) I-stage: Load setup for bend

Rebar D25
StirrupD13@100mm Strain gauge

Figure 4: Specimen of mechanicalanchorage in experiment (mm)A-Section

B-Section

3D-Model(b) II-stage: Load setup for pull out

Figure 5: Load setup in experiment (mm)A-Section

B-Section: Rigid elements

Figure 6: Analytical model of mechanical anchorage (mm)Load(3) Interface of constitutive model between concrete and steel
Model of interface is the same with the spring of concrete. But tensile strength ofinterface is still not clear until recent research. Value of tensile strength is set to a halfof the strength of concrete according to the past simulation (Hayashi et al., 2013).
3. ANALYSIS MODEL
3.1 Analysis cases
In this research, bond performance through pullout tests of mechanical anchorage issimulated, which had been done by previous research (Nagai et al., 2010). Table 1 lists
the case of analysis and Table 2 shows the properties of material. Figure 4 shows thesize of specimens. Figure 5 shows the setup of bending load and pullout load in the342

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experiment. In the first stage (Figure 5a), load is applied to create cracks paralleling to
the reinforcing bar at the side of cover concrete. After unloading during bending stage,load of pull out (Figure 5b) is added to the reinforcing bar along with residual cracks.
Figure 6 shows the model of analysis. Number of elements is 35,772 in the model ofmechanical anchorage. In analysis (Figure 6), loads are firstly applied on the pins of top
in vertical direction, but are free in horizontal. The pins of bottom are also fixed invertical direction and are free in horizontal. Load of pull out is the same condition withthe experiment.
3.2 Result of analysis
3.1.1 Relationship of width of crack and load

Figure 7: Crack width-load (analysis)

Figure 8: Crack width-load (experiment)

Figure 7 and Figure 8 show the relationships of width of cracks and load, representing
the analytical result and experimental result. The width of cracks is calculated by the
distance from two elements, whose distance is 100 mm (Figure 6). The residual value ofcrack in analysis (Table 1) is controlled to the same width in experiment to introduce
the same damage level.㻌㻌The crack pattern at the maximum load is shown in Figure 9 during bending stage. The
cracks were induced from the side of cover concrete at the bottom of rebar. With theincrease of load, cracks developed along one side of rebar to the top of specimen. As aresult, the situation of bond becomes different between left side and right side of rebar
due to this damage. Although Figure 9 shows the result of T15 case, case of T5 also has
the same crack pattern. From the analysis, crack pattern during bend is confirmed,
which cannot be measured by the experiment.

Big Cracks
Development of
cracks in one
side of rebar

Figure 9: Crack pattern during bend
(deformation㽢5)㻌

Simulations of the pull-out performance of mechanical anchorages in concrete with damaged cracks
Simulationsof the pull-out performance of mechanical anchorages in concrete with damagedby the discrete
analysiscracks by the discrete analysis

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3.1.2 Relationship of slip-load and failure patternFigure 10 and 11 show the relationships of displacement of free end and load. In both ofthe experiment and analysis, initial stiffness and ultimate capacity during pullout(Figure 10, 11 and Table 3) became smaller with the initial crack increasing. In all cases,
the capacity of load was roughly the same between the experiment and analysis. For
rebar, the yielding load was 269 kN. In the experiment of T0 case, the ultimate load was
almost equal to the yielding load of rebar as concrete becoming failure. In contrast, loadof pullout in analysis had continued to increase. After yielding load of rebar, failure ofconcrete occurred. Figure 12 shows the failure pattern in the experiment and analysis. In
all cases, the failure pattern is cone failure of concrete, which means the diagonal cracks
take place from the plate of mechanical anchorage and make the concrete become blowout to the cover side.
Yielding load of rebar

Yielding load of rebar

Figure 10: Slip-load (analysis)

Figure 11: Slip-load (experiment)

Table 3: Maximum load and failure pattern in pull out test
Case

Maximum load (kN)
Experiment

Analysis

T0

270

275

T5

247

247

T15

183

184

Failure pattern
Experiment

Analysis

Cone failure of concrete

T0
T5
T15
Figure 12: Failure pattern in analysis (lower) and experiment (upper)(deformation㽢20)

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ICUS Report 80㻌㻌(a) T0(b) T5(c) T15
Figure 13: Distribution of strain in analysis and experiment(a) T0(b) T5Figure 14: Curvature factor in experiment㻌(c) T15(a) T0(b) T5Figure 15: Curvature factor in analysis(c) T15㻌㻌㻌㻌(a) T0(b) T5(c) T15
Figure 16: Deformation of rebar at the maximum load (deformation㽢100)㻌㻌㻌㻌㻌㻌㻌㻌㻌㻌㻌㻌㻌㻌㻌㻌㻌㻌

3.1.3 Distribution of strain and curvature factor
Figure 13 shows the distribution of average strain which is calculated from left side andright side of rebar under different load. Solid line is the experimental result and dashedline is the analytical result. Bond stresses are proportional to the slope of strain㻌 anddistances. From Figure 13, slopes of strain and distances become smaller comparing theT0 with T15. It means bond performances decrease with the initial cracks increasing.
Figure 14 and Figure 15 show the curvature factor, which was calculated through thedifference of strain of left side and right side. The number of 25, 50, 100, 150, 200
means the distance (units: mm) from free end of rebar. Regardless the analysis andexperiment, the factor of curvature near to plate of mechanical anchorage shows an
eccentricity. Deformation of rebar (Figure 16) is viewed from the top of specimen. The
plate of mechanical anchorage shows an eccentricity and force of bending occurs at theposition near the plate.
Simulationsof the pull-out
of mechanicalanchorages
in concretewith damaged
cracksSimulationsof theperformancepull-out performanceof mechanicalanchorages
in concretewith damagedby the discrete
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(a) T0(b) T5(c) T25
Figure 17: Strain and deformation of transverse bar (deformation㽢50)
3.1.4 Strain and deformation of transverse bar
Figure 17 shows the stain of transverse bar near to the plate of mechanical anchorage(25 mm from free end) and deformation at the maximum load of pullout. With theinitial cracks increasing, the strain of transverse bar almost kept the same level under
150 kN during pullout stage. Also, the deformation at the maximum load was not
obviously changing with the initial cracks. The confining effect is weaker with initial
cracks increasing when the transverse bar is near to plate of mechanical anchorage. Thistendency is caused by the bending damage. The initial crakcs which are induced fromthe bending make the transverse bars difficult to close during unloading.
4. CONCLUSION(1) The damaged cracks paralleling to the reinforcing bars induced by bending develop
from one side of rebar to the depth.
(2) An eccentric loading occurs and bending stress is generated from the position nearto the mechanical anchorages due to the damaged cracks at one side of the rebar.
(3) For transverse bar near to the free end, the confined effect becomes smaller indamaged case because transverse rebars are deformed during bending and cannot easily
restore to their original state after unloading.
REFERENCES㻌Oomori, S., Uchida, Y., 2009, Investigation of side splitting failure for mechanicalanchorage, The 64th JSCE Annual Meeting, V, 987-988.
Nagai. H., Daigo, K., 2010. Investigation of damaged bond performance at anchorage
part by using mechanical anchorage. Proceedings of the Japan Concrete Institute,㻌
Vol.32䠈No.2
Hayashi. D., Nagai K., 2013, Mesocopic simulation of RC anchorage performance inmulti-directional reinforcements by 3D discrete analysis,, Journal of JSCE, Vol.69,No.2,
241-257.

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Creating safer Kathmandu Valley: From the perspective ofKathmandu Valley Development Authority
Yogeshwar PARAJULI1, Hisila MANANDHAR2 and Jeny SHRESTHA3
1
Development Commissioner, Kathmandu Valley Development Authority, Nepal
ykparajuli@hotmail.com
2
Urban Planner, Kathmandu Valley Development Authority, Nepal
hisila_man@hotmail.com
3
Urban Planner, Kathmandu Valley Development Authority, Nepal
jenyshrestha@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT
Urban safety is a major issue in context of planning, both for individual residents and for local
and national governments. In addition, major concerns related to disaster vulnerability, climatechange and socio-political imbalance have further led urban planners to re-think how the urban
planning and related professions could play an important role in promoting urban safety. The
issue is even more pressing in case of Kathmandu Valley, one of the fastest urbanizing regions inSouth Asia, which is also considered as one of the most vulnerable regions in context of multihazard risks- generating significant loss of life and property. This paper presented the outcome of
the 20 years Strategic Development Master Plan (2015 – 2035) on how urban safety andresilience- in physical, socio-economic and environmental milieu - could be emphasized andincorporated in context of Kathmandu Valley. The perspective of Kathmandu Valley Development
Authority as the major planning authority was used to discuss how the Master Plan could aid in
shaping the valley from a Distant, Dispersed, Disconnected area to a Compact, Coordinated andConnected region. It puts forward new approaches to develop healthy urban planning practices
to achieve its vision and mission: “To establish Kathmandu Valley as a Safe, Clean, Organized,
Prosperous and Elegant (SCOPE) national capital region by enhancing the interdependence of
Nature, Community and Culture”.
Keywords: urban safety, Kathmandu Valley, urban planning, disaster resilience347

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Institutionalization of disaster education
In state of Uttarakhand, India
Genta NAKANO1 and Rajib SHAW2
1
Master student, Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies,
Kyoto University, Japannakano.genta.68w@st.kyoto-u.ac.jp
2
Professor, Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies,
Kyoto University, Japan
ABSTRACTDisaster risk reduction (DRR) education is implemented in various forms by different
organizations. In state of Uttarakhand, India which lays on the middle part of
Himalayan range and the state is thus prone to flood, landslide and earthquake.
Educational approach is being carried out in that area in order to enhance theresilience against the disasters. Department of education infused DRR contents into
curriculum and other governmental and non-governmental sectors conduct the projecton DRR education. Besides, community itself has some means of knowledge transfer on
DRR such as launching community radio, sharing of experiences and local knowledge
to predict strong rain fall. However, these different practices are not conducted insynergetic way. Therefore, this research categorizes these different forms of education
under three modes; formal, non-formal and informal education and aims to suggest thecoordinated implementation to enhance the educational effectiveness. The result
indicates the effective collaboration beyond the modes of education while further
collaboration among different stakeholders will enhance the effectiveness of disastereducation. It is important to establish the mechanism for the coordination in conducting
DRR education beyond the modes of education.
Keywords: institutionalization, DRR education, Uttarakhand, India

1. INTRODUCTION
The disaster risk reduction (DRR) education is being recognized as one of the important
strategies to reduce the impact of natural disasters because it contributes to enhanceawareness and let people equip with the knowledge and skills to prepare for and protect
themselves from the impact of natural disasters. In fact, various governmental and nongovernmental organizations carry out the DRR education program and disaster prone
communities share the disaster-related knowledge among people through various means
such as local custom, storytelling, media and so on. These different forms of knowledgetransfer is categorized under the following three modes of education; i) formal, ii) nonformal and iii) informal education. Formal education features to be delivered in an
organized and structural means (Dib, 1988; Tissot, 2004), results to award certificate or
diploma (Tissot, 2004) and basically adopts the “ladder system” (ISCED, 1997).

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Therefore the formal education is defined as the education which is delivered based on
the curriculum through the framework of school. Non-formal education as well delivers
the knowledge in an organized way however this mode is being carried out apart fromthe framework of school education (Coombs and Ahmed, 1974; Norland, 2005). The
other feature is that non-formal education adopts various forms of modalities andmethodologies according to the interests of learners. In short, this mode refers to theeducation conducted with various learning modalities and methodologies through thegovernmental and non-governmental organizations except formal education sectors.
Third mode of education is informal education. This is unintentional learning process
through the daily life experiences such as occupational life and family relationship(Coombs and Ahmed, 1974; Norland, 2005) and the form of knowledge transfer isneither organized nor structured (Dib, 1988; Tissot, 2004). Hence the informal
education comes to be defined as the unintentional learning through various means indaily life. As indicated, there are three modes of education and integrated
implementation of them enhances educational effectiveness. Tudor (2012) indicated that
education is needed in the direction of combining formal one which is specific to class,with non-formal and informal strategy. Most importantly in the context of DRR
education, the effectiveness of disaster education has to be enhanced through thecoordination of three types of education (Shaw et al, 2011). Therefore, this researchaims to study the integrated and synergetic implementation of three modes of education
thus institutionalized implementation is suggested. The terminology of“institutionalized” or “institution” refers to a basic norm that society or certain group ofpeople follows so that the action is being taken place as organized system (Hodgson,2006).
2. METHODOLOGY
The study was conducted in the state of Uttarakhand, India. The state is highly prone tolandslide and flood due to the heavy rainfall in monsoon season and earthquake due tothe collision of Indian plate into Eurasian plate. The practices of three modes of
education were studied through literature reviews and the interviews of 11
governmental agencies, 14 schools, 5 villages, 2 community radio stations.
3. PRACTICES OF THREE MODES OF EDUCATION IN UTTARAKHAND
3.1 Formal education
The formal education in Uttarakhand is provided by state department of education. The
constitution of India prescribes the education as a state matter due to the variety oflanguages and ethnic group through India hence its system and educational contents aredifferent from state to state. Uttarakhand adopts the curriculum of Central Board of
Secondary Education (CBSE) which is developed by the autonomous education boardof Indian government and its contents are modified into Uttarakhand context. DRR
related contents are infused into the subjects of Hindi, English, Environmental
education, Mathematics, Science and Social science. Especially, the curriculum ofsocial science of class 9 and 10 are modified into local context with the collaboration of
DMMC and local NGO. Furthermore, the textbook was elaborated by the DMMC.

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Apart from the curriculum, co-curricular activities are the opportunities to learn theskills to save lives in the situation of natural disasters. First aid training and search andrescue training are observed in some programs such as the scheme of National Social
Service (NSS) and Scout and Guide. Besides, role play with DRR topic is also
conducted occasionally. The curriculums and co-curricular activities are reviewed andevaluated annually and the evaluation is conducted by the department of education withparticipation of NGO. There is also institution to provide teacher’s training at state level
which is called State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT). The
council is a responsible institute for training of Trainers of Teachers (ToT) and thetrainers carry out the training directly for teachers at District Institute of Educational
Training (DIET). Due to the severe damages from flood and landslide took place in2013 in the state, DRR components were newly integrated into the teacher’s training
although officer stated the unavailability of training material on DRR. Teachers who
receive training can give feedback to DIET regarding the contents and its opinion
transmit to SCERT. Thus the evaluation of teacher’s training is also periodicallyconducted in order to reflect the opinion of teachers. Ensuring the safety of schoolbuilding is also one of the important elements of formal education sector. One national
scheme called Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) which aims to accomplish the universal
and quality education is ongoing. The SSA has a component to construct the schoolbuilding and all safety measures are applied and design is developed by governmental
technical institutions. Although some DRR education is conducted in the state, thepolicy to promote DRR education is not observed and there was no funding mechanism
specific for the promotion of DRR education while SCERT has deployed one person in
charge of DRR education training.
3.2 Non-formal education
Non-formal education is provided mainly by Disaster Mitigation and Management
Centre (DMMC). DMMC is the autonomous institution of the state government with theaim of addressing issues on disaster related awareness, research and capacity building
besides policy implementation and other interventions related to disaster management.
The DMMC conducts different types of educational programs for school students andcommunity members. Earthquake awareness program, search and rescue training andfirst aid training are the major programs carried by DMMC. One of the features of nonformal education is the variety in modalities and methodologies in knowledge transfer
therefore DMMC also utilizes different kinds of educational materials. In addition to thematerials developed by National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) such as
booklets and posters in both English and Hindi language, DMMC prepared movies onlandslides in local dialect for children’s awareness. In the collaboration with UNDP,DMMC also developed storytelling booklets on various topics such as landslides, flood,
traffic accident and so on. To equip teachers with DRR knowledge, DMMC alsodelivers teacher’s training.
DMMC also promotes the establishment of local group for disaster management and thedisaster management plans at community level are also elaborated in some districts.
Personnel of DMMC are deployed in different districts of Uttarakhand state and searchand rescue training is given to local volunteers and equipment for search and rescue areprovided. Community is a first responder of natural disasters thus the education andtraining to provide knowledge and skills for community is necessary. While there aremany activities conducted by DMMC, evaluation and documentation processes areobserved challenges. In fact, evaluation and documentation are the process of clarifying
Institutionalization of disaster education In state of Uttarakhand, India
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the effectiveness and points to be improved of each program therefore better programs
can be conducted in the following time.
3.3 Informal education
Informal education practice is different from place to place. The study was conducted in
Dehradun, Rudraprayag and Bageshwar district. In terms of the common points among
study areas, it was found that people tend to obtain the disaster related information
through media. Even in the rural area, smart phone and internet are prevailed and people
get the information through social networking service such as Whats App and Facebook
besides mass media. Obtaining information includes not only the emergency warning,
but also do’s and don’ts and sometimes those information are shared to other friends
through social medias. In each study area, interviewed community has local knowledge
to predict the heavy rainfall and the risk of landslide through the past experience. These
local knowledge can be transmitted widely among community members if the strong
bond among community members exists. In fact, the various community based activities
were organized through the community body such as clean-up project and fair. Random
interviews to school students were also conducted and it was identified that students
have heard about the past experiences of disasters from their family at home andstudents usually share the knowledge they learn at school with family. Hence thepromotion of DRR education at school can contribute to spread the DRR knowledge
even to the community. Apart from these, community radio in Rudraprayag broadcasts
community related information. The radio allocated certain amount of time to focus ondelivering the knowledge on DRR through the interview of specialist, experience of
local people and local knowledge.
4. INSTITUTIONALIZATION OF DRR EDUCATION
Three modes of education were thus studied and some integrated and synergetic
implementation beyond the modes of education were observed. Department ofeducation adopted the CBSE curriculum and its contents related to DRR were localized
in the context of Uttarakhand disasters. Especially, DMMC which is state authority indisaster management has collaborated to elaborate the textbook for DRR part of social
science. This is an example of synergetic implementation of DRR education because
DMMC has accumulated data and knowledge on Uttarakhand disasters and theseknowledge makes educational contents more practical therefore its effect is enhanced.
Other effort to include different stakeholder is as well observed in the mechanism ofevaluation at department of education that the periodical review of educational activities
are conducted through the participation of NGO. While there is a good example ofmechanism for collaboration, there are some aspects which can be improved. Advantage
of DMMC is the accumulation of educational materials for students and teachers as
mentioned earlier. Since there is a lack of educational materials at DIET, DMMC andformal education sector can increase its collaboration through the joint implementationof teacher’s training on DRR. In terms of informal education, interviews show thetendency that students tell to family what they learn at school. This suggests that
improvement of DRR education at school through formal and non-formal education cancontribute to increase the informal education at family level. Therefore, it is important
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DRR education. In addition, media such as community radio and local newspaper
function to disseminate the DRR knowledge to community. Therefore, formal, nonformal and informal means of knowledge transfer should be conducted to supplement
each other thus duplication of activities can be avoided and the accuracy of DRR
information delivered become also practical. To realize the further integrated
implementation of three modes of DRR education, it is important to establish amechanism to promote the communication among stakeholders. For example, botheducation department and DMMC give training on DRR for teachers and further
collaboration can maximize the effect of the practices among stakeholders. In addition,means of informal education such as community radio station can include DRR contents
if there is more support of education and disaster related organization. Thus, mechanism
to promote the communication is required for further effective implementation of DRR
education.
REFERENCES
Coombs, P. H. and Ahmed, M., 1974. Attacking Rural Poverty: How non-formal
education can help, John Hopkins University Press.
Dib, C. Z., 1988. Formal, non-formal and informal education: concepts/applicability,
Cooperative Networks in Physics Education-Conference Proceedings 173, pp. 300-315
Hodgson, Geoffrey M., 2006. ‘What Are Institutions?’, Journal of Economic Issues
40(1), pp. 1-25.
Norland, E., 2005. The Nuances of Being ‘Non’: Evaluating Nonformal Education
Programs and Settings, New Directions for Evaluation 108, pp.6-12.
Shaw, R., Takeuchi, Y., Gwee, Q. R., and Shiwaku, K., 2011. DISASTEREDUCATION: AN INTRODUCTION, Disaster Education: Community, Environmentand Disaster Risk Management, pp. 1-22.
Tissot, P., 2004. Terminology of vocational training policy, A multilingual glossary foran enlarged Europe, Cedefop.
Tudor, S.L., 2013. Formal – Non-formal – Informal in Education. Procedia - Social and
Behavioral Sciences, 5th International Conference EDU-WORLD 2012 - Education
Facing Contemporary World Issues 76, 821–826. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.04.213.

Institutionalization of disaster education In state of Uttarakhand, India
Institutionalization of disaster education in state of Uttarakhand, India

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Analysis of degree of regional
health considering disaster risks~Using National Health Insurance data~
Yuya TAMAMORI1, Makoto FUJIU2, Shoichiro NAKAYAMA3, Junichi
TAKAYAMA4
and Kohei HIRAKO5
1
Student, Kanazawa University, Japanytamamori.331.kk@gmail.com
2
Assistant Professor, Ph.D., Kanazawa University, Japan
3
Professor, Dr., Eng., Kanazawa University, Japan
4
Professor, Dr., Eng., Kanazawa University, Japan
5
Project Assistant Professor, Organization of Frontier Science and Innovation,
Kanazawa University, Japan
ABSTRACTIn Japan, a lot of natural disasters are expected to occur such as typhoon, heavy
snowfall, flood, sediment disaster, earthquake, tsunami and volcanic eruption.
Problems that Japan has includes the super aging society.
The aging of Japan progressed to the world at speed not to watch an example andinvited super aging society in 2007. With it, people in need of long-term care increase.
Such examples people with special needs to disaster suffered from by natural disasteroccur frequently, and it is found by natural disaster that we find security, the relief ofthese people. At disaster, it is expected that people who are behind with evacuating
increase. In considering the disaster prevention measures of our country, we cannot
ignore distribution of people with special needs to disaster in the future. In this study,
using National Health Insurance database (KDB), we clarify distribution of the patient
according to each disease and clarify distribution of people in need of long-term care. I
grasp the place where the elderly and people in need of long-term care live in by theseanalyses and a kind suffering from of illness and consider it from the viewpoint of
medical care to future disaster prevention measures.
Keywords: National Health Insurance database (KDB), super aging society, disasterprevention measures, medical care, senior citizen
1. INTRODUCTION
In Japan, a lot of natural disasters are expected to occur such as typhoon, heavy
snowfall, flood, sediment disaster, earthquake, tsunami and volcanic eruption. People
with special needs to disaster refer to the people in need of assistance in evacuation indisaster. For example, the elderly, people with disabilities, victims, infants, stranded
commuters, travelers, artificial dialysis patients, diabetic, patients suffering, psychiatricand neurological disease patients, and people in need of long-term are people with355

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special needs to disaster. Diabetics are people with special needs to disaster because
diabetic may lead to metabolic disorders in the event of disaster even if their conditions
are stable in peacetime.
In this study, we analyzed about people in need of long-term, patients requiring highmedical costs, and artificial dialysis patients using the data of the National Health
Insurance database (KDB).
We analyzed data of the National Health Insurance database (KDB) of Nanto City.
Nanto City is located in the southwestern part of Toyama Prefecture. The area of Nanto
City is 668.64 square kilometers. The population of Nanto City is 53582 people (2015of March 31). In age three segment population of Nanto City, young population (0-14
years old) and the working-age population (15-64 years) has reduced, and the elderly
population (over 65 years) has increased. Nanto City has aging populations. In
November 2004, four towns and four villages merged into Nanto City.
Figure 1 shows Toyama Prefecture and each cities.
Figure 2 shows previous four towns and previous four villages in Nanto City.

Himi City

Takaoka City
Oyabe
City

TonamiCity

Namerikawa
City

Nyuzen
Town

Asahi
Town

Funahashi
Village

Kurobe City
Uozu City

Imizu
City

KamiichiTown
Toyama City

Tateyama
Town

Nanto City

Figure 1: Toyama pref. and each cities

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Previous
FukunoTown

Previous
Fukumitu
Town

Previous
Inami
Town

Previous
InokuchiVillage

Previous
Zyouhana
Town

Previous
KamitairaVillage

Previous
Tairamura
Village

Previous
Toga
Village

Figure 2: Previous four towns and previous four villages in Nanto City
2. OVERVIEW OF NATIONAL HEALTH INSURANCE DATABASE (KDB)
Previously data preparation for grasping the current area situations and health problems
were often done by hand work, and it was inefficient. It was difficult to sufficiently
understand the current area situations and health problems because the data was huge. It
is possible to do a lot of work automatically, it is possible to implement a more efficientand effective health service with National Health Insurance database (KDB) system. By
using this system, people can share not only information but also recognized healthproblems in the region. As a result of using National Health Insurance database (KDB),
a lot of health problems can be examined. Figure 3 shows example of the data of
National Health Insurance database (KDB). KDB has gender, age, date of birth, address,
expenses, main disease name and so on.

Figure 3: Example of the data of National Health Insurance database (KDB)
Analysis of degree of regional health considering disaster risks
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Insurancedata~health considering disaster risks~Using National Health Insurance data~357

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3. PREVIOUS RESEARCHES
A research result on disaster contingency planning dealing with the elderly as people
with special needs to disaster has been presented by Mr. Namba et al. A research resulton evacuation dealing with the elderly and people with disabilities as people withspecial needs to disaster by Mr. Ariga.
Research results on dealing with the elderly and people with disabilities as people withspecial needs to disaster has been done, but research results on dealing with diabetic
patients, artificial dialysis patients, and psychiatric and neurological disease patients as
people with special needs to disaster has not been done.
No studies to understand the distribution of people with special needs to disaster using
National Health Insurance database (KDB).
4. EARTHQUAKE RISK OF PEOPLE WITH SPECIAL NEEDS TO DISASTER
IN NANTO CITY
4.1 Earthquake risk of people in need of long-term
Certification of Needed Long-Term Care is intended to determine the necessary level ofcare service. Therefore, there is a case in which seriousness of the disease and the levelof the care do not always coincide. Certification of Needed Long-Term Care is divided
into seven levels of support required 1-2 and care levels 1-5.
We analyzed people in need of long-term level three or more as people with special
needs to disaster care because people in need of long-term level three or more carecannot do by themselves. This study was targeted for people in need of long-term level
three or more care from June 2012 to February 2015.

Figure 4: Distribution of need of long-term level 3-5

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Figure 4 shows that people in need of long-term level three or more care and of
measuring seismic intensity (JMA-scale) which is a 2% under 50-year exceedance
probability distribution. Figure 5 shows that relationship between need of long term andseismic intensity (JMA-scale). From figure 4 and 5, it can be seen that most living inplaces where seismic intensity of upper 6 (JMA-scale) and at any care level despite
residence of people in need of long-term level 3-5 care is different.

people in need of long-term level 5 care236people in need of long-term level 4 care141people in need of long-term level 3 care

2

46

0%

lower 620%

40%

upper 6

7

1

60%

80%

100%

Figure 5: Share of need of long-term level under seismic intensity
Figure 6 shows that the distribution of people in need of long-term level three or morecare and the distance (km) from major medical institutions of Nanto City. Figure 7
shows that the distance from major medical institutions of people in need of long-termlevel three or more care.
National Hospital Organization Hokuriku Hospital
Nanto Central Hospital

Nanto Municipal Hospital(Unit : km)

Figure 6: The distribution of people in need of long-term level 3-5 care and the distance(km) from major medical institutions of Nanto City
Analysis of degree of regional health considering disaster risks
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From figure 6 and 7, the proportion of people in need of long-term level three or morecare living in 5km distance from major medical institutions is high. Therefore, there isconcern that the evacuation due to traffic congestion is delayed during the disaster.

people in need of long-term level 5 care4people in need of long-term level 4 care

3 3

26

people in need of long-term level 3 care

11

38

0%

0䡚1km

1䡚2km

8

20%

2䡚5km

18

40%

7 1

8

2

6 2
60%

5䡚10km

80%

100%

10km䡚

Figure 7: The distance from major medical institutions of people in need of long-termlevel 3-5 care
4.2 Earthquake risk of patients to be determined as people with special needs todisasterThis study was intended for diabetic patients, psychiatric and neurological disease
patients, and artificial dialysis patients from June 2012 to February 2015. It is only apatient in need of medical expenses of more than ¥ 300,000 in one month for diabetic
patients and psychiatric and neurological disease patients.

Figure 8: Distributions of patients and distributions under seismic intensity

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Figure 8 shows that distributions of these patients and distributions of the seismic
intensity (JMA-scale) of a 2% under 50-year exceedance probability. Figure 9 showsthat the measurement seismic intensity (JMA-scale) distribution state to be 2% under
50-year exceedance probability of each disease. As a result of figure 8 and 9, more than
90% of these patients are living in places where seismic intensity of upper 6 (JMAscale).

1

42

0

psychiatric and neurological disease patients 10

195

0diabetic patients 23

454

0

artificial dialysis patients0%lower 620%

upper 6

40%

60%

80%

100%

7

Figure 9: Share of major patients under seismic intensity
Figure 10 shows the distribution of major patients and the distance (km) from major
medical institutions of Nanto City. Figure 10 shows the distance from major medical
institutions of major patients. As a result of 10 and 11, the proportion of these patientsliving in 5km distance from major medical institutions is high as in the case of people inneed of long-term level three or more care. It is important to determine shelters ofpeople with special needs to disaster for each residence in order to avoid traffic
congestion during the disaster.
National Hospital Organization Hokuriku Hospital
Nanto Central Hospital

Nanto Municipal Hospital(Unit : km)

Figure 10: The distribution of these patients and the distance (km) from major medical
institutions of Nanto City
Analysis of degree of regional health considering disaster risks~Using National
Insurancedata~health considering disaster risks
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15

26

10 1

psychiatric and neurological disease patients

23 20

105

40 16

diabetic patients

41 45

266

100 25artificial dialysis patients

0%

0䡚1km

1䡚2km

20%

2䡚5km

40%

5䡚10km

60%

80%

100%

10km䡚

Figure 11: The distance from major medical institutions of major patients
5. CONCLUSION
By using National Health Insurance database (KDB), we visualized addresses of people
in need of long-term level three or more care, diabetic patients, psychiatric andneurological disease patients, and artificial dialysis patients in Nanto City on GIS.
Furthermore, by using the J-SHIS Map, we visualized the distribution of seismic
intensity (JMA-scale), which is 2% in 50 years exceedance probability in Nanto City on
GIS. Instrumental seismic intensity, which is 2% in 50 years exceedance probability in
Nanto City are distributed from seismic intensity upper 5 to seismic intensity 7 (JMAscale), seismic intensity is greater in the north of Nanto City. Although there is little
place of seismic intensity 7 (JMA-scale) in Nanto City, most of people with special
needs to disaster are living in places where seismic intensity upper 6 (JMA-scale). It
was found that the proportion of those who are living in close from the main medical
institutions in people with special needs to disaster is high. It is important to clarify foreach residence shelters for each residence because major medical institutions are built
close together in Nanto City. As future problems, we will analyze the data about other
cities. Also, we will do evacuation simulation.
REFERENCES
Y. Namba, and Y. Furukawa, 2006. Present condition grasp of the disaster weak andevacuation at the time of disaster: Case study on Higashihiroshima City. Research
Reports of the School of Engineering, Kinki University No.40, 41-46.
E. Ariga, 2007. Refuge Method and Problem of the Disater Weak. Annual report of theRegional Studies Institute, Ibaraki University 40, 77-85.
T. Katada, Y. Oikawa, and H. Kanzawa, 1999. The Actual Circumstances and Problemsof the Evacuation Activity of Frail Elderly in River Flood Disasters. Papers on city
planning 34, 715-720.

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Design of spatial decision support toolfor understanding
cumulative environmental exposure
Nilima THAPA SHRESTHA1 and Yogeshwor KRISHNA PARAJULI2
1
Urban Planner, Kathmandu Valley Development Authority
Development Commissioners Office, Kathmandu, Nepal
nilimathapashrestha@gmail.com
2
Development Commissioner, Kathmandu Valley Development Authority
Development Commissioners Office, Kathmandu, Nepal
ykp.kvda@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
To support the experts and decision makers with the information on cumulativeenvironmental exposure, a spatial decision support tool for understanding cumulativeenvironmental exposure (SDSTCE) is designed. The ROMC design approach and the Use
Case approach were used to design the SDSTCE. The design was operationalized as
SDSTCEEnL in Community Viz by using secondary data from Dortmund, Germany. It iscapable of producing index maps, graphs; which is interactive in nature. Multiple
environmental deprivation index (MEDIx) was used to understand the geographic extent
of cumulative environmental stressors. It is also able to assess the area and population
exposed to cumulative environmental stressors. Additionally, it can overlay different
layers such as health, immigrant data over the index map for further analysis. The
research concluded that the area around transportation network of the case study city isenvironmentally deprived with the highest combination of environmental stressors. It isa generic tool; therefore, can be also be utilized in understanding the multiple
environmental exposure in Kathmandu Valley.
Keywords: multiple environmental stressors, cumulative environmental exposure,spatial decision support tool, index, conceptual design
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background and justification
Various environmental stressors exist in an urban environment. According to Briggs(2003) environmental stressors do not work in isolation nor do they lead to single andspecific health outcome, indeed they act in consort and lead to a wide array of healthoutcome. This leads to the concept of multiple environmental stressors and its
cumulative effects. According to Vlachokostas et al. (2012) urban environment ismostly effected by two environmental factors, air and noise pollution. He measured the
combined exposure of air and noise pollution further highlighted on the importance ofconsidering several environmental stressors. Similarly, exposure to excessive (Prasher,363

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According to the EEA (2013) environmental stressors can be tackled with the proper
integration of new technology and policies. Plans, policies and innovative ideas areimportant for the reduction and prevention of environmental burden. Hence, for thatplanners and decision makers should have the overview of the situation of actual
problem. To create a healthy city it is important that planners, health practitioners,
environmentalist, policy makers and other stakeholders work in collaboration. It is
important to have a good understanding of the health and environmental condition of thecity, for that there should be enough data, and outputs should be simple andunderstandable to all the stakeholders. Quality information helps to identify andprioritize problems which lead to well informed solutions and decisions making.
Spatial decision support system (SDSS) is a flexible problem solving environment,
where stakeholders can first understand the condition then generate and evaluate
alternative solutions.
1.2 Research problem
At present there is a large volume of spatial decision support systems (SDSSs)
developed to address individual environmental stressors such as air pollution in major
cities of the world. Liu et al. (2012) presents some facts explaining that only 3% of
decision support tools (DST) deals with 36 environmental stressors, 25% of deals, with
only one stressor and 50% deals with only one disease; additionally, most of the tools
are non-spatial. This leads to the realization that there is a need of a spatial decision
support tool (SDST) covering more environmental stressors and more diseases.
Therefore, this research attempts to make a contribution to that apparent void bydesigning and developing a spatial decision support tool for mapping cumulativeenvironmental exposure. According to Couclelis (1991) the challenge lies in finding out
the problem rather than solving it. Hence the main objective of the research is to designand develop the Spatial Decision Support Tool (SDST) for mapping cumulativeenvironmental condition of the area. The tool will help the stakeholders to identify andunderstand the geographical extent of environmental condition of an area rather thansolve the problem.
2

PROCESS of BUILDINGSDSTCE

Figure1
illustrates
themethodology adopted for thedevelopment of conceptual
design of SDSTCE.
2.1 Problem definition andidentification of end users
The first step leading to thedevelopment of SDST was

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Figure 1: Methodology of developing SDSTCE (own source)
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recognizing the problem and the benefit of addressing that problem with computerized
spatial decision support tool. In addition to the problem recognition, end users of thetool and the contribution that they could make in solving the problem was identified.
2.2 Defining requirements for the conceptual design of SDST CE
This is the most important phase in the
research. The main objective of conceptual
design of SDSTCE is to provide all theinformation required for the development of
the prototype. This research uses two
approaches for the design of SDSTCE namely
1) ROMC design approach and 2) Use caseapproach. ROMC design approach (Sprague Jr& Carlson, 1982) is the methodology suitable
for the design of a specialized decision support
system. Use case approach is the methodology
used in the system analysis to identify, clarify
and organize the systems requirement(Gibilisco, 2013).
Figure 2: Phases utilized in the design
approach (own source)
Both the ‘ROMC design approach’ and the‘Use case design approach’ go through the sequence of phases for defining therequirements. Figure 2 shows the phases adopted by these design approaches.
2.3 Development of the tool
Although this research provides conceptual design of the SDSTCE; however, it does notdevelop the overall tool. This research develops a small section of the SDSTCE which istermed as ‘SDSTCE EnL’. It addresses the few sub objectives of SDSTCE .
2.4 Data collection
Basically two types of data are utilized in the research 1) primary data and 2) secondary
data. An online questionnaire survey has been used in this research for the primary datacollection. Secondary data was collected and provided by JuFo Salus project working
for healthy and equal cities. Environment data, administrative data and land use data
were provided.
3

CONCEPTUAL DESIGN of SDSTCE

The main objective of conceptual design of SDSTCE is to provide a framework for thedevelopment of a prototype which will provide information on cumulativeenvironmental state and exposure. It is used to identify, clarify, and organize systems
requirement. It will provide information on the guiding principles of the tool, targeteduser group, major components, required inputs and outputs, unit of analysis,
assumptions, different functions and its operationalization. It will also provide a
possible sequence of interaction between the system and users.
A spatial decision support tool for cumulative environmental exposure (SDSTCE) aims
to understand the geographical extent of multiple environmental stressors in the area.

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SDSTCE will be used in the first phase of the decision making (intelligent phase) since it
is more important to understand the problem rather than find the solution (Couclelis,1991). SDSTCE is a generic tool that will function according to availability of data. It
will mostly focus on different functions, methods, visualization techniques and tools inassessing and analyzing the cumulative environmental exposure.
From the literature review, reviews on
existing DST and analysis ofquestionnaire it can be concluded that
the Guiding principles for the design of
SDSTCE should be 1) Easy to use, 2)
Easy to understand, 3) Fast, 4) Flexible,
5) Interactive. The probable end users of
the SDSTCE are urban planners, publichealthexperts,
environmentalist,
decisionmakersandnon-profit
organization.
3.1 Architecture of SDSTCE
Figure 3 shows the architecture forspatial decision support tool (SDSTCE)
for mapping cumulative environmental Figure 3: Framework for ideal SDST (iSDST)
health effects. In general SDSTCE is a Adapted from (Sugumaran & Degroote, 2011)
data intensive tool; it requires data on
environmental factors, health of the citizens and social, economic and otherdemographic data of the citizens. Ideally, data required for the mapping ofenvironmental effects of the city depends upon the major environmental problems in thecity. This research tries to design a conceptual framework of SDST for a data richcondition which will be addressed as ideal SDST (iSDST). It consists of databasemanagement, model management, and dialogue management. ROMC design approachis used for identifying different components of the ideal SDST such as functions,
methods, tools, aids and visualization.
4

DEVELOPMENT of SDSTCE ENL

This research develops a small section of the SDSTCE as a test wise development toillustrate the operation of an entry level prototype. It is termed as ‘SDSTCE EnL’. It
demonstrates the interactive tool that allows easy and fast assessment of functions andproduces interactive maps and graphs. Scenario 360 in community Viz is used to create
the SDSTCE EnL.
4.1 Case study area: The city of Dortmund
The city of Dortmund, Germany is the case study city. It is a one of the largest and mostpopulated German cities with a population of 572,087 (2012). According toBezirksregierung Arnsberg (2011) many German cities are struggling with air pollution,
which is affecting the health of people. Dortmund is also facing the environmental
problem specially pollution due to air and noise. According to LANUV (2009) road

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section exceeding the limit value of NO2 and PM10. The city is also affected by night
noise disturbances. Therefore, this research tries to understand the cumulativeenvironmental exposure in the case study city of Dortmund. It also tries to investigate
the relation between the environment and socio-economic condition of the area.
4.2Environmental state in Dortmund

Figure 4: Road traffic noise in Dortmund Figure 5: Air pollution (NO2) in Dortmund
Source: Jufo Salus, modified by author
Source: Jufo Salus, modified by author
This research uses data on noise due to road, rail, industries and air traffic. Figure 4,
illustrates the spatial extent of noise due to road. Similarly, Figure 5 shows the spatial
extent of NO2. These maps clearly provide information on individual environmental
stressors that the city is facing; however, it is important to understand the cumulativeenvironmental state due to the multiple environmental stressors. Therefore, a map was
produced to understand the spatial extent of the number of individual environmental
stressors in a single map by using the overlay technique in the GIS; however, theprocess was not successful to show the cumulative environmental state by using theoverlap of multiple environmental stressors. It is challenging to find out the hotspots due
to multiple environmental stressors. It is even more of a problem if the socio-economicor other data are to be studied in combination to these multiple stressors.
4.3 SDSTCEEnL interface
Figure 6 shows the screen shot of SDSTCE EnL in the Community Viz interface. In the
figure, ‘A’ is the slider bar. It is mainly used to change the weight of the environmental
factors used to create the multiple environment deprivation index (MEDIx). ‘B’ is themap area where the maps can be visualized. ‘C’ is the table of contain which helps to
track different layers available in the tool. The simple overlay technique can be used tovisualize and compare different data. In figure 5, map showing the location of migrated
population is overlaid on the MEDIx map. This function will provide flexibility to theusers in switching on and off the layers as per the requirement. ‘D’ shows the graphs; it
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is used to present the result of exposure analysis. The slider bar, the map and the graphs
are interconnected and are interactive, meaning that a change in the weightage of theenvironmental factors in the slider bar will result changes in the map and the graphs.

D

C

A

B

Figure 6: Screen short of SDSTCE EnL within community Viz showing the useof overlay technique (overlay of migrated population)
4.4 Results

Figure 7: Input and Outputs of SDSTCEEnL (equal weight to all the factors)

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Figure 8: Input and Outputs of SDSTCEEnL (high weight to road noise)

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Figure 7 shows the map of multiple environmental deprivation. In the figure green color
is characterized as an environmentally well off area, whereas red color is characterized
as a poor or the environmentally deprived area with high combined environmental
stressors. SDSTCE EnL creates an index that captures co-exposure of several
environmental stressors. Weighting of environmental factors are used in this research;
the effect of one environmental stress may be more than the other hence the method ofweighing provided in this research is to reflect the experts point of view regarding thesignificance of pollutants considering risk to human health.
After developing MEDIx, weight was changed several times to recognize the variationin the environmental state and the population exposure in the area. In figure 7 all thefactors are provided equal weight (that is 50%); the area exposed in this condition is15.5 sq.km and 17,170 population is exposed. When weight of one of the factor Noisefrom road is increased to 80%; the area exposed in this condition is 28.10 sq.km and28,873 population is exposed. Similarly, when the weight of Air_NO2 was decreased
the exposed area and population both was decreased. When salutogenic factors wereconsidered in the index, it was realized that the area and population exposed to themultiple environmental deprivation were increased. From Figure 7 and Figure 8 it can
be clearly seen that area along the road and railway together with the area around the
airport area are mostly exposed to the multiple environmental stressors. From above
results it can be drawn that the decrease in environmental stressors can have a positive
impact on the environment of the city.
The population exposed to air and noise pollution was overlaid on the MEDIx map, it
was found that that the area along the road and railway together with the area around the
airport (central and the western districts of the city)are mostly exposed to the multiple
environmental stressors. Similarly, data on migration is overlaid on the MEDIx. Due tothe road and railway networks running from the central of the city; central statistical
districts are mostly exposed to multiple environmental stressors which is also true in thecase of western statistical districts of the city. These districts are struggling with highunemployment, has high number of migrants and the life expectancy is also
comparatively low.
5. USE OF SDSTCE IN CASE OF KATHMANDU VALLEY
This section of the paper discusses on the probable use of SDSTCE in case ofKathmandu Valley.
According to (Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment , 2012) air pollution in
Kathmandu Valley exceeds the WHO standard by several times. According to the
Ministry of environment in 2005 the ambient air pollution was responsible for thepremature death of almost 1600 people per year in Kathmandu valley. A study of worldbank 2006-2007 shows that the annual health cost of the country attributed by the urban
air pollution is 21 million US dollars.
Kathmandu Valley Development Authority (KVDA) is the planning, developing,monitoring/regulating and coordinating agency. Considering the present situation of
population growth and its impact on social, cultural and environmental aspects of thevalley; KVDA has developed the 20 year Strategic Development Master Plan (SDMP
2015-2035). The vision of SDMP is “to promote the Kathmandu Valley as a livable city

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October2015,
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Nepalwith the interdependence of nature, community and culture.” And the mission is toestablish the valley as a safe, clean, organized, prosperous and elegant (SCOPE)
national capital region.
Therefore, KVDA aims to use SDSTCE to understand the environmental exposer due tothe development projects such as Kathmandu urban transport master plan, outer ringroad development, improvement of strategic road network and analyze the positive
impacts of open space and water bodies. It also aims to use the tool to understand thespatial-temporal extent of multiple environmental exposure and investigate the relation
between environmental condition and social, economic and health aspects of the valley.
Hence, it supports decision makers in selecting environment friendly; safer alternatives.
6. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
6.1 Conclusion
The main objective of the study was to design the Spatial Decision Support Tools(SDSTCE) for understanding the cumulative environmental condition of the area. The
conceptual design of SDSTCE was partly realized through SDSTCE EnL. Although
SDSTCE EnL is an entry level prototype it clearly illustrated how the cumulativeenvironmental exposure due to multiple environmental stressors could be assessed andvisualized. Furthermore, it clearly demonstrated the interactive tool. The functions suchas overlay technique demonstrated the comparison of different data which could be ofgreat importance to different professionals and decision makers in planning better andhealthier cites. This tool can also be used to understand the relation between
environmental and the social economical condition of people.
It is a generic tool; therefore, can be utilized in understanding the multiple
environmental exposure of any city or spatial region; however, it’s output highly
depends upon the availability of data. Additionally, it can also be utilized to understandthe multiple environmental exposure due to the future development projects and help thedecision makers to selection an environmentally friendly projects.
6.2 Recommendations
Due to the lack of temporal data, only spatial dimension of cumulative environmental
exposure was considered in SDSTCE EnL. Furthermore, due to the lack of health data,
health effects were not considered in SDSTCE EnL. With these limitations in the
research some recommendations are presented for further research directions.
This research focuses on the intelligent phase; the future research could be done on
design and choice phase. Along with air, noise, green spaces and water bodies, facilities
such as industries and heat island effects could be considered in studying multiple
environmental deprivation to provide a larger picture on the environmental condition of
the area. Although the relation between cumulative environmental exposure and socioeconomic condition was checked in the case of Dortmund through overlay and visual
analysis, correlation cannot be proved by using this tool. Although the tool helps theexperts to draw the hypothesis, the causality between environment and health cannot be
explained. Introducing the statistical analysis in the tool could be the future direction for
more concrete results.

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REFERENCES
Briggs Davide. (2003). Making a difference: Indicators to improve children's
environmental health. World Health Organization, Geneva.
Bezirksregierung Arnsberg. (2011). Luftreinhalteplan Ruhrgebiet , Teilplan Ost(inGerman language). Retrieved from Clean Air Planning website: http://www.bezregarnsberg.nrw.de/themen/l/luftreinhalteplanung/do_aktionsplaene/lrp_ruhrgebiet_ost.pdf
Couclelis, H. (1991). There is nothing as theoretical as good practice. Environment andPlanning B: Planning and Design, 18(4), 379-384.
EEA.
(2013).
Everybreathwetake.
Retrievedfrom
http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/eea-signals-2013?
Gibilisco, S. (2013). Use case diagram
Retrieved 4th March, 2014, fromhttp://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/use-case-diagram
Jonsson, A., & Hansson, L. (1977). Prolonged exposure to a stressful stimulus (noise)
as a cause of raised blood-pressure in man. The Lancet, 309(8002), 86-87.
LANUV. (2009). Action programme environment and health north rhine westphalia,
Evaluation of the clean air plans ruhr district and Dusseldorf: Ministry of Environment
and Nature Conservation agriculture and consumer protection Landdes of North Rhine
Westphalia.
Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment. (2012). National Ambient Air
Quality Standard. Kathmandu: Government of Nepal.
Pope III, C. A., Brook, R. D., Burnett, R. T., & Dockery, D. W. (2011). How is
cardiovascular disease mortality risk affected by duration and intensity of fineparticulate matter exposure? An integration of the epidemiologic evidence. Air Quality,
Atmosphere & Health, 4(1), 5-14.
Prasher, D. (2002). Estimation of hearing damage from noise exposure. Paper presented
at the World Health Organisation and European Centre for Environment and HealthReport on the Technical meeting of exposure–response relationships of noise on health,Bonn, Germany.
Sprague Jr, R. H., & Carlson, E. D. (1982). Building effective decision support systems:
Prentice Hall Professional Technical Reference.
Vlachokostas, C., Achillas, C., Michailidou, A. V., & Moussiopoulos, Ν. (2012).
Measuring combined exposure to environmental pressures in urban areas: An air
quality and noise pollution assessment approach. Environment International, 39(1), 818. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2011.09.007

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Distribution characteristics of vacant houses
usable in future Nankai earthquake disasterin Wakayama Prefecture
Tomofumi IKENAGA1, Hideomi GOKON2, and Kimiro MEGURO3
1
Graduate Student, Department of Civil Engineering,
The University of Tokyo (UTokyo), Japan, ikenaga@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
2
Assistant Professor, International Center for Urban Safety Engineering (ICUS),
Institute of Industrial Science (IIS), UTokyo, Japan
3
Director / Professor, ICUS, IIS, UTokyo, Japan
ABSTRACTThe Great East-Japan Earthquake in 2011 brought an opportunity to make theextensive use of houses for rent in the context of public temporary housing due to thelack of site and manpower for the construction of new temporary houses. Active use ofexisting housing stocks can provide the people with much better living environment
more rapidly than the conventional way. Moreover, it can be anticipated that theprobability of using vacant houses may be increased in accordance with the decrease inpopulation and the increase in vacant houses, which are nationally taken place.
Therefore, it is worth assessing distribution characteristics of vacant houses which canbe used as temporary shelters during the expected earthquake disaster. This paper aims
to estimate the number of vacant houses which can be used after the expected Nankai
earthquake happens in Wakayama Prefecture. In this study, the number of vacanthouses usable in future Nankai earthquake disaster, including both on the market andnot for rent, and that of victims who may lose their houses are estimated. Then, areas
will be identified where it is worth establishing the system by which houses can be usedfor victims at emergency case.
Keywords: temporary housing, recovery, depopulation, Nankai earthquake, vacanthouse
1. INTRODUCTION
When massive-scale disaster happens, Japanese Government is to furnish prefabricatedhouses as temporary shelters for the victims who lost their houses. The Great East-Japan
Earthquake in 2011, however, brought an opportunity to make the extensive use ofexisting houses for rent in the context of public temporary housing due to the lack ofsite and manpower for the construction of new temporary houses. More than 130
thousands houses were provided as temporary shelters, and 68 thousands, more thanhalf of them, were provided by using rented houses available for victims.
Active use of existing housing stocks by public can provide the people with much better
living environment more rapidly than the conventional way, but there are less numberof privately rented houses in the rural area than in the city area. It can be anticipated,373

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however, that the probability of using vacant houses may be increased in accordancewith the decrease in population and the increase in vacant houses, which are taken placeespecially in the countryside. Making use of such vacant houses may enable to provide
temporary shelters by existing housing stocks not only in the city area but also in therural area. Therefore, it is worth assessing distribution characteristics of vacant houses
usable in future mega disaster such as expected Nankai earthquake, which may cause
more than 320 thousands of fatalities and 2.3 millions of totally collapsed buildings insome worst case, much more serious than the Great East-Japan earthquake.
This paper aims to estimate the number of vacant houses which can be used after the
expected Nankai earthquake happens in Wakayama Prefecture, whose location is shownin Figure 1, which faces the problem of rapid and significant depopulation and has highrisk of Nankai earthquake and its induced tsunami. Wakayama Prefecture has relatively
less number of vacant houses in the market but more number of those not for rent
among the prefectures where Nankai earthquake will cause damage as shown in Figure
2. Therefore Wakayama Prefecture can be thought appropriate as target area to takeconsideration into using vacant houses even not for rent.
This study evaluates the demand and supply of private vacant houses as temporary
shelters in Wakayama Prefecture, whether or not they are in the market, by using thestatistical data of vacant houses and the expected data of ground motion caused by
future Nankai earthquake. Then, this study considers conditions of area where it may beeffective to establish the system by which vacant houses even not in the market can beused for victims at emergency case.

tĂŬĂǇĂŵĂƉƌĞĨĞĐƚƵƌĞ
䞉dŽŬǇŽ
䞉KƐĂŬĂ
EĂŶŬĂŝ ƚƌŽƵŐŚ

Figure 1: Location of Wakayama prefecture and Nankai trough
Ϭ͘ϭϰ
Ϭ͘ϭϮ

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Ϭ͘Ϭϴ

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dŽŬǇŽϬ;,ŽƵƐŝŶŐĂŶĚ>ĂŶĚ^ƵƌǀĞǇŝŶϮϬϭϯͿ

Figure 2: Ratios of vacant houses to households in the expected disaster regions by the
future Nankai earthquake

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2. ESTIMATION METHODOLOGY
2.1 Definition of demand and supply of vacant houses
Vacant houses are classified into four categories according to Housing and Land Survey
done by Statistics Bureau of Japan: second dwellings, for rent, for sale, and others.
“Others” dwellings are described as follows: those not inhabited for a long time due totransference or hospitalization, or those to be destroyed for the purpose of rebuilding. In
this paper, all of “for rent” and “others” are assumed available as temporary shelters forvictims although some “others” dwellings may be impossible to use because ofdeterioration or lack of maintenance.
The number of usable vacant houses, the supply of private vacant houses, is defined as
the houses not totally collapsed; partially collapsed houses are regarded usable byrepairing them. The demand is defined as the number of households whose houses aretotally collapsed following past researches.
2.2 Vacant houses classified by building characteristics
In order to estimate the damage to vacant houses in Wakayama Prefecture caused byearthquake, it is necessary to classify the number of vacant houses by structure type andage. Total number of vacant houses and households in Wakayama Prefecture can beobtained from Housing and Land Survey result in 2013. The survey result, however,does not contain the data of vacant houses in the municipalities whose population is lessthan 15 thousands. Moreover, there is no statistics of vacant houses classified bybuilding characteristics while there is that of resident households. Therefore, the numberof vacant houses classified by building characteristics for each municipality has to beassessed in some way.
Firstly, the total number of vacant houses in the municipalities with population less than
15 thousands was calculated by subtracting the total number of these in themunicipalities with more than 15 thousands of population from the total vacant housesin the whole Wakayama Prefecture. Then, the number of vacant houses in eachmunicipality was assessed in accordance with the population.
Secondly, the total number of vacant houses was classified into four groups by structure
type (wood or non-wood) and age (old (built before 1981) or new) based on two casesof assumption, the best case and worst case, since it was impossible to make preciseclassification of vacant houses. In the worst case, the number of collapsed houses would
be the biggest, all vacant houses were regarded as old and timber, which has the highest
vulnerability against earthquake. In the best case, the same proportion of building
characteristics of resident dwellings was applied to vacant houses, based on theassumption that the probability of total collapse of vacant houses would not exceed
those of resident dwellings. With respect to the municipalities with the population ofless than 15 thousands, however, because the data of vacant houses classified bybuilding characteristic was not available, all vacant houses were regarded as new andnon-wood made, which has the lowest vulnerability against earthquake.
2.3 Damage estimation of vacant houses and households
Combining the estimation result with the hazard data of expected Nankai earthquake, it
can be evaluated how many households will lose their houses and how many vacanthouses will be usable for victims in Wakayama Prefecture. First, PGV (peak ground
velocity) in each location was referred from the massive earthquake model which would
Distribution characteristics of vacant houses usable in future Nankai earthquake disasterin Wakayama
Prefecture
Distribution
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cause the biggest damage in Wakayama Prefecture among the ones made by JapaneseCabinet Office. Then, the ratios of total collapse of four each building type were derived
from PGV by applying fragility function made by Midorikawa (2011). By multiplying
the ratio of total collapse with the number of houses for each building type andsumming them up, it was calculated in both the best case and the worst case that how
many households and vacant houses would be totally collapsed by earthquake. Total
collapse ratios due to tsunami and fire were referred from the result of damage
estimation conducted by Wakayama Prefectural government. Then, total numbers ofcollapsed vacant houses and households were calculated and thus the demand andsupply of vacant house could be assessed.
3. RESULTS OF ESTIMATION
Figure 3 shows the number of total households according to the national census in 2010.
Wakayama City, located on northwest side of the prefecture and adjoined to Osaka, isthe biggest city in Wakayama Prefecture and has 183,754 households as of 2010. Figure
4 shows how many percentages of households would lose their houses in both the bestcase and the worst case due to future Nankai earthquake disaster. It can be said thatsouth and southwest areas would suffer relatively serious damage although there issome difference between two ways of estimation in the municipalities with less than 15
thousands of population. It was estimated that 117 to 125 thousand households would
lose their houses totally in the prefecture.

Wakayama
City

Number of households䡚䠑䠌䠌䠌䠑䠌䠌䠍䡚䠍䠌䠌䠌䠌䠍䠌䠌䠌䠍䡚䠍䠌䠌䠌䠌䠌䠍䠌䠌䠌䠌䠍䡚

Figure 3: The number of total households in 2010
Best case

Worst case
Ratio ofhouseholds who
would lose theirhouses䡚䠍䠌䠂䠍䠌䡚䠏䠌䠂
䠏䠌䡚䠑䠌䠂
䠑䠌䠂䡚

Figure 4: Ratios of households who would lose their houses to total households

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Figure 5 and 6 show distribution characteristics of vacant houses usable for victims
whether or not the house is in the market for rent. While at the north part, more than one
thousand vacant houses for rent would be usable, less than one hundred ones would beavailable in some rural municipalities at the south or southwest part and facing the
Pacific Ocean. With respect to the “others” vacant houses not in the market for rent,
however, hundreds of houses might be remaining even in the area which would havefew vacant houses for rent. It was estimated that 18 to 21 thousand of “for rent” vacant
dwellings and 32 to 36 thousand of “others” dwellings would be remaining through the
future Nankai earthquake disaster and have potential to use them for victims. It can besaid based on the estimation that it would be difficult in the municipalities withrelatively small population to rapidly provide victims with comfortable living place
unless existing vacant houses would be actively used. Making use of them might havethe function to mitigate the effect of population decreasing in such municipalities.

Best case

Worst case 
䡚䠍䠌䠌䠍䠌䠍䡚䠏䠌䠌
䠏䠌䠍䡚䠑䠌䠌
䠑䠌䠍䡚䠍䠌䠌䠌䠍䠌䠌䠍䡚ȋ Ȍ

Figure 5: Number of vacant houses usable in future Nankai earthquake (for rent)

Best case

Worst case 
䡚䠍䠌䠌䠍䠌䠍䡚䠏䠌䠌
䠏䠌䠍䡚䠑䠌䠌
䠑䠌䠍䡚䠍䠌䠌䠌
䠍䠌䠌䠍䡚ȋȌ

Figure 6: Number of vacant houses usable in future Nankai earthquake (others)

Distribution characteristics of vacant houses usable in future Nankai earthquake disasterin Wakayama
Prefecture
Distribution
characteristics of vacant houses usable in future Nankai earthquake disaster inWakayama Prefecture377

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Figure 7 and 8 compare demand with supply of vacant houses in the case of taking
consideration into only the houses for rent and also not for rent. It was found from theestimation that in the municipalities at the north part not facing the Pacific Ocean the
demand would exceed the supply and thus have the potential to accept the victims fromother adjacent municipalities. It would be effective for such cities to establish thesystem by which existing vacant houses can be used for victims at emergency case,which would make it possible to keep more victims in Wakayama Prefecture thanconventional way of temporary housing. In many cities facing the sea, on the other hand,the number of usable vacant houses would be less than that of households who would
lose their houses by more than one thousand. It would be important to make active useof existing housing stocks especially at the south or southwest part, which is far frominland cities or other prefectures, although it would be impossible to meet the demandeven if vacant houses not in the market could be used.

Best case

Worst case
(Usable vacant houses)– (Households who
would lose their houses)䡚䠉㻝㻜㻜㻜㻜
䞊㻥㻥㻥㻥䡚䠉㻝㻜㻜㻜䞊㻥㻥㻥䡚䞊㻝㻜㻜
䞊㻥㻥䡚㻜
㻝䡚㻝㻜㻜
㻝㻜㻝䡚㻝㻜㻜㻜㻝㻜㻜㻝䡚ȋ Ȍ

Figure 7: Demand and supply of vacant houses (for rent)

Best case

Worst case
(Usable vacant houses)– (Households who
would lose their houses)䡚䠉㻝㻜㻜㻜㻜
䞊㻥㻥㻥㻥䡚䠉㻝㻜㻜㻜䞊㻥㻥㻥䡚䞊㻝㻜㻜
䞊㻥㻥䡚㻜
㻝䡚㻝㻜㻜
㻝㻜㻝䡚㻝㻜㻜㻜㻝㻜㻜㻝䡚ȋ ƬȌ

Figure 8: Demand and supply of vacant houses (for rent and others)

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4. CONCLUSIONSThis paper analyzed distribution characteristics of vacant houses usable in future Nankai
earthquake disaster in Wakayama Prefecture as a basic study for the consideration of
establishing the system by which existing vacant houses can be used for victims at
emergency case. It was found that on the south or southwest sides many households
would lose their houses and there would be small number of vacant houses for rent butlarge number of vacant houses out of the rental market, while on the north side, thesupply of vacant houses would exceed the demand. Especially in such area, it would be
effective to make active use of existing vacant houses for victims. In order to realize it,it will be necessary to design the administrative procedure which would enable to use
even the houses not for rent. Moreover, it will be important to think in detail whether
such houses will be really usable in terms of building strength, living environment, orconsensus making with the owners of vacant houses.
REFERENCES
Statistics Bureau of Japan, http://www.stat.go.jp/english/index.htm
Midorikawa, S., 2011. Vulnerability functions of buildings based on damage survey
data of earthquakes after the 1995 Kobe earthquake, Journal of Japan Association for
Earthquake Engineering, Vol.11, No.4, 34-47
Sato, K., and Midorikawa, S., 2007. Distribution characteristic of vacancy on rental
housing which can be used following the Tokyo metropolitan earthquake disaster,
Journal of Institute of Social Safety Science, No.9, 47-53

Distribution
characteristics
vacantusable
housesinusable
future earthquake
Nankai earthquake
Distribution
characteristics
of vacantofhouses
futureinNankai
disasterdisaster inWakayama
Prefecturein Wakayama Prefecture379

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Land use planning as an Effective Tool for Disaster
Management in Nepal
Yogeshwar K PARAJULI1, Padam K MAINALEE2, Saroj BASNET3, Anish JOSHI4 andGaurab DAWADI5
1
Development Commissioner, Kathmandu Valley Development Authority
ykparajuli@hotmail.com
2
Joint Secretary, GoN/Ministry of Urban Development
3
Senior Urban Planner, Risk Sensitive Land Use Study Teamsbasnet922@gmail.com
4
GIS based Hazard-risk and Land Use Specialist, Risk Sensitive Land Use Study Teamanish.genesis@gmail.com
5
Urban DRR & CCA Specialist, Risk Sensitive Land Use Study Teamgaurab.genesis@gmail.com
ABSTRACTThe effective land use management relies on two major aspects of planning i.e. Compliancewith the citizens and control by the implementing authority, the balance between the twocomponents signify the effectiveness of the planning process. The land use management is thecritical component of disaster preparedness as well as response and recovery, especially in adense and unplanned urban regions of Nepal. The study analyses the prospects of risk sensitive
land use planning for disaster risk management in Nepal and compares the case studies of bestpractices in South East Asian context along with experiences of risk sensitive land use planningof Kathmandu Valley with respect to governance, existing policy and capacity. Also the study
highlights the key interventions required for effective implementation of risk sensitive land use
planning. The study incorporates the policy review, perspectives of key actors in disastermanagement in Nepal, paradigm shift caused by the earthquake of 2015 April, awareness at
the community level and the condition of prerequisites for the land use planning based disasterrisk management in Nepal.
Keywords: disaster management, governance, risk sensitive land use planning, policy,
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Development of evacuation facility
management system "COCOA"
for effective evacuation facility operations
by sharing information among stakeholders
Satoshi TAKATSU1 and Muneyoshi NUMADA2
1

Graduate Student, the University of Tokyo, Japans-taka@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
2
Lecturer, ICUS, Institute of Industrial Science, the University of Tokyo, Japan
ABSTRACT
Key point to operate evacuation facilities effectively is to manage the information
sharing among disaster headquarters and sites of evacuation facilities or amongfamilies who need to know the life safety or location of evacuees. But, it was difficult toobtain and share the information in the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake disaster.
For examples, to create a refugee roster was difficult under the condition of aconcentration of a lot of evacuees. And, a lot of inefficient operations to share theinformation such as the total number of evacuees in each facilities and those personal
information, the needs and demands of refugees, etc. were seen in damaged areas.
It is necessary to achieve effective and smooth operations of the evacuation facilities by
sharing the information environments among stakeholders.
In this study, we have developed the IT evacuation facility system “COCOA” that canmanage and support in accordance with conditions of each evacuation facilities by
sharing the information such as the needs and demands, the number of evacuees andthose personal information. “COCOA” can serve and collect the various personal
conditions and manage the information of all evacuation facilities.
The personal identity number service (PIN service) will start in Japan. “COCOA” canbe used in many cases (during staying the evacuation facility, moving to the temporary
house, condition of received administrative services, etc.) by applying PIN service. For
the next huge disaster, “COCOA” can provide the environments for sharing theinformation among the evacuation facilities and support appropriate decision-making
for stakeholders.
Keywords: information sharing, evacuation facility, refugee, development of IT system,
personal identity number
1. INTRODUCTION
Local government in Japan is in charge of managing evacuation facilities during thedisaster. It is necessary to share information of conditions of evacuation facilities and of
refugees between the headquarters and the sites for effective disaster managements.
Actually, unbalance of foods or living wares supplies and the staff assignments inevacuation facilities appear due to without information sharing among stakeholders
during the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake disaster.

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The reasons are those of no preparation for information sharing strategy by the disaster
drill in pre disaster phase and of no information sharing tools between the headquarters
and the evacuation sites.
Normally, staffs to be assigned to manage an evacuation facility use a notebook to sharethe information including an evacuee roster. Therefore, it is difficult to share theinformation among stakeholders such as the headquarters and the sites during
emergency phase. After a disaster, the review is also important to improve themanagement of evacuation facilities. However, it is not easy to analyze the lessons
learnt from current disaster due to the huge documents of disaster response records. And
also, the staffs who worked for a disaster response returns to normal tasks. Therefore,
the updating a disaster manual following to the past lessons is difficult.
In the points of information sharing, COCOA is developed to share the information
among stakeholders such as a disaster headquarter office and the sites of evacuation
facilities in this research. COCOA can manage and support in accordance withconditions of each evacuation facilities by sharing the information such as the needs anddemands, the number of evacuees and those personal information. COCOA can serveand collect the various personal conditions and manage the information of all
evacuation facilities.
2. IT SYSTEM TO MANAGE AN EVACUATION FACILITY
2.1 Current IT system
Some evacuation facility management tools have been already developed (Table 1).
Information Technology can play an important role to manage the information related tothe evacuation facility operations.
The requirements for the IT system of disaster management is to be used and prepared
before the disaster, and be used in the daily activities. It means to be used in the
management of evacuation facility to check the instruments, capacity and tools settings.
Table 1 shows some existing systems as for the evacuation facility system. ORANGE isdeveloped after the 2011 Tohoku disaster by Ishinomaki city in Miyagi prefecture.
Victim support system is developed after the 1995 Great Hanshin Earthquake disasterby Nishinomiya city.
Table 1: Existing IT systems
Name
ORANGE (Ishinomaki City㸧1)

Content
Safety confirmation system at the time ofthe disaster.
Victim support system (Nishinomiya City) System for local governments developed
2)
after the 1995 Great Hanshin Earthquake
disaster.
3)
IT support system (ISE Ltd.)
System that manage the doctor assignmentof the evacuation facility and the doctor
who are in the distant place take thecommunication
using
video
call
application.
Amazon (Amazon)
The site which investigates and delivers
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the disaster.
Disaster needing people refuge support Support system that needs of people
system (MJC Inc.) 4)
evacuate smoothly and safely at the timeof disaster.
Refuge guides of the whole country (first Navigation application for disaster that we
media Inc.) 5)
search the refuge around the present
location, and a route guides the route
2.2 Necessary function for IT system to manage evacuation facilities
The important point is that most problems regarding to information sharing inevacuation facility operation are improved by using IT system. The problems can be
categorized in three points of big elements. Namely, three problems are (1) People, (2)Supply and (3) Document.
(1) People
The problem about people is that grasping the locations of various people (manager
or evacuees) is difficult at the time of the disaster. Using IT system like ORANGE
can grasp the information about people, but it is not easy. Because, information canbe exchanged through a data base, not paper. Information sharing about people canbecome smooth.
(2) Supply
The problem about supplies is managing an evacuation facility in the state. There
are no any information on supplies and equipment. Using system like Amazon wasavailable to deliver supplies to each evacuation facility.
(3) Documents
The problem about documents is that it is difficult to extract only necessary
information, to share and to keep information as long as be managed by paper.
Using IT system for the information on the enormous amount about the evacuation
facility can manage by lumping.
IT system can contribute to perform evacuation facility management with decreasing
the workload of assigned staffs in an evacuation facility. The necessary elements for IT
system are three elements (1) People, (2) Supply and (3) Document in evacuation
facility management stated above.
And, it can be made by effective and average supply by performing the management ofpeople and the management of supplies with a system. Furthermore, the knowledge ofpast disaster is used for responding disaster or disaster drill. Therefore, the system canreduce the workload of staffs and provide the past knowledge for managing theevacuation facility. As the results, the environment for the life of refugee can be
improved.
Those three elements are needed to develop the IT system for managing the evacuation
places. But, there are a few IT systems installed with the three elements. And, thesystems have not ever been used for a real disaster. Therefore, COCOA is developed toconsider all of these elements (people, supply and document).

Development of evacuation facility management system “COCOA” for effective evacuation
facility operations
by sharing
information
among
stakeholders
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3. Evacuation facility management system "COCOA"COCOA is named from a cocoa of a drink. Drinking cocoa give the effect of therelaxation, prevention of cavity and cold prevention, poor circulation. COCOA want tobecome the system which can provide better space of an evacuation facility with
comfort environment. COCOA has been developed by authors from the beginning on
the PHP (Hypertext Preprocessor) basis. It can make the evacuation facility
administration manual to which past lessons learnt is applied.
3.1 Function of “COCOA”
Function of COCOA consider to three elements for evacuation facility management.
Three requirements are following people, supply and documents.
(1) People- COCOA can manage evacuees’ personal information by Individual Number.
Therefore, it's possible to know the location of evacuees in where evacuee isstaying-It can be added the person who doesn't get on a resident ledger (foreigners, a newborn infant and so on.).
-It can indicate the number of evacuation facility and the number of evacuees by achart and indicate the number of evacuees on the map.
- The number of evacuation facility and the number of evacuees are recorded bytime series, and it can be indicated.
- It can share evacuees’ requests and questions to a manager of an evacuation
facility.
- It can do the family's safety confirmation.
- It's possible to record a request of duties of each staff and make a shift using that.
(2) Supply- COCOA can manage a use of storage supplies.
-It can manage the kind and the number of storage supplies.
-It can grasp more and less of supplies according to the situation.
-It can manage equipment.
-It can indicate the location of the equipment in an evacuation facility on the map.
-It can make a layout in an evacuation facility(3) Document- COCOA can be recorded and shared a daily report.
-It can see the case in the past in evacuation facility operation. And, it can make amanual based on that case and manage it.
-It can see questions and answers to psychology of evacuees.
-It can issue and management of all kinds' certificate about a disaster.

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3.2 System structure of “COCOA”
Figure1 shows an illustration of information flow of “COCOA. Refugee and Evacuation
facility are connected by Database. Table 2 shows the users of “COCOA”.
Figure2 shows the system constitution of COCOA. The language for coding COCOA isused by PHP (Hypertext Preprocessor) for this development. Data tables of MySQL are
structured.
The main parts of the government and the nation are defined as users. The ID number of
evacuee is used to manage the location of each evacuee. Tables are prepared for People,
Things (Supply) and Documents to store information.
Database
Evacuation Facility(Government)

Refugee (The nation)
Input: Requests and questions
Output: The family's safety

Headquarters(Government)
Input: Evacuees’ personal
information, Supplies
Output: The situation of evacuees,
The situation of evacuation facility,
Requests and questions, Daily
report, All kinds' certificate

Evacuees’ personal information
The situation of evacuees
The situation of evacuation facility
Requests and questions
Shift of each staff
Supplies
Equipment
A layout in an evacuation facility
Daily report
Storage supplies and supplies
Psychology of evacuees
ManualAll kinds' certificate
The family's safety
Requests and questions

Input: The situation of evacuees,
The situation of evacuation facility,
The family's safety, Daily report, All
kinds' certificate, A shift of each staff,
Equipment, A layout in an evacuation
facility, Storage supplies andsupplies
Output: Evacuees’ personal
information, Requests and questions,
Supplies, Daily report, A shift of eachstaff, Equipment, A layout in an
evacuation facility, Storage supplies
and supplies

Figure 1: Information flow of “COCOA”
Table 2: Users of “COCOA”
Information
Evacuees’ personal information
The situation of evacuees
The situation of evacuation facility
Evacuees’ requests and questions
A shift of each staff
Supplies
Equipment
A layout in an evacuation facility
Daily reportManagerofan Evacuees’ personal information
evacuation facility
The situation of evacuees
Evacuees’ requests and questions
A shift of each staff
Storage supplies and supplies
Equipment
A layout in an evacuation facility
Daily report
Psychology of evacuees
ManualUser
The headquarter(Official servants)

Phase of use
Search of the evacuees
Manage to evacuees
Manage to facility
Reflection of the opinion
placement of the staff
Manage to supplies
Grasp of facilities
Placement of the evacuees
Succession of duties
Search of the evacuees
Manage to evacuees
Reflection of the opinion
Placement of the staff
Manage to supplies
Grasp of facilities
Placement of the evacuees
Succession of duties
Mind care of the evacuees
Grasp of doing anything

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facility management
system “COCOA”
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facility management
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evacuation
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facility operations
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All kinds' certificate
The family's safety
Requests and questions

Evacuees(The nation)

Administrative procedure
Safety confirmation
Reflection of the opinion

Data table
PeopleEvacuees

Supplies

Evacuation
facility

SupplyEquipment

Documents

ManualNotesRequestThe nation

Evacuees

Government

The headquarter

Evacuation facility

Figure 2: System constitution of “COCOA”
3.3 Verification of “COCOA”
Figure 3 shows the number of the refugees and input time simulation. This simulationshows the comparing the required time to make the evacuee list. This is to be comparedthat to input the information by PC or smartphone (“COCOA”) and writing theinformation by hand for same number of refugee. The result shows the half of time forusing PC or smartphone against to by hand writing. Therefore, COCOA can reduce theworkload of assinged staffs in evacuation sites to make the refugee roster.

Figure 3: The number of the refugees and input time388

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Followings describe the advantage of COCOA in the points of the government and theevacuee.
Government- It is available to reduce the workload to make a evacuee list.
- It can share the conditions at the time of the disaster and can verify the responses aftera disaster.
- It can make the manual including the lessons lerant by past disasters and update it.
- It can share the information of the responses at the time of the disaster smoothly.
Evacuee- Waiting time of the refugee registration can be shortened.
- Comments such as request or assisstance of physical problems can be shared withgovernments.
- Latest information for the evacuee to apply the public services can be accessed.
4. CONCLUSION
It is necessary to achieve smooth information sharing at the time of the disaster. But
information obtaining and sharing was difficult during the past disasters. And thelessons learnt from the past disasters are also difficult to update or apply to next disasterby a system. Even Japan have experienced for many kinds of disasters, the experiences
cannot be applied to other places.
This research focuses on the information sharing among evacuation facilities and theheadquarters. Developed system “COCOA” in this research includes the information
sharing and knowledge from past disasters. Then the assigned staffs for evacuation
facilities can work for effective responses according the past knowledge and real-time
information sharing.
COCOA can manage the schedule of assigned staffs and calculate optimum assignment
schedule. To manage the evacuation facilities for large scale disaster, only the numberof local government staffs is not enough to work in all evacuation facilities. The
volunteer is necessary by optimum assignment and manage the schedule. COCOA canalso manage the volunteer staffs not only government staffs.
REFERENCES
1) Ishinomaki City General Affairs Department Crisis Measures Section, ORANGE[pdf], Japan. Available at:https://www.city.ishinomaki.lg.jp/cont/10106000/ORANGE.pdf [Accessed 15
August 2015]
2) Minoru Yoshida, 2005, Hanshin Awaji great earthquake disaster and information
system [pdf], Nishinomiya City, Japan. Available at:
http://www.nishi.or.jp/homepage/n4c/hss/pdf/mag_lasdec_200508.pdf [Accessed 18
August 2015]3) NTTDATA, Effective investigation into IT system in the refuges at the time of thedisaster, ISE Ltd, Japan. Available at:
http://www.keieiken.co.jp/medit/pdf/240423/0Development of evacuation facility management system "COCOA" for effective evacuation
Development of evacuation facility management system “COCOA” for effective evacuation
facility operations by sharing information among stakeholders
facility operations by sharing information among stakeholders389

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report_3.pdfhttp://www.mjcnet.co.jp/03_product/03.html [Accessed 20 August 2015]4) MJC Inc., 2015, Disaster needing people refuge support system, Japan.
Available at: http://www.mjcnet.co.jp/03_product/03.html [Accessed 20 August
2015]5) Kaichi Yamazaki, 2015, It supports Apple Watch! Disaster prevention information"whole country refuge guide" Ver.5.3, first media Inc., Japan. Available at:
http://www.hinanjyo.jp/news/show/id/30.html [Accessed 20 August 2015]390

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New Technologies
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Safetyof Megain AsiaË®¾¿² Í¿º»¬§æÎ±´» ±º ´¿© »²º±®½»³»²¬ º±® ¾»¬¬»® «®¾¿²
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Rajendra P Sharma 1, Prabhu Koirala 2, Yogeshwar K Parajuli3
1
Urban Anthropologist, Freelancer Consultant, GPO: 21488, Kathmandu, Nepal
Email: rpsharma@mailcity.com
2
Advocate, Legal Advisor to KVDA, Kathmandu, Nepal
Email: info@kvda.gov.np, ykp.kvda@gmail.com
3
Development Commissioner, KVDA, Kathmandu, Nepal
Email: ykparajuli@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT
Urbanization in developing countries is a defining feature of the 21st century. Between
2000 and 2030, the entire built-up urban area in developing countries is projected totriple. Urbanization has enabled economic growth and innovation but it has also
contributed to environmental and socioeconomic challenges. Kathmandu Valley has
been experiencing a fast but haphazard urbanization. As urban populations grow, therisk rises for the most vulnerable ones on city streets. A safe city not only saves lives, it
can boost the quality of lives, demonstrating a close connection between safety andprosperity.
After establishment of KVDA, execution of plan with enforcement of law has been
geared up. This study has focused on mapping the existing laws related to urban
development, analysis of implications, overlaps and gaps in between and among themand recommends appropriate policy (re)formulation especially for the Valley. The
study has revealed that promulgating laws and its enforcement are different but equallyimportant to shift planning into practice. Smart cities that are connected and compact
are generally safer than cities that are spread out over a large area.
So often, inadequate laws or legal environment are blamed as constraint for not being
able to achieve a safe, secure and livable urban settlement. In case of Nepal,
particularly Kathmandu Valley, inadequacy or over abundance of law is not the key
problem. Instead it is unwillingness and/ or inability of concerned city planners,
managers, development controllers to understand and use them properly. Furthermore,
the study has identified that the lack of coordinated action in line with existing laws andcontemporary orders from Supreme Court in-favor of implementation of city planningwith safety, liberty and property are the common issues to be dealt with as it isindicated in the long term plan of the KVDA.
Keywords: urban planning, challenges, sustainable development, safety, law
enforcement, Kathmandu Valley
1. INTRODUCTION
As the world is undergoing the largest wave of urban growth in history, urbanization indeveloping countries is a defining feature of the 21st century. More than half of theworlds population now lives in towns and cities, and by 2030 this number will swell toabout 5 billion. Much of this urbanization will unfold in Asia, bringing huge social,391

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economic and environmental transformations. Nowhere is the rise of inequality clearer
than in urban areas, where wealthy communities coexist alongside, and separate from,slums and informal settlements (UNFPA, 2015). Urban population refers to people
living in urban areas as defined by national statistical offices. Urban population in Nepal
was last measured at 4,913,312 in 2013, with an annual growth at 3.11 percent (World
Bank, 2015). In the same year, the urban population in Nepal was at 17.68 percent of
total population. Kathmandu's urban cosmopolitan character has made it the mostpopulous city in Nepal with an annual growth rate of 6.12% with respect to the
population figure of 2001 (CBS 2011).
In Kathmandu Valley, population growth has reached six percent, with nine to twelve
percent new construction in the urban area yearly. Rapid urban growth can be easily
seen in farmland, land plots, river banks and cultural heritage sites. As a result of poorlaw enforcement, the number of houses is increasing and the infrastructural facilities inthe valley are in a pathetic state (Kharel, 2006). On the other hand, a huge number ofpeople are migrating to the Kathmandu valley resulting in more than 30,000 slum
dwellers living on the banks of the Bagmati, Bishnumati River and other tributaries. The
open area in the Kathmandu valley has fallen from 63 percent to 41 percent within thelast 20 years. Thus, this growing population and increasing traffic congestion are forcing
the government to think seriously about urbanization (KVDA, 2015). Nepal is also
notoriously prone to earthquakes. In the latest April 25th earthquake, after the one of1934, Nepal lost thousands of lives and millions of property. Thus, Kathmandu Valley
needs a smart look in the past efforts of planning, implantations and state of law
enforcement, so that new plans can be formulated in accordance to the need of urban
future of the valley.
1.1. Research Problem
The general impression of the public and outside agencies over the performance ofplanning and executing bodies is not good. Several laws, acts, policies, plans andprograms were developed but never resulted in affirmative results. Even today, despite
the large scale deteriorated conditons of urban living in the valley, the plans have notbeen implemented properly and evidence based research on the causes are also lacking.
Therefore, Nepal’s urban governance system has been blamed for poor managementwith weak law enforcement. Thus, there is a need to analyze the existing legal andpolicy documents, state of enforcement of laws, overlaps and gaps in between andamong them, so that, further steps can be taken to develop and execute urban plan
effectively to make the valley livable. In response to this statement, this article is a resultof a study conducted recently that intended to analyze the existing laws and theirenforcement in relation to the execution of plan made in the past and recommend thesolutions for improvements.
1.2. Objectives
The objectives of the study were to: Map out the existing urban planning and management related laws, acts, policies
and guidelines and their level of enforcement, Analyse the implications, gaps in between and among them and recommend
solutions to ensure enforcement of existing laws or appropriate policy(re)formulation especially for the Kathmandu Valley.

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2. DISCUSSIONS AND FINDINGSThis chapter explores and analyzes the urban development trend, legal andadministrative mechanism, role of existing laws in urban development, problems
occurred due to delay in implementation of KVDA Act. The institutions for coordinateddevelopment, planning efforts, role of Ministry of Urban Development and KVDA in
the changed urban context and existing laws that attract to KVDA’s functions were also
reviewed.
2.1. Historical Urban Development in the Valley
Kathmandu valley is the largest urban agglomeration and a capital city with highest
population density that homes about a twelfth of Nepal's population (KMC, 2015). The
valley is a part of the middle mountain physiographic region that lies in the Bagmati
river watershed and covers area of about 677.58 sqkm and comprises of 3 historic cities,
Kathmandu, Lalitpur and Bhaktapur along with other small municipalities andsettlements. The valley is rich with many cultural and religious heritages, including the 7World Heritage Sites (UNESCO, 2009). The historical evidence shows that thestructural urban development began during the Lichhavi rule by establishing small
towns in the Valley but the great change was marked after the unification of Nepal madeby the King Prithvi N Shah in 1825 BS. The valley was the main Indo-Tibet trade route,hence it contributed in developing the infrastructures to serve the traders but theperpetual political ups and downs slowed down the smooth development of towns in thevalley (KVDA, 2015). Later, when Junga Bahadur Rana started his regime, the firstmodern urban infrastructures - buildings, road, pond, park, open space, sport ground,market and electricity, water and sewerage system were initiated.
Being a primary gateway for administrative, industrial, socio-cultural and economic
activities, it is one of the most densely populated and fastest growing urban areas in Asia
(KVDA, 2015). The population of the valley is 2.5 million (excluding floating
population); growing at the rate of 4.3 percent per year has brought a drastic change inland use. With this growth rate, the population is estimated to reach 3.99m in 2020 and
6.70m in 2030 (CBS, 2011). Hence, sustainable urban development should be a strategy
to balance socio-economic and environmental needs of today and the future. Looking at
the history of urban planning, the organized physical development of city centers had
begun with 1st 5-year plan (2013-2018).
The momentum of urban expansion was further upheld after the restoration of
democracy in 2047 BS promulgating new laws for local governance bodies with specificroles. Based on the Local Self-Governance Act ‘a settlement that has basic urban service
and facilities 1 with minimum population of 10,000 in mountain and hilly region and20,000 in Terai region can be officially designated as municipality2’ and considered asurban area in Nepal. Similarly, the 12th 5-year plan (2nd 3-year interim plan) has clearlyspelled out the policy arrangement, objectives and strategies accepting the urban
development as responsibility of the state. As a result, MOUD and KVDA were
established. With this arrangement, the number of urban centers increased - from 10 in1952 to 217 (1 metropolis, 12 sub-metropolises and 204 municipalities) in 2015 making
Kathmandu valley a single urban agglomeration (with 22municipal bodies) that has no1
2

infrastructure represent: transportation, communication, health & education service (LSGA 2055)
lower level urban governance structure are metropolis, sub-metropolis & municipality (LSGA 2055)

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more VDCs. In this way the valley has been experiencing the new policies andinstitutional changes but urban development is moving haphazardly due to poor
enforcement of laws.
2.2. Legal and Administrative Mechanism
Taking experience from well managed cities from around the world, Nepal has
developed certain legal and administrative mechanism promulgating different laws andpolicies and established institution accordingly to facilitate the urban planning andmanagement (Table 1). Adopting the changes in legal and administrative mechanism,law and policy, the efforts on urban planning also began simultaneously (Table 2).
Table 1: Key Existing Laws Directly Attract to the KVDA’s Functions

Predemocracy
era(2019-2046)

1. Land Measurement Act 2019; 2. Land Act 2021; 3. Guthi Corporation Act
2033; 4. Land Acquisition Act 2034; 5. Land Revenue Act 2034; 6. Natural
Disaster (Rescue) Act 2039; 7. Pashupati Development Fund Act 2044; 8.
KVDA Act 2045; and 9. Nepal Drinking Water Corporation Act 2046

Democracy era(2047-2060)

Legal Documents

1. Property Tax Act 2047; 2. VDC Act 2048; 3. Municipal Act 2048; 4. DDC
Act 2048; 5. Vehicle & transportation management Act 2049; 6. Monument
conservation Act 2049; 7. Directive on the formation of UN Park
Development Committee 2052; 8. Nepal civil Aviation Authority Act 2053;
9. Telecommunication Act 2053; 10. Consumer Protection Act 2054; 11.
Joint Housing Ownership Act 2054; 12. Local Self Governance Act 2055;
13. Building act 2055; 14. Electricity Act 2055; 15. Environment
conservation act 2055; 16. Directive on Formation of Melamchi Drinking
Water Development Committee 2055; 17. Road Board Act 2058; and 18.
Joint Housing Ownership Bylaw 2060

Federal Republic(2063-2072)

Year
(BS)

1. Drinking Water Management Board Act 2063; 2. Private Investment inInfrastructure Development And Operation Act 2063; 3. Nepal Trust Act
2064; 4. Building code for the municipalities and urbanizing VDCs in thevalley 2064; 5. Private Investment in infrastructure development andoperation bylaw 2064; 6. Building Bylaws 2066; 7. Directive on high level
Bagmati Civilization Integrated Development Committee 2066; 8. KVDA
Bylaws; 9. Waste Management Act 2068; 10. Constitution of Nepal 2072

Source: Compiled by the Author

2.3. Function of Law in Governing Urban Planning and Development
Law is defined as "rules of conduct of any organized society that are enforced by threatof punishment if they are violated (Ref.com, 2007). Essentially Laws play a vital role insociety to guarantee the rights of those who are weaker either physically or socially in
any given social structure. According to Mallor, et al (2007), the most importantfunctions of law include law and order to maintain peace, promote and protect freedom,facilitate planning execution for benefit of society, promote economic growth, promotesocial justice and protect environment. These functions of law protect the interests ofindividuals and businesses through a system of rules, enforced by governing bodies.
Without laws, society would be at the mercy of anarchists whose main mission is todisrupt the orderly progress of a society. Laws are written to be followed and applied
equally to all people in a society to ensure that no one feels abused and protect members

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of society from each other (Bushman, 2007). The law protects against anarchy, therefore
the law is the backbone of organized society so as for the management of urbanization.
2.4. Institutions established to coordinate the development of the Valley
Even having a lot of such changes in the legal and institutional mechanism in the past,
coordinated urban planning and execution could not happen because of the poor law
enforcement. One of the examples is a more than two decades delay in theimplementation of the KVDA Act 2045 that resulted in a number of problems, whichhampered the effective implementation of urban development activities in the valley(Box 1).
Therefore, the government has decided to establish a separate Ministry of Urban
Development while also reviving the KVDA Act 2045 and forming the KVDA to have a
new authority with mandate for effective urban plan, coordination and implementation
to turn the valley from a haphazard and unmanaged city to a safe, smart and livable city
– in other words, a compact, coordinated, connected national capital region of Nepal. In
this context, KVDA is responsible to review, enforce and reformulate if needed, theexisting laws related to urban development and planning to minimize the duplication,
gaps and make effective intervention of the integrated development of Kathmandu
Valley.
2.5. Role of MOUD in the changed urban development context
Urban development may be understood as an attempt or a process to enhance the socioeconomic, physical infrastructural, cultural, environmental, urban facilities and services
and resolve the problems associated to them through the necessary policy arrangement
and planning. Therefore, the government of Nepal has established a new Ministry of
Urban Development in 2012 with special mandate to ensure the basic urban facilities
and service – urban development, housing, construction, drinking water, sanitation andsewerage system etc. After the ministry was established, it revived the KVDA act andestablished the KVDA in 2012 to look overall urban development in the valley.
Table 2: Efforts in urban management of Kathmandu Valley
Year and Efforts
1969:Physical development plan of KV
1976:Land use plan of Kathmandu Valley
1977: Bhaktapur town development plan
1979:Beginning of Site & Services Scheme
1984:Physical development concept of KV
1986: urban land policy study of KV
1988:Housing & physical planning ministry
1988:Urban development & conservation

Year and Efforts
1994:Bagmati basin water management
strategy and investment program
1995: Regularization of urbanization - study
1996:Formation of high-level council
1999:Environmental plan & management
2002:Longterm development concept of KV
2007:National urban policy
2009:Bagmati action plan 2009-2014

Box 1: Problems occurred due to delay in implementation of KVDA Act
 No authorized institution to implement urban plan with effective enforcement of law
 Many committees were formed under the different ministries but in absence of
coordinating institutions like MOUD and KVDA, unnecessary competition took
place among the ministries, committees and complexities in technical and legal field.
 Duplication in roles among the institutions like committee, sub-metro, municipality,
VDCs, guthi, corporation, squatter problem resolve commission, Dept of Road,
NEA, Telecom anddrinking water.
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1991: Urban development plan & program
1992:KTM urban development project
1994: National building code for Nepal
Source: KVDA, 20152012:National land use policy
2012:Ministry of Urban Development
2012:KTM Valley Development Authority

2.6. Role of KVDA in the changed urban context of Kathmandu Valley
In light of fast growing haphazard urbanization, KVDA was formally established on 13th
April 2012, with mandate to prepare and implement an integrated physical development
plan for Kathmandu Valley that encompasses the entire valley with estimated regular
population of 3 million and floating population of another 2.5 million under the KVDA
Act 2045. To address the fast growing population growth and its impact on social,
cultural and environmental aspects of the valley; KVDA has developed the 20 year
Strategic Development Master Plan (SDMP, 2015-2035) to promote the Kathmandu
valley as a “livable city” with the interdependence of nature, community and culture andestablish the valley as a safe, clean, organized, prosperous and elegant [SCOPE] national
capital (KVDA, 2015).
In order to achieve this, KVDA has envisaged several strategic plans that need legal
back up and honest enforcement of existing laws. There are numbers of legal documentsthat attract attention of KVDA in planning and execution in the valley (Table 2). In
addition to this list, there are many evidences that the Supreme Court has played
decisive role by giving legal verdict in-favor of mass population on the complaint filed
against urban infrastructure development or expansion drive. As the Supreme Court
verdict has the legal status equivalent to other existing laws, it is also necessary toreview and list out the relevant verdict ordered by the court in the past, so that if any
confusion arises in future, reference can be taken from the latest decision from the Court.
2.7. Orders of Supreme Court in Public Urban Concerns
As discussed above, in a rare public concern, the supreme court has said, “Public
Interest Litigation (PIL) is a strategic novelty of the judiciary that addresses the activismof the court and responsibility of the court towards the society because the Judges
sometimes go forward than the traditional judicial process, analyze whether thegovernment policies are against to the constitution, acts and law, if found so, the Judges
can interfere over such policy matters and provide fare treatment” (NLP, 2061:p794).
Following this, the Supreme Court has made final verdicts against the public complaints
made to hurdle urban infrastructure development or expansion drives in the valley.
There are many cases of Supreme Court verdicts that are milestone to establish the rightof the people as well as institutionalization of urban development efforts in the valley(Table 3).
Table 3: Supreme Court verdicts in enhancing institutionalized urban development
Writ in public affairs
Conserve environment ofGodawari
Drinking water corporation
should supply potable water
Stop misuse constituent
development fund396

Court order/final verdict
Close the industry & do needful for environment
conservation - 2052-7-14
Drinking Water Corporation and the concern ministry
should ensure supply of potable water - 2057-03-26
Establish legal mechanism to expend such fund - 205806-11
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Stop pollution produced by
Bhrikuti Pulp & Paper Mills

Water used in Bhrikuti Pulp & Paper Mills should
purified & dust collector should be installed & usedeffectively on 2058-8-19
Public land in dispute
Order to cabinet: Disputed land be use for public purpose
No religio-cultural, property of Develop and implement the policy on religious, cultural
historic importance policy
and property of historical importance, on 2054-2-27
Put imported vehicle under
Establish the testing mechanism for imported vehicle, on
the set standard
2058-6-11
Methane gas in Gokarna
Do needful to have legal arrangement for balancing
Land Field Siteenvironment around Gokarna, on b 2059-2-7
Protect public from pollution Adopt effective measures within two years, on 2059-11caused by smoke/ vehicles
27
Infrastructure to implement
Prepare infrastructure, inform to public then implement
slaughter & meat test act 2055 the act, on 2062-2-23
Protect public health from the To protect the health of general public from polluted
environment is constitutional duty of government, hence
negative effect of polluted
government should initiate necessary action on 2062-8-24
environment
Stop economic and sexual
Unregister got minimum infrastructure no code of
exploitation in unregister
conduct, hence, women are suffering from sexual andfinancial exploitation. So before law enforced govt should
restaurant, cabins, dance bar
and massage parlors
direct an urgent directive on 2065-8-11

Another important area is that the security and utility service providers in the valley arefunctioning in such an independent way that everywhere one can observe duplicationand delay and thus, this leadsto the misuse of resources in the infrastructure construction
and maintenance work. To respond this, KVDA is to ensure an effective coordination
throughout the planning and implementation process with as the main coordinating
agency – the Metropolitan Police; the emergency response agency – Fire Control
Service, known as the Barun Yantra; and the utility service providers – Nepal Electricity
Authority and the Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited (KUKL) in the valley.
To sum up, it is only the condition that if the plans are facilitated and backed up strongly
by laws and urban authorities give an honest try, it is possible to manage the everincreasing urbanization and make the Kathmandu Valley more organized, safer andliveable.
3. CONCLUSIONS
Kathmandu Valley has been experiencing a continuous growth in terms of urban
population and built up area. Therefore, there is a need to have an effective plan andexecution by enforcing the existing laws to make the valley smart, safe, connected,
coordinated and livable. This study revealed that promulgating laws and enforcement are
two different but equally important factors to turn planning into practice.
Existence of too many laws, bylaws and policies are not the problem but consolidationof those existing laws and policies, bringing all the stakeholders on board, sharing
responsibilities under the nodal umbrella are the challenges. To make it happen,
mapping of existing laws related to urban development, finding overlaps and gaps in
between and among them and recommending appropriate policy (re)formulation
especially for the Valley are important. Often, inadequate laws are blamed as constraint
for not being able to achieve a safe, secure and livable urban living, on the other handexistence of too many laws are also to blame for an inability to perform effective urban
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management. In Kathmandu, inadequacy or over abundance of law is not the key
problem instead unwillingness and inability of commitment from city planners,
managers, development practitioners to understand (interpret) and use them properly are.
Funding is prioritized for implementation phases only whereas the prime need offunding is felt in planning stages.
In the context, if the existing laws and policies related to urban planning anddevelopment are consolidated, coordination mechanism will be established under thenodal umbrella of the KVDA – it is possible to achieve the vision of 20 years SDMP
2015-2035 that reads “promote Kathmandu valley as a livable city by enhancing theinterdependence of nature, community and culture by establishing valley as a safe, clean,organized, prosperous and elegant national capital region”.
4. RECOMMENDATIONS
Despite of several efforts, the poor implementation of plan and programs together withweak enforcement of law is always a problem in making the valley safe, smart,connected, coordinated and livable. To overcome such problem, proper enforcement ofexisting laws, policies and plans is required. Keeping all this in mind, the following
recommendations need to be considered for effective planning and implementation in
Kathmandu valley in the future: Laws, bylaws, standards, codes and the verdicts of Supreme Court that are related
to urban development should be integrated and publish in a compilation form. Thismay be helpful to everyone associated to urban development and planning tominimize the confusion and find base for the coordination. Then, KVDA can act as
nodal agency to oversee the coordinated program activities.
 Promulgating laws and its enforcement are different but equally important actions
to turn the planned actions into the practice. Therefore, KVDA should update theexisting legal and policy documents and orders from the Supreme Court, identify
the contradiction if any and advocate for redefinition or reformulation if necessary.
 In case of Kathmandu Valley, inadequacy or over abundance of law is not the key
problem instead it is the lack of commitment of concern city planners, managers,development practitioners to understand (interpret) and use them properly.
Therefore, there should be a reward and punishment mechanism to the key
officials responsible to plan and execute the plans and programs.
 There is a lack of coordinated action in-favour of the implementation of city plan
where safety, liberty and property are the common issues to be dealt with.
Therefore, a bottom-up approach should be established among the stakeholders
and led by KVDA to incorporate:o Information, Education & Communication (IEC) for behavioral/
attitudinal changes
o Creation of abundant technical manpower readily available for landbuyers, owners and builderso Built in financial incentive and dis-incentives mechanisms for DRR
 Honoring and pursuing the commitments expressed in political parties manifestos,policies and programs and even budget speeches.
 Drafting and implementing simplified and easily understandable bye-laws which
could have facilitated the community policing system

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References
Bushman, M., 2007. The Role and Functions of Law in Business and Society. Retrievedon 30-8-2015, from http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/139783/the_role_and_functions_of_law_in_ business.html
CBS, 2011. National Population and Housing Census 2011, Central Bureau of Statistics,
Government of Nepal. Kathmandu, Author.
Kharel, R., 2006. Growing Urbanization in Kathmandu Valley, An online article
published in OhmyNews.com Retrieved on 8-15-2015.
KMC, 2015. Introduction to Kathmandu Metropolitan City. www.kathmandu.gov.np.
Retrieved on 14-8-2015.
KVDA, 2015. Vision of 20 years SDMP 2015-203. Kathmandu Valley Development
Authority, Government of Nepal. Kathmandu, Author.
Reference.com., 2007. Role of Law. Retrieved on 30-8-2015 from http://www.reference.
com/ search?q=law
Mallor, J., Barnes, A., Bowers, L., & Langvardt, A., 2004. Business Law: Ethical,
Global & E-commerce Environment, 13th Edition. Retrieved on 24-8-2015, from
University of Phoenix
Slusser, M (1982). Nepal Mandala: A Cultural Study of the Kathmandu Valley.
Princeton University. P. 7. ISBN 978-0-691-03128-6
UNESCO, 2009. Kathmandu Valley World Heritage Site. Heritage Homeowner's
Preservation Manual. Kathmandu & Bangkok. Retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco.org on 12-7- 2015.
UNFPA, (2007). State of World Population: Unleashing the Potential of Urban Growth,
United Nations Population Fund, Retrieved from www.unfpa.org/swp
UNFPA, (2015). State of World Population. Retrieved from http://www.unfpa.org/
urbanization #sthash.jZAaRRGI.dpuf on 30-8-2015.
World Bank, (2015) Leveraging Urbanization in South Asia: Managing Spatial
Transformation for Prosperity and Livability. World Bank, Author.

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Walking speed
at mid-block cross in Kathmandu
Bishnu Prasad DEVKOTA1
1
Assistant Professor, Nepal Engieering College,
Pokhara University, Nepal
bishnu410@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
Ensuring safety to pedestrian on road is a function of road infrastructure and traffic
control devices. The later depends on the walking speed of the pedestrian. In a city like
Kathmandu where speed of a pedestrian depends on various factors related to behavior
is under researched. Therefore, this study was felt deemed important. Data werecollected through observational and interview method for 400 randomly selectedpedestrians at mid block uncontrolled crossings from eight locations in Kathmandu.
followed with an interview with predetermined
questionnaire. The walking speed was determined by dividing the road width covered byindividual within the crossing time. The simple means were determined to compare thespeed for different variants. The results are validated statistically adopting ANOVA test.
The road geometry, societal and location parameters greatly affect the walking speed.
However the speed at peak time and off time is nearly the same. Refuge Islands isrecommended in two-way multilane roads. The recommended crossing speed is 1.22 m/s,
however at business area the speed 1.27 m/s shall be taken as safe speed however outside the ring road speed more than 1.10 m/s seems unsafe.
Keywords: traffic safety; pedestrian; crossing speed; ANOVA; policy implications
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Journey itself is not a primary need of society. In order to fulfill the need of society,travel demand is generated and people start journey to get their destination. They canuse public vehicles, private vehicles or both combine to make their journeys successful.
Walking is such a simple and essential mode, which either involved for journeys withtransport media or comes separately. In Kathmandu valley, about 40% journeys are
made on foot (JICA, 2012). However, the trend of planning and designing the roadsystem are based on automobile oriented one, resulting the large number of accidents.
Many of the road accident in Kathmandu were found occurring at pedestrian crossings
MTPD (Metropolitan Traffic Police Division, Kathmandu). So there is a need of roadIn order toinstall these control mechanism, there is a need of pedestrian road crossing speed. So
there is a need of research to carry out in order to determine the walking speed ofpedestrian at road crossings.

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WHO predicts that the road traffic injuries will rise to become the fifth leading cause ofdeath by 2030, while it was under 9th position in 2004. Over 1.2 million people die each-fatal injuries(WHO, 2009). In 2010/2011 among 5096 road accidents in Kathmandu Valley, 148
were fatalities, 396 serious injuries and 3317 were minor injuries (MTPD, Kathmandu).
s proportionis higher in low economic countries of the world. Tanaboriboon and Jing (1994) foundthat pedestrian in Beijing, preferred signalized crossings to other types, such as under orover pass crossing. So the behavior of road users is important parameter that affects
safety. This research is thus focused on the study of behavioral perspective of pedestrian
during crossing the road.
1.2 Research Objectives
based on a variety of behaviors and thus recommend appropriate crossing speed at midblock cross in Kathmandu.
Specifically this research has the following objectives:influence the pedestrian speed at mid-block road crossing
To assess the education level and social parameters of pedestrian as a significant
variable
To assess the role of following parameters for determining walking speedo Road surface conditiono Road geometrical parameterso Time of day
To recommend walking speed for pedestrians at various locations
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
crossing (McMahon et al., 1999 as cited by Guo, 2012). Some studies point to a link
between age-related declines in driving and road-crossing skill and increased crash risk
(Carthy et al., 1995; Helmers et al., 2004; Mathey, 1983; Oxley et al., 1997; Oxley 2000
as cited by Oxley, 2000). Male pedestrians tend to violate traffic rules more frequently
than females and are more likely to cross in risk situation (Rosenbloom et al., 2004;
Diaz, 2002 as cited by Tom, ND). Besides the personal features, the external
environmental factors also affect the street-crossing behavior. Sisiopiku and Alking,(2003) presented findings from an observational study of pedestrian behavior at various
types of urban crosswalks and questionnaire survey which sought pedestrian
perceptions towards various crossing facilities near university campus. For example,
pedestrian waiting countdown timer can influence pedestrian behavior at signalized
pedestrian crossing (Keegan and Mahony, 2003). Tanaboriboon and Jing (1994 as Citedby Tiwari et, al., 1998) found that pedestrian in Beijing, preferred signalized crossingsto other types, such as under or over pass crossing. However, crashes involving
pedestrians often occur in signalized intersections (Tiwari et al., 1998). The road402

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crossing behavior of pedestrians is also influenced by the social factor. The road waitingtime at pedestrian crossings decreases as pedestrian flow increases, (Hamed, M. M.,
2001), suggesting that pedestrians are more inclined to cross the road along with others.
Goh B. H. et al. (2012) recommended separate speed at signalized and un-signalized
crosswalk in Malasiya. The paper concludes with current design on traffic signal using
1.22 m/s does not provide sufficient time for pedestrian to cross safely. Tim J. G. et al.
(2006) were analyzed to determine the effect of age, disability, intersection traffic
control condition, group size and gender on walking speed. They found that the groupsof two or more pedestrians crossed 0.122 to 0.183 m/s slower than individual crossers.
The report identifies that the current speed of 1.22 m/s is insufficient for elder
pedestrians have age 60 or more, children assisted by adults, physically disabled
persons, and large group of pedestrians.
Hence, it is evident to consider societal and environmental parameters along withindividual behavior parameters during studying crossing speed. The road geometrical isa new indicatory that is included in this research as researchers own interest.
3. METHODOLOGY
3.1 Data Collection
For the determination speed, total 400 pedestrians attempting to cross the street wereobserved on August, 2012 at eight midblock crossings. These locations have similarroad geometry and traffic characteristics. The one set of locations with undivided streets
are five and the other set with divided street are three locations. The information was
gathered at different time of the day including both am and pm with peak hour and off
hour. The data collection part includes two phases: firstly the pedestrians were observed
for waiting time and secondly they were interviewed for some questions. The time
lapsed for crossing the road by pedestrians was also noted. Once the pedestrians havesuccessfully crossed from opposite location of observers, they were asked a set ofquestions related with this research.

Observe
Delete Record

Record Timing

No

Interview

Yes

Data

Figure 1, Framework for data collection
Data includes the following parameters and are collected manually.
Survey location based on higher frequency of occurring accidents
Sample size (Krejcie and Morgan, 1970) and random sampling techniques
Walking speed
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Time of the day (AM, PM and Day, Night)
Behavioral and Societal parameters
Road geometrical parameters
3.2 Data Analysis
Randomly selected data thus collected were checked for multi-colinearity. The data
were tabulated, organized and coded into a single data file for detailed analysis ofwalking speed as a function of various factors. The walking speed of pedestrians wasthen determined dividing the section of road width by the time taken to cross the road.
The walking speed data were analyzed using Univariate General Linear Model in
SPSS-16.
3.3 Validation of Results
We can use the One-Way ANOVA procedure to test the hypothesis that the means of
two or more groups are not significantly different or not (Montgomery and Runger,
2004). For the comparison of various means, ANOVA test was conducted with the null
hypothesis that the various categories do not have the statistically different mean. From
the test it is seen that the some results accept null hypothesis and some reject it.
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 Distribution of pedestrian speed based on categorical variables
Table-1 shows that the speed of road at mid-block crossings for male is 1.186 m/s,
while for female is 1.115 m/s. Male pedestrians walk 0.0536 m/s faster as comparedwith Female pedestrians. Similarly unmarried pedestrians walk 0.0502 m/s faster ascompared with married pedestrians. Those pedestrians who do not have the children attheir home are crossing the 0.0676 m/s faster as compared with the pedestrians who
have children at their home. Hence it is concluded that the behavior of pedestrians affectthe speed during crossing the road. Again the cpedestrians who have own private vehicle with who do not have and those who are
involved in road accidents with those who are not. Pedestrians who are going to theiroffice for the work seem quite hurry as they walk 0.0627 m/s faster with respect to those
who are not going for the office work. Pedestrians carrying hand bag or something otherthan hand bag are walking nearly same speed as those who are not carrying anything.
The results show that the pedestrian feel comfort to cross roads along with others rather
than single, as they walk 0.0700 m/s slower as compared with pedestrians crossing roadindividually. This result is at the range of significance level. Hence we conclude that thesocietal parameters also affect the speed of pedestrians at mid-block road crossings.
Again, the speed between divided and undivided road is significantly different and at
un-divided roads, pedestrians are crossing 0.0771 m/s faster than divided. Hence we cansay that road geometrical parameters also affect the speed during crossing the road.

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Table 1, Distribution of pedestrian speed based on categorical variables
Std.
Indicator
Category of Indicator
Mean
N
Deviation
Female1.17678 145 0.299682
GenderMale
1.23504 253 0.40365
Total
1.21381 398 0.369848
Unmarried
1.24707 154 0.406806
Marital Status?
Married1.19685 245 0.347087
Total
1.21624 399 0.371582
No
1.2546 176 0.396899
Have Children? Yes
1.18702 222 0.348665
Total
1.21691 398 0.37181
No
1.22041 300 0.379576
Have own
Yes
1.20724 97 0.350261
Vehicle?
Total
1.21719 397 0.372236
1.21258 230 0.384938
Have involved/ No
witness of road Yes
1.22116 164 0.353649
accident?
Total
1.21615 394 0.371797
other than work or office1.20706 329 0.320998
Destination
to the work or office1.26976 64 0.552068
toWork?
Total
1.21727 393 0.368424
nothing
1.21619 216 0.335527
Carrying
somethingsomething
1.21305 173 0.414799
during Crossing Total
1.21479 389 0.372368
not in group1.24117 226 0.320666
Crossing
inin group
1.17118 163 0.432243
Group?
Total
1.21184 389 0.372603
Gaushala
1.12506 55 0.51891
Bauddha
1.08473 50 0.314578
Jaulakhel
1.28633 50 0.35692
Thapathali
1.08259 45 0.352446
Location
Durbarmarga
1.28738 51 0.293961
Koteshor
1.27413 49 0.275391
Soltimod1.12902 50 0.267071
Kalanki
1.45541 50 0.360476
Total
1.21615 400 0.371121
Undivided
1.24507 250 0.340832
Does
Lane
Divided1.16794 150 0.41346
Divided?
Total
1.21615 400 0.371121
Off time
1.22225 237 0.330195
TimeofPeak Time1.20727 163 0.424571
Observation?
Total
1.21615 400 0.371121

Sig.
0.131
0.189
0.072
0.762
0.822
0.213
0.934
0.067

0.000

0.044
0.692

Table-1 shows that the pedestrian at business area are walking much faster as comparedwith hospital areas and other intermediate crossings. At Durbarmarga and Koteshor (infront of Bhatbhateni Super Market) the walking speed is 1.28 m/s. However the speed at
Bauddha (in front of hospital) is only 1.08 m/s. The result is Kalanki seems quite
different because of jaw-crossings. Soltimode shows the the speed of pedestrian is 1.13
Walking speed based on pedestrians’ behavior at mid-block cross in Kathmandu
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Nepalm/s. Hence it can be concluded that the nature of surrounding area or location is one
parameter that affect the speed during crossing the road.
4.2 Distribution of pedestrian speed based continues variables
Figureclear that the speed declines with older pedestrians than younger pedestrians. However
this result is not statistically significant. So the result may be due to the chance. Againday.

Figure 2, Distribution of pedestrian speed based on age
Figure 6, shows that the as number of unsuccessful attempts increases, the crossing
speed of pedestrian also increases. This shows that pedestrian feel force to cross theroad after some unsuccessful attempts which ultimately increases the risk of crossing.

Figure 3, Distribution of pedestrian speed based on Average Number of Attempts before
Successful Cross

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The result of crossing speed
basedonpavement
condition is presented in
Figure-4. As the result isstatistically significant, we
can strongly say that theroad surface condition goeson poorer, the speed ofcrossing road by thepedestrian decreases. Againthelinearmodel
isformulated for the crossing
speed based on Surface
Condition Index of the roadpavement. The result is
validatedbasedonstatistically using R-squarevalue.

Figure 4, Distribution of pedestrian speed based on Road
Surface Condition

4.3 Distribution of pedestrian speed based on ordinal variables
Figure-5 shows that the higher educated persons walk faster. The composition of higher
educated person is more around market area or business area.

Figure 5, Distribution of pedestrian speed based on Education Level
5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The walking speed of pedestrians at mid-block road cross in Kathmandu is determinedbased on the road geometrical parameters, environmental
individual behavior and societal parameters. Categorical variables are presented in
Walking speed based on pedestrians’ behavior at mid-block cross in Kathmandu
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October2015,
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Nepaltables wheatear ordinal and continuous variables are presented graphically. Based on
findings, it is concluded that the individual behaviors of pedestrians along with thesocietal parameters significantly affect the speed of pedestrians. Road geometricalparameters greatly affect the speed of walking at mid block crossings. However the
speed at peak and off time is nearly same. The nature of surrounding area or location is
one parameter that affects the speed during crossing the road
As road geometrical parameters affect the walking speed, refugee inland or divider isrecommended to construct in two-way roads for comfort and safety of pedestrian duringcrossings. Road surface is recommended to maintain in good condition, which increases
crossing speed of pedestrians thus enhance road capacity. The speed in mid block crossin Kathmandu significantly depends up on the nature of location and the recommended
speed is 1.22 m/s. However at business area the speed may be taken as 1.27 m/s and forthe locations out-side the ring road the speed more than 1.10 m/s seems to be unsafe. A
detail comprehensive study considering disabled people is recommended for further
study including both signalized and un-signalized intersections.
REFERENCES
Global status report on road safety, 2009, Time for Action. WHO, Switzerland
Goh B. H. et al., 2012. Pedestrian crossing speed: the case of malasiya. International
Journal for Traffic and Transport Engineering, 2012, 2(4):323-332.
Guo, H., Wang, W., Guo, W., Jiang, X., Bubb, H., 2012. Reliability analysis ofpedestrian safety crossing in urban traffic environment. Safety Science 50, 968-973.
Hamed, M. M. 2000.
. Safety
Science 38, pp. 63-82.
Krejcie, R., Morgan, D., 1970. Determining sample size for research activities
Educational and Psychological Measurement, 30, 607-610.
Montgomery, D. C., and Runger, G. C., 2004. Applied statistics and probability forengineers, third edition, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., ISBN 9812-53-058-4, New York.
MoPIT/JICA, 2012, final report, data collection survey on traffic improvement in
Kathmandu valley
Oxley, J. A., Ihsen, E. Fildes, B. N., Charlton, J. L., and Day, R. H., 2000. Crossing
roads safely: an experimental study of age differences in gap selection by pedestrians,
Accident Analysis and Prevention 37, pp. 962-971.
Sisipiku, V., and Akin, D., 2003, Pedestrian behaviors at and perceptions towards
various facilities: an examination based on observation and survey data, Transport
Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behavior, 6(4), ppl 249-274.
Tim J. G. et al., 2006, recommended walking speeds for pedestrian clearance timing
based on pedestrian characteristics, TRB Annual Meeting CD-ROM, paper no. 06-1826.
Tiwari, G., Bangdiwala, S., Saraswat, A., and Gaurav, S., 2007. Survival analysis:pedestrian risk exposure at signalized intersections. Transportation Research Part F, Vol.
10, No. 2, 2007, pp. 77 89.
Tom, A., ND. Gender differences in pedestrian rule compliance and visual search atsignalized and unsignalized crossroads. Accident analysis and Prevention, pp 1-27.
Vujanic M., Pesic, D.,Antic, B., Smailovic, E., 2014. Pedestrian risk at the signalized
pedestrian crossing equipped with countdown display. UDC: 625.712.34 DOI:
http://dx.doi.org/10.7708/ijtte.2014.4(1).04,

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Mathematical analysis of road blocking to
improve evacuation time from tsunami
Yudai HONMA1 and Ryosuke YABE2
1
Lecturer, International Center for Urban Safety Engineering,
Institute of Industrial Science, the University of Tokyo, Japan
yudai@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
2
Master course student, Department of Industrial and Management System Engineering
School of Creative Science and Engineering, Waseda University, Japanryabe@toki.waseda.jp
ABSTRACTOn March 11th, 2011, the big earthquake occurred in the waters off Miyagi, Japan andhuge tsunami came to Sanriku seacoast. After this disaster, research of the way toescape from tsunami is focused again. In Japan, government asks people to escape fromtsunami not using car, but walking. However, many people used car to escape to hill in
the cause of big earthquake in December 2012 and many traffic jam were to be found.
However, there aren’t many earlier studies taking consideration of traffic jam in thecase of tsunami evacuation. From this background and earlier studies, we suggest to
block several road links and making people using car in the case of emergency
inconvenience. People can walk through blocked road, but car is not allowed. In the
result of this suggestion, we can expect that people will tend not to use the car in thecase of emergency and the number of links which cause traffic jam will be decreased. In
this research, we will call into account of the choice of how to escape, and we set a goalof minimization of total time of evacuation thinking all evacuees. In this research, we
consider Shizuoka city in Japan for example and take in network of this city. Then, we
also set the area of water exposure consulting the city’s hazard map. To calculate
optimal combination of road blocking, we used Genetic Algorithms because there arehuge combinations in Shizuoka city’s network.
Keywords: Tsunami, evacuation time, road block, genetic algorithms
1. INTRODUCTION
In the Great East Japan Earthquake Disaster of March 11, 2011, a tsunami ofunimaginable proportions assailed the region, costing many lives. In its aftermath,tsunami evacuation procedures came under review. The Japanese government had set
evacuation on foot as the rule for tsunami evacuation, but when a tsunami warning wasissued in Ishimaki City, Miyagi, following the strong earthquake at the end of 2012,
many people attempted to evacuate to a higher ground by car, causing major traffic
congestion. Such situations may occur in the event of similar future events, so
alternative measures should be instituted expediently.

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While there have been many studies of evacuation from tsunamis, including the study
by Sasa et al. 1) on the allocation of evacuation sites, few studies have appliedmathematical analysis and few have analyzed traffic congestion during an evacuation.
Although there are road regulations aimed at securing passage for emergency vehicles
or prohibiting entry to areas forecast for inundation, few regulations have been put inplace concerning evacuation times.
This study attempts to reduce preferential car use in major earthquake disasters bysetting road restrictions. Initially, restrictions are defined as road closures. The goal is to
reduce the number of car users and detours during emergency periods, leading to a
reduction in traffic congestion and evacuation time. The study is aimed at minimizing
the total time taken for evacuation by proposing appropriate road closure strategies for arange of evacuation options.
2. EXISTING RESEARCH
Oe et al.2) identified the effective positioning of tsunami evacuation facilities in coastal
cities as an important factor in disaster prevention planning against tsunamis that reachthe area in a short period of time after the earthquake strikes. They treated the positional
planning of tsunami evacuation facilities as a mathematical planning problem andintroduced an optimization formula. Their mathematical model selected the locations
for new tsunami evacuation facilities and allocated residents to existing and newtsunami evacuation facilities. To achieve this, the model calculated the distance to thenearest prospective tsunami evacuation facility by solving the shortest route problem.
Takada et al. 3) identified the impossibility of smooth evacuation using automobiles as
one cause of increased human casualties during a tsunami. They discussed the necessityof post-analysis of evacuations by car when planning future tsunami evacuations
strategies. Using the urban areas of Kesennuma City as the subject area, theyreconstructed the situation of the tsunami evacuation by car during the Great East Japan
Earthquake Disaster. They also used the hearings on the congestion of roads leading to
the Kesennuma City Hall to individually identify road networks, origins of vehicles, andevacuation destinations.
This study analyzes the possible reduction of the total time required to evacuate byclosing key links (roads) in the network. We take Shizuoka City as our example, wheretsunami damage from a Nankai megathrust earthquake is anticipated.
3. DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY
We used the basic road data available in the 2005 edition of the National Digital Road
Map Database created by Sumitomo Electric as the network in this study. The projected
inundation area in Figure 1 is based on the Tsunami Hazard Map of Shizuoka City
published by the City of Shizuoka.

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Figure 1: Details of the road network in the subject area
When a major earthquake strikes, evacuees will start to evacuate from a point in thegray-lined area (start of evacuation node) using roads (links) to evacuate to a point in
the black-lined area (high ground node). At the same time, some of the roads will beclosed to automobile traffic and evacuees are expected to recognize road closures inadvance.
People are expected to choose the shortest evacuation route and evacuation time by car
and by foot. This was modeled using a logit model, which is a method to predict the
selection behavior of a means of transportation. Using the logit model, the probability of
selecting a car as the means of transportation is given by Equation (1) below:㻌 㻌 㻌 㻌㻌㻌 㻔㻝㻕

Here, C is the probability of selecting a car and car represents the required time to theevacuation site reachable in the shortest amount of time by car. The time required totravel by foot to the evacuation site reachable in the shortest amount of time isrepresented by walk. The parameters ± and ² were both set at 1.
If there are no road closures, a large percentage of people will choose car, as that willallow them to evacuate more quickly while fewer people will choose foot. Althoughevacuation speed on foot is slower than by car, the absence of congestion means that
evacuation can be completed in a predictable amount of time. In contrast, evacuation by
car can be completed quickly on roads where congestion does not occur, but majorroads, such as highways and roads in densely populated areas, will become extremely
congested, leading to wide variation in the amount of time taken for evacuation. The
average time required for evacuation by car will actually become greater.
For this reason, road closures were introduced. These change the routes available for car
evacuation, producing a (perceived) increase in the time required. Under the roadclosure scenario, some evacuees who would have previously used a car will evacuate onfoot or will take a detour, avoiding the concentration of traffic on certain roads. Thisavoids major congestion, reducing the average time required to evacuate. (Figure 2)

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Figure 2: Easing congestion by enacting road closures
In this study, we assumed a walking speed of 2.75 km/h, based on the recommendationsin the Tsunami Affected Urban Area Restoration Method Survey issued by the Ministryof Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism. Cars were modeled with routeselections that did not take congestion into account and assigned movement speeds foreach link using the Bureau of Public Roads (BPR) function described below in Equation(2), following Takada et al.3)㻌 㻌 㻌 㻌㻌㻌㻌 㻔㻞㻕㻌

Here, ta is the travel time on link ±, ta0 is the free travel time on link a (travel time when
there is zero traffic), xa is the traffic volume per hour in link a, and ca is the traffic
capacity per hour in link a. Following Takada et al. 3), the parameter values were set at ±= 0.48 and ² = 2.82.
Ultimately, a road closure combination that yielded the shortest average evacuation time
was found, and this was compared to the situation with no road closures.
In this study, the combination of roads for closure exists as 2 to the power of thenumber of links, so searching through all of them is not realistic. Therefore, the study
expressed the decision whether to close a road or not as 0 or 1, where 0 is no roadclosure, and used a meta-heuristic genetic algorithm to derive the solution.

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Values were set for each constant. For evacuees, 142 people were allocated to eachnode. This was calculated based on the population data for Shizuoka prefecture. The
traffic volume per link was set as 70 vehicles per min, the number of individual units in
the genetic algorithm was set to 50, and the number of generations at 100. Also, thegenetic algorithm employed elitism, wherein the highest values found in the top tier are
carried forward. No particular termination conditions were set. The specification of thealgorithm is described below:
1. Generate 49 individual units expressed as 0 or 1 for the number of links, with 0 or 1
values assigned randomly. One unit is generated as a unit with no road closures
where all values are 0.
2. Calculate the average time required for evacuation of each unit. The average timerequired for calculation is listed separately below.
3. Use bubble sort for the average time required for evacuation in each unit.
4. Take the top 15 units with the best average times required for evacuation and newly
generate the remaining 35 units. The generation method uses two-point cross-overin roulette selection.
5. Treat this as the first generation and repeat steps 2 through 4 is for up to 100
generations.
The average time required for evacuation was calculated as follows.
2-1. After taking into account road closures, calculate the evacuation time by car and by
foot from each node to each evacuation site. Assume that evacuation uses theshortest route, and that traffic congestion is not taken into account. Add three minas time for preparing the car.
2-2. Based on the calculations in 2-1, determine the percentage evacuating on foot andby car from each node using the logit model (Equation (1)).
2-3. Based on the calculated number of cars and people and the route data for each
evacuee, calculate the cumulative total of vehicles passing through each link.
2-4. Based on the cumulative vehicle count, use the BPR function (Equation (2)) to
calculate the time taken to reach each link by car.
2-5. Based on route data and the time required for each link, calculate the time taken toreach the evacuation site from each node both by car and on foot.
2.6 Calculate the total amount of time and divide it by the number of people to derive
the average evacuation time.
The existing literature gives recommendations for each region by solving the shortest
route problem, where single evacuation methods are discussed, but few studies havesimultaneously considered multiple modes of evacuation, such as driving or walking.
In general, solutions of optimization problems tend to deteriorate when restrictions areapplied. The significance of this study is that we have added restrictions in the form ofroad closures, yet have derived improved solutions. This is possible because theexcessive traffic generated by the BPR function was resolved by implementing roadclosures.

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4. CALCULATION RESULTS
In this study, the average time required for evacuation in Shizuoka City improved from
9.41 min prior to applying road closures to 6.62 min after application. The road closuresites used in this scenario are shown in Figure 3. In this figure, the gray-lined areas in
the network are nodes requiring evacuation, the areas in black are the destination nodes,
and the bold lines are the links that are subject to road closure.
The distribution graphs of evacuation times from each node to their evacuation sites areshown in Figures 4 and 5, while comparisons of car traffic before and after roadclosures are shown in Figures 6 and 7. It can be seen that there are roads with reduced
traffic volumes and that vehicles have taken detours.

Figure 3: Network showing road closure locations

Figure 4: Time distribution in generation 0 (no road closures)

Figure 5: Time distribution in generation 100 (optimal solution)

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Figure 5: Time distribution in generation 100 (optimal solution)

Figure 6:Traffic volume in generation 0

Figure 7:Traffic volume in generation 100

5. FUTURE PLANS AND ANTICIPATED CONCLUSIONS
These trial calculation results still leave some issues unresolved. One is that the results
are largely determined by the parameters chosen. In particular, the number of people
and traffic capacity settings have a significant impact and have not been appropriately
allocated. By setting the number of people in the model, the application of population
distribution data would attribute more appropriate populations to each node. Traffic
capacity is typically set as a number of vehicles per day or per hour, on the assumptionof an even number of cars flowing through. In this study, the number of vehicles in eachlink was calculated as the cumulative total when deriving the number of cars passing
through a link and calculating the average time required for evacuation. In reality, theflow of car traffic is not even; hence, using a cumulative total will exaggerate traffic
congestion. A more accurate per minute calculation will yield more accurate timings.
To do this, it is necessary to build an understanding of traffic volumes at each link on a
per minute basis.

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The study assumed that evacuees will select the shortest route. In fact, not all evacuees
will know the shortest route, so this is an unrealistic assumption. Adding the possibilityof selecting second and third routes should improve the accuracy of the model.
The traffic capacity of all roads was assumed to be similar, but in reality, there arelarger and smaller roads, and the number of vehicles that they can handle varies greatly.
This must also be built into the model.
Finally, we are considering the introduction of emergency vehicles and applying Pareto
optimization. Road closures are normally used to prioritize the passage of emergency
vehicles. Operators of emergency vehicles would prefer closures on all roads but thatwould prevent any evacuees from using vehicles. Our approach considers road closuresthat are beneficial both for evacuees and for emergency vehicles.
REFERENCES
1)

Sasa, K., and Suzuki, T., Effect of Optimization of Assignment to Evacuation Centers
under Road Capacity Constraints on Tsunami Evacuation Time Reduction. Journal of
the City Planning Institute of Japan, Vol. 49, No.3, pp. 543-548. 2014
2)

Oe, Y., Yamada, H., Watanabe, Y., and Kumagai, K., Generating a mathematicalmodel for optimal positioning of tsunami evacuation facilities. Abstracts of the 2012
Spring National Conference of Operations Research Society of Japan. 2-A-9, pp.130131, 2012.
3)

Takada, K., Fujiu, M., and Onomura, K., Research on reproduction method of thesituation of tsunami evacuation with car – case study of Kesennuma city-. Journal ofJapan Society of Civil Engineers, A1 (Structural and Seismic Engineering), Vol. 69,
No.4, pp. 973-979, 2014.
geomorphology: the study of small landforms. John Wiley, New York.

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Safetyof Megain AsiaFlexural strengthening effect of pretensioned UFC
panel on RC beams with low reinforcement ratios
Koji MATSUMOTO1
1
Project Assistant Professor, International Center for Urban Safety Engineering,
Institute of Industrial Science, The University of Tokyo,
Japan
km312@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
ABSTRACTThe new strengthening method by using pre-tensioned ultra high strength fiber
reinforced concrete (UFC) panels was proposed in this study with the concept of safetyand durability. The amount of PC strands and prestressing level in UFC panel werevaried in order to investigate the flexural enhancement and corresponding mechanicalbehavior of reinforced concrete beam strengthened by pre-tensioned UFC panels.
Moreover, the amount of tensile bar in RC beams was changed to study the effect of newstrengthening method on different damaged level of RC beams. Finally, theexperimental results revealed that the strengthening by using pre-tensioned UFC panel
can highly enhance the flexural performance of RC beam and durability of structure.
Keywords: structural concrete, flexural strengthening, crack resistance, UFC, prestress
1. INTRODUCTION
Japan has frequently confronted to disaster and earthquake. The vastly unpredictableearthquake is the Great Hanshin Earthquake in 1995 which devastated over 150,000
reinforced concrete structures. After that, many specifications related to structuraldesign and construction were seriously revised to support the higher resistance fromseismic and structural loading in the future. Consequently, many former reinforced
concrete structures have been diagnosed and modified to satisfy the load resistanceaccording to the new specification.
Recently, the strengthening of RC structures is one of the widely interesting methods. It
has been applied to various kinds of structure because the high performance andsustainability can be provided with economical investment. Nowadays, there are various
well-known strengthening methods for example steel-plate attaching, bonding with
Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP), external post-tensioning and so on. However, eachmethod still has some drawbacks such as corrosion problem, brittle behavior of FRP,
lack of fire prevention and less durability in severe environment. Therefore, the newstrengthening method by using pre-tensioned ultra high strength fiber reinforced
concrete (UFC) panel will be proposed in this research in the concept of safety anddurability.
UFC is the advanced cementitious material which consists of short steel fiber and finegrain binders: silica fume, silica sand, cement. UFC has the outstanding properties in417

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Table 1: Experimental series
Pre-tensioned
UFC panel
Name
SeriesAPS
fci(mm2) (N/mm2)
0.3RB-40PS-5

40

0.3RB-103PS-5

103

0.3RB-139PS-5

139

0.5RB-40PS-5

40

0.5RB-103PS-5

103

0.5RB-139PS-5

139

0.5RB-103PS-3

103

5

I

Table 2: Details of PC strands in series I
fpu
fpy
PC Area
Name Detail(mm) (mm2) (N/mm2) (N/mm2)
3 wires

6

40

1705

1910

7 wires

9.3

103

1463

1720

7 wires

10.8

139

1463

1720

I
5

I, II
I

3

PC : The diameter of PC strand

fpy :Yielding strength of prestressing strands
0.5RB-103PS-7 103
7
fci :Ultimate strength of prestressing strands
APS: Total cross sectional area of PC strands
fci: prestressing level in UFC
Table 4: Material properties of reinforcing bars
Diameterfsy
Table 3: Mix proportion of concrete
Rebar Type
Grade
(mm)
(N/mm2)
Unit weight
Gmax W/C s/a(kg/m3)Tension D16
15.9
412
SD345
(mm) (%) (%)
D13
12.7
408
bar
W
C
S
G
SP
Comp.
20
60 45 178 296 859 956 0.444
D10
9.53
SD345
411
bar
W: Water, C: Cement, S: Fine aggregate,
Stirrup D10
9.53
SD295A >295
G: Coarse aggregate, SP: Superplasticizer,
s/a: Volume ratio of sand to aggregate
fsy: Yielding strength of reinforcing bar
II

Fig. 1: Details of specimens

high strength that exceeds 150 N/mm2 in compressive strength and 5 N/mm2 in tensile
strength (JSCE 2006), high durability and high ductility. Moreover, it has very highflowability which eases in rheology of complex structure.
Accordingly, with the outstanding concepts of UFC, it has been applied to the newflexural strengthening method for RC beams. In order to enhance the tensile behavior of
UFC to satisfy the flexural strengthening scheme, PC strands were used to prestress
UFC panel under pre-tensioning method. In addition, the expanding end anchor bolts
were used as the connection between a RC beam and the pre-tensioned UFC panel for
providing sufficient bonding. Therefore, there are three objectives in this study; toinvestigate the flexural capacity of RC beams strengthened with pre-tensioned UFC

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Fig. 2: Detail of PC strand and bolt arrangement in pretensioned UFC panel (Unit: mm)panels and to examine the corresponding mechanism of flexural strengthening by using
pre-tensioned UFC panels. To accomplish these research objectives, two parameters
were varied in this research, which were the amount of PC strands and prestressing levelin UFC panels. The eight RC beams were strengthened with different pre-tensioned
UFC panels and were subjected to the four-point bending test. The experimental results
were collected for discussion. The comparison of loading capacity between
strengthened and non-strengthened beams, loading resistance mechanism and the effectof each parameter are presented.
2. OUTLINE OF THE EXPERIMENT
2.1 Experimental series
In this study, two parameters were varied in pre-tensioned UFC panel which were theamount of PC strands and the prestressing level in UFC panel. Moreover, to investigate
the flexural performance of new strengthening method in different damage level of RC
beams, the cross section area of tensile bar was also changed. The 0.5RB and 0.3RB
represented the 50% and 30% of tensile bar in RC beams which equaled to 379 mm2 (2× D16) and 253 mm2 (2 × D13), respectively. The details of eight strengthened
specimens are shown in Table 1.
2.2 Details of the specimens
In this study, one specimen consisted of one RC beam strengthened with pre-tensioned
UFC panel as shown in Fig. 1. Eight RC beams were prepared before fabricated withpre-tensioned UFC panel. All RC beams had 1.8 m in length and 150 × 300 mm of crossFlexural strengthening
effect of pretensioned UFC panel on RC beams with low reinforcement ratios
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Table 5: Mix proportion of UFC
Unit quantity (kg/m3)
SPFlow(mm) Water Premix Steel (kg/m3)
binder fiber
260±20

180

2254

157

24

Fig. 3: Expanding end anchor (left) and finishedspecimen (right)

section. The shear reinforcement ratio in RC beams was 0.95% for preventing shear
failure. Each pre-tensioned UFC panel had 1.5 m in length and 50 × 150 mm of crosssection. Each panel was prestressed by two PC strands with different prestressing levelin a UFC panel. The types of PC strand and prestressing level of each specimen are
described based on the experimental series as follows.
2.2.1 Series I
The amounts of PC strand were varied in this series while prestressing level in UFC
panel was constant as 5 N/mm2. Three kinds of PC strands with different diameter asshown in Table 2 were prestressed inside UFC panel. Consequently, six RC beams of
0.3RB and 0.5RB were strengthened with pre-tensioned UFC panels with different
amounts of PC strand as illustrated in Fig. 2.
2.2.2 Series II
In this series, the prestressing levels were varied from 3 N/mm2, 5 N/mm2 and 7 N/mm2
in UFC panels while the amount of PC strands was fixed to 103 mm2. The detail of pretensioned UFC panel is also shown in the Fig. 2. Therefore, there were three specimensof 0.5RB-103PS-3, 0.5RB-103PS-5 and 0.5RB-103PS-7 subjected to the four-point
bending test for investigating the effect of prestressing level.
2.2.3 Materials
The same mix proportion of concrete was used for casting eight RC beams as shown in
Table 3. The compressive strength of concrete was designed to 30 N/mm2 at 7 days. The
steel reinforcement of compression, tension and stirrup in RC beams was different intype and properties as tabulated in Table 4. And Table 5 shows the mix proportion of
UFC that was mixed with 0.2 mm diameter and 15 mm length of short steel fibers.
2.2.4 Fabrication procedure
The specimens were consisted of two parts as mentioned. Due to the heat curing processof UFC material to reduce shrinkage and provide high quality, the pre-tensioned UFC
panels were fabricated in the factory. All reinforced concrete beams were cast by using
100-liter capacity of mixing machine. After preparing the RC beams, the pre-tensioned
UFC panel was attached to them by anchoring with expanding anchor bolt as shown in
Fig. 3(a). The complete specimens are shown in Fig. 3(b).
2.2.5 Loading method
All prepared specimens were subjected to four-point bending test. Teflon sheets andgrease were put under the specimens at supporting points in order to satisfy the simple
support condition by preventing the horizontal friction. On the top surface of specimens,
leveling was adjusted before putting loading plates by using gypsum. Then the 100 mm
width of loading plates were set up at the location of loading points to reduce the stressconcentration. The load was applied by a 2000 kN loading machine.

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2.2.6 Measuring items
The measuring items in this study areillustrated in Fig. 1. Four displacementtransducers were installed at the supporting
point and mid-span of a specimen in order
to measure the relative mid-span
displacement. Six S-gauges were attached
on two sides of a RC beam at the bottomedge of concrete and other sixS-gauges
were also attached in two sides of a UFC
panel. At the tensile bars, 2 mm of strain
gauges were attached on many locations ofcompression bars and tension bars as
displayed in the figure.

Fig. 4: Comparison of loading capacity of
specimens in series I

3. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS ANDDISCUSSIONS
3.1 Loading capacities
The
mechanicalproperties
andexperimental results of all specimens areshown in Table 6. In this table, the loading
capacity of 1RB, 0.5RB and 0.3RB can becalculated under the flexure-tension failureassumption. The load enhancement ratiothat can be calculated from the loading
capacity of strengthened to nonstrengthened beams can show theperformance of this strengthening method.
Figures 8-11 show load-displacement
relationships. The effect of each parameteris discussed as follows;

Fig. 5: Comparison of flexural enhancementin 0.3RB of series I

Fig. 6: Comparison of flexural enhancementin 0.5RB of series I

3.1.1 Series I: Effect of amount of PC
strands
According to Table 6, the loading capacity
can be increased with higher amount of PC
strand in both series (0.3RB and 0.5RB).
However, the effect of amount of PC strand
does
not
show
the
proportional
strengthening performance as shown in Fig.
Fig. 7: Comparison of flexural enhancement
4. In comparison of the flexuralin series II
enhancement of 0.5RB as shown in Fig. 6,
the pre-tensioned UFC panel can enhancehigh loading capacity over 0.5RB equal to 1.99, 2.79 and 3.06 in 0.5RB-40PS-5, 0.5RB103PS-5 and 0.5RB-139PS-5. In the case of 0.3RB, the strengthened specimens canincrease the loading capacity equal to 2.78, 3.50 and 3.56 in 0.3RB-40PS-5, 0.3RB103PS-5 and 0.3RB-139PS-5 as indicated in Fig. 5. Moreover, in comparison to nonFlexural strengthening effect of pretensioned UFC panel on RC beams with low reinforcement ratios
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Name

Table 6: Mix proportion of UFC
Compressive strength,
Enhancement ratio of
Loading capacity,
Failure(N/mm2)
capacity
PU
mode
(kN)
Concrete, f’c UFC, f’c_UFC
n1
n0.5
n0.3

1RB
0.5RB
0.3RB

43.0
43.0
43.0

-

166.6
96.4
65.4

FT
FT
FT

0.3RB-40PS-5
0.3RB-103PS-5
0.3RB-139PS-5

47.5
47.6
47.0

194.8
194.8
210.7

181.7
229.1
232.9

FS
FS
FS

1.09
1.38
1.40

-

2.78
3.50
3.56

0.5RB-40PS-5
0.5RB-103PS-5
0.5RB-139PS-5

44.5
40.3
43.6

194.8
194.8
210.7

191.4
269.1
294.9

FT
FS
FS

1.15
1.62
1.77

1.99
2.79
3.06

-

-

0.5RB-103PS-3
30.1
210.7
284.0
FT
1.71
2.95
0.5RB-103PS-7
45.4
211.4
268.3
FS
1.61
2.78
FT: Flexure-tension failure, FS: Flexure-shear failure, n1: Enhancement ratio of capacity to 1RB,
n0.5: Enhancement ratio of capacity to 0.5RB, n0.3: Enhancement ratio of capacity to 0.3RB

Fig. 8: Load-displacement relationship of specimen in series I

damaged beam or 1RB, all strengthened specimens can recover the capacity higher than
1RB as shown in Fig. 5 and 6.
3.1.2 Series II: Effect of prestressing level in UFC
In this series, the prestressing levels were increased from 3, 5 and 7 N/mm2. According
to the results of series II, it is indicated that the higher prestressing level in UFC
insignificantly affects the increase in the loading capacity. However, it can enhancevery high resistance to 0.5RB which equal to 2.95, 2.79 and 2.78 in 0.5RB-103PS-3,
0.5RB-103PS-5 and 0.5RB-103PS-7 as shown in Fig. 7. Moreover, these strengthened
specimens can recover the capacity over than that of 1RB.
3.2 Effect of prestressing in UFC on durability of strengthened structures
According to the results of loading capacity in series II, the increase in prestressing
level in UFC insignificantly influenced to increase in loading capacity. However, the422

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Fig. 9: Crack pattern of strengthened 0.3RB
specimens in series I

Fig. 10: Crack pattern of strengthened 0.3RB
specimens in series I

Fig. 11: Crack pattern of specimens in series II

Fig. 12: Load-displacement relationships ofspecimens in series II

crack patterns on UFC panel of specimens 0.5RB-103PS-3, 0.5RB-103PS-5 and 0.5RB103PS-7 were observed. Large number of cracks on UFC panel in the specimen 0.5RB103PS-3 could be observed while the crack on panel was reducing in the specimen
0.5RB-103PS-5 as shown in Figs. 10(b) and 11(a). Only a few cracks could be seen in
the specimen 0.5RB-103PS-7 as shown in Fig. 11(b). Therefore, the higher prestressing
level in UFC can affect the number of crack in UFC panel which related to higher
durability of structure at high prestressing level.
By setting the ȧ-gauges at constant moment region, the initial cracking load on UFC
panel of each specimen could be summarized in Table 7. The loads at 0.1 mm of crack
widths were observed to indicate the initial cracking load because the crack could beclearly seen and abruptly increased after this point as shown in Fig. 13.
According to series I, the load at the crack on panel was in the range of 103.4-114.7 kN
in 0.3RB and 123.5-130 kN in 0.5RB. Range of cracking load in this series does notseem to vary with the amount of PC strand. On the other hand, the initial cracking loads
were changed significantly from 105.8 to 143.9 kN in series II and the numbers of crack
on UFC panel were remarkably reduced with higher prestressing level because theapplied prestressing force in this research can rescue too many cracks in UFC panel
which relates to reduce the number of crack on pre-tensioned UFC panel with higher
prestressing level in UFC. Therefore, it can indicate that the prestressing level in UFC
significantly affects crack propagation of strengthening system and subsequently
influences on the durability of strengthened structures.
Flexural strengthening
effect of pretensioned UFC panel on RC beams with low reinforcement ratios
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Fig. 13: Load-crack width relationships on UFC panel of all specimens
Table 7: The initial cracking load on pretensioned UFC panel
Initial cracking load
Name of specimens(kN)
0.3RB-40PS-5
0.3RB-103PS-5
0.3RB-139PS-5

113.0
103.4
114.7

0.5RB-40PS-5
0.5RB-103PS-5
0.5RB-139PS-5

123.5
130.0
130.0

0.5RB-103PS-3

105.8

0.5RB-103PS-7

143.9

4. CONCLUSIONS(1) By using the pre-tensioned UFC panel as strengthening method, the increasing
amount of PC strand can drastically increase the loading capacity.
(2) With different prestessing levels in UFC in the range of 3 to 7 N/mm 2, the loading
capacity did not significantly increase with higher prestressing levels. But thisvariable parameter can be significantly related to durability of structures. In thecase of providing higher prestressing level, it can increase the initial cracking load
and reduce the number of crack on panel because the prestressing increases thetension resistance at the bottom edge of concrete and UFC panel.
REFERENCES
JSCE Guideline for Concrete No. 9., 2006. Recommendation for design andconstruction of ultra high strength fiber reinforced concrete structure. Tokyo
Nihonbashi: Maruzen.
Talayeh, N. and Bruhweiler, E., 2013. Experiment Investigation on Reinforced UltraHigh-Performance Fiber-Reinforced Concrete Composite Beams Subjected to
Combined Bending and Shear. ACI Structural Journal 110, 250-25.

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New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Effective analysis of soundness of bridges
affected by environmental factors~Using bridge inspection datain Hokuriku region~
Takahiro MINAMI1, Makoto FUJIU2, Shoichiro NAKAYAMA3 ,Jyunichi TAKAYAMA 4and Yasuo CHIKATA5
1Student, Kanazawa University, Japan
takahoro1993@gmail.com
2
Assistant Professor, Ph.D., Kanazawa University, Japan
3
Professor, Dr., Eng., Kanazawa University, Japan
4
Professor, Dr., Eng., Kanazawa University, Japan
5
Professor, Dr., Eng., Kanazawa University, Japan
ABSTRACT
Recently, extending the service life of the bridges has come to be studied. Many bridges
are built in the period of high economic growth, and they reached their service life.
Consideration of rebuilding and extending the service life must be carried out. Under
such circumstances, the bridges in the Hokuriku region has been placed under theharsh environment. For example, flying salt due to the weather characteristics of winter,
the influence of the water from pipe buried under a road with nozzles that spray liquid
to melt snow, sprinkling salt for antifreeze, the damage of alkali silica reaction that
peculiar to Hokuriku region, seismic risk occurred by active fault . I got the inspection
data about of the bridge in three prefectures in Hokuriku. The soundness of bridge andthe degree of degradation recorded in the inspection data.
In this study, we propose a repair priority determination method taken into account theseismic risk by using a principal component analysis.
Keywords: soundness of bridge, bridge inspection data, seismic risk, environmental
factor.
1. INTRODUCTION
Recently, the lifelong duration of bridges are discussed in Japan. There are about 70000
bridges (bridge length 2 meter or more) in Japan at present. About 18 percent of thebridges were built more than 50 years ago. It is expected that older bridges passed 50
years will account for 43 percent. Many of the bridges were built in the period of higheconomic growth, and they will reach bridge service life all at once. In Ishikawa
prefecture, about 24 percent of the bridges were built more than 50 years ago. It is
expected that older bridges passed 50 years will account for about 69 percent as shown
Figure 1. Rack of human resources and public works spending makes repair of bridges
difficult in the future. Stopping traffic during the bridgework has a harmful effects ontransportation services.

425

October
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Kathmandu,
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October2015,
Kathmandu,
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Under such circumstances, National and local governments attaches importance tomaintenance, and carries out regular inspections of bridges to make frameworks of asset
management. It is difficult to use inspection results in determining the proper priority ofbridges because inspection results has many inspection items. Present priority of bridges
is determined on the basis of degradation situation and importance. But present priorityof bridges are not considered seismic risk to determine the repair priority of bridges.
Bridges in the Ishikawa prefecture has been placed under the harsh environment. For
example, flying salt due to the weather characteristics of winter, the influence of thewater from pipe buried under a road with nozzles that spray liquid to melt snow,
sprinkling salt for antifreeze, the damage of alkali silica reaction (ASR) that peculiar to
Ishikawa prefecture. The Morimoto Togashi fault is active faults that develop in thesoutheast edge of the Kanazawa plains. It is estimated to cause the earthquake of about
magnitude 7.2 in 2-8% of probability in the next 30 years. As a result of this risk
evaluation, a lot of bridges will be affected by earthquake.
The purpose of this study is to make the decision of repair priority including the seismic
risk by using the regular inspection data.

Present

539

1681

Twenty years later

1523

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

697

50%

Older bridges passed 50 years

60%

70%

80%

90% 100%

The others

Figure 1: The number of older bridges passed 50 years
2. PREVIOUS STUDY
Up to now, a lot of maintenance priority decision of bridges using regular inspection
data is researched.
Dr.Oshima selected items related to the earthquake resistance based on the physicalhealth assessment that has been conducted, and carried out a questionnaire to the expert,
the results were analyzed by quantification theory, proposed the earthquake resistancesoundness evaluation considered the weighting factor.
Dr.Kaito proposed a degradation prediction based on Markov process which is focusedon the degradation rate by using the inspection results for 829 bridges in NY city. Also
has established the assumed top event as a control limit state on the visual inspection of
long-span bridges, configured the lower event that causes the top event in the fault tree,
and calculated change with time of the occurrence probability of the top event by giving
the probability of the backward events in Markov deterioration hazard model.
Dc.Chikata solved combinatorial optimization problem of repair bridges and sites tomaximize the total health of the managed bridge group after the repair based on thesoundness of the bridge using the results of analysis by quantification theory of426

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inspection data of Ishikawa Prefecture, by applying the knapsack problem with the aidof gene algorithms.
No study have attempted to suggest the repair priority decision that takes into accountthe earthquake risk by using the regular inspection data.
3. ANALYTICAL DATA
Ishikawa prefecture conduct regular inspection of the bridges every 5 years. Damage ofthe bridge can be assessed by regular inspection. Soundness of bridge is determined bydamage degree of the bridge, and is recorded as inspection results. We got bridge
inspection data in Ishikawa prefecture. The 2314 bridges are managed by Ishikawa
prefecture. The 2086 bridges has information of latitude and longitude, address. In thisstudy, the 2086 bridges are adopted for analysis.
3.1 Bridge inspection data
Figure 2 shows example of bridge inspection data. It has various elements andinspection results of the bridge.
Various elements of the bridge : construction year, the number of span, length of bridge,
width of bridge, daily traffic volume, much large-sized car traffic volume, address,
latitude and longitude, priority levels.
Inspection items: main girder, floor slab, substructure, bearing apparatus, expansion
device. Soundness of them has been evaluated in five levels. Soundness has been
evaluated in five stages in health order 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1.
Identification
numberYears

LengthASR

Emergencytransportation route

Soundness

Priority

Figure 2: Example Bridge inspection data
3.2 Earthquake risk data
We used a probabilistic seismic hazard map of the J-SHIS seismic hazard station. The
probabilistic seismic hazard map shows how much each point shake and what
probability each point shake on the basis of probability, position and scale of allearthquake in Japan and surroundings. In this study, assuming the maximum case, weused prediction on seismic intensity distribution map that occurred 2% in 50 years.
Figure 3 shows that many bridges in Ishikawa will be affected by earthquake.
Effectiveofanalysis
of soundness
bridgesby
affectedby environmental
Effective analysis
soundnessof bridgesofaffectedenvironmental
factors factors ~Using bridge
inspection
datain
Hokuriku
region~~Using bridge inspection data in Hokuriku region~427

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October2015,
Kathmandu,
Nepal

Figure 3: Distribution of seismic intensity (occurred 2% in 50 years)
4. THE BASIC ANALYSIS OF BRIDGES IN ISIKAWA
Figure 4 shows the number of bridge by the year of construction. 513 bridges has
passed more than 50 years, 1443 bridges has passed more than 30 years in Ishikawa.
Figure 5 shows the number of bridge by superstructure material. 624 bridges are madeof prestressed concrete, 997 bridges are made of reinforced concrete, 277 bridges are
made of steel.
Figure 6 shows the number of bridge by length of bridge. The length of the about 65
percent of the bridges is from 2 meter to 15 meter.
Figure 7 shows the number of bridge by emergency transportation route. Primaryemergency transportation route and Second emergency transportation route are almost
equal, with the former accounting for about 23 percent and the latter about 20 percent. .
Figure 8 shows the number of bridge by prediction on seismic intensity. Bridges in
Ishikawa may suffer from damage caused by earthquakes
350
300
250
200

150
100
50

2011䡚20152006䡚20102001䡚2005

1996䡚2000

1986䡚1990

1991䡚1995

1981䡚1985

1976䡚19801971䡚19751966䡚19701961䡚19651951䡚1955

1956䡚1960

1946䡚1950

1941䡚1945

1931䡚1935

1936䡚1940

1926䡚1930

0Figure 4: The number of bridges by the year of construction

428

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624

0%

997

20%

277

40%

PC

60%

RC

STEEL

188

80%

100%

The others

Figure 5: The number of bridges by superstructure material

5

1354

0%

20%

䠌Ң䠎䡉

484

40%

䠎Ң䠍䠑䡉

60%

䠑䠌Ң䠍䠌䠌䡉

131 11280%䠑䠌Ң䠍䠌䠌䡉

100%

䠍䠌䠌䡉Ң

Figure 6: The number of bridges by length of bridge

466

0%

425

20%

150

40%

1045

60%

80%

100%

Primary emergency transportation route
Secondary emergency transportation route
Third emergency transportation routenot specified

Figure 7: The number of bridges by emergency transportation route

79

0%

559

467

20%

40%

lower 5upper 5

776

205

60%

80%

lower 6

upper 6100%

7Figure 8: The number of bridges by prediction on seismic intensity

Effectiveofanalysis
of soundness
bridgesby
affectedby environmental
Effective analysis
soundnessof bridgesofaffectedenvironmental
factors factors ~Using bridge
inspection
datain
Hokuriku
region~~Using bridge inspection data in Hokuriku region~429

October
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Kathmandu,
Nepal
October2015,
Kathmandu,
Nepal

5. ANALYSIS CONDITION FOR PRINCIPAL COMPONENT ANALYSIS
Total score of each bridges was calculated by principal component analysis to decide
repair priority taken into account the seismic risk. Importance score of bridge anddestruction risk score were used as the variable. Importance score of bridge were taken
into account how large impact on traffic at breakdown time, for example “Emergency
route”, “Crossing”, ”Daily traffic volume”, “Length of bridge”. Destruction risk score
were taken account how high probability of destruction at the time of earthquake, forexample “Soundness (Main girder, Bearing apparatus, Expansion device)”, “Seismic
intensity”, “Salt damage”, “ASR”.
Soundness has been evaluated in five stages in health order 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1. Figure 9, 10,
11 shows the number of bridge by soundness. Figure 9 shows that the percentage ofsoundness 5 about main girder was 59 percent. Figure 10 shows that the percentage ofsoundness 5 about bearing apparatus was 73 percent. Figure 11 shows that thepercentage of soundness 5 about expansion device was 64 percent. In comparison
with bearing apparatus and expansion device, soundness about main girder was worse.
Table 1, 2 shows the categorization for each variable. Principal component analysis was
performed using this categorization.
1

1232

0%

20%

430

40%

5

60%

4

3

2

345

80%

78

100%

1

Figure 9: The number of bridges by main girder soundness

33

1538

0%

20%

390

40%

5

60%

4

3

2

80%

0

125

100%

1

Figure 10: The number of bridges by bearing apparatus soundness430

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26

1333

0%

20%

542

40%

5

60%

4

3

2

0

185

80%

100%

1

Figure 11: The number of bridges by expansion device soundness

Table 1: Importance of bridge 㻵㼠㼑㼙㻱㼙㼑㼞㼓㼑㼚㼏㼥㻌㼞㼛㼡㼠㼑㻯㼞㼛㼟㼟㼕㼚㼓

㻰㼍㼕㼘㼥㻌㼠㼞㼍㼒㼒㼕㼏㻌㼢㼛㼘㼡㼙㼑㻸㼑㼚㼓㼠㼔㻌㼛㼒㻌㼎㼞㼕㼐㼓㼑㻿㼡㼎㼐㼕㼢㼕㼟㼕㼛㼚㻼㼞㼕㼙㼍㼞㼥
㻿㼑㼏㼛㼚㼐
㼀㼔㼕㼞㼐㻺㼛㼠㻌㼟㼜㼑㼏㼕㼒㼕㼑㼐㻾㼍㼕㼘㼞㼛㼍㼐㻘㻾㼕㼢㼑㼞㻾㼛㼍㼐㼀㼔㼑㻌㼛㼠㼔㼑㼞㼟㻞㻜㻜㻜㻜㻌㼍㼚㼐㻌㼛㼢㼑㼞㻌㻌㻲㼞㼛㼙㻝㻜㻜㻜㻜㻌㼠㼛㻌㻞㻜㻜㻜㻜㻲㼞㼛㼙㻌㻡㻜㻜㻜㻌㼠㼛㻌㻝㻜㻜㻜㻜㻲㼞㼛㼙㻌㻝㻜㻜㻜㻌㼠㼛㻌㻡㻜㻜㻜㻝㻜㻜㻜㻌㼍㼚㼐㻌㼘㼑㼟㼟㻝㻜㻜㼙㻌㼍㼚㼐㻌㼛㼢㼑㼞㻲㼞㼛㼙㻌㻡㻜㻌㼠㼛㻌㻝㻜㻜㼙㻌㻲㼞㼛㼙㻌㻝㻡㻌㼠㼛㻌㻡㻜㼙㻲㼞㼛㼙㻌㻞㻌㼠㼛㻌㻝㻡㼙㻞㼙㻌㼍㼚㼐㻌㼘㼑㼟㼟㻵㼙㼜㼛㼞㼠㼍㼚㼏㼑㻌㼟㼏㼛㼞㼑㻌
㻟
㻞
㻝
㻜
㻟
㻞
㻝
㻡
㻠
㻟
㻞
㻝
㻡
㻠
㻟
㻞
㻝

Table 2: Destruction risk㻵㼠㼑㼙㻿㼛㼡㼚㼐㼚㼑㼟㼟䠄㻹㼍㼕㼚㻌㼓㼕㼞㼐㼑㼞㻘㻌㻮㼑㼍㼞㼕㼚㼓㻌㼍㼜㼜㼍㼞㼍㼠㼡㼟㻘㻌㻱㼤㼜㼍㼚㼟㼕㼛㼚㻌㼐㼑㼢㼕㼏㼑䠅㻿㼑㼕㼟㼙㼕㼏㻌㼕㼚㼠㼑㼚㼟㼕㼠㼥㻿㼍㼘㼠㻌㼐㼍㼙㼍㼓㼑㻘㻌㻭㼘㼗㼍㼘㼕㻌㼍㼓㼓㼞㼑㼓㼍㼠㼑㻌㼞㼑㼍㼏㼠㼕㼛㼚㻌㻿㼡㼎㼐㼕㼢㼕㼟㼕㼛㼚 㻰㼑㼟㼠㼞㼡㼏㼠㼕㼛㼚㻌㼞㼕㼟㼗㻌㼟㼏㼛㼞㼑
㻝
㻡
㻞
㻠
㻟
㻟
㻠
㻞
㻡
㻝
㻣
㻡
㼁㼜㼜㼑㼞㻌㻢
㻠㼘㼛㼣㼑㼞㻌㻢
㻟㼁㼜㼜㼑㼞㻌㻡
㻞㼘㼛㼣㼑㼞㻌㻡
㻝
㼅㼑㼟
㻝
㻺㼛
㻜

Effective analysis of soundness of bridges affected by environmental factors
Effective analysis of soundness of bridges affected by environmental factors ~Using bridge~Using bridge inspection data in Hokuriku region~
inspection data in Hokuriku region~431

October
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Kathmandu,
Nepal
October2015,
Kathmandu,
Nepal

6. PROPOSAL OF REPAIR PRIORITY
Eigenvalues of the first principal component was 2.029, the contribution rate was 22.55
percent. The first principal component can be total score because all of the firstprincipal component became positive value. Weighting of the variables by the firstprincipal component load quantity got total score of the priority. Figure 12 shows First
main component load quantity. Total score was defined as shown equation 1. We
compered priority obtained based on a total score with existing priority. Existingpriority was classified into five stages based on the priority index obtained by thesoundness of the each elements. Priority obtained by principal component analysis wasclassified into five stages in the order of descending total score. Table 3 shows priority
classification.
Figure 13, 14 shows the proportion of priority by prediction on seismic intensity
Figure 13 shows that percentage of bridges of priority 5 in the high prediction seismic
intensity was small. Therefore, it clearly shows that how to determine existing priority
didn’t consider seismic risk.
On the other hands, Figure 14 shows that percentage of bridges of priority 5 in the highprediction seismic intensity was high and percentage of bridges of priority 1 in the low
prediction seismic intensity was low. Therefore, it is obvious from Figure 14 thatpriority obtained by the principal component analysis considered the seismic risk.
0

0.5

1

Expansion device

0.7084Main girder

0.6983

Length of bridge

0.6971

Bearing apparatus

0.6689Crossing

0.2163

Emergency route0.1604

Salt damage, ASR

0.1328

Daily traffic volume0.0909

Seismic intensity

0.0894

Figure 12: First main component load quantity

The first principal component load quantity: The variable

Table 3: Priority levels

432

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7

47

36

32

46

44

Upper 6

150

173

120

174

159

Lower 6

98

87

72

Upper 5106

104

Lower 5

12

70

15

0%

100

110

151

128

19

20%

19

40%

1

14

60%

2

3

4

80%

100%

5

Figure 13: Existing priority levels by seismic intensity

7

11

56

Upper 6128

Lower 6

89

121

158

Lower 5

27

27

195

121

Upper 5

0%

50

67

105

20%

1

98

12

14

40%

60%

2

3

4

61

174

158

104

86

99

99

13

13

80%

100%

5

Figure 14: Priority levels in consideration of seismic risk by seismic intensity
7. CONCLUSION
The basic analysis of bridges in Ishikawa was examined using the inspection data of
Ishikawa Prefecture
The proposal of repair priority determination method considering the seismic risk was
carried out using a principal component analysis. When considering the seismic risk, it
was confirmed that the priority of the bridge changed in comparison with the existing
method.
A further study of generalization of the inspection order determination method thattakes into account the seismic risk using the inspection data of the whole country should
be conducted. Also, not only earthquake risk, we are going to do a study ofconsideration of other disaster risk.
Effectiveofanalysis
of soundness
bridgesby
affectedby environmental
Effective analysis
soundnessof bridgesofaffectedenvironmental
factors factors ~Using bridge
inspection
datain
Hokuriku
region~~Using bridge inspection data in Hokuriku region~433

October
2015,
Kathmandu,
Nepal
October2015,
Kathmandu,
Nepal

REFERENCES
T., OSHIMA, S., MIKAMI, T., YAMAZAKI, I., TAMBA. 2001. INVESTIGATIONOF TOTAL EVALUATION METHOD ON BRIDGE INTEGRITY AND ANALYSIS
OF ITS EFFECTIVE CONSTITUENTS. Journal of Japan Society of Civil Engineers.
No. 675 P 201-217.
K., KAITO, M., ABE, Y., FUJINO. 2003. PREDICTION OF DETERIORATION OF
BRIDGE STRUCTURES BASED ON ACTUAL INSPECTION DATA. Journal ofJapan Society of Civil Engineers. No. 744 P 29-38.
K., KAITO, H., KANAJI, H., KOBAYASHI, N., MASHIMA, H., OHISHI, K.,
MATSUOKA. 2011. OPTIMUM INSPECTION POLICY FOR LONG SPAN BRIDGEBASED ON FAULT TREE ANALYSIS WITH VISUAL INSPECTION DATA.
Journal of Japan Society of Civil Engineers, Ser. F4 (Construction and Management).
No. 2 P 74-91.
Y., CHIKATA, K., TACHIBANA, T., Kido, T., KOBORI. 1995. AN APPROACH TO
REPAIR PLANNING OF EXISTING BRIDGES BY GENETIC ALGORITHM.
Journal of Japan Society of Civil Engineers. No. 513 P 151-159.
MinistryofLand,
Infrastructure,
Transport
andTourism.
http://www.mlit.go.jp/road/sisaku/yobohozen/torikumi.pdf
J-SHIS Japan Seismic Hazard Information Station. http://www.j-shis.bosai.go.jp/
MinistryofLand,
Infrastructure,
Transport
andTourism.
http://www.mlit.go.jp/road/sisaku/yobohozen/torikumi.pdf

434

New Technologies
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New Technologies
for Urbanfor
Safetyof Megain AsiaArchitectural and Structural Characteristics ofIndigenous Newari Chhen: Study of Seismic Risk
and Resilience in the Historic Urban Nucleus of
Bhaktapur City, Nepal
Dipendra GAUTAM1, 2 and Hugo RODRIGUES3
Center for Disaster and Climate Change Studies, Maharajgunj, Kathmandu, Nepal
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Asian Institute of Technology and Management,
Lalitpur, Nepal
strdyn@yahoo.com
3
School of Technology and Management, Polytechnic Institute of Leiria, Leiria,
Portugal
1

ABSTRACTThis paper highlights the structural and architectural properties of indigenously
constructed Newari houses. This article aims to disseminate the main properties of
traditionally houses in the urban center of Bhaktapur in comparison to modern
earthquake resistant unreinforced masonry construction. The growing trend of modern
reinforced concrete construction has overshadowed the importance of masonry
construction in urban areas of Nepal, though a large fraction of buildings are
unreinforced masonry structures so that their behavior during earthquakes may be
important. This study highlights the features like symmetrical construction, vertical loadtransfer system, cantilevered load distribution, openings, structural integrity, timberbands, non-structural members, and introduction of special building components,
among others. The geometrical properties of building components and theirsignificance have been discussed in this paper so as to correlate with prevalent
standards and codes. Through a detailed structural and architectural survey of 42
owner built houses, it observed several features with interest for reconstruction after the2015 Gorkha earthquake. Culture is inseparable dimension of the society in the study
area and the importance is emphasized more by the world heritage site, thus earthquake
resistant construction of unreinforced masonry buildings with cultural components ismust for Bhaktapur. In this regard, this paper has attempted to identify those features
and associated structural sufficiency through detailed survey, phenomenological andarchival study and non-structured interviews.
Keywords: Bhaktapur city, culture, earthquake resistant construction, Newari Chhen,
seismic risk, unreinforced masonry construction
1. INTRODUCTION
Indigenous knowledge and practices in building construction have very long influenceand guidance through adoption and subsequent formulation of cultural settlement
localized to any geographical boundary. Afterward, such knowledge is propagated to435

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

generations as customs. Indigenous knowledge and practices are dynamic and time
variant with frequent combination of contemporary cultures, beliefs and skills.
The growing trend of reinforced concrete (RC) construction has overwhelmed the
traditional construction practices globally, though unreinforced masonry structures are
dominant over modern RC constructions in indigenous communities of Bhaktapur citytill date. In many past earthquakes, masonry structures have shown significant
resilience against the ground shaking and amplification so assessing features of masonrybuildings is nowadays more pronounced. During many past earthquakes, traditional
masonry buildings constructed with timber components survived significantly (e.g.
Boen, 2001; Decanini et al., 2004; Gulkan and Langenbach, 2004; Bothara et al., 2007;
Audefroy, 2011; Langenbach, 2010; Siswanto et al., 2013; Gautam, 2014a). In thiscontext, the genius aspects of traditional construction practices need to be analyzed withregard to seismic response. Previous studies have figured out some earthquake resistantfeatures in monumental buildings in Kathmandu valley (Bajracharya, 1982; Dixit et al.,
2004; Shrestha et al., 2004; Sinha et al., 2004; Dixit et al., 2008; SDMC, 2008; Jigyashu,
2013; Gautam, 2014b). However, detailed assessment of residential buildings anddetailing earthquake resistant features and geometrical properties have been felt more in
recent dates only.
While identifying the earthquake resistant features of unreinforced masonry (URM)
buildings (Newari Chhen) of Bhaktapur city, this study attempts to figure out theconstruction technology, technology transfer, geometric and architectural specifics,
earthquake resistant features and recent trend of incorporation of indigenous knowledge
in construction scenario. The features have been justified by reconnaissance
immediately after the 2015 Gorkha earthquake as well.
2. SEISMIC HAZARD IN THE STUDY AREA AND NEPAL
Nepal is situated amongst the world’s seismically most active region, so frequent
earthquake events and associated damages are common. As Nepal lies in theconvergence zone of Indian plate beneath the Eurasian plate leading the entire region
one of the most seismically active region of the world. Also, Nepal is placed in the 11th
place by The Bureau of Crises Prevention and Recovery of the United Nations
Development Program (UNDP). Events like the earthquake of 1255, 1833 ML 7.7, 1934
MW 8.1, 1988 ML 6.5 (Dixit et al., 2013) and 2015 MW 7.8 Gorkha earthquake show theseverity of impact clearly. In these events, the preponderance of the observed damage
is concentrated in Kathmandu valley. Global seismic hazard map designates Nepal in
Zone IV with the possible shaking of MMI-IX or above with 10% probability ofexceedance in 50 years (JICA, 2002). In addition to this, the local soil condition
dominates the peak spectral acceleration and amplification factor even in a small spatial
variation (Chamlagain and Gautam, 2015).
The start of modern reinforced concrete construction began in the major urban centresof Nepal some thirty years back, and concentrated in the Kathmandu valley and otherurban centres. However, it nevertheless supplanted the traditional URM construction
practices in some of the urban nuclei, like Bhaktapur; where unreinforced masonry
construction is dominant comprising of more than 90% buildings (Gautam, 2014b).

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3. METHODOLOGY
In order to identify the genius features of traditional Newari houses of Bhaktapur city,
42 owner built URM houses from 14 different wards (three houses from each ward) of
the municipality were selected. While selecting the sample houses, at least throughout
timber band(s) was assured. Due to difficulty in identifying the housing components inrow houses, isolated houses were chosen. The number of isolated houses is very lessthroughout the city; so three houses constructed at least 40 years before were selected
for study. Structural integrity, ductile connections, load concentration and distribution,
roofs, overhangs and other commonly noticed defects of masonry buildings werechecked on field with a checklist. Some geometrical features were also measured infield as well. The findings are presented in terms of weight distribution, plan andelevation symmetry/asymmetry, provisions of bands, roofing materials, binding
materials, projections, load path continuity, building proximity, openings, foundationsite condition and plinth, wall dimensions and number of stories, non-structuralmembers, geometrical and architectural specifics, among others. Phenomenologicalstudies across the city were also conducted for identifying and validating the buildings
features incorporated during field survey. Non-structured interviews, library and archive
consultations were also performed for identifying and formulating the seismic risk,
resilience and structural as well as non-structural preparedness technologies adopted
locally.
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION VIS-À-VIS SEISMIC RISK AND RESILIENCE
Most of the studied Newari chhens were found to be composed of three storied houses
consisting of chheli (ground floor), matan (first floor), chota (second floor) andsometimes buigal (terrace). Exterior walls were usually found to be constructed as thicklayers up to the third storey and subsequently reduced in upper storey. The upper storey
is constructed of similar type of material. As per the utility; chheli is commonly used forstorage and occupational purposes/activities and matan is used for living, sitting and
bed room purposes. Chota is used for kitchen, dining and worshipping purpose (aspooja room). Geometrical properties of studied buildings in terms of wall thickness,storey height, building dimensions, opening dimensions have been presented in table 1.
At the meantime, other findings have been disseminated in detail under following heads.
Table 1: Geometrical properties of various components of Newari chhen
Building components
Wall thickness
Storey height
Length of building
Width of building
Height of khapa
Length of khapa
Height of jhya
Length of jhya
Average building height
No. of storeys

Mean (m)
0.42
1.84
10.28
6.85
1.35
0.65
0.71
0.36
8.05
3.5

Standard deviation
0.08
0.05
0.12
0.09
0.10
0.06
0.05
0.06
0.08
0.03

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4.1 Bands at various levels
Plinth band was found placed immediately above the plinth using a wooden flake
throughout the wall. Such bands usually contribute in bearing the differential
settlements. The foundation soil below plinth is soft due to prevalence of loose fluviolacustrine soil. Though purpose of such band was not justified while incorporating as aconstruction component, it has positive influence upon seismic performance ofbuildings. During reconnaissance immediately after the 2015 earthquake, houses withplinth/sill/lintel bands were found to be more resilient than those without plinth andwooden plinth bands. Wooden bands are found to be extensively used in every chhen
and are contributing in integrity of structure and resistance to out of plane wall bending.
The level of openings is usually found incorporated with lintel bands. Moreover, lintel
band and the gable band, performing similar function like that of the lintel band, also
effectively incorporate prevention of roof collapse.
4.2 Building configuration and dimensions
A rectangular configuration walls restricting any re-entrant corners usually compose
URM houses. At the meantime, buildings are typically constructed as row houses
joining walls and other components throughout the city. Due to this procedure, storey
heights were found constant. This practice usually prevents the pounding effect in theaggregate. The average length of wall is about 10.3m with the standard deviation of
0.12; whereas the average width is 6.85m at the standard deviation of 0.09 (Table 1).
This suggests length to width ratio to be less than 2, which is well within the limit of 3
as per Nepal Building Code (NBC 205) (NBC, 1994). Lower value of this ratio justifies
most of the modern URM construction practices and codes as well; however there wasno any prevalent code of practice during construction of studied houses.
All the studied buildings were found to be simple rectangular in configuration (Fig. 1);
with a proper configuration in accordance with modern construction practices.

Fig. 1 Symmetrical matchbox construction practice at Bhaktapur
Most of the houses were constructed at least four decades earlier than introduction ofearthquake resistant building construction practice in Nepal in 1994. A matchbox typebuilding configuration was found to be prevalent in studied buildings and throughout
the city in the field survey.
Openings in Newari Chhen were found in the form of windows and doors; at themeantime their construction mainly dominates typical cultural forms of windows.

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These forms are tiki:jhya (lattice window), sa: jhya (relatively larger opening in chota),
ga: jhya (depressed window) and khapa (door with smaller dimensions). In case of
openings, all of these were heartwood timber elements tied properly with the structuralwall systems. Moreover, in case of openings, smaller openings are preferred instead oflarger ones and avoiding the arches above openings.
4.3 Elevation and stories of buildings
Average height of houses is found to be 8.05m at the standard deviation of 0.08 andaverage stories of houses are depicted to be 3.5 (Table 1). Figure 2 represents thefrequency of buildings in terms of their storey heights separately. Each of the chheli,matan, chota and baiga has different heights as per the purpose of utility and mobility.
However, such difference is height is not large and primarily low storied houses arefound throughout the city.
18
12

16

(a)

14

8

10

No. of buildings

No. of buildings

12

(b)

10

8
6

6

4

4
2

2
0
1.6

1.7

1.8

1.9
2
2.1
Storey height (m)

2.2

2.3

2.4

0
1.7

1.8

1.9

2
2.1
2.2
Storey height (m)

2.3

2.4

2.5

1.01

1.02

12
3

(c)

10

2
No. of buildings

No. of buildings

8

6

1.5

1

4

0.5

2

0
1.7

(d)

2.5

1.8

1.9

2

2.1

2.2

0
0.94

0.95

0.96

0.97 0.98 0.99
Storey height (m)1Storey height (m)Fig. 2 Height distribution of (a) Chheli (b) Matan (c) Chota and (d) Buigal
Usually matan, which is used for living purpose is found to be having the greatest
height upto 2.07m in average; however all other stories are found to be having smallerheight than that of the matan. Baiga, which accommodates roof, either thatched withjhingati (roof tile) or even the corrugated sheets, is found to be having its height lessthan 1m. Immediately after the 2015 Gorkha earthquake, field reconnaissance was
performed and hence the majority of damage is found to be concentrated in upper
stories.

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4.4 Wall system
Building materials were identified as appa (sun dried clay bricks) or si appa (non-burnt
clay brick), though compressive strength of such bricks was nevertheless verified.
However, Japanese specialists during the study on earthquake disaster mitigation in
Kathmandu valley experimentally verified that the traditional bricks were stronger than
expected and prohibit the pancake destruction unlike the RC construction (JICA, 2002)
leading a strong evidence of resilience of such structures during many past earthquakes
like 1934 Bihar-Nepal earthquake, 1988 Udyapur earthquake, 2011 Sikkim-Nepal
border earthquake and 2015 Gorkha earthquake. While at the level of chota, the wall
thickness decreased and above this storey, usually smaller wall thickness is provided.
Projections were not observed frequently on walls though some projections in terms ofwooden ga:jhya were observed with struts supported beneath it.
4.5 Other building features
Struts are observed to be connecting the roof to the lower stories usually the chota, andsometimes used for aesthetic purpose in the form of tudals (struts with carved
appearance within the timber element) as well. Struts are significant in transferring thecantilevered load to the continuous and regular load path, thus during vibration,
detachment of cantilevered portion is usually prevented. Beside the architectural
purpose, struts help to reduce the problem of vertical deformation in case of
cantilevered load leading to improvement building behaviour during earthquakes.
Without struts, even minor vertical earthquake may cause damage in the houses.
In traditional buildings, vertical transportation system is provided by sona (moveable
timber ladder) of low weight within a staircase opening found in corners of buildings.
Use of such timber ladder has reduced the load of non-structural members in greater
extent as most of modern constructions are experiencing wider damage in non-structuralmembers. Ladders are assembled with small pieces of wooden flakes having low weight.
Newars are gregarious culturally and they establish settlements as row housing. Besideconstruction of row housing, height of every storey is found to be almost similar as
most of such houses were built by the similar technology and craftsmanship.
During this study, some of additional features of houses are identified, which havesignificant contribution during earthquakes like; vertical corner post, wooden pegs at
various levels, and double boxing of openings.
5. CONCLUSION
Indigenous housing technology has been significantly playing an important role in thesurvivability and sustainability of unreinforced and traditionally built houses in seismic
zones. During past events, many of such buildings survived significantly. People
usually develop unique coping mechanism through unrelenting trials and errors andexperiences. Such knowledge system is reflected in prevalent construction technology
and institutionalized as a custom for the built environment. While analysing theindigenous knowledge of housing construction in the world heritage site and vicinity inhistoric urban nucleus of Bhaktapur city, it has been concluded that some excellent
features regarding earthquake resistant constructions were introduced into the Newarichhens. Based on detailed survey of 42 houses and other phenomenological studies andnon-structured interviews, the features like structural integrity, wall system, smaller

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openings, subsequent load reduction in upper stories, provision of bands at various
levels, horizontal diaphragm, struts, proper rectangular configuration with low length towidth ratio, opening dimensions, among others have been identified in residentialbuildings of Bhaktapur city. These features are widely accepted in terms of structural
performance and reduction of damage level worldwide.
In the National Building Code of India, indigenous knowledge of building construction
has been provisioned for encouragement and blending with the modern technologies.
Moreover this code has kept indigenous knowledge as an approach to sustainability(BIS, 2012). Till date Indian code is widely followed in Nepal. In this regard, assuring
cultural reconstruction may be pivotal in city sustainability. Likewise, in Dhajji
construction guideline has been prepared and practiced in Pakistan with specialreference and promotion of indigenous constructions (UN Habitat and National Disaster
Management Authority, Pakistan, 2009). Regional paradigm from these two evidences
could be replicated in Nepal National Building Codes through sustainability approach.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author is grateful to Asst. Prof. Raghu N Prajapati for mapping and other relevant
information while carrying out this study and also Er. Jyoti Prajapati is acknowledged
for her contribution during fieldwork. Suggestions and information from Prof. G. S.
Bhardwaj and Mr. Randolph Langenbach are sincerely acknowledged.
REFERENCES
Audefory, J.F., 2011. Haiti: post earthquake lessons learned from traditional
construction. Environment & Urbanization, International Institute for Environment andDevelopment (IIED) 23(2): xx–xx. DOI: 10.1177/0956247811418736.
Bajracharya, B.N., 1982. Effects of earthquake on traditional houses of Kathmandu.
Journal of Institute of Engineering, 1(1).
BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards) 2012. Draft Building Code of India, Part 11 Approachto Sustainability, p. 11.
Boen, T. 2001. Earthquake resistant design of non-engineered buildings in Indonesia.
EQTAP
Workshop,
Kamakura,
availableat:
http://www.buildingtrustinternational.org/Indonesian%20Earthquake%20Resistant%20
Design.pdf (accessed 23 July 2014).
Chamlagain, D., and Gautam, D., 2014. Seismic hazard in the Himalayan intermontane
basin: an example from Kathmandu valley, Nepal, In: R. Shaw and H.K. Nibanupudi(eds.), Mountain Hazards and Disaster Risk Reduction pp.73-103, Springer Japan.
Bothara, J. K., Mander, J.B., Dhakal, R.P., Khare, R.K., and Maniyar, M.M., 2007.
Seismic performance and financial risk of masonry house. ISET Journal of Earthquake
Technology 44(3-4):421-444.
Decanini, L., Sortis, A.D., Goretti, A., Langenbach, R., Mollaioli, F., and Rasulo, A.,
2004. Performance of masonry buildings during the 2002 Molise, Italy, Earthquake.
Earthquake Spectra 20(S1):S191-S220.
Dixit, A.M., Parajuli, Y.K., and Guragain, R., 2004. Indigenous skills and practices ofearthquake resistant construction in Nepal. 13th World Conference on Earthquake
Engineering, Vancouver, B.C., Canada, paper no. 2971.
Dixit, A.M., Guragain, R., Shrestha, S.N., Gupta, M., and Sharma, A., 2008.
Understanding traditional wisdom of earthquake-resistant construction in the Himalayas.
The 14th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Beijing, China.
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Dixit, A.M., Yatabe, R., Dahal, R.K., and Bhandary, N.P., 2013. Initiatives forearthquake disaster risk management in the Kathmandu Valley. Natural Hazards, DOI
10.1007/s11069-013-0732-9.
Gautam, D., 2014a. Water Management through Indigenous Knowledge: A Case of
Historic Settlement of Bhaktapur City, Nepal. Anchor Academic Publishing, Germany.
Gautam, D., 2014b. The building features acquired from the indigenous technology
contributing in the better performance during earthquake: A case study of Bhaktapur
City. Journal of Science and Engineering, 2:41-45.
Gulkan, P., and Langebach, R., 2004. The earthquake resistance of traditional timberand masonry dwellings in Turkey. 13th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering,
Vancouver, B.C., Canada, paper no. 2297.
JICA (Japan International Cooperation Agency) 2002.The study on earthquake disastermitigation in the Kathmandu valley, Kingdom of Nepal. JICA and Ministry of Home
Affairs, His Majesty’s Government of Nepal, 1:110.
Jigyasu, R., 2013. Using traditional knowledge systems for post-disaster reconstructionissues and challenges following Gujarat and Kashmir earthquakes. Creative Space (CS)
1(1):1-17.
Langenbach, R., 2010. Rescuing the baby from the bathwater: traditional masonry as
earthquake-resistant construction. 8th International Masonry Conference, Dresden.
NBC (Nepal Building Code) 1994. Mandatory rules of thumb reinforced concretebuildings without masonry infill, Government of Nepal, p.9.
Ortega, J., Vasconcelos, G., Correia, M., Rodrigues, H., Lourenco, P.B., and Varum, H.,
2015. Evaluation of seismic vulnerability assessment parameters for Portuguese
vernacular constructions with nonlinear numerical analysis. 5th ECCOMAS Thematic
Conference on Computational Methods in Structural Dynamics and Earthquake
Engineering, Crete Island, Greece, 25–27 May 2015.
Rana, B.S.J.B., 1935. The great earthquake of Nepal (NepalkoMahabhukampa) [inNepali], Jorganesh Press, Kathmandu.
SDMC (SAARC Disaster Management Centre) 2008. Indigenous knowledge fordisaster risk reduction in South Asia. SDMC, New Delhi, pp. 14-46.
Sinha, R., Brzev, S., and Kharel, G., 2004. Indigenous earthquake resistanttechnologies-an overview. 13th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering,
Vancouver, B.C., Canada, paper no. 5053.
Siswanto, A., Salim, A.S.B.S., and Dahlan, N.D., 2013. The phenomenology of lamban
tuha: the local wisdom of South Sumatra traditional earthquake. International
Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences &Technologies
4(2).
Shrestha, S.R., Karkee, M.B., Cuadra, C.H., Tokeshi, J.C., and Miller, S.N., 2004.
Preliminary study for evaluation of earthquake risk to the historical structures in
Kathmandu valley. 13th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Vancouver,B.C., Canada, paper no. 172.
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Dhajji Construction for one and two storey earthquake resistant houses, a guide bookfor technicians and artisans.

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Shake table tests on one-quarter scaled models
of masonry houses retrofittedwith fiber reinforced paintKenjiro YAMAMOTO1, Muneyoshi NUMADA2, and Kimiro MEGURO3
1
Graduate Student, Department of Civil Engineering, the University of Tokyo (UTokyo),Japan
k-yama@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
2
Lecturer, ICUS, IIS, UTokyo, Japan
3
Director/Professor, ICUS, IIS, UTokyo, Japan
ABSTRACTOver the last century, the greatest proportion of fatalities caused by earthquakes havebeen attributed to the collapse of masonry buildings most of which were constructed by
local people with no engineering background using locally available materials without
following structural code. These masonry houses and buildings, which are called nonengineered structures and distributed in seismic areas around the world (Coburn andSpence, 2002), collapse very rapidly even in low intensities of ground shaking.
Therefore, seismic strengthening of existing and new masonry buildings is vital
regarding earthquake disaster mitigation in the world and many methods have beendeveloped to improve their seismic capacities. However, most of methods are timeconsuming and labor-intensive, but not attractive as they don’t directly increaseamenity of the life of residents, which slowed down the spread of these methods. In our
research group, a much easier new method has been developed using SG-2000, a kindof newly developed paint. Paint is commonly used for buildings (Yamamoto, 2014).
Based on the results obtained from previous tests, wallettes coated with SG-2000 haveapproximately 14 and 16 times larger deformation capacities in cases of in-plane andout-of-plane tests, respectively, than those of the unreinforced masonry wallette. In thisresearch, we have conducted shake table tests using one-quarter scaled models of amasonry house retrofitted with SG-2000 to investigate its dynamic failure behavior,crack patterns, and total seismic capacities.
Keywords: masonry, seismic retrofitting, fiber-reinforced paint, shake table test
1. INTRODUCTION
In the last century, there were many earthquakes and they have caused a total loss of life
exceeding 1.53 million people. Masonry buildings are highly vulnerable and common inseismic areas around the world. Therefore, the collapse of masonry buildings is the
major cause of the deaths in the past earthquakes in the world. Besides, much of theincreased populations in developing countries continue constructing these structures andusing them (Coburn and Spence, 2002). Therefore, retrofitting masonry structures is oneof the most important issues for reducing casualties by earthquakes in the world. Also,

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seismic retrofitting ultimately reduces the costs for recovery from earthquake disaster(reduces the cost of rescue and first aid activities, rubble removal, temporary residencebuilding, and permanent residence reconstruction to re-establish normal daily life)(Yoshimura and Meguro, 2004).
To retrofit these structures, many seismic retrofitting techniques (Shotcrete, FRP and soon) have been developed (Amiraslanzadeh et al., 2012). However, these techniques
need much time and labor, but they are not attractive for local people because thesemethods don’t improve the quality of lives. These facts have delayed these techniques’
spreading in developing countries. Considering these problems, a new retrofitting
technique using glass fiber reinforced paint (SG-2000) has been suggested. The material
needed for this technique is only SG-2000, which significantly reduces the amount oftime and labor for retrofitting. Also, paint is usually used to make houses look fine, andmany masonry structures are coated with paint. Therefore, SG-2000 can be easily usedby local people as the form of paint. The experiments in-plane diagonal shear tests andout-of-plane bending tests showed that wallettes coated with SG-2000 whose ratio offiber was 1.5 % achieved larger deformation capacities than unretrofitted wallettes did(Yamamoto, 2014).
In this study, a shake table test using one-quarter scaled model of a masonry structure
retrofitted with SG-2000 was conducted to investigate its dynamic responses.

Figure 1: the dimension of the model house

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2. EXPERIMENTAL SET UP
2.1 Specimen

Figure2: Retrofitting procedure

Figure 3: Typical shape of input sinusoidal wave motion (Meguro et al., 2005)
The specimens were built with burnt bricks in reduced scale (1:4). Joints between bricks
were filled by mortar with c/w ratio of 0.14 (cement:lime:sand=1:7.9:20). Thesematerials were made in Japan, but the specimens were made with great attention that it
could be a suitable replica of masonry buildings in developing countries, following
previous experiments conducted by our research group (for example: Meguro et al.,2005). The model was one-story building with roof, with the dimensions of
940mm940mm760mm with 50mm thick walls and the sizes of door and window on
Shakescaled
table tests
on ofonequarterhouses
scaledretrofitted
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October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

the east/west walls were 220mm490mm and 310mm245mm, respectively as shownin Figure1. The dimension of the bricks used was 75mm50mm35mm and the same
bricks had been used for the previous experiments conducted by our research group.
2.2 Retrofitting Procedure
Straws were put to make the holes placed approximately 200mm pitch as shown in
Figure2 while constructing the house model. Before coating SG-2000 on the wall, steel
wires were inserted to connect inside and outside of the wall. After inserting wires, we
coated SG-2000 fully on the wall with 1mm thickness.
2.3 Experimental Equipment
The test was conducted using the shake table facility available in IIS, the University ofTokyo. The size of the shaking table is 1.5m1.5m. It has six degrees of freedom and it
can produce waves whose frequencies ranging from 0.1 to 50 Hz. Its maximum
displacement capacities are s100mm and its maximum capacity of weight is 2 tons.
2.4 Acceleration and Input Motions
Totally 54 runs were conducted applying sinusoidal wave motions whose frequency andamplitude range from 35Hz to 2Hz and 0.05g to 1.4g respectively to investigate thedynamic response of the house model retrofitted with SG-2000 (Figure 3, Table 1). The
number of cycles was constant for all runs and therefore the lower the frequency of the
run’s wave is, the longer the run endures. The experiment was started with a sweep
motion whose amplitude is 0.05g and frequency changes from 60 to 2 Hz to identify the
dynamic property of the model. The sequence of these runs was determined by thevalues of the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) seismic intensity of JMA scale fromsmaller to larger one.
Table 1: Loading sequence

3. CRACK PROPAGATIONS AND FAILURE BEHAVIOUR
The crack patterns were investigated and marked after each run. Broken lines weredrawn on the part where cracks are only inside the coating, and Solid lines were drawn

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on the part where the coating was also damaged. The highlight of the crack patterns
were in the Table 2.
Table 2: Highlight of crack pattern and failure behavior (~Run50)~ Run 39
There was no crack observed on thesurface of coating and the cracks inside
the coating could not be recognized wellbecause of the small motions.
Run 42A small damage to coating was observedat around the bottom of the east wall,
which has the smallest stiffness of all
walls.
According to the motion of the wallwhen shaking, some parts inside thecoating were thought to be damaged. On
the out-of-plane direction, most of thepart from the middle to the top isdamaged inside and these damaged parts
have been shaked by making thosecracks as its hinge.

Run 50
There were heavy damages to mortar
joints inside the coating. Also, thecoating was heavily damaged on thebottom part of the east wall and therefore
there was a separation between the first
and the second layer of bricks. There
were not so much damages to the coatingon the west wall, which had larger
stiffness than on the east wall. Therefore,
the east wall rotated when shaking withthe west wall as the center of rotation.
The gray area indicates where thecoating had been totally separated frombricks due to the lack of adhesion.

4. ANALYSIS BASED ON JMA SCALE
4.1 Damage Evaluation
The damage levels of house models during shake table test have been evaluated basedon the same damage categories used in previous experiments carried out by our researchgroup as shown in Table 3 (for example: Meguro et al., 2012). Also, all the runs havebeen conducted in a certain order based on the JMA seismic intensity scale. This JMA
scale is an indicator of the strength of earthquake ground motions used in Japan. The
comparison between the performances of two model houses (non-retrofitted andretrofitted with SG-2000) is shown in the Table 4.
Table 3: Highlight of crack pattern and failure behavior (Run50~54)
Shakescaled
table tests
on ofonequarterhouses
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models of masonry houses retrofitted
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October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

Run 52
Some part of the wall on the east wall
was separated from the house, but did
not fall down as the coating connected
the part and the south wall.
Run 53
All part of the east wall was separated
with the diagonal cracks on the coatingthat had been produced in the previous
runs. So far there was no dust and nobricks falling down inside the house.

Run 54
Totally collapsed. However, the coating
connected bricks after the structure had
been broken, which produced somerooms inside the rubble.

Table 4: Damage categories (Meguro et al., 2012)
Category
D0: no damage
D1: light structural
damageD2: moderate
structural damage
D3: heavy structural
damageD4: partially collapse
D5: collapse

Damage extension
No damage to structure
Hair line cracks were observed in very few walls. The
structural resistance capacity did not decrease noticeably.
Small cracks were observed on masonry walls. The structure
resistance capacity decreased partially.
Large and deep cracks were observed on masonry walls. Somebricks are fallen down. Failure in connection between twowalls was observed.
Serious failure and partial structural failure were observed onwalls and roofs, respectively. The building was in dangerous
condition.
Structure was totally or partially collapsed.

From these results, it is concluded that the house retrofitted with SG-2000 could savethe lives of the residents, but could not be used after a large earthquake because of its
heavy structural damage.
4.2 Energy Dissipation Capacity
The energy dissipation capacity is one of the key parameters for discussing three
seismic capacities of structure that a house has to have in order to resist an earthquake.

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It is calculated by cumulating the area of each cycle in the hysteresis loop of the graphof total force and horizontal displacement at the top of the house model.
The energy dissipation capacity of the retrofitted house was much larger than that of
non-retrofitted house as shown in Figure 4.
Table 5: Performance evaluation based on input motion intensity by JMA scale

Figure 4: Comparison of energy dissipation capacity between non-retrofitted andretrofitted structures

5. CONCLUSION
We compared the results of shake table tests using 1/4 scaled masonry of unretrofitted
and retrofitted with SG-2000 as the retrofitting material. As the SG-2000 did not
improve the structure’s stiffness, the damage inside the coating was observed in thesame way as the unretrofitted house. On the other hand, SG-2000 connected bricks after
the mortar joints of them had been broken. It is concluded that SG-2000 improves boththe structure’s deformation capacity and energy dissipation capacity, and make thestructure resistant against much larger ground motions. Also, SG-2000 covers themortar joints and bricks, and therefore it prevents the dust from spreading and bricks
from falling down inside the house. From the failure pattern of the retrofitted house,
Shakescaled
table tests
on ofonequarterhouses
scaledretrofitted
models of masonry houses retrofitted
Shake table tests on one-quartermodelsmasonry
with fiber reinforced paint449
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October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

SG-2000 could save the lives of residents in earthquake, but could not enable them to
use the house again because of its heavy structural damage.
Future researches should improve SG-2000 as it prevents heavy structural damage sothat the residents can use the retrofitted house even after a large earthquake.
REFERENCES
Coburn, A., and Spence, R. 2002, Earthquake Protection, West Sussex: John Wiley& Sons Ltd.
Yoshimura, M., and Meguro, K., 2004. Proposal of Retrofitting Promotion System
for Low Earthquake-Resistant Structures in Earthquake Prone Countries. Proceedings
on 13th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Vancouver, Canada.
Amiraslanzadeh, R., Ikemoto, T., Miyajima, M., Fallahi, A., 2012. A Comparative
Study on Seismic Retrofitting Methods for Unreinforced Masonry Brick Walls.
Proceedings on 15th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Lisboa, Portugal.
Yamamoto, K., Numada, M., Meguro, K., 2014, Experimental Study on Seismic
Retrofitting of Masonry with Special Fiber Reinforced Paint. Proceedings on 13th
International Symposium on New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in
Asia.
Meguro, K., Mayorca, P., Guragain, R., Sathiparan, N., Nesheli N., 2005. Shaking
Table Experiment of Masonry Buildings and Effectiveness of PP-Band Retrofitting
Technique. Vol.57, No.6, SEISAN-KENKYU, pp30-33, the University of Tokyo,
Japan
Meguro, K., Sathiparan, N., Sakurai, K., Numada, M., 2012. Shaking Table Tests on
1/4 Scaled Shapeless Stone Masonry Houses with and without Retrofit by
Polypropylene Band Meshes. Proceedings on 15th World Conference on Earthquake
Engineering, Lisboa, Portugal.

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New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Earthquake Response Analysis of Five-Storied
Pagoda Considering Rocking Motion
Iuko TSUWA1 , Takafumi NAKAGAWA2 , Mikio KOSHIHARA3
1
Engineer, The Japanese Association for Conservation of Architectural Monuments,Japan
tsuwa@bunkenkyo.or.jp
2
Senior Researcher, National Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management, Japan
3
Professor, Institute of Industrial Science, the University of Tokyo, Japan
ABSTRACT

We have many traditional timber structures such as temples and shrines in Japan.
Recently the preservation and utilization of such buildings has been increasing.
Therefore even traditional buildings need sufficient aseismic performance in order to
use them safely. However many traditional timber buildings have been built by theknowledge and experiences of carpenters. In order to understand their seismic capacity,
we need to increase quantitative data to evaluate the earthquake-resistant performanceof traditional timber structures. In this paper, we focused on the seismic evaluation
method of five-storied pagodas. A previous research pointed the effect of the bending
deformation of a whole building on the vibration characteristics of a pagoda. In
addition, it said a bending deformation was caused by the rocking behavior of eachfloor. In this research, we developed the three dimensional model of five-storied pagoda
considering rocking motion and conducted non-linear dynamic analysis. We focused on
the vertical stiffness of a roof truss and Kumimono on cloumns as the structuralelements causing rocking motion. In a previous study, shaking table tests were
performed with our simulating five-storied pagoda model. Analysis results werecompared with the test results.
Keywords: traditional timber structure, five-storied pagoda, earthquake response
analysis, non-linear dynamic behavior, Kumimono
1. INTRODUCTION
It is said that five-storied pagodas have a good seismic performance because no fivestoried pagoda have collapsed against earthquakes in Japan. There are some various
theories about the seismic capacity. However it is not clarified why five-storied pagodas
have aseismic performances. A previous research (Kawai, 2007) pointed the effect of
the bending deformation of a whole building on the vibration characteristics of a pagoda.
It said a bending deformation was caused by the rocking behavior of each floor, andcompressive strain inclined to the grain will happen at the parts of Kumimono etc., wheneach floor moved rocking motion. The previous research (Kawai 2007) developed themodel considering the vertical stiffness of Kumimono, which means bracket complexes
and is between columns and roof in traditional temples and shrines, and roof truss. But

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the stiffness was evaluated by adjusting the period of analysis model to the result from a
micro tremor measurement. In this research, we focused on the vertical stiffness of aroof truss and Kumimono as the structural elements causing rocking motion. We
conducted the compression tests of Kumimono and developed the evaluation method ofvertical stiffness of Kumimono. The model method of roof truss was applied from theevaluation method. The three dimensional model of a five-storied pagoda consideringrocking motion was developed and earthquake response analysis was conducted.
2. ANALYSIS MODEL
2.1 Object model
The simulated five-storied pagoda was the one-fifth scaled model of Asuka Style FiveStoried Pagoda used in a previous research (Chiba, et.al, 2005). (Figure 1) shows the
picture of the object building. Shaking table tests were conducted with it in the research.
Therefore we chose the model because we could compare analysis results withexperimental ones. The height of the top of the model was 6.607m. The size of the firstfloor was 1.296 x 1.296m.

6.607m1.296m1.296m

Figure 1: Object model (Chiba, et.al, 2005)
2.2 Modelling method
A three dimension analytical model like (Figure 2) was developed. All columns andhorizontal members considered as a structural element were replaced with member
elements in the model. In addition, all earthquake resisting elements considered in the
pagoda model were replaced with spring elements. The aseismic elements were thefollowing six things and were shown in (Figure 3).

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Figure 2: Analysis model
1: Rotational stiffness of restoring force of columns
2: Rotational stiffness of column-Nuki joints
3: Shear stiffness of wall
4: Shear stiffness of Kumimono
5: Vertical stiffness of truss roof
6: Vertical stiffness of Kumimono

6
4

5
3
2

1
Figure 3: Earthquake resistant elements

Stiffness was evaluated based on previous researches and theories. The restoring
characteristic for No.2 and No.4 of a spring was like (Table 1). No.2 was set based on ashaking table test results from our previous research (Tsuwa, 2006). The test was
conducted with one frame modeled Asuka Style pagoda, and composed by two columns,
Nuki and Kumimono. The building style of specimen was same as this analysis model.
The specimen was 2/3 scale model. This analysis model was 1/5 scale model. It is
supposed that rotational stiffness at a column-Koshinuki joint occurred by compressive
strain inclined to the grain at the joint. Therefore it was assumed that the rotational

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Rocking Rocking
Motion Motion
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stiffness was proportional to the ration of a size and was calculated with the results ofthe shaking table tests of frames.
The shear stiffness of Kumimono was calculated based on previous research (Fujita,
2001).
Table 1: Some comments on tables
Structural element

Koshi-nuki (No2. in Figure 1)

Hysteresis Curve

Colum
ᰕ す

࣮
ȟ

d/2

⭜㈏
Koshinuki
d/2㸩dKumimono (Shear Spring
No.4 in Figure 3)

The restoring characteristic of rotational stiffness of columns was set like (Figure 4 (b))
based on a previous experiment (Ban, 1942) and research (Kawai, 1992). The analysis
soft includes the effect of P-delta. On the other hand, the restoring characteristics ofcolumns are usually defined like (Figure 4 (a)). It also includes the effect of P-delta. To
be called, the effect is counted for twice. Therefore the effect was subtracted from thecharacteristic of the previous research.

(a) Characteristic froma previous research(b) Characteristic in analysis(c) The effect of P-delta

Figure 4: Characteristic of rotational stiffness at a column
The compression stiffness of materials in a truss roof and Kumimono which meansbracket complexes was modeled as vertical stiffness of those elements. (Figure 5)
shows the evaluation method of the compression stiffness for a part of Kumimono as an
example. The vertical stiffness was calculated by the following (equation 1).

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Kn

EA A
Ln

(1)

where Kn = vertical stiffness, E = Young’s modulus for compression perpendicular to
grain of the wood, A = area being subjected to pressure, Ln= the length of an element
and n =1, 2, 3.
A was defined as 20% of the contact area with components of Kumimono. This equation
was derived by compression tests of Kumimono (Figures 6) (Ryno et. Al., 2012).

Figure 5: The evaluation of compression stiffness for roof and Kumimono

ຍຊ

㻸㻯㻞

ຍຊ

㻸㻯㻠
㻸㻯㻝

㻸㻯㻟

㻸㻯㻞
㻸㻯㻡

㻸㻯㻝

Figure 6: Compression tests of Kumimono
2.3 Analysis method
We utilized the analytical program improved “wallstat” developed by Building
Research Institute. Distinct Element Method (DEM) was used in the program. Viscousdamping was in proportion to momentary stiffness. The value was 2.0%. For the input
wave, we used results from the shaking table tests of a previous research (Chiba, et.al,2005). One input wave was a random wave for checking the natural period of theanalysis model (Figure 7). The other one is the one of the maximum input waves, No.58
wave, changed JMA Kobe recorded during the South Hyogo prefecture Earthquake in
1995. In experiments, the time axis of the wave was one- third of the original axis.
(Figure 8) shows the input wave No.58.

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Pagoda Considering
Rocking Rocking
Motion Motion
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Figure 7: The input acceleration wave of random

Figure 8: The input acceleration wave of JMA Kobe (No.58)
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
3.1 Natural frequency(Figure 9) shows the time history of horizontal displacement at Daiwa in each floor
from the analysis result of random wave. Daiwa is an element on a column. The natural
frequency of the analysis model was 1.95 Hz. The value almost agreed with anexperimental result. In this experiment, the maximum input acceleration was 50 gal, andthe response deformation angle at the top of specimen was 1/450 rad. It confirmed thatthe frequency of the analysis model was same as one of experimental specimen in therange of an elastic deformation.
1st floor

2st floor

3st floor

4st floor

5st floor

Top

Figure 9: The time history of horizontal displacement from the analysis of Randomwave
3.2 Analysis with an earthquake wave
(Figure 10) shows the time history of horizontal displacement at Daiwa, the element on
a column, in each floor of pagoda. The phase of the wave from analysis results

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corresponded to experimental ones. Analysis results almost agreed with theexperimental ones in the first maximum displacement. However the difference between
an analytical wave and an experimental one at the top and the fifth floor increased at thelarge amplitude around 1.2 second. When the pagoda deformed largely, shear
deformation was seen at the first wave in the experimental result. The uplift of a plate
under columns occurred around 1.2 second. The uplift value of analysis model was
smaller than one of the experimental specimen. Therefore it can be seen that thehorizontal displacement of analytical model was smaller than an experimental result.
Experimen
1st floor

Analysis
4st floor

5st floor

2st floorTop

3st floor

Figure 10: The time history of horizontal displacement in each floor
4. CONCLUSIONS
We developed a three dimensional analytical model of five-storied pagoda including thevertical stiffness of Kumimono and truss roof as a factor of rocking motion. In addition,
we conducted earthquake response analysis with the analysis model. The analysis
results almost agreed with experimental ones on the time history of horizontal
displacement in each floor. But the largest deformation upper the 4th floor of thisanalysis model was smaller than experimental results. It is supposed to be caused by thedifference of the uplift of a plate under columns. It can be seen that the uplift of a plate
under columns had a great effect on the rocking motion of each floor. Therefore weneed to reconsider the setting method of the spring under the plate furthermore and to
make a lot of parametric studies.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We received generous support from Professor Naohito Kawai, Kogakuin University,and Dr. Chikahiro Minowa, Tomoe Research & Development. We would like to express
my gratitude to them.
REFERENCES
Kawai, N., et al., 2007. Research on Dynamic Characteristics of Five-story Pagodas.
The report of Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research between 2004-2006. (in Japanese).
Chiba, K., et al., 2005. Seismic performance of five-storied pagoda based on scaled
Earthquake Response Analysis of Five-Storied Pagoda Considering Rocking Motion
Earthquake Response Analysis of Five-Storied Pagoda Considering Rocking Motion457

October
2015,
Kathmandu,
Nepal
October2015,
Kathmandu,
Nepal

model experiment part 1-8., Summaries of Technical Papers of Annual Meeting
Architectural Institute of Japan, C-1, pp.481-482. (in Japanese).
Kato, K., Tsuwa, I., and Koshihara, M., 2008. Shaking table tests of traditional timber
frames including Kumimono Part 1 Experimental outline and results, Summaries ofTechnical Papers of Annual Meeting Architectural Institute of Japan, C-1, pp.43-44 (inJapanese).
Fujita, K., et al., 2001. Hysteresis model and stiffness evaluation of bracket complexes
used in traditional timber structures based on static lateral loading tests, Journal ofstructural and construction engineering, No.543, pp.121-127.
Ban, S., 1942. A study on the determination of the stability about main hall structures,Vol. 3: a mechanical study on the Japanese Traditional Frame, 1, the stability restoring
force of a column. Summaries of Technical Papers of Annual Meeting of Architectural
Institute of Japan, C-1, pp/ 252-258. (in Japanese).
Kawai, N., 1992. A study on the structural stability of traditional timber structures,
Report of the Building Center of Japan, March. (in Japanese).
Ryono, S., Tsuwa, I., Sato, H., and Koshihara, M., 2012. Static lateral loading test ofbracket complexes used in traditional timber five storied pagoda part.2 Discussion
about modeling of Kumimono parts, Summaries of Technical Papers of Annual Meeting
Architectural Institute of Japan, C-1, pp.469-470.

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Influence of frequency characteristics of dynamic
seepage flow in a porous medium
containing a cavity
Mari SATO1, Kazunori FUJISAWA2, Akira MURAKAMI3
Researcher, Faculty of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Japansato.mari.2a@kyoto-u.ac.jp
2
Associate Professor, Faculty of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Japan
3
Professor, Faculty of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Japan
1

ABSTRACT

Dynamic seepage flows, which fluctuate with the passage of time, have mainly been
estimated by static parameters at the maximum amplitude. However, such estimations
do not consider either the underground cavities in practical grounds or the various
components of the seepage frequency. This study has revealed the influence of theseepage frequency in a porous medium, containing an area of regular flows, by anumerical analysis which takes into account the Beavers-Joseph conditions at theboundary of the different flow phases. We applied the Darcy-Brinkman equations to
calculate both the regular flow and the Darcy flow as the governing equations. The
calculated results suggest that the fluctuations in seepage force and velocity
disappeared with an increase in the frequency of the subjected hydraulic gradient at thesurface. On the other hand, high water pressure remained in a wider area of the groundand the cavity when the imposed pressure had a higher frequency. This was due to thelimitation of the reduction in pressure in the porous medium. These trends were also
proved by theoretical solutions for one-dimensional seepage flows. Consequently, inthis study, a new index was proposed for evaluating the effect of frequency, which wasaffected by the permeability of the porous medium and the existence of zones filled withpure fluid. In addition, it was found that the high frequency component of the seepage
should be especially related to the effective stress in practical grounds.
Keywords: seepage flow analysis, finite volume method, Darcy-Brinkman equations,pipe flow, erosion
1. INTRODUCTION
Unsteady seepage through a porous medium, such as the ground, has not been revealed,
especially in terms of the influence of the seepage frequency. Previous studies evaluatedthe periodical seepage by means of static values such as maximum/minimum velocity1).
In addition, practical grounds include cavities and soil pipes, as mentioned by Kuwano
et al. (2010)2). The fluid domain in cavities is directly influenced by unsteady seepage;
and therefore, it is necessary to simulate the unsteady seepage through grounds
containing cavities. Recently, various single-domain approaches have been proposedthat adopt one set of governing equations for the seepage analysis of both porous and459

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fluid domains (e.g., Mu et al., 20073); Fujisawa and Murakami, 20134)). The aim of thisstudy is to improve the simultaneous method proposed by Fujisawa and Murakami inorder to solve the unsteady seepage flows through porous and fluid domains.
2. NUMERICAL METHOD
2.1 Governing equations
The Darcy-Brinkman equations are adopted as the governing equations, as they can beused for calculating both fluid and porous media.

wui
wxi

0

(1a)

wui w § ui u j ·w 2ui O g
O wp
Q
ui




(1b)
¨
¸
U wxi
k
wt wxi © O ¹
wx j x j
where u, p, U and Q denote the flow velocity, the piezometric pressure, the density andthe kinematic viscosity of fluids, respectively. t and xi are time and the Cartesian
coordinates. ui denotes the flow velocity in the fluid medium and the Darcy velocity inthe porous medium. k and λ are hydraulic conductivity and porosity, respectively. The
Navier-Stokes equation for the fluid medium is expressed by making 1/k = ∞ and λ = 0
in Equation (1b).
2.2 Calculation method
Details of the calculation method and the interpolation were given by Fujisawa andMurakami (2013)4). The Darcy-Brinkman equations are discretized by the fractional
step method over the finite volume grids, proposed by Kim & Choi (2000)5). Figure 1
shows the parameters calculated in each finite volume cell; the velocity and the pressure
are stored at the centoroids of the cell and flux U is stored at the center of each cell face.
The definition for flux U is shown by the following equation:
U (ui ) face ni(2)where (ui)face and ni denote the velocity and the outward normal unit vector on the cellface, respectively. The equations for temporal and spatial discretization are'uiD,r't'u iF, r't(3)

U 'ui  u i n j 'u j  2u i U
1
dl
³ lr
2 Ar
Or
F

m



Or g
T 'uiD,r  uim,r
kr
m

F

m

m

F

(4)

u im,r  'u iD,r  'u iF,r(5)

w' u iw um
OQ r ³lr p m ni dl 
 2 i dl
³lr
wn r
wn r
2 Ar
U Ar

u iP,r

uiM,r
³lr

460

uiP,r O wp
wp m1dl
U wn rOr 't
m³lr p ni dl
Ar U
1
M
M
³lr U dl , U't(6)u~iM ni(7)

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uim,r1U

uiM,r Or 't
p m1ni dl³
Ar U lr

O't wp m1
U 
U wn r

m 1

M

(8)
(9)

where T ( 0 d T d 1 ) is the coefficient, T and the explicit methodis adopted for theDarcy-term. u iP and u iM stand for the velocity at the prediction step and the intermediate
velocity for the computation of the pressure, respectively. Superscript m represents themth time steps. w / wn is the outward-normal derivative. Ar and lr denote the area and theside of the rth cell, respectively. Superscript ~ represents the interpolation of theparameters computed from the stored parameters at the centroids of the cell onto the cell
faces. The next section describes the interpolation method.
U
uy

U

p

U
ux

Finite volume cellyUx

Figure 1: Computational cells and stored variables
2.3 Interpolation and derivatives at the cell face
The following equation was adopted for the stable and accurate computation
particularly at the boundary between the fluid and porous media. First, the interpolationof the pressure is performed as follows:

G

~
p

b

kb

pa 

G

a

ka



G

a

ka

G

pb
(10)

b

kb

Subscripts a and bare the values of cells a and b, respectively. They are adjacent cells.
G is the distance from the cell center to the interface (See Figures 2 and 3). The different
formulae are applied for normal and tangential velocities because the Beavers andJoseph conditions (1967)6) should be satisfied along the tangential direction. The normal
velocity is interpolated by the following equation:

Gb

un

ka

un , a 

Gb
ka



Ga
kb

un , b

Ga

(11)

kb

On the other hand, the tangential velocity is computed as follows:ut

G bcut ,a  G acut ,bG ac  G bc

Influence of frequency characteristics of dynamic seepage flow in a porous medium containinga cavityYour paper title

(12a)

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G
Fluid domain­°
Gc ® K(12b)
Porousdomain°¯ O
K means the permeability calculated from K kQ / g . D is a coefficient related to thecharacteristics of the porous medium and Dkau~t

u t, a
un,a
pa

~p

Ga

Cell aO in this paper.
kb

u t, b

u~n

Gb

pb

un,b

Cell bInterface

Figure 2: Variables of cells a and bpka(=෱)(-Ga , pa)kb

un , utka(=෱)~p(-Ga , un,a)(-Ga , ut,a)෕p෕n|a(=-෕p෕n|b)

~
ut

1

o
InterfaceGb(Gb , un,b)~un(Gb , pb)

linear interpolation
-Ga

kb

-Ga

DistanceoInterface(Gb , ut,b)

G b

Gb

Distance

Figure 3: Interpolation of the variables (Left: Pressure, Right: Velocity)
3. THEORETICAL SOLUTIONS OF ONE-DIMENSIONAL SEEPAGE FLOWThe Darcy-Brinkman equations are theoretically solved for the one-dimensional
seepage flow as follows. Theoretical solutions are accorded with a numerical analysis;
and therefore, the former is described in this chapter. Firstly, we postulated thatwux wx 0 in the one-dimensional case and then Equation (1) was modified as follows:

dux O g

ux
dt
k



O wp
U wxi

(13)

p( x, t ) denotes the pressure for coordinate x at time t. p(0, t ) q u sinZt (q = 0.98 kPa)
and p( L, t ) 0 at the boundaries. The integration of Equation (13) over 0<x<L gives thefollowing equations:
L O wp
L Og
du x
dx
dx


³0 dt
³0 U wx ³0 k ux dx
duOOg( p ( L, t )  p (0, t )) ux u L x uL
dt
k
U
du
O
Og
 x 
q sin Zt 
ux
dt
k
UL
l

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The theoretical solution is calculated as

Oq
§
·
t
¨
¸ ­§ 1
 ½
UL
·
Kc
c
c
¨
¸ ®¨ sin ωt  K cos ωt ¸  K e ¾¹¨ 1  ωK c ¸ ¯© ω¿¨ ωK c
¸
©
¹
k
Kc
Og

ux

(15a)

(15b)

The trigonometric function of Equation (15) is shown below and the amplitude of theequation is governed by K ' 1  Z 2 K '2 . K ' 1  Z 2 K '2 converged as Equation (17).

ux

·
Oq §
K'
¨
¸ sin(Zt  T ) , sin T
U L © 1  Z 2 K '2 ¹K'

1  Z 2 K '2
K'



ZK '
1  Z 2 K '2

oK' Z o0

(16)
(17a)

o0 Z of(17b)
1  Z 2 K '2
Therefore, the amplitude of the velocity was the same as the seismic value, calculatedby the Darcy-law when the frequency was close to zero, and it converged to zero when
the frequency was high. The attenuation of the amplitude is proportional to hydraulicconductivity k. The phase difference in velocity, from pressure T , increases to
S 2 with a rise in frequency. Theoretical ux, calculated by the different frequencies, isshown in Figure 4, for the rectangular porous medium that is 0.015 m in width and 0.2
m in length, when permeability coefficient k is 1.0×10-2 m/s.
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z

2St/Z

Figure 4: Velocity and angular frequency
4. TWO-DIMENSIONAL SEEPAGE ANALYSIS OF PIPING HOLES IN THE
GROUND
4.1 Geometry, coordinates and boundary conditions
Figure 5 shows the geometry, the coordinates and the boundary which simulate theground including the pipe vicinity of the impermeable wall. The computational domain
is 700 mm long and 300 mm high, having a pipe-shaped cavity (fluid domain) of 215
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mm in length and 15 mm in width beneath the impermeable structure. Water pressure of
0.98 kPa was applied on the left side of the upper face. The non-slip condition wasapplied beneath the impermeable wall and to the left and bottom sides of the porous
domain, as seen in this figure. The hydraulic conductivity is assumed to be 1.0E-3 m/s
or 1.0E-2 m/s and the porosity of the porous domain is 0.45.
p=0෕ui /෕n = 0

0.4m

p = 0.98 + 0.49sin2SIW

Impermeable wall

0.3
0.25

Fluid domain
Width㸸0.015m
Length㸸0.215m

0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0

Porous domain
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

Figure 5: Geometry and boundary conditions
4.2 Amplitude of the pressure and the velocity
The amplitude of the velocity in the x-direction, ux, and the pressure are depicted in
Figure 6. Positive and negative amplitude from the average value is equivalent for theentire portion. The velocity is especially large at both ends of the impermeable wall. Itchanges due to the frequency, particularly in the cavity. It initially increases with therise in frequency and subsequently decreases. The boundaries of the frequencies ascendand descend and are influenced by the hydraulic conductivity of the ground (see thenext section). The pressure gradient also decreases with an increase in frequency; thissuggests that high pressure remains in the cavity. The average velocity and pressure are
not affected much by the frequency, being similar to the value at f = 0(Hz).
k = 1.0×10-3 (m/s)

k = 1.0×10-2 (m/s)

Figure 6: Upper: velocity ux distributions, Lower: pressure distributions

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4.3 Seepage force
The dynamic seepage force is computed, as shown in Equation (18), by solving thepressure and surface friction of the soil particles. Details of the derivation are given in
Fujisawa et al. (2010)7). We focused on seepage force fx along x which is the principal
direction of seepage. It is separated into the pressure term and the velocity term for the
discussion. Figure 7 represents the average and the amplitude of fx on the cell located at
the end of the porous medium and contacting the fluid medium (0.349 < x < 0.35㸪
0.285 < y < 0.3), where the seepage force is most significant. The dotted line of theaverage fx is the value of f = 0 (Hz). The average fx increases slightly with the rise infrequency, but the influence of the frequency is very subtle. On the other hand, theamplitude of fx is attenuated with the rise in frequency and the attenuation is similar
between the pressure term and the velocity term. The attenuation of the twodimensional simulation is relatively proportional to K ' 1  Z 2 K '2 . u1D in the figure is atheoretical amplitude of the velocity for the one-dimensional seepage, as shown inEquation (16).

wp UO g

ui
wxi
k
wp
Pressure term:  1  O
wx ifi

(1  O )Velocity term:

(18)
(19a)

UOgui

(19b)

k

Average seepage force fx (kPa/m)

9
8
7

u1D

6
5
4
3

0.1

1

10

100

1000

Frequency (Hz)k = 1.0×10-2 m/s

f = 0 Hz

Total
Pressure
Velocity
Total
Pressure
Velocityk = 1.0×10-3 m/s

Total
Pressure
Velocity
Total
Pressure
Velocity

Figure 7: Seepage force (Left: average, Right: amplitude)
5. CONCLUSIONS
1. We proposed a dynamic seepage analysis applying the Darcy-Brinkman equations as
the governing equations. In addition, the Beavers-Joseph conditions were satisfied at
the interface of the porous and the fluid media.
2. The phase difference became larger and the amplitude of the velocity became
smaller due to the increase in frequency of the seepage pressure. This was also indicatedby the theoretical solutions for the one-dimensional seepage. The attenuation of
Influence of frequency characteristics of dynamic seepage flow in a porous medium containinga cavity Your paper title

465

October
2015,
Kathmandu,
Nepal
October2015,
Kathmandu,
Nepalvelocity was found to be proportional to K ' 1  Z 2 K '2 , which is capable of being applied
to a two-dimensional analysis including both porous and fluid domains. The amplitudeof the velocity and the seepage force was negligible for the high frequency range of theseepage. On the other hand, the amplitude of the pressure decreased with the rise infrequency, and high pressure remained in the pipes, which threatened to cause adecrease in the effective stress in the porous medium.
REFERENCES
1) Kuwahara, H., Nakazaki, A. and Tamai, S., 1988. Studies on the Seepage Force in a
Permeable Layer Around Coastal Dike: In the case of non-breaking waves, Journal for
Japan Society of Natural Disaster Science, 7(3), pp. 55-64. (in Japanese)2) Kuwano, R., Kohata, Y. and Sato, M., 2012. Case study of ground cave-in due tosubsurface erosion in old land fill, Proc. of 6th International Conference on Scour and
Erosion, pp. 56-62.
3) Mu, M. and Xu, J., 2007. A two-grid method of a mixed Stokes-Darcy model forcoupling fluid flow with porous media flow, SIAM J. Numer. Anal., Vol. 45, No. 5, pp.
1801–1813.
4) Fujisawa, K., Arimoto, S. and Murakami, A., 2013. Simultaneous computation ofincompressible and Darcy flows solving the Darcy-Brinkman equations. IDRE Journal,
Vol. 81, No. 5, pp. 35-44.
5) Kim, D. and Choi, H., 2000. A second-order time-accurate finite volume method for
unsteady incompressible flow on hybrid unstructured grids, Journal of Computational
Physics, Vol. 162, pp. 411-428.
6) Beavers, G.S. and Joseph, D.D., 1967. Boundary conditions at a naturally permeable
wall, Journal of Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 30, pp. 197-207.
7) Fujisawa, K., Nishimura, S., Nakatani, A. and Murakami, A., 2012. Velocity of Sand
Particles Transported by Upward Seepage Flow during Sand Boil. IDRE Journal, Vol.
80, No. 5, pp. 409-416.

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C

Bhaswati RAY1 and Rajib SHAW2
1
SivanathSastri College, University of Calcutta
Kolkata, India
bhaswati173@gmail.com
2
Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies,
Kyoto University, Japan
ABSTRACTOne fifth of the world's population currently live in regions affected by physical water
scarcity, economic water scarcity affects another one fourth. Increasing population, enhanced
per capita water use, climate change and allocations for water conservation are potential
threats to adequate water availability. With climate change producing variations in rainfall,these challenges would intensify. Like most Indian cities, Kolkata also faces severe water
stress under impacts of rapid urbanisation and expanding city size. With one of the oldest
water supply systems in India, the city suffers from inadequate zonal mains, old worn out
supply mains, low pressure of water supply and high leakage loss. The urban community isalready coping with inadequate and intermittent supply, low per capita availability,
inadequate coverage and dependence on ground water. No part of the city has 24 hours of
supply, exposing the water supply lines to sewage and other contaminants when pressure is
low and during hours of no supply. With widespread realisation of the significance of global
warming and climate change, urban communities are seeking resilience to existing and future
uncertainties in urban water supplies brought about by a combination of climate variability,and population growth. The challenge is to make cities resilient to future urban growth.
Keywords: urbanisation, water stress, community, sustainability, resilience. INTRODUCTION
Around one fifth of the world's population currently live in regions affected by physical water
scarcity, with inadequate water resources to meet total demand, including the water needed tofulfil the demand of ecosystems to function effectively (Watkins,.et.al. 2006). Economic
scarcity because of inadequate infrastructural facilities affects another one-fourth. With
climate change producing variations in rainfall, the challenges would intensify. Changes in
global and regional climates are projected to influence both the total amount and variation ofwater throughout the globe (Easterling et.al. 2000). Future climate scenarios suggest spatial
variation in precipitation responses (Giorgi and Bi, 2005), with altered water availability inmany regions. Changing climate would modify all elements of the water cycle. It may change
the timing and intensity of precipitation, snowmelt, and runoff (Vörösmarty et al., 2005).
With an increase in global temperatures and climatic variability, there is a higher risk of
migration inducing events, such as droughts, desertification, flooding, soil erosion, and the467

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepaltransmission of airborne diseases. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
has documented that the global climate is becoming warmer and wetter, and that precipitation
extremes as well as the severity of extreme events themselves are expected to increase
globally (IPCC, 1996; Matthews & Quesne, 2009). Megacities, defined as metropolitan areas
with a total population in excess of 10 million, are becoming focal points for climate change
impacts and mass urbanization, resulting in their growing vulnerability. According toconservative estimates, the annual migration to urban centres because of environmental
change currently totals 50 million people (Warner, 2010). Reasonable estimates by theInternational Organization for Migration suggest that the annual migration total could reach
200 million by 2050 (Warner 2010). Urban growth is most rapid in developing countries,
where cities gain an average of 5 million residents each month (United Nations Environment
Programme, 2011). Megacities and metacities – defined by UN Habitat as cities with morethan 10 million and 20 million inhabitants respectively – are increasing in Asia, Latin
America and Africa, spurred by economic development and increased population. Associatedwith rapid increases in urbanization is the growth of urban water uses, combined industrial
and domestic sectors (Falkenmark, 1998, Gleick, 2003 and Jury and Vaux, 2005).
Large cities are experiencing mass urbanization and increasing vulnerability to climate change
impacts, dual stresses that are unique to the 21st century. These stresses are putting pressure
on the ability of cities, primarily megacities in developing countries, to provide basic services
and support for their population. City infrastructure failed to keep pace with the massive
urban growth, leaving many without adequate access to drinking water and sanitation. Having
to rely on private vendors for their daily water supply, the urban poor pay up to 50 times more
for a litre of water than their richer neighbours (United Nations Environment Programme,2011).
With climate induced water shortage and rapid urbanization, ensuring sustainable supply ofwater for cities is of increasing concern (Lundqvist et al., 2005). A central component to theadopted international development goals, including the Millennium Development Goal, is to
reduce the share of population without adequate water and sanitation services (McGranahan etal., 2005). Sustainable urban-industrial growth across regions need to minimise the demandsupply gap of the carrying capacity differentials (Bishop. 1974) in urban infrastructure,through supply management with capacity building and demand management with rational
pricing of infrastructure and activity allocation strategies (Joardar, 1998).
Like most Indian cities, the megacity of Kolkata also faces severe water stress under impactsof rapid urbanisation and expanding city size. According to Census of India 2011, the city ofKolkata had 4.5 million residents while the population of the urban agglomeration was 14.1
million making it the third most populous megacity in our country. Kolkata Municipal
Corporation is responsible for water supply to Kolkata, though 30MGD is also supplied toMaheshtala and Pujali municipalities within the urban agglomeration.
The key objectives of this study are as follow:
x To study the evolution and current status of water supply in the city of Kolkata
x To understand community response to stresses in the water supply system
x To explore possibilities of building resilience in the urban water supply system of Kolkata
Following methodology was adopted for the study:
x Literature Survey: to understand the reasons for water stress under growing challengesof rapid urban growth and climatic variability.

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x
x
x
x

Secondary Data Collection: to review the historical background and current status ofwater supply in Kolkata
Structured Interview of governmental officials and local community: to review thecurrent status of water supply in Kolkata and its spatial variation
Questionnaire Survey at household level: to appreciate community response to water
stress in different parts of the city
Focussed Group Discussions: to explore challenges to building resilience in the urban
water supply system of the city

2. EVOLUTION OF THEEXISTING WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM OF KOLKATA
The city of Kolkata, known as Calcutta till 2001, has one of the oldest water supply systems
in India. In its earliest days, Kolkata was dependent on River Hooghly for its drinking watersupply. Having an aversion to polluted river water, the city’s European residents, in thistrading port of the East India Company since 1690, preferred rainwater stored in large jars.
But more substantial means of storage were needed as the city grew in size and importance.
Many public and private tanks were excavated to conserve monsoon rain. Lal Dighi, in thecity’s heritage hub at Dalhousie Square, was deepened and extended in 1709 to ensure a good
supply of water for the garrison at Fort William, around which colonial Kolkata later
developed. Between 1805 and 1836, the excavation of large water tanks in College Square,
Wellington Square and Wellesley Square, ensured water supply in colonial Kolkata.
It was only in 1820 that a small pumping station and a system of open masonry aqueducts wasconstructed (Dasgupta, 1991). In 1822, for a population of 2lakh, a pumping station wasconstructed at Chandpal Ghat. It lifted water from River Hugli into open masonry aqueduct todistribute the water by gravitation to parts of central Kolkata, including water for washingstreets and for fire fighting. Pumping stations operated for seven hours in a day, between 6a.m.
to 10.00 a.m. and between 4p.m. to 7p.m. By1870, most principal streets had access to pipedwater through 500 stand posts (Kolkata Water and Sanitation Authority).
In 1870, 6MGD plant was constructed at Palta with a 1MG reservoir & pumping station at
Tallah and another pumping station at Wellington Square. The residents obtained access tofiltered water supply with the per capita availability at 60litres per day. The site of the water
works 30km upstream at Palta, reduced the risk of contamination and diminished the presenceof tidal sea water. In 1888, three underground reservoirs were constructed for improved
distribution. The supply was, however, intermittent. From 1909 to 1914, capacity wasincreased at Palta and an elevated reservoir constructed at Tallah to ensure uninterrupted
supply. Continuous supply could not, however, be maintained due to wastage by consumers.
Although supply was being supplemented by groundwater sources, the latter hardly
compensated for the wastage up to 30% in the Palta network as estimated by Calcutta
Environmental Management Strategy and Action Plan in 1995. As worn distribution pipes
began to leak, they delivered a much lower volume of water to consumers in south Kolkata,
towards the limits of the supply system from Palta.After independence, production capacity ofPalta was increased to 120MGD and further to 160MGD in the year 1952. For a population of
2.70 million, per capita availability was more than 130litres per day.
3. CURRENT STATUS OF WATER SUPPLY IN THE MEGACITY OF KOLKATA
Community Response to Water Stress in the Megacity of Kolkata and Implications to Urban Resilience
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October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

River Hugli remains the main source of water supply for Kolkata. The water is treated at threemain water treatment plants. The oldest is the Indira Gandhi Water Treatment Plant ofcapacity 260MGD at Palta. Water from Palta is sent to Tallah pumping station for onward
distribution to the city through four zonal mains which feed a distribution network of 3,800
kilometres. The other water treatment plants include a 135MGD capacity plant at Garden
Reach and another one of 120MGD capacity at Dhapa, for the arsenic contaminated eastern
fringe area. Dhapa Water Treatment Plant now functions at 30MGD. Jorabagan andWattgunge have smaller plants of capacities with respective capacities of 8MGD and 5MGD
(Table 1). The total capacity of the water treatment plants in 2015 is 438MGD and supply tothe city is 315MGD. Power driven tube wells supply another 30MGD in areas not covered bysurface water supply. The average per capita availability of water is 130litres per day.
Table 1: Water Supply in the City of Kolkata
Location of Water Treatment Plant
Capacity (MGD) Supply (MGD) Remarks
Indira Gandhi Water Treatment Plant
260
200
Garden Reach Water Treatment Plant
120+ 15
82+15
Jorebagan
8
5 Treated
Wattgange
5
3 surface
water
Dhapa
30
10
Total
438
315
Groundwater
30
30
Total
468
345
Source: Kolkata Municipal Corporation, 201535 per cent of the total urban population, however, are not covered by municipal water supply.
Another 20-25 per cent is served by single tap connections in their houses. 8000 stand posts
provide water to40-50 per cent of the population living in slums or squatter colonies without
access to piped water.
Daily hours of supply vary between 6.5 hours in the city proper to 4.5 hours in the peripheral
areas (Table 2). Residents in most parts of the city, except the main city, have their own
ground water sources to supplement municipal water supply. Ground water is also the main
source of drinking water in areas proposed to be covered by Dhapa Water Works.
Table 2 Water Supply in the City of Kolkata
Area
Main city

Water Treatment Plant
Palta,
Jorabagan,
Wattgange
Southern fringe
Garden Reach
Eastern periphery
Dhapa
Uncovered by piped Ground water
water supply
Source: Kolkata Municipal Corporation, 2015

Supply Hours
3.5 hours in morning
3.0 hours in the afternoon and evening
3.0 hours in morning
1.5 hours in the afternoon

Questionnaire survey was conducted by the author at household level in 100 households fromeach of the three peripheral areas and from the central city to assess water stress and response

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ICUS Report 80of the community. The survey revealed that the hours of supply are low. The supply is also
highly erratic. In the south and east peripheral wards served respectively by Garden Reach
and Dhapa Water Works, the duration of supply is not more than 4 hours in a day. (Figure1).

3

2

4

hours of water supply

less than 2

57
29
14

4.5

18

6.5

54

8

21
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

% of surveyed households
peripheral wards
main city

Figure 1: Hours of Municipal Water Supply
The intermittent supply and the low pressure in supply mains to reduce leakage expose thewater supply system to contaminants.A survey, conducted by the Federation of Consumers
Association West Bengal and Better Business Bureau, found that 80 per cent of the 1,000
water samples collected from allmunicipal wards of the city contain E.coli (bacteria in faecal
matter), Salmonella (responsible for typhoid), Shigella (causes dysentery) and Vibrio (causescholera). Though chlorinating the water kills these microbes, not the slightest trace ofChlorine was found in even a single sample (The Telegraph, April 14, 2003). Ground water,on the other hand, exposes the population to arsenic contamination and salinity
Kolkata Municipal Corporation’s recovery of operational costs, at only 15 %, is one of thelowest among Indian cities (McKenzie & Ray, 2009). With under pricing of supply,
overstaffing in the corporation and the high levels of unaccounted for water, the corporation
can hardly cover maintenance costs or provide capital for network improvement. The policyof not pricing water for domestic use, has earned the authorities criticism for promoting
wastage (ADB, 2007, McKenzie & Ray, 2009).
4. COMMUNITY RESPONSE TO WATER STRESSIn spite of its favourable hydrological setting with the River Hugli on one side and extensive
ground water reserves, large parts of Kolkata suffer from inadequate municipal supply. Major
deficiencies in respect of water service delivery include intermittent supply, inadequate
pressure, high leakage loss and dependence on groundwater (Majumdar & Gupta,
2007).Though the average performance of the water supply subsector in terms of coverage,
supply amount and hours supply is above the national average, variations exist within theCommunity Response to Water Stress in the Megacity of Kolkata and Implications to Urban Resilience
Community response to water stress in the megacity of kolkataand implications to urban resilience
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October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepalcity(Table 3). No part of the city receives 24 hours of supply, exposing the water supply lines
to sewage and contaminants when pressure is low and during hours of no supply. In theabsence of metered domestic connections, cost recovery is only 15 %, one of the lowest
among Indian cities.
Table 3: Urban Service Delivery Status in Different Areas of KMC
Area

Population%

Coverage%

Litres/capita/day

Hour

National average81
All KMC area
92
Central69
100
East peripheral
6
76West peripheral
745South peripheral
18
83
Source: Kolkata Municipal Corporation. 2011

123
134
146
109
120
120

4
8
9
6
6
6

meteredconnections
%
25
0.1
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.

To cope with theerratic and short duration supply, the residents have opted for a dual water
system where municipal water supply is supplemented by alternate sources including groundwater (Figure 2). The central city is better served and most households depend on municipal
water supply. Earlier, the high pressure of supply allowed individuals to lift enough water toindividual overhead tanks to ensure 24 hours of supply. In an attempt to minimise leakage
from the supply mains, the pressure is now reduced making it difficult to lift water for storage.
Only 18 percent of the surveyed households in central city reported water availability to be
sufficient for 24 hours when stored in overhead tanks during hours of supply. Many
households, without individual connection, buy the municipal supply water from the waterman, an indication of their willingness to pay for potable water and hence for water metering.
The eastern peripheral wards, without piped water supply, depend primarily on ground waterwith arsenic above permissible limit. Infact over greater part of Kolkata, ground water sources
supplement the inadequate municipal supply resulting in sinking reserves with excessive
withdrawal.

% of surveyed households

100

92

80

46

60

31

40

6

20
0

Municipal
supply39

4municipal
municipal
supply andsupply and
Ground water
water man
Source of Drinking Water
main city
peripheral wards

only groundwater

Figure 2: Source of Drinking Water in Kolkata
The city also suffers from inadequate zonal mains and old dilapidated networks, leading tohigh transmission and distribution losses to the tune of 30 per cent. The existing stand posts

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ICUS Report 80

add to the wastage as 60 per cent of the water from stand posts is never utilised and there isback flow of water during hours of no supply in the service main. But the stand posts are an
integral part of the city, being the main and often the only source of water for the poor.
Habitations and economies have emerged around these water sources. Families have installedshelters (which often double as vending spaces). Tea stalls and street kitchens cluster aroundthese points as washing utensils are easier, increasing the risk of contamination.
5. IMPLICATIONS TO URBAN RESILIENCE
The challenge facing mankind is to make cities resilient to future urban growth and ecologicaldegradation. With origin in ecological sciences, resilience is considered as the capacity toabsorb external shocks without significant deformation (Cutter et.al. 2008). It refers to urban
systems bouncing back to equilibrium in the aftermath of shocks such as natural disasters aswell as the adaptive capacities of systems to long-term stressors or shifts such as climatechange (Leichenko, 2011; Lankao and Qin, 2011:). The broader socio-ecological notion
focuses on learning, innovation, adaptive capacity and transformation (Folke, 2006). With thewidespread realisation of the significance of global warming and climate change, urban
communities are seeking resilience to existing and future uncertainties in urban water supplies
brought about by a combination of climate variability, population growth and climate change(Wong and Brown, 2009).The Water Provision Resilience was thus developed for urban water
system. Built on the ‘percent of the population with access to safe water’ the indicators
evaluate the ability of an urban water system to maintain or improve the current level andquality of access over the next 50 years (Milman and Short, 2008).Critical aspects of urban
water supply systems that impact water system resilience include supply, finances,infrastructure, service provision, water quality and governance (Milman and Short, 2008).
A resilient water supply system in the city of Kolkata should address governance issues andclimatic variability. Aiming to increase coverage and per capita supply, immediate measureswould be to increase the number and efficiency of booster pumping stations, revamping thezonal mains, controlling the backflow from stand posts, providing piped water supply to theurban poor and managing demand. The long term measures would be to discontinue the use ofstand posts, shift to surface water, increase capacity of treatment plants, recharge groundwater and undertake rainwater harvesting at institutions and residential complexes, aim at cost
recovery through domestic water meters and resource mobilisation.
6. CONCLUSION
The Kolkata Municipal Corporation is already into implementing many of the suggested
interventions that would determine the resilience of the water supply system. It includes
increasing the supply and coverage through the seven upcoming and two proposed booster
pumping stations. In its Vision 2025 the Kolkata Municipal Corporation aims to replaceground water by surface water supply for the entire city. Charging for domestic water supply
and demand management options would increase urban resilience through awareness building.
Ground water recharge is recommended, to increase the adaptive capacity, for a more resilient
water supply system.
REFERENCES
Asian Development Bank (2007) Benchmarking and data book of water utilities in India
Community Response to Water Stress in the Megacity of Kolkata and Implications to Urban Resilience
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October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

Bishop, A. B. (1974). Carrying capacity in regional environmental management (Vol. 1). For
sale by the Supt. of Docs., US Govt. Print. Off.
Cutter, S. L., Barnes, L., Berry, M., Burton, C., Evans, E., Tate, E., & Webb, J. (2008). A
place-based model for understanding community resilience to natural disasters. Global
Environmental Change, 18(4), 598-606.
Dasgupta, B. (1991). Calcutta's urban future: agonies from the past and prospects for the
future. South Asia Books.
Easterling, D. R., Meehl, G. A., Parmesan, C., Changnon, S. A., Karl, T. R., & Mearns, L. O.
(2000). Climate extremes: observations, modeling, and impacts. Science,289(5487), 20682074.
Falkenmark., M. (1998) Preparing for the future: water for a growing population. Journal of
Water Services Research and Technology-Aqua, 47 (4), 161–166
Folke, C. (2006). Resilience: The emergence of a perspective for social–ecological systems
analyses. Global Environmental Change, 16(3), 253-267.
Giorgi, F., & Bi, X. (2005) Regional changes in surface climate interannual variability for the
21st century from ensembles of global model simulations. Geophysical Research Letters,
32(13).
Gleick, P. H. (2003) Water use. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 28, 275–314
IPCC. 1996. The science of climate change. Climate change 1995, 572 .
Joardar, S. D. (1998). Carrying capacities and standards as bases towards urban infrastructure
planning in India: a case of urban water supply and sanitation. Habitat International, 22(3),327-337.
Jury, W. A., & Vaux, H. (2005). The role of science in solving the world's emerging water
problems. Proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the United States of America,
102(44), 15715-15720.
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Metropolitan
Water
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Sanitation
Authority,
West
Bengal;http://www.kmwsa.gov.in/
Leichenko, R. (2011). Climate change and urban resilience. Current Opinion in
Environmental Sustainability, 3(3), 164–168.
Lundqvist, J. Tortajada, C. Varis,O. Biswas, A. (2005) Water management inmegacities.Ambio, 34(3), 267-268
Majumdar, C. & Gupta, G. (2007). The debate over municipal water pricing: evidence from
Kolkata, India. Water Resources Development, 23(4), 571-582
Matthews, J., Quesne, T. (2009). Adapting Water Management - A primer on coping withclimate change. WWF Water Security Series 3.
McKinsey, D. & Ray, L. (2009) Urban water supply in India: status, reform options andpossible lessons. Water Policy, 11(4), 442 - 460
Milman, A., & Short, A. (2008). Incorporating resilience into sustainability indicators: An
example for the urban water sector. Global Environmental Change, 18(4), 758-767
Lankao, P. R., & Qin, H. (2011). Conceptualizing urban vulnerability to global climate andenvironmental change. Current opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 3(3), 142-149.
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emerging water stress: an application to Africa. Ambio 34(3), 230-236.
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Warner, K. (2010). Global environmental change and migration: governance challenges,
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Building Damage due to 2013 Typhoon Yolanda
in Basey, the Philippines
1

2

Osamu MURAO
Professor, IRIDeS, Tohoku University, Japanmurao@irides.tohoku.ac.jp

Takuma USUDA
Graduate Student, School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Japan
3

Kazuya SUGIYASU
Assistant Professor, IRIDeS, Tohoku University, Japan

3

Kazumasa HANAOKA
Assistant Professor, IRIDeS, Tohoku University, Japan

ABSTRACT
Typhoon Yolanda (Haiyan) widely affected urban areas in Philippines. It damaged
3,42 households (161 million people) with 6,300 casualties and 1,061 missing in thePhilippines as of April 17. The total number of damaged buildings became 1,084,762:
heavily 489,613 and moderately 595,149 (NDRRMC, 2014).
This paper analyzes building damage due to the typhoon and tidal wave based on thefield surveys conducted by the authors in Basey, the Province of Samar Island, referring
to building damage dataset provided by JICA.
Based on a data-set of building damage investigated by JICA, the relationship between
building damage mainly caused by tidal wave and the distance from the coastline wasclarified, and a building vulnerability function was obtained.

Keywords: super typhoon, storm surge, land use regulation, logistic regression,
Typhoon Haiyan

1. INTRODUCTION
The 2013 Typhoon Yolanda (Haiyan) widely affected approximately 3.42 million
households (161 million people) with 6,300 casualties and 1,061 missing in thePhilippines. It damaged 1,084,762 buildings in the country including heavily 489,613
and moderately 595,149 (NDRRMC, 2014). The authors investigated building damage
in Basey, a province of Samar Island, twice in February and December 2015. This
paper analyzes building damage due to the typhoon and tidal wave based on the fieldsurveys and a building damage dataset provided by Japan International Cooperation
Agency (JICA).
The purpose of this research is to clarify the relationship between the building damage
and building characteristics (structural type, stories, outer walls, and location) in Basey.
The following procedure was conducted to this end.

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October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
October
2015, Kathmandu, Nepal(1) At first, the authors carried out two field surveys to collect building damage data,
which contains structural types, stories, and material of outer walls, in Basey in
February and in December 2014. This building damage data (hereinafter the fieldsurvey data) was used for an analysis later.
(2) Apart from the field survey data, the authors were provided another set of building
damage data by Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) (herein after the JICA
data), which includes location of the buildings, namely the distance from the coastline.
Based on the JICA data, a relationship between building damage due to the tidal wave
and the distance from the coastline is analyzed.
(3) Thirdly, the field survey data is arranged to understand the tendency of building
damage and building characteristics.
(4) Finally, a relationship between building damage conditions and building
characteristics is evaluated, and impact of parameters on the building damage isassessed with logistic regression analysis.

2. BUILDING DAMAGE OVERVIEW AND FIELD SURVEYS IN BASEY
2.1 Damage conditions in Basey
Basey is a municipality of 50,423 population (as of 2012) located in Samar Island, theopposite shore of Tacloban City, which was the mostly devastated by Typhoon Yolanda
in the country, as shown in Figure 1. It is one of the oldest cities in the country, and its
name “basey” originates from “beauty.” According to information provided by themunicipality in the field survey, The 2013 Typhoon Yolanda killed 235 people
including missing person and damaged 12,223 buildings; heavily 489,613, andmoderately 595,149. Especially many barracks were damaged by the tidal wave.

Figure 1: Location of Basey and the course of Typhoon Yolanda

2.2 Field surveys in Basey
The authors carried out two field surveys in Basey on 19 and 20 in February and on 18
and 19 in December. The purpose was to understand the damage condition of Baseyand to collect building inventory data. Not getting available official digital base map,
we used Open Street Map for the first survey. In order to record on-site information of478

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ICUS Report 80

buildings along the street, we basically used a driving recorder equipping GPS andcamera.

3. BUILDING DAMAGE ANALYSIS BASED ON JICA DATA
3.1 Building damage data surveyed by JICA
This chapter analyzes building damage due to tidal waves with a building damage
dataset provided by JICA. The building damage data has building damage level andlocations, on which the analysis of relationship between building damage and the
distance from coastline was based. Table 1 shows criterion for damage interpretation
for the JICA survey and the number of buildings. Building damage level itself isclassified into four levels, but actual damage was assessed into only two levels:
moderately affected and totally affected.
Table 1: Criterion for damage interpretation for the JICA survey and the number ofbuildings
Level Definition1
Not affected2
Moderately affected
3
Highly affected
4
Totally affected
Total

Number
0
944
0
338
1,282

3.2 Building damage analysis based on JICA data
The Buildings judged as level 4 (totally affected) were located in front of the ocean andwere mainly collapsed by the tidal wave caused by Typhoon Yolanda. The otherbuildings judged as level 2 (moderately affected) were mostly located in the blocks
inland. The two-level classification is useful to assess the building damage condition
caused by tidal wave. The relationship between building damage and the distance fromcoastline is analyzed.
Figure 2 shows the building damage and distance from the coastline in Basey withequidistance lines, and Figure 3 indicates the number of damaged buildings according to
the distance from the coastline/river in Basey. As abovementioned, these figuresdemonstrate that there were many buildings washed away or collapsed by the tidal wave
near by coastline.
Here, the building damage ratio is defined as the ratio of the buildings judged as level 4
per the total number of buildings in each buffer shown in Figure 2. Figure 4 shows therelationship between the damage ratio of buildings and the distance from thecoastline/river in Basey.

Building Damage due to 2013 Typhoon Yolanda in Basey, the Philippines
Building Damage due to 2013 Typhoon Yolanda in Basey, the Philippines

479

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

海岸線からの距離(m)0~10m
10~20m

80~90m20~30m90~100m

JICA被害調査

30~40m100~110m

Level2
Lev

40~50m110~120m

50~60m120~130m

60~70m130~140m

70~80m140~150m

Lev
Level4 m

Figure 2: Building damage and distance from the coastline in Basey        



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

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











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    

Figure 3: The number of damaged buildings according to the distance from thecoastline/river in Basey

480

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

ICUS Report 80!

     .) $    ( !

   

' 
& 
% 

0# !" /!%%'%
*0 )(%

$ 
# 
" 
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# 

$ 

% 

& 

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) 

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Figure 4: Relationship between damage ratio of buildings and the distance from thecoastline/river in Basey
It shows a tendency that the building damage ratio is gradually decreasing from coast
areas to inland. The national government establishes “no build zone,” namely 40m
buffer zone from the coastline in which building construction is limited (Photo 1), basedon PD1067 (NEDA, 2013). Figure 4 implies an adequacy of the 40m buffer zone, inwhich the building ratio is more than 40%.

Photo 1: No build zone” in coastal area
The approximate curve was obtained from Figure 4 by logarithmic approximation as
Equation (1). This equation quantitatively indicate the relationship between thebuilding damage due to tidal wave and the distance from the coastline in Basey.
DR (x) = -0.30 ln (x) + 1.56

(1)in which DR (x) is the building damage ratio in a buffer zone of distance x.

Building Damage due to 2013 Typhoon Yolanda in Basey, the Philippines

Building Damage due to 2013 Typhoon Yolanda in Basey, the Philippines

481

October
2015,
Kathmandu,
Nepal
October2015,
Kathmandu,
Nepal



4. CONCLUSION
2013 Typhoon Yolanda (Haiyan) widely affected urban areas in the Philippines.
Buildings damage caused by the typhoon in Basey Municipality was analyzed in thispaper. Based on a data-set of building damage investigated by JICA, the relationshipbetween building damage mainly caused by tidal wave and the distance from thecoastline was clarified, and a building vulnerability function was obtained.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS)
through the Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research No. 23404019 “Examination of
Urban Recovery Plans after the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami and Urban Risk Evaluationof Tsunami in Asia Influenced by Global Warming.” I would like to give special thanks
to the Municipality of Basey, residents in Basey, JICA who provided the important
dataset of building damage to IRIDeS, and Prof. Minai at Japan Women’s University
who supported the first field survey.

REFERENCES
Municipality of Basey: Reconstruction Assistance on Yolanda (Ray) –Build Back Better
Basey, 2014
National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council (NDRRMC): NDRRMC
Update re the Effects of Typhoon  Yolanda  (Haiyan), 17 April 2014,
http://ndrrmc.gov.ph/attachments/article/1329/Update_on_Effects_Typhoon_YOL
ANDA_(Haiyan)_17APR2014.pdf(accessed on May 2, 2014), 2014.4
National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA), Republic of the Philippines:
Reconstruction
Assistanceon
YolandaBuild
Back
Better,http://www.neda.gov.ph/?p=1921 (accessed on April 6, 2014), 2013.12

482

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Urban
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Cities in Asia
New Technologies
for Urbanfor
Safetyof Safety
Mega Cities
in Asia

Analysis of vehicle running on elevated expressways
during earthquake
Rishi Ram PARAJULI1, Junji KIYONO2 and Hitoshi YATSUMOTO3
1
Dept. of Urban Management, Graduate School of Eng., Kyoto University
Kyoto, Japan, parajuli.ram.27z@st.kyoto-u.ac.jp
2
Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto University
3
Hanshin Expressways Company Limited
ABSTRACT
Expressways, main city links of road transport is dominant in Japan as like other developed
countries where we need to deploy safety measures for users during earthquake. Mega cities shouldhave to cater traffic with elevated city expressways. Viaducts, bridges structures are prone toearthquake, along with structure, driving through elevated roads are also subjected to certain levelof risk during shaking. As local site effect of soil leads to different response of ground motion insurface; we should consider local effect of earthquake motion in structures. Bridge model is taken
as 1320m long cable stayed bridge, nodal response are recorded after analysis with input ofJapanese Road Associations design ground motion of level two. Vehicles are modeled, considering
six degree of freedom with considering translational and rotational motion; in one way road of twolanes with speed of average 80 and 100 kmph. Each vehicle is subjected to an individual groundmotion that depends on speed and location. In this study, the ground motions for individual vehicle
from bridge response were obtained using the Lagrange three-point interpolation of nodal
responses. Seismic response analysis of vehicles was performed and presented the result for avehicle with speed of 101 kmph.
Keywords: seismic response analysis, vehicle model, city expressways, ground motion interpolation
1.

INTRODUCTION

Driving through highways during earthquake shaking tends to high risk of accidents with loss ofcontrol to steering by drivers even though they may not recognize the ground motion in moderatelevel of earthquake. Risk of structural collapse with high intensity of earthquake is another factor.
As discussed by (Kawashima, Sugita, & Kanoh, 1989), about effect of earthquake on drivers fromquestionnaire survey found that, about fifty percent of drivers felt earthquake vibration due tounusual behavior of vehicle and movements of surroundings. Seismic response of running vehicles(Maruyama & Yamazaki, 2002) were analyzed for road considering constant speed and same input
ground motion for all vehicles even with different speed. This analysis only concentrated for roadsurface that goes through ground.
Hanshin expressway in Japan is of total about 200 km in length (Kitada, Maekawa, Nakamura, &Horie, 2000) comprises of total 93.1% of steel and concrete bridges, another 5.6% of road surface
and 1.3% of tunnel structures standing to complete the network. Earthquake ground motion that
propagates through the surface of earth will be different in the road surface where it passes via
bridges or viaducts depending on properties of structures which have directly or indirectly influence
on response of bridge. The response of the bridge structures will be the earthquake motion that
Analysis of vehicle running on elevated expressways during earthquake483

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

vehicles feel actually during earthquake when they move through elevated structures. Seismic
response analysis of vehicle considering earthquake ground motion is not enough explaining the real
scenario in case of bridges.
We are considering a cable stayed, symmetrical bridge having total length of1320 m. Dynamic
analysis of bridge with input ground motion in base of piers had given nodal acceleration response
in bridge deck. Interpolation of nodal acceleration for each vehicle in each time step of calculation
gives input ground motion for each vehicle which depends on the location of vehicle (Parajuli,
Kiyono, & Yatsumoto, 2015). Seismic response analysis of vehicle had performed with modellingof vehicle in six degree of freedom. Equation of motion was used as basic equation for analysis. We
also considered longitudinal, transverse and vertical displacements along with pitching, rolling andyawing motions as rotations in three directions. Forces acting on tyres were calculated using Magic
Formula Model (MFM) (Pacejka, 2006). MFM coefficient were taken from literature (Alagappan,Rao, & Kumar, 2014) using trust region reflective method algorithm. Flow chart of the analysis isshown in figure 1.
Initialization of parameters

Ground Motion Allocation

Considering 2DOF for tyre andCar mass

UD Response of Car

Vertical load in Each tyre
Horizontal loads in each tyreusing MFM
Slip Angle and Slip Ratio
Yaw Angular Velocity

Horizontal Response of Car

In Each Time Step

Lagrange 3 point Interpolation

New Position of Car

Seismic Response of Car
Figure 1 Flow chart of analysis
2.

BRIDGE MODELLING

A cable stayed symmetrical bridge of total length 1320 m was modeled with nodal distance of 5 m
between central three nodes and mostly 15 m in rest of part except two nodal distances of 7.5m inboth side near short piers in between long and edge piers. Central span of bridge is 580m long withthree columns in each side as shown in figure one. Total numbers of nodes in bridge deck level are
ninety-one. Analysis was performed using commercial software Forum 8, Engineering Studio.
Dynamic analysis of bridge with input ground motion as shown in figure 2, in base of piers givenodal acceleration response. Nodal response accelerations of bridge model were later used indetermination of earthquake motion for analysis of vehicle behavior.

484

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ICUS Report 80

Figure 2 Bridge modelp

Acceleration (m/sec2)

10
5
0
-5
-10

0

2

4

6

8

10
Time (Sec)

12

14

16

18

20

Figure 3 Input ground motion
3.

INTERPOLATION OF EARTHQUAKE MOTION

Speed and starting location of vehicle varies in each case for multiple vehicle analysis, which leadto variation of real exciting earthquake motion depends on the response of bridge where the vehicle
stands in that particular time. Hence to find out the real earthquake motion for running vehicle, we
use interpolation of bridge response by considering three points around the location of vehicle. We
use Lagranges’ interpolation, considering the known three points (nodes), could find new value for
new location with in this range. This form of interpolation is suitable in case of cubic or squareparabolic functions. Lagrange’s form of polynomial interpolation is combination of linear functions.
In our case as nodal distances are maximum of 15 meters and the relation of data within three points(45 m) are seemed square parabolic functions, three point interpolation had chosen. We had checked
the plot of relation of acceleration with location in some time steps, that shows there is no any sharpor uneven changes, it has square parabolic functions. Three points interpolation using Lagranges
interpolation of (x0, y0), (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) for x0 ≤ x ≤ x2 is given by equation 1 and 2.
௡‫ܮ‬ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ෍ ‫ݕ‬௞ ݈௞ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ‫ ݊ݎ݋ܨ‬൅ ͳ݀ܽ‫ܽݐ‬ሺͳሻ௞ୀ଴୩ ሺሻ ൌሺ െ ୩ିଵ ሻ ሺ െ ୩ାଵ ሻሺ െ ୬ ሻሺ െ Ͳሻǥǥǥ ǥሺʹሻሺ୩ െ ୩ିଵ ሻ ሺ୩ െ ୩ାଵ ሻሺ୩ െ ୬ ሻሺ୩ െ ͲሻAnalysis of vehicle running on elevated expressways during earthquake
Analysis of vehicle running on elevated expressways during earthquake

485

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

4.

VEHICAL MODELLING

We defined three translational motions ad longitudinal, transverse and vertical with three rotationalrolling, pitching and yawing motions as shown in Figure 4. Vehicle model parameters were chosenfrom data provided for Honda civic. Mass of each tyre taken as 100 kg, mass of body is 1100 kg.
Distance of front drive axel and rare drive axel from CG is taken as 1000 and 1635 mm respectively.
Height of CG from ground level is 350 mm where distance between right and left tyre is 1505 mm.
Spring and damping coefficients between tyre and surface are 800 kn/m and 0.098 kn-s/m, whereassame for suspension of vehicle are 70 kn/m and 4.9 kn-s/m respectively.
(a)

(b)

Figure 4 Vehicle model (a) Fundamental motions of vehicle (b) Geometric parameters of vehicle in
X-Y plane
5.

ANALYSIS

Seismic response of vehicle model calculated in each time step. Newmark method was used for
integration of ground motion with beta and gamma value of 1/6 and 1/2, as linear acceleration
method. Equation (3) and (4) are equations of motion used in analysis, corresponding to x and y
direction respectively. Here “i” represent front or rear and “j” represents right or left tyre, μis
frictional coefficient between car tyre and road surface considering dry and clean surfaces taken as
0.72. Vertical motion of vehicle was calculated by using quarter vehicle model, four tyre models
with spring and dashpots connection with ground and one car mass modeled with spring and dashpot
over tyre. Input earthquake acceleration was calculated by interpolation of nodal responses aroundthe location of vehicle in each time step, which depends on speed and location of vehicle. Forceacting on each tyre of vehicle, longitudinal and transverse along with self-aligning moment wascalculated by using Magic Formula Model (MFM) as equation (5) - (7) considering pure slip
condition, the situation when either longitudinal or lateral slip occurs in isolation defined as pureslip condition. MFM coefficients were used from TRR algorithm, that found best in compare withseveral algorithms (Alagappan et al., 2014). Ten sets of vehicles are used in analysis, five in eachlane with different speeds. Two vehicles with speed of 77 and 101 kmph are considering to show
the result for interpolated ground motion. Seismic response of vehicle are calculated without
considering the driver’s behavior, hence the condition of analysis is free flow of a vehicle without
driver. Human behavior of driving will consider in near future.

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ଶ ൫ሶ െ  ൅ ሷ ȯ ൅ ሷȯ൯ ൌ ෍ ෍ሺ ୶୧୨  ț୲୧୨ െ
୧

୨

୧

୨

ଶ ൫ሶ ൅  െ ሷȯ ൅ ሷ ȯ൯ ൌ ෍ ෍ሺ ୶୧୨ ț୲୧୨ െ͛୷୧୨ ț୲୧୨ ൌ ෍ ୶୧୨ െ ȣሺ͵ሻ୧ǡ୨͛୷୧୨  ț୲୧୨ ൌ ෍ ୷୧୨ െ ȣሺͶሻ୧ǡ୨ሺሻ ൌ  ሾ  ሼ െ ሺ െ  ሺሻሻሽሿሺͷሻሺሻ ൌ ሺሻ ൅  ୴ ሺ͸ሻ ൌ  ൅  ୦ ሺ͹ሻ

6.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Figure 5 (a) and (b) show the earthquake acceleration that that two vehicles running in speed of 77
and 101 kmph get excitation respectively. Figure in left shows acceleration and corresponding
Fourier spectrum in right. Both of the accelerogram seems different from input ground motion forbridge which will be same when vehicle running in the surface road. Most importantly, accelerations
for running vehicles depends on speed as in these figures we clearly see that high frequency isdominant for low speed of 77 kmph and higher for 101 kmph. Hence seismic response analysis ofrunning vehicle over the bridge must consider the real exciting earthquake motion which can getfrom interpolation of response of bridge structures.
(a)

0

10

5

0

-5
0

5

10

15

20

(b)
5

Fourier Amplitude

Acceleration (m/sec2)

-5

10

0

10
0

10

0
-5

10

-5
0

5

10

Time (Sec)

15

20

0

10

Frequency (Hz)Figure 5 Earthquake acceleration and Fourier transform for vehicle with speed (a) 77 kmph and (b)101 kmph
Seismic response of vehicle in lateral direction is more critical that cause instability of steering.
Longitudinal response of bridge itself is not that sufficient to excite the vehicle, the speed of vehicle
itself has much higher values so we are focusing on lateral lateral response. Lateral acceleration,
velocity, displacement and yaw angular velocities for the vehicle with speed of 101 kmph is shown
in figure 6 (a), (b), (c) and (d) respectively.
Analysis of vehicle running on elevated expressways during earthquake

487

October
2015,2015,
Kathmandu,
NepalNepal
October
Kathmandu,


(b)

(a)
Velocity(m/sec)

5
0
-5

0

5

10

15

20

Displacement(m)

(c)
0
-5
-10

0

5

10
Time (sec)15

20

Yaw Velocity(rad/sec)

Acceleration (m/sec2)


2
0
-2

0

5

10

15

20

15

20

(d)

0.02
0
-0.02

0

5

10
Time (sec)Figure 6 Response of vehicle (a) Lateral acceleration (b) Lateral Velocity (c) Lateraldisplacement (d) Yaw angular velocity
7.

REFERENCES

Alagappan, a. V., Rao, K. V. N., & Kumar, R. K. (2014). A comparison of various algorithms to
extract Magic Formula tyre model coefficients for vehicle dynamics simulations. Vehicle
System Dynamics, 53(2), 154–178. doi:10.1080/00423114.2014.984727
Kawashima, K., Sugita, H., & Kanoh, T. (1989). Effect of earthquake on driving of vehicle basedon questionnaire survey.pdf. Structural Eng./Earthquake Eng., 6(2), 405–412.
Kitada, T., Maekawa, Y., Nakamura, I., & Horie, Y. (2000). A Bridge Management System for
Elevated Steel Highways. Computer-Aided Civil and Infrastructure Engineering, 15, 147–
157.
Maruyama, Y., & Yamazaki, F. (2002). Seismic response analysis on the stability of runningvehicles. Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics, 31(11), 1915–1932.
doi:10.1002/eqe.195
Pacejka, H. B. (2006). Tyre and Vehicle Dynamics. Materials & Mechanical. doi:10.1016/B978075066918-4/50011-3
Parajuli, R. R., Kiyono, J., & Yatsumoto, H. (2015). Determination of Earthquake Motion For
Vehicle Response Analysis on Highway Bridge. In EIT-JSCE Joint International Symposiumon International Human Resource Development for Disaster-Resilient Countries (Vol. 1, pp.
1–4).

488

New Technologies
for Urban
of Mega
New Technologies
for Urban
SafetySafetyof Mega
Cities Cities
in Asiain Asia

Ò±²óÍ¬®«½¬«®¿´ Ê«´²»®¿¾·´·¬§ Ó·¬·¹¿¬·±² ·² Ø±­°·¬¿´ ¿²dÛ¨°»®·»²½» ·² Î»½»²¬ Ó»¼·«³ ×²¬»²­·¬§ Û¿®¬¸¯«¿µ»
Dev Kumar MAHARJAN , Hima SHRESTHA and Ramesh GURAGAIN
Earthquake Engineer, National Society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal, Nepal
dmaharjan@nset.org.np
Director, Earthquake Engineering Research and Training, National Society for Earthquake
Technology-Nepal, Nepal
Deputy Executive Director, National Society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal, Nepal
ABSTRACT
Hospitals is one of the most critical facility that needs to be functional during and after thelarge earthquake. Non-structural elements like equipment and contains covers 80% ofconstruction cost in Hospitals. Generally, non-structural damage occurs even in medium
intensity earthquake. The damage in non-structural element not only cause huge monitory
loss but also affects in the functionality of the hospital. The hospital cannot provide its
services even after medium intensity earthquake if non-structural element are not functional.
Therefore, authors think the non-structural vulnerability reduction is necessary to makehospitals functional aftermath of earthquake and is not costly. Each non-structural element
first has to be identified as a potential threat in terms of loss of life, property and /or function
and the appropriate measures must be identified to reduce or eliminate the risk. The risk
reduction option might be different for each individual components. Authors present here theappropriate technology in local context for non-structural vulnerability reduction throughthis paper. The following reduction measures are identified: removal, relocation, andanchorage, hooking/chaining, strapping, provision of flexible connections in rigid joints,
support and modification (plastic lamination in glass panel). Locally available gadgets canbe used for different types of reduction measures. Most items can be fabricated in local
market using locally available expertise. Authors also present some of the major lessons learn
during the implementation of the non-structural mitigation options in different hospitals in
Nepal and documented the experience in recent earthquake of M7.8 Gorkha Earthquake onthApril 2015 at 11:56AM local time. Most part of the Kathmandu Valley was shaken at
medium intensity due to this earthquake.
Keywords: non-structural element, non-structural vulnerability, risk reduction measures,
appropriate technology, medium intensity489

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

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New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Evaluation of evacuation method throughthe pedestrian crowd evacuation simulation-Case study for Adachi-ku Senju district inTokyoKoji OGINO1, Kazuyuki TAKADA2, Tomohisa YAMASHITA3, Miho OHARA4
and Makoto FUJIU5
1
Undergraduate Student, Tokyo Denki University, Japan
2
Professor, Tokyo Denki University, Japan
takada@g.dendai.ac.jp
3
Senior Researcher, Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Japan
4
Senior Researcher, Public Works Research Institute(PWRI), Japan, Japan
5
Assistant Professor, Kanazawa University, Japan
ABSTRACTIn this study, Adachi-ku Senju district in Tokyo was selected as an investigated district
because this district has been designated by the Tokyo Metropolitan Government as anarea having high fire and flood risks. Questionnaire survey was conducted for the
residents in this district to collect data on level of recognitions about disaster damage
estimates and recommended evacuation method. Moreover, stated-preference fordisaster evacuation was also investigated. The obtained stated-preference data wasutilized to estimate model describing citizen's disaster evacuation behavior that wasformulated by nested-logit mode with three hierarchies. First hierarchy isevacuation/no evacuation choice behavior, second hierarchy is vertical/horizontal
evacuation choice behavior and third hierarchy is evacuation place choice behavior.
The evacuation behavior model was estimated by maximum likelihood estimation
method and it was utilized to forecast the number of evacuee under certain disastersituation such as outbreak of the earthquake disaster and imminence of flood. Level ofsafety of evacuation method was evaluated using the pedestrian crowd evacuation
simulation built in this study. The safety of each evacuation method was verified interms of evacuation completion time, the risk of encountering danger during evacuationsuch as approaching to fire spot, walking in excessively crowded space, collision offalling object caused by aftershock, walking in inundated area, and etc.. It is expectedthat the results of this study is utilized as basic information to examine the safer
evacuation method of the investigated district.
Keywords: evacuation behavior model, stated preference, nested-logit model,
pedestrian crowd simulation
1. INTRODUCTION
Four years have passed since the Great East Japan Earthquake of March 11, 2011 whichbrought serious damage in the Tohoku district. Previous disaster prevention measures
were reviewed and the actions to reduce disaster damage is progressed. In addition, the491

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correspondence to the complex disaster also is to be considered. Senju district in
Adachi-ku is focused on in this study since this district is evaluated by the national andlocal organizations to be high-risk of the different disaster such as earthquake and flood.
According to the Seventh Community Earthquake Risk Assessment Study by the Tokyo
Metropolitan Government, this districts is appointed to the area with high combined riskof building-collapse and fire due to earthquakes. In addition, the Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure and Transport shows that there is an area flooded more than 5m in this
district when Arakawa overflowed.
As described above, there are many problems for disaster reduction in this district.
Therefore, this study research on the disaster evacuation of the residents in this district.
Evacuation behavior model was built and the number of evacuee was estimated under
the different disaster situations. Moreover, the evacuation safety is evaluated by using apedestrian crowd simulator.
2. STATED PREFERENCE SURVEY
Questionnaire survey was conducted to investigate evacuation behavior of the residents.
Stated preference experiment was adopted for the survey since there was no data about
revealed preference for evacuation.
Figure 1 shows an example of the stated preference experiment. Each respondent isrequired to answer the evacuation behavior under the presented disaster situation.
The disaster situation is different by setting status of disasters. Possibility of fire spreadto the residence, possibility of flood, status of road congestion, suffered state of urban
lifeline were considered as the variables of the disaster situation. Respondents answered
their expected evacuation behavior under five different situations.

Figure 1: Example of the question about stated preference

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3. ESTIMATION OF EVACUATION BEHAVIOR MODEL
3.1 Hierarchy of evacuation behavior
Evacuation is conducted by corresponding to the status of disaster. Figure 2 shows
hierarchical structure of disaster evacuation. Decision making for evacuation isconducted from the top to the bottom.
At first an evacuee decides whether to go out from the residence or not. Secondly, theevacuee decides whether to conduct horizontal evacuation or to conduct verticalevacuation. Finally, the evacuee decides the evacuation facility to go. However, in thecase of an earthquake disaster, the second stage regarding the decision regarding
horizontal/vertical evacuation is not considered.
For estimating mathematical models of evacuation behavior, the discrete choice model
was utilized in this study. To consider the hierarchical structure of the behavior, nested
logit model was applied. Parameter estimation was executed from the bottom to the top
according to the estimation method of nested logit model.

Figure 2: Hierarchical structure of disaster evacuation
3.2 Evacuation place choice model
3.2.1 Choice set and explanatory variables
Alternatives of evacuation place choice were set as temporally gathering place,designated safety evacuation area, school not designated for temporally gathering placeand others.
Choice possibility of these four facilities was set by the following methods. Aftermeasuring the distance from the residence (center of gravity of the residential zone) tothe facilities to be chosen, more than 80 % of the facilities were in less than 500m.
Therefore, the evacuation facilities located within less than 500m were from the centerof the zone were considered as alternatives.
The explanatory variables of this model are described in the Table 1. Moreover, thedummy variables of each facilities are considered. If there are plural temporally
gathering places in the residential zone, the means of distance and the number of floors
are used for the variables.

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Table 1: Explanatory variables of evacuation place choice model
Explanatory variables

Measurement

Distance to evacuation place
Number of floors of evacuation
place (floors)

Minimum distance from the zone to the place(m)Number of floors of the facilities (floors)
Difference between the building collapse risk at the residence
and that of the evacuation place (building/ha)
Difference between the fire risk at the residence and that of
the evacuation place (building / ha)Difference between inundation depth at residence and that of
the evacuation place (m)Decrease of building collapse risk
Decrease of fire risk
Decrease in the inundation depth

3.2.2 Estimation result
On the occasion of parameter estimation, the respondent whose individual attributes
such as place of residence, age and gender were unknown were removed from thedataset for the estimation.
Table 2 shows the estimation result of the evacuation place choice model. There arethree models presenting evacuation behavior under different situation such as possibilityof fire spread, possibility of flood and possibility of complex disaster. These model can
explain the reason why certain place was chosen for the evacuation place. T-statistics
indicates statistical significance of each coefficient.
Table 2: Estimation result of Evacuation place choice model
Disaster situation

Explanatory variables
Distance to evacuation
place(m)Number of stories of
evacuation place
Decrease of building
collapse risk (building /ha)Decrease of fire risk(building / ha)
Decrease of inundation
depth (m)Constant term fordesignated safety
evacuation area
Constant term for school
Constant term for others
Initial likelihood
Last likelihood
Likelihood ratio
Adjusted likelihood ratio
Hitting ratio (%)
Number of samples

494

Fire spreadFloodcoefficientt-statistics

coefficientt-statistics-0.0022-5.17-0.0030

Complex disastercoefficientt-statistics-3.35-0.0020

-4.19

㻌

㻌

0.0053

0.023

0.013

0.079

0.23

6.28

㻌

㻌

0.14

2.39

-0.01

-0.31

㻌

㻌

0.024

0.95

㻌

㻌

4.41

0.097

0.79

3.13

0.45

0.77

-3.04

-0.44

-0.61

-0.70

1.58
2.48
-195.01-97.98
0.50
0.47
75.8
179

3.68
3.85

1.90
1.22
-95.15-28.79
0.70
0.63
72.9
96

1.32
1.25

0.94
0.44
-111.49-59.94
0.46
0.39
83.9
112

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3.3 Evacuation direction choice model
3.3.1 Definition of direction
In the questionnaire survey, respondents were required to answer the floor level for theevacuation. If this answer is same level of respondent’s residence, this respondent
evacuates to the higher floor of the residence. In this study, such a vertical evacuation in
the residence is not include vertical evacuation. In other words, evacuation by moving
out from residence and going to upper floor of neighboring building is defined asvertical evacuation in this study.
3.3.2 Explanatory variables and estimation result
The explanatory variables of this model are described in the Table 3. Beside thesevariables, constant term for vertical evacuation is considered.
Binary logit model is applied to estimate evacuation direction model which can explain
the reason why evacuee choose vertical evacuation and horizontal evacuation.
The estimation result shown in Table 4. There are two models presenting evacuation
behavior under different situation such as possibility of flood and possibility of complex
disaster.
Table 3: Explanatory variables
Explanatory variables

Logsum utility
Dummy variable of multistory
building

Measurement

Expected value of the maximum utility for evacuation place choice.
If the building is with more than four floor, set to 1
Otherwise, set to 0

Table 4: Estimation result of vertical/horizontal choice model
Disaster situation

Flood

Complex disaster

Explanatory variables
Logsum utility
Dummy variables of multistory
building

coefficientt-statistics

coefficientst-statistics

0.05

0.47

0.15

0.75

3.00

6.58

0.18

4.42

Constant term (vertical evacuation)

-1.94

-6.26

-2.89

-7.21

Initial likelihood-90.15-68.65

Last likelihood-62.63-55.95

Likelihood Ratio

0.31

0.19

Adjusted likelihood ratio

0.27

0.14

Hitting ratio (%)

83.1

84.0

Number of samples

142

156

3.4 Move/Stay choice modelAt first, evacuee must decide whether to going out from the residence or to stay in theresidence. In this study, the binary logit model was utilized to estimate this move/stay
choice model.
The explanatory variables of this model are described in the Table 5. Beside these ten
variables, constant term for evacuation by going out from the residence is considered.
The reason why two kind of logsum variables are considered is the difference ofevacuation behavior under the disaster with and without the possibility of flood.
The result of parameter estimation is shown in Table 6.
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Table 5: Explanatory variables
Explanatory variables

Measurement

Dummy variables of elder person
Number of stories in the residence
Cognition situation of earthquake
damageCognition situation of flood damage
Logsum utility of evacuation placechoiceLogsum utility of evacuation direction
choice under flood risk
Dummy variables of disaster situation(Fire spread)
Dummy variables of disaster situation(Flood)Dummy variables of disaster situation(Traffic jam)Dummy variables of disaster situation(Lifeline disruption)

Dummy variables (64 years old or older)
Number of floors of the residence
When earthquakes directly under North Tokyo Bay has
occurred, whether you are aware of the expected
seismic intensity of the district(If you are aware, set to 1)
In the case of dike break of Arakawa river, whether you
are aware of the expected inundation height of theresidence (If you are aware, set to 1)
Expected value of the maximum utility of evacuation
place choice
Expected value of the maximum utility of evacuation
direction choice
Setting condition of SP survey
Setting condition of SP survey
Setting condition of SP survey
Setting condition of SP survey

Table 6: Explanatory variables
Explanatory variables

Dummy variables of elder person
Number of stories in the residence
Cognition situation of earthquake damage
Cognition situation of flood damage
Logsum utility of evacuation place choiceLogsum utility of evacuation direction choice under floodrisk
Dummy variables of disaster situation (Fire spread)
Dummy variables of disaster situation (Flood)
Dummy variables of disaster situation (Traffic jam)Dummy variables of disaster situation (Lifeline disruption)
Constant term (Evacuation by going out the residence)
Initial likelihood
Last likelihood
Ratio of likelihood
Corrected ratio of likelihood
Hit ratio (%)
Number of samples

coefficientst-statistics

-0.53
-0.16
0.32
-0.46
0.91

-3.42
-5.77
2.11
-2.24
7.26

0.79

5.60

4.03
-0.52
-2.14
-1.93
0.10

5.91
-1.44
-5.42
-4.87
0.72
-879.48-780.15
0.113
0.100
65.5
1305

4. ESTIMATION OF THE NUMBER OF EVACUEE
Three kinds of model estimated previous chapter were utilized to estimate the numberof evacuees under assumed disaster situation.

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Estimation was executed by zone and age group (less than 70/ more than 70).
The population in residential zone is based on the national census in 2010 and the meanof the number of floors of residence in a zone is used. Cognition situations of theearthquake and flood damage are both set 0.5.
Table 7 shows the number of evacuees under different disaster situation.
Moreover it shows the number of evacuees by evacuation place and evacuation. Theseestimates are to be input data of pedestrian crowd evacuation simulation.
Table 7: Estimation of the number of evacuees
Case1 Case2 Case3 Case4 Case5

Case6

11,77010,28333,44428,191

15,212
6,474
66,9004,308
2,035

13,466
5,466
57,406
3,687
12,150Total number of people in Senju district 73,243 73,243 73,243 73,243 73,243

73,243

żż
Fire spreadżż
Flood riskżż
Traffic jam
Temporary gathering
21,876 21,139 30,349 25,570
place
Designated safety
Horizontal
1,222 1,186 12,066 10,550
evacuation area
evacuation
School
45,007 43,674 242
194
Others4,819 4,706
5
4Evacuees (horizontal evacuation)
72,923 70,704 42,662 36,318
Evacuees( vertical evacuation)
0028,425 23,333
Staying at home320
2,539 2,156 13,592
Disaster situation
ż:Considered)

ż
ż

ż
ż
ż

5. EVALUATION OF THE EVACUATION METHOD
In this chapter, evacuation method is evaluated by using CrowdWalk that is a multiagent simulator developed by the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science andTechnology (AIST) of Japan.
In this study, effectiveness of the temporary gathering place for safer evacuation was
examined. The evaluation indices are mean of travel time to the designated evacuation
area and mean time when evacuee cannot move by pedestrian congestion.
Three scenarios were prepared for the examination as follows.
First scenario is the situation that all the residents evacuate directly to the designatedsafety evacuation area at once. Second scenario is the situation that all the residents
evacuate to the temporary gathering place for the first stage and move to the designatedsafety evacuation area after certain time has passed. The third scenario is the situationthat scenario 1 and scenario 2 is mixed in half-and-half. Figure 3 shows the screen shotof the pedestrian simulation.
Meanwhile, Figure 4 shows the evaluation results of evacuation safety. As seen in the
figure, the scenario 2 has better performance compared to the scenario 1. It demonstratethat the evacuation to temporary gathering place might be a good evacuation method.

Evaluation of evacuation method through the pedestrian crowd evacuation simulation
Evaluationof evacuation
method-Case study
for Adachi-ku
Senju districtin throughTokyo- the pedestrian crowd evacuation simulation- Case study for Adachi-ku Senju district in Tokyo -497

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Figure 3: Screen shot of the CrowdWalk (left: Scenario 1, right: scenario 2)

Figure 4: Evaluation of the safety of evacuation method

6. CONCLUSION
In this study, Adachi-ku Senju district in Tokyo was selected as investigated district.
Questionnaire survey was conducted for the residents in this district. The statedpreference data for disaster evacuation was utilized to estimate models describing
citizen's disaster evacuation behavior. The evacuation behavior models were estimatedand it was utilized to estimate the number of evacuee under certain disaster situation.
Level of safety of evacuation method was evaluated using the pedestrian evacuation
simulation. The safety of each evacuation method was verified in terms of evacuation
completion time and time length in pedestrian congestion. It is expected that the resultsof this study is utilized as basic information to examine the safer evacuation method of
the investigated district.

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Strategy for Developing Professional Emergency
Responders in Nepal
Ganesh Kumar JIMEE1, Amod Mani DIXIT2, Maritess TANDINGAN3, Sanju SHARMA4
Director, Disaster Preparedness and Emergency Response (DPER) Division/National Society
for Earthquake Technology-Nepal (NSET)
gjimee@nset.org.np
2
Executive Director, National Society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal (NSET)
3
Deputy Chief of Party, Program for Enhancement of Emergency Response (PEER)/ National
Society for Earthquake Technology- Nepal (NSET)
4Program Coordinator, Program for Enhancement of Emergency Response (PEER)/National
Society for Earthquake Technology- Nepal (NSET)
1

ABSTRACT
Preventing hazard at source is difficult in many cases, and for earthquake- it is impossible! However,timely initiatives for awareness and preparedness for proper response can make a huge difference forfacing devastating hazard events. The possibility of rescuing live victims in disasters decreases with thepassage of time. Community responders are the first at the scene and operate spontaneously but due tolack of proper skills and equipment many victims remain either unreached or don’t get proper
professional response. Here the term ‘professional response’ means the services by responders having
formal trainings on Search and Rescue and able to operate powered tools and equipment. It has been
widely realized that more lives could have been saved, if there were more professional responders sooner
at the scene during the April 25, 2015 Gorkha Earthquake. Due to the location (landlocked), poor
infrastructure, physical diversity resulting difficult accessibility; Nepal cannot expect to get immediate
international support for response. Therefore, developing national capacity in professional response isan urgent need in Nepal.
This paper, based on the experiences from recent earthquake and international practices, recommends
a strategy for developing competent professional emergency responders at different levels from
community to formal emergency response organizations.
Keywords: strategy, emergency, professional responders
1 INTRODUCTION
Physical diversity, climatic variation, fragile geology and location astride the plate boundary are thenatural characteristics of Nepal. As a consequence, the country is one of the multi-hazard prone countriesof the world. Further, the hazards usually tend to be converted to devastating disasters due lack ofawareness, preparedness, capacity, proper response system and resources to cope with. Everyday two
people are losing their lives in the country due to hazard events (MOHA, 2011 a). Earthquakes havedevastated the country many times in the past. While we can stop or modify the earthquake, it is
impossible! However reducing its impact through timely initiatives for awareness and preparedness forproper response; it can make a huge difference during a real disaster.
It has been learned from the past disasters around the world that immediate and proper response todisasters can save significant lives and property. Nepal realized this during the recent April 25, 2015
Gorkha earthquake. The responders of different levels will have different capacity and limitations inStrategy for Developing Professional Emergency Responders in Nepal499

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terms of skills and equipment. It is obvious that community responders are the first to reach at the scene
and will operate spontaneously. However, due to lack of proper skills and equipment many victims
remain unreached and waiting for professional responders. Here the term ‘professional responders’means the responders having formal skill-based trainings on Search and Rescue (SAR) and able tooperate SAR powered tools and equipment. The Gorkha Earthquake has shown the need of developing
more such ‘professional responders’ in the country. It is widely accepted that the possibility of rescuing
live victims in disasters decreases with the passage of time. In this connection, every country should givethe highest priority for being capable to cope with disasters for saving lives. Moreover, in the context of
Nepal, due to location (landlocked), poor infrastructures, physical diversity resulting difficultaccessibility; immediate support from international community cannot be expected. Therefore,
developing national capacity regarding professional responders is an urgent need of Nepal.
It was unfortunate for the people who lost their loved ones and property due to the recent earthquake.
However, by the energy itself, 7.8 magnitude, the earthquake was not very big, it was of moderate level.
Moreover, the earthquake was in favor of people occurring on Saturday and at the time of day. Had theearthquake occurred at night or on a working day, the scenario could have been more tragic in terms ofnumber of deaths. Similarly, the only one international airport, Tribhuvan International Airport wasfunctional allowing coming-in the international humanitarian assistance and SAR teams in Nepal. It wasalso a luck the major road network and the 51 domestic airports remained functional. The international
SAR teams started to arrive from day one and could be deployed to different affected areas.
2 CURRENT INITIATIVES FOR DEVELOPING EMERGENCY RESPONDERS IN
NEPAL
2.1
Traditional Emergency Response
Regardless of the scale, people are facing one or other kind of disasters since their existence. They havemade efforts to cope with such disasters, they are living with disasters, say- disaster emergencies are partof their life. People cannot wait for the skills and technologies; they tend to response spontaneously withavailable resources and skills while they encounter with disasters. However, the effectiveness of responseis always directly related with the skills and resources; and it has inversely related with success in saving
lives and property. Rural communities usually learn from their parents and neighbourhood, they havebeen responding the disasters in ad-hoc to save lives and property and struggling long to be recovered,
but tend to forget while it is over. The same thing is reflected at the national level especially in developing
countries like Nepal. The phases of disaster management, preparedness, response, recovery, andmitigation, are not given importance equally. They are activated while there is disaster putting all efforts,
once disaster is over, mitigation and preparedness activities are not in priority. The response centereddisaster management system demands huge investment for response during disasters even for saving
minimum lives and property.
The response mechanism of Nepal is still guided by the Natural Calamities (Relief) Act of 1982 (NCRA
1982), which is more focused on response and relief activities after disaster not in preparedness before
disaster. Therefore, while disaster strikes, without any plan and preparedness people spontaneously tend
to respond with whatever skills and knowledge and equipment they have, putting themselves at risk.
Effective response always demands good preparedness including strategy for capacity enhancement ofresponders, arrangement of equipment, adaptation of modern technologies, and tested operation systemthrough simulation exercises.
2.2

Program for Enhancement of Emergency Response (PEER)

Enhancing capacity of responders with proper knowledge and skills and developing a system owned bygovernment is one of the crucial activities for developing emergency response capacity for any countries.
In this direction Program for Enhancement of Emergency Response (PEER) is an effort implemented by
National Society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal (NSET) in South Asia with support from the United

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States Agency for International Development, Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster Assistance(USAID/OFDA). PEER is an experienced program in the field of emergency response capacity
enhancement from in Latin American and Caribbean countries to Asia and now being implemented inSouth Asian countries. Since 1998 PEER has implemented emergency response capacity enhancement
programs through three different stages mainly in the field of Collapsed Structure Search and Rescue(CSSR), Medical First Response (MFR), Hospital Preparedness for Emergencies (HOPE) andCommunity Action for Disaster Response (CADRE). Stage 1 (1998-2003) was implemented by the
Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC) in four earthquake-prone countries of Asia, namely, India,
Indonesia, Nepal and the Philippines to bring the experience from LAC countries to Asia at a regional
level. PEER Stage 2 (2003-2009) was implemented by NSET in six Asian countries including two new
beneficiary countries, namely, Bangladesh and Pakistan. This stage focused on nationalization andinstitutionalization of MFR and CSSR courses and instructor development courses as a training systemand finalization of HOPE course materials. PEER Stage 3 (2009-2014) was jointly implemented by
NSET and ADPC. NSET was focused for MFR and CSSR and ADPC for CADRE and HOPE. PEER
Stage 4 (2014-2019) is being implemented by NSET in four South Asian countries, namely, Bangladesh,
India, Nepal and Pakistan with possible extension in other four countries namely Afghanistan, Bhutan,
Maldives and Sri Lanka. PEER stage 4 objectives are to enhance emergency response capacity of South
Asian countries by providing training on MFR, CSSR, CADRE, HOPE and Swift Water Rescue (SWR)
courses and by providing networking and collaboration among relevant individuals and institutions in
the region.
Since 1998, PEER has developed a pool of 287 MFR graduates, 113 MFR instructors, 250 CSSR
graduates and 87 CSSR instructors, 340 HOPE graduates, 67 HOPE instructors, 233 CADRE graduatesand 71 CADRE instructors in Nepal. The PEER program has helped the countries for translating andcustomizing regional courses in their local context which has made more effective delivery andintegration in regular training programs for responders. It has established a link between the responders
for sharing skills and informations. The PEER curricula, PEER-trained graduates and instructors are
instrumental for implementing related emergency response trainings for formal response groups anddisaster volunteers, towards strengthening national emergency response capacities. The partnerorganizations adhere to and adapt PEER program guidelines in terms of course facilities, either
improvising or upgrading of training equipment and materials for effective and efficient delivery of their
non-PEER training programs.
The response during the recent April 25, 2015 Gorkha Earthquake was great contribution of PEER in
Nepal. The PEER graduates could significantly make difference for saving lives during this earthquake.
The PEER trained responders mainly from Nepalese Army, Nepal Police, Armed Police Force, Nepal
Red Cross Society (NRCS) and NSET were immediately mobilized for search and rescue operation. The
impact of earthquake was huge, many professional as well as community responders got involved forsearch and rescue, however, most of the national search and rescue operations were led by PEER trained
responders. The national responders, mainly from security forces, had the skills of CSSR and MFR andcommunity responders were led by the CADRE. The skills and equipment handling learned during thecourse was very useful and that could make difference during response. It was very helpful for hospitals
to deal with mass casualties due to HOPE program. The PEER graduates were involved even ininternational teams such as the teams from India and Bangladesh. Since PEER is the standard regionalcourse and follows the INSARAG guidelines, it was easy for national responders to work jointly withother international teams.
2.3

Initiatives of the Government

The disaster management policy of Nepal is guided by the Natural Calamities (Relief) Act (NCRA) 1982.
Prior to 1982, rescue, relief as well as resettlement of disaster victims were carried out in Nepal on an
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ad-hoc basis, primarily as a social work. The act has been amended thrice in 1986, 1989 and 1992
enunciating the significance of the pre-disaster and post disaster activities. It helped to develop an
organizational structure from central to local level, to deal with response and relief works, and has
provided the basis for coordination among various agencies, government and non-government inemergency response activities (MOHA, 2011a).
The National Strategy for Disaster Risk Management (NSDRM) developed in 2009 has provided thestrategic direction to Nepal addressing all phases of disaster management. This document has worked as
one of the milestones in the disaster management activities in the country. As guided by NSDRM, theNational Disaster Response Framework (NDRF) has been developed and approved in 2013. The NDRF
has clarified the roles and responsibility of different government and nongovernment stakeholders anddeveloped a coordination mechanism among the national and international actors in case of emergency.
One of the important activities of Government of Nepal is establishment of National Emergency
Operation Centre (NEOC). The NEOC, led by undersecretary of MOHA, is responsible to coordinate
and mobilize emergency operation activities from the national level. However, the executive body,comprised of CDRC members, provides overall direction and control of disaster operations in Nepal.
The executive body makes decisions about strategy and policies, which are beyond the authority of the
Chief of NEOC that may include beginning of discussion with the regional and international response
bodies depending on the scale of disaster. It provides policy decision, guidelines, procedures anddirection for emergency operation. NEOC has established four activation levels for responding
appropriately to the various degrees of emergencies that can affect the country. The NEOC’s Standard
Operating Procedures (SOP) has made provision to handle activation level 1 by NEOC chief,
undersecretary, activation level 2 by joint secretary of MOHA, activation level 3 by CDRC, andactivation level 4 by CDRC with instruction and guidance by cabinet. The MOHA has plan to establish
the district level emergency operation centres as DEOCs in all 75 districts of the country. So far 42
DEOCs have been established. (MOHA, 2011 b)
District Disaster Preparedness and Response Plans (DPRP) have been prepared by all 75 districts. The
District Lead Support Agency (DLSA) assisted to District Disaster Relief Committees (DDRC) for
preparing DPRPs. The DPRPs have developed scenario based action plans of respective districts
analysing associated hazards, vulnerabilities and resources. DPRP has made difference in the districts
regarding the preparedness activities for response developing the coordination mechanism andidentifying role and responsibilities of district level stakeholders (MOHA, 2010). The Government of
Nepal has endorsed the different groups as “clusters” of disaster risk management actors representing
from different national and international humanitarian agencies led by national government line
ministries and/or departments. This is similar with the “Cluster Approach” promulgated by the UN InterAgency Standing Committee (IASC) in 2005. This has helped to systematic and effective coordinationand mobilization of resources among different actors during disasters.
Very importantly all security forces of Nepal, namely, Nepalese Army, Nepal Police and Armed Police
Force have established separate disaster management sections with stand-by responders within theirorganizations. All security forces have adopted MFR and CSSR courses from PEER along with otheremergency response courses for their standby responders. APF has established well facilitated Disaster
Management Training Centre. Similarly Nepalese Army has established 2 battalions with stand by
responders providing emergency response trainings and equipment. Nepal police has one disastermanagement squadron with standby responders.
2.4

Initiatives by other Humanitarian Agencies

Several national and international organizations have accelerated their efforts for raising awareness andbuilding capacity for emergency response in recent years. Nepal Red Cross Society (NRCS) has beenworking for relief management since its establishment in 1963. It has a good network of volunteers

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throughout the country through its 75 district chapters and 1,339 sub-chapters covering the entire country.
NRCS has trained human resources at different levels such as Field Assessment and Coordination Team(FACT), Emergency Relief Unit (ERU), Regional Disaster Response Team (RDRT), National Disaster
Response Team (NDRT), District Disaster Response Team (DDRT), First Aid, First Aid trainers, Light
Search and Rescue (LSAR), Community Action for Disaster Response (CADRE), Dead Body
Management, WASH and Shelter. The National Disaster Response Framework has given specificmandate to NRCS for responding to emergencies.
The National Society for Earthquake Technology- Nepal (NSET) is one of the pioneer non-governmentalorganizations working in Nepal in aspects of disaster risk management since its establishment in 1993.
Though, its focus was in earthquake risk reduction and preparedness in initial days, now it focus is multihazard risk management. NSET has its activities almost throughout the country for supporting
government bodies at different levels, communities and other DRM stakeholders for awareness-raising,capacity building and other DRM activities. It has been implementing the PEER since 2003 in Nepal
including other Asian countries for building capacity of professional responders in the region anddeveloping cooperation and network among the countries for sharing experiences, common
understanding and mutual help during disasters. Beside PEER, NSET has been supporting individuals,
communities, government/nongovernmental organizations, academic and health institutions, and otherinternational agencies through emergency response trainings namely, Basic Emergency Response(BEMR), Community Search and Rescue (CSAR), Damage Assessment Trainings (DAT), Vulnerability
and Capacity Assessment (VCA), Community Fire Response Trainings (CFRT), developing and testing
emergency response plans and prepositioning emergency supplies at different levels (Jimee, et al., 2012).
So far NSET has provided earthquake preparedness orientation programs for more than 37,000 people,
has produced more than 1,400 CSAR responders, more than 300 BEMR responders and more than 100
DAT graduates.
The Disaster Preparedness Network-Nepal (DPNet-Nepal) was established in 1998 as a network of theorganizations working in the field of disaster preparedness and management. It aims to assist theGovernment of Nepal for disaster preparedness and management through its member organizations.
DPNet assists the member organizations for their effort to make communities, individuals and theorganizations prepared against disasters. DPNet has been working for establishment of linkages among
the DRM stakeholders through networking approaches.
The National Disaster Management Network Nepal (DiMaNN) is a network of the organizations working
in disaster management sector from different areas of Nepal. DiMaNN aims to mobilize local, naturaland human resources working as an agent of social change (MOHA, 2011a).
There has been many other initiatives by different organizations in Nepal in the past decade to improvedisaster preparedness and response mechanism of the country. This effort has paid off as experienced
during April 25, 2015 Gorkha Earthquake. Mainly there has been significant improvement in awareness,
response capacity of communities and organizations and the coordination among the stakeholders. In
addition to above mentioned organizations, there are many national and international non-governmentalorganizations contributing to this. Despite such successes, Nepal has to move ahead to cope withdifferent hazards with better preparedness and improved response mechanism. Most of the plan andpolicies made and amended at different levels, are quite new, which has to be tested and reviewed
through simulation exercises resembling realistic scenarios to build the confidence and developing
common understanding among the actors while applying in real disasters. Due to geographical locationof the country and physical diversity within it, the country has difficulties in accessibility from othercountries resulting very less possibility to receive immediate international assistance in case of big
disasters. The bitter fact is the delayed response reduces the chance of saving lives in disasters. This

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justifies that Nepal urgently has to develop its response capacity in terms responders, equipment,
infrastructures and system to respond independently.
3 INTERNATIONAL PRACTICE IN DISASTER RESPONSE
Disaster impacts are generally high in urban areas due to high exposure as they are highly populatedwith concentration of structures, infrastructures and other facilities. Due to complex built up
environment, infrastructures and potential risk due to hazardous materials, involvement of responders
having advance skills, equipment and technology are required for urban search and rescue (USAR)
operations.
The United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination (UNDAC) “Disaster Response Preparedness
Mission” and INSARAG “USAR Capacity Building Assessment Mission” are UN OCHA tools that areavailable to assist countries to analyse and assess the capability of their disaster management
frameworks. UNDAC is a stand-by team of disaster management professionals for assisting the disaster
affected countries and in-country UN for meeting international requirements for early and qualified
information during the first phase of emergency. INSARAG is a global network of more than 80
countries and organizations under the UN umbrella. It deals with USAR related issues, aiming toestablish minimum international standards for USAR teams and methodology for international
coordination in earthquake response. USAR, as defined by the INSARAG guidelines, refers to theprocesses used to safely remove entrapped victims from collapsed structures. The INSARAG network
is strongly encouraged to assist disaster prone countries in developing the capacity of their national
USAR teams. In this context, the term “national USAR team” refers to a USAR team, which is
employed at the national level but not encouraged to deploy internationally. This can be a governmental
or non-governmental team.
NerdWallet studied 239 cities with populations of 100,000 or more that provide police and fire services(NerdWallet, 2014). The study has shown that the cities which invest heavily in their fire department
personnel generally provide services beyond fire suppression and emergency medical response. These
services often include high-angle rescue, vehicle extrication, confined-space rescue and collapsedstructure rescue. The Baltimore City Fire Department has 27 fire staff for every 10,000 residents andoffers an extensive infrastructure of fire, Emergency Medical Service (EMS) and special operations
teams. Memphis has nearly 30 fire personnel for every 10,000 residents, one of the highest ratios among
cities the study analysed. The Memphis Fire Department provides a range of services, including rope,
structural collapse, confined space, trench and water rescue, as well as hazardous-material response. The
largest city in New Jersey has the fire resources to match its population, with more than 25 fire personnel
for every 10,000 residents.
The Latin America and the Caribbean countries have been practicing that in every 50,000 of the
population, there is a need for about 20 responders and 10% of them as the instructors (personalcommunication by Rene Carillo, Regional Advisor for Disaster Training, USAID/OFDA – Latin
America and Caribbean Regional Office), which should be the target for Asian countries also (M. R..
Tandingan, 2012).
In India, the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) is the nodal ministry of central government of India fornatural disaster management. National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), chaired by the prime
minister, is the apex body for disaster management. The National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) has
been constituted under Section 44 of the DM Act, 2005 by up-gradation/conversion of eight standard
battalions of Central Para Military Forces to build them up as a specialist force to respond to disaster ordisaster like situations. The eight battalions of NDRF consist of 144 specialised teams trained in various
types of natural, manmade and non-natural disasters. Each NDRF battalion consists of 1,149 personnel
organised in 18 teams comprising of 45 personnel, who are being equipped and trained for rendering
effective response to any threatening disaster situation or disaster, both natural and manmade. Based on

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vulnerability profile of different regions of the country, these specialist battalions have been presently
stationed at eight places of India (MHA, 2011).
China does not have national level emergency management departments; many departments share their
responsibility for emergency management with a different scope or approach. The Ministry of Civil
Affairs (MCA) generally leads natural disaster relief, with support from other related departments(Victor Bai, 2008). The National Disaster Reduction Centre (NDRC) of MCA is a specialized agency
under the Chinese Government engaged in information services in order to support decisions on various
natural disasters. The Emergency Management Office (EMO) is the main body to coordinate otheragencies for disaster management. It has been set up at both national and local level. The military andpolice forces are key actors for disaster response and relief. Similarly social groups, volunteers andNGOs are also actively been involved for disaster response. The Chinese International Search andRescue (CISAR) Team was founded in 2001. CISAR is comprised of 480 people including
administrators and technical experts from China Seismological Bureau, the 38th Division of Military
search and rescue crops and medical team from China Armed Police General Hospital. CISAR wasrecognized as high level international rescue team in 2009, becoming as 12th high-level team in the worldand second in Asia (CISAR, 2015).
4

USAR LESSONS FROM THE APRIL 25 APRIL, 2015 GORKHA EARTHQUAKEThe April 25, 2015 Gorkha Earthquake (M 7.8) caused 9,256 deaths, 22,326 injuries (Nepal Police, July2, 2015) and more than 900,000 buildings are severely damaged or destroyed (Bizan et.al. 2015). Thirtyone of the country’s 75 districts have been affected, out of which 14 were declared ‘crisis-hit’ for the
purpose of prioritizing rescue and relief operations; another 17 neighbouring districts are partiallyaffected. The effects of the disasters illustrate that the estimated value of total damages and losses(changes in flows) is equivalent to about one third of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in FY 20132014. In addition, the estimated value of damage is equivalent to more than 100 percent of the Gross
Fixed Capital Formation (GFCF) for FY 2013-2014 (NPC, 2015).
Immediately after the event, the NEOC was activated at its activation level 4, the highest level ofactivation as per the SOP. The concerned authorities including the then acting Prime Minister met at
NEOC for the emergency meeting. The central command post was established and all the security forceswere instructed to be mobilized for search and rescue operation. The meeting of CNDRC was called andthe cabinet decided to declare emergency in all earthquake districts and appeal for international
assistance. All chief district officers were instructed to call emergency meetings and to be mobilized for
emergency response in their respective districts.
Prior to the earthquake, in Kathmandu valley and some other urban areas, there has been some initiatives
for emergency response capacity development by different organizations such as NRCS and NSET etc.
however such activities were infrequent in the villages and smaller towns; virtually there are no trained
responders and prepositioned equipment in the villages. As always, immediately after earthquake thecommunity people were the first responders everywhere. They worked spontaneously for rescuing thevictims and saved many lives using traditional knowledge and locally available tools and equipment
during this earthquake. Further they played crucial role while the professional responders arrived at thescene, providing information, assisting in search and rescue and logistic arrangements in local context.
All security forces, namely, Nepalese Army, Nepal Police and Armed Police Force Nepal were mobilized
for search and rescue. They deployed the responders within 2 hours of earthquake. The SAR operations
were mainly led by disaster management sections of the security forces who are trained in MFR, CSSR,
Water Rescue, Fire Fighting etc. However, immediate reach was only in nearby places, mainly in urban
areas. As of May 26, the Nepalese Army mobilized 66,000 responders, Nepal Police 41,776 and Armed
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Police Force 24,775 responders (MOHA, May 26, 2015). Fortunately, the only one international airport,
Tribhuvan International Airport (TIA), of Nepal was functional and the major roads didn’t havesignificant damage. Thus allowed the international SAR teams to arrive and operate smoothly. There
were 76 international SAR teams with 4,316 responders arriving from day 1 to 6 (Figure 1) (Nepalese
Army Report, June 16, 2015).

Figure 1: Arrival time in Nepal and Operation Success of International SAR Teams
However, due to different reasons such as remote location, damaged roads, difficult terrain and adverse
weather etc. the arrival time of different level responders varied in the affected areas, which was reflectedalso in the success rate of saving lives. Out of 22,326 injuries, only 19 were rescued by international
SAR teams, 4,420 rescued by national teams and rest 17,887 live victims were rescued by community
responders and/or by the victim themselves. Similarly out of 9,256 deaths, 135 were recovered byinternational teams, 2,133 by national teams and 6,988 by communities responders developed
spontaneously (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Extricated Victims and Recovered Dead Bodies by Different SAR Teams
The Gorkha Earthquake experience has made all resolved in USAR to recognize the importance ofcommunity SAR volunteer responders. There is an urgency to adopt a strategic approach and strategy todevelop a system of volunteers with minimal skills and SAR equipment in every village. During this506

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earthquake more lives could have been saved, if there were sufficient trained national responders withequipment. Had the initiatives made by different government and nongovernmental organizations fordisaster preparedness and developing capacity of emergency responders and planning been encouraged,
could make huge difference during this earthquake. The achievements regarding the SAR by national
responders is highly appreciated. If same level of earthquake had happened a decade before, theperformance of SAR could have been much less effective.
5
WAY FORWARD FOR DEVELOPING PROFESSIONAL RESPONDERS IN NEPAL
No doubt effective disaster response demands better preparedness with skills, advanced technology andfunctional management system. Fast and efficient searching is best performed with the latest proventechnologies that confirm the likely presence of voids and potential entrapped survivors. These allow
focusing rescue efforts where the person is likely to be entrapped and recovering the survivor as quickly
and safely as possible (M. Statheropoulos, et.al, 2015). Enhancing capacity of responders is crucial for
Nepal. The country has to come up with strategic plan of comprehensive efforts including designing
standard courses, developing qualified instructors, arranging equipment and facilities, conducting
trainings and developing mechanism for sustainability, maintaining the standards. Considering this fact,
this study has put forward a draft strategy for developing qualified responders mainly in Collapsed
Structure Search and Rescue (CSSR) and Medical First Responder (MFR) areas for efficiently enhancing
the country’s capability to respond the disasters with minimized mortality and property losses.
5.1

Strategic Planning for Developing Responders

This strategy builds upon the experiences and achievements accomplished under the Program for
Enhancement of Emergency Response (PEER) and other initiatives made so far as the basis fordeveloping professional responders. To start with, the responders having MFR and CSSR skills are
considered as professional responders. MFR capability is to provide lifesaving skills mainly caring forvictims in pre-hospital stage, and CSSR is for conducting searching, locating and extricating victims
from collapsed structures. Both MFR and CSSR are for providing lifesaving skills to the responders totake care of the disaster victims before they are taken to the hospital of health centres. The MFR and
CSSR courses are managed by NSET since 2003 under its PEER program in 6 Asian countries withsupport from USAID/OFDA. The strategy envisions to provide package of CSSR and MFR courses tothe responders. However, as per a need realization, the responders should also be provided with otheradditional emergency response training skills in future for making them more competent. So far, thePEER program has developed 87 instructors in Nepal who can teach both courses, MFR and CSSR. As
the instructor development process in PEER is quite long and expensive, the strategy has proposed touse the existing instructors to the extent available and some new instructors which are yet to be developed.
Further, most of the existing instructors are government service holders therefore all may not be available
to serve as instructor. Assuming 43 (50%) of total are available to serve as instructors, practically threeteams of instructors (one team comprises 13 instructors) can be involved for conducting training courses.
Hence, involving existing 43 instructors, the year-one year is proposed for conducting 3 series of
instructor development courses to produce 72 instructors. The instructor development trainings areproposed to be conducted at central level inviting participants from different potential emergency
response organizations, namely, Nepalese Army, Nepal Police, and Armed Police Force.
The lessons from Gorkha Earthquake, existing national plan and policies and international practices arewidely reviewed for identifying the need of responders in Nepal. Considering the country’s risk profile,
geographical condition and population, it is proposed to start with developing at least 1professional
responder for 10,000 population requiring 2,628 responders for total 26,494,504 population of Nepal(CBS, 2011). So far PEER has developed 287 MFR and 250 CSSR responders including some other
responders in different fields. However, 250 PEER responders can be considered as professional
responders having skills of both MFR and CSSR. Considering existing 250 responders and assuming 30
percent attrition of total responders, based on total population of 2011 at least 3,505 responders are
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required in Nepal. However, the population has been increased significantly during the past 5 five years,
therefore the country has to develop at least 4,000 responders. Considering the existing capabilities interms of physical facilities, human resources and equipment, the Nepalese Army, Nepal Police andArmed Police Force (APF) are the main organizations, who can conduct the training such training
courses. However, NSET and NRCS, depending on their capacities, can provide the technical support
for this effort. As stated above year-one is planned to develop the instructors. Hence, for developing
4,000 responders, each organizations namely, Nepalese Army, Nepal Police and APF has to develop
1,333 responders. This means each organization has to develop 333 responders per year to meet thetarget within 4 years, which means 14 trainings by each organizations per year considering the standard
number of 24 participants per training. However, the responsibility division among the security forces
for conducting trainings should be assigned by the government considering their mandates, availabilityof resources and other capabilities.
5.2

Deployment of Responders and Prepositioning Response Equipment

Nepal has diverse physical features such as plains, plateaus, deep gorges, steep slopes and highmountains resulting climatic variations within a very small area. This has direct effect in the emergency
management planning and also in the effectiveness of the response activities during real disasteremergencies. The remote hilly and mountainous villages are difficult to access due to no and/or poorroad networks, and usually due to adverse weather condition. Population distribution is not uniform
throughout the country; some major cities, urban areas, district headquarters and market centres are theones with high population density, but the villages in hills and mountains have very low population
density with scattered settlements resulting difficult in providing services. Therefore, it is very crucial
to preposition the standby responders and response equipment considering the spatial and temporalproximity in relation with the exposure of population. Table 1 gives an overview of population
distribution and deployment of standby responders considering the total population in five development
regions of Nepal. At least one set of response equipment is proposed for every 4 squads (24 responders).
However, the responders and the equipment should be further deployed and prepositioned in different
places considering the population and geography.
Table 1: Population (2011) and Proposed Responders and Equipment by Development Regions in Nepal
Development regions
Eastern Development Region
Central Development Region
Western Development Region
Mid Western Development Region
Far-Western Development Region
Total

Total population Number of squad Number of(CBS, 2011)(6 responders/squad) responders
5,811,555
9,656,985
4,926,765
3,546,682
2,552,517
26,494,504

148
246
120
90
62
666

888
1,476
720
540
372
3,996

Set ofresponse population/equipment responder
37
6,545
62
6,543
30
6,843
23
6,568
16
6,862
167
6,630

5.3
Arrangement of Training Facilities
An appropriate learning environment for running indoor classes and outdoor exercises is required fordeveloping professional responders. Conducting indoor classes for both (MFR and CSSR) courses a
standard room of 9 m x 15 m with acoustic facility for conducting class room lectures, 1 secretariat room,
1 instructors’ room and 1 store room for arranging and storing training materials, are required. Similarly
for conducting demonstration practice skills, 4 breakout rooms for MFR and one 30m x 30m open field
and appropriate simulation areas and structures are required for CSSR. The courses should be residential,
for both instructors and participants. Hence appropriate accommodation facility is required.
5.4

Implementing Partners

For the success of this strategy all concerned stakeholders should work jointly and the Government of
Nepal should take the lead. Recent National Strategy Action Plan for Search and Rescue (MOHA, 2014)

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has mandated all security forces, Nepal Army, Nepal Police and APF, for SAR activities in the country,
and has developed a plan for developing their capacities. However, it is proposed to work also with local
bodies of government (municipalities) and other relevant stakeholders such as fire departments, private
security groups, NSET and NRCS etc.
5.5Institutional Mechanism

An institutional mechanism for sustainability and continuity of responders development andmanagement is very essential. In this regard this strategy has recommended to develop a mechanism forthe program’s sustainability. The sustainability and continuity of the program depends on the ownershipby the government authority. Developing responders and upgrading skills and capacity is a continuous
process; this has to be given priority by the government and should allocate the budget. It is proposedthat the developed responders should be under the District Disaster Relief Committee (DDRC) of
respective districts led by Chief District Officer (CDO). The DDRC and/or assigned authority will be
responsible for timely maintenance and replacement of equipment. Further the CDO should have theauthority for making arrangement of deploying the responders in need. However, it is also recommended
the involvement of local authorities under Ministry on Federal Affairs and Local Development(MOFALD) i.e. District Development Committee (DDC), municipalities/VDCs and different local level
Disaster Management Communities (DMCs). Likewise, a mechanism for continuation of training
programs, reviewing, maintaining/updating courses, database of responders, effective mobilization of
responders in case of disasters, timely maintenance/replacement and record keeping of equipment andan effective coordination with the local community responders also need to be developed.
5.6

Budget Estimation

The strategy has proposed to develop 4,000 professional responders in 5 years. The year-one is focusedfor developing instructors with the involvement of existing instructors developed under PEER. The costfor conducting three series (each series includes: MFR, CSSR, training for instructor, MFR instructor
development workshop and CSSR instructor development workshop) of instructor developmenttrainings for producing 72 instructors is estimated to be USD 0.741 million. The rest 4 years are proposedfor developing responders. The cost for conducting 167 trainings to produce 4,000 responders is
estimated to be USD 10.14 million. The responders are planned to be deployed in different regions withprepositioned response equipment in strategic locations. At least one set of equipment is proposed for 4
squads (6 responders in one squad). Hence, 167 sets of equipment are proposed to be prepositioned indifferent locations for 667 squads, for which total cost is estimated to be USD 8.33 million.
6

CONCLUSIONS

Nepal has physical diversity the mountains, hills, gorges and cliffs and adverse weather usually createsproblems for effective response. The population is highly concentrated in urban centres including capital
city Kathmandu, some other municipalities and district headquarters. However, significant number of
population is scattered in many remote villages, who are not connected with transportation, electricity,and telecommunication and lacking of awareness and response skills. The communities are the first
responders, they have been responding disasters with limited knowledge, skills and equipment, whichhave put themselves at risk many times and the success is significantly very low. The capacity andexisting status regarding emergency response in the country has been experienced during April 25, 2015
Gorkha Earthquake. It is widely realized the need of capacity building of community and national
responders with prepositioned equipment. In recent years there have been several initiatives bygovernment and I/NGOs, however, most of those are city centred and not enough to address the need.
This paper has put forward a strategy for developing professional responders considering thegeographical condition and population of the country. However, it has been recommended to develop
community responders as well, who can work at local level and assist the professional responders.
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October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
Reviewing the practices from the region and world, the strategy is developed based on local context. It
has proposed for developing at least 1 professional responder for 10,000 population requiring about
4,000 responders for the total 26,494,504 population of Nepal. The strategy has assumed at least 3,500
can be practically available during disasters. The strategy aims to achieve this target in 5 years, the firstyear is planned for developing instructors and rest 4 years are focused for developing the responders. All
responders are proposed to be deployed, with prepositioned response equipment, in different regions of
the country considering the population and geography. Further it has proposed for developing an
institutional mechanism in respective districts under Ministry of Home Affairs for sustainability andcontinuation of the process.
7

REFERENCES

CISAR, 2015, http://www.china.org.cn/china/2015-05/01/content_35467659.htm (accessed September
19, 2015)
Jimee, G. K., Upadhyay, B.U., Shrestha, S.N. 2012, Earthquake Awareness Programs as a Key for
Earthquake Preparedness and Risk Reduction: Lessons from Nepal. The 14th World Conference on
Earthquake Engineering.
Khazai, B., Anhorn, J., Brink, S., Girard, T., Jimee, G. K., Parajuli, B., Wagle, S., Khanal, O., Shrestha,
S.N., Manandhar, R., 2015, Emergent Issues and Vulnerability Factors in Temporary and Intermediate
Shelters Following the 2015 Nepal Earthquake, CDMP Report No. 4
Ministry of Home Affairs (MOHA), 2015, 25 April Gorkha Earthquake: One Month Initial Report of
Search and Rescue and Relief, Government of Nepal.
Ministry of Home Affairs (MOHA), 2013, National Disaster Response Framework (NDRF),
Government of Nepal.
Ministry of Home Affairs (MOHA a), 2011, Nepal Disaster Report: Policies, Practices and Lessons, theGovernment of Nepal.
Ministry of Home Affairs (MOHA b), 2011, National Emergency Operations Centre (NEOC), Standard
Operating Procedures (SOPs), the Government of Nepal.
Ministry of Home Affairs (MOHA), 2010, Guidelines for Preparing Disaster Preparedness andResponse Plans (DPRP), the Government of Nepal.
Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA), 2011, Disaster Management in India, the Government of India.
M. R., Tandingan and A.M. Dixit, 2012, Experiences on Implementing Program for Enhancement ofEmergency Response (PEER) in Six Countries of South East Asia., The 14th World Conference on
Earthquake Engineering.
National Planning Commission (NPC), (2015), Nepal Earthquake 2015, Post Disaster Need Assessment(PDNA): Executive Summary, the Government of Nepal.
Nepalese Army, 2015, Life turning to normal in Devastating Earthquake Affected districts by the ‘Sankat
Mochan’ operation of Nepalese Army, http://www.nepalarmy.mil.np/sankatmochan/view-news, posted
on June 16, 2015
Nepalese Army, 2015, Nepalese Army in Devastating Earthquake: Experiences and Lessons Learned,
the Government of Nepal.
NerdWallet, 2014, Cities that Invest the Most Resources in Public Safety, City
Economics,
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September 2, 2015)
Statheropoulos, M., Agapiou. A., Pallis, G. C., Mikedi, K., Karma, S., Vamvakari, J., Dandoulaki, M.,
Andritsos, F., Paul Thomas, C.L., (2015), Factors that affect rescue time in urban search and rescue(USAR) operations, Nat Hazards (2015) 75:57–69
V. Bai, (2008), Emergency Management in China, Comparative Emergency Management Book, Chapter
3.

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A study of vulnerability of emergency
transportation road network to various hazard
Kenji SHIBASE1, Shuji OSAWA2, Makoto FUJIU3,Shoichiro NAKAYAMA4
and Junichi TAKAYAMA5
1 Student, B., Eng., Kanazawa University, Japanksbdn@gmail.com
2 Student, B., Eng., Kanazawa University, Japan
3 Assistant Professor, Ph.D., Kanazawa University, Japan
4 Professor, Dr., Eng., Kanazawa University, Japan
5 Professor, Dr., Eng., Kanazawa University, Japan
ABSTRACTIn Japan, a natural disaster occurs frequently in recent years. An emergency
transportation road network is designated for a large-scale seismic hazard, and a
network is maintained so that it may become possible to do smooth transportation of
goods when a large-scale disaster happen in Japan. However, while frequency and thekind of accidents are diverse, emergency transportation roads are not quantitatively
grasped how degree have a disaster risk. In this study, the risk of emergency
transportation road network were quantitatively evaluated considering the various
hazards such as earthquakes, floods, landslides, tsunami, volcanic and storm surges. As
a result, currently disaster risk of the road that is designated the emergency
transportation road network is high, and the emergency transportation road network
does some disaster, and it became clear to be impassable in the case of floods,
landslides, and volcanic disaster. In addition, emergency transportation road networkat the time of Tokai, Tonankai and Nankai earthquakes it became clear the risk is highto be impassable. The further study, the possibility of emergency transportation road
network can be connected disaster prevention shelter base.
Keywords: emergency transportation roads, disaster risk, earthquake, landslides, floods
1. INTRODUCTION
In recent years, natural disasters occur frequently in Japan. Not only the large-scale lowfrequency disaster like earthquakes or eruption, but also the small-scale high-frequency
disaster like landslides or flood occur frequently accompanied by the guerrilla heavy
rain or torrential rain. For such a situation, the designation of the emergency
transportation road is accomplished for a large-scale earthquake disaster in our country.
The network of designated road is maintained to become able to transport smoothsupplies at the time of a large-scale disaster, but there are few studies that evaluate how
the degree of disaster risk can be controlled by the emergency transportation road while
the type and frequency of the disaster diversify quantitatively. And again, it is thepresent conditions that it is not performed the evaluation that assumed a complex
disaster.

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2015,
Kathmandu,
Nepal
October2015,
Kathmandu,
Nepal

In this study, it is intended to evaluate quantitatively the risk of emergency
transportation roads that is hit by various hazards such as earthquakes, floods, landslides,
tsunami, volcanic and high tide, and we also conducted an analysis of the disaster riskof emergency transportation roads. In this article, we will describe the risk ofemergency transport roads to various hazards such as earthquakes, landslides andflooding.
2. DISASTER RISK IN JAPANAs a disaster in Japan, it can be mentioned the name of the earthquake, flood, andvolcano. For the earthquake hazard assessment, the probability is equal to or greaterthan 5 of the seismic intensity in 30 years, has been assessed by the measured seismic
intensity that becomes each exceedance probability of 30-50 years.
For the flood hazard assessment, we used the data relating to flood provided by thecounty, prefectures or metropolitan that is evaluated as a boundary at 3.0m, 0.5m with 3
phases. In addition, 5.0m is added to the border when flood levels exceeding 5.0m, thenit is widely distributed with the boundary at 5.0m. The relationship between theboundary height and the happening phenomenon is for 0.5m, flooded above 1st floor
level of the building; for 3.0m flooded 2nd floor surface of the building; for 5.0m, 2ndfloor is submerged with water and there is possibility of 3rd floor surface is flooded.
About the volcano, the risk is evaluated by the total number of Japan's active volcano
with the proportion of the existing volcanic hazard map. The total number of Japan's
active volcano is 110, of which, the number of hazard map that has been published is82.The total number of the active volcano of our country is 110, and the number ofhazard map which is officially published is 82. Therefore, the risk of the volcano it isestimated to be 74.5%.
3. ABOUT EMERGENCY TRANSPORTATION ROAD
Based on the lessons learned from the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake, the emergency
transport road is set for smooth emergency transport immediately after the earthquake
for a high-speed automobile national highway, the general national highway and thetrunk road which is designated by the governor to contact mutually between the disasterprevention bases. The emergency transport road is categorized of primary to road foreach prefecture. It is seen a little difference in the name and selection criteria, butbasically the primary road covers the wide area range of the national highway, highway,
and the trunk road. Then it shapes such a way that secondary and tertiary can connect
with primary road and also can communicate mutually between the disaster prevention
bases as well as with the government offices.
Table 1 shows the total length of each specified rank of emergency transportation roadand Figure 1 shows the road network diagram of emergency transportation road. The
emergency transportation roads have occupied high ratio with the High-speed
automobile national highway and the general national highway and as well as the total
extension accounts for a high ratio. Therefore, it is thought that enough wide range area
are secured by the emergency transportation roads.

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Table 1: The total length of each specified rank

Figure 1: The road network diagram of emergency transportation road
4. ANALYSIS OF DISASTER RISK OF THE EMERGENCY
TRANSPORTATION ROAD
4.1 The disaster risk due to earthquake
It has analyzed the disaster potential of the emergency transportation roads about theearthquakes, floods and landslides. For the earthquake, it is described the results of theanalysis for the emergency transport roads are duplicated with the predicted seismic
intensity distribution.
Emergency transport roads are duplicated in each evaluation criteria listed in Chapter 2,
ձ~մis every probability from 0 to 1, յ ~ պare color-coded disaster risk in eachmeasurement seismic intensity of from 4.5 to 6.5 or more. In any case, the Pacific side
showed dangerous numerical value of risk, and, at every measurement seismic intensity,
A study of vulnerability of emergency transportation road network to various hazard
A study of vulnerability of emergency transportation road network to various hazard

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it is added it to the Pacific side again, and even Itoigawa - Shizuoka tectonic line wasfound to be a large disaster risk in ճ. In the case of probability of being hit by anearthquake of seismic intensity a little less than 6, it is observed that the risk of Kanto
region is large, Tokai, and there was also seen the risk of the capital earthquake directly
above the focus in addition to Tokai and Tonankai region.

Figure 2: Disaster risk of emergency transportation road viewed in difference prediction
seismic intensity
4.2 The disaster risk due to landslides
For landslides, it was analyzed the overlap ratio of the emergency transportation roads
and landslides danger zone as a disaster risk in every metropolis and districts. In
addition, overlap ratio assumed it to the (extension of the emergency transport roads are
duplicated in each hazard area) ÷ (total extension of emergency transportation road).
We analyzed the disaster risk for each item of avalanche e.g. debris flow, steep slope
place collapse and landslide. Furthermore, we describe the aggregate result of only the
primary road in this paper. Figure 3 shows a graph that aggregates the duplicates ratio
for each item about the primary road.

Figure 3: Overlap ratio of landslide disaster and emergency transportation road(primary road)
From Fig. 2, it is observed that the overlap ratio in the Chubu District, the Chugoku andShikoku district was big by the local distinction. In addition, it is revealed that Nagano
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prefectures. If you look at the percentage of large scale for each item in comparing withprefectures, then it is revealed that the debris flow is in Nagano prefecture, steep slope
collapse is in Yamaguchi prefecture, landslides is in Tokushima prefecture, avalanche isin Gifu Prefecture has resulted in most overlap.
4.2 Disaster risk due to flood
Like landslide disaster risk, we analyzed the overlap ratio with the flood assumption
area and emergency transportation road in every prefecture. It can be noted that, weanalyzed the disaster risk by defining flooded with 0.5 m for flood estimated areas, usedata have boundaries of 0.5 m, 1 m, 2 m and 5 m. And this study was designed to betransported by car, and the exhaust port completely flooded and non-driving motors, tospecify the rank. Figure 4 shows the graph which added up the duplicates ratio withevery designated rank.

Figure 4: Overlap ratio of flood estimated areas and emergency transport roads
Both primary and secondary roads show a higher overlap ratio in Saitama Prefecture,
the third-order road became the results of showing a higher overlap ratio in the Nigata
prefecture and Hokuriku region such as Toyama Prefecture. It can be considered for
Saitama prefecture that its roads are concentrated around the river, so there is a high riskof flooding due to overflowing. For the Hokuriku region, rainfall throughout the year isoften considered as a factor. For Toyama and Niigata prefectures, as selection criteria
for the 3rd order road, the primary and secondary roads here to contact the disasterprevention bases, so the overlap ratio of tertiary roads is high, along emergency
transport roads, large disaster risks and was found with the disaster prevention center.
5. THE SUMMARY OF THIS STUDY AND FUTURE PLAN
In this study, we estimated the disaster risk of the emergency transportation road due tothree factors such as earthquake, landslides and floods. It is clarified that the emergency
transportation road is likely to be impassible of traffic at the time of the disaster. About
the earthquake, it was revealed that not only the Pacific side, but also the dislocation
had a big suffering risk. It can be considered that the situation of broad-basedtransportation becomes difficult as the Itoigawa - Shizuoka Tectonic Line fault spread tonorth-south road network is split into east and west by the earthquake. Overlap was
frequently happening due to landslide disasters in hilly and mountainous areas. When
we consist a road in the mountain areas become impassable of traffic due to landslide,A study ofAvulnerabilityof emergency
transportation
road network
variousstudy of vulnerabilityof emergency
transportation
road tonetworktohazard
various hazard

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October2015,
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Nepalthen it is not only be considered merely road, but also it brings into question that
substitute characteristics of the road are low. A difference was seen in the metropolis
and districts about the flood risk. Due to the flood disaster, the wide range area can be
restricted with impassible of traffic regionally, and the risk to become by a certain
inundation above a certain level in comparison to the landslide disaster. In this way, it isrevealed that the disaster risk of the emergency transportation road was big even if we
focused on individual hazards, such as earthquakes, landslides and flooding.
As a future work, we will take an evaluation of the importance of the emergency
transport roads, focusing on alternative ways like severity of transportation roadaffected by avalanches and typhoon, combined various types of seasonal hazards. We
want to push forward this study with a focus of occurrence of hazard probability in reallife situation.
REFERENCESJ-SHIS: Seismic hazard station (in Japanese)
http://www.j-shis.bosai.go.jp/
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism: Guidance of Flood Hazard
Mapping (in Japanese)
http://www.mlit.go.jp/river/basic_info/jigyo_keikaku/saigai/tisiki/hazardmap/
Japan Meteorological Agency: About active volcano (in Japanese)
http://www.data.jma.go.jp/svd/vois/data/tokyo/STOCK/kaisetsu/katsukazan_toha/katsu
kazan_toha.html
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism: Hazard map portal site (inJapanese)
http://disaportal.gsi.go.jp/516

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Significance of developing Community
Responders in the context of Nepal
Sharad Wagle1, Ganesh Kumar Jimee2, Sanjeev Ram Vaidya3
Civil Engineer, National Society for Earthquake Technology- Nepal (NSET)
swagle@nset.org.np
2
Director, National Society for Earthquake Technology- Nepal (NSET)
3
Information Management Specialist, National Society for Earthquake TechnologyNepal (NSET)
1

ABSTRACTThe tremor of 25th April, 2015 with magnitude of 7.6 in Gorkha district, Nepal resulted
massive loss of human lives and property. The loss would have increased more if
immediate response operation was not carried out by the local people. Due to thegeography and poor infrastructure, immediate access to the affected areas for saving
lives was obstructed for professionals. Just after the earthquake the very first
responders at the scene were the community people spontaneously gathered for mutual
help with tools and equipment whatever they had. Among those, most of the responders
were not trained with rescue skills. However, being first at the scene and if provided
with minimum skills could save more lives. Community people can assist the
professional responders by providing necessary information of the locality andcommunicating with the local people. This shows the significance for the need of trained
community responders.
This paper can work as a convincing effort for the government and local authorities aswell as other stakeholders to prioritize emergency response capacity building activities
in the communities. During this process research was conducted based on theexperience of the community responders, reports of rescue operations.
Keywords: casualties, community, responders, community responders, professional
rescuers, ease of access
1. INTRODUCTION
Nepal is one of the 20 most disaster-prone countries in the world. It is ranked 11th interms of risk from earthquake, 30th in terms of flood risk, and 5th in terms of risk fromthe impacts of climate change. Nepal is classified as one of the global “hot-spots” fornatural disasters (World Bank-2005).
Nepal witnessed a devastating earthquake on April 25, leaving hundreds of thousands ofpeople homeless and destroying property worth hundreds of billions of rupees. The
earthquake has not only been the cause of the death of more than eight thousand people
but has also exposed the weaknesses, inefficiency, inability in different sectors.
However, life cannot stand still. It has to go ahead with a progressive frame of mind,
leaving the past behind, learning from the mistakes and weaknesses, and making the life

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of future generations safer. In recent Gorkha earthquake most of the community wereunable to get response from the professional rescuer also after a week which increased
the number of casualties even more. This experience taught the need of responders in
the community level with rescue equipment prepositioned in the community or the
infrastructure that can mobilize the professional rescuers throughout the nation in a shortperiod.
It is realized that the community responders are required to cope up the needs ofaffected people during the disaster. Also the strategy of achieving the sufficient numberof community responders should be made in order to incorporate the lesson learnt fromthe recent Gorkha earthquake.
2. ROLE OF COMMUNITY RESPONDERS IN DISASTER
Community first responders are trained to provide assistance to those with search andrescue technique, medical emergency, and most importantly to start and maintain the
chain of survival in mass casualties until the professionals arrive. Also after the
professional rescuers are in the scene, the community responders can assist them byproviding the information on probable location of victims and also the information
about the infrastructures within the locality. The schemes were originally visualized forrural areas where emergency medical services response is expected to be delayed during
which a number of deaths are likely to become irreversible.
Following major earthquakes and other disasters, community members play a criticalrole as first responders, particularly as gaining access to affected locations can often be
difficult for emergency responders from other locations. This is especially true in Nepal,
where geography and poor infrastructure can obstruct access to more remote areas. If
community members are prepared as first responders, they can play a vital role in
reducing the impact of disasters by providing community search and rescue as well as
first aid services immediately after and during the relief phase of the disaster.
The framework of the Search and Rescue (SAR) response in Nepal will be as shown in
the figure 1.

Figure 1: Framework of the Search and Rescue (SAR) response in Nepal

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Coordination approach between national and international responders during majordisaster shall be as determined by the national response framework. The first responders
shall be local emergency service and community responders and there shall be light,
medium and heavy SAR taskforces in the national SAR squad. There shall be medium
and heavy taskforces in the international squad (National Strategic Action Plan for
Search and Rescue, 2014). This action plan also emphasis the need of community
responders and enhancing overall capacity of the community people for every new
emergency response. The first responders are the community responders and the local
emergency service who have the quick access to the affected area.
Thus the need is even more in case of Nepal, due to geographically rugged country andphysical diversity. Also the nation can be isolated from immediate international
response if the only international airport is not functional. During this only the option
remains is the national search and rescue and the local community people within theircommunity. National search and rescue team also may not reach the affected area intime due to the poor infrastructure and the fragile geology which may block the landtransport. Even the air transport may lack to reach the affected community due toadverse weather condition. In this recent earthquake also it was seen that the land andthe air transport was unable to function properly due to landslide and adverse weather
condition.
Local people are the means of information of their community and can help a lot in the
response operation. Even if the professional responders reach the affected area they will
not be aware of infrastructure and the facilities present in that area. The professional
responders can waste their golden time searching the victim where there is no any
casualties inside. By providing the detail about the damaged building such as, the size ofbuilding, use of that particular building and the probable number of people trapped
inside that damaged building, helps to make the response operation more effective.
Community responders can also make use of local resources and make the response
operation more effective. They can improvise the equipment from locally available
resources.
Community responders being directly involved in response operation, can also assist the
professional rescuers by providing them the information about the hazardous area within
the community which needs to be avoided during rescue operation. They can alsointeract with the community people in their won local language and facilitate astranslator for the professional rescuers if they are already in the scene.
3. EXISTING CAPACITY OF COMMUNITY RESPONDERS IN NEPALAs a part of strengthening overall disaster preparedness and the disaster response system
in Nepal, the government has formulated a National Strategic Action Plan on Search andRescue Capacity; but much work remains to be done to make this plan a reality (MoHA,
2013). Capitalizing on the motivation and training the different security forces aredeveloping dedicated search and rescue units. Ultimately, these dedicated units willtrain and work together as a cohesive search and rescue response across the country. It
was agreed that community first responders and the security forces will have to work
together, as the foundation is established, building a unified system that will be able tosearch and rescue Nepali people in the future. The real implement of this was seen inthis Gorkha earthquake in which all the security forces foreign rescuers and also thecommunity responders were working together in a scene, along with different NGOs
and INGOs.

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A lot of organization have been assisting in the development of community responders
and orienting people about the disaster activities, their impact and the skill to cope them.
Government organizations and different national and international NGOs are noticeably
working in the field of developing the responders in the community level. There is theneed of bringing these responders under a single umbrella, maintaining their databaseand providing the required equipment in the community level.
Despite this encouraging information, capacity is currently scattered across the country
with limited coordination, inadequate equipment and no national standards. Based onthese findings, a consensus emerged that this effort seems insufficient to cope the realneed in the mega disaster. Since most of the place were not easily assessable and also
there was lack of community responders in that particular area. Due to this reason
prompt response and rescue operation was not effectively achieved during Gorkha
earthquake. The community person from each and every community of Nepal should betrained with basic lifesaving skills so that the lives can be saved more and minimize thecasualties.
3.1 NSET activities for enhancing the emergency response capacity of community
Awareness-raising and capacity building of community/organization becomes aneffective approach for earthquake risk reduction. In making the community aware ofearthquake safety and also developing the community responders, National Society for
Earthquake Technology (NSET) -Nepal has continuously contributed from its bud stage.
NSET has come up with some figures of community responders who can perform
search and rescue, provide pre hospital treatment and also rapid damage assessment ofdamaged building in the community level during disaster. General awareness level ofcommunity people, professionals, school students, and teachers as well as of theauthorities has increased significantly due to the continuous efforts. However, there is aneed of continuous awareness-raising and capacity building activities throughout thecountry in different levels.
3.1.1 Conducting earthquake preparedness orientation
The earthquake orientation program intends to aware the community people in terms ofearthquake risk, preparedness and risk mitigation measures. This orientation isinteractive presentations for groups all around Nepal to increase earthquake awareness.
Audiences vary widely from village and community groups, organizations, schools,
businesses, media personnel and many more. These presentations cover the science of
why earthquakes occur, what are the risk reduction strategies and what you can do toprepare yourself. More than 37,000 people have taken part in this program. It means,virtually, the earthquake awareness massage is conveyed to more than 37,000 families.

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Figure 2: Community people participating in earthquake orientation
3.1.2 Community Search and Rescue (CSAR) Training
The CSAR training is intended to develop capacity of community, school andorganizations for performing search and rescue operation. This training mainly focus ontechniques and methods necessary for searching, locating and extricating victims on thesurface using the safest and most appropriate procedure. It also incorporates the fire
extinguishing technique by the process of bucket brigade which is most effective in thecommunity level.

Figure 3: Participants performing hands on practice in CSAR training
3.1.3 Basic Emergency Medical Response (BEMR)
BEMR training course is developed with a focus to prepare more number of individuals
at community, institution and household levels, to respond to basic health emergencies
such as bleeding, burn and fractures and also to act as an agent to bridge the gap
between health emergency and medical treatment. Beside this NSET also conducts basic
First Aid training focusing on school earthquake safety.

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Figure 4: Community people participating in BEMR training
3.1.4 Conduction of Damage Assessment Training (DAT)The building needs to be assessed before entering for the search and rescue operation.
This training helps to provide the general idea of the extent of damage in the building. It
mainly deals with the building system and typology, structural and non-structuralcomponent of the building, damage pattern of the buildings and procedure of thedamage assessment. Beside this there are different level of damage assessment training
mainly focused for the professional engineers.

Figure 5: Participating in DAT
3.1.5 Conduction of First Aid Training
Realizing the extensive need of disaster preparedness in schools which is directly linked
with the community, Nepal Red Cross Society (NRCS) and NSET have been
conducting first aid training program for student, teachers and community members.
This helps to develop the basic first aid trained people in different community who cancontribute in disaster. More than 1500 first aid graduates are prepared in different
community along with the trainers for basic first aid training (NSET,2015).

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Chart 1: Total beneficiaries from NSET emergency response training

3.2 Nepal Red Cross Society (NRCS)
The purpose of NRCS is to reduce human suffering, through mobilization of volunteers
and building capacity at different levels with special focus on vulnerable communities.
NRCS mission is to relieve human suffering and to reduce vulnerability throughcommunity participation and mobilization of an increased number of volunteers.
The Community Action for Disaster Response (CADRE) programme is a local response
tool which includes basic life support (first aid) and light search and rescue skills inorder to develop local responders to save life during disaster. This course is introduced
in both urban and rural parts of Nepal. In the process of enhancing the capacity of thecommunity Nepal Red Cross Society (NRCS) has developed 661 CADRE graduates
among them 134 are the instructors who can conduct the training programs. NRCS has
also developed significant number of First-Aiders who actively participated in thisGorkha earthquake (NRCS, 2015).
The Emergency Preparedness and Response (EPR) programme of NRCS aims toenhance the resilience of vulnerable population facing disaster and health risks. The
target group of the programme is potential disaster affected population. The programme
supports staff members and volunteers at regional, district and community level to carryout assessment, response and health care activities.
Nepal Red Cross Society, in coordination with American Red Cross and National
Society for Earthquake Technology (NSET), jointly implemented Disaster Preparedness
for Safer School in Nepal- 2 (DPSS-2) programme. The programme is based in the
School Based Disaster Risk Reduction (SBDRR) process and focused on the
involvement of students, teachers, community members and local authorities in all
activities. The programme aimed to reduce harmful effect of disasters in targetedschools and communities through awareness and proper knowledge on disaster
preparedness measures, to ensure disaster management and response coordination
systems.
The Earthquake Preparedness for Safer Communities (EPS) programme is being
launched by NRCS and the aim of the programme is to reduce vernalibility, and impact
of disaster , including an improved capacity to respond, as envisaged in the national risk
reduction consortium plan. Toal direct and indirect beneficiaries from the programmeare 650,000 in kathmandu valley. The programme has worked out to make the Valley
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safe from the earthquake hazard and its adverse effects. In total, the programme has
produced 10,000 NFRI kits and preparing to pre-position in different four strategic
locations in Kathmandu valley (NRCS,2014).
4. LESSONS LEARNT FROM RECENT EARTHQUAKE 2015
Looking back to Gorkha earthquake, the total casualties was found to be 24,053 (MoHA,
2015). Among them only about 12451 people were rescued by the rescuers from Nepal
and other 34 countries. This shows that almost 50% of the lives were saved bycommunity based first responders and their spontaneous acts or the affected people
managed to come out of debris by themselves. If these community first responders weretrained and well equipped the loss would have decreased significantly. There were a lotof case where community people were involved in rescuing the victim with bare handwhich made them so difficult and time consuming. In some areas community people
attempt to extricate the victim but they were not successful and the situation of thevictim was worsen when the professional rescuers reached there.
In most of the area people were afraid of entering the building due to the damage seen in
it although the cracks were minor. This shows the need of training to identify thedamage level of the building so that the building can be identified as safe or unsafe
before entering. This also helps a lot in minimizing the loss and also plays significant
role in health related issue since most of them were in temporary shelter although theirhouse was safe. This knowledge about rapid damage assessment also helps in rescue
operation, in some community people died in aftershock when they were inside theunsafe structure.
During Gorkha earthquake, in some remote areas the access for professional rescuers
were not possible due to damage of road and infrastructures, physical diversity andadverse weather. Due to this the local people were unable to perform search and rescue
operation alone in their community level. This resulted in more loss of life and property.
Table 1: Search and rescue deployed and the achievement
Title
Numbers
Nepalese Army deployed
66069
Nepal Police deployed
41776
Armed Police Force deployed
24775
Civil servants deployed
22500
Total Foreign Rescuers from 34 countries
4521
Total people rescued by national and international
12451
professional rescuers
Total injured
16033
Total dead
8020
Total population rescued by community or by themselves 11602
Source: MoHA June 25, 2015
Analyzing as per the investment perspective a lot of resource was invested for the
preparation of professional search and rescue (SAR) personals who have less access toremote areas due to geography and poor infrastructure. But there is negligible
investment for the development of community responders who have easy and prompt
access to the affected area during disaster. During the Gorkha earthquake the

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professionals were unable to reach the affected area even after a week, but thecommunity people were heavily involved in rescuing buried and wounded people fromrubble without any trained skill and equipment. The foreign SAR team from 34
countries were in Nepal during the response period. These foreign rescuers could havecovered many districts but the land transport was blocked due to landslide caused byearthquake and the air transport was not effective due to adverse weather. Also the poor
infrastructure made more difficult to reach the affected area within the short period.
In this case if there were community responders in every community, village or districts
the rescue operation would have been more effective. The need of rescue tools andequipment was also highly felt. However if the community people were well equipped
they could have performed more effectively.
5. CONCLUSION
For the better tomorrow we have to be prepared from now. The investment before
disaster is more efficient than after the event. It is seen that the number of casualties anddeath can be minimized if we could plan and develop responders in each and every
community. Due to physical diversity in the country it will be more difficult to haveaccess by the people of different place to the affected area. For this the responders
should be developed in every community. The community people does not require any
professional skills but every people should be trained for lifesaving skills. This will help
to response immediately in disaster and we can minimize the loss significantly. The
need of trained community people is very high to minimize the loss due to disaster.
The community responders should sufficiently equipped with hand operated tools. Thiscan be made efficient by prepositioning the required amount of tools and equipment forevery community within their community or village. This is also the finding of recent
earthquake. The need of improvising the equipment with locally available resources canminimize the loss of life and also makes the optimum use of resources.
REFERENCES
National Society for Earthquake Technology (NSET-Nepal), 2014, Safer Society.
Ministry of Home Affairs, 2008, National Strategy for Disaster Risk Management in
Nepal.
Disaster Management Division Ministry of Home Affairs, 2015 June 25, Gorkha
Earthquake Response, presentation.
Ministry of Home Affairs, 2015, Gorkha Earthquake Search, Rescue and Relief report.
Ministry of Home Affairs, 11th May 2015, Nepal Earthquake 2072: Situation Update
The World Bank, 2005, Annual Report
Nepal Red cross Society, 2015.

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Development of support system for large area
evacuation plan around of nuclear power plant
Satomi SUGISAWA1, Junichi TAKAYAMA2,Makoto FUJIU3,Shoichiro
NAKAYAMA4
1
Student, Kanazawa University, Japan
fg1214@stu.kanazawa-u.ac.jp
2
Professor, Dr., Eng., Kanazawa University, Japan
3
Assistant Professor, Ph.D., Kanazawa University, Japan
4
Professor, Dr., Eng., Kanazawa University, Japan
ABSTRACTIn Japan, with the happen of the accident at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power
Plant that occurred in 2011, there is a growing awareness about disaster prevention of
nuclear disaster. In addition, a major revision of local disaster prevention plans andlarge area evacuation plans from nuclear disaster is also underway. However, it is in
the stage that still need to be reviewed in the development of realistic and safe plan. In
this study, performs the evacuation simulation of the vehicle, in order to help foundproblems and create alternative of evacuation plan. The target of this study is the areaaround of Shika Nuclear Power Plant in Ishikawa Prefecture. In this study, simulated
until arriving at the shelter, not only to leaving the evacuation zone. As a result, vehicle
are concentrated in only a part of road, it resulted that cannot be safely evacuated,when it is evacuated to a shelter that is defined in the state of the evacuation plan.
Therefore, it found that it is necessary to disperse the shelter and evacuation routes.
Keywords: evacuation simulation, nuclear disaster, large area evacuation plan
1. INTRODUCTION
In Japan, Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant accident occurred in 2011. After that,
there has been a growing interest of public in the nuclear disaster. The Fukushima
nuclear accident is the first large-scale nuclear accident in Japan, and overturned thesafety myth of up to it, had a major impact on the world. In the evacuation from the
Fukushima nuclear power plant accident, there were many problems. For example, bigtraffic jam caused by evacuation in private cars has been occurred frequently, and healthcondition of inpatients (people requiring assistance during a disaster) deteriorated due tolong-term evacuation. As such the background causes, nuclear disaster has been revised
significantly. Specifically, in recent years in Japan, international standards such as PAZ(Precautionary Action Zone) and UPZ (Urgent Protective action Planning Zone)
suggested by International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) have been introduced. The
PAZ is the area preparing a preventive protective measures (in region of 5km from thenuclear plant), an area people should start prophylactically evacuation before
radioactive material release. The UPZ is the area preparing emergency protective
measures (in region of 30km from the nuclear plant), an area people should evacuate toindoor or shelter if it exceeds the reference dose after the radioactive material release.

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With the introduction of those criteria, the range where should take nuclear disasterprevention is greatly expanded to the region of 30km zone from the region of 10km, andit was promoted revision of disaster management plans and evacuation plans in theregion.
While four years have elapsed from the Fukushima nuclear power plant accident, evennow, the topic of nuclear emergency preparedness has been frequently featured in thenews, and still there is room for improvement evacuation plan. So, prefectures whichhave nuclear plant was carried out traffic simulation called "evacuation time estimate"
for the purpose of confirmation of the execution of the evacuation plan. However, many
prefectures regard that evacuation is complete when all vehicles have escaped out of the
UPZ. And not considered about screening in simulation. So it is difficult to say that has
been sufficient verification of the evacuation plan. In this study, evacuation simulationfrom nuclear plant was carried out to extract the problems of the current evacuation plan.
The target of this study is an area around of the Shika Nuclear Power Plant in Ishikawa
Prefecture. Furthermore, extract the problems of evacuation plans, perform theverification of the alternatives, and aims to make the support of the evacuation plan.
2. PREVIOUS RESEARCH
In Japan, a lot of evacuation research from natural disaster are studied, but almost
studies are not considered the evacuation simulation. Evacuation simulation regarding
the surrounding area of the Kashiwazaki-Kariwa nuclear power plant in Niigata
Prefecture has been carried out by Fujita et al. According to the results of the simulationby the scenario which is considered wind direction. Furthermore, by Todo et al.,Summarized the transition of nuclear disaster prevention system created before theGreat East Japan Earthquake. Problems of nuclear disaster prevention system that
became apparent from the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant accident, andchanges about that system from then until now, were discussed mainly about disasterprevention measures of Niigata Prefecture. By Nishino et al., questionnaire about
evacuation behavior after the Fukushima nuclear accident was carried out, and basic
data available to estimate evacuation time was organized. After performing theformulation that focus on the travel preparation time of residents in evacuation zone andthe voluntary evacuation rate of residents, and data reduction was subjected being
careful to the variations in the value. Also, questionnaire survey regarding evacuation totarget the residents of the 30 km distance of the Kashiwazaki-Kariwa nuclear power
plant in Niigata Prefecture has been carried out by a Nagai et al.
In the research about car use when disaster occurs, return home behavior has been
analyzed by using traffic simulation by Ishikawa et al., when a large-scale disaster suchas Tokai, Tonankai and Nankai earthquakes occurs. It was examined that how much
impact has been given to traffic state by car use. As a result, it was shown that car use
significantly reduce people giving up return home, but might inhibit rescue efforts bylarge traffic jam.
A study on the evacuation simulation, by Katada et al., scenario simulator that precisely
express the state of flood inundation, evacuation of residents,and flood damage has been
constructed, intended to a large-scale flood in large cities. From the simulation thatreflects the evacuation intention of residents in Arakawa river outburst, it has been
grasped the specific issues of urban areas, such as the damage expansion by occurrenceof large-scale evacuees.

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From the above, about the nuclear disaster, evacuation simulation on the basis of theevacuation plan has been carried out, and problems of the evacuation plan have been
pointed. But, mostly of them were carried out along the Fukushima nuclear accident
earlier nuclear disaster prevention system, so it has become different content from thecurrent disaster prevention plans and evacuation plans. For example, in the above study,
major evacuation means are buses provided from local governments, and the scope ofthe evacuation is within a 10km radius from the nuclear power plant. But in the current
evacuation plan, major evacuation means have been changed to private cars, andpreparing evacuation area has been changed to 30km within from nuclear plant.
Therefore, it is considered when a traffic jam occurs, the range and impact of that isgreater than the simulation, and it is necessary to carry out evacuation simulation along
current evacuation plan. In addition, about studies that was done after the Fukushima
nuclear power plant accident, there are many studies that have been investigated current
situation or problems of nuclear disaster prevention systems and evacuation systems.
But there are no studies that have been discussed specifically about the traffic jam
extent and improvement plans by the use of simulation. Also, after the Great East Japan
Earthquake, became forgiving to private car evacuation, but there is likely to occur new
problems such as the fear of traffic jam. In addition to evacuation simulations by walkthat have been carried out many until now, recently, evacuation simulations by private
cars have been carried out, but most of the target disaster of them are floods or tsunami.
Moreover, most of them assuming a single disaster.
Even in the same private car evacuation, nuclear disaster evacuation and water disasterevacuation are significantly different. For example, the damage of nuclear disasterspread invisible to the eyes, and accident occurrence point is determined. Also, there isa possibility that the damage range spread to very wide area, and the damage spreadover relatively long time from the accident occurs. In addition, nuclear disaster is very
likely to occur as a complex disaster with the earthquake and some disaster. Since thespread of nuclear disaster damage invisible, residents evacuate rely only information
obtained from administrative etc., and it is necessary to establish a disaster prevention
system. On the other hand, since the accident occurrence point is determined, it ispossible to be considered beforehand the evacuation routes or shelter or the like in detail.
Therefore, using evacuation simulation results is considered very effective inconsidering the nuclear disaster, to understand the problems such as traffic jam location,and consider the evacuation routes or procedures that residents can evacuate safely.
3. EVACUATION SIMULATION FROM NUCLEAR POWER PLANT
3.1 Target area
Target area of evacuation simulation to be performed in this study is a Shika Nuclear
Power Plant area of Ishikawa Prefecture. Figure 1 shows the evacuation destination
location and the starting point that was decided in this study. The circle-shaped points
represent start points, and star-shaped points represent shelters. Peripheral population isabout 170,000, in region of 30km. There are not large population compared to othernuclear region in Japan, but the direction is limited since located in the peninsula, there
is a possibility that traffic jam occurs. In addition, there is no big city in region of 30km
distance from the nuclear power plant, but the refuge has been decided to the area thathas larger population and traffic volume such as Kanazawa. Therefore, there is apossibility that a large traffic jam occurs from outside region of 30km.

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Figure 1 Start points (circle-shaped) and shelter (star-shaped) in target area
Also, the UPZ includes part of the Himi city in Toyama Prefecture. Shelters are definedby the evacuation plan of Ishikawa Prefecture, Toyama Prefecture. Ishikawa Prefecturehas 157 shelters, and Toyama Prefecture has 12 shelters. In this study, the starting pointof evacuation vehicle was placed about 90 places to suit Ishikawa prefecture andToyama Prefecture, It is assumed that evacuation to the shelter that has been defined in
the evacuation plan from each starting point.
3.2 Simulation system
Evacuation simulation was examined using Aimsun8.1.0 in this study. Aimsun8.1.0 is
an integrated traffic simulator of macro-meso-micro, and is widely used at home andabroad. This system can import the data such as road network from GIS and google map
easily. In this study we have imported the main road network such as national highway,
high-speed roads and prefectural road from the GIS of detailed map data. The OD
model and branch rate model can be used for route selection. In this study we used the
OD model that specifies the evacuation destination occurrence point of the vehicle.
Figure 2 shows an example of a simulation screen. Aimsun8.1.0 can show some
information such as average speed and average density of each node, and so on. Also,
Aimsun8.1.0 can show the information of each car, such as speed. Furthermore, notonly regional analysis, Aimsun8.1.0 also can wide area analysis. In this study, targetedvery wide area. So we can use some methods of analysis.

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Figule 2 Examples of simulation screen

3.3 Simulation condition
In the evacuation it was assumed that all residents use private cars. It assumes that eachhousehold use one vehicle. Number of vehicles is about 65000. In signalizedintersection, be set up a signal that is 120 seconds one cycle. Speed limit was set
80km/h in Noto-Satoyama-Kaido and the highway, and set 50km/h in the other road.
Evacuation simulation was carried out on the assumption that, immediately after theaccident, evacuation instruction is issued to residents in the region of 5km from thenuclear power plant, and 1 hour later, issued it to all residents in the region of 30km.
Evacuation instruction is well known to residents at the issued time, and all the residents
was assumed to act in accordance with evacuation instructions. Evacuation is started at
the same time with evacuation instruction is issued. Residents in the region of 5km fromthe nuclear plant are assumed to start evacuation within one hour from the evacuation
instructions, and residents in the region of 30km are assumed to start evacuation within
three hours. However, if a part of cars could not start in time for reasons such as trafficjam, the cars continues to occur until a specified number. Generation traffic is only
evacuation cars, so background traffic is not taken into consideration.
4. RESULTS OF SIMULATION
Figure 3 shows that a representation of the one by one cars speed in color during
simulation. Red represents that car speed is most slow (0~15km/h), so the place where
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Figure 3 Evacuation speed (car) during simulatio
red is continuous has occurred traffic jam. Since residents in the region of 5km start theevacuation earlier, so after two and a half hours there are no cars in the area. But whentraffic jam out of the region of 30km becomes violently, the cars were seen to bypass inthe direction of the nuclear power plant and Toyama Prefecture. After seven and a half
hours, cars that were evacuated to the northern Noto Peninsula have completed
evacuation, but the tail end of the vehicle to evacuate to the south remain in the regionof 10km. While the many cars directed toward Kanazawa direction from Ishikawa
direction became violently for above reasons. Finally, the time all of the cars took toarrive at the shelter was about 14 hours. So the evacuation to the Kanazawa direction
took time of about twice of the evacuation to the Noto Peninsula north. From theseresults, the vehicle was found to be likely to concentrate on the road going from insideof the region of 30km to Kanazawa direction.
Therefore, it is considered necessary to determine evacuation routes previously to passthrough a safe detour and to disperse the shelter, and the like.
5. Conclusion
In this study, basic simulation about evacuation using private cars in nuclear disasters
was carried out, to extract the problem of evacuation plans and to propose an
improvement plan. As a result, particularly heavy traffic jams were occurred at
Kanazawa direction, because cars from the peripheral area of nuclear plant to Kanazawa
direction is large and the route to be selected is limited, as compared to the other regions.
Since evacuation completion time is slow, it is necessary to flow a part of cars to unused
path and to disperse the vehicle.
From now on, carried out simulation using a plurality patterns scenario and compare
simulation results, we will consider the best evacuation procedures.
1) Masahiko FUJITA, Jun-ichi TAKAYAMA, Sho-ichiro NAKAYAMA and Takashi
USIBA, 2011, Support system development for evacation plan decision in nuclear plant
disaster, JSCE, D3, Vol.67, No.5, 25-34, Japan (in Japanese)

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2) Fumiaki TOUDOU, 2001, Nuclear disaster prevention measures after TEPCO
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant accident, The journal of economics, Niigata
University, Vol.91, No.2, 131-159, Japan (in Japanese)3) Tomoaki NISHINO, Shinichi TUBURAYA, 2014 Questionnaire survey on
evacuation behaviors of residents following Fukushima nuclear accident for evacuation
time estimate based on new disaster prevention guideline, AIJ, Vol.79, No.698, 10711077, Japan (in Japanese)
4) Daiki NAGAI, Kazushi SANO, Hiroaki NISHIUCHI, 2014, Analysis of the survey
data used in the evacuation simulation of the Kashiwazaki-Kariwa nuclear power plant
accident, JSCE, Vol.50, 230_1-4, Japan (in Japanese)5) Shun ISHIKAWA, Toshiyuki YAMAMOTO and Ryo KANAMORI 2012
Estimation of number of commuters unable to get home considering car availability at
disaster, JSCE, Vol.68, No.5, 903-908, Japan (in Japanese)6) Toshitaka KATADA, Noriyuki KUWASAWA, Satoru SHIDA, Masaru KOJIMA2013 Scenario analysis on evacuation strategies for residents in big cities during largescale flood, JSCE, B1, Vol.69, No.1, 71-82, Japan (in Japanese)

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Efforts of nepal towards bulding adisaster resilient country

Bimal Gadal
Program and Relationship Manager
Disaster Risk Reduction and Humanitarian Program
Oxfam, Country Office, Lalitpur, Nepal
gadalb@oxfam.org.uk

ABSTRACTWith its unique geo-physical settings and socio-economic conditions, Nepal is highly vulnerable
to natural disasters and climate risks. A combination of poverty, climate change, rapid
urbanization and mountainous terrain makes Nepal highly prone to disasters. The 2014 flood andlandslide in the Mid West and Sindhupalchowk followed by 25TH April and 12th May 2015
devastating earthquake clearly indicate that flood, landslide and the earthquake are deadly threat
because of the likelihood of massive loss of lives and infrastructures, particularly in densely
populated area. History of systematic disaster risk reduction practices in Nepal goes back to 2009
when Government launched Nepal Risk Reduction Consortium and also launched the National
Strategy for Disaster Risk Management in the same year. Nepals efforts towards building resilient
communities are grounded on five Flagship priorities in coordination and collaboration ofhumanitarian agencies, financial institutions and development partners. Flagship 4 under NRRC
has identified nine minimum characteristics of resilient community targeting to reach 1000 VDCs
in five years starting from 2009. The Natural Calamity (Relief) Act 1982, the Local Self
Governance Act 1999, National Strategy for Disaster Risk Management 2009, Central Disaster
Relief Committee, Local Disaster Risk Management Planning Guideline 2011, District Disaster
Risk Management Planning Guideline, Disaster Preparedness and Response Plan in the District,
National Disaster Response Framework, National Adaptation Program of Action, Local
Adaptation Plan for Action and National Building Code 1993 are some of the key policy documentsthat Nepal has prepared so far towards its attempt in building resilient communities.
Key words: Geo-physical, Vulnerable, Natural Disasters, Climate Risks, Climate Change, Rapid
Urbanization and Mountainous Terrain, Nepal Risk Reduction Consortium (NRRC), Flagship
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Comparison of housing reconstruction process
after Typhoon Haiyan: “community-driven”
vs. “production-based” approach
Tomoko MATSUSHITA
Project Researcher, International Center for Urban Safety Engineering,
Institute of Industrial Science, the University of Tokyo
ABSTRACTThis paper describes the post-disaster housing provision activities in the region VI bytwenty humanitarian agencies during the recovery phase after Typhoon Haiyan, which
hit the central Philippines on 8th November 2013. The author investigated the processof beneficiary selection, shelter design, implementation as well as policy on landownership by interviewing various national and international agencies and comparedits characteristics. The findings indicate similarity in the process of shelter
implementation by most agencies which seemed effective and sensitive to the local
culture. Two distinct types of approach, “community-driven” and “production-based”
were identified and pros & cons of both approaches are analyzed and the role of local
government and international agencies and an ideal way of working in the future is
examined based on official reviews conducted by international organizations.
Keywords: humanitarian assistance, post-disaster housing, Typhoon Haiyan
1. INTRODUCTION
Typhoon Haiyan (locally known as Yolanda) made landfall in the central Philippines on
8 November 2013, and the strong wind up to 300 km/h and storm surge as high as 4m
devastated both coastal and inland areas and destroyed nearly 1.1 million houses anddisplaced 4.1 million people. Despite the fact that the damage level was equal forcoastal and inland areas, a study showed that 82% of shelter assistance wasconcentrated in coastal areas (Shelter Cluster Philippines 2013). There was a massive
emergency operation in response to the Presidential Proclamation issued on 11
November 2013 declaring a state of national calamity and announcing that international
assistance would be accepted. Although the national government should be responsiblefor disaster response and reconstruction, it is inevitable that many disaster-prone,developing countries still rely on external support, therefore it is important to examine
these activities carefully and verify their effectiveness.
Discussion in this paper is based on the study conducted by the author during her stay in
Roxas city, Capiz province of the Philippines for seven and a half months from May
2014 through March 2015 during the 1) implementation of 610 core shelter construction
project with UN-Habitat, 2) assisting the “interim Shelter Cluster” for coordinating
shelter activities in the region VI and 3) conducting individual interviews with537

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representatives from national and international agencies implementing shelter programsin region VI (Western Visayas) (Figure 1), which was the second hardest hit area by thetyphoon, more than a year after the typhoon.
Figure 1. Map of typhoon path and damaged houses by municipality(UNOCHA, 18 Nov 2013)

Source :http://reliefweb.int/map/philippines/philippines-damaged-houses-18-nov-2013-1800-utc8

2. SHELTER OPERATION OVERVIEW
Time, cost and quality are the three critical factors to verify housing reconstruction
operation and its effectiveness after disaster. In order to investigate how various actors
from different backgrounds are working in the region to reach the same goal ofproviding shelter to those who lost their homes, the author conducted interviews ofthirteen representatives from national and international organizations that were working
in the shelter cluster in the region VI, and also consolidated shelter activity informationby active agencies to create a simple database to help all involved parties including
local government comprehend the on-going activities. As a result of the study, theauthor identified two distinct approaches and verified their characteristics in an attempt
to understand their effectiveness and make useful suggestions for the future of shelter
construction operation. This chapter will give background information to help
understand the comparison of two approaches: findings from data consolidation of
shelter activities by different agencies are described to grasp a common feature or
general tendency of shelter operation, followed by explanations of various processes ofshelter implementation.
2.1 Findings from data consolidation of shelter activities
There were approximately twenty national and international organizations providing
shelters in region VI and they can be classified into four types; National or localorganization (22%), International organization (44%), International organization withnationally based office existing prior to typhoon (28%) and International organization in
partnership with local NGO (6%). Most of the international organizations had one or
two international personnel assigned in the field office but the rest of the teams werelocally hired. According to the Yolanda Recovery Shelter Guidelines drafted in May
2014, the Shelter Cluster Philippines describes nine options for shelter assistance from
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1 year, 2) Temporary Shelter (TS), 3) Host Family Programs (HF), 4) Rental Support(RS), 5) Bunkhouse Program (BH) as Temporary Shelter Assistance for 2 years, 6)
Repair and Retrofit (R&R), 7) Core House (CH), 8) Permanent House (PH) and 9)
Settlement Plan (SP) as Permanent Shelter Assistance for up to 9 years. The definition
for each type of assistance does not specify construction method or materials and thenaming of shelters was left up to the interpretation of each agency (Shelter Cluster2014). In region VI, based on the categorization of shelter type by each agency, 50% of
all provided shelters were “permanent” (Core Houses (39%) and Permanent Houses(11%)) and 50% were “non-permanent” (Temporary Shelter (6%), Transitional Shelter(22%) and Semi-permanent houses (22%)).
2.1.1 Size
An average unit size of a shelter was 21m2 and 79% of them ranged between 18 to 20
m2. The size is likely to be decided based on a minimum standard set by The Sphere
Project of a covered area of 3.5 m2 per person for a temporary shelter, multiplied by 5,
the average family size in the Philippines, to become 17.5 m2 (The Sphere Project). It
should be noted that this standard is minimum for temporary shelters and not forpermanent shelters and 20 m2 does not seem sufficient for a family of five to live, but it
is also observed that the typical indigenous homes in the affected area before thetyphoon are more or less the same size.
2.1.2 Cost & Materials
The cost of a shelter ranged greatly from 25,000 to 200,000 PHP – Philippines Pesos(550 to 4,428 USD), with the average cost for “non-permanent” shelter at 68,000 PHP(1,505 USD) per unit while that of “permanent” shelter was 110,600 PHP (2,450 USD),
1.63 times that of non-permanent one. Needless to say, the cost is directly related to thematerials used for construction and most of the shelters were built with mixed materialsof concrete as main structural members and light materials such as wood or bamboo as
wall frame & panelling. For those categorized as “permanent”, 70% of them usedconcrete solely or in combination with other light materials while 30% used lightmaterials only. For “non-permanent” type, 40% of them used concrete and 60% used
light materials only. This implies that concrete was used more with “permanent”
shelters while light materials were used more for “non-permanent” shelters. However it
also indicates that the categorization of shelters does not necessarily denote specificconstruction types.
A slight correlation was acknowledged between the cost of a unit and the total numberof shelters provided by an organization. It indicated that the less expensive a unit costs,
the greater number of units could be provided. However it may be misleading to assume
the correlation since the decision to build in large quantity depends not only on the unit
cost but on the size of the agency, scale of its operation and its policies, etc.
2.1.3 Time
Construction time required to build a unit varied greatly and this proved to be achallenging comparison because it depends on many factors such as the number andtype of workers assigned, the type of construction approach – whether on-site or
prefabrication off-site, by hiring a general contractor or by separate order, andcomplexity of design which differed from agency to agency and so on.

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Table.1 Shelter implementation by various agencies in region VI (2014-2015)

INT-1c:Temporary/18m2/36K/400

INT-4:
Transitional/20m2/NA/520

INT-9c:Transitional/19m2/118K/141

FOR-1:
Transitional /20m2/95K / 150

FOR-4:
Semi-perm/18m2 / 50K/1,750

INT-6c:Semi-perm/18m2/135K/540

NAT-5:
Core/40m2/60-80K/1,028

NAT-5:
Core/24m2/80-100K/1,322

NAT-1c:Core/20m2/130-150K/280

FOR-3:
Core / 20m2 / 65.5K/400

INT-7:
Core / 20m2 / 165K/123

INT-8c:Permanent/20m2/115K/141(Agency code: shelter type/floor area/cost (Philippines Peso)/total # planned)(Agency code: INT: International NGOs/IOs/UN, FOR: Foreign NGOs, NAT: NationalNGOs, c: Christian)Comparing the shelter designs from various agencies as shown in Table 1 indicates thatdesigns are not radically different from one another and they can be classified into twogeneral types: light-construction with raised floor, and half or full-concrete construction
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structural constraints, acceptability by both cultural and environmental climate, in
addition to the design guidelines provided by the Shelter Cluster. Roof structural designis the most critical part of the typhoon resilient shelter and this has to be examined
carefully to ensure that adequate countermeasures were taken. In the following section,
the process of shelter implementation is discussed.
2.2 Findings from interviews
2.2.1 Process: Beneficiary Selection
Ideally, the affected population who lost homes due to disasters should all be eligible toreceive shelter assistance equally however there is almost never enough assistanceavailable to accommodate all the needs thus agencies must choose the beneficiary basedon a careful selection process. Beneficiary selection process is considered to be one of
the most critical aspects of shelter construction because it determines to whom thelimited resources will be allocated and the organizations are almost always required to
be impartial and accountable to the affected population.
The Shelter Cluster recommends a certain procedure and criteria for beneficiary
selection in its guidelines and the majority of organizations followed some system toinvolve community leaders in the early stage of selection, to consult the community
people, make site assessment and verify applicants by interviewing each household ifnecessary. An example of a beneficiary selection process applied by one of theinternational organizations indicated eight steps for selecting beneficiaries which takes aminimum of 15 days per community, starting with step-1: courtesy call to the leaders of
local government and community (1 day), step-2: conducting an orientation to thecommunity about the shelter provision project including the selection process (1d), step3: submission of application by the people (1d), step-4: assessment of individual sites
and the community (1d), step-5: beneficiary selection based on the submitted
application and the eligibility (2d), step-6: second assessment if necessary (1d), step-7:
public posting (3d) and step-8: accepting objections to the final list (1d). By making acourtesy call, it informs the local officials about the potential shelter assistance activity
so that they are well-informed about the on-going activities while critical informationsuch as vulnerable members of the community can be obtained from them.
Engineering is not the only expertise required in shelter construction but community
mobilization is another essential skill that is required for verifying the applicants.
Although it is important to establish a good relationship with the community and its
leaders, sometimes the community leaders could be biased about their own people,
providing information that favour certain groups. Therefore the challenge on the
ground was to understand the community dynamics well enough by frequent
communication with the community by the community organizers so that the rightapproach is taken and consequently a fair selection is made.
One of the most critical questions during the beneficiary selection is whether the
potential beneficiary owns the land or not. Typically the most vulnerable people arethose without land ownership yet it is often a pre-condition for receiving permanent
shelter assistance. Although all agencies that were interviewed said that they requireland ownership as beneficiary criteria, most agencies accepted an alternative solution
which is to have a written agreement made between the owner and the beneficiary toassure the use of land for a certain period of time.
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2.2.2 Process: Shelter Design
Shelter design influences the project budget and is one of the most visible outputs of the
project thus it is a critical decision who designs and how it is done. Based on theinterviews conducted in the region VI, twelve out of thirteen (92%) organizations
design their shelter using in-house staff –locally or internationally hired for the projectand only one out of thirteen (8%) contracted out to architects. The latter was a uniquecase where the donor has found a group of national architects in the Philippines andrequested the operation team to work with them. And from those which used in-housestaff, 33% used a design developed by the people in Headquarter office and 66% used adesign that was developed by the locally stationed staff. Some agencies hired a local
architect to come up with a design in less than one week while others spent as long as
three months developing a design, trying to strike a balance between cost and effect,
and not outdo the work of the government.
Many of the organizations expressed that the guideline by the Shelter Cluster was usefuland they often made reference to it. Though some organizations mentioned about
actively exchanging information with other organizations during the design process,many of them seemed to have developed the design by themselves, not collaboratingwith others.
2.2.3 Process: Shelter Construction
There is a number of ways post-disaster shelter construction is carried out, but it can begeneralized into two types: one managed by a general contractor like in a regular
practice and the other one participated by the beneficiaries which is a unique approachafter disaster and it is used mainly to create jobs for the affected population, increase a
sense of ownership and build strength among the people. It does not necessarily lower
the cost of construction since it often takes more time when constructed by non-trainedlabours. There are several ways to involve the beneficiaries in the process ofconstruction and the most common and simple way is to hire them as labourers for
simple tasks that do not require training such as carrying construction materials anddoing simple carpentry work. Less common and more systematic but effective ways toinvolve the beneficiaries were observed and they were both well-planned but distinctly
different in their approach which will be discussed in the next section.
3. COMPARISON AND ANALYSIS
After examining various aspects of shelter implementation programs in region VI, theauthor identified two approaches that were uniquely systematic in their operation andbased on specific ideas toward shelter reconstruction.
3.1 Community-driven Approach
3.1.1 Community as beneficiary
A unique method called “community-driven approach” was taken to implement sheltersby the UN-Habitat Philippines, with its country office located in Manila prior to thetyphoon. Its objective was clearly set and focused on the capacity building of thepeople by promoting the participation of the affected population. A similar method is
also known as “People’s Process” (UN-HABITAT 2008) implemented by the UN-

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Habitat in other countries such as Afghanistan, Bangladesh and Pakistan. It can be said
that shelter construction is a good catalyst for bringing peoples’ power together because
everyone needs better shelter after disaster. UN-Habitat used a strategy of providing
not only shelters but also infrastructure assistance to the community and this has
promoted active involvement of the community as a whole, not just partial participationby those who receive shelters. If building shelters was the only outcome of the project,
it would have been difficult to involve the whole community to help those who needmore support. By involving the community as a counterpart of the project, it creates asense of collective responsibility and mutual participation which reinforces the activity.
3.1.2 Community Empowerment
In the program run by the UN-Habitat, those who receive shelter assistance are notcalled beneficiaries but household partner(s) (HPs) to make clear that they are notpassive recipients of goods but are active members of the program, given importantroles and responsibility to realize the project. As an example, the community isrequired to form four kinds of committees on voluntary basis: finance committee,
construction committee, procurement committee and monitoring committee in order tohandle all aspects of shelter implementation from the start to finish. It includes payment
to the workers and ordering of materials by themselves, with the support of UN-Habitat
field office staffs. It is a unique practice since the money which is funded mainly by theJapanese government is directly transferred from UN-Habitat Headquarters to theaccount of the community without involvement of the UN-Habitat country office. This
arrangement puts a great pressure on those who handle the finance and creates difficultyat times. Procurement of the materials is also handled by the community which allows
them to make direct negotiation with the local suppliers and creates contact for them.
3.1.3 Amateurism
Despite the difficulties that they face due to the lack of expertise, the experience
ultimately gives them the confidence that they can do complicated tasks, a sense of
pride for taking over difficult roles though one may not be compensated for it, and astrong attachment to the final product that is the shelter itself. It is a time and energy
consuming approach and depends on available resources in the given community whichmakes it difficult to control and less efficient, however seeing how people gained
confidence and became empowered through the process, it can be said that this is one
way of implementing shelter successfully.
3.2 Production-based Approach
3.2.1 Individual as beneficiary
The other approach which the author calls “production-based approach” is a highly
systematic approach taken by two international NGOs independently who establishedits method based on previously successful experiences of post-disaster shelter
construction projects in other countries. Unlike the “community-driven approach”, theirprogram focused on providing shelters to selected individuals with no involvement of
the community required. An advantage of working with a community was felt when
visiting to these projects. If the entire community was involved, there was always
someone from the community to meet staff and respond to inquiries, but if only an
individual was involved, it wasn’t guaranteed that someone would be available toanswer if the workers were absent or the provided house was unoccupied.
Comparison of housing reconstruction process after Typhoon Haiyan:
Comparisonvs.
of housing
reconstruction
process after Typhoon Haiyan: “community-driven” vs.543“community-driven”“production-based”
approach“production-based” approachOctober
2015,
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Nepal
October2015,
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3.2.2 Off-site operation
The main objective seemed to be the efficiency of operations by an effective use of offsite operation, and the setting up of workshops and warehouses. Setting up off-site
workshops allowed for the prefabrication of shelter components such as windows andwall panels as much as possible, which reduced on-site construction work and enabled
better quality control. Setting up warehouses allowed for making bulk orders, reducing
the effort and possibly the cost, and it also allowed for stocking of materials in an
organized manner so that the right amount of supplies are readily available to bedelivered to the construction site without delay. Such off-site operations assured thecreation of stable jobs for the affected population and local people employed at theseworkshops and warehouses could be part of the reconstruction process giving them asense of participation and pride.
3.2.3 Professionalism
Workers salaries were paid when the assigned task was achieved by the locally hired
staff and the entire operation was managed by one or two international staff withexpertise in shelter construction in other countries. These two international NGOs hadin common that their shelter designs were developed by an international staff with ahigh degree of expertise in shelter construction and they both spent a good amount oftime consulting with the local people including local government, engineers andcommunity members. Their construction drawings were thorough, well prepared andpresented compared to other organizations. Studying the ways they operated their
shelter implementation, a sense of professionalism and confidence was observed backed
by past experiences of successful operation.
3.3 Analysis
The differences in approach taken by two types of organizations may be explained by
the fact that the former approach was taken by an organization that has a presence in the
country prior to the typhoon with close relationships with the national actors including
the government while the latter approach was taken by international organizations
without a country office or pre-existing relationship. Naturally the former has more
knowledge and understanding about how the country operates and the issues they have,therefore their way of developing the method of implementation and involving
themselves in the project may be based on the idea that they will continue to be
involved on a long term basis, while the latter may have entirely different approaches tohave a good exit strategy since the organization will leave after completing theimplementation. Thus it can be said that each organization with different strength
employed an approach that is suitable to them in each way and they both succeeded inachieving their set goals.
In order to verify which type of approach was more effective, one needs to consider not
only the total number of shelters provided and the amount of time spent to implement
them but many other factors must be taken into consideration and it is not possible tosimply compare and evaluate. Although cost and time are both undoubtedly importantfactors in the disaster recovery process, there are other unquantifiable qualities such as
the strengthening of community ties that contributes to building resiliency against futuredisasters. Table 2 shows pros and cons of two types of approach. The optimal solution
may be midway between the two.

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Table 2 Pros & Cons for two types of approach for shelter implementation

Pros
Cons

Community-driven approach¾ community as beneficiary¾ on-site construction, managed
by the committee formed by thecommunity¾ from insider’s view
 Building capacity
 Strong sense of ownership Collective responsibility
 Time consuming Dependent on personal ability
 Difficult to control

Production-based approach¾ individual as a beneficiary¾ systematic operation using off-site
prefabrication as much as possible¾ from outsider’s view







Systematic, fast and efficient
Easier to control quality
Creating constant jobs
Limited capacity building
Less sense of ownership
Little community involvement

4. OBSERVATIONS
4.1 Temporary Housing as Humanitarian Assistance vs. Permanent Housing as
Development
An inherent and complex issue with regards to post-disaster housing is the gap between
humanitarian and development assistance. Both temporary and permanent houses were
provided after the typhoon and the line between the two is not clear as to when theprovision of temporary shelter ends and permanent shelter begins. It is inevitable thatsome organizations will provide temporary housing while others provide permanent
housing during the same period of time. But the consequence is that the quality, cost
and the delivery time (QCD) of the shelters vary depending on which agency provided
the service and this has caused some issues among the beneficiaries.
It seems that the government is concerned about permanent housing but not temporary
housing because it is supposed to be used only temporarily while waiting to be replacedby permanent housing. However, one issue is that many of these temporary houses end
up becoming permanent due to lack of financial capability to build a new house. It is
important to advocate “Building Back Better”, to promote permanent housing solutions
rather than temporary ones and in order to do so, a strategy for a smooth transition fromemergency phase led by a humanitarian actor such as Shelter Cluster (IFRC) to thereconstruction phase succeeded by a development actor such as UN-Habitat is needed,while involving governmental actors at each step.
4.2 Shelter in Urban context
Of the various housing designs, the core shelter form has various advantages, but thesuccessful implementation depends on the site. After visiting projects by other agencies
and comparing them with that of UN-Habitat, it was confirmed that the core shelter
works better in rural settings where there is enough land around the house to allow forbuilding extensions, which is the original idea of building a core shelter. However
unfortunately there were many core shelters built on tight property lots in urban areas

Comparison
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where there is no more room to grow. Follow up visits are needed to verify theconsequence of the core shelters built in urban contexts.
5. CONCLUSION
The study of shelter operations in region VI revealed that outputs and methods used byvarious organizations proved to be fairly similar though despite the similarity, it seemedthat each agency conducted its operations independently without much collaboration.
A comparative study of two types of shelter implementation approaches – “communitydriven” and “production-based” – indicated that each approach was effective andsuccessful in achieving its own set goals. Both types of approaches demonstrated
strengths and weaknesses and it is important to carefully study both methods to come up
with an optimal solution.
5.1 Ideal roles for government and international organizations
As mentioned in the introduction, the government should be responsible for disaster
response and reconstruction process but in reality, many disaster-prone developing
countries still rely on external support due to the lack of resources and management
expertise. However it is important to recognize the downside of not taking the initiativein the operation. If the government has difficulty grasping overall situation due to lackof sufficient information sharing with organizations, it could cause imbalance,
unfairness or inefficiency due to lack of coordination in the assistance. In order toavoid such situation, the government should be the focal point in the operation, taking
charge of damage assessment, verification and listing of affected populations whichshould be thoroughly done by the local government and then it should concentrate on
the overall management while the actual implementation work can be outsourced toNGOs and international organizations with high level of expertise and sufficient
resources. International organization could play an important role as a third party toassure transparency by checking the quality and fairness of implementation.
In order to take further steps for a more effective post-disaster shelter implementation,
government involvement is required to be better prepared, two basic actions arerecommended based on the study of this paper to: 1) study the shelter implementation
processes of various agencies and survey actual shelters provided to check the quality
and structural integrity; and 2) select and prepare a few optimal solutions (shelter
designs) endorsed by Shelter Cluster and UN to be used by agencies that join theiroperations in order to achieve faster implementation with quality control. A holistic
approach is needed to reach a common goal of providing enough shelters to those inneed, rather than focusing on the individual goals set by each actor.
REFERENCES
Disaster Response Dialogue. (2014) Learning Review of the cooperation between the
Government of the Philippines and humanitarian actors in their response to Typhoon
Yolanda. 18 June 2014. http://www.drdinitiative.org/v2/ (accessed 15 September 2015)

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Cities in Asia
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Disaster Response Dialogue. (2014) Addressing the perennial problems of disaster
response. Background study for the Disaster Response Dialogue Conference Manila,
Philippines, October 2014. Fundacion DARA internacional 2014 and HERE-Geneva
2014. http://www.drdinitiative.org/v2/ (accessed 15 September 2015)
Sanderson, D. and Knox Clarke, P. with Campbell, L. (2012) Responding to urban
disasters: Learning from previous relief and recovery operations. ALNAP lessons
paper. London: ALNAP/ODI
Shelter Cluster Philippines. (2013) Fact sheets #2, Super Typhoon Haiyan Shelter
Cluster Assessment – Overview of final results.
Shelter Cluster Philippines. (2014) RECOVERY SHELTER GUIDELINES.
https://www.sheltercluster.org/sites/default/files/docs/Recovery%20Shelter%20Guideli
nes.pdf (accessed 15 June 2015)
Shelter Cluster Philippines. (2014) Analysis of Shelter Recovery.
http://www.ShelterCluster.org (accessed xx October 2015)
The Sphere Project. (2011) Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in
Humanitarian Response. UK: Practical Action Publishing.
United Nations Human Settlements Programme. (2008) People’s Process in Postdisaster and Post-conflict Recovery and Reconstruction. UN-HABITAT Regional
Office for Asia & the Pacific, UN-HABITAT Fukuoka Office.
Individual Interviews (in alphabetical order)
ADRA Philippines, 27 February 2014, Business Center, Roxas
CASAC (Capiz Archdiocesan Social Action), 9 March 2014, CASAC office, Roxas
Enfants du Mekong, 26 March 2014, Aklan
Habitat for Humanity, 25 March 2014, Iloilo
IOM, 10 March 2014, Business Center, Roxas
Philippines Red Cross, 9 March 2014, PRC office, Roxas
PRRM Aklan, 26 March 2014, PRRM office, Aklan
Solidar Suisse, 1 February 2014, Roxas
Tearfund, 28 January 2014, Iloilo
WHH, 31 January 2014, WHH office, Roxas
World Vision, 23 January 2014, Business Center, Roxas
World Renew, 2 March 2014, World Renew office, Roxas

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New technology for urban safety or moreconcentration on the fundamentals?
Richard SHARPE1,Yogeshwar PARAJULI2, Jibaraj POKHAREL3
and Bijaya UPADHYAYA4
1
Technical Director Earthquake Engineering, BECA, New Zealandrichard.sharpe@beca.com
2
Development Commissioner, Kathmandu Valley Development Authority, Nepal
3
Vice Chancellor, National Academy of Science and Technology, Nepal
4
Director, CBDRM/DRM Office, NSET-Nepal, Nepal
ABSTRACT
More than two decades ago the authors were part of an international team entrusted withdrafting a national building code for Nepal, investigating alternative construction materials
and methodologies, and providing an implementation plan and law. This was the result of agovernment initiative led by Madhab Mathema (urban planner) in response to the 1988
Udayapur earthquake (M 6.9) 1 in which nearly 1000 people died in Nepal and India. The
seismic design provisions were underpinned by a probabilistic hazard analysis of acomprehensive seismicity model compiled from all available fault and historical information
within and beyond the country’s border. The building code, largely owing to the guidance ofDr.Anand Arya of India, was innovative in that it included sections for engineered structures,
mandatory rules-of-thumb for less formal buildings, and guidelines for traditional buildings.
Few buildings in Kathmandu exceeded five storeys, reinforced concrete construction
practices and material qualities were not well controlled, and only a few engineers followedinternational best practice. After the 25th April earthquake this year, there have been national
and international calls for a more stringent enforcement of the building code and its review.
This paper examines what changes have occurred in Kathmandu since the building code waspassed into law (1993), and concludes that there are very few substantial improvements incommon practice. It is suggested that not necessarily new technology is needed in
Kathmandu, but an improvement in the implementation of existing, well-tried, well-proventechnologies are required so that at the very least there is a much better compliance with theexisting building code. Reinforced concrete was once considered a new technology. There isplenty of evidence from the observation of reinforced concrete buildings that were destroyedin this earthquake that this technology is still poorly-understood.
Keywords: New technology, code compliance, Nepal Building Code, alternative materials,
reinforced concrete

1

As per a web article͆The Udayapur earthquake of August 20, 1988 (M b 6.4, Ms 6.6, Origin
time: 23:09:10, epicenter at 26.8 o N 86.6 o E and Focal depth 57 km) occurred in the
Himalayan front arc which caused severe damage in the region will loss of 1100
lives.”http://www.researchgate.net/publication/260105223_Anomalous_seismic_activity_associated_with_1988_Udayapur_earthquake549

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

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Building Resilient Urban System:
Approach of National Urban Development Strategya
Mr. Padma Kumar MAINALEE1 and Pragya PRADHAN2
1
Joint Secretary, Ministry of Urban Development,
Kathmandu, Nepal.
pkmainalee@hotmail.com
2
Urban Planner Consultant, Kathmandu Valley Development Authority,
Kathmandu, Nepal.
ABSTRACTThe urban areas are often termed as ‘engines of growth’ that drives development of the nation.
However, it is equally true that urban development is investment intensive hence security of theinvestment is vital in attracting further resources to push development forward. Therefore,
National Urban Development Strategy, 2015 (NUDS), prepared by Ministry of Urban
Development, Nepal, has envisaged a safer and resilient urban space which expands fromexisting responsive approach of disaster management to an integrated approach for achieving
desirable condition of physically, socially, economically, environmentally and culturally safeand resilient urban areas. Furthermore, NUDS has established resiliency as one of the fiveguiding principles to achieve its vision of a ‘Balanced and prosperous national urban system’.
The paper mainly summarizes the concept of resiliency drawn by NUDS, major impediments or
issues in achieving the desirable condition and the strategies together with pertinent activities
that need to be taken to address the identified issues.
Keywords: urban development, resiliency, safer settlements, existing status, national strategies
1. INTRODUCTION
Natural disaster in Nepal can be characterized into events such as earthquake, flood, land slide,drought and epidemics. According to GFDRR, more than 90 percent of Nepal’s population lives
in relatively high risk area from two or more hazards, of which the unpredictable and highly
probable one is earthquake. This region has one of the most active fault lines and subduction ofIndian plate under Tibetan plate by 2.5 cm per year gives up thrust to these Himalayas, which
releases the stored energy in the form of seismic waves. Hence, this region is under high seismic
vulnerability and incurs more than thousand earthquakes ranging from 2-5 on Richter scale every
year. However, it has also succumbed to some major earthquakes with the average return periodaNational Urban Development Strategy, 2015 has been prepared by Ministry of Urban Development and it is in theprocess of approval from the cabinet. Dr. Pitamber Sharma was the team leader and the NUDS secretariat at the
Ministry was led by. Dr. Mahendra Subba, then Joint Secretary, for preparing the document. Both writers were themembers of the NUDS secretariat.

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October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepalof 70-80 years. The historical great earthquake of 1934 was measured as 8.4 rector scale, which
was followed by the recent earthquake in April 2015 of 7.9 rector scale that resulted inwidespread destruction and casualty of 8856 people. Also, the period of seismic gap in the Far
western region of the country has been indicating possibility of a major seismic activity in theregion. On the other hand, landslides and flooding are yearly events that claim most lives andhave displaced large number of families. According to Nepal Disaster Report 2013, with an
exception of 2009, flood and landslides have resulted in most number of human causalities since
2000. In 2009, the highest numbers of death was caused by epidemics.
However, the concept of resiliency in Nepal is limited to disaster management framework andpolicy, which is evident in analysis of the cost such that major government expenditure fordisaster management is concentrated in post disaster response and recovery. It was also evident
in the nation’s response to April 2015 earthquake, which was reactive in nature and and lacked
preparedness in dealing with an evident catastrophe. Therefore, National Urban Development
Strategy, 2015 (NUDS) has attempted to establish the concept of ‘resilience’ in building safer
urban space, that entails integration of multiple sectors and stakeholders in a proactive approachof building resilient urban system. Therefore, based on the existing identified issues with regards
to building resiliency and lessons learnt from April 2015 earthquake, NUDS has formulated
strategies to guide Ministry of Urban Development in integrating resiliency as a vital element of
the urban planning process in developing resilient urban system.
2. NATIONAL APPROACH TOWARDS DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Ministry of Home Affairs is the national agency for disaster management, which underDepartment of Narcotics, Drug Control and Disaster Management formulates and implements
the national policy for disaster mitigation and preparedness. “All activities in disastermanagement are guided and directed by the Central Disaster Relief Committee chaired by theHome Minister in accordance with the Disaster (Relief) Act 1982”, which coordinates
emergency and preparedness activities. The responsibility of onsite action is passed down from
the Ministry to Local Natural Disaster Management Relief Committee (Municipality) throughthe Regional and District Level Relief Committees. However, this system is focused on postdisaster scenario of emergency rescue and relief. According to World Bank analysis in 2010, in
Nepal the pre-disaster spending for disaster management has doubled in the past decade; but it isstill less than post disaster spending and the Natural Calamity Relief Act 1980 focuses on
response only. This leaves a large scope to divert funds towards preparation and mitigation plan
to build resiliency towards natural disasters, which will have significant role in reducing the postdisaster spending.
3. SECTORAL APPROACH TOWARDS DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Urban development sector is resource intensive, therefore security of the investment is vital andthat can only be ensured through promulgating resiliency as the principle for development. Other
way round, resiliency is a critical factor that attracts investment towards urban development
sector so that it can function as engines of growth. Therefore, underscoring the significance of‘resilience’ NUDS has established resiliency as one of the five guiding principles fordevelopment of “Balanced and Prosperous National Urban System”, which demands integrating

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resilience as a key component of the planning process in building resilient cities that are
adaptive, and capable to anticipate and plan for future vulnerabilities.
NUDS has defined resiliency on the basis of four basic elements that are:i) Physical Status: It is based on physical planning such as building codes, bye-laws, land
use zoning, etc. and requires preparation of hazard maps and geological feature of thearea to develop safer settlements.
ii) Social Status: It is reflected by the social capital of the community, which is based on
their preparedness to and capacity to respond during disasters.
iii) Economic Status: Vulnerability is directly proportional to level of poverty or economic
condition as it has direct implication of capacity of the people to mitigate, adapt andrecover from a disaster.
iv) Institutional Status: The strength of local and national governments, and institutions
both in the government and non-government sectors to plan, prepare, respond and recoverfrom the disaster is vital in reducing vulnerability of the people.
However, the concept of resiliency is still to be integrated in the urban planning process, which
ensures its establishment as a vital factor to guide development activities. At present, there areurban sector related policies, acts, regulations, standards that are stand-alone documents, but with
impact on building urban resilience. They are, Town Development Act, 1988 and Regulations,
2004; National Shelter Policy, 1997 (revised on 2011); Building Act, 1998 and Regulation, 2009,
which is the legal basis for enforcing National Building Code; National Urban Policy, 2007,
which seeks DRM Plan for all local bodies and inter-alia community mobilization for its
implementation; Local Self Governance Act, 1998, which mandates local bodies to implement
DRM activities; Apartment Act, 1997 and Regulation, 2003; Urban Drinking Water Supply andSanitation, 2009, etc. These documents together with national framework for disastermanagement have to be integrated to develop a comprehensive urban resiliency plan andstrategy.
4. EXISTING STATUS OF URBAN RESILIENCENUDS has attempted to analyze the existing condition of the identified four basic elements ofresilience in the urban context of the country, which is as follows:i) Physical Status: As of 2014, out of 58 municipalities, only 12 have enforced buildingcode for construction work within the municipality jurisdiction. With total of 217
municipalities in 2015, and predominant rural setting of most of the new municipalities,
enforcement of existing building code seems even more challenging.
Therefore, the issue is to strictly implement bye-laws and National Building Code in allmunicipalities, including VDCs that are rapidly urbanizing. Also, enforcement of land
use zoning is almost nonexistent in municipalities, which has been a major hurdle indevelopment of safer settlement.
ii) Social Status: At present, out of 806 wards in 58 municipalities, 403 have Ward Citizen
Forum, which is a group with legal status, whose members are the local people residingin the particular ward. Though most of the forums are inactive, there is scope forpreparing targeted community based disaster management plans for both pre and postdisaster situations that mobilizes these forums.

Building Resilient Urban System: Approach of National Urban Development Strategya553

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepaliii) Economic Status: Based on the data of CBS (2012), the percent of people below thepoverty line in the urban areas of Nepal increased from 9.55 in 2004/05 to 15.46 in
2010/11. With rise of poverty in urban area, it is also an indicator of decreased resiliency
of urban population to disasters. A survey in Ratnanagar Municipality in Chitwan showsthat 27% are below poverty level; nearly 41 % of the population are vulnerable and caneasily be pushed into poverty. This shows low level of resiliency in majority of
population with weak economic status in many urban areas in Nepal. In the national
context, according to the records of 2014, Nepal is ranked 184th country (out of 213
countries) in the World Banks list of Gross National Income per Capita category, which
explains lowest degree resilience in straight interpretations.
iv) Institutional Status: Disaster management component was included in the periodic planof municipalities only since 2009. The Earthquake Vulnerability Maps have been
prepared for only 5 municipalities by Earthquake Risk Reduction and Recovery
Preparedness Program for Nepal. Further, Risk Hazard Maps have been prepared for 4
municipalities as of 2012. This shows lack of preparation to deal with disasters and evenin cases where the maps have been prepared it has not been utilized for reducing
vulnerability. Most of the municipalities even do not have a disaster management section
within their institutional framework.
Other issues identified in NUDS are:• Even though DRM has been incorporated in Periodic Plans of the municipalities, the support
system is inadequate and the internalization of Disaster Risk management activities inmunicipal planning is quite slow.
• DRM framework lags linkage with other sectors and relationship between mapping,planning, land use and building code is not established prominently. There is no national
seismic standard for lifeline facilities such as bridges, water supply, etc.
• Rapid depletion of open spaces in urban area with urban expansion towards marginal lands
such as steep slopes and flood plains has increased vulnerability of the people.
• The local governing bodies lack post disaster preparedness plans, such as reconstruction anddebris management, which is critical for speedy recovery to the society from a disaster.
• Lack of multi-hazard approach that deals with different types of disasters.
• Lack of information on historical events such as flood inundation areas based on return
period, climate change and its impact, etc.
5. STRATEGIES FOR BUILDING SAFER AND RESILIENT URBAN AREAS
The following section enlists the strategies, as formulated in NUDS, for building safer andresilient urban areas. Each strategy is followed by proposed activities that are vital in achieving
the goal set by the strategy.
S1. Promote multi-hazard approach in dealing with disasters including climate change- Identify high risk areas in all urban areas based on available information- Develop rapid hazard appraisal technique to identify hazards and prepare multi-hazard mapof all urban areas- Incorporate disaster risk management component in urban development plans- Generate information on climate change in urban areas of different ecological regions

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S2: Plan and develop Integrated Safe Settlement.
- Prepare norms and standards for safe settlement.
- Prepare resource map, soil capability map and risk sensitive land use plan for all urban areas
S3: Establish system of periodic review to strengthen building code, building regulations andguidelines and planning by-laws on the basis of lessons learnt with mechanisms to enforce
and monitor them in all urban areas- Conduct periodic review of building code/regulations/guidelines and planning by-laws- Increase technical capacity of the local bodies to enforce building code/regulations/guidelines
and planning by-laws- Prepare simplified building guideline s and planning bylaws that can be understood at grassroot level- Facilitate mandatory enforcement and periodic monitoring of land use regulation, buildingcode/regulations/guidelines and planning by-laws in all urban areas
S4: Build back better after any disaster.
- Prepare guidelines for retrofitting private & public building s and enhance technical capacityof municipalities to provide retrofitting services- Provide technical support for safer building practices at household level- Monitor structural and functional changes in the buildings
S5: Establish institutional framework for DRM- Establish institutional framework and Standing Operating Procedures identifying key actors
and their roles and responsibilities for and during any disaster- Develop adequate capacity, legislative base and financing mechanisms for the institutionalframework to function immediately after any disasterS6: Enhance preparedness and adaptive capacity of the government and local bodies- Develop capacity building tools and training programs- Enhance human resource and institutional capacity of the government and local bodies
S7: Build awareness and capability of the community and civic bodies based on volunteerism to
reduce vulnerability- Prepare awareness material, educative tools and infrastructure and capacity building tools forcommunities and civic bodies- Plan and implement appropriate periodic drills through community organizations and civic
bodies
6. CONCLUSION
Urbanization is inevitable in the context of Nepal, however quantitative growth of urban centres
should also be couples with quality so that a livable space is created with enhanced quality ofurban life. Reduction of vulnerability and capacity to cope with natural disaster is a vital
component of the urban areas that provides safer spaces and in other words attracts resources,
both monitory and human, to grow as centre for innovation and opportunities. Therefore,
National Urban Development Strategy, 2015 underscores the concept of building safer andBuilding Resilient Urban System: Approach of National Urban Development Strategya555

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

resilient urban system, which is incorporated as a guiding principle for urban development. The
strategies proposed in NUDS attempts to build resilience towards multiple hazards throughdevelopment of integrated safer settlements. It focuses on strengthening institutional capacity of
the local bodies and government, but with equal emphasis of capacity building of the communityand civic bodies to reduce vulnerability. Operationalization of the strategies is key, which will
demand an integrated approach that entails engagement of various stakeholders. Therefore,
Ministry of Urban Development is in the process of formulating National Urban Development
Plan with focuses on implementation of NUDS to achieve the desirable conditions.

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Steel fiber-reinforced pervious concretefor urban roads
Kiang Hwee TAN1, Emiko LIM2 and Tien Fang FWA3
1
Professor, Civil Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore
tankh@nus.edu.sg
2
PhD Candidate, Civil Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore
3Professor, Civil Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore

ABSTRACTIn urban cities, heavy rain due to global climate changes frequently results in flash
flooding. Pervious concrete pavement prevents flash flooding by draining away
rainwater quickly and serving as a water bank because of its porous nature. However,to apply it in urban traffic pavement, the pervious concrete must have adequate strength
besides resistance to clogging and good sound absorption characteristics. This study
investigated the use of discrete hooked-end steel fibers in enhancing the flexuralstrength of pervious concrete without compromising its permeability and porosity. The
target strength was 3.6 MPa and the permeability and porosity were 10 mm/s and 20
percent, respectively. The incorporation of 1.5% of steel fibers by volume of concrete
was found adequate in achieving the desired characteristics. Also, clogging tests
carried out using residual soils and construction sand ranging from 600 Pm to 1.18 mm,
indicated that pervious concrete was less susceptible to clogging compared to porous
asphalt with the same porosity, and that the incorporation of steel fibers did not affectthe results. In addition, acoustic absorption measurements on samples indicated thatsteel fiber reinforced pervious concrete possessed superior sound absorption
characteristics compared to porous asphalt.
Keywords: flexural strength, permeability, pervious concrete, steel fibers, urban roads
1. INTRODUCTION
Due to global climate changes, heavy downpour of rain are increasingly seen in many
parts of the world. In urban cities, such downpours frequently result in flash flooding asa result of the heavily built-up areas. Pervious concrete pavement provides a solution to
flash flooding by draining away rainwater quickly and serving as a water bank becauseof its porous nature.
Pervious concrete is a near zero-slump, open graded material consisting of Portland
cement, coarse aggregates with little or no fine aggregates, admixtures and water (ACI,2010), with typical compressive strength between 2.8 to 28 MPa. To apply it in urban

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traffic pavement, the pervious concrete must have higher strength besides functional
properties such as resistance to clogging and good sound absorption characteristics.
This study investigated the use of discrete hooked-end steel fibers in enhancing theflexural strength of pervious concrete without compromising its permeability andporosity. The target strength was 3.6 MPa and the permeability and porosity were 10
mm/s and 20 percent, respectively. Also, clogging tests were carried out using residualsoils and construction sand ranging from 600 Pm to 1.18 mm in size, and results werecompared to porous asphalt with the same porosity. In addition, acoustic absorption
measurements were conducted on samples using the impedance test tube procedure tocompare the sound absorption characteristics of steel fiber reinforced pervious concretewith porous asphalt.
2. TEST PROGRAM
2.1 Tests on physical and mechanical properties
Pervious concrete specimens reinforced with hook-end steel fibers were fabricated andtested. The reference mixture proportion of the pervious concrete, determined from aprevious study (Lim et al., 2013), consisted of cement at 367 kg/m3, coarse aggregatesat 1560 kg/m3 and water at 110 kg/m3. The water-to-cement ratio was thus 0.3, and theratio of coarse aggregate to cement content was 4.25.
ASTM Type I ordinary Portland cement was used. The coarse aggregates were natural
crushed granite complying with size 89 (9.5 to 1.18 mm) and size 67 (19.0 to 4.75 mm)
of ASTM C 33-11a and having a specific gravity of 2.65, were separately used indifferent mixes. To improve workability and enhance the bond between the paste andaggregates, a comb polymer superplasticizer meeting the requirements of ASTM C494
was added at a dosage of 800 ml/ 100 kg of cement.
Steel fibers with properties shown in Figure 1 and Table 1, were added to the referencemix in dosages of 1% to 2.5% by volume in steps of 0.5%. There were a total of 39
different mixes covering the different coarse aggregates and type and dosage of steel
fibers.
3D-S Fiber (1 hooked-end)
3D-L Fiber (1 hooked-end)
4D Fiber (1.5 hooked-ends)
5D Fiber (2 hooked-ends)

Figure 1: Types of hooked-end steel fibers

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Table 1: Properties of steel fibers
Steel Fiber
Type
3D-S
3D-L
4D
5D

Length
(mm)
30
60
60
65

Diameter
(mm)
0.50
0.75
0.92
0.92

Aspect
Ratio
60
80
65
65

Tensile Strength(N/mm2)
1130
1100
1500
2250

2.1.1 Test specimens
The samples for permeability and porosity tests had a diameter of 150 mm and a heightof 50 mm. Concrete cubes of 100 mm side dimensions were used to study thecompressive strengths of the mixes; whilst prisms 100 mm by 100 mm in cross-section
and 400 mm in length, were used for the flexural tests. After casting, the samples werecovered with a non-absorptive, non-reactive sheet of tough, durable impervious plastic
for 24 hours, after which they were removed from the molds and cured in a fog roomfor 28 days. Three samples were used in each test to obtain the average values.
2.1.2 Test methods
The NUS constant head permeameter (Singapore Patent number 67286, 2001) was used
to determine the permeability coefficient of the specimens. Porosity test was based on
Archimedes principle and determined from the difference in weight between the ovendry and water saturated submerged samples.
The Avery Denison compression and flexural machine was used to test the compressive
and flexural strengths. The compressive strength test was done according to BS EN
12390-3: 2009 while the flexural strength test was done according to ASTM C78-10.
2.2 Clogging test
The clogging characteristics of steel fiber reinforced pervious concrete was studied byintroducing clogging materials in stages and measuring the reduction in permeability
coefficient. Residual soil and construction sand between 600 Pm and 1.18 mm, whichwere most detrimental to clogging, were introduced into the samples by the flowing
water in the NUS constant head permeameter. The amount of clogging material
introduced was equivalent to 2000 g/m2 for each stage, up to 10 cycles. Three samples
were prepared and tested using the mixture proportion with small coarse aggregates,
described in Section 2.1, and 5D steel fibers varying in volume fraction from 0 to 2.5%.
2.3 Sound absorption test
The acoustic absorption coefficient of pervious concrete (PC), steel fiber reinforced
pervious concrete (PF) with 2% 5D fibers, and porous asphalt (PA) was measured usinga Bruel&Kjaer (B&K) impedance tube for a frequency range from 100 to 2000 Hz
following the ISO 10534-2: 2001 specification, using an extended plastic impedance
tube. Measurements were carried out according to the standing wave method in which apure tone signal is supplied to a loudspeaker to set up a sound wave in the tube. The
wave is partially reflected from the sample at the end of the tube, and the interference
between the incident and reflected waves gives rise to a standing wave pattern. By
measuring the ratio between the maximum and minimum sound pressure, the absorption
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coefficient of the sample for zero degree incident sound can be calculated. Since theonly absorbing material is the sample, the numerical figures obtained are very closely
related to its sound absorbing properties. Amplifiers enable the absorption coefficient tobe read off directly.
3. TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Physical and Mechanical Properties
Regardless of the use of small or large coarse aggregates in the mixes, inclusion of steel
fibers resulted in increasing compressive and flexural strengths without compromising
the permeability and porosity. No significant difference in permeability, porosity, andcompressive and flexural strengths were observed between mixes reinforced with shortor long 3D steel fibers. The use of 3D, 4D and 5D hooked end steel fibers however did
not show significant differences in permeability and porosity. With increasing numberof hooks at the ends of the steel fibers, the flexural and compressive strengths were
found to increase due to further interlocking between the fibers and cement paste, up to
fiber dosage up of 2.25%. Higher fiber content did not provide improvement instrengths, permeability and porosity, due to the balling effect and the uneven spread of
the fibers.
Figure 2 shows the results of the mixes in terms of flexural strength and permeability.
Regardless of the size of coarse aggregates and fiber type, the permeability in generaldecreased with increasing flexural strength. It is however noted that mixes with smallercoarse aggregates and steel fibers of multiple hook ends performed better than theothers.

a - small aggregatesb - large aggregates

Figure 2: Flexural strength and permeability

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The target permeability of 10 mm/s and flexural strength of 3.5 MPa, as recommended
by AASHTO (2009) for road pavements, are also indicated in the figure. It is seen thatmixes satisfying the target performance were those using small coarse aggregates with adosage of at least 1.5% for 3D fibers and 1% for 4D and 5D fibers. For mixes usinglarge coarse aggregates, the mixes meeting the targets had between 1.5 and 2.25% of 3D
fibers, or between 1 and 1.5% of 4D fibers.
Figure 3 shows the results for the compressive strength and porosity. In general, thecompressive strength decreased with increasing porosity of the mix. The target porosity
is 20% and compressive strength is 12 MPa. These were achieved in mixes with smallcoarse aggregates having 3D or 4D fibers up to 2.25% or 5D fibers up to 2%. For
mixes using large coarse aggregates, the target compressive strength and porosity wereachieved if the fibre dosage is not more than 1.75%, 1.5% and 1%, respectively, for 3D,
4D and 5D fibers.

a - small aggregatesb - large aggregates

Figure 3: Compressive strength and porosity
From the above observations, the recommended fiber dosages to ensure adequate
flexural strength and reasonable permeability and porosity for pavement use aresummarized in Table 2. In general, a dosage of 1.5% appears to be the optimal.
Table 2: Recommended steel fiber dosages
Maximum size ofcoarse aggregates
(mm)
9.5
19.0

3D Fibers

4D Fibers

5D Fibers

1.5 – 2.25%
1.5 – 1.75%

1 – 2.25%
1–2%

1–2%
Nil

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3.2 Clogging characteristics
The reduction in permeability coefficient of steel fiber reinforced pervious concrete dueto the introduction of clogging materials is shown in Figure 4. All mixes have porosityof around 20% (see Figure 3), that is, 23% with 1% fiber, and 17% with 2.5% fiber. The
initial permeability coefficient was around 13 mm/s for Mix F1 (with 1% fiber)
decreasing to 11 mm/s for Mix F2.5 (with 2.5% fiber), compared to about 15 mm/s forthe pervious concrete mix PC20/F0 without steel fibers. For comparison, the results fora porous asphalt mix PA20 (Fwa et al., 2015) with a porosity of 20% and initial
permeability of about 9 mm/s is also shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Clogging characteristics
The reduction in permeability coefficient was similar for mixes containing fibers up to
about 2%. With higher steel fiber dosage, the reduction was higher especially in theinitial few cycles. The permeability coefficient of previous concrete was higher thanthat of porous asphalt at all stages, especially where the steel fiber content was less than2%, indicating that it is less susceptible to clogging. After 10 cycles of clogging,
however, the permeability coefficient of all samples reduced to below 1 mm/s.
3.3 Sound absorption characteristics
Figure 5 shows the results of the sound absorption tests. The PC, PF and PA samples
all had a porosity of about 20%. It is seen that the sound absorption of pervious
concrete with or without fibers (that is, comparing Samples PC and PF) do not differ
much, and are greater than that of porous asphalt (Sample PA). The peak soundabsorption coefficient of pervious concrete occurring at a frequency of 800 Hz is ofsignificance since most highway noise falls within the frequency range of 800 to 1200
Hz (Neithalath et al., 2005).

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Figure 5: Sound absorption characteristics
4. CONCLUSION
The use of pervious concrete in urban road pavement would alleviate the problem of
flash flooding due to heavy rain. This study investigated the use of discrete hooked-end
steel fibers in enhancing the flexural strength of pervious concrete withoutcompromising its permeability and porosity. The incorporation of 1.5% of steel fibers
by volume of concrete was found adequate in achieving the target strength of 3.6 MPa
and permeability and porosity of 10 mm/s and 20 percent, respectively.
Also, pervious concrete was less susceptible to clogging compared to porous asphalt
with the same porosity, and that the incorporation of steel fibers up to about 2% did notaffect the results. In addition, acoustic absorption measurements on samples indicatedthat steel fiber reinforced pervious concrete possessed superior sound absorption
characteristics compared to porous asphalt.
REFERENCES
AASHTO, 2009. Guide for design of pavement structures. Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
ACI Committee 522, 2010. Report on pervious concrete. ACI 522R-10. American
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Michigan, USA.
ASTM C33/C33M-11a, 2011. Standard specification for concrete aggregates. ASTM
International, West Conshohocken, PA, USA.
ASTM C78 / C78M-10, 2010. Standard test method for flexural strength of concrete(using simple beam with third-point loading). ASTM International, West Conshohocken,
PA, USA.
ASTM C150/C150M-12, 2012. Standard specification for portland cement. ASTM
Steel fiber-reinforced
pervious concrete
urbanforroads
Steel fiber-reinforced
pervious forconcreteurban roads563

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Nepal
October2015,
Kathmandu,
Nepal

International, West Conshohocken, PA, USA.
ASTM C192/C192M-15, 2015. Standard practice for making and curing concrete test
specimens in the laboratory. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, USA.
ASTM C494/C494M-13, 201). Standard specification for chemical admixtures forconcrete. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, USA.
BS EN ISO 10534-2, 2001. Acoustics - Determination of sound absorption coefficientand impedance in impedance tubes. British Standards Institute, London, UK.
BS EN 12390-3, 2009. Testing hardened Concrete Part 3: Compressive strength of test
specimens. British Standards Institute, London, UK.
Fwa, T.F., Lim, E., and Tan, K.H., 2015. Comparison of permeability and clogging
characteristics of porous asphalt and pervious concrete pavement materials.
Transportation Research Record, Journal of the Transportation Research Board 2511,
72-80.
Lim, E., Tan, K.H., and Fwa, T.F., 2013. Effect of mix proportion on strength andpermeability of pervious concrete for use in pavement. EASTA/ATS Journal 10, 15651575.
Neithalath, N., Marolf, A., Weiss, J., and Olek, J., 2005. Modeling the influence ofpore structure on the acoustic absorption of enhanced porosity concrete. Journal ofAdvanced Concrete Technology 3(1), 29-40.

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The Evaluation for the Structural Performance ofTraditional Townhouses
with Timber Through Columns in Japan
Hiromi SATO1, Mikio KOSHIHARA2, Tatsuya MIYAKE3
and Izuru KAWAJIRI4
1
Research Associate, Department of Human and Social Systems,
Institute of Industrial Science, the University of Tokyo, Japansato310@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
2
Professor, Institute of Industrial Science, the University of Tokyo, Japan
3
President, Nihon System Sekkei Architects & Engineers Co., Japan
4
Nihon System Sekkei Architects & Engineers Co., Japan

ABSTRACTThis paper presents a study of the structural performance of traditional timber
townhouses in a historic town in Japan. The aim of this study was to clarify the
structural performance of traditional townhouse with timber through columns in Japan.
The target area “Sawara” has many traditional timber townhouses built in from thelate of 18th century to the early 20th century and these townhouses have few structural
walls in the frontage direction at the first floor. In the previous study, the structural
evaluation of the frame with through columns to verify the relationship of wall quantity
at the 2nd floor. Moreover the earthquake response analysis of the townhouses were
performed to clarify the seismic behavior. In this study, the earthquake response
analysis were performed on the five townhouses in Sawara with through column or
jointed column as parameter. As results, it was clarified that the structural performanceof the through columns was greatly influenced by the wall quantity at each floor.
Keywords: traditional timber construction, seismic diagnosis, seismic analysis,
parametric study
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of research
Japan has a long history of earthquakes and timber structures in Japan have suffered
great damage caused by strong earthquakes. Old traditional timber structures sufferedespecially heavy damage. Besides, many of historical towns in japan have many
traditional timber buildings that construction system and structural elements are same ineach area. If the structural performance of their system and elements is clarified, thetechnique of earthquake-proofing suitable for those buildings can be examined.
Therefor it is important to clarify structural performance of their elements in eachhistorical area.

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1.2 Characteristics of through column
In the previous study, the static tests and the seismic analysis of the frame with throughcolumns were performed. The static tests were performed on the three type specimensthat have the overall wall at the second floor. As the result of the test, the structural
performance of the frame with through columns were verified (Sato, 2010 and 2012).
The seismic analysis was performed on the mass system model with parameter study. In
the case the townhouse has not the wall at the first floor, it was verified the relationshipof the wall quantity at the 2nd floor (Sato, 2012).
2. OBJECT TOWNHOUSES
2.1 Sawara district and the target townhouses
The research area of the present study is the Sawara district of Chiba Prefecture, which
is located near Tokyo. The Sawara district is a historical town arranged on the riversideand contains traditional timber townhouse and storehouse with thick walls. They arebuilt in from the late of 18th century to the early 20th century (The Sawara City, 2004).
In townhouses in this area, the frontage direction of the first floor has few walls and theframes which consist of through columns. In this study, five townhouses faced on themain street were targeted (Figure 1 and 2).

Excluded the survey

Figure 1: Facade of the target townhouses㻺㻌
Through column

Y+

FKS

KBR

SNTK

KBK

SBD

X+

Figure 2: Plan on the first floor of objects

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2.2 Seismic diagnosis
Seismic diagnosis was performed on the target townhouses based on the investigation(The Japan Building Disaster Prevention Association, 2004). The marks of the seismic
diagnoses at the first floor varied from 0.03 to 0.20 in the X direction (Table 1). The
mark calculated horizontal load-carrying capacity by necessary horizontal load-carrying
capacity and if it was less than 1.0, the building have possibility of collapse by large
earthquake in Japan Cord. The seismic diagnosis on five townhouses indicated ‘highpossibility of collapse’ because these townhouses on the X direction of the first floor
have few bearing walls.
Table 1: Characteristics of the object townhouses
nameConstruction year
Building area (m2)
[Total floor area (m2) ]Number of through columns
Size of through columns (cm)Mark of seismicX*1,2
diagnosis
Y

FKS
1895
47.5
[87.1]
18
12
0.06
0.36

KBR
1892
28.7
[51.8]
8
11.5
0.07
0.16

SNTK
unknown
41.4[79.7]
8
12
0.03
0.71

KBK
unknown
49.1[91.7]
9
14.5
0.20
0.40

SBD
1880
35.5
[63.3]
17
16.5
0.10
0.51

*1: at the first floor*2: based on reference [5]; -1.5: Safe, 1.0-1.5: Temporarily Safe,
0.7-1.0: Possibility of Collapse, -0.7: Dangerous (High Possibility of Collapse)

3. EARTHQUAKE RESPONSE ANALYSIS
3.1 Model of analysis
To evaluate the structural performance, the five townhouses were modelled two type as
three-dimensional frame model, as shown in figure 3. To clarify the influence of thethrough column on whole performance, the models of TC have through columns withthe actual situation and the models of NTC consist without through columns as
replacing through column with jointed column.
The horizontal load-resisting elements are mud walls and frames which consist of thethrough column and beam. The skeleton curves of the structural elements were shownin figure 4. The models of hysteresis characteristics were referenced (Architectural
Institute of Japan, 2010). The roof truss was not modeled but just considered to theweight.

Figure 3: Analysis models (FKS)The Evaluation
for the Structural
Performanceof Traditional
Townhouses with Timber Through
The Evaluation
for the Structural
Performanceof Traditional
Townhouses
Columns
in
Japan
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12
10
Moment (kNm)

5
4
3
2

0

100
150
200
250
Deformation angle (mrad.)

300

350

Tenon and Cotter pin

14

Cramp iron

Tenon joint (-)

12

4

0
50

16

Tenon joint (+)

6

10

Sashikamoi

8

2

10
8
6
4
2
0

0

(1) mud wall and floor

50

100
150
Deformation angle (mrad.)0200(2) beam-column joint

2

4

6
8
Displacement (cm)10(3) joint

Figure 4: Skelton curves of structural elements
3.2 Input wave

600
400
200
0
-200
-400
-600

No.1

acceleration (gal)

0

5

10

15
time (sec)

20

25

600
400
200
0
-200
-400
-600

30
No.2

1400
No.1

1200

0

5

10

15
time (sec)

20

25

600
400
200
0
-200
-400
-600

30
No.3

Acceleration (gal)acceleration (gal)The input waves of the analysis were three simulated earthquake motions equivalent todesign earthquake ground motion based on the Japanese Code, as shown in figure 5.
The simulated waves were modulate to the standard level using coefficient 0.85 and the
input scale was changed to determine the seismic clearance of them.
Moreover, to determine the limit of collapse, the input scale of the simulated waves
were controlled.

acceleration (gal)Load (kN/p)

6

18

14

Mud wallBoading horizontal diaphragm

7

Load (kN)

8

No.2

1000

No.3

800
600
400
200
0

0

5

10

15
time (sec)2025(1) Time history waveform

30

0.1

1
Period(s)10(2) acceleration response spectrum

Figure 5: Characteristics of the input waves
3.3 Results of analysis
The earthquake response analysis was performed on the five townhouses (Table 2 andFigure 6). In the results of the TC model, KBR and SNTK were collapsed by the large
earthquake scale on equal with the Japanese Code, therefore they were not satisfied thestructural requirement of the Japanese Code. The seismic shear coefficient (C 0 ) varied
from 0.06 to 0.42. In the results of the NTC model, it was found that in the case ofalmost half, they were collapsed by the same earthquake scale of TC model. The
seismic shear coefficient varied from 0.04 to 0.41. The structural performance of FKS
and SBD became lower, however that of KBK was indicated almost the same.

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Table 2: Results of the analyses (X)
Type

Wave

TC

No.1
No.2
No.3
Ave.

NTC

No.1
No.2
No.3
Ave.

Value of
Input scale
Maximum load*1(kN)
C 0 *2
Input scale
Maximum load*3(kN)
C 0 *2

FKS
1.0
102.7
92.5
92.8
96
0.30
1.0
60.4
57.2
60.8
59.5
0.19

KBR
0.6
19.1
21.5
19.4
20
0.18
0.4
17.5
14.8
19.6
17.3
0.15

SNTK
0.5
16.2
15.8
16.8
16.2
0.06
0.2
10.4
9.8
9.8
10
0.04

KBK
1.7
112.9
111.3
108.1
110.8
0.42
1.6
109.3
108.0
107.3
108.2
0.41

SBD
1.5
106.2
111.0
110.1
109.1
0.35
0.7
54.4
54.1
55.6
54.7
0.18

*1: at the first floor, the scale of the input wave is on the safety clearance*2: the seismic shear coefficient, the maximum load divide by the weight of the building*3: in the shaded parts, the maximum load were adopted before collapse

80

120

FKS 1.0

80

80

40

Load (kN)

40

Load (kN)120

KBR 0.6

0

0

-40

-40
TC

-80

NTC

-80

NTC

(1) FKS (input scale: 1.0)

(2) KBR (input scale: 0.6) 

120

120

80

KBK 1.7

80
Load (kN)

Load (kN)NTC-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
Displacement (cm)(3) SNTK (input scale: 0.5)

SBD 1.5

40

40
0

0

-40

-40
-80

TC

-80
-120

-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
Displacement (cm)-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
Displacement (cm)

0

-40

TC

-120

-120

SNTK 0.540

Load (kN)

120

TC
NTC

-80

TC
NTC

-120

-120
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
Displacement (cm)-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
Displacement (cm)(4) KBK (input scale: 1.7) (5) SBD (input scale: 1.5)
Figure 6: Load - displacement relationship (1F-X)
The Evaluation
for the Structural
Performanceof Traditional
Townhouses with Timber Through
The Evaluation
for the Structural
Performanceof Traditional
Townhouses
Columns
in
Japan
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3.4 Comparison with through column and jointed column
The results of the model with through column (TC model) are compared with that of themodel without through column (NTC model), as shown in table 3. As the result of the
TC model, FKS, KBK and SBD have enough structural performance. On the otherhands, as the result of the NTC model, Only KBK have high structural performance.
Moreover, the bearing load per one through column and the bearing load ratio were
calculated from difference of the two models. In the case of FKS and SBD, they havehigh seismic coefficient in the TC model and the bearing load, because they have manyor large size of through column. In the case of KBR and SNTK, they have few
structural performance for lack of through column and other structural elements.
However, in the case of KBK, though there were through columns of the fairly large
size the bearing load of the through column was very small. It was indicated there arealso other factors that determines the structural performance of through column in
addition to the number and the size of column and the wall quantity at the second floor.
Table 3: Seismic Performances on the frontage direction (X)
NumberThroughcolumnSize (cm)
Total weight (kN)
Seismic diagnosis*1
Px-1F (kN)
Px-2F (kN)
Px-2F/1F
Structural
PerformanceTC
C 0 *2NTC
Bearing load*3 (kN)
Load ratio*4 (%)

FKS
18
12
319
0.06
4.4
14.4
3.3
0.30
0.19
2.0
38

KBR
8
11.5
114
0.07
3.4
5.4
1.6
0.18
0.15
0.3
13.5

SNTK
8
12
259
0.03
2.2
6.1
2.8
0.06
0.04
0.8
38.3

KBK
9
14.5
265
0.20
13.8
11.3
0.8
0.42
0.41
0.3
2.3

SBD
17
16.5
309
0.10
6
18.3
3.1
0.35
0.18
3.2
49.9

*1: Px is bearing capacity, *2: the seismic shear coefficient, refer to the Table 2*3: the bearing load is the value per one through column. it was calculated from difference of two models*4:bearing load ratio of the through column, (TC - NTC) / TC100, refer to the Table 2

4. VERIFICATION OF THROGH COLUMN
Furthermore, to verify the other factor that determines the structural performance ofthrough column, the structural analyses were performed on the new models changing
the wall quantity. It was focused on the wall quantity at each floor and the relationshipbetween them.
4.1 Model of analysis
In the results cited above, it was focused on the difference between KBK and FKS or
SBD. The difference between KBK and other two townhouses were few number ofthrough column and high performance at the first floor. Therefor the new model weremade as changing the wall quantities at the first floor or the second floor, as shown intable 4.

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Table 4: Parameter of the new models
FKS
+1F
0.17
13.2
14.4
1.1

name
*

Seismic diagnosis
Px-1F (kN)
Px-2F (kN)
Px-2F/1F

+2F
0.17
13.8
27.6
2.3

KBK

-1F
0.06
4.2
11.3
2.7

*: Px is bearing capacity

4.2 Results of factor analysis
As the results of new models, the bearing load per one through column were indicatedfrom 0.8 to 1.5 (Table 5 and Figure 7). In the result of FKS, the structural performanceof the whole townhouse, as the maximum load and the seismic coefficient, became
larger but the performance of the through column, as bearing load, became decrease. In
the result of KBK, when the wall quantities at the second floor was increased, thestructural performance of the whole townhouse was the almost same and that of thethrough column improved slightly. Moreover, in the case of KBK decreasing the walls
at the first floor, though the structural performance of the whole townhouse decreased
too that of the through column improved.
Table 5: Result of the new models
nameMaximum load (kN)
C 0 *1
Bearing load*2 (kN)
Load ratio*3 (%)

TC
131.1
0.41

FKS
+1F

NTC
107.1
0.36

TC
114.9
0.43

1.3
18.3

+2F

KBK
NTC
107.4
0.41

TC
63.2
0.24

0.8
6.5

-1F

NTC
49.4
0.19

1.5
21.7

*1: the seismic shear coefficient*2: the bearing load is the value per one through column. it was calculated from difference of two models*3:bearing load ratio of the through column, (TC - NTC) / TC100
150
100
50
0
-50
TC+1F

-100
-10
0
10
Displacement (cm)(1) FKS

20

0
TC+2F

-50

NTC+2F
TC-1F
NTC-1F

-150

-150
-20

50

-100

NTC+1F-30

KBK +2F, -1F

100

Load (kN)

Load (kN)150

FKS +1F

30

-30

-20

-10
0
10
Displacement (cm)2030(2) KBK

Figure 7: Load - displacement relationship of new models (1F-X)

The Evaluation
for the Structural
Performanceof Traditional
Townhouses with Timber Through
The Evaluation
for the Structural
Performanceof Traditional
Townhouses
571
Columnsin Japanwith Timber
Through
Columns in Japan

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

4.3 Factor on the structural performance of through column
The new models of FKS, KBK increasing the walls at the second floor and the originalmodel of KBK have the enough wall quantity about the first floor. However theirthrough columns were bearing small load. Meanwhile, in the new model of KBK
decreasing the walls at the first floor, there were few structural performance, however
the through columns were bearing much load. Thereby, it was indicated that the factorsthat determines the structural performance of through column are the excess of the walls
at the first floor and the relationship the wall quantity between the each floor.
5. CONCLUSIONSIn this study, the earthquake response analyses were performed on the five traditional
townhouses. It was presented the following conclusions:
1. As a result of the earthquake response analysis with actual situation (TC model), theseismic shear coefficient (C 0 ) varied from 0.06 to 0.42.
2. The bearing load ratio of the through column varied from 2.3 to 49.9 %. The bearing
load per one through column varied from 0.3 to 3.2 kN.
3. In the seismic diagnosis based on the current building code, all of the five
townhouses have high possibility of collapse. However, in the earthquake response
analysis, three townhouses (FKS, KBK and SBD) have the structural performance
which are needed in Japanese Code.
4. The factors that determines the structural performance of through column are theexcess of the walls at the first floor and the relationship the wall quantity between theeach floor.
REFERENCES
Architectural Institute of Japan, 2010, Fundamental Theory of Timber Engineering,314-319
Sato, H., and Koshihara, M., 2010, Horizontal load capacity of sashikamoi frame withthrough column, Summaries of Technical Papers of Annual Meeting Architectural
Institute of Japan, C-1, 569-570
Sato, H., Koshihara, M., and Miyake, T., 2012, Horizontal load capacity of sashikamoi
frame with through column Part 2 Effects of seismic performance of second floor on
through column, Summaries of Technical Papers of Annual Meeting Architectural
Institute of Japan, C-1, 461-462
Sato, H., Koshihara, M., and Miyake, T., 2014, Seismic behavior of traditional timber
frames with through columns of townhouses in Japan, Summaries of 13th International
Symposium on New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia, Myanmar,363-372
The Japan Building Disaster Prevention Association, 2004, Seismic diagnosis andreinforcement of timber house
The Sawara City, 2004, Townscape of the Sawara district

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New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia
New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Detection of deteriorated region in soil structuresusing particle filter and elastic wave survey
simulation based on FIT
Nobuyuki YAMASHITA1, Akira MURAKAMI2 and Kazuyuki NAKAHATA3
1
Graduate Student, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Japanyamashita.nobuyuki.38v@st.kyoto-u.ac.jp
2
Professor, Kyoto University, Japan
3
Associate Professor, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Ehime University, Japan

ABSTRACTThe detection of deteriorated areas in soil structures is carried out by applying a
Particle Filter (PF) along with an elastic wave survey simulation based on Finite
Integral Technology (FIT). Particle filtering is one of the sequential data assimilation
methods employing a technique of ensemble approximation. It can repair and update
certain parameters in numerical simulations by integrating observations in order toimprove prediction accuracy. FIT, one of the discretization methods for wave
propagation equations, is advantageous in that it provides simple definitions for thematerial parameters and boundary conditions, and it allows for parallel computing
when explicit time integration is used. The target problem in this study is elastic wave
propagation in a ground that includes a single circular cavity. A seismic source, placedat the center of the ground surface, generates an exciting force, and several receivers,
corresponding to the observation points and set to the right and left of the seismic
source, receive the velocities of the waves scattered by the cavity. Some receivers areplaced only on the surface of the ground, while others are placed both on the surface ofthe ground and at the bottom. The velocities observed at all the receivers are
assimilated into the computed velocities of the propagating waves by implementing the
PF. This process identifies the position and the size of the cavity so as to minimize thedifference between the observed and the computed velocities. The results show that theposition and the radius of the cavity are not obtained simultaneously when the receivers
are placed only on the surface; and thus, the receivers should be placed both on thesurface and at the bottom in order to determine the position and the radius of the cavity.
Keywords: cavity in soil structures, particle filter, elastic wave propagation, FIT
1.

INTRODUCTION

Infrastructures constructed from the 1950s to the 1970s have exceeded their lifespan inrecent years; and thus, it is urgent that the continuous management of these structures be
considered. In particular, soil structures consisting of materials with high levels of573

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

uncertainty that, over the years, have developed structurally weak areas, such as piping
holes or cavities, must be examined. These weak areas may induce the collapse ofrock-fill dams and sinkholes in the embankments. In past cases of collapsed rock-fill
dams, reports have indicated that 46% of the collapses were caused by piping (Foster etal., 2000). Therefore, it is necessary to diagnose the deteriorated areas of soil structures
and to maintain and manage them as safe structures against disasters such as heavy rain
and earthquakes. Various methods, like sounding or geophysical exploration, are applied
to structures as diagnosis methods, but it is still difficult to determine deteriorated areas
correctly using just a single method. Thus, it becomes necessary to appropriately couple
several methods in order to comprehensively assess the consequences and to improve
the ability to both diagnose and detect deteriorated regions. We focus here on theParticle Filter (PF), which is one type of data assimilation, and perform a numericalcomputation to detect the deteriorated areas of soil structures.
Particle filtering is one of the sequential data assimilation methods. It employs anensemble approximation technique, which can repair and update certain parameters innumerical simulations by integrating observations in order to improve predictions.
Shuku et al. proposed a method for the detection of deteriorated areas in geotechnicalstructures by using PF and the simulation of ground settlements by a load-roller (Shuku
et al., 2012). However, performing a survey with elastic waves is a more general
method in practical testing. Therefore, the deteriorated areas of soil structures aredetected by combining PF with an elastic wave survey simulation based on the Finite
Integral Technique (FIT). FIT is one of the discretization methods for wave propagation
equations. It can be computed with the same precision as BEM. The target problem here
is elastic wave propagation in a ground that includes a single circular cavity. A
deteriorated area in the ground is assumed to be a cavity and its spatial position andradius are to be identified by PF. Numerical experiments are carried out in this paper toverify the effectiveness of the detection of deteriorated areas in soil structures bycombining PF with the elastic wave survey simulation based on FIT.
This paper is organized as follows: Section 2 provides the computational procedure for
PF. Section 3 presents the formulation of FIT in a two-dimensional PSV wave field.
Section 4 introduces the conditions for the simulation of the elastic wave propagationand the application of PF. Section 5 presents the results of the identification of the cavity,
and a conclusion is given in the last section.
2.

Particle Filter

In this section, we give an outline of the Particle Filter (PF) (Murakami, 2013). The
following set of system equations is assumed:
xt

Ft xt 1  vt

yt

H t xt  wt

(2.1)
(2.2)

Equation (2.1) is the state equation or the system model, while Equation (2.2) is theobservation equation. xt is the state vector, that includes the state of the system, andvector yt is observation data. vt is a system noise vector, while wt is an observation noise
vector. Ft denotes the state transition function. Ht is a matrix consisting of 0 or 1 when574

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the observation and the state of a system have a linear relationship. PF employs anensemble approximation technique in which the Probability Density Function (PDF) of
the stochastic variables is approximated with its realization, called ‘particles’. ‘Particles’
denote the parameters and the results of an analysis using these parameters. The filtered
distribution at time t t  1 , p xt 1 | y1:t 1 , for which y1:t-1 denotes ^y1 , y 2 , , yt 1 ` , isapproximated with ensemble xt(11)|t 1, xt(21)|t 1,, xt(N1|t)1, by the following equation:

^

`

1 N
G xt 1  xt i 1|t 1
N i1¦

p xt 1 | y1:t 1 |(2.3)

where the superscript i of xt i 1:t 1 is the number of particles and N is the total numberof particles in the ensemble. To the left of the subscript, t  1 | t  1 of xt i 1:t 1 denotes
the current time, while to the right, it denotes the last time of the used observation. G
is Dirac’s delta function. Predicted distribution p xt | y1:t 1 , at time t t , can be obtained
from the filtered ensemble seen in Equation (2.3):
p xt | y1:t 1 |1 N
G xt  xt|it 1
N i1

¦

(2.4)

Filtered distribution p xt | y1:t , at time t t , can be obtained with Equation (2.4) andBayes’ theorem, namely,
p xt | y1:t 1 p yt | xt

p xt | y1:t

³p x |y
t

|

¦
N

i 1

wi

N

1
p xt | xt|tj1j¦w G x  xit

1:t 1

p yt | xt dxt¦p y |xi 1t

it |t 1

G xt  xt|it 1it |t 1(2.5)

p yt | xt|it 1¦ p y |xjtjt |t 1(2.6)

where p yt | xt|it 1 denotes the likelihood of xt|it 1 obtained from observation yt andweight wi. Equation (2.5) shows that p xt | y1:t is approximated with the ensemble
weighted by wi. As the observation model, when the observation noise follows theGaussian distribution, the likelihood of xt|it 1 is computed by the following equation:p y t | xt|it 1ª y  H x i T R 1 y  H x i ºtttt |t 1
t |t 1
»
exp«
m
«
»
2
2m Rt
¬
¼
1

(2.7)

where Rt is the co-variance matrix. In the process of PF, the time step of xt i isadvanced by Equation (2.1), and predicted distribution p xt | y1:t 1 and filtered
distribution p xt | y1:t can be obtained by updating the weight from Equation (2.7) andthe observation. Figure 1 shows the computational procedure for PF.

Detection of deteriorated region in soil structures using particle filter and elastic wave survey
simulation based on FIT

575

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

FilteringCompute weight

Prediction
Simulation

State spacex

Weight~ (i )wt

Data ytX t 1 t 1
xt(|it )1

X t t 1

F xt(i )1|t 1 , vt(i )~ (i )wt

Rt yt | xt(|it )1

X t t 1

Xt t

t+1←t

Figure 1: Computational procedure for particle filter
3.

Finite Integral TechniqueIn this section, we give an outline of the two-dimensional PSV elastic wave survey
simulation based on the Finite Integral Technique (FIT) (Nakahata, 2014). The target
areas are assumed to be linear elastic fields that satisfy small-deformation. The
Cartesian coordinates x1 , x 2 are considered. The governing equations of the elastic
wave are the constitutive law and the Cauchy equation of motion. These equations are
given in integral form for a finite volume V with surface S by³

wW ij x, t

³

(3.1)
dV
cijkl x vi x, t n j x dSSwt
wv x, t
(3.2)
Ux i
dV
W ij x, t n j x dS  f i x, t dVVSV
wt
where vi is the particle velocity vector, τ ij is the stress tensor of the second rank, U
is the mass density, n j is the outward normal vector on surface S , and f i is the bodyforce vector. In Equation (3.2), cijkl is the stiffness tensor of rank four. In the case of
isotropic materials, cijkl can be written as
V

³

cijkl

³

³

OG ij G kl  P G ik G jl  G il G jk

(3.3)

in terms of the two Lamé constants, O and P . In Equation (3.3), G is Kronecker’s
delta tensor, and the summation convention is used. The pressure (P) and shear verticalwave velocities (S) are given as follows:cp

O  2P
, cs
U

P
.
U

(3.4)

The staggered spatial grid shown in Figure 2, having square cells, is used for thediscretization of Equations (3.1) and (3.2). The material constants, the mass density andthe two Lamé constants are defined in the W ii -integration volume (Figure 3(a)).

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New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

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Assuming that W 11 is constant in V , the discretization of pressure stress W 11 is given
as follows:

>

^

@ >

1
O  2P v1 R  v1 L  O v 2U  v 2D
'x

W11

@`

(3.5)

where W11 wW 11 wt and 'x is the length of a side in V . In Equation (3.5), thesuperscripts denote the positions of the physical quantities of the integral volume, as
shown in Figure 3(a). The discretization of shear stress W 12 in Equation (3.1) is given
as follows:
P R
(3.6)
W12
v 2  v 2L  v1U  v1 D
'x

>

@

where P is given by
4

P

(3.7)

ª 1
1
1
1 º
« U , R  D, R  U , L  D, L »
P
P
P
¬P
¼
since P is given in the W ii -integration volume, as shown in Figure 3(b).

Similarly, the discretization of Equation (3.2) yields>

1
W 11R  W 11L  W 12U  W 12D
U1  'x

v1

@

(3.8)

where we let f i 0 . Since density U is given in the W 11 -integration volume, as shownin Figure 3(c), the average value U U R  U L 2 is used in the integration of v1 inEquation (3.8). A similar formulation is adopted for the other quantities, W 22 and v 2 .
For the time discretization, stress components τ are allocated at half-time steps, while
velocities v are allocated at full-time steps. The following time discretization yields an
explicit leap-flog scheme:

^W `
ij

z

1
2

^W `
ij

z

1
2  't^W ` , ^v ` ^v `
ij

z

i

z

i

z 1

1

(3.9)

 't^vi ` 2zwhere 't is the time interval and superscript z denotes the integer number of thetime step. FIT repeats the operations in Equation (3.9) from z 1 to N under suitable
initial and boundary conditions. A specific stability condition (theCourant-Friedrichs-Lewy (CFL) condition) and adequate spatial resolutions are required
to calculate the FIT accurately.
v1

v2
x2

W 11,W 22

x1

W 12

Figure 2: Staggered grid for FIT.

Detection of deteriorated region in soil structures using particle filter and elastic wave survey
simulation based on FIT

577

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

On the free reflecting boundary, the surface traction is defined as Ti W ij n j 0 . On theboundary between the solid and the liquid, the particle velocity and the pressure stressshould be continuous and the shear stress should be zero.
P (U , L )P (U , R )v2(U )'xv1( L )

v1(U )

v1( R )W ii

'xv2( L )

v2( D )

W 12

v2( R )'xv1( D )'x

P ( D, L )

'x

(b)

(a)

W 12(U )U
P ( D,R )v1

W 11( L )(L )W 12( D )W 11( R )U (R )'x(c)

Figure 3: W ii -integration volume (a), v1 -integration volume (b)and W 12 -integration volume(c).
All material parameters are defined in the W ii -integration volume.
4.

Setting of numerical analysis

The target area of the ground, shown in Figure 4, is assumed to be linearly elastic and toinclude a single circular cavity. The material constants of the ground are the massdensity, ρ = 2.6×103 kg/m3, the P wave velocity, cP = 2.50 km/s, and the S wave
velocity, cS = 1.44 km/s. A seismic source placed at the center of the ground surface
generates an exciting force, and this has the function of a receiver. In addition, tworeceivers are placed at 18-mm intervals to the right of the seismic source and two moreare placed to the left of the source. Finally, five receivers are placed on the bottom of
the target area at 18-mm intervals. These ten receivers correspond to the observation
points and receive horizontal velocities. A Perfectly Meshed Layer (PML) (Francis,
1998) is installed on both sides of the target area in order to express the transmission of
the elastic wave to the outside of the target area. The bottom of the target area is the freereflecting boundary.
The special position (x: horizontal direction and y: vertical direction) and the radius r of
the circular cavity in the ground are parameters to be identified. Particles
X i
x i , y i , r i are generated according to the uniform random numbers in theranges shown in Table 1. The deteriorated areas are detected by computing the filtered
distribution from the sequential observation. The identified parameter, X t , is obtained asfollows:
Xt

N

¦w X
i 1

t

i

t

i

(4.1)

where wt i is the weight of each particle, which has been defined in Equation (2.6).
Three cases are conducted, as shown in Table 1. In Case 1, the radius of the cavity is

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constant at r 5.0 mm, and the five receivers at the ground surface are used. In Cases
2 and 3, the position and the radius of the cavity are to be identified. In Case 2, the fivereceivers at the ground surface are used, while in Case 3, all ten receivers are used. The
number of generated particles is 128 in Case 1 and 200 in Cases 2 and 3.
For the numerical experiment, a cavity is prepared in the target area for each case (Case1: x = 47.52 mm, y = 16.60 mm, and r = 5.00 mm; Cases 2 and 3: x = 54.34 mm, y =21.46 mm, and r = 7.87 mm). The wave velocity obtained in each case is regarded as
the observation data.
100 mmTable 1: Range in each parameterfor particle generation
Parameters

Range in particle
generation

x [mm]

45.0~55.0

y [mm]

55.0~65.0

r [mm]

6.0~8.0

O
y

x

18 mm

18 mm

Seismic source
point
x

18 mm

y
r

18 mm

Receivers usedin all cases

Deteriorated area
(Cavity)

80 mm

Receivers usedin Case 3

Reflecting boundary
18 mm

18 mm

18 mm

18 mm

Figure 4: Target area and receiver arrangement
Table 2: Cases of numerical computation

5.

Case

Parameters to be
identified

Number and position ofobservation points

Number ofparticles

1

Center ofidentification circle

5 at ground surface

128

2

Center ofidentification circle
and radius

5 at ground surface

200

3

Center ofidentification circle
and radius

5 at ground surface and 5
at bottom

200

RESULTS

The identified circular cavity in Case 1 is shown in Figure 5(a). The gray circle is thetrue cavity (x=47.52 mm and y=16.60 mm) and the circle formed by the solid line is theidentified cavity ( x 47.33 mm and y 16.56 mm). The assumed deteriorated area isaccurately detected. Figure 5(b) shows the results of Cases 2 and 3. The gray circle is

Detection of deteriorated region in soil structures using particle filter and elastic wave survey
simulation based on FIT

579

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

the true cavity (x = 54.34 mm, y = 21.46 mm, and r = 7.87 mm), the full-line circle isthe identified cavity of Case 2 (x = 54.53 mm, y = 19.94 mm, and r = 6.67 mm) and thedotted-line circle is the identified cavity of Case 3 (x = 54.18 mm, y = 21.32 mm, and r= 7.88 mm). The position and the radius of the cavity are not indicated simultaneously
when receivers are placed only on the surface of the ground, but they are indicatedaccurately when receivers are placed both on the surface and at the bottom. Since thereceivers collect only the scattered waves from the upper surface of the cavity, theparameters are not identified accurately in Case 2. Accordingly, another numericalanalysis, assuming that the cavity is filled with water, is carried out in Case 4. Since theelastic waves are divided into transmit waves and scattered waves at the boundary
between the different kinds of materials, the probes can also receive scattered waves
from the lower surface of the deteriorated area. In Case 4, the five receivers on thesurface of the ground are used, and the position and the radius of the cavity are
identified using 200 particles. The circle of the identified cavity for Case 4, shown in
Figure 5(c) and indicated by the broken-line circle (x = 54.70 mm, y = 22.06 mm, and r= 7.23 mm), is a better result than that for Case 2, shown in Figure 5(b), and canidentify the lower surface of the cavity.
7575

㸸Deteriorated area
㸸Case 1

70
65

65

60

60

55

55

50

50

45
35

40

45

50

55

60

65

70

75

㸸Deteriorated area
㸸Case 2
㸸Case 

70

80

45
35

40

45

50

55

(a)

60

65

70

75

80

(b)

75
㸸Deteriorated area
㸸Case 2
㸸Case 4

70
65
60
55
50
45
35

6.

580

40

45

50

55

60

65

70

75

80

(c)
Figure 5: Deteriorated area and identified circular cavity of Case 1 (a), Case 2 andCase 3 (b) and Case 4(c)CONCLUSION

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The position and the radius of the cavity are not identified simultaneously when thereceivers are placed only on the surface of the ground, and thus, the receivers should beplaced both on the surface and at the bottom in order to determine the radius as well as
the position. However, in this approach, only a single circular cavity can be detected.
The actual cavity in soil structures has a more complicated shape and several cavities
may exist in the same vicinity. The next goal is to propose a novel method to detect
several complicated cavities using PF.
REFERENCES
Foster, M., Fell, R. and Spannagle, M.: The statistics of embankment dam failures andaccidents, Can Geotech Journal, Vol. 37: pp 1000-1024, 2000.
Shuku, T., Nishimura, S. and Fujisawa, K.: Fundamental study for identification of
degraded area in geotechnical structures using data assimilation, Journal of JSCE A2,
Vol. 68, No. 2: pp 89-101, 2012. (in Japanese)
Murakami, A., Shuku, T., Hishimura, S., Fujisawa, K. and Nakamura, K.: Dataassimilation using the particle filter for identifying the elasto-plastic material propertiesof geomaterials, International Journal for Numerical and Analytical Methods inGeomechanics, Int. J. Number. Anal. Meth. Geomech, Vol. 37: pp 1642-1669, 2013.
Nakahata, K., Chang, J., Takahashi, M., Ohira, K. and Ogura, Y.: Finite integration
technique for coupled acoustic and elastic wave simulation and its application tononcontact ultrasonic testing, Acoustical Science and Technology, Vol. 35, No. 5: pp
260-268, 2014.
Francis, C. and Chrysoula, T.: Application of the PML Absorbing Layer Model to the
Linear Elastodynamic Problem in Anisotropic Heteregeneous Media, Rapport deRecherche, INRIA, N3471, 1998.

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New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

A proposal on the simplified structural evaluation
method for existing reinforced concrete buildingsin Bangladesh
Matsutaro Seki1
1
Dr. Eng., Visiting Research Fellow, Building Research Institute,International Institute of Seismology and Earthquake Engineering, Tsukuba, Japan
sekimatsutaro@yahoo.co.jp
Md. Rafiqul Islam2
2
M.Eng., Executive Engineer, Public Works Department
Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh
rafiq89bd@gmail.com
ABSTRACTIn the 1995 Hyogoken Nanbu (Kobe) Earthquake of Japan, a large number of buildings,
which were designed by the old Japanese seismic code, suffered severe damage. Basedon this lesson, the Japanese government has encouraged promoting of the seismic
evaluation and retrofitting work for existing buildings, especially constructed before thelatest code of 1981. After 1995, several big earthquakes occurred in Japan but these
retrofitted buildings survived safely. Now buildings all over Japan are becoming better
seismic resistant and remarkably decreasing damage even to higher level hazard byearthquakes. On the other hand, the developing countries in the earthquake prone
regions in the world are still suffering a lot of casualties as well as building damage.
These damages might be caused by inadequate structural design by engineers and/or
poor quality control of construction works. In order to contribute to disaster mitigationfor existing reinforced concrete buildings in developing countries, the simplified
structural evaluation method based on the philosophy of Japanese evaluation standard
vis-a-vis the international seismic code was developed by Seki (2015). In this paper, thedeveloped simplified evaluation method is introduced and structural evaluation ofexisting reinforced concrete buildings of readymade garment factories in Bangladesh is
performed using it.
Keywords: structural evaluation, reinforced concrete, existing building, seismic
capacity, service load capacity
1. INTRODUCTION
Many of countries in the world, especially the developing countries which usually suffer
severe damage by reason of poor quality buildings, are yet on the way to the goal ofachievement for disaster mitigation for the strong earthquakes. Generally thesecountries tend not to have the seismic evaluation provision and retrofitting technology
in their national seismic code and/or other related regulations.
The developed simplified structural evaluation method can be utilized as the first stage
screening of the structural capacity, especially, for the lots of vulnerable buildings in thedeveloping countries which induced the international seismic code for their own

583

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal
October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

building national code. In this paper, a case study applying to Bangladesh using the datafrom readymade garment factories project by JICA is discussed.
Table 1 shows the three kinds of structural evaluation such as simplified structural
evaluation (SE), advanced simplified structural evaluation (ASE) and detail seismic
evaluation (DE). This paper’s evaluation method (SE) can be useful for the first stage
screening for lots of buildings as above mentioned.
Table 1 Structural evaluation procedure for existing reinforced concrete buildings
Title
Evaluation
MethodObjective

Resource data

SE
Simplified structural
evaluation
Average ultimate
capacity for lots ofbuildings (Screening)

Structural drawing

ASE
Advanced simplified
structural evaluation
Between SE and DE(Screening)
Structural drawing &brief site investigation(Non-destructive
tests)

DE
Detail seismic
evaluation
Accurate ultimate
capacity for
individual building
Structural drawing &detail site
investigation(destructive tests)

2. BASIC PRINCIPLE FOR EVALUATION
The flow diagram of the proposed simplified structural evaluation is shown Figure 1. In
this figure, various index for Bangladesh such as seismic index (IBS), Judgement seismicindex (IBS0), service load index (IBD) and judgement service load index (IBD0) are used inthis figure.
The proposed simplified structural evaluation method is based on the following basic
principles and the detail content of evaluation method can be referred in Seki(2015).
(i) Seismic evaluation is basically based on the philosophy of the Japanese Seismic
Evaluation Standard for existing reinforced concrete buildings issued by JBDPA2001
and IBC2000.
(ii) The target building is the reinforced concrete moment resisting (beam-column)
frame building.
(iii) Evaluation is done by only original structural drawings and architectural drawing.
This evaluation is performed on the condition that the building was constructedfaithfully due to the approved original drawings.
(iv) Evaluation is basically performed at the ground floor (level-1) which may be
usually the weakest floor of the whole building floors.
(v) If the necessary information such as material strength, profile of rebar is lack in the
structural drawings, these may be assumed with construction year and/or theexperience of engineer, etc.
(vi) As for the final judgment after simplified structural evaluation, the vulnerability
evaluation on two items; (1) seismic capacity by horizontal seismic load, (2) service
load capacity by vertical service load is carried out. Final structural rank based on
combination of seismic capacity and service load capacity can be obtained. If theevaluation result doesn’t satisfy the target capacity values, the detail evaluation
method will be recommended.

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Start
Calculate Seismic Index: IBS
Calculate Service Load Index: IBD

Judgment : IBS Ӎ IBS0 ?

NO

YESJudgment : IBD Ӎ IBD0 ?

NO

YES
End

Detail Evaluation

Figure 1 Flow diagram of simplified structural evaluation for the existing reinforced
concrete buildings in Bangladesh
3. EVALUATION METHOD
3.1 Seismic Index (IBS)IBS=EBS㸨SD㸨T(1)

Where,EBS : Basic Structural Index
EBS=CBS㸨FB(2)   CBS : Strength Capacity of Building CBS =τ㸨ΣAc/W   τ㸸Average shear strength of Column (N/mm2, JBDPA 2001)
h0/D 㸼6 : τ=0.7 N/mm2
h0/D ӌ6 : τ=1.0 N/mm2
h0: Clear height of column (mm)
D: Depth of column section (mm)
ΣAc : Total area of columns (mm2)
W: Total weight of building (N)FB : Ductility Index
FB = R/Ω0

(3)
(4)

(5)

R: Response modification factor based on structure type in BNBC2015 FinalDraft   Ω0: Over strength factor (FEMA450-2.2003 &IBC2000)
SD : Irregularity Index (here, SD=1.0)
T : Time deterioration Index (here, T=1.0)
A proposal on thesimplified
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3.2 Service Load Index (IBD)
IBD = W/ΣAc(6)

Where,
W: Total weight of building (N)ΣA : Total area of columns (mm2)4. JUDGMENT
4.1 Definition of Judgment Index
4.1.1 IBSO: Seismic Index
IBSO = V(7)

V: Total design base shear coefficient ( BNBC2015 Final Draft )V=2/3㸨Z 㸨I㸨CS               (8)Where,
Z: Seismic zone coefficient (Table 2, Figure 2)
I : Structural importance coefficient (here, I=1.0 )CS: Normalized acceleration response spectrum, which is a function of structure(building) period and soil type (site class) (Figure 3)

Table 2 Seismic zone coefficients, Z(BNBC2015 Final Draft)
Zone
1
2
3
4

Zone Coefficient(unit: g)
0.12
0.20
0.28
0.36

Figure 2 Seismic zoning map of Bangladesh (BNBC 2015 Final Draft)

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Figure 3 Normalized design acceleration response spectrum for different site classes(BNBC2015 Final Draft)
4.1.2 IBD0: Service Load Index   IBD01 = 0.4㸨Fc         
IBD02 = 0.7㸨Fc
Where,
Fc: Designed concrete strength (N/mm2)     

 (9)4.2 Judgment
4.2.1 Seismic Capacity
IBS Ӎ IBSO    : Higher than seismic demand (Rank SA)(10)
0.5IBSOӌIBS㸺IBSO 㸸 Lower than seismic demand (Rank SB)
IBS㸺0.5IBSO㸸 Remarkably lower than seismic demand (Rank SC)
4.2.2 Service Load Capacity
IBD㸺IBD01: Higher than service load demand (Rank DA)
IBD01ӌIBDӌIBD0 : Lower than service load demand (Rank DB)
IBD02㸺IBD: Remarkably lower than service load demand(Rank DC)

(11)

4.2.3 Final Rank based on Combination of Seismic Capacity and Service Load
Capacity
Final structural rank based on combination of seismic capacity and service load
capacity can be defined as following Table 3.

A proposal
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concrete
A proposal on thesimplified
evaluation
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reinforced
concretebuildings
buildings in Bangladesh
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Table 3 Final capacity rank of simplified structural evaluation

Final Capacity
Rank

Combination
Seismic
Capacity

Service Load
Capacity

A

SA

DA

B

SB

DA, DBCSC

DA, DB, DC

Recommendation

Safe
Detail Evaluation
Recommended
Immediately Detail
Evaluation
Recommended

5. EXAMPLE OF STRUCTURAL EVALUATION IN BANGLADESH
5.1 Target buildings and method of structural evaluation
Target buildings for structural evaluation are reinforced concrete moment resistingbuildings of readymade garment factories in Dhaka city, Bangladesh by JICA
project. Total number of buildings is fifty one. For decision of ductility index; FB,
response modification factor; R is 5 defined as ordinary moment resisting frame in
BNBC1993 and over strength factor; Ȑ0 is 2.0 in FEMA450-2.2003 because this value
is not defined in BNBC1993. If the information from structural and architectural
drawings is deficient in evaluation, the following assumption was done; if there is no
description on aggregate, concrete strength; Fc= 17 Mpa, and if there is, for stone chip
Fc=21 Mpa, for masonry chip Fc=17 Mpa. Story height is 3600 mm for ground floor
and 3000 mm for other floor. Story average unit weight is 7 KN/m2 for top floor and 10
KN/m2 for other floor, etc.
5.2 Results of structural evaluation(1) IBS-IBSO Relationship (Figure 4); Two dashed lines, IBS=IBSO and IBS=0.5*IBSO, areshown. The buildings with IBS above the IBSO, which satisfy the target earthquake
resistance, represent approximately 25% of all the buildings.
(2)IBD-IBD01 Relationship (Figure 5); One dashed line, IBD=IBD01 is shown. The buildings
with IBD above the IBD01, which don’t satisfy the target service load resistance, represent
approximately 35% of all the buildings.
(3)IBS/IBS0-IBD/IBD01, IBD/IBD02 relationship (Figure 6); This figure shows the earthquake
resistance index and the service load index. Approximately 20% of the buildings arehigher in both indices; IBS0 and IBD01. Namely 75% of buildings are recommended toperform the detail seismic evaluation. Approximately 35% of buildings are above IBD01
and two buildings above IBD02. These buildings show the remarkably low vulnerability
in vertical resistant capacity.

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Figure 4 IBS-IBSO relationship

IBD-IBD01 Relationship
20
18
16

IBD (=W/ΣAc) (N/mm2)1412

IBD=IBD01

10
8
6
4
2

Figure 5 IBD-IBD01 relationshipA proposal
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October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

IBS/IBSO-IBD/IBD01 & IBD/IBD02 Relationship

3.00

IBD=IBD01

IBS/IBSO

2.50

IBD=IBD02

2.00
1.50

IBS=IBSO

1.00
0.50
0.00






IBD/IBD01,



IBD/IBD02=1.0

Figure 6 IBS/ IBS0 – IBD/IBD01& IBD/IBD02 relationship
6. CONCLUSIONS
A simplified structural evaluation method developed by Seki(2015) was able to be
applied to the vulnerable buildings in Bangladesh and was verified to be suitable for the
preliminary structural screening evaluation for the developing countries. This will also
help to fix the priority among lots of vulnerable structures.
ACKNOWLEGEMENT
We would like to express our deepest appreciation for valuable advice andinformation by the JICA Expert members as well as for permitting andencouraging this paper presentation by the JICA Bangladesh Office. And we also
appreciate the cooperation for execution of structural evaluation by the
structural engineers, Public Works Department, Government of the People’s Republicof Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
REFERENCES
Seki, M., 2015. A proposal on the Simplified Structural Evaluation Method for Existing
Reinforced Concrete Buildings Based on the Japanese Seismic Evaluation Standard visà-vis the International Seismic Code, Journal of Earthquake Science and Engineering,
Publisher ISES 2015. http://www.joes.org.in
JBDPA2001. The Japan Building Disaster Prevention Association "Standard for
Seismic Evaluation of Existing Reinforced Concrete Buildings (Version 2001) (inJapanese)."BNBC2015 Final Draft. Bangladesh Building Code 2015, Final Draft, July 2015,
Housing and Building Research Institute (HBRI)
IBC2000. International Code Council, Inc., "International Building Code 2000" March
2000.
FEMA450-2.2003. NEHRP Recommended Provision, 2003..

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Distributional and Cascaded Reusability Aspectsof Indigenous Water Management System of
Bhaktapur City, Nepal
Dipendra GAUTAM1, 2 and Jyoti PRAJAPATI3
Center for Disaster and Climate Change Studies (CDCCS), Kathmandu, Nepal
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Asian Institute of Technology and Management,
Lalitpur, Nepal
strdyn@yahoo.com
3
Department of Hydrology and Meteorology, Government of Nepal, Babarmahal,
Kathmandu
1

ABSTRACT
Present paper highlights the practices of traditional cascading and blending waterreuse frameworks of Bhaktapur city, Nepal. Non-structured interviews, expert
consultation, phenomenological as well as archival studies were performed in terms ofefficacy and distributional features of traditionally used Rajkulo and other pre-existing
systems. The indigenous water management technology has been found to beincorporating cascading water reuse and blending features as well. The Rajkulo fed
Hiti, Tunche and Pukhu have been placed in such a way so as to ensure relative water
quality and reuse. Rajkulo has been found to be established as a gravity supply network
for around 6 kilometers long and supplying water for household, occupational as well
as agricultural purpose. The homogenous Newari settlement of Bhaktapur city issituated in relatively higher relief than adjoining areas, however the supply
management and subsequent discharging mechanism has been found to be arranged insuch a way that surplus water from Hitis and Tunches was ideally supplied and stored
in Pukhus for irrigation, occupational and cattle feeding purposes. Gravity supply anddistribution, cascaded reusability and network management have been identified as
ideal features of the indigenous water management system.
Keywords: indigenous water management system; water distribution; water reuse;sustainability; Bhaktapur city
1. INTRODUCTION
Water is identified and proclaimed as the greatest problem for human beings in the 21st
century, similarly many of the scholars have identified water as most urgent andextreme case of resource depletion. It has been highlighted that the world is running out
of water and described as most serious ecological and human right threat of present time
(Barlow, 2013). Present day water and energy crises have imposed additional pressure
on natural resources. It is predicted that two thirds of the world population would be
living in water stressed condition by 2025 (Arnell, 2004). According to FAO (2012),

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agricultural water demand would be sharing 70% of the total global water withdrawal
and for agricultural based economies; such withdrawal would challenge sustainability
and agricultural production. The global paradigm of water scarcity has nowadays
attracted many of the researchers from across the globe to search and replicate
sustainable water solutions.
It has been around four decades that international conventions and protocols have paid
attention towards indigenous resource rights like in the case of United Nations
Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. Indigenous knowledge is defined as aunique traditional framework of operation and management developed by unrelenting
trial and error and subsequently propagated to generations as cultural practices.
Indigenous people have developed unique self-reliant and self-sustained frameworks for
managing natural resources and good practices are identified in terms of water resource
management as well. Deviations in resource governance systems would mar thecustomary forms of management practiced by indigenous people worldwide.
Development is imposing severe pressure on natural systems, the prime concern isfocused towards whether the indigenous communities could sustain customary use ofwater for livelihoods or not (Finn and Jackson, 2011). Indigenous communities
worldwide have harvested and managed water in (sometimes more) sustainable ways
(e.g. Warren, 1991; Critchely et al., 1994; Dijk and Reji, 1994; Dijk, 1997; Yu, 2000;
Strang, 2001; Rose, 2004; Jackson, 2005; Toussant et al., 2005; Singh, 2006; Jackson etal., 2012; Ayre and Mackenzie, 2013; Gautam, 2014; David and Ploeger, 2014) andthese are often visualized as efficient and economic practices. The propagation of water
resource management technology has legacy regarding efficacious, proportional andproductive water use and reuse aspects. Such water management systems are regarded
as ‘Indigenous Water Management System (IWMS)’ and practiced by indigenous
people in various parts of the world. IWMS is almost forgotten in Nepal, as people
seldom rely on traditional water resources, though there are some settlements within
Kathmandu valley where water is used in many aspects differently.
This paper reviews the IWMS in Nepal’s most preserved and homogenously indigenous
Newari community in Bhaktapur city identifying the distributional features, theirrationality and cascaded reusability of fresh as well as marginal water. The water
fetching mechanism and scientific premise is accounted in this study and attempts havebeen furnished in terms of efficacy and sustainability of IWMS. Various findings havebeen disseminated as per the relevance and significance with regard to distributional
proportionality and cascaded reusability.

2. CASE STUDY AREA AND METHODS
2.1 Case Study Area
Bhaktapur city lies in central Nepal and is an ancient settlement of 13th century
established by the then Malla dynasty (a medieval dynasty in Kathmandu valley). Thiscity occupies 6.88km2 area with densely populated Newari (an ethnic group withpeculiar cultural practices in Nepal) communities. About 99% of the people in this city
are Newars (CBS, 2012) and also significant part of the occupied area is enlisted in the
UNESCO World Heritage Site. Bhaktapur is located at 27⁰36’ to 27⁰44’ north and
85⁰21’ to 85⁰31’ east, a homogenous Newari settlement 12km east of the capital city.

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Occupational peculiarity, artistic reflection and preserved cultural milieu have created adifferent flashback to the rest of the world. Indigenous Newars have developed uniquetradition in terms of their livelihoods and customary practices. The homogenous
settlement is usually favorable for assuring the customary practices hence such practices
are well established and propagated in Bhaktapur city.
2.2 Methods
The pre-existing as well as present day IWMS of Bhaktapur city is assessed throughexpert interviews, phenomenological studies, non-structured interviews and archive
study. People with strong cultural background and knowledge were selected whileinterviewing. For non-structured interviews, older people were selected randomly
primarily focusing on their knowledge regarding pre-existing IWMS. Many of the older
people were unable to understand English or Nepali languages so translations weremade possible through native speakers. The findings were identified under various
heads as distinct database was not observed during field work. Water reuse, cascaded
use of fresh/marginal water, water consumption related cultural practices, water storageand occupational distribution, route and distributional features of Rajkulo (the royal
canal) among others were accounted as key variants for this study. The information
obtained after study were analyzed in terms of distributional features, cascaded
reusability aspects and subsequent scientific bases and also analysis has been done interms of revitalization of the traditional system through field visit.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Water use perception
Newari livelihood is largely dependent on water use. They use water for household,occupational activities and irrigation. There are primarily three types of water bodies
Hiti (stone spout), Tunche (drag well) and Pukhu (pond). Hitis and Tunches are thefreshwater discharging bodies which usually supply potable water. Previously potablewater was also supplied largely by the Rajkulo (the royal canal). Virtually all population
used to depend on these bodies before the great 1934 Bihar-Nepal earthquake which
devastated Bhaktapur city and obstructed the Rajkulo canal. Before 1934 earthquake,the 6km long canal was found to be supplying for the city in chronological way. The
first discharge was found to be provided on the royal golden Hiti and subsequently
distributed to other parts of the city as per the caste hierarchy in semi-concentric town
setup. The general water conveyance system within Bhaktapur city has been delineatedas in figure 1. Water was found to be distributed as gravity supply thereby assuring
proper alignment to the canal and also Hitis were fed by Rajkulo in some cases. Tunches
were found to be major groundwater bodies constructed across the city in every squareso as to supply water to the residents. Tunches are the oldest water supply units for thiscity. The surplus water from Hitis and Tunches was subsequently stored to the Pukhus
for marginal water use. Beside this, Pukhus are also rainwater harvesting hubs. Surplus
water and runoff water was found to be supplied to Pukhus through open canals or eventhrough the burnt clay sewerage canals.
Distributional and Cascaded Reusability Aspects of Indigenous Water Management System of
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Fig. 1 General water conveyance system of Bhaktapur city
The marginal water is used for cattle, occupational activities like pottery and also for
irrigation purpose. There is yet a popular trend of fetching water through Kharpan (abalanced water carrying system on both shoulders using a bamboo beam and ropearrangement). Rajkulo was the backbone of potable as well as water for irrigation
purpose. Primarily the peasants (Jyapu) cluster within the semi-concentric settlement
was engaged in agricultural activities. Moreover, the potters (Kumha or Prajapati) wereamongst the water users in greater extent. The peasants were just above the potters inconcentric setup due to the fact that the agricultural lands are relatively nearer. Most of
the arable land was beside the settlement so that peasants were settled in such a way thatthey would get better access to farmlands. Moreover, most of the Pukhus were found tobe established in the periphery so that the stored water could be used for farming in low
scale by fetching through Kharpan. The Kumhas were also found to be benefitted
through Pukhus in terms of water used for pottery.
3.2 Cascaded reusability of water
As Newars are concerned more about the religious and cultural beliefs, it has beenfound that they try to assure water quality as much as possible. After assuring potablewater, the Hitis and Tunches are found to be connected with Pukhus through surface
drainage or even underground drainage system. Figure 2 delineates the cascaded
reusability of water existing within Bhaktapur city.

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RajkuloOccupational use

Irrigation

Fig. 2 Cascaded reusability framework of IWMS of Bhaktapur city
Freshwater is primarily found to be used for drinking purposes and other household
activties, the surplus water from freshwater resources is found to be stored in Pukhus or
directly discharged to farmland or rivers. The urban nucleus of Bhaktapur city is foundto be settled in relatively higher relief in comparison to other adjoining areas. Thisterrain setup has well facilitated the water flow condition and subsequent water
discharge into Pukhus. Pukhus are found to be ideally located in relatively low level incomparison to adjoining land so as to facilitate higher water accumulation.
3.3 Distributional features
Starting from the Mahadev Pokhari rivulet some around 6km east of the city, thegravity water supply was found to be existed. Beside this, even in the city center,
gravity supply was assured through the open channel constructed. The Rajkulo was thewater conveyance channel from the rivulet to the city center and managed by Guthi(trust) system. Rajkulo is amongst the ancient farmer managed irrigation as well aswater supply in Nepal, and in some cases this is yet functional. Local wisdom andparticipation have performed effectively in order to assure water quantity as well as
quality, as the supply was pivotal to the core city area. Even in the higher reliefs, water
conveyance was assured and subsequently water was found to be distributed to Hitis.
Beside this, Rajkulo was subjected for supplying to the farmlands covered by it. Farmer
managed irrigation system (FMIS) has been found to be generated after this, at themeantime the Guthi system was strict towards managing and assuring water quality as
well as quantity. Marginal water as well as storm water was found to be blended andsupplied for storage into Pukhus so as to harvest a remarkable quantity of water. Stored
water was found to be used for cattle, occupational use and also for small scale farming.
The water fetching mechanism was associated with water carrying by Kharpan foroccupational as well as small scale farming. The energy efficient gravity distribution
system existed in Bhaktapur city was pragmatic solution of water scarcity and could be
replicated nowadays for city supplies as well.

Distributionaland Cascaded
Reusabilityof Indigenous
Water Management
Distributionaland Cascaded
Reusability
Aspects ofAspects
Indigenous
Water Management
System ofSystem of
Bhaktapur
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3.4 Water culture and city sustainability
Bhaktapur city has unique water culture; annual water body cleaning campaigns areorganized as celebration called Sithi Nakha. Livelihoods in Bhaktapur go along with thewater culture and assurance of water supply was the governing factor for sustainability
in terms of agricultural productivity, continuation of domestic industries. Marginal
water use was the efficacious water culture so as to minimize the overexploitation ofground as well as surface water. Moreover, the pavements in core city area are stillfound to be facilitating the groundwater recharge through clearly distinct voids
preventing intact concretization.
3.5 Future insight
After 1934 earthquake, the IWMS has been almost forgotten. Bhaktapur is facing severe
water scarcity these days as well. There are as many as 87 Hitis, 32 Pukhus and around
220 Tunches in Bhaktapur city, though most of these water bodies are dry nowadays.
Through phenomenological studies of the reminiscent of Rajkulo, it is found that, it
would be functional this time as well. If revitalized with minor repair, the economic
gravity water supply could be assured in Bhaktapur city. As Rajkulo was the backboneof city sustainability and agricultural practices in the past, the cultural dimensions andpractices are not transited vastly so indigenous knowledge could be instrumental inassuring effective water management. Arable and fertile lands are still there beside thehistoric settlement of Bhaktapur city, so assurance of irrigation facility through Rajkulo
system and governing the water conveyance through Guthi would be ideal solution topresent day water scarcity of drinking as well as agricultural water. The drawdown ofgroundwater is alarming in Kathmandu valley (e.g. Pathak et al., 2009; Pandey et al.,2012; Gautam and Prajapati, 2014) so future scenario would be cataclysmic in terms ofavailability of drinking as well as agricultural water. The optimal usability, blending
use and cascaded reusability from IWMS are particularly instrumental for city
sustainability in terms of drinking water, water for household use and water for
irrigation in the homogenous communities like Bhaktapur where livelihoods are largely
dependent on customary practices and agriculture is associated with culture.

4. CONCLUSION
Indigenous water management system evolves from the continuous trial and error
knowledge, practices and traditions. Such practices are later metamorphosed as customs
in indigenous communities. The unrelenting experimentation and subsequent adaptation
lead to develop unique and sustainable dimensions in indigenous setups. This study
reveals that the traditional practices were cost-effective, sustainable and often
incorporated as cultural practices from across the boundary. Water management anddistribution, cascaded reusability, marginal water use in terms of occupational andagricultural water, water blending, harvesting and storage and gravity water supply
through a long open channel have been identified as dimensions of IWMS practiced in
Bhaktapur city. The Rajkulo, Hiti and Tunche are the major freshwater supplying bodies
existed in Bhaktapur city, though after the devastating 1934 Bihar-Nepal earthquake;

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the network was obstructed. Still there is potential of revitalization of Rajkulo andsubsequent feeding to Hitis could be assured. Rajkulo was the backbone for irrigation ofarable land beside Bhaktapur city remarkably contributing in the sustainability of
Bhaktapur city. Livelihoods of people in Bhaktapur city is dependent on water culture,
customary practices and agriculture so use and reuse of water particularly in terms of
blending and cascading are instrumental. Those practices were efficient in the past andfound to be well practiced through social institutions like Guthi hence were
efficaciously implemented; replication of the customary practices would be effective inpresent context. As the genesis of FMIS, Rajkulo was among the most vital frameworkof water management and distribution, so revitalization of Rajkulo and feeding Hitis
along with harvesting and storage of blended water would a landmark effort forsustainable water management of indigenous Newari settlement of Bhaktapur city.

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Pathak, D.R., Hiratsuka, A., Awata, I., and Chen, L., 2009. Groundwater vulnerability
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of Mega
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New Technologies
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Safetyof Megain Asia

Combination of different means for effective
warning in a rural mountainous area
Akira KODAKA1, Akiyuki KAWASAKI2
1
Project Researcher, ICUS, IIS, The University of Tokyo, Japanakira@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
2
Project Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
The University of Tokyo, Japan
ABSTRACTIn terms of disaster information dissemination including warning, it is important to
combine multiple means in a mutually complementary manner. The more means areapplied the more resilient warning system is built; the system works even if some ofthem become unavailable due to unexpected failures at the time of disasters. However,available means are very limited in rural areas especially in developing countries
where communication infrastructures are poorly developed. Here we show an effective
warning method useful in those areas which combines two means: a loudspeaker,
sound-based mean, and Short Message Service (SMS), text-based one. It wasdemonstrated that the loudspeaker is able to warm mass simultaneously within thereachable area of its sound. Meanwhile SMS reaches unreachable area of the soundfrom loudspeaker which is affected by terrain and decreased drastically by noise
created by heavy rain. For further understanding to develop a warning method in theareas, not only the two means but also other ones used conventionally including
community radio, and face-to-face direct communication should be considered.
Keywords: warning, rural mountainous area, Short Message Service, loudspeaker
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the research
In terms of waring at the time of disasters, decent media are differed for various factors
such as social attribution of public to be warned, type of disasters and so forth. Besides,
media themselves would become unavailable due to unexpected accidents happen
during disasters such as failures of communication infrastructures. It is too difficult tocover all necessary functions for warning by use of single medium. Therefore, the ideaof media mix, multiplexing media for warning, becomes important. At the event of the2011 Great East Japan Earthquake, not only conventional means: newspaper, television,
radio, but also internet and social media including Twitter exerted in warning andcontributed to emergency response aftermath of the quake. Meanwhile, there were casesthat disaster prevention radio communication systems could not function adequately due
to failure and collapse of the systems. The importance of media mix has become more
important since the event.

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However, there is a problem that available media to be used for waning is significantly
limited in developing countries especially in rural areas. According to International
Telecommunication Union calculations, individuals using the internet per 100
inhabitants in 2015 would reach at 82.2 in developed countries while at 35.3 indeveloping countries. Besides, there would be over 2 times gap between developed anddeveloping countries in number of mobile-cellular telephone subscriptions in 2015; 86.7
and 39.1, respectively. It can be said that number of those users shall be less in rural
areas compared to urban areas even in same countries under developing.
1.2 Literature review
Kondo (2012) mentioned importance of multiplexing communication networks taking
lessons learnt from the Typhoon Talas. Suzuki (2015) indicated to combine different
tools is more than extremely effective in warning with three transmission
characteristics: fastness, rightness, and sureness. On the other hand, there are many
researches have been done which show a high potential of Short Message Service(SMS) to be used as warning mean in the area where information communication
infrastructures have not been developed. SMS, mobile phone’s mail service, isstandardized by Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) and being popularand widely used in all over the world even at developing countries. Samarajiva (2008)
said SMS combined with informative and robust website contribute smoothcoordination within government officers who take important roles in warning. Cioca(2008) proposed reliable and effective flood warning system using SMS which can be acomplementary to existing traditional warning system. Saysoth (2012) proposed an
appropriate flood warning system in developing countries to reduce the loss of lives andproperty during flood occurrences.
1.3 Research purpose
Although SMS combined with existing means can be adopted for warning in developing
countries and rural areas, there is little research has been done which examine actual
effect of the SMS. Basically, SMS is said to be useful because of its high penetration
rate in the world. We also have to consider not only the high penetration rate but alsocharacteristics of recipients, technological issues to dispatch SMS at the areas and soforth so that SMS can be reached and opened by recipients. This research therefore aims
to clarify actual effect of SMS especially when it is combined with an existing mean.
Firstly, we examined an effect of each mean by issuing warnings by SMS and an
existing media. Secondly, both effects were combined to clarify a multiplex effect whenthe media are used together.
2. EXPERIMETN AND SURVEY
2.1 SMS dispatch
2.1.1 Research area and an existing warning mean
The authors’ research team (2013, 2014) has been conducting research to understandsocial characteristics and attribution of local residents in rural mountainous area in Loei
province, northeastern Thailand, and to analyze possibility of SMS to be utilized as

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warning method in the area. Twoflood prone villages in the area werechosen as study areas for thisresearch namely Loei Wang Sai
village (hereinafter called LW) andLoei Taw Tad village (hereinafter
called LTT) that locate along theLoei River (see Figure 1). Since theareas are surrounded by 600 to 1,500
meters high mountains, majordisasters in the areas are flooding,level of inundated water changes
rapidly, and landslide. Therefore, awarning that reaches residents
promptly is highly required. A major
existing warning mean in the areas isa loudspeaker although a handy siren
is used when the speaker is notavailable due to blackout (see Fig. 2).
In addition to blackout, there isanother problem that warning fromthe loudspeaker is disturbed by noise
which will occur when heavy rainpelts roofs of the residents’ houses;
majority of houses use corrugatedroofed made out of a thin metal sheet(see Figure 3) which creates severe
noise when it rains. Therefore, theloudspeaker, sound-based system,
has a limitation to warm residents inthe villages.

LTT

LW

Figure 1 Research area, Loei province, Thailand

Figure 2 (left) Loudspeaker / (right) handy siren

2.1.2 Warnings by both media
In Thailand, the service which sends
Figure 3 Common house style in the study area
SMS simultaneously to mass isprovided by many companies and available even in rural areas if a user is accessible toan internet and mobile numbers of recipient are known. In this study, the service called
Smart Messaging provided by Advanced Info Service PLC, the biggest carrier inThailand, is adopted. A total of 216 and 168 mobile numbers were collected from LW
and LTT prior to dispatch SMS, respectively. SMS was sent at 17:00 on 25 September
2014 when a rain was observed. Message of SMS is designed as following: “Water levelof Loei River has reached dangerous level to be flooding. For those people who arenear the area, please evacuate properly. Please inform following message to otherpeople as many as possible”. The same message was announced from the loudspeakers
by each village leader of both villages at 6:00 on 22 September 2014.
2.2 Questionnaire survey
To investigate how the warnings transmitted by SMS and loudspeaker reached andaccepted by residents, a questionnaire survey was conducted for four days from 26 to 29
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September 2014 with a cooperation of students from Loei Rajabhat University. A faceto-face method was adopted for the survey by considering the situation of the researcharea where fixed-line phone, fax, and internet are unfamiliar, and misunderstanding ofquestions by respondents whose literacy rate are low. Total of 167 and 95 samples werecollected from LW and LTT, respectively.
3. RESULT
3.1 Penetration of SMS
Smart messaging, the service, keeps sending SMS for 24 hours until it is received by arecipient. In this experiment, 149 out of 216 (69.0%) and 130 out of 168 (77.4%)
messages were received by respondents at LW and LTT, respectively. Time taken fromdispatch of SMS to receive by respondents is shown in Figure 4. Majority of SMS werereceived by recipients within a minute after dispatch. Besides, causes of SMS dispatch
failure are summarized in Table 1. “The destination mobile number has suspended all
SMS” marked major cause followed by “System Error” for both villages.

NumberTable 1 Causes of failure of SMS delivery

0

1

2

3

5

6 11 12 16 22 29 30-

Time taken (min.)Figure 4 Time taken from dispatch to receive of SMS

Causes

LW(N=67)

LTT(N=38)The destination mobile number
has suspended all SMS

61.2%

31.6%

System Error
Error caused by other mobile
operators

22.4%

44.7%

9.0%

13.2%

Mobile phone switch off

7.5%

7.9%

Mobile Phone memory is full

0.0%

2.6%

3.2 Comparison of warning effect of loudspeaker and SMS
Following two questions were asked to examine how waring from both means, SMS
and lou speaker, reached to the respondents: 1) Listening level of the loudspeaker in 5Table 2 Comparison of warning effect between the loudspeaker and SMS at both sunny and rainy days
Listening level of the loudspeaker- sunny day*
1
2
3
4
5
N=89
N=24
N=40
N=11
N=3

Listening level of the loudspeaker- rainy day*
1
2
3
4
5
N=35
N=47
N=56
N=14
N=8

Received/Opened

7.9%

20.8%

17.5%

18.2%

0.0%

5.7%

10.6%

19.6%

21.4%

0.0%

Received/Unopened

15.7%

29.2%

27.5%

27.3%

0.0%

17.1%

19.1%

26.8%

14.3%

12.5%

Not received
LTT

76.4%
1
N=50

50.0%
2
N=19

55.0%
3
N=19

54.5%
4
N=6

100%
5
N=1

77.1%
1
N=25

70.2%
2
N=26

53.6%
3
N=29

64.3%
4
N=10

87.5%
5
N=2

Received/Opened

20.0%

26.3%

21.1%

0.0%

0.0%

16.0%

34.6%

17.2%

10.0%

0.0%

Receive condition of SMS

LW

Received/Unopened

8.0%

42.1%

15.8%

16.7%

0.0%

8.0%

26.9%

17.2%

20.0%

0.0%

Not received

72.0%

31.6%

63.2%

83.3%

100%

76.0%

38.5%

65.5%

70.0%

100%

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scale from “Very clear” to “Not clear at all” at rainy day - the time of experiment- andordinal sunny day. 2) Receive of SMS in 3 conditions 1) “Received/Opened”, 2)“Received/Unopened”, and 3) “Not received”. A result of cross tabulation with listening
level of the loudspeaker and receive of SMS is shown in Table 2. 76.4% and 72.0% of
respondents at LW and LTT, respectively, who could listen the warning from theloudspeaker “Very clear” answered “Not received” SMS. On the other hand, it wasclarified that a number of respondents who could listen the warning from loudspeaker as“Very clear” decreases drastically at rainy day; from 89 to 35, and 50 to 25 respondents
at LW and LTT, respectively.
A result of cross tabulation with past flood disaster damage experience and listening
level of the loudspeaker at both days and villages are shown in Figure 5. A percentageof respondents who could listen the warning from loudspeaker as “Very clear”
decreased from 21.8% to 3.8% and from 35.2% to 7.4% at LW and LTT, respectively.
The decrease in listening level of the loudspeaker becomes obvious when the result isvisualized. Figure 6 shows the visualized result of the listening level of the loudspeaker
and receive condition of SMS in LTT at both sunny and rainy days. A method of
kriging, function of ArcGIS, was used to create the figure. It could be seen that the two
Rainy daySunny dayLTT (N=54)

LW (N=55)
N 55)

Very clear

Rainy daySunny day

Clear

NeutralNot clear

Not clear at all

Figure 5: Listening level of the loudspeakerof the respondents who have experienced flood damage

Figure 6-a Map of LTT with houses
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Figure 6-b Listening level of the loudspeaker- sunny day of LTT

Figure 6-c Listening level of the loudspeaker- rainy day of LTT

Figure 6-d Comparison between loudspeaker and SMS in warning- rainy day of LTT

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means work complementary to each other; the loudspeaker can cover large number ofpeople but decreases its reachable area when it rains, meanwhile SMS reaches lessnumber of people but covers people who would not be able to get clear informationfrom the loudspeaker at rainy days.
4. DISSCUSSION
People who have experienced flood disaster damages live in an areas far from the centerof a village; loudspeakers are mostly installed at the village center so that reachable areaof its sound can cover more people than when they are installed in the outskirts of thevillage. Therefore, it can be said that people who live in flood prone areas tend to bethreaten by a flood risk without being warned enough by the loudspeaker. The more rain
falls in the area the more risk of flooding and non-availability of warning people get. In
the worst case, the loudspeaker will be unavailable when electricity supply is cut by
blackout. Therefore, SMS, text-based warning, can be used to complement theloudspeaker, sound-based one.
However, SMS is needed to be opened by recipients otherwise it cannot function as
warning. In this study, people were observed who did not open SMS even they received
it. Besides it would be difficult to register and manage all residents’ mobile numbers
and dispatch at the event of flooding. Therefore, SMS shall be sent arbitrary recipient
who are appropriate to disseminate warning to other people based on the information
obtained from SMS. The recipients can be a village leader or someone who have highreputation in a community so that the information delivered by them would be believedby others. In addition, SMS shall be sent to the areas where warning from loudspeakeris hard to be reached especially at the situation that there is a heavy rain and highpossibility that flooding occurs. The areas can be found easily by visualizing Listening
level of the loudspeaker.
5. CONCLUSION
The importance of the idea to combine multiple means for warn public has been
increasing. In developing countries especially in rural areas where available information
communication technology is very limited, SMS of a mobile phone is featured to be
used for warning because of the high penetration of the mobile phone. Although a
combination of SMS and existing warning mean, the loudspeaker in this study, would
be useful for the warning, there is a little research have been done which prove SMS isactually applicable and useful by a reason other than its high penetration rate. Therefore,
this research demonstrated warning by both SMS and loud speaker to clarify the effectwhen they are combined. As a result, it was cleared that both means worked in amutually complementary manner. The loudspeaker was able to warm masssimultaneously but easily affected by rain that causes decrease of its reachable area ofsound. On the other hand, SMS could warn limited number of people but reachedunreachable area of the sound of loudspeaker. The complementary effect would become
more obvious at the time of heavy rain when severe noise disturbs the sound of the
speaker. For further understanding in the effect of the combination of means forwarning, other means used in the area, community radio, and face-to-face directcommunication should be also considered.
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REFERENCES
International Telecommunication Union. Key ICT indicators for developed anddeveloping countries and the world, http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Pages/stat/default.aspx. (Last access, 10th October, 2015)
Suzuki, T., 2015. Influence of Communication Tools on Transmission Characteristics
based on the Evacuation Information Transmission Test. Journal of Disaster
Information Studies, No. 13, 48-56.
Kondo S., Kataie Y., Ota K., 2012. Disaster Response of Municipal Government at
Southern area of Wakayama Prefecture after Flood and Sediment Disaster by Typhoon
Talas, Seisankenkyu, No. 64(4), 527-531.
Samarajiva, R., Waidyanatha, N., 2008. Two complementary mobile technologies fordisaster risk reduction through warning, LIRNEasia. http://hdl.handle.net/10625/42356
Saysoth K., Robert, G., 2012. An Appropriate Flood Warning System in the Context ofDeveloping Countries, International Journal of Innovation, Management andTechnology, Vol.3, No.3, 213-216.
Cioca, M., Cioca, L.I., Buraga, S.C., 2008. SMS Disaster Alert System Programming,
Second IEEE International Conference on Digital Ecosystems and Technologies (IEEEDEST 2008), 260-264.
Kodaka, A., Kawasaki, A., Ohara, M., Kondo, S., Komori, D., Sunthararuk, A., 2013. A
survey on the possibility of SMS introduction into disaster information dissemination
systems in rural mountainous areas in the northeastern Thailand. Journal of Social
Safety Sciences, 19, 9-16.
Kodaka, A., Kawasaki, A., Ohara, M., Komori, D., Sarawut, N., 2013. A study on thepossibility of mobile phone use as a disaster information dissemination mean for rural
mountainous areas in Thailand. Journal of Social Safety Sciences, 21, 189-198.
Kodaka, A., Kawasaki, A., Ohara, M., Kondo, S., 2014. Primary research on disaster
information dissemination by SMS of mobile phone ̽ Demonstration experiment in arural mountainous area, northeast Thailand 㸬Journal of Social Safety Sciences, 24,
191-199.

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Trend and geographical distribution of landslides
in Nepal based on Nepal DesInventar data
Chaudhary

Suresh CHAUDHARY1, Ganesh Kumar JIMEE2 and Gopi Krishna BASYAL3
1
Geographer, National Society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal (NSET)
2
Director, National Society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal (NSET)
3
Geographer, National Society for Earthquake Technology -Nepal (NSET)
schaudhary@nset.org.np

ABSTRACT
Nepal is known as one of the most disaster-prone countries in the world. Fragile geologicalcondition, diverse topographical feature, high precipitation and deeply weathered rockmaterial as well as socio-economic conditions have made the country vulnerable to various
types of natural disasters. Floods, landslides, earthquakes, epidemics, fires, thunderstorm andwindstorm are quite common and frequent in the country. Every year it is suffering fromnumber of large to small-scale natural disasters, causing a significant loss of life andproperty throughout the country.
This study is mainly based on DesInventar database, being maintained by NSET. Nepal
DesInventar database shows that more than 3,220 landslide events have been reported indifferent printed media during the last 42 years. While looking these analysis and data for thisperiod, one can specify the following losses: Besides the high number of human deaths 4,691,
about 18,902 houses were destroyed and nearly 34,126 damaged. Moreover, almost 225,76
ha. of arable land and more than 10,798 livestock were lost. Concerning public property,
more than 130 educational facilities, 8 medical centers and 334 km roads were damaged. The
total loss by disasters during this period is about 12 billion NRs at present value. In earlyyears, reports on disasters were not frequent. There is a gradual increase in the number ofreports in recent years. Mountain and hill regions are more prone to landslides. However,landslides are also affecting Churia and Mahabharat range of the Terai region..
Keywords: landslide, historical data, trend, geographical distribution

1. HAZARD PROFILE OF NEPAL
Nepal lies in the most active and fragile mountain range. Mountain is still rising and its rocks
are under constant stress, Thus pressure forces the Himalayas to rise continuously, which isreleased from time to time in the form of earthquakes. Active nature of the range and theprocess is also manifested by frequent earthquakes in this region. This stress is responsible forthe complexities in folding, faulting and fracturing of subsurface rock strata making the entire
country very fragile and susceptible to other natural hazards such as landslide and erosion(UNDP/BCP 2004). Intense monsoon rainfalls also trigger slope failure, landslide, debris flow,
and other secondary hazards.
Hence that a combination of rough topography, steep slopes, active tectonic and seismic
process and intense impact of monsoon rain has made this fragile environment vulnerable to avariety of natural hazards. Nepal is one of the most disaster-prone countries in the world andhas experienced several natural catastrophes causing high economic and human losses. Heavy

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rain and storms cause severe flooding, or trigger landslides that have an enormous effect onproperty, structures and lives.
The geological reasoning of Nepal being susceptible to a variety of natural hazards is
confirmed by the real occurrence of disastrous events. Most frequent hazards are landslides,
floods, epidemics, fires, earthquake and other hydro-meteorological disasters (heavy rain,
thunderstorm, hailstorm, windstorm etc.), causing heavy loss of human lives as well as
economic loss including housing and infrastructures. For example, the 1934 Bihar-Nepal
Earthquake (M8.3), the 1988 Udaypur Earthquake (M6.6) and the 2015 Gorkha Earthquake(M7.6) were the most devastating earthquakes in Nepal during last 80 years. Jure landslide of2014 and the 1993 floods in south-central Nepal resulted in huge loss of lives and properties
including housing and other infrastructures (roads, hydropower, and electricity). The
economic cost associated with natural disasters has increased tremendously.
The Terai experiences sheet flooding that becomes serious when the flow along braided rivers
overflows the banks because of heavy deposition of sand and gravel in the river bed. Fire,drought and epidemics are also prevalent in this geographic region. The Hill region, including
the Siwaliks (or the Churia Range) experiences landslide, debris flow along creeks along
steep slopes, floods in the lower stages of river terraces and erosion along the river banks
during monsoon period. The higher Mountain region is exposed to rock and snow avalanches,rock slides, and debris flows. There are numerous lakes of glacial origin in the higher
Himalayan regions of Nepal. These lakes are rapidly expanding in area and volume due tomelting of the glacier tongue, believed to be due to rise in global temperature. “20 lakes in
Nepal are potentially dangerous. The lives of tens of thousands of people who live high in themountains and in downstream communities could be at severe risk”(ICIMOD, 2007; Mool,
2001). The following table provides an overview of the hazard exposure of Nepal.
Table 1 : Types of Natural and Man-induced Hazards in Nepal
Types of Hazard

Prevalence

Natural Hazards
Earthquake

All of Nepal is a high-hazard earthquake zone

Flood

Terai (sheet flood), Middle Hills

Landslide and landslide dam breaks

Hills, Mountains

Debris Flow

Hills and Mountain, severe in areas of elevations greater than 1700 m that are coveredby glacial deposits of previous ice-age

Glacier Lakes Outburst Floods (GLOF)

Origin at the tongue of glaciers in Higher Himalayas, Higher Mountains, flow reach up
to middle Hill regions

Avalanche

Higher Himalayas

Fire (forest )Hills and Terai (forest belt at foot of southern-most Hills

Drought

All over the country

Storms/ Hailstorm

Hills

Man-Induced Hazards
Epidemics

Terai and Hills, also in lower parts of Mountain region

Fire (settlements)

Mostly in Terai, also in mid-Hill region

Accidents

Urban areas, along road network

Industrial/Technological Hazards

Urban / industrial areas

Soil erosion

Hill region

Social Disruptions

Follows disaster-affected areas and politically disturbed areas
Source: NSET 2009 (adopted from Dixit, 1996)

The seismic record of the country suggests that a major earthquake of the 1934-magnitude (upto MMI Scale X) occurs approximately every 75 years (UNDP/BCP 2004). Even though this
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is only a statistical estimate, no one questions that major earthquakes are an unavoidable partof Nepal’s future.
A large part of the country is affected by severe meteorological events (floods and landslides)
during rainy season (particularly in monsoon season during late June to September). Also,
there are events of cloudburst in the part of the hills causing debris flow and landslides.
Precipitation records show that 80 percent of rainfall occurs during monsoon; whereas rest of
rainfall occurs during pre-monsoon (5 percent during April – May) and post-monsoon (15percent during October to March). Precipitation varies from place to place and ranges from
250 mm to over 5,200 mm per annum (Pokhrel, 2003).
As global environmental changes have affected the world throughout the age of time; which
generate a complex of risks and vulnerabilities for areas and societies especially for those notwell prepared to face them. The impact of global change is more readily visible in the form of
melting of glacier ice and increasing potential of glacier lakes outburst floods (GLOFs) thathave been recorded as causing great loss of life and damage to physical infrastructures andproperty. In Nepal, glacier lakes are common in mountainous region and out of them manyare potentially dangers in terms of GLOFs. These lakes containing huge volume of water andremain in unstable condition (ICIMOD, 2007).
Epidemics and fire cases are other most significant disaster types in Nepal; they are frequent
during the months of hot and rainy seasons. The poor access to health facilities are the mostimportant thing to epidemics particularly in remote areas of the country as well as among thepeople living in poverty. Fires are frequent in thatch-roofed houses in the Terai and also inslum areas. In recent times, cases of fire are increasingly happening in small industries using
or producing synthetic materials.
Thus Nepal faces a variety of natural hazards of geologic and climatologic origins. The entire
country is exposed to one or multiple forms of natural hazards. Compared to the area of thecountry and the population, the extent and intensity of natural hazards are way too high if
looked at from global perspective. Further, most of the hazard events easily get translated into
disasters because of prevalent vulnerability.

2. METHODOLOGY
Although living in the "information age" and in a culture that is very data incentive, theorganized and uniform data pertaining to natural disaster losses is quite less. No exact
statistics are available on the loss of lives and property caused by historical disaster events.
Few available records are only on the events with big impacts but thousands of small andmedium size events are missing from the records, which sum to significant loss of lives andproperty.
In this context, the effort was carried out by the National Society for Earthquake Technology– Nepal (NSET) to establish a systematic data inventory of natural disaster events in Nepal.
The effort has been focused on collection and computer-entry of natural disaster data. So far
NSET has maintained the data for 42 years (1971-2013) and has been continued for
subsequent years. The information is collected from different printed media and entered into
the DesInventar System, a methodological tool developed by Latin American Network ofSocial Studies on Disaster Prevention (LARED).
Daily newspapers and periodicals have been considered as major sources of information.
Beside these, relevant reports, journals and researches are also taken into account. The datathus collected is verified for consistency and accuracy, largely by going to the source when in
doubt. After the verification, trained personnel entered the data into the DesInventar System.
The inventoried landslides data have been analyzed from different angles to draw an overview
of landslides. Furthermore, distribution and other analysis also made based on geographical
Trend and geographical distribution of landslides in Nepal based on Nepal DesInventar data
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and political regions while finding spatial distribution as well as making analysis on
seasonality, trend, pattern, and the extent of human and property losses. The findings arepresented in the form of tables, graphs, and maps.
This study draw a brief overveiw of the landslides in Nepal and how each impact variable has
distributed spatialy, seasonally and chronologically. All these findings are based on theinformation collected through secondary source of information and findings are depends on
how accurately the information was reported in the printed media.

3. LANDSLIDES – OVERALL SCENARIO
Landslide is a kind of moderate to rapid soil movement including lahar, mudslide and debris
flow (CRED 2009). It is the movement of soil or rock controlled by gravity and the speed ofthe movement usually ranges between slow and rapid. It can be superficial or deep, but thematerials have to make up a mass that is portion of the slope or the slope itself. The
movement has to be downward and outward with a free face. But this study has focused only
on the ground movement, such as rock falls, deep failure of slopes and shallow debris flows.
Although gravity is the primary reason for a landslides, there are other contributing factors
affecting the original slope stability: The natural causes are: erosion by rivers, glacier melting,saturation by snowmelt or heavy rains, seismic activity, volcanic eruptions, excess weightfrom accumulation of rain or snow, and groundwater pressure acting to destabilize the slope.
Human impacts such as vibrations from machinery, traffic and road construction, explosions
or mining as well as the removal of deep-rooted vegetation that binds the soil to bedrock orovergrazing can also trigger landslides.
For the period of 1971 to 2013 the number of landslide events is summed to a total of 3,220 –a yearly average of 76 disaster events. The overall death toll is about 4,691 people whichmean that on average every year in Nepal causes 111 fatalities. A striking number is seen on
affected population, totaling of more than 600,736 (average of about 14,303 people per year).
Besides the high number of human losses (fatalities, missing, injured, affected : 607, 806),
about 18,902 houses were destroyed and nearly 34,126 houses damaged. Moreover almost
22,576 ha land and more than 10,798 livestock were lost. Concerning public property, morethan 130 educational facilities, 8 medical centers and 334 km roads were damaged. The total
loss by disasters during this period is about 12 billion NRs at present value. However,landslide impacts on human and property is differ as year and geographic location.

4. SEASONAL VARIATION OF LANDSLIDESAs stated above, the factors contributing to high vulnerability of landslides are of geographic,
geological, ecological and demographic nature. This factor mainly open the fragility of theland masses, high elevation and steep gradient of the mountain slopes. Specific weather
events related to the geography of the country, high degree of environmental degradation andthe rapid growth of population as well slow economic development are also forces to thevulnerability of landslides.
Regarding the geography of Nepal, the Hill region seems to be the most affected area bylandslides. As the peak of landslide events is in July during monsoon season, we can say
heavy rain, floods and landslides are interrelated. Some landslides are triggered by riverbank
erosion, undercutting of slopes by fast flowing rivers or human impact on slopes such as theconstruction of roads. On the other hand landslides can block riverbanks and consequently
aggravate the risk of (flash) floods.

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2500

No. of data-cards/Deaths

No. of Data-cards

Deaths

2000
1500
1000
500
0

Jan

Feb

Mar Apr May Jun

Jul

Aug Sep

Oct

Nov Dec

Figure 1: Seasonality of Landslides, 1971-2013(Data source: Nepal DesInventar Database, NSET 2015)

Figure 1shows that death from landslide was recorded high in the rainy season from June to
October.

5. TREND OF LANDSLIDES

No. of data-cards/deaths

Besides the above stated natural causes of landslides, in Nepal the major anthropogenic
factors for landslides are: intensive deforestation, improper agriculture and irrigation practices,
overgrazing on slopes, quarrying for construction materials, and construction of infrastructure
beyond the bearing capacities of the hill slopes(Petley et.al 2007). Moreover the haphazard
urbanisation with so called modern development without proper studies in hills has forced
people to move at risk of landslide, which has been increasing everey year.
The analysis of effects of landslide during the 42 years period shows that each year, on
average 111 people are killed and 14,303 affected with high number of buildings destroyedand damaged (about 1262 each year). Makwanpur, Sindhupalchok, Dhading and Kaski
districts are highly affected.
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0

No. of Data-card

DeathsYear

Figure 2: Trendline of landslides, 1971-2013(Data source: Nepal DesInventar Database, NSET 2015)

Trend and geographical distribution of landslides in Nepal based on Nepal DesInventar data

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The analysis of landslides trendline shows that in the beginning of 1990s, it can be observe ahigh number of landslide events. Moreover, the number of fatalities increased as well.
However, in recent years, the number of events and fatalities went down again. An
explanation for this curve cannot be found solely from the DesInventar database. However
one could question whether this trend is interlinked with the construction of roads andincrease of population.

6. ANALYSIS BY GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS
Nepal comprises high altitudinal variation from about 60 to over 8,000 meter above sea levelwithin 90-120 km distance.
Because of the east-westorientationofthemountains the climatechanges from tropical toalpineaccordingtoelevation and latitude –temperature
decreasesfrom south to north withincreasing
altitude.
Ecologically, Nepal istypically divided in three
regions with regard toelevations and climate
from North to South; The
Mountain, Hill and Terai
Region.
6.1 The Mountain Region
The northern part of Nepal – typicallyhigher than 5,000 meter above mean sea
level includes northern 16 districts of
Nepal. This region covers approximately
15% of the country’s land surface,contains nine of the fifteen highest peaksof the world. In the region, the winters arerather strong – long and severe – with only
short and cool summers. Due to this fact,
the most severe disasters besides
epidemics – which cause almost ¾ of all
fatalities – are landslides. During the time
(1971-2013), no glacier lake outburst flood(GLOF) happened; however due to the
topography of this area the region is proneto Landslides and GLOFs as well.

Jure Landslide
On August 2, 2014, due to heavy rainfall, a landslide
was occurred at the Sunkoshi River, killing 156 people
and blocking the river to form and artificial lake in
Sindhupalchok district, Nepal. Araniko highway, themain (and only) artery of goods and people flow to
China, was blocked by the landslide ripping out of 5 kmof highway, and causing huge traffic jam, 2 dozens
houses had been swept by the landslide. The landslide
had a volume of 5.5 million cubic meters.
The landslide had a massive effects far beyond. The
dammed river was threatening to unleash a torrent ofwater to hundreds of downstream villages that would
ravage as far as Northern India. Despite the use of
dynamite, it took the Nepal Army 45 days to dig a canalthrough the blockage to allow water in the lake to drain.
The Lake created was 47 meters deep and over 400
meters long. The hasty emergency draining through thelake canal itself had caused damage to houses
downstream and threatens to take out Lamosanghu
Hydropower dam.

6.2 The Hill Region
The Hill Region contains some of the mostpopulated districts of Nepal, naming especially the Kathmandu and Pokhara Valley. The

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topography contains hills, valleys, plateaus and gorges between approximately 1,500m and
5,000m above mean sea level – about 70% of the total land in Nepal. In this area, different
influences cumulate: Because of the steep gradients of the mountains, this area is exposed toavalanches
in thecontains
winter, hills,
but also
prone
to landslides
andbetween
mud flows
during monsoon,
when
topography
valleys,plateaus
and gorges
approximately
1,500m andthe slopes
aresoakedandweakened
from
the
rain.
Therefore,
settlements
inthevalleys
5,000m above mean sea level – about 70% of the total land in Nepal. In this area, differentand
on mountain
areBecause
in danger
landslides.
as thismentioned
before,to the
influencesterraces
cumulate:of theofsteep
gradients Furthermore,of the mountains,area is exposedavalanches
in the winter,also region:
prone toMany
landslides
andoverflow
mud flows
duringmonsoonhas multiple
effects but
in thisriverstheirbedmonsoon,and causewhen
severetheslopesaresoakedandweakened
from
the
rain.
Therefore,
settlements
inthevalleysandflooding and the cloud bursts cause harsh erosion that affects agriculture.
on mountain terraces are in danger of landslides. Furthermore, as mentioned before, theLandslides
triggeredrainfallmonsoon has multiple effects inthis region:
Manybyriversoverflow their bed and cause severe
In July2002,
many
landslides
occurredinthesouthernhillsoftheagriculture.
Kathmandu, because of torrential
flooding and the cloud bursts cause harsh erosion that affects

rainfall. A single flow-like landslide occurred at Matatirtha, a small village situated at the south marginalby rainfall
hill of Kathmandu, killing 16 people who Landslides
lived at thetriggered
foot of thehill. Much damage was caused to roads and
In
July
2002,
many
landslides
occurredinthesouthernhills ofthe Kathmandu,
becauseof torrential
houses because of landslides and debris flows in small streams.
Althoughsome more
flow-likelandslides
landslideat Matatirtha,a small village
situatedsouth marginal
rainfall.
A singlemarginalflow-like hills,
occurredin southern
the occurred
Matatirtha
was most devastatingone.
Someatofthe
flow-likelandslides
hill of Kathmandu,
killing
people was
who not
livedreported
at the foot of the hill. Much damage was caused to roads andalso damaged
road of hills
but 16
casualty
houses because of landslides and debris flows in small streams. Although some more flow-like landslides
occurred in southern marginal hills, the Matatirtha was most devastating one. Some of flow-like landslides
also damaged road of hills but casualty was not reported

6.3 The Terai Region
Altitudes between 60m and 1,500 m above mean sea
6.3 The Terai Region
level areencountered to build the Terai region. The
Altitudes between 60m and 1,500 m above mean sea
lowlands– 17% of the Nepalese land area – include
level are encountered to build the Terai region. Thevery fertile
plainsformedthe chainlowlands– 17%of the by
Nepaleseland ofareahistorical– include
floods.very
Howeverchuriaandmahabharat
fromfertile plains formed by the chainrangeof historicalthe east
to theHowever
west canchuria
be foundon this region.
floods.
and mahabharat
range fromthe east
to thewest can be foundon thisSimilarly
to theafore-analyzed
regions
theregion.
Terai also
to the afore-analyzed
regions
the Terai also
face Similarly
the severityof landslides.
Landslide
of
face
the
severityoflandslides.
Landslide
Mukundapur,
Nawalparasi(2003),
Rukuwa,of
Mukundapur,(2003), (2003
Rukuwa,Nawalparasi(1981), Nawalparasi
Kabilaspur, Chitwan&
Nawalparasi (1981), Kabilaspur, Chitwan (2003 &2006) are an example of huge landslides occurred in2006) are an example of huge landslides occurred in
Terai Terairegion,that are highly interlinked with theregion, that are highly interlinked with therainy season.
rainy season.
As Nepalis affectedby thesouth-west
monsoon,As Nepalis affectedby thesouth-west
monsoon,thethe
Terai Terai
Regionwill will
havehavethe thefirstfirst
hit.hit.Therefore
RegionThereforeallallconsequences
heavy rain,
rain, storm
storm and
andconsequences
of ofheavy
thundershowers(flooding,erosion,lightning
lightning etc.)
etc.)
thundershowers(flooding,erosion,canbeobserved
in
this
area.
As
the
Terai
is
heavily
can be observed in this area. As the Terai is heavily
usedin terms
of agriculture,small
small
slidesasaswell
wellused interms
of agriculture,slidestopples mainly due to rive bank erosion, have atopples mainly due to rive bank erosion, have asevere effect not only causing high numbers ofseverefatalities
effect not
only causing high numbers of
but also resulting high financial andfatalities
but
also
resultingagricultural (irrigation
canal) highlosses. financial andagricultural (irrigation canal) losses.

7. ANALYSIS BY DEVELOPMENT REGIONS

7. ANALYSIS BY DEVELOPMENT REGIONS

7.1 Eastern Development Region (EDR)
In comparison
to the Region
overview(EDR)– that the eastern
7.1 Eastern
Development
region comprises 19% fatalities due to landslides.
In comparison to the overview – that the eastern
The districts with high occurrence of landslides are
regionTaplejung,comprises 19% fatalities due to landslides.

The districts with high occurrence of landslides are
Taplejung,

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Trend and geographical distribution of landslides in Nepal based on Nepal DesInventar data
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Panchthar,Ilam,Sankhuwasabha,Solukhumbu, Okhaldhunga and Khotang. Taking the numberof deaths into consideration the districts remain most hit by landslides. The significantly highreports on human deaths and other losses (building destroyed & damaged) in Eastern Region
are because of landslides with high impact in Okhaldhunga (1976), Jhapa (1980), Dhankuta(1987) and Khotang (2002) etc .
The high number of affected people in Bhojpur (1996), Sankhuwasabha (2008),
Sankhuwasabha (2011) and Terhathum (2011) can be traced back to the fact of a severe
landslides (see above Map). However in the other districts have also high number of affected
people. The districts with extremely high economic losses are Khotang, Taplejung,Okhaldhunga and Sankhuwasabha.
All thematic maps shows that the northern parts of this development region are more affected
than the southern areas. This can be ascribed first to the differences of the population density
and second to the severe weather conditions during the monsoon period.
Region

EDR
CDR
WDR
MDWR
FWDR
Total

No. ofoccurrence599(18.6%)
920(28.5%)
917(28.4%)
478(14.8%)
306(9.5%)

DeathsMissing

900
(19%)
1,543
(32%)
1,313
(27.9%)
492(10.4%)
443(9.4%)

166(26.4%)
212(33.8%)
166(26.4%)
43(6.8%)
40(6.3%)

Injuries

Affected
Population355(10.2%)
417(23.8%)
577(32.9%)
224(12.7%)
179(10.2%)

10, 4700(17.4%)
300,720(50%)
116,509(19.3%)
33,799
(5.6%)
45,008(7.4%)

3,220 (100%)
4,691 (100%)627 (100%)
1,752 (100%)
Source : Nepal DesInventar Database, NSET 2015

600,736 (100%)

7.2 Central Development Region (CDR)
Concerning the Central Development Region landslide prone districts are Dhading,Sindhupalchoke, Kavre and Makwanpur. Especially the Makwanpur district is outstanding not
only because of the number of deaths but also because of the number of affected people (seeabove Map). In this district fatalities are mainly caused by the landslide events during therainy seasons.
The number of affected people in Makwanpur, Dhading, Kavre and Dolakha districts isremarkable. In-depth analysis as shown that topography is responsible for this high impact.
Whereas in the Terai district Dhanusa, the disaster of landslides affected a high number ofpeople and caused high financial losses.
It can be concluded from the database that landslides lies on third places (16% of all disasters)
in terms of most destructive and deadlist events in the central region.
7.3 Western Development Region (WDR)
In the Western Region, the districts with the highest numbers of landslides are Syangja,
Baglung, Kaski, Parbat and Lamjung. Otherwise, Kaski, Syangja, Myagdi, Baglung, Gulmi
and Tanahun encounter the highest number of deaths (see above Map). The events occurring
most in this region are landslides (21% of all disasters).
In Myagdi district, there is a high losses in terms of finance and the number of affected pople
are mainly due to destructive landslides. This supports the argument that the Hill region ismost affected by disastrous landslides. Moreover, the study shows that the Terai is somehow
affected by landslides is supported by the fact that the high number of affected people in the
Terai districts, especially in Rupandehi, can be ascribed to landslide events.

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7.4 Mid-Western Development Region (MWDR)
The districts most at risk of landslides are Dailekh, Rukum, Jajarkot and Kalikot. Moreover
Pyuthan, Kalikot, Jajarkot, Rolpa and Dailekh comprise the highest number of fatalities in the
Mid-Western Region. The number of affected people in the Terai, as proven by the Dang andBanke district, come off the effects of the landslides during monsoon season.
Comparing the ratio of number of events to number of deaths of the different development
regions one can conclude, that the landslides in the Mid-West are less destructive than in theprevious three regions. This can also be interpreted in the way that the mid-western districts
are more vulnerable to other type of disasters ; flood, epidemic etc.
7.5 Far Western Development Region (FWDR)
Considering the above maps the finding is that the districts most hit by landslides and also thehighest numbers of deaths. These districts are Darchula, Bajura, Doti and Baitadi. The
landslides are more severe which cause more than 9 % fatalities. Additionally the number ofaffected people in the whole development regions comes off the side effects of the monsoon.
Moreover one can say likewise other regions, the districts in the Far Western Region are also
vulnerable to landslides as the numbers of events and deaths are fairly high. This means, thatthe events of landslides are affecting on the population of Far-western development Regions.

8. CONCLUSION

Nepal lies in a multi-hazard zone exposed to various types of disaster. However, due to thevarious geography, topographic features, climatic variation and different levels of socioeconomic development within the country, the type, frequency and degree of the impact ofdisasters differs from place to place.
Landslide impacts on human life, property and economy seems vary. Landslide is the mostdestructive natural disaster in Nepal. It does not only cause a high number of casualties andgrave agricultural losses but also effects structures and infrastructure causing huge economic
loss. Landslides, moreover, occur on a regular basis during monsoon.
The trendline of landslide shows that in the beginning of 1990s, there was a high number oflandslide events. Moreover, the number of fatalities increased as well. In recent years, thenumber of events and fatalities went down again.
Districts of hill region as well mountain region are mostly affected by disastrous landslide
events. However, the effects in the latter are more severe because landslides can cause otherdisasters like flash flood. Among the development regions, central development region
recorded the highest number of human deaths 1,543 (32%) closely followed by westerndevelopment regions with 1,313 (27.9%) deaths (above table). Similarly eastern and midwestern regions each have accounted for 19% and 10.4% respectively. Furthermore, in termsof the affected population, Central development region has recorded the highest population
300,720 (50%) with the lowest in far western development region 45,008 (7.4%).
Querying disaster impact by political regions, mostly landslide disasters can be seen on thecentral and eastern part of Nepal. Nearly 50 percent of landslides are recorded in these regions.
Moreover as the aforementioned regions have high population these landslide events havealso a high effect on people and property.
Furthermore, the high number of events does not imply a high number of deaths and viceversa. For example in the mountainous part of the eastern development region, the number ofdisaster events is high but due to the fact of a small density of population, the death toll israther low. However, in the far western region, where only a small number of events occur,
the death toll is lesser high. the analysis also shows that the landslides are highly interlinked
to the geographic conditions – whereas the northern mountains are highly affected byTrend and geographical distribution of landslides
Nepal based foron Nepaldata
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landslides. The Hill districts mostly experiences the side effects of the landslides. And the
Terai suffers all monsoon effects – especially floods and landslides together.
One concluding remark for further research and mitigation approach is necessary in Nepal.
REFERENCES
CRED (2009), Disaster Category Claasification and peril Terminology for Operational
Purposes.
DWIDP (2002), Water Induced Disasters in Nepal and Its Management, in Disaster Review
2004, (July 2005), Kathmandu Nepal.
DWIDP (2006), DWIDP Bulletin F.Y. 2005/2006, DWIDP (Department of Water Induced
Disaster Prevention), Ministry of Water Resources, Government of Nepal. Page 2.
Khanal, R. K.(1991), Historic Landslides of Nepal during 1902 – 1990 AD: Extent andEconomic Significance; unpublished MSc. Thesis submitted to Central Department of
Geology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu.
Mool, Pradip (2001), Glacial lakes and glacial lake outburst flood events in the Hindu Kush –Himalayan Region in Mountain Flash Floods (no.38, Winter 200/2001), Kathmandu:ICIMOD
page 7 – 8.
National Society for Earthquake Technology – Nepal (NSET) 2009, Global Assessment of
Risk, Nepal Country Report, Submitted to ISDR Global Assessment Report on Poverty andDisaster Risk 2009 Submitted by NSET.
Pradhan, B. K. (2007), Disaster Preparedness for Natural Hazards: Current Status in Nepal,
Kathmandu: ICIMOD (International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development)
UNDP Nepal (1997), Comomprehensive Database (Basic Information) On Natural Disaster
Management Capabilities In Nepal, United Nations Development Programme, Kathmandu,(unpublished report, nicknamed the Brown Book).
Petley D.N, Gareth J Hearn, Andrew Hart, Nicholas J. Rosser, Stuart A. Dunning, Katie Oven,
Wishart A. Mitchell (2007), Trends in landslide occurrence in Nepal, pulished on Natural
hazards, Origional Paper 43:23-44 (http://www.researchgate.net/publication/226792669,
retrieved on 02 October 2015)
UNDP/BCPR (2004), A Global Report Reducing Disaster Risk-A Challenge for Development,
United Nations Development Programme, Bureau for crisis Prevention and Recovery.
Pokhrel, L. N. (2002), Water Induced Disasters in Nepal and Its Management, in Disaster
Review 2002, (July 2003) DWIDP.
ICIMOD (2007), Disaster Preparedness for Natural Hazards: Current Status in Nepal),
Kathmandu, May 2007, ICIMOD
http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/climate_change/publications/asia_pacific. asof 17 June 2008)
www.desinventar.net
http://www.proventionweb.net/english/hyogo/gar/2009/UNDP_NP_Nepal Country
Report.pdf
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Sunkoshi_blockage
http://iaeg2006.geo/soc.org.uk/cd/PAPER/IAEG-819.PDF
http://www.np.undp.org/content/dam/nepal/docs/reports/UNDP_NP_UNDP%20Nepal%20An
nual%20Report%202014.pdf

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Performance Based Engineering by using
Seismic Dampers for Improved Performance andReduction in Repair Cost +.LW0L\DPRWRDQG$PLU6-*LODQL
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ABSTRACT

Performance based design with seismic protection devices such as seismic dampers
have fundamentally altered the landscape of earthquake engineering and design
worldwide including Nepal. Structures designed and built without such devices typicallyuse a code-prescribed design that implies extensive structural and nonstructural
damage, loss of operation, and likely replacement at design-level earthquake. In
contrast, performance based design incorporating earthquake protection devices leads
to a combination of best engineering practice and reducing life-cycle costs. These
devices are robust, cost-effective, and have a proven exceptional performance record inpast earthquakes. The long-term performance is the key parameter used for evaluation.
Structures properly designed with these devices will likely provide immediate
occupancy performance with minimum post-earthquake repair.
Keywords: seismic dampers, risk reduction, earthquake resiliency, enhanced
performance ,1752'8&7,21
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Performance Based Engineering by using Seismic Dampers for Improved Performance andReduction in Repair Cost

Performance Based Engineering by using Seismic Dampers for Improved Performanceand Reduction in Repair Cost

625

October 2015, Kathmandu, Nepal

626

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Comprehensive Seismic Risk Reduction Programfor Public Buildings in Metro Manila, Philippines+.LW0L\DPRWRDQG$PLU6-*LODQL
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ABSTRACT

Under the auspices of the World Bank, a multi-step risk assessment project has been
recently completed for Metropolitan Manila, Philippines, the country’s primarycommercial and business center, the 11th most populous metropolis in the world, with
12 million. This area is susceptible to multihazard natural disasters such as
earthquakes, floods, and typhoons. To address this vulnerability, a risk assessment andmitigation program was undertaken. A prioritization and seismic retrofit program wasdeveloped and focused on public schools and hospitals that have suffereddisproportional damage and casualties in past disasters worldwide. The key steps in the
program were to: a) prioritize vulnerable structures, b) conduct cost-benefit analysis toassess retrofit options, and c) prepare a seismic retrofitting guidelines including design
examples and details. Approximately, 4,000 structures were evaluated. The
probabilistic evaluation platform was utilized and retrofit options were developed basedon the state of art but simple seismic retrofit methods and modified for local
construction.
Keywords: metro Manila, multihazard prioritization, probabilistic risk assessment,
cost-benefit analysis, seismic retrofit

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Comprehensive Seismic Risk Reduction Program for Public Buildings in Metro Manila,
Philippines

Comprehensive Seismic Risk Reduction Program for Public Buildings in Metro Manila, Philippines

629

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