5th Joint Student Seminaron Civil Infrastructure
20-21 August 2012
Bangkok, Thailand
Co-Organized by
School of Engineering and Technology,
Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Thailand
International Center for Urban Safety Engineering (ICUS)
Institute of Industrial Science
The University of Tokyo, Japan
Hokkaido University
Chulalongkorn University
Myongji University, Korea
and
Chonnam National University

Edited by
Dr. Akiyuki Kawasaki, Dr. Kunnawee Kanipong,
Dr. Hyunmyung Kim, Dr. Michael Henry and
Dr. Withit Pansuk

Organization Teams
Prof. Worsak Kanok-Nukulchai (AIT, Thailand)
Dr. Pennung Warnitchai (AIT, Thailand)
Dr. Kunnawee Kanipong (AIT, Thailand)
Dr. Masahiko Nagai (AIT, Thailand)
Dr. Mukand Singh Babel (AIT, Thailand)
Dr. Pakawat Sancharoen (SIIT, Thailand)
Dr. Withit Pansuk (Chulalongkorn U, Thailand)Prof. Kimiro Meguro (UT, Japan)
Prof. Haruo Sawada (UT, Japan)
Dr. Akiyuki Kawasaki (UT, Japan)
Dr. Wataru Takeuchi (JSPS, Thailand/UT, Japan)
Dr. Henry Michael (Hokkaido U, Japan)
Dr. Hyunmyung Kim (Myongji U, Korea)
Prof. Yongtaek Lim (Chonnam National U, Korea)
Prof. Hee-Jung Kang (Konkuk U, Korea)

5th JOINT STUDENT SEMINARON CIVIL INFRASTRUCTURE
August 2012
PREFACEIn this era of rapid globalization, having an international sense andbroad human resource network is essential. In particular, building up a good
relationship with various communities during young school days will be ofadvantage in the future. To give such an opportunity to students from Asian
countries, we held the 1st, 2nd 3rd, 4th and joint student seminar in July 2008,
July 2009, July 2010 and August 2011, respectively, and following thissuccess the “5th Joint Student Seminar on Civil Infrastructures” was held on
20th -21st August, 2012.
The objectives of this seminar are:1) to experience the international seminar,
2) to improve the presentation skill,3) to share the research information and friendships.
The number of participants was 69, consisting of 2 faculties and 69
students from Hokkaido University, Chonnam National University,
MyongJi University , Chulanongkorn University, The University of Tokyo
and Asian Institute of Technology.
On the first day, we had a presentation session, having 2 faculties’
lectures and 16 students’ presentation. The topics covered wide range areasof civil engineering and every student did their best in his/her presentation.
During the seminar, students and faculties had lively exchange of views
beyond their specialty, culture and nationality. At the end of the seminar,
excellent presentation awards were given to the following 2 students.
1. Mr. Yoshiyuki Takano from University of Tokyo, Japan
2. Ms. Sung-Hi An from MyongJi University, Korea
On the second day, we had a field visit to the traveling along the acruise along the legendary Chao Phraya River, Bangkok, Thailand, andsome canals on the Thon Buri side (investigating the riverside area affectedby the 2010 floods and observe the life of riverside communities along withof the Chao Phraya River); visit Vimanmek Mansion, Wat Arun (The Royal
Temple of Dawn) and Ananda Samakhom Throne Hall.
The seminar was quite successful and fruitful: this seminar gave not
only knowledge and information but also a lot of other stimuli to thestudents. We hope to continue to hold this kind of interchange activities in
the coming years.
Finally, we would like to express our sincere gratitude for those who
kindly supported and contributed to the success of this seminar.
Akiyuki Kawasaki, Kunnawee Kanipong,Hyunmyung Kim, Michael Henry and Withit Pansuk

ICUS
Report
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Report6464

Table of Contents
Page

Opening Session
SECTION 1

SECTION 2

Invited Lectures
Information collection and needs after disasters: Lessons from the 2011
Tohoku Earthquake and 2011 Thai Flood
Michael Henry

1

Numerical analysis of lateral pile motion under dynamic loadings
Punchet Thammarat

21

Student Presentations
Reconstruction of Kamaishi-city after the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake andTsunamiMaria B.K. Dewi

33

Departure-time choice (DTC) behaviour for Inter-city travel during a longholiday in Bangkok, Thailand
Bhawat Chaichannawatik

41

Structural performance assessment of deteriorated unreinforced concrete
structures
Yuriko Yamamoto

53

Topic-GEO mapping of disaster information using ontology
Ashik Rajbhandari

59

An analytical investigation of anchorage failure of RC confined by transverse
bar by 3D RBSM
Yoshiyuki Takano

71

Modeling intermodal traffic assignment and application
Cheol Park

83

Shear Fatigue Performance of PVA-ECC Beam Mixed with Aggregate underPre-cracked Condition
Rieko Kojima

93

Investigating the influence of highway median design of driver stress
Ratthaphong Meesit

103

Study on transport phenomenon in mortar using the cesium carbonate as a
tracer by X-ray CT
Shohei Ikeda

121

Service innovation for disaster responsiveness with multi-spatial information
sharing
Kulapramote Prathumchai

129

5th Joint
Joint Student
StudentSeminar
SeminarononCivil
Civil
Infrastructure
InfrastructureAugust 2012,
August2012,Thailand
ThailandSECTION 3

Study of Mechanisms of Landslide Due to Soil Pipes Using Hollow Cylinder
Shear Apparatus
Biruk Adene141

Traffic accident analysis based on TAAS database system
Sung-Hi An

151

Modeling of tensile behaviour of mortar immersed in NaCl solution
Taito Miura

165

Influence of surface stresses on a three-dimensional elastic medium withmode-I crack
Pong-in Intarit

173

Design of reconstruction to save people in Iwanuma, Miyagi
Rina Goto

181

Analysis of transboundary impacts of hydropower development in the
Mekong: case of 3S sub-basin
Seemanta Sharma Bhagabati

189

Student Report
Report from Student Participants on The 5th Joint Student Seminar on Civil
Infrastructures

201

5th5thJoint
Student
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StudentSeminar
Seminaron
onCivil
Civil Infrastructure
Infrastructure

ICUS
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Registration

Opening ceremony (Dr. Akiyuki Kawasaki)

Dr. Michael Henry

Dr. Punchet Thammarat

Ms. Maria Bernadet Karina Dewi

Mr. Bhawat Chaichannawatik

Ms. Yuriko Yamamoto

Mr. Ashik Rajbhandari

5th Joint Student Seminar on Civil Infrastructure
5th Joint Student Seminar on Civil InfrastructureiiAugust 2012, Thailand
August 2012, Thailand

ii

ii

Mr. Yoshiyuki Takano

Mr. Cheol Park

Ms. Rieko Kojima

Mr. Ratthaphong Meesit

Mr. Shohei Ikeda

Ms. Kulapramote Prathumchai

Mr. Alene Biruk Adane

Ms. Sung-Hi An
5th Joint Student Seminar on Civil Infrastructure
5th Joint Student Seminar on Civil Infrastructure

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Mr. Taito Miura

Mr. Pong-in Intarit

Ms. Rina Goto

Mr. Bhawat Chaichannawatik

Chairperson (Dr. Masahiko Nagai)

Chairperson (Dr. Hyunmyung Kim)

Review comment (Prof. Hiroshi Yokota)

Closing ceremony (Dr. Kunnawee Kanitpong)

5th
Seminar
on on
Civil
Infrastructure
5thJoint
JointStudent
Student
Seminar
Civil
InfrastructureiiiiiiAugust 2012, Thailand
August 2012, Thailand

During Meeting

During Seminar

During Welcome Dinner

Excellent Presenter Mr. Yoshiyuki Takano

Excellent Presenter Ms. Sung-Hi An

iv

5th Joint Student Seminar on Civil Infrastructure
5th Joint Student Seminar on Civil Infrastructureiv

ICUS Report 64
ICUS Report 64

Phra Pinklao Bridge and cross over the river

constructing a flood wall with concrete beams and slabs

flood wall under construction

mold after flood damage
5th Joint Student Seminar on Civil Infrastructure
5th Joint Student Seminar on Civil Infrastructurevv

August 2012, Thailand
August 2012, Thailand

Seminar: Group Photo at Chulalongkorn University (Morning)

Seminar: Group Photo at SaSa International House (Afternoon)vivi

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Field Trip: Group Photo at Vimanmek Mansion

Field Trip: Group Photo at Ananda Samakhom Throne Hall

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Invited Lectures

INFORMATION COLLECTION AND NEEDS
AFTER DISASTERS: LESSONS FROM THE
2011 TOHOKU EARTHQUAKE AND 2011
THAI FLOOD
Michael Henry
Division of Field Engineering for the Environment
Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University
mwhenry@eng.hokudai.ac.jp

Information collection
and needs after disasters:
Lessons from the 2011 Tohoku Earthquakeand 2011 Thai Flood
Michael Henry
Division of Field Engineering for the Environment
Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University

Akiyuki Kawasaki & Kimiro Meguro

International Center for Urban Safety Engineering (ICUS)
Institute of Industrial Science, The University of Tokyo

Presentation contents
Disaster information
The role of information in disaster situations
2011 Tohoku Earthquake
In-depth multi-dimensional analysis results
2011 Thai Flood
General overview of basic analysis results
Improving information dissemination
For future disaster preparation & response2

1 1

August 2012, Thailand
August 2012, Thailand

Disaster information

Information seeking and mass media
After disasters, people seek information to remain informed
and to make decisions regarding their post-disaster action

Mass media: transmitters of official information
Phase

Role

Preparedness

Provide factual information about
hazards and preparation

Response /Recovery

Focus attention on the affectedareas to help community recovery

Mitigation

Disaster information provider to help
raise awareness for future events
4

Growth of social media
Localized coverage is useful for building social connections
and providing emotional support in the wake of a disaster

Growth of information and communication technologies (e.g.
the Internet, social media) has enabled people to connect
and participate in information seeking and providing together

However…
The integration of social media and related technologies with
official disaster response activities for supporting distributionof critical information is still on-going
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2011 Tohoku Earthquake

Disaster overview
At 14:46 on March 11th, 2011, amagnitude 9.0 earthquake struck
off the Pacific coast of Tohoku

Triple disaster:

Earthquake
TsunamiNuclear crisis/meltdown
News of the disaster was
immediately deliveredaround the world7

Conflicting and confusing information
After the earthquake and during the Fukushima nuclear crisis…

Domestic
media

Large
information
disparity

Overseas
media

Examples: differences in the reported urgency, conflicting information

Large numbers of foreigners relocated to other parts of Japan or left
the country entirely, spawning the term “flyjin”“Flyjin”
A play on the Japanese word
used for foreigners, “gaijin,” tomock those who fled Japan

http://flyjin.com/

8

Information collection and needs after disasters: Lessons from the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake andInformationcollection
2011 Thai
Floodand needs after disasters: Lessons from the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake and2011 Thai Flood33

August 2012, Thailand
August 2012, Thailand

Information and support for foreigners
Effects of foreigners’ evacuation on socio-economic activities in Japan:
Relocation/closure of embassies
Relocation/closure of business functions
Evacuation of foreign laborers
Evacuation of foreign students
Avoidance of Japan by travelers
Cancellation/postponement ofconferences and exhibitions

Implications for policy and foreign
diplomacy
Negative impact on economic activities
Confusion and loss of productivity inresearch and academic institutes
Decrease in tourism sales and hotelindustries

After the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake of 1995, the problem ofdisaster assistance to foreigners was raised but received little attention
Considering progress of globalization, disaster response and information
dissemination to foreigners who travel and reside in disaster-affected
countries is a pressing issue

9

Survey on disaster information - JapanHow did people in Japan collect information after the earthquake?
What sources did people trust when faced with a variety
of information from both domestic and overseas source?
Did differences in nationality, language ability or other factors
affect information collection behavior and post-disaster action?
What should be done to improve the disseminationof disaster information in the future?

Conducted a survey on disaster information collection
after the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake
Objectives
 Clarify the disaster information gathering behavior and informationrelated difficulties of people in the Kanto region of Japan Develop proposals for improving disaster information dissemination
after future disasters considering the needs of a diverse population

10

Why the Kanto region?
The Kanto region includes Tokyo,
the capital and political, financial,and entertainment center of Japan
Home to 42 million Japanese and1 million foreigners as of 2009 –making it one of the densest
population centers in the world
Unlike the Tohoku region, daily lifein the Kanto region was largely
undisrupted in the aftermath of theearthquake and people hadaccess to their normal channels of
information

11

44

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Survey contents & distribution
Data were collected using an online survey prepared in nine languages

Survey contents(Japanese, English, Chinese, Korean, Portuguese, Nepalese, French, Thai, & Vietnamese)

Informationcollection

 Most- & least-trusted information sources Media & language for information acquisition
 Information importance over time after the disaster

Informationdifficulties

 Unavailable, unclear & difficult to understand information
 Reasons for information-related difficulties
 Media & language for clarifying information difficulties

Postdisasteraction Leave Japan, relocate in Japan, or remain in Kanto Reason for and timing of post-disaster action
 Usefulness of disaster information for decision making

Demographics  Nationality, age, gender, occupation, etc.

The survey was distributed using two methods:
1) Social and professional contacts of the investigators
2) Direct requests for cooperation to various entities

12

Respondent characteristics (i)1357 respondents from 74 countries

Others23%

Indonesia
2%
France2%Vietnam
3%
UK
3%

China
14%

Brazil
3%
South
Korea
4%

Japan
36%

USA
5%

Thailand5%

Others…
 Nepal Australia
 The Philippines Sri Lanka
 Canada
 Italy Switzerland
 Germany Malaysia
 Pakistan…and 54 more with less than
10 respondents per country

13

Respondent characteristics (ii)Age

Gender

<1%

10-19
20-29
30-39
40-49
50-59
60-69
70-79
80≤

43%
32%
15%
7%
2%
<1%
<1%
0

Female
39%

Male
61%

150 300 450 600(Note: some respondents chose not to answer these questions)14

Informationcollection
and needs
LessonsLessons
from thefrom
2011
Earthquake
and andInformationcollection
and afterneedsdisasters:
after disasters:
theTohoku
2011 Tohoku
Earthquake2011 Thai
2011Flood
Thai Flood

55August 2012, Thailand
August 2012, Thailand
Respondent characteristics (iii)

Occupation

Area of residence

Overseas govt.
5%

Saitama7%

Student
41%

Overseas company
6%
Jpn academic inst.
14%

Tochigi
1% Gunma
1%

Yamanashi
4%
Chiba
6%

Others, no
response
18%

Ibaraki
9%

Tokyo
59%

Kanagawa
13%
Jpn company
16%

15

Analysis flow

First
level

General information
gathering behavior

Secondlevel

Differences between
Japanese and foreigners

Third
level

Differences bylanguage ability(Japanese & English)

Differences by
post-disaster action(foreigners only)
16

Analysis by language ability
Disaster information collection and problems may be affected not justby nationality but also language ability
Extracted 922 respondents from total sample based on language
ability and analyzed their information gathering behavior
English proficiency

Japanese proficiency

NativeNativeAdvanced Intermediate

Basic

None

JPN+ENG
F:198, J: 76

F:74
J:135

JPN only

Advanced
Intermediate

F:152

F:57,
J:1

F:30, J:1

Basic

ENG only

None

F:215

F:56

F:42, J:236

Neither

F:9, J:1

17

6

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Utilized media and language (i)Analysis by language ability
Japanese
EnglishOther

Foreigner[JPN+ENG]
Foreigner[JPN+ENG]

Foreigner

Japanese[ENG[ENG
only]
Foreigner
only][JPN+ENG]
Japanese[JPN+ENG]

Television
Radio
Printed media
InterpersonalInternet: traditional
Internet: directcomm. tools
Internet: social
media
Internet: crisis
mapping
0%

25% 50% 75% 100%

0%

25%

50% 75% 100%0%

25% 50%75% 100%

18

Utilized media and language (ii)
Analysis by language ability
Japanese
EnglishOther

Foreigner

Foreigner[JPN[JPN
only]
Foreigner
only]

Japanese[Neither]
Foreigner[Neither][JPN [JPN
only]
Japanese
only]

Television
Radio
Printed media
InterpersonalInternet: traditional
Internet: directcomm. tools
Internet: social
media
Internet: crisis
mapping
0%

25% 50%75% 100%

0%25%

50% 75% 100%0%

25% 50%75% 100%

19

Reliability of information sources (i)Analysis by language ability

Most-trusted sources
75%

F:JPN+ENG F:ENG only F:JPN only

F:Neither

J:JPN+ENG J:JPN only

60%
45%
30%
15%
0%

Overseas news source

Overseas government

Overseas research/academic institution

International organization

Family, friends, etc.

Third party other thanfamily, friends, etc.

TEPCO

Japanese news source

Japanese government

Japanese research/academic institution

75%
60%
45%
30%
15%
0%

20

Informationcollection
and needs
LessonsLessons
from thefrom
2011
Earthquake
and andInformationcollection
and afterneedsdisasters:
after disasters:
theTohoku
2011 Tohoku
Earthquake2011 Thai
2011Flood
Thai Flood

7

7

August 2012, Thailand
August 2012, Thailand

Reliability of information sources (ii)
Analysis by language ability

Least-trusted sources
75%

F:JPN+ENG F:ENG only F:JPN only

F:Neither

J:JPN+ENG J:JPN only

60%
45%
30%
15%
0%

Overseas news source

Overseas government

Overseas research/academic institution

International organization

Family, friends, etc.

Third party other thanfamily, friends, etc.

TEPCO

Japanese news source

Japanese government

Japanese research/academic institution

75%
60%
45%
30%
15%
0%

21

Reasons for information difficulties
Analysis by language ability
Average no. reasons per respondent
100%

2.26
1.55
1.86
F:JPN+ENG F:ENG only F:JPN only

1.82
F:Neither

1.95
1.71
J:JPN+ENG J:JPN only

75%

50%

25%

0%

Unable to access
Confused by conflicting or
information (mobile
differing information
congestion, power outage,
etc.)

Couldn't understand(language ability)

Couldn't understand(terminology)

Unable to find information(difficulty in searching or
locating)

22

Discussion points on language ability (i)Dissemination of disaster information to foreigners in English
Foreigners [ENG] trusted similar sources as Foreigners [JPN+ENG],
even though they primarily accessed English-language media only
Hypothesis: information provided by domestic sources in Japanese wasdisseminated to foreigners in English
Identified three means by analyzing open response section:1) NHK (Japan Broadcasting Corporation) news broadcasts
Provided English translations during TV broadcasts and press
conferences; increased availability of English news programs2) Social media
Used for collecting or finding domestic information which wastranslated into English via third parties; examples include“Fukushima Reactor Feed” on Facebook or individual blogs
3) Automatic translation of Japanese text via web browser

8

8

23

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Discussion points on language ability (ii)
Reliance of foreigners skilled in English on overseas sources
Why did Foreigners [ENG] and Foreigners [JPN+ENG] both place higher
trust in overseas sources and higher distrust in domestic sources?
 Discomfort or anxiety caused by the gap between the actual situationin Japan and the urgent or sensational reports from overseas
 Distrust in Japanese government and TEPCO due to lack of govt.
involvement or intervention at Fukushima and lack of transparent
publishing of information
 Shortage of reliable English information from public institutions
Opinions on domestic sources:
 Passive attitude towards information disclosure to the public Repetitious, meaningless, and ambiguous information
 Disappointment in govt. response to nuclear power plant crisis

24

Discussion points on language ability (iii)
Reliance of foreigners skilled in Japanese on domestic sources
Foreigners [JPN only] mainly used Japanese media or their own
language (excluding English), but rarely used English; this group had ahigh reliance on domestic sources versus overseas overseas sources
This group collected overseas information in their own language, inwhich the urgency of the crisis may have been different than domestic
Usage of non-Japanese, non-English information sources
Foreigners [Neither] had higher trust in overseas news sources thanother groups, which may have been in their native language
Although NHK and other sources translated information to English,
similar activities may not have been performed in other languages, so
this group placed higher emphasis on non-English language media

25

Analysis by post-disaster action
What factors affected post-disaster action (leaving Japan entirely,
relocating from the Kanto region, or remaining in Kanto)?
Focused on the 860 foreign respondents, as the post-disasterrelocation issue was much more pronounced for this group

Left Japan
39%

Remained in Kanto
41%

Relocated in Japan
20%(Note: in our sample, roughly 90% of Japanese respondents
chose to remain in the Kanto region)

26

Informationcollection
and needs
LessonsLessons
from thefrom
2011
Earthquake
and andInformationcollection
and afterneedsdisasters:
after disasters:
theTohoku
2011 Tohoku
Earthquake2011 Thai
2011Flood
Thai Flood

99August 2012, Thailand
August 2012, Thailand

Post-disaster decision making (i)Analysis by post-disaster action

Reason for post-disaster action
Average no. reasons per respondent
100%

1.60
Remained

1.65
Relocated

1.64
Left

Job obligation

Concern for the
young

Government
directive

75%

50%

25%

0%

Personal decision

Family request

Unable to leave

Other

27

Post-disaster decision making (ii)
Analysis by post-disaster action

Timing of post-disaster action
50%

Relocated

Left

After more than 2
weeks

Unsure

40%
30%
20%
10%
0%

Within 1 day

Within 3 days

Within 1 week

Within 2 weeks(Note: only for respondents who chose to relocate within Japanor leave Japan entirely)28

Post-disaster decision making (iii)
Analysis by post-disaster action

Usefulness of disaster information for decision making
Remained75%

Relocated

Left

60%
45%
30%
15%
0%

Very usefulSomewhat useful

Slightly usefulNot useful

29

10
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Demographics (i)Analysis by post-disaster action
Left
Relocated
Remained

Age

Gender

100%

16%

26%

36%

46%

75%

25%

5%

32%

49%

16%
22%

78%

25%

18%

75%

58%

42%

31%
0%

22%

22%

50%

46%

33%

29 or lower

30-39

40-49

50-59

60 or higher

Male

Female(n=411)(n=275)(n=96)(n=37)(n=8)(n=472)(n=350)30

Demographics (ii)
Analysis by post-disaster action
Left
Relocated
Remained

Occupation

100%
23%
75%

45%

43%

30%

17%
34%
19%

17%

9%

22%
50%

23%

24%
61%

25%

0%

23%
15%

48%

63%

32%

32%

Student

Overseascompany
employee

Japanesecompany
employee

Japanese
educational
institution
employeeOverseas
government
employee(n=437)(n=74)(n=71)(n=64)(n=52)

56%

50%

57%

5%

14%

38%

36%

62%

Freelance, Housemaker JapaneseNo
government
occupation, self-employedemployeeother(n=32)(n=26)(n=21)(n=14)

31

Discussion points on post-disaster action

Factors related to post-disaster decision to relocate or leave Japan
Rapid and effective dissemination of information after the disaster isimportant, as more than 80% of foreigners made their decision to leaveor relocate within 1 week after the earthquake and more people who
remained found disaster information to be very useful for their decision
than those who relocated or left
Rapid and accurate dissemination overseas is also important as family
request was the biggest reason cited for leaving; students wereparticularly affected by the family request

32

Information collection and needs after disasters: Lessons from the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake andInformation collection and needs after disasters: Lessons from the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake and2011 Thai
2011Flood
Thai Flood

11

11

August 2012, Thailand
August 2012, Thailand

2011 Thai Flood

Disaster overview (i)June – Sept. 2011
Precipitation
Precipitation inin thethe Indochina
Indochina
Peninsula
Peninsula was
was 1.2
1.2 toto 1.8
1.8
times
times higher
higher than
than average
averagethrough early Oct. 2011
Heavy
Heavy rainfall
rainfall over
over thethe Chao
Chao
PhrayaPhraya River
River Basin
Basin

AugustLandslides and flash floodsin the northern region
Early October
Floodwaters submerged
Ayutthaya area

34

Disaster overview (ii)End of Oct. 2011
Two
Two flows
flows ofof floodwater
floodwaterreached thethe northern
northern part
part
reachedofof Bangkok
Bangkok && flooding
flooding ofofDon
Don Muang
Muang Airport
AirportMid-Nov. 2011
Floodwaters
Floodwaters halted
halted at
at Bang
Bang
Sue
Sue Canal
Canal andand flooding
flooding ofof
Bangkok
Bangkok city
city center
centerprevented
prevented

35

12
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Survey on disaster information - Thailand
Due to the slow flood progress andambiguity of the flood progress andlevels, people encountered difficulties
in determining the risk to themselves
and their families and property

How to improveinformation
disseminationconsidering differing
disaster situations?

Conducted a survey on disaster information collection
after the 2011 Thai flood
Objectives
 Clarify the disaster information gathering behavior and informationrelated difficulties of people in Thailand Develop proposals for improving disaster information dissemination
after future disasters
 Examine differences between different disaster events

36

Survey contents & distribution
Data were collected using a survey prepared in three languages

Survey contents(Thai, Japanese, & English)

Flooding

 Situation of flooding and decision to evacuate or not

Informationcollection

 Most- & least-trusted information sources Media & language for information acquisition
 Information importance over time after the disaster

Informationdifficulties

 Unavailable, unclear & difficult to understand information
 Reasons for information-related difficulties
 Media & language for clarifying information difficulties
 Awareness of support and evacuation systems

Demographics  Nationality, age, gender, occupation, etc.

The survey was distributed using two methods:
1) Online survey (requests for cooperation via email)2) Ground survey (direct requests to respondents)

37

Respondent characteristics (i)975 respondents from 29 countries
Bangladesh
1%
Nepal
2%
India
2%

Vietnam1%

Others
7%

Japan
8%

Thailand79%

Others…
 Pakistan
 The Philippines Myanmar (Burma) Indonesia
 Malaysia
 Cambodia
 France
 Sri Lanka
 UK
 USA
…and 13 more with two
respondents or less per country

38

Informationcollection
and needs
LessonsLessons
from thefrom
2011
Earthquake
and andInformationcollection
and afterneedsdisasters:
after disasters:
theTohoku
2011 Tohoku
Earthquake2011 Thai
2011Flood
Thai Flood

13

13

August 2012, Thailand
August 2012, Thailand

Respondent characteristics (ii)Age

Gender
100%

10-19

60%

40-49

40%

50-59

Thai
Foreigner

60 or higher
0%

15%

30%

45%

20%
0%

57%
43%
Thai

Male

30-39

33%
67%

Female80%

20-29Foreigner

39(Note: some respondents chose not to answer these questions)

Respondent characteristics (iii)
Occupation
50%

Thai

Foreigner

40%
30%
20%
10%
0%

Thai company employee

Foreign company
employee

Thai government
employee

Foreign government
employee

Thai militaryThai educational
institution employee

Foreign educational
institution employee

Freelance/self-owned
business

Student

House maker

No occupation

Prefer not to answer

50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%

40

Respondent characteristics (iv)

Post-disaster flooding and evacuation situation
50%

Thai

Foreigner

40%
30%
20%
10%
0%

My residence was not affected My residence was not affected My residence was affected by My residence was affected byby the flood waters and I didby the flood waters and I
the flood waters and I did not
the flood waters and I
not evacuate
evacuatedevacuateevacuated

41

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ICUS Report 64
ICUS Report 64

Analysis flow

First
level

General information
gathering behavior

Secondlevel

Differences between
Thai and foreigners

Third
level

Differences by
Flooding and evacuation situation*Currently partial analysis only

42

Utilized media and language
Analysis by nationality
Thai
Thai
Thai
EnglishOther

Foreigners
Foreigners

Television
Radio
Loudspeaker
Printed media
Inter-personal

Traditional internet
media
Directcommunication
Social media
Crisis mapping
0%

25% 50%75% 100%

0%25%

50% 75% 100%

43

Reliability of information sources (i)Analysis by nationality

Most-trusted sources
Thai

60%

Foreigner

45%
30%
15%
0%

Flood Relief
Operation Center

National Thaigovernment

Bangkok
Metropolitan
Admin.

Provincial
government

District & subdistrict gov.

Local leader

Thai news source

Thai research/academic inst.

Internationalorganization

Foreign government

Foreign news
sourceForeign research/academic inst.

Family, friends,
colleagues, etc.

Third party otherthan family, etc.

60%
45%
30%
15%
0%

44

Information collection and needs after disasters: Lessons from the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake andInformationcollection
2011 Thai
Floodand needs after disasters: Lessons from the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake and2011 Thai Flood

15

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August 2012, Thailand
August 2012, Thailand

Reliability of information sources (ii)
Analysis by nationality

Least-trusted sources
Thai

60%

Foreigner

45%
30%
15%
0%

Flood Relief
Operation Center

National Thaigovernment

Bangkok
Metropolitan
Admin.

Provincial
government

District & subdistrict gov.

Local leader

Thai news source

Thai research/academic inst.

Internationalorganization

Foreign government

Foreign news
sourceForeign research/academic inst.

Family, friends,
colleagues, etc.

Third party otherthan family, etc.

60%
45%
30%
15%
0%

45

Important info for decision-making (i)Analysis by nationality & flooding/evacuation situation
Thai
Foreigner<Residence NOT affected by flooding>
Evacuated
No flooding- no evacuationDid
not evacuateNoflooding- evacuation

Safety of family, friends, etc.
Security & safety of property
Current flood conditions & water levels
Pred. flood progress & rain forecast
Response preparations & progress
Evacuation & shelters
Food & water supply
Public sanitation
Electricity & other utilities
Transportation systems
School & business continuity
0%

25%

50%

75% 100%

0%

25%

50%

75% 100%

46

Important info for decision-making (ii)
Analysis by nationality & flooding/evacuation situation<Residence affected by flooding>Thai
Foreigner

Evacuated
Flooding- no evacuationDid
not -evacuate
Flooding
evacuation

0%0%

Safety of family, friends, etc.
Security & safety of property
Current flood conditions & water levels
Pred. flood progress & rain forecast
Response preparations & progress
Evacuation & shelters
Food & water supply
Public sanitation
Electricity & other utilities
Transportation systems
School & business continuity
25%

50%

75% 100%

25%

50%

75% 100%

47

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ICUS Report
ICUS
Report 64
64

Reasons for information difficulties
Analysis by nationality
Average no. reasons per respondent
1.98
Thai

100%

2.29
Foreigner

75%

50%

25%

0%

Unable to access
Unable to find the Couldn’t understandWas misled or
Was confused by
Did not have issues
information due toinformation due toinformation due to confused by rumors conflicting or differing with unclear or difficult
mobile congestion, difficulty in searchinglack of language and/or exaggerated orinformation
to understandpower outage, etc.
or locating itcomprehension
false information
information

48

Disaster support for foreigners
Analysis by nationality
Aware of Thai PBS English
news program on flood

Aware of foreigner floodevacuation center in Bangkok
Not applicable
11%

Yes
7%

Yes
24%

No
76%

No
82%

(Note: these responses are for foreigners only)

49

Discussion points (i)Differences in flooding and evacuation situation
A higher percentage of foreigners chose to evacuate even though theirhomes were not affected by flooding, and their decision was based on
the current flood level conditions and water levels and food and watersupplyA higher percentage of Thai, however, chose to remain at their homes
even though they were affected by floods, and their decision was basedon the safety of family and friends and the current flood level conditions
and water levels
While both groups similarly trusted Thai news sources and family,
friends, colleagues, etc., Thai distrusted the Flood Relief Operation
Center (FROC) much more than foreigners

50

Informationcollection
and needs
LessonsLessons
from thefrom
2011
Earthquake
and andInformationcollection
and afterneedsdisasters:
after disasters:
theTohoku
2011 Tohoku
Earthquake2011 Thai
2011Flood
Thai Flood17

17

August 2012, Thailand
August 2012, Thailand

Discussion points (ii)Lack of awareness of disaster support for foreigners
Foreigners were generally unaware of the various support systems thatwere in place for them, such as English-language news programs andforeigner-specific evacuation centers
Foreigners also had difficulty acquiring disaster information due tolanguage comprehension issues, so it may have been difficult for themto find out that these systems existed
Furthermore, although most foreigners primarily used English-language
media, they used Thai and English TV roughly equally, which may havecontributed to conflicting messages

Need to continue with further analyses to better
understand the disaster information-related difficulties
51

Improving information
dissemination

Towards improving dissemination (i)Considering the observed issues after the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake
1) Providing official information in English
Foreigners could obtain Japanese information through both unofficial
and official translations, but unofficial (third party or automated)translations may have introduced bias into the information; official
information in English can provide an important source for bothindividuals and for foreign media and lead to more reliable
information dissemination overseas
2) Provision of information in clear Japanese
Various platforms were used to translate Japanese information into
English (and most likely other languages as well); therefore, if
Japanese information can be delivered frequently and clearly on a
website, even those unskilled in Japanese may be able to obtain thecore message

53

18

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ICUS Report
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64
ICUS

Towards improving dissemination (ii)3) Need for institution to aggregate & disseminate information
Japanese research/academic institutes were highly trusted andcould actively provide information both within and outside Japan,such as via secondary publishing of reliable, translated information
to the web
4) Provision of local information by strengthening the connection
between TV and the internet
Both foreigners and Japanese used TV as their primary mode forgathering disaster information, but it’s difficult to deliver localized
information necessary for daily life; strengthening connection
between TV and internet could bridge this gap
5) Provision foreign language programs combining media
Local radios contributed to gathering and disseminating local
information in disaster-affected areas without TV; open timeschedule could incorporate foreign language information as well

54

Towards improving dissemination (iii)6) Improve the reliability of the Japanese government as a source
Foreigners’ evaluation of Japan’s ability to manage a crisis was quite
severe; delivering information which foreigners can use for concrete
action, reducing unclear or non-specific expressions, and increasingtransparency are possible steps for improving the government’s
reliability as an information source
Considering the observed issues after the 2011 Thai Flood7) Raise awareness of disaster support systems for foreigners
Foreigners appeared to be unaware of various systems intended toprovide them with information and to support their decision making
or evacuation; reasons for this need to be investigated in further
analyses in order to propose how to raise awareness55

Thanks for your attention

Informationcollection
and needs
needs after
after disasters: Lessons
Lessons fromfrom thethe 2011
2011 Tohoku Earthquake
Earthquake andandInformationcollection
andInformationcollection
and needsdisasters:
after disasters: Lessons
from theTohoku
2011 Tohoku Earthquakeand2011 Thai
2011Flood
Thai Flood

19
19

19

August 2012, Thailand
August 2012, Thailand

Reliability of information sources (i)Analysis by post-disaster action

Most-trusted sources
Remained75%

Relocated

Left

60%
45%
30%
15%
0%

Overseas news source

Overseas government

Overseas research/academic institution

International organization

Family, friends, etc.

Third party other thanfamily, friends, etc.

TEPCO

Japanese news source

Japanese government

Japanese research/academic institution

75%
60%
45%
30%
15%
0%

57

Reliability of information sources (ii)
Analysis by post-disaster action

Least-trusted sources
Remained75%

Relocated

Left

60%
45%
30%
15%
0%

Overseas news source

Overseas government

Overseas research/academic institution

International organization

Family, friends, etc.

Third party other thanfamily, friends, etc.

TEPCO

Japanese news source

Japanese government

Japanese research/academic institution

75%
60%
45%
30%
15%
0%

58

20
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5th Joint Student Seminar on Civil Infrastructure
5th Joint Student Seminar on Civil Infrastructure

NUMERICAL ANALYSIS OF LATERAL PILE
MOTION UNDER DYNAMIC LOADINGS
Punchet Thammarak
School of Engineering & Technology, Asian Institute of Technology,
P.O. Box 4, Klong Luang, Pathumthani 12120, Thailand
punchet.thammarak@gmail.com

Dr. Punche t Thammarak

5 th Joint Stud e nt Se minar on Civil Infrastr ucture s
Chulalong kor n Unive rsity
20 Aug ust 2012

Around the world , eve r y b uild ing or structure is constructe don the found ation e le me nt which is use d to carry g ravity
load from sup e rstructure .

21 21AugustThailandAugust 2012,2012, Thailand

De e p found ation is wid e ly use d whe n the shallow found ation
cannot re ach the d e sig n re q uire me nt. The most p ile
found ations are d e sig ne d mainly to withstand ve rtical load .

In re al cond ition, structure s mig ht e xp e r ie nce late ral load s from many
eve nts such as wind , wave , e arthq uake , machine s vib ration, e tc.
The e ffe cts of late ral load in structure d e sig n must b e consid e re d .

Ve rtical load

Ve rtical loadLate ral load

Found ation
Soil re sistance

The late ral load from sup e rstructure can b e transfe r re d to found ation. SSI
should b e take n into account.

22
22

5th Joint
Joint Student
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Seminar on
on Civil
Civil Infrastructure
Infrastructure
5thICUS Report
Report 64
64
ICUS

Late rally load e d p ile analysis und e r static load ing
PP

He te nyi(1946)
Pile

Pile

4

Ind ivid ual
close ly sp ace dsp ring

4++=0

whe rek = Stiffne ss of sp r ing
y = hor izontal d isp lace me nt
Ep Ip = b e nd ing r ig id ity

Soil continuum mod e l

B∆L

Stiffne ss of sp r ing in e ach soil laye r∆L∆L

K = k s x ∆L x B∆L∆L

whe re∆L∆Lk s = m od ulus of s ub g rad e reaction
B = Pile d iam e ter∆L = Le ng th b e twee n sp ring∆L∆L

Mod ulus of sub g rad e re action
Stiff c lay

Te rzag hi (1955)

Consistency of Clay

Stiff

Very Stiff

Hard

Undrained shear strength (kPa)

100-200

200-400>400

Range for k (kPa)

3.2-6.4

6.4-12.8

12.8 up

Sand (k = n h z) whe re z = d e p th
Relative Density

Loose

MediumDense

nh , dry or moist sand (MN/m3)

0.95-2.8

3.5-10.9

13.8-27.7

nh , submerge sand (MN/m 3)

0.57-1.7

2.2-7.3

8.7-17.9

Numerical
Analysisof Lateral
Pile Motion
underunder
Dynamic
Loadings
Numerical
analysisof lateralpile motion
dynamic
loadings

23

23

AugustThailandAugust 2012,2012, Thailand

Late ral Pile Re sp onse Analyse s und e r Dynamic Load ing
The re are seve ral me thod s use d to d e te rmine late ral
p ile re sp onse und e r dynamic load ing�M

Analytical solution of late rally load e d p ile e mb e d d e din soil continuum

Eq uation of motion
2

p ile

infinite s oil dom ain

P

Analytical solution for p ile -soil syste m id e alize d b y soil
laye r syste m

( , )
2

+ (

1+

2)

whe reµ = p ile mass p e r unit le ng th
Ep Ip = b e nd ing r ig id ity

p ile

Vib rating d isk stiffne ss
infinite soil d omain

4( , )++=(

1+

Sp r ing

2)

( , )
4

µp

=0
SDOF

M

P

p ile

�

Winkle r soil mod e l using sp r ing s and d ashp ots. Thep rop e rtie s d e p e nd s on d e finition of soil stiffne ss andge ome tr ic d amp ing

infinite s oil
dom ain�

Dashp ot

Novak(1974)

24
24

5th Joint
Joint Student
Student Seminar
Seminar on
on Civil
Civil Infrastructure
Infrastructure
5thICUS Report
Report 64
64
ICUS

Novak(1974)
=

(

1 +

2)

Su2

Im ag inary
Stiffne s s

Su1
Re al Stiffne s s

Drawb ack of Winkle r mod e lP� Winkle r mod e l is ig nor ing
she ar stre ss b e twe e n soil
laye rs.

� Winkle r mod e l cannot b e
accounte dfore ffe ct ofd e e p e r soil laye r.

?

Be d rock

Be d rockAnalytical solution for late rally load e d p ile e mb e d d e d in soil continuum
Harmonic e xcitation

Pile

p re se nte d close d -form solutions tod e te rmine late ral re sp onse of p ile
und e r harmonic e xcitation.
Soil c ontinuum

Rig id be droc k

Novak (1977)

Pile is e mb e d d e d in homog e ne ous
soil and p ile -tip is sat on the r ig id
b e d rockSoil is assume d line a r, visco-e lastic,
homog e ne ous, and isotrop ic.

Numerical
Analysisof Lateral
Pile Motion
underunder
Dynamic
Loadings
Numerical
analysisof lateralpile motion
dynamic
loadings

25

25

AugustThailandAugust 2012,2012, Thailand

The main stud ie s of this re se arch are as follows:• Valid ation of natural fre q ue ncy of soil from FEM with close d -form solution• Study the re sp onse of late rally load e d p ile d ue to the varying d e p th ofund e rlying soil laye r.
• Study the re sp onse of late rally load e d p ile with varying stiffne ss and thickne ssof und e rlying soil laye r• Study the re sp onse of late rally load e d p ile with constant soil thickne ss andvarying le ng th of p ile

Re d uce d -Dime nsion mod e l Continuum-r ing e le me nt
Thammarak (2009)

�

�

�

�

This mod e l can p re se nt 3-D b e havior b yusing 2-D mod e l which can re d uce
d rastically comp utational cost.
The she ar force b e twe e n continuum r ing
e le me nt is take n into account.
It is p ossib le to d eve lop this mod e l to
unb ound e d d omain.
This mod e l has good e fficie ncy to e xp lain
the d e formation of surround ing soil in
rad ial and tang e ntial d ire ctions.

Continuum r ing e le me nt (Thammarak ,2009)
X

Shap e function
η

ζ

26
26

5th Joint
Joint Student
Student Seminar
Seminar on
on Civil
Civil Infrastructure
Infrastructure
5thICUS Report
Report 64
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ICUS

Ne w e lastic continuum mod e l (Thammarak , 2009)

p ile
Transfe r ing she arTransfe r ing she ar

Evaluation of natural fre q ue ncy of soil
Soil p rop e rtie s

P = 5000 sin(ωt)

Shear wave velocity (Vs)

120 m/s

Poisson’s ratio (ϑ)

0.3Mass density (ρ)

1600 kg/m3

Modulus of elasticity (Es)

60 ×106 N/m2

infinite soil d omain

SOFT SOIL

STIFF SOIL
Shear wave velocity (Vs)

200 m/s

Poisson’s ratio (ϑ)

0.3Mass density (ρ)

1800 kg/m3

Modulus of elasticity (Es)187.2 ×106 N/m2

Soil
f =

υs
1
(n + )
2H
2

Be d rockMod e shap e re sp onse of homog e ne ous soil

Mod e 1
0

0.5

1

1.5
Displacement, D (m)Mod e 3Mod e 2Mode 2Mode 12
2.5(exaggeration factor = 7000)

0

0.5

1

Numerical
Analysisof Lateral
Pile Motion
underunder
Dynamic
Loadings
Numerical
analysisof lateralpile motion
dynamic
loadings

1.5

2

2.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

27

27

AugustThailandAugust 2012,2012, Thailand

Natural fre q ue ncy of soil with close d -form solution
16

Dimensionless displacement (DGH/F)

f=7.48 Hz
14

f=4.506 Hz

12
10

f=1.48 Hz

Soft soil

8
6Soft soil
4
2
0

0.02

0.04

0.06
0.08
0.1
Dimensionless frequency (a0=wr0/Vs)

Natural Frequency

First Mode
(Hz)

0.12

Second Mode
(Hz)

0.14

Third Mode(Hz)

Closed-form solution

1.5

4.5

7.5

2D-3DOF model

1.480

4.506

7.484

Dimensionless displacement (DGH/F)

16

Natural fre q ue ncy of soil with close d -form solution
f=11.94 Hz

f=7.16 Hz

14
12
10

f=2.23 Hz

Stiff soil

8
Stiff soil
6
4
0

0.01

0.02

Natural Frequency

0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
Dimensionless frequency (a0=wr0/Vs)

First Mode (Hz)0.08

Second Mode (Hz)

0.09

0.1

Third Mode (Hz)Closed-form
solution

2.5

7.5

12.5

2D-3DOF model

2.230

7.165

11.942

Re sp onse of late rally load e d p ile d ue to the var yingd e p th of und e rlying soil laye r b e low the p ile
Soil / p ile p rop e rtie s
PILE
Pile diameter
Poisson’s ratio (ϑ)
Mass density (ρ)
Modulus of elasticity (Ep)

0.4 m
0.2
2400 kg/m3
30 ×109 N/m2

SOFT SOIL
120 m/s
Shear wave velocity (Vs)
Poisson’s ratio (ϑ)
0.3Mass density (ρ)
1600 kg/m3
Modulus of elasticity (Es)
60 ×106 N/m2

28
28

10 m

Und e rlying
Soil laye r

Be d rock5th Joint
Joint Student
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Civil Infrastructure
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5thICUS Report
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ICUS

Underlying soil thickness=0m

2.8Natural frequency of homogeneous soil

2.6

H= 0

Modal natural frequency of pile-soil system

2.4
2.2
2
0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

2.8

0.35

0.4

Underlying soil thickness=2m

2.6

Natural frequency of homogeneous soil

2.4

Modal natural frequency of pile-soil system

H= 2

2.2
2

Soft soil

10m

1.8
0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

2.8

0.35

0.4

Underlying soil thickness=4m

2.6

Natural frequency of homogeneous soil

2.4

Modal natural frequency of pile-soil system

H= 4

2.2
2
1.8
0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

2.8

H

0.35

0.4

Underlying soil thickness=6m

2.6Natural frequency of homogeneous soil

2.4

Modal natural frequency of pile-soil system

H= 6

2.2
2
1.8
0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

2.8

Be d rock

0.35

0.4

Underlying soil thickness=8m
Natural frequency of homogeneous soil

2.6

H= 8

Modal natural frequency of pile-soil system

2.4
2.2
2
0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

2.8

0.35

0.4

Underlying soil thickness=10m
Natural frequency of homogeneous soil

2.6

H= 10

Modal natural frequency of pile-soil system

2.4
2.2
2
0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

Evaluate re sp onse of late rally load e d p ile d ue to the var ying d e p thof und e rlying soil laye r b e low the p ile
PILEPile diameter
Poisson’s ratio (ϑ)
Mass density (ρ)
Modulus of elasticity (Ep)P = 5000 sin(ωt)
0.4 m
0.2
2400 kg/m3
30 ×109 N/m2

SOFT SOIL
120 m/s
Shear wave velocity (Vs)
0.3
Poisson’s ratio (ϑ)
1600 kg/m3
Mass density (ρ)
Modulus of elasticity (Es)
60 ×106 N/m2

Soft soil

10m

STIFF SOIL
200 m/s
Shear wave velocity (Vs)
0.3
Poisson’s ratio (ϑ)
1800 kg/m3
Mass density (ρ)
Modulus of elasticity (Es)187.2 ×106 N/m2

Stiff soilH

Be d rock

Underlying soil thickness=2m

2.8

H= 2

2.6
2.4
2.2
2
0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

Underlying soil thickness=4m

2.8
2.6

H= 4

2.4
2.2

Soft soil

10m

2
0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

Underlying soil thickness=6m

2.8
2.6

H= 6

2.4
2.2

Stiff soil

H

2
0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

Underlying soil thickness=8m

2.8
2.6

Be d rock

H= 8

2.4
2.2
2
0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

Underlying soil thickness=10m

2.8
2.6

H= 10

2.4
2.2
2
0

0.05

0.1

Numerical
Analysisof Lateral
Pile Motion
underunder
Dynamic
Loadings
Numerical
analysisof lateralpile motion
dynamic
loadings

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

29

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AugustThailandAugust 2012,2012, Thailand

Carry out line ar d ynamic analysis with varying stiffne ss of
und e rlying soil laye r
P = 5000 sin(ωt)

Soft soil

PILE
Pile diameter
Poisson’s ratio (ϑ)
Mass density (ρ)
Modulus of elasticity (Ep)10m

E1
Stiff soil

SOFT SOIL
120 m/s
Shear wave velocity (Vs)
Poisson’s ratio (ϑ)
0.3Mass density (ρ)
1600 kg/m3
Modulus of elasticity (Es)
60 ×106 N/m2

4m

E2

0.4 m
0.2
2400 kg/m3
30 ×109 N/m2

STIFF SOIL
200 m/s
Shear wave velocity (Vs)
Poisson’s ratio (ϑ)
0.3Mass density (ρ)
1800 kg/m3
Modulus of elasticity E2 /E1
1,4,7,10,15

Be d rockRe sp onse of late rally load e d p ile d ue to the var ying stiffne ss of
und e rlying soil laye r
E2/E1=1

2.8

2.6

2.4

2.4
2.2

2.2
2
0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4
E2/E1=4

2.8

2
0

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

E2/E1=11

2.4

2.4

2.2

2.2
0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4
E2/E1=7

2.8

2
0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

2.6

2.4

2.4

0.4

E2/E1=15

2.8

2.6

2.2

2.2
2
0

0.05

2.8
2.6

2.6

2
0

E2/E1=10

2.8

2.6

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

2
0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

Carry out line ar dynamic analysis with constant soil thickne ss and varying
le ng th of p ile e mb e d d e d in 20 m soil thickne ss
P = 5000 sin(ωt)

Pile / soil p rop e rtie s
PILE
Pile diameter
Poisson’s ratio (ϑ)
Mass density (ρ)
Modulus of elasticity (Ep)

L
20m
Soil
Be d rock

30
30

0.4 m
0.2
2400 kg/m3
30 ×109 N/m2

SOFT SOIL
120 m/s
Shear wave velocity (Vs)
Poisson’s ratio (ϑ)
0.3Mass density (ρ)
1600 kg/m3
Modulus of elasticity (Es)
60 ×106 N/m2

5th Joint
Joint Student
Student Seminar
Seminar on
on Civil
Civil Infrastructure
Infrastructure
5thICUS Report
Report 64
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ICUS

Re sp onse of late rally load e d p ile d ue to the varying p ile le ng the mb e d d e d in 20 m soil thickne ss
Pile length=2m

2.8
2.6

2
0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

Pile length=6m

2.6

0
2.8

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

Pile length=16m

2
0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

Pile length=10m

2.6
2.4

0
2.8

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

Pile length=18m

2.6
2.4

2.2

2.2

2

2
0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

Pile length=12m

2.6
2.4

0
2.8

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

Pile length=20m

2.6
2.4

2.2

2.2

2
1.8
0

0.1

2.2

2.2

1.8
0
2.8

0.05

2.6
2.4

2.4

2
0
2.8

Pile length=14m

2.6

2.2

2.2
2
0
2.8

2.8

2.4

2.4

2

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

Amp litud e of late rally load e d p ile d ue to the varying le ng th of p ile
e mb e d d e d in 20 m soil thickne ss
M odal am plitude (x10-5)
(m )

5.50
5.30
Mod e 1Mod e 2Mod e 3Mod e 4Mod e 5Mod e 6Mod e 7

5.10
4.90
4.70
4.50
0

Pile length
(m)
2
6
10
12
14
16
18
20

Mode 1
4.66E-05
4.59E-05
4.59E-05
4.59E-05
4.59E-05
4.59E-05
4.59E-05
4.59E-055Mode 2
4.83E-05
4.74E-05
4.74E-05
4.74E-05
4.74E-05
4.74E-05
4.74E-05
4.74E-05

1015
pile le ng th (m )Modal amplitude (m)Mode 3Mode 4Mode 5
5.46E-05
5.51E-05
5.48E-05
5.33E-05
5.35E-05
5.26E-05
5.33E-05
5.34E-05
5.26E-05
5.33E-05
5.34E-05
5.26E-05
5.33E-05
5.34E-05
5.25E-05
5.32E-05
5.34E-05
5.25E-05
5.32E-05
5.34E-05
5.25E-05
5.32E-05
5.33E-05
5.24E-05

Numerical
Analysisof Lateral
Pile Motion
underunder
Dynamic
Loadings
Numerical
analysisof lateralpile motion
dynamic
loadings

20

25

Mode 6
5.36E-05
5.10E-05
5.09E-05
5.09E-05
5.08E-05
5.08E-05
5.08E-05
5.07E-05

Mode 7
5.22E-05
4.93E-05
4.91E-05
4.91E-05
4.90E-05
4.90E-05
4.90E-05
4.90E-05

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32

5th Joint Student Seminar on Civil Infrastructure

Student Presentations

RECONSTRUCTION OF KAMAISHI CITY
AFTER THE 2011 TOHOKU EARTHQUAKEAND TSUNAMI
Maria Bernadet Karina DEWI1, Sae SHIKITA2, Takaaki KATO3
1
Graduate Student, ICUS, IIS, The University of Tokyo, Japandewi@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
2
Undergraduate Student, ICUS, IIS, The University of Tokyo, Japan
sahe@vega.ocn.ne.jp
3
Associate Professor, ICUS, IIS, The University of Tokyo, Japankato-t@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
ABSTRACT
Hakozaki Peninsula, Kamaishi City, consists of 8 villages, locatedalongside the coastal area of Iwate Prefecture. During the 2011 Tohoku
earthquake and tsunami, the casualties were 1,061 death and missing, 2,954
completely destroyed houses, and 687 partially destroyed houses. Currently,
the population lives on the temporary houses which are scattered located.
This city faces a very significant problem as the other cities in the Tohoku
affected area, such as declining society, also the other problems.
The background of Kamaishi City, including the population data,
economic and governance system was the resource that ever existed in
Kamaishi city and the resource should be considered. And after the 2011
Tohoku earthquake occurred, the process of reconstruction since then until
present time with the involved stakeholders from the national government,
to the municipality level, community, NPO, and the others has been goingon progress. This paper aims to analyze the current situation of the recovery
state, the community activities for reconstruction, and finding the relation
between each activities, then problems found between the process andinvolved stakeholders.
Keywords: reconstruction, Kamaishi city, Hakozaki Peninsula,community participation, challenge
1. BACKGROUND – THE SITUATION OF KAMAISHI CITY
BEFORE THE DISASTER
Kamaishi city is located on the southeastern part of Iwate Prefecture, along
the coastal line towards Pacific Ocean, with total area of 441.43 square
kilometers. Kamaishi city was well known as a city of fisheries and iron. In
1857, Nambu Domain constructed Ohashi blast furnace at Kamaishi as thefirst western-style blast furnace in Japan. Then in 1934, the Meiji
Government established Nippon Steel, when the city population at that time

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August 2012,2012, Thailand
ThailandAugustreached 40,388
40,388 people.
people. At
At thethe samesame time,
time, roads
roads andand railways
railways were
werereacheddeveloped,
and
the
role
of
KamaishiPortbecamesignificant.
developed, and the role of Kamaishi Port became significant.

Figure 1: Changes in population and the number of households of Kamaishi(Source: National Census)

Figure 2: Population pyramid of Kamaishi City in 2010
(Source: National Census)
Figure 11 shows
shows thethe population
population trend
trend inin Kamaishi
Kamaishi City,
City, DID
DID (Densely(Densely
FigureInhabited
District)
population,andthenumberofhousehold,withthe datadata
Inhabited District) population, and the number of household, with theobtained fromfrom National
National Census.
Census. The
The population
population was
was estimatedestimated fromfrom 2010
2010
obtained
until 2040.
2040. From
From this
this graph,graph, it
it cancan bebe assumed
assumed thatthat great
great amountamount ofof reducing
reducing
until
population number
number will
will occur
occur inin thethe future.
future. The
The decreasing
decreasing number
number ofof
population
people cancan bebe seenseen onon thethe generalgeneral population,
population, also
also inin thethe urbanizedurbanized area.
area. OnOn
peoplethe otherother hand,
hand, thethe householdhousehold declining
declining rate
rate isis smaller
smaller compared
compared totothepopulation declining.
declining. Figure
Figure 22 explains
explains about
about thethe population
population composition
composition inin
population
range ofof ageage andand sex,sex, isis inin thethe statestate ofof declining
declining birth
birth rate
rate andand aging
aging
range
population, with
with thethe majority
majority population
population between
between thethe ageage ofof 55
55 until
until 79.
79.
population,
The situation
situation ofof industry
industry inin Kamaishi
Kamaishi City
City inin 20072007 waswas decreasing,decreasing,The
primary
industry
became3.8%,
secondaryindustry
33.3%,
andtertiary
primary industry became 3.8%, secondary industry 33.3%, and tertiaryindustry 67.6%.
67.6%. Number
Number ofof employees
employees had
had been
been declining
declining about
about 30%
30% fromfromindustry
1990 until
until 2010.
2010. Particularly,
Particularly, thethe declining
declining ofof primaryprimary industry
industry waswas
1990
significant, halved
halved inin 20
20 years.
years. Agriculture
Agriculture has
has decreased
decreased about
about 65%
65% amongamong
significant,others. The
The amountamount ofof catchcatch ofof fishfish have
have notnot decreased
decreased so
so much,much, butbut thethe sumsumothers.

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5th Joint
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5thICUS Report
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of money of fishery industry has been declining, especially in 10 years from2000 until 2009.
2. CASUALTIES AND DAMAGE ON GREAT EAST JAPAN
EARTHQUAKE AND TSUNAMI
Kamaishi City suffered great tsunamis recorded in 1896, 1933, 1960 and thelast in 2011. By the highest wave of tsunami reaching 10.1 m at Kamaishi
harbor during Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami in March 11th,
2011, Kamaishi City suffered in the total number fatalities 885 people,
missing 176 people, evacuees to other area 9,883 people, and evacuees
inside the city 633 people (Kamaishi, 2011). The number of dead andmissing people of Kamaishi City was the third largest amount in Iwate
Prefecture, after Rikuzentakata and Otsuchi Town. The number of totallycollapsed buildings are 2,954, highly destroyed 396, partially destroyed 291,
and damaged 907.
3. CURRENT SITUATION
Location of the refugee has been closed by October 8th, 2011, and temporary
housing number was 3,164 which had been completed by August 5th, 2011,and located in 50 sites. Debris removal by April 2012 was 50% in theestimated number of 762,000t, and the process rate of 3% (23,000t).
Currently population are living in the temporary housing which isscatteredly located.
4. RECONSTRUCTION
4.1. AUTHORIZEDGOVERNMENTRECONSTRUCTION

PLAN

BY

THE

In September 2011, the Basic Policy for Reconstruction has been enacted,
consists of policy and timetable of the Reconstruction Plan from the
beginning. Then in December 2011, the Basic Reconstruction Plan (Figure3). However, the detailed landscape plan and land use will be decided after
consultation with communities (Figure 4).

Reconstruction ofReconstructionof Kamaishi-city
Kamaishi-city after
after thethe 2011
2011 Tohoku
Tohoku Earthquake
Earthquake andand Tsunami.
Tsunami35
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AugustThailandAugust 2012,2012, Thailand

Figure 3: The ideal image of the city in Basic Reconstruction Plan
(Source: Kamaishi, 2011)

Figure 4: Draft of land use plan for the central area
(Source: Kamaishi, 2012)
4.2. COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION
Sets of interviews had been done in the settlement of Ryoishi and
Shirahama, to know the condition and expectation of the communities fortheir reconstruction process. The interviews were subjected to people who
had moved to temporary housing, the reconstruction target area, especially
who left the town right after the earthquake. To stem the declining town is
as important as ensuring citizens to live in. The basic city planningreconstruction of Kamaishi City was organized and meets the needs ofstakeholders. However it was not transparent enough in assuring the opinionof the representative organization and citizens, including the details of theresidential area plan and disaster prevention measures. Therefore it should
be considered that the awareness of residents plays role to achievesatisfaction on all stakeholders.

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5thICUS Report
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Community participation across Hakozaki Peninsula has becoming
more effective and the community bond between districts has becomingstronger. June 2011 was the start of this movement by involving the 4villages together, mainly held by fisherman in Ryoishi Village with support
from NPO (Non-Profit Organization) CeMI (Crisis & Environment
Management Policy Institute). Community members and NPOs had beenworking together for the reconstruction process, such as discussing thereconstruction plan. Then in October 2011, activity was held in Katagishi
Village, aimed to raise awareness and encouraging the residents
participation. In March 2012, a new NPO was established, named OHakozaki Shimin Kaigi (Community Association of Hakozaki Peninsula)consist of community members, and professionals. The involved community
is located in some villages such as: Ryouishi, Kuwanohama, Kariyado,
Shirahama, Hakozaki, Nebama, Katagishi, and Murohama.
The O-Hakozaki Shimin Kaigi’s activitiesare participated by four
working groups, starting August 2012. The Working Group 1 manages
community recovery for future, including physical, social, and humanfactors; Working Group 2 involves economic, creating job opportunity andnew industry related to the fisheries; Working Group 3 focuses on humancapacity building such as disaster mitigation and response; and Working
Group 4 focuses on economic factors, based on the resources of this area,and market the products and value addition.
5. DISCUSSION
Challenges and problems
During the reconstruction process, there are several challenges for all of the
stakeholders. One positive condition is that community quite adaptable tothe scatteredly location of temporary housing and form a new community intheir new location.
Top-down planning strategies has been applied in this area since thevery beginning. For the reconstruction process, the citizens trust government
to develop and implement the plan. However there is a challenge ofdifferentiation in the reconstruction division, which has no sufficientcohesion between all of the divisions. For example, the reconstruction ismainly focused on the physical aspects and with some consideration on theother aspects such as social and economic. However, such interlinked
function is needed to have a comprehensive approach of reconstruction
process, and to bridge the involved stakeholders. The possible solution isthrough citizen participation.
Second challenge is that there was not much chance for thecommunity to participate and share their aspiration. The reconstruction planand management was planned to have consensus building with community,
and in the implementation of public hearing for the plan was held. The
other difficulty is the community has short-term view regarding their
Reconstruction ofReconstructionof Kamaishi-city
Kamaishi-city after
after thethe 2011
2011 Tohoku
Tohoku Earthquake
Earthquake andand Tsunami.
Tsunami37
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AugustThailandAugust 2012,2012, Thailand

economic, social, and built environment situation, while the local
government has a long-term view. The profile of community in the area isfishermen and fisheries industry, with their fishermen cooperative union
which aimed for their working purpose.
The present condition of Japan as developed country needs a different
approach for reconstruction than the previous disaster during developing
period. Next challenge is the ageing society of the currently living
population of Kamaishi City, also the declining economic condition. Withmajority of community leaders and most of the people are in the age of 70s
years old. However, there is presence of young generation in Shirahama to
support the reconstruction process. Second, the community members who
are mainly elderly tend to stay in the previous place and/or city, and do notwant to move to the other cities. Based on the interview, community has
strong attachment to the area. The future of the cities ensuring the safety andsustainability issues in comprehensive way, and how to attract the people tostay in this area needs to be taken into account. It is also considered theformation of compact smaller town, to maintain the population andsustainability in the future.
6. CONCLUSION
Currently Kamaishi City and the other affected area in Japan are in the earlyphase of reconstruction from the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami.
Considering the past of Kamaishi City, the present situation of the ageing
society, Kamaishi City has several challenges to face during thereconstruction process, especially related with the developed state of Japanand the currently applied planning system, also the character of community
to adapt with the new situation.
Further study is to analyze the challenge of the reconstruction process,finding influencing factors, considering the needs of citizens, and consensus
between all stakeholders, ensuring citizen involvement. Then, the analysis is
aimed to find possible suggestion to achieve comprehensive reconstruction
process.
REFERENCES
Kamaishi City. 2011. Reconstruction Plan Kamaishi. Basic Town
Plan. Iwate Prefecture, Japan: Kamaishi City. Data obtained on December
22nd, 2011.
Kamaishi City.
http://www.city.kamaishi.iwate.jp/index.cfm/8,0,76,425,html
Iwate Prefecture. 2012. Iwate Prefecture NPO activities.
http://www.pref.iwate.jp/~hp0301/npo-info/ninsho/sinseininshodantaiichiran/ichiran-10(451-500).htm. Data obtained on June 2012.
Website of Reconstruction from the Central Government

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http://reconstruction.go.jp. Data obtained on June 2012.Japan NonProfit Organization . 2012. nonprofitjapan.home.jgc.org/npo/mpojp.html.
Data obtained on June 2012

Reconstruction ofReconstructionof Kamaishi-city
Kamaishi-city after
after thethe 2011
2011 Tohoku
Tohoku Earthquake
Earthquake andand Tsunami.
Tsunami39
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August 2012, Thailand

40

5th Joint Student Seminar on Civil InfrastructureDEPARTURE-TIME CHOICE (DTC)
BEHAVIOUR FOR INTER-CITY TRAVELDURING A LONG-HOLIDAY IN
BANGKOK, THAILAND
Bhawat CHAICHANNAWATIKDoctoral student, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand
bh_ch@hotmail.com
ABSTRACTTime-of-day (TOD) or departure-time choice (DTC) becomes aninteresting issue over two decades. Researchers have intensely focused ontime-of-day or departure-time choice study, especially work days andweekend with a focus on long-holiday/intercity travel that has largely been
ignored in previous studies. Based on Thailand evidences, the severe traffic
congestion usually occurs along main routes from Bangkok Metropolitan
Area (BMA) to other regions during every long-holiday. With a specificfocus on traffic congestion occurred during the beginning of festivals, thispaper discussed the characteristics of long-holiday intercity travel patterns
during New Year 2012 in Bangkok, Thailand. 590 households werecollected by interview and analyzed to provide more understanding ofgeneral characteristics of DTC behavior for intercity travel at the beginningof Bangkok long-holiday.
Keywords: time of day, long-holiday, travel behavior, departure-timechoice1. INTRODUCTION
Like all other capital cities in developing countries, Bangkok is the primate
city of Thailand which has registered and non-registered populations ofapproximately 5.7 million and 2.3 million, respectively (Tangchonlatip,
2010). Large number of non-registered populations evidently demonstrates
the domestic migration and resettlement of people who leave rural areas tofind the better opportunities for jobs or/and education.
According to domestic migration and resettlement of people to
Bangkok, it causes many urban transportation problems in the cities e.g.,traffic congestion, and public transportation provisions, etc. Moreover, there
is another consequence overlooked by transportation planners thatfrequently happen during every long-holiday (three-day weekend or more
holidays). During such periods, inter-city travel demands to move out (at the
beginning) and move into Bangkok (at the ending) generally take place
along the main routes from Bangkok to other regions. When considering trip41
41AugustThailandAugust 2012,2012, Thailand

purpose, people usually go for social (i.e., meeting friends/remote family)
and recreational trips rather than work trips.
Based on Thailand evidences at the beginning of every long-holiday
or festivals, the severity of traffic congestion usually occurs along mainroutes from Bangkok Metropolitan Area (BMA) to other cities. This
repeatable problem causes many impacts such as fuel consumption, air
pollution, and road accident. In 2007, Department of Disaster Prevention
and Mitigation (DPM) reported average traffic volume on major highways
from Bangkok to all regions during Songkran festivals in 2005 and 2006
were increased by 35 % and 23 % higher than normal period. Furthermore,
average traffic volumes were up to 22% during New Year's Eve 2007.
In transportation planning views, there are some interesting issues
from these occasional evidences such as long-distance travel demand
forecasting, travel behaviors (i.e., frequency, location, mode, route, anddeparture time) and the special traffic management during festivals, etc.
However, this research specifically focuses on the repeatable traffic
congestion occurring at the beginning of the long-holiday. The phenomenon
is contradictory with concept that traveler has a rational decision and selectthe suitable departure-time to avoid the congestion. Hence, this paper aims
to study departure-time choice behavior for inter-city travel at the beginningof long-holiday for Bangkok Metropolitan Area (BMA), Thailand.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Study area overview
Bangkok is the primate city of Thailand with population of 8 million.
In 2006, number of population registered in BMA is 21 times bigger thanthe Municipality of Nonthaburi that is the second biggest city and has
population of approximately 200,000. Administratively, Bangkok consistsof 50 municipal districts covering total area of 1568.737 km2 and its
population density is about 3,630 populations/ km2. Moreover, Bangkok has
been recorded as the first rank of the highest number of registered vehicles.
According to the data from Department of Land Transport (DLT) (2011),
amount of vehicle registered in Bangkok as of 30 September 2010 is6,385,218 or about 22.65 % out of the total registered vehicles in Thailand.
The highest proportion of vehicles in Bangkok is motorcycle (40%),
following by sedan (37%), and van & pick up (15%).

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5thICUS Report
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Figure 1: 50 municipal districts of Bangkok (SED, 2011)
2.2 Holidays
Thailand is well-known as festive kingdom celebrating numerous regionaland national holidays. In 2011, the government declared 19 national
holidays that most of them are adjoined with weekend days. Moreover, 5 of
19 were more 3 day breaks such as Songkran Festival (13-17 April), Royal
Ploughing Ceremony Day (13-17 May), etc.
2.3 Traffic problems during festivals
In all festival, traffic congestion usually occurs along main routes
among BMA and other regions. In 2007, Department of Disaster Prevention
and Mitigation (DPM) reported average traffic volumes on major highways
from Bangkok to all regions during Songkran festivals in 2005 and 2006
were up to 35% and 23% larger than the normal period. As well, it increases
by 22% over the normal situation during New Year's Eve 2007. The
dramatically increase in travel demand during festivals derived from roadtransport modal can lead to other impacts including loss of production time,
GHG-emissions, waste energy consumption, and high risk of traffic
accidents. According to the data of average number of accidents andfatalities during the festivals from 2007-2010 recorded by Road Safety
Center, DPM (2011), there were 559 crashes per day and 52 deaths per day
counted as about two times of the normal period.

Departure-time choice (DTC) behaviour for Inter-city travel during a long-holiday
Departure-time choice (DTC) behaviour for Inter-city travel during a long-holiday in Bangkok, Thailand 43
43
in Bangkok, ThailandAugustThailandAugust 2012,2012, Thailanda.

an unsafe 2-level pick-up
b. an unsafe high occupancy vehicle
Figure 2: the general seen picture during festivals (DOH, 2007)

2.4 Policies/measures during festival
In every long holiday, government agencies have placed greater importanceon traffic problems by setting a clear transportation operation and safety
plan. Policies/measures can be classified into 2 groups as follows; 1) Traffic
related policy on road accident prevention and reduction and providing
adequate public transportation strategy and road safety strategies (DPM,
2011 and OTP, 2011) and 2) Tourism policy to promote domestic tourism.
3. METHODOLOGY
3.1 Literature reviews
Based on reviews, previous studies have developed many aspects on
departure-time and time of day; however, most of them only focused on ashort distance of urban travel which can be classified into 2 main groups; 1)urban-work related DTC such as Chin (1990), Zeid, A. et al. (2006) andHolyoak (2008), etc. and 2) urban-non-work DTC such as Bhat (1998),
Steed and Bhat (2000), Okola (2003) and Yang, et al (2008), etc. In addition,
there were few researches related to DTC for intercity or long-distancetravel such as Jin (2007) and Jin, et al. (2009). However, they ignored thestudy of DTC behavior of long distance travel during holidays. Hence, thisresearch fills up the gap which might result in a reduction of severity of
traffic congestion especially at the beginning of festivals.
3.2 Data collection
In order to examine individual departure-time choice behavior ofinter-city travel at the beginning of the long-holiday, it needs to findpotential ways for collecting trip, personality and household structure
information. The best way is to collect complete information, real time data
or using travel diary data collection. However, it is not convenient to use
these methods for longer data collection period (Madre et al., 2007 and Frei,
2008). Hence, this research proposes to use the most common method that is
the home interview survey for the departure-time data collection.

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5th Joint
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5thICUS Report
ICUS
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Factors related to Departure-Time-Choice (DTC) study can beclassified in to 3 main groups; 1) individual characteristics and preferences
2) household characteristics and 3) trip characteristics. All of DTC related
factors have been reviewed for preparing questionnaire.
The data collection began on Saturday 7th January and finished on
Sunday 26th February 2012. 875 households throughout 50 districts of
BMA were interviewed in order to examine the actual travel information
during New Year 2012 festival. However, only 590 data were qualified touse in data analysis.
3.3 Type of departure-time choice
In general, two peaks in a festival are more likely to be working daysof the week which are the beginning and ending peak of festival. Typically,
the beginning peak as the time that people moving out of the city toparticipate in activities can be separated into 2 periods. The first period
usually occurs from evening to midnight of the last working day called as“Evening Peak: EVP” (18:00-24:00) and the second period begins frommorning till noon of the starting date of the festival defined as “Morning
Peak: MNP” (08:00-12:00).
Therefore, in this study, there are 3 off peak periods as follows;
1) Early depart (ED): the traveller chose the starting time before thebeginning of evening peak,2) Depart after evening peak (AEP): the traveller chose the departuretime between 00:01-07:59 a.m. on 31 Dec 2011, and
3) Lately depart (LD): the traveller chose to stay at home during peaks
and departed after the ending of the morning peak to avoid traffic
congestion.
Hence, the timescale of long-holiday will be roughly divided into 5
time spans: 1) before evening peaks (early depart; ED), 2) depart on 1st peak(depart at evening peak; DEP) 3) depart after evening peak; AEP), 4) departon 2nd peak (depart at morning peak; DMP)), 5) after peaks (lately depart;LD).
4. RESULTS
4.1 General characteristics
General characteristics of 590 samples of people who made intercity travel
during New Year festival 2012 are shown in Table 3.

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Variable

Table 3 General characteristics of samples

Frequency analysis
Mean
S.D.
Min
1. Individual and household socio-economics characteristics
Age (yrs)
30.59
11.09
14.00
Income (Baht)
18,553.22 15,610.00
0.00
Number of holidays (day)
4.49
1.55
2.00
Household income
45,729.09 32,051.93
0.00
Household member
3.09
1.67
0.00
2. Trip characteristics
Distance (km.)
356.89252.4029.00
Travel cost per head (Baht)
495.49536.9722.50
Total travel time (min)319.36229.6445.00
Departure date and time
30-Dec2011,
1 day, 19- Dec-2011,
21:16:58 01:56 hrs.
20:00:00
No. of other passenger in trip
1.37
1.41
0
(person)Max
69.00
120,000.00
28.00
350,000.00
10.00
1250.00
3,000.00
1,520.00
07-Jan2012,08:30
8

4.1.1 Traveler characteristics
•
•
•
•
•
•

•
•
•
•

46
46

Gender: samples mostly consisted of male travelers (51.5 %).
Age: age range of 21-30 years old were counted for the highest
percentage (48.8 %), following by 31-40 years old (19.8%) and lessthan 20 years old (13.4 %).
Working status: most of samples are employee (37.1 %), following
by study/unemployed (34.9%) and entrepreneur (15.3 %).
Income: majority income were ranged between 5,000-10,000
Baht/month (28.8 %), following by 10,001-15,000 and 20,00130,000 Baht/month (18.8% and 17.6 %), respectively.
Household member: most of family contained 4 members (25.2 %),following by 3 members and 2 members (19.5% and 16.6 %),respectively.
Full-time workers/students: 85.5% of household has full-timeworkers/students. It found that the household has 4 full-timeworkers/students, following by 2 and 3 full-time workers/students(24.1%, 22.3%, and 21.7 %), respectively.
Household vehicle ownership: 58.3% of household owned at least
one vehicle.
Number of holidays in New Year 2012: Most of respondents have 4
connected days (68.9 %), following by 5 and 7 connected days
(14.4% and 4.8 %), respectively.
Beginning date of holidays: it mostly started on 31-Dec (74.2 %),following by 30-Dec, and 29-Dec (14.1% and 4.8 %), respectively.
Ending date of holidays: Most of respondents came back on 3-Jan(83.2 percent), following by 2-Jan and 4-Jan (8.0% and 4.8 %),respectively.

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4.1.2 Trip characteristics
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Trip purpose: most of respondents went travelling for
leisure/recreation purpose (44.1 %), following by returning homeand other (42.9% and 3.9 %), respectively.
Main mode: most of respondents used passenger car (47.6 %),following by intercity bus and van (18.0% and 16.1 %), respectively.
Distance: travel distance were mostly ranged between 101-200 km.
(25.6 %), following by 201-400 and 601-800 km. (23.7% and15.6 %), respectively.
Travel time: most of respondents traveled between 2-4 hr. (33.2 %),following by less than 2 hr. and 4-6 hr. (19.3% and 17.6 %),respectively.
Number of transfer: For public transportation users, majority ofpeople transferred 3 times (37.3 %), following by 2 times and 4
times (36.9% and 12.7 %), respectively.
Travel cost: most of respondents paid less than 200 Baht (38.3 %)following by 201-400 Baht and 401-600 Baht (24.7% and 11.9 %),respectively.
Children under 13 years old in trip: 8.3 % of children under 13
years old were found.
Elderly appearance: only 4.4 % of elderly people were found.
Number of other passengers in trip: Most of people traveled alone(35.9 %), following by 1 passenger and 2 passengers (24.2% and19.7 %), respectively.
Departure date: most of people left Bangkok on 31-Dec (42.9 %),following by 30-Dec and 29-Dec (27.1 % and 10.17 %), respectively
Departure date and time: 22.2 % of travellers chose to depart theirhome during 8:00-10:00 a.m. on 31/12/2011.

Figure 3: Departure date and time choice for intercity travel in New Year2012

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4.2 The relationship of socioeconomic characteristics on DTC
Overall results from crosstab analysis of relationship ofsocioeconomic characteristics on DTC for intercity travel behaviors in New
Year 2012 can be described as follows:
•

•

•

•

•

•
•

•

•

•

48
48

Gender and DTC: Both males and females chose to leave early(ED) (37.17% and 38.46 %), following by DMP and LD. Moreover,female travellers were likely to depart earlier and later than males do(F38.46/M37.17% and F18.88/M17.43 %).
Age and DTC: Travelers “less than 30 years old” and “more than 60
years old” were likely to depart before peaks (ED); while 31-40
years old were more likely to depart at both peaks (DEP and DMP).
For the 41-60 year old group, they preferred to depart after peaks(LD).
Income and DTC: Almost all income groups chose to travel before
the traffic jam (early depart: ED), except for a group with income of
15,001 to 20,000 baht that chose to depart on the morning peak(DMP) than other periods.
Occupation and DTC: According to the results, the largest
percentage of professional or academic group departed early (ED)(61.1 %), following by driver and engineering and production(50.0% and 50.0 %).
Number of full-time member in household and DTC: The
analysis results indicated that the increase in household members
who are full-time workers/students (from 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and more than
5 persons) would have an effect on increasing the percentage ofearly depart to avoid traffic congestion (from 28.4, 30.8, 32.3, 46.3,
46.3 and 50.0 %).
Household income and DTC: All of HH income group chose to
depart early (ED) except a group of 5001-15000 baht that mostly
chose to depart in the morning peak (DMP).
Household car ownership and DTC: Most of both groups who
occupied car and have no private cars chose to depart early (ED)(35.5 and 41.1 %), following by depart in the morning peak: (DMP)(25.3 and 30.5 %). The results also indicated that the evening rush is
minimum preference in both groups (10.2 and 3.7 percent).
Length of stay (days) and DTC: The analysis results indicated that
increase in length of stay from 1 to 4 days would have an effect on
increasing the percentage of depart in the evening peak (0.0, 1.1,
7.51, and 15.0 percent, respectively ).
Number of transfer and DTC: For public transport, if the numberof transfer increases by 1, 2, 3, and more than 4 times, thepercentage of ED on the number of transferring will reduce from
62.1 to 26.7 %. On the other hand, the percentage of DMP on thenumber of transferring will increase from 10.3 to 36.7 %.
Number of other passengers in trip and DTC: All of party sizes(Number of other passengers in trip) chose to depart early: ED (from31.9 % to 50.0 %).

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•

•

•
•

•

Trip purpose and DTC: According to the results, the largest
percentage of people who traveled with working purpose chose to
depart early (ED) (47.6 %), following by returning home andleisure/recreation (41.1 and 35.4 %).
Travel time and DTC: most of travelers in all travel time chose to
depart early (ED), except for a group of 1-2 hrs that mostly chose to
depart in the morning peak (DMP). For the longer travel time trip,
majority of travelers chose to depart at the evening peaks (DEP).
Distance and DTC: the analysis results indicated that the distance
between 0-400 km tends to avoid departing in the evening peak.
However it seems to be increase for the longer distance.
Travel distance and mode: Passenger car is the most preference forall distance groups of intercity travel in NY 2012. For train, it wasslightly increased in % within distance group of 601-800 km(10.9 %). For air travel, it was slightly increased in % within
distance ranged from 201-400, 401-600, 601-800, 801-1000 km (0.7,
2.2, 19.6, and 33.3 %), respectively.
Trip purpose and mode: For returning home group, intercity
bus/van was found the most preference (47.4 %), following bypassenger car and train (43.1 and 5.1 %), respectively. For leisureand recreational group, passenger car was found the most preference(72.7%), following by intercity bus/van and air (18.5 and 7.7 %)5. CONCLUSION
Nowadays, humans travel more and longer due to the transportation
technology advancement. The increase in travel demand for long distanceduring festivals leads to various transportation impacts especially traffic
congestion. As Thailand evidence at the beginning of every long-holiday or
festivals, the severity of traffic congestion usually occurs along main routes
among Bangkok Metropolitan Area (BMA) and other regions. This
repeatable problem causes adverse impacts such as fuel consumption, air
pollution, and road accident.
This paper discusses the characteristics of long-holiday travel patternespecially for intercity travel during New Year 2012 in Bangkok, Thailand.
590 household interview surveys were analyzed to provide theunderstanding of general characteristics related to DTC behavior forintercity travel at the beginning of the long-holiday for Bangkok
Metropolitan Area (BMA), Thailand. Based on this study, better suitablepolicies related to DTC behavior of intercity travel during long-holiday
should be provided to reduce traffic congestion along main routes in the
future.

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6. DISCUSSION
Due to the severe flooding in some area of Bangkok occurred during
October to December 2011. Hence, people feel uncomfortable to participate
in the interview. Therefore, knock doors were not used for some reasons
such as nobody at home in the time of interviewing, locked gate, only
child/elderly at home, too busy to complete interviews, commuters notstaying home. Because the nature of intercity travel in festival is a rare event,
it is quite hard for researcher to find samples. Moreover, many cases gave
information but they did not make an intercity travel during concerned
period.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Author gratefully acknowledges the financial support provided by Kasem
Bundit University (KBU) for doctoral degree program study.
REFERENCES
Bhat, C. R., 1998. Analysis of travel mode and departure time choicefor urban shopping trips. Transportation Research Part B: Methodological,
32 (6), 361 – 371.
Department of disaster prevention and mitigation, 2007. Executive
Report, The Study for Fix Road Traffic Problems-out and into Bangkokduring festivals sustainably Project, Ministry of Interior, Thailand. (In Thai)
Department of disaster prevention and mitigation, 2011. Integrated
plan for road accident prevention and reduction during Songkran festival
and New year festival, Ministry of Interior, Thailand. (In Thai)
Department of Highways, 2007. Chapter 4: Project Evaluation,
Motorway Safety Campaign Project, Summary Report, Ministry ofTransportation. (In Thai).
Department of Land Transport. 2011. Number of Vehicle Registered in
Bangkok.
OnlineAvailable:
http://apps.dlt.go.th/statistics_web/statistics.html, [3 March, 2011] (In Thai).
Frei, A., Kuhnimhof, T., Axhausen, K.W., 2010. Long distance travelin Europe today: Experiences with a new survey, Paper submitted forpresentation at the 89th Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research
Board, Washington, D.C.
Holyaok, N., 2008. Departure time choice for the car-based commute,
31st Australasian Transport Research Forum, PP.429-442.
Jin, Xia, 2007, Toward time-of-day modeling for long-distance trips,
Ph.D. Dissertation, The University of Wisconsin - Milwaukee, 181 pages.
Jin, X., Wu, J., and Horowitz, A., 2009. Transferability of Time-ofDay Choice Modeling for Long-Distance Trips, Paper submitted for50
50

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presentation at the 88th Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research
Board, Washington, D.C.
Madre, J.L., Axhausen, K.W., and Brog, W., 2007. Immobility intravel diary surveys, Transportation 34: PP.107-128
Office of Transportation and Traffic Policy and Planning (OTP), 2011,
Transportation safety plan for Songkran Festival 2011, Ministry ofTransport (MOT), Thailand. (In Thai)
Steed, J., and C.R. Bhat, 2000. On Modeling Departure Time Choicefor Home-Based Social/Recreational and Shopping Trips, Transportation
Research Record, Volume 1706 / 2000, PP.152-159 .
Tangchonlatip, K., 2010. Bangkok: the primate city of Thailand,
Population and Social Research Institute. Mahidol University, Thailand. (InThai)
Strategy and Evaluation Department, 2010. Statistics profile of
Bangkok 2010, Administrative Strategy Division, Bangkok Metropolitan
Administration (BMA).
Yang, F., Jin, X., and Lui, R., 2008. Tour-Based Time-of-Day Choices
for Weekend Non-work Activities, Paper submitted for presentation at the87th Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board, Washington,
D.C
Zeid, M. A., Rossi, T. F., and Gardner, B., 2006. Modeling Time of
Day Choice in the Context of Tour and Activity Based Models. Paper
submitted for presentation at the 85th Annual Meeting of the Transportation
Research Board, Washington, D.C

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5th Joint Student Seminar on Civil Infrastructure

STRUCTURAL PERFORMANCEASSESSMENT OF DETERIORATEDUNREINFORCED CONCRETESTRUCTURES
Yuriko YAMAMOTO1 and Hiroshi YOKOTA2
1
Graduate Student, Graduate School of Eng., Hokkaido University, Japanyurincorhcp14@ec.hokudai.ac.jp
2
Professor, Faculty of Eng., Hokkaido University, Japan
ABSTRACT
A lot of unreinforced concrete structures are found along the coastline
in Japan. They were constructed during the high economic growth era in the
1970’s. Since those structures have been reaching the design service life of
50 years, they are concerned about performance degradation and/or
materials deterioration due to aging. However, there are few studies on
performance degradation assessment and prediction of unreinforced
concrete structures. In this study, to evaluate the deterioration degree, newcriteria for deterioration assessment of unreinforced concrete structures areproposed based on load-carrying capacities in relation to a crack width.
Keywords: unreinforced concrete, crack width, crack depth, criteria
for deterioration
1. INTRODUCTION
A lot of unreinforced concrete structures were constructed during the higheconomic growth era along the coastline in Japan. Since those structures
have been reaching the original design service life of 50 years, it isnecessary to implement intensive maintenance and/or even renewal in thenear future. They may have damages due to ageing and materials
deterioration, which subsequently degrades structural performance such as
safety and serviceability. However, there are few studies on the performanceassessment of deteriorated unreinforced concrete structures.
To evaluate the degree of deterioration of unreinforced concrete
structures, the authors suggest the criteria of deterioration grading using acrack width in relation to structural performance. First, the correlation of
crack width and crack depth has been investigated in existing structures.
Then, deteriorated structures have been modeled and analyzed with thenonlinear finite element method. The deterioration of an unreinforced
concrete structure has been expressed with an already existing crack having
various widths and depths. Finally, criteria for deterioration assessment of
unreinforced concrete structures are proposed53
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2. CRACK INVESTIGATION
Unreinforced concrete parapets of breakwaters in fishing ports are focusedin crack investigation. Crack widths were measured with a crack gauge,
while crack depths were measured by the impact elastic wave method.
Ultrasonic pulse method is a popular method to measure the crack depth.
However, it needs to smooth and grease concrete surface before application.
Thus, the impact elastic wave method has been used in this study, because itis easy to apply on the site and is suitable to measure the depth of a deeper
crack.
3. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CRACK WIDTH AND DEPTH
Thirty pairs of data on crack width and depth were obtained. Figure 1 shows
the relationship between crack width and depth. It is confirmed that there
may be a linear relationship between the crack width and depth. The
correlation coefficient is 0.69; thus the crack width may be an explanatory
parameter for estimating crack depth. Correlation equation 1 is shown in
Figure 1 with the solid line. For standing the safe side, Equation 2 is
proposed as the dashed line in Figure 1.
d = 135W(1)

D = 200W(2)

Where d and D are crack depths (mm) and W is crack width (mm).

crackdepth (mm)
ひび割れ深さ(mm)

300

200

100

0
0

1
ひび割れ幅(mm)2crack width (mm)Figure 1: Crack width and depth

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4. ANALYSIS ON STRUCTURAL PERFORMANCE
4.1 Analytical model
The crack in the parapet is modeled with Equation 2. The X-directionis the normal direction to the parapet while the Z-direction is the verticaldirection. Structural performance of the parapet is analyzed by the nonlinear
finite element method using software DIANA. Analytical models of theparapet are shown in Figure 2. An already existing crack is described byvertically inserting boundary elements at the center of the model.
Developing cracks during analysis are described by smeared cracks. A
uniformly distributed load is applied to the colored surface as shown in
Figure 2. Fixed boundary conditions are provided at the bottom surface forhorizontally loaded cases, and at the side surface for the vertically loadedcase.
4.2 Results and discussion

2600mmThe relationships between the width of an already existing crack due
to deterioration etc. and normalized load-carrying capacity that is the ratioof maximum load applied of cracked model to that without a crack areshown in Figure 3. It is observed that an already existing crack of 1 mm
wide or less brings very little capacity degradation. In case that the crack is
5 mm wide or more, the structural capacity is rather degraded. When thecrack passes through the section of the parapet, the structural capacity isremarkably lost.

2000mmZ Y
X：point of view

Figure 2: Analytical models

Structural performance
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assessment ofof deteriorated
deterioratedunreinforced
unreinforcedconcrete
concretestructures
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normalized capacity

loading direction
XYZ

crack width (mm)Figure 3: Crack width and normalized capacity
5. CRITERIA FOR DETERIORATION ASSESSMENT
5.1 Present criteria
The present criteria for deterioration assessment of unreinforced
concrete parapet are summarized in Table 1. Grade d is a sound case while
Grade a is a seriously deteriorated case. In practice, a crack of 10 mm wideor more seriously affects the structural performance. Thus, the present
criteria may not be suitable to precisely grade the deterioration condition.
Table 1: Present criteria for deterioration assessment

Grade
d
c
b
a

Criteria for evaluation
Undamaged
Crack width is under 10 mm
Crack width is over 10 mm
Damages affecting the performance

5.2 New criteria for deterioration assessment
The relationships between crack width and the normalized capacity
are shown in Figure 4. There is no capacity degradation when crack width isless than 1 mm, thus this case should be evaluated Grade d. A crack ofaround 7 mm wide, the normalized capacities with the application of Y andZ loads are decreased below 0.6. Thus, this case should be evaluated Gradea. In conclusion, the new criteria for deterioration assessment is proposed assummarized in Table 2.

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loading direction
X
Y
Z

d

c

b

a

crack width (mm)Figure 4: Crack width and evaluation
Grade
d
c
b
a

Table 2: New criteria for deterioration assessment
Criteria for evaluation
Undamaged or crack width is under 1 mm
Crack width is 1-4 mm
Crack width is 4-7 mm
Crack width is over 7 mm or penetrating crack

capacity
100%
Under 90%
Under 80%
Under 60%

6. CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions are drawn in this study:1) The correlation equation between crack width and depth is made clear.
2) The new criteria for deterioration assessment of unreinforced concrete
structures are proposed.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to extend their appreciation to Dr Katsufumi
Hashimoto, Assistant Professor and Mr Koichi Furuya, Graduate Student,
Hokkaido University for their supports during the field survey and structural
analysis.

Structural performance
Structural
performance assessment
assessment ofof deteriorated
deterioratedunreinforced
unreinforcedconcrete
concretestructures
structures

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REFERENCES
Umezu, H., Hayashi, H., and Mikami, N., 2009. Amount ofconstruction in fishing port facilities and the need for maintenance andrenewal of facilities function in the future. Fisheries Engineering, Vol.46,
No.2, 181-186.
Shutou, K., Hibi, N., Iwano, S., and Gokudan, K., 2003. Fundamental
study of concrete crack depth measurement by impact elastic wave method.
Proceedings of the 58th Annual Conference of JSCE, V-394, 787-788

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TOPIC-GEO MAPPING OF DISASTER
INFORMATION USING ONTOLOGY
1

Ashik RAJBHANDARI1, Masahiko NAGAI2
Doctoral Student of Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems(RSGIS), School of Engineering,
Asian Insitute of Technology (AIT), Thailand
ashik.rajbhandari@gmail.com
2
Associate Director, Geoinformatics Center (GIC),
Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Thailand
nagaim01@gmail.com

ABSTRACTIn the recent times, there is a huge amount of data gathered about the
Earth observation, not only from spatial information systems but also fromnew and more sophisticated data collection techniques. This scenario leads
to challenges how to integrate geographic information of different forms
from various domains along with the problem of heterogeneity. The otherchallenges include standardizing spatial syntax and formalizing spatial
semantics.
With such excessive information, it is very difficult for the users to
identify and extract the effective amount of information. Whereas, most of
the information remains undiscovered without the integration of scientificand social Data and that the discovered information remains lessinterpretable for machines.
Therefore, this study is an initiative to design a robust system forassessing the social data from the available disaster related web portals[news, blogs, tweets, etc.] through text extraction processes and relatingthem with scientific data implementing ontology for the effective information
retrieval and visualization.
Keywords: topic-mapping, inter-operability, disaster, ontology,
visualization
1. INTRODUCTION
In the recent times, there is a huge amount of data gathered about the Earthobservation, not only from spatial information systems, but also from newand more sophisticated data collection techniques. This scenario leads tochallenges how to integrate geographic information of different forms fromvarious domains along with the problem of heterogeneity. The otherchallenges include standardizing spatial syntax and formalizing spatial
semantics.

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ThailandAugust2012, Thailand

Every time, the world is enriched with lots of information by many
hundreds of news agencies, immediately before or after any disaster
happened. Such information explaining about disaster is relayed in the formof articles or journals or publications (hard copy / word doc / pdf formats),
web posts, media (pictures or videos), maps, charts, etc. Some important
issues encountered in this scenario is, the audience may find it very time
consuming to go through all those information one by one. It is even
impossible for them to figure out at least single reliable information from abunch of such big data. If there is only one centralized system to relaying all
the proper information, it would be very beneficial for users that they canspend their time in other decision making tasks rather than spend hours only
in searching related information from pools of many information sources.
Therefore, there is a necessity of a system which not only encloses
information from all possible data sources as one stop service but also
standardizes them.
1.1 Semantic Interoperability
Another concerning point is how the system can be advanced inproviding not just any ordinary information but the reliable and content
related ones (Raubal, 2006). It should be effective in excluding theheterogeneity issues by achieving the semantic interoperability as semantic
web in the form of collection of information called ontologies (Alesso andSmith, 2005) will be a key to drive the system. The heterogeneity can be
explained as Semantic or Semiotics (Lieberman, 2007).
1.1.1 Semantic
It is defined for two or more than two names for the same thing.
Entity 1:“earthquake”
English (en) Japanese (jp) Thai (th)-earthquake(pronunciation: jishin)(pronunciation: Phændinh w)

1.1.2 Semiotics
It is defined for one name for two or more than two different things.
Entity 2: “mustang” - car name(Ford Mustang)- location name (in the north-central part of
Nepal)For any two entities - “earthquake” and “mustang”, a non-semantic
based system will return all the information related to earthquake andmustang (both car name and location name for earthquake will be retrieved).
In this case, it might be quite irrelevant from user’s point of view to receive
information of earthquake related to car name Mustang. However, if there isa semantic relation defined between earthquake and mustang, and then user

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a semantic relation defined between earthquake and mustang, and then user
canretrieve information
information of
can retrieveof earthquake
earthquake related
related toto Mustang
Mustang as
as location
location namenameinin Nepal.
Nepal.
Therefore,
the compilationcompilation ofof disasterdisaster related
related information
information undersingleTherefore, theunder single
systemsharing isis highly
highly required.
Considering this
this major
major
system to
to gaingain knowledge
knowledge sharing
required. Considering
requirement,
this system
proposed inwith thethe motivation
motivation
requirement, thissystem has
has been
been proposedin thethe paper
paper withtoknowledge based
based disasterdisaster information
information toto itsto retrieve
retrieve knowledge
its users.
users.
2. OBJECTIVES OF THE PROPOSED SYSTEM
In
view ofof thethe aforementioned
aforementioned issues,
issues, thethe following
following objectives
objectives have
have
In view
been
implemented insystem:been implemented
in thethe proposed
proposed system:
1.
1. Development
Development ofof Ontology
Ontology based
based onon Critical
Critical Observation
Observation Parameters
Parameters(COP)(SBA).
(COP) andand Social
Social Benefit
Benefit Areas
Areas (SBA).
2.
of disasterdisaster related
related information
information based
based onon
2. Identification
Identification andand Integration
Integration ofdeveloped
developed ontology
ontology forfor Semantic
Semantic Interoperability.
Interoperability.
3.
3. Standardization
Standardization ofof information
information into
into common
common format
format type.
type.
4.
maps, highlights
onto4. Visualization
Visualization ofof information
information inin thethe form
form ofof maps,highlights oror ontograph.
graph.
A
design ofof theA conceptual
conceptual design
the proposed
proposed systemsystem has
has been
been shown
shown inin thetheFigure1.
Figure 1.

Figure 1: Conceptual design of the proposed system
3. DETAIL ARCHITECTURE OF THE PROPOSED SYSTEM
The
into five
The systemsystem isis categorizedcategorized into
five major
major functionalities
functionalities as
as shown
shown inin
Figure2:
Figure 2:
Ontology
Development.
Ontology Development.
Identificationand Extraction.
Extraction.
Identification andOntology
Update fromfrom Journals.
Ontology Update
Journals.
IndexedIndexed Database.
Database.
User Interface / Integrated Data View.
Topic-Geo Mapping for Disaster Information Using Ontology
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Informationusing
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Ontology
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Figure 2: Detail Architecture of the Proposed System
3.1 Ontology Development
Ontology
based onParameters andandOntology with
with concepts
concepts basedon Critical
Critical Observation
Observation Parameters
Social Benefit
SocialBenefit Areas
Areas have
have been
been designed
designed asas defined
defined inin thethe standard
standard results
resultsof thean intergovernmentalof
the GroupGroup onon Earth
Earth Observations
Observations (GEO),(GEO), anintergovernmentalorganization, inin GEOGEO Task
Task US-09-01a
US-09-01a as
Table 1.
organization,
as shown
shown inin Table1.

Weather

Water

HealthEnergyEcosystem

Disaster

ClimateAgriculture

Table 1: The 25 highest-ranked Earth observations listed according to thescore in the Cross-SBA analysis.
GEO
GEO Societal
Societal Benefits
Benefits Areas*
Areas*
Earth
Observation
Parameter
Precipitation
Soil Moisture
Surface Air Temperature
Surface Wind Speed
Land Cover
Surface Humidity
Vegetation Cover
Surface Wind Direction
Normalized
Normalized Difference
Difference Vegetation
Vegetation Index
Index
Sea Surface Temperature
Sea Surface Temperature
Urbanization
Urbanization
Vegetation Type
Vegetation Type
Flood
Flood

*The Biodiversity SBA did not produce a list of priority Earth observations.

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64*The Biodiversity SBA did not produce a list of priority Earth observations.

Thus, thethe Cross-SBA
Cross-SBA analysis
Thus,analysis involved
involved observations
observations fromfrom only
only 88
SBAs.
SBAs.
the observation
theobservation was
was included
included inin thethe SBA's
SBA's set
set ofof priorities
priorities
the observation
observation wasof priorities
thewas not
not included
included inin thethe SBA's
SBA's set
set ofpriorities
From Table
Table 1,
is obvious
obvious thatthat only
only “Ecosystems”
and “Health”“Health”
From
1, it
it is
“Ecosystems” andSBAs areare commonly
in bothboth ofof thethe “Sea“Sea Surface
Surface Temperature”
Temperature” andandSBAs
commonly included
included in“Urbanization” COPs,
COPs, while
while rest
rest ofof thethe otherother remaining
remaining SBAs
SBAs areare not
not“Urbanization”
common toto each.
each. ItIt cancan bebe said
SBAs arecommonsaid thatthat all
all thethe SBAs
are not
not necessarily
necessarily
included toto eacheach COPs.
Each COP
COP cancan have
have one
one oror more,more, oror allincluded
COPs. Each
all ofof thethe SBAs
SBAs
included tothese relations
COPs andand SBAs,
isincluded
to it.
it. Based
Based onon these
relations ofof COPs
SBAs, ontology
ontology isdeveloped as
developed
as shown
shown byby onto-graphonto-graph in
in Figure
Figure 3.
3.

Figure 3: Onto-Graph of “Sea Surface Temperature”, “Urbanization” withSBAs
3.2 Identification and Extraction
The relevant
is initially
initially identified
The
relevant disasterdisaster information
information is
identified byby concept
concepttagging fromontology. The
identified information
information isis thenthentaggingfrom developed
developed systemsystem ontology.
The identified
extracted via
and journal
data. TheThe response
response format
formatextracted
via web
web asas scientific,
scientific, social,social, andjournal data.
of datadata isis acquired
acquired inin XML,
XML, JSON
JSON oror HTML,
HTML, which
which areare retrieved
retrieved using
using
ofvarious Reader
isvarious
Reader APIs.
APIs. AtAt thethe samesame time,
time, additional
additional entity
entity information
information isretrieved from
Alchemy API
API aswell. The
retrieved
from Alchemy
as well.
The retrieved
retrieved information
information areare ofof types:
types:
geo-tags, keywords,
date, scientificscientific values,
graphs, maps,
maps, title,
title, author(s),author(s),geo-tags,
keywords, date,values, graphs,
abstract, full
input data,data, output
output data,data, scientificmodels, descriptions,descriptions,abstract,
full text,
text, input
scientific models,
videos, images,
images, etc.
etc.
videos,3.3 Indexed Database
The extracted information is finally indexed into Apache Solr index
categorized based on web sources i.e. scientific, journal and social indexes
for future search.

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3.3 Indexed DatabaseThe
extracted information
information isindexed into
into ApacheSolr index
index
The extracted
is finally
finally indexed
Apache Solrcategorizedcategorized based
based onon webweb sources
sources i.e.
i.e. scientific,
scientific, journal
journal andand socialsocial indexes
indexesforfor future
future search.
search.
3.4 Ontology Update from Journals
The
information extracted
journals such
such asscientific models,
The information
extracted forfor journals
as title,
title, scientificmodels,input-output
in itsits methodology
methodology areare further
further related
relatedinput-output data
data types
types implemented
implemented in
with
COPs
and
SBAs.
Such
categorizedjournals
for
each
COP
and/orwith COPs and SBAs. Such categorized journals for each COP and/or SBA
SBA
are
are once
once again
again used
used toto develop
develop knowledge
knowledge based
based ontology
ontology ofof journals.
journals. InInevery
updated as
every journal
journal information
information extraction,
extraction, thethe ontology
ontology isis updated
as shown
shown bybyonto-graphonto-graph inin thethe Figure
Figure 5.
5.

Figure 4: Ontological Diagram of COP, SBA and Journals
Figurebasically gives
idea ofof relationship
Figure 44 basicallygives anan idea
relationship ofof anyany journal
journalassociatedassociated toto oneone oror moremore COPs
COPs inin relation
relation with
with one
one oror moremore SBAs.
SBAs.
3.5 User Interface / Integrated Data View
All
All thethe above
above functionalities
functionalities areare basedbased onon system’ssystem’s recursive
recursive backend
backendprocesses.
In
order
to
meet
the
objectives
oftheproposed
systemtoprocesses. In order to meet the objectives of the proposed system to provide
provideusers
users with
with sufficientsufficient andand relevant
relevant disasterdisaster related
related information,
information, aa user
userinterfaceinterface supported
supported byby application
application service
service isis aa promisingpromising requirement.
requirement. It
It
receives
results fromfrom theindex
receives user’s
user’s any
any query
query requests,
requests, andand responses
responses thethe results
the index
based
shown inin Figurebased onon developed
developed ontology
ontology as
as shown
Figure 5,5, Figure
Figure 66 andand Figure
Figure 7.
7.

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Figure 5: Integrated Data View on Google Map

Figure 6: Integrated Data View of Search Results

Figure 7: User Interface showing Onto - Graph View.
4. DATA USED
Based on vast forms of disaster information availability and retrieval
methods, data has been classified into three sections as the following:
1. Metadata of Scientific Data
2. Journal Data
3. Social Data

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4.1 Metadata of Scientific data
Information derived from empirical and measurable evidences,observation results based on specific principles of reasoning for analysis andreuse are considered as scientific data. The scientific data provided by Data
Integration and Analysis System (DIAS), one of GEOSS (Global Earth
Observation System of Systems) activities in Japan, are implemented in the
proposed system. Data provided are, scientific measured values, geo-images,
maps, and other metadata forms. DIAS is a Japanese national key projectwith missions to archive earth environmental data and analyses global
phenomenon through combining and processing observation data, numericalmodel outputs, and socio-economic data provided from the fields of climate,water cycle, ecosystem, ocean, biodiversity and agriculture and share earth
observation data, knowledge among different disciplines.
4.2 Journal data
Several online library systems acting as one-stop-web service
providing scholarly journals such as Google Scholar, Mendeley API,
SciVerse-HUB, etc. Extracted information from journals as title, full text,
keywords, metadata, scientific models, and input-output data are maintained
into ontology relating with COP and SBA.
4.3 Social data
A social data is basically a theoretical concept beneficial in the social
sciences tostudy
associations
betweenindividuals, parties,groups, organizations, or even entire-societies as social units. Theinteraction of social entries has been easier with the availability of manysocial sites in the internet such as Facebook, Ushahidi platform, BBC News,etc. At the same time, the proposed system particularly extracts theinformation related to disaster from the only official web pages in RSS
News Feed.
5. RESULTS AND ANALYSISThe categorization of overall extracted information under each index
standardizes the scientific, social and journal data into common format as
Apache Solr xml schema format. The search result analysis was performedin two ways – with and without the implementation of ontology. Querygiving more number of search are classified as “Diverging Search Results
and search results giving more précised number of search results areclassified as “Converging Search Results” after implementing ontology asshown in Table 2.

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Table 2: Search Results Analysis

5.1 Analysis - I: Diverging Search Results
The searchsearch query
query forfor term
term “disaster”
returned 22 docs
docs forfor scientific,
scientific, 13
13The“disaster” returned
docs
journal, andand 308
social data
data without
docs forfor journal,
308 docs
docs forfor social
without implementing
implementing
ontology because
term “disaster”“disaster” inin theirtheir full
full text.
text. Whereas,
Whereas,ontology
because ofof only
only single
single term
the samesame query
query request
request returned
returned 55 docs
23 docs
docs forfor journal,
thedocs forfor scientific,
scientific, 23
journal,and 325
325 docs
docs forfor social
after implementing
implementing ontology.
ontology. It
It cancan bebe seenseen thatthatandsocial data
data after
search querysearchquery after
after implementing
implementing ontology
ontology returned
returned more
more number
number ofof
documents i.e.
i.e. diverging
diverging searchsearch results.
results.
documents
The journal“A Geosynchronous
Geosynchronous Synthetic
Synthetic Aperture
Aperture Radar;
Radar; forforThejournal titledtitled “A
Tectonic Mapping,
Mapping, Disaster
Disaster Management
Management andand Measurements
Measurements ofof Vegetation
Vegetation
Tectonic
and Soil
Soil Moisture”
Moisture” waswas returned
returned implementing
ontology but
but itit waswas missing
missing
andimplementing ontology
without
is mentioned
mentioned innearwithout implementing
implementing ontology.
ontology. It
It is
in itsits fullfull text
text asas “the“the nearreal
time mapping
mapping ofof surface
surface changes
changes caused
caused bymudslides thatthat depends
real timeby mudslides
depends
upon soil
returned as
uponsoil moisture”.
moisture”. This
This document
document isis returned
as “mudslide”“mudslide” isis aa disasterdisasterform andand there“Soil Moisture”
Moisture” withform
there isis aa clear
clear relation
relation ofof “Soilwith “Disasters”“Disasters”
included inin Table
Table 1.
1.
included
5.2 Analysis – II: Converging Search Results
The
The searchsearch query
query forfor term
term “agriculture“agriculture cover”
cover” returned
returned 32
32 docs
docs forforsocial data
data without
withoutscientific, 57
57 docs
docs forfor journal,
journal, andand 11
11 docs
docs forfor social
scientific,
implementingof twotwo terms
terms “agriculture”
or “cover”“cover” inin
implementing ontology
ontology because
because of“agriculture” ortheir
the samesame query
query returned
returned 11
11 docs
docs forfor scientific,
scientific, 24
24
their full
full text.
text. Meanwhile,
Meanwhile, thedocs forfor journal,and 33 docs
docs forfor socialsocial data
ontology. Thus,
Thus,
docs
journal, anddata implementing
implementing ontology.
search querysearchquery after
after implementing
implementing ontology
ontology returned
returned concise
concise number
number ofof docs
docs
i.e. converging
converging search
results.
i.e.
search results.
Theand Remote
Remote Responses
to Excessive
Excessive Snow
Snow
The journal
journal titledtitled “Local“Local andResponses to
Mass over
over Eurasia
Eurasia Appearing
Appearing inin thethe Northern
Northern Spring
Spring andand Summer
Summer Climate,
Climate,Mass
A Study
Study with
the MRI”
MRI” isis notnot returned
returned after
after implementing
ontology, asAwith theimplementing ontology,
as thetheconcept “agriculture”
related toonly twoconcept“agriculture” isis related
to only
two concepts
concepts “land“land cover”
cover” andand“vegetation
without any“vegetation cover”,
cover”, without
any association
association with
with “snow“snow cover”,
cover”, “cloud“cloudcover”,“snow cover
cover extent”,
cover”, “snowextent”, “sea“sea ice
ice cover”,
cover”, etc.
etc. Thus,
Thus, docs
docs including
includingterms “agriculture”“agriculture” and“land cover”“vegetation cover”
cover” areterms
and “land
cover” oror “vegetation
are returned
returned
excluding docs
terms forfor “cover”.
“cover”.
excludingdocs with
with other
other terms

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6. CONCLUSION
The retrieval of relevant information according to the users’ requirement isan essential part of any system. Functions have been defined that operates
over scientific, social and journal data in consideration to theirinteroperability. The following conclusions can be derived from the study:
1. The ontology developed for this system covers the concepts for 146
Critical Observation Parameters, 8 Social Benefit Areas and Journals.
2. The system is efficient in retrieval of more and more précised disaster
information after every updates of the ontology.
3. The system works as one-stop service facilitating the user withmaximum possible of data in text, media, maps, etc.
4. The system plays a prominent role in standardizing possibly scatteredinformation in the web by bringing them under common index database.
5. The system also provides basic visualization of information to the user.
The user can easily trace the information provided in the Google Map
for any particular location or entities relation from Onto-graph.
In conclusion, the system works as knowledge based system acquiring theobjectives of identification, integration, interoperability, standardization andvisualization maintained under standard data format in distributed indexes.
REFERENCES
Alesso, H.P. and Smith, C.F., 2005. Developing Semantic Web Service,
Canada: A K Peters.
Fauziati, S. and Watanabe, K., 2010. Ontology of Volcano System andVolcanic
Hazards
Assessment.
International
Journalof
Geoinformatics, 6(4), 49-62.
Fonseca, F. and Egenhofer, M., 1999. Ontology Driven Geographic
Information Systems. 7th ACM Symposium on Advances inGeographic Information Systems. Kansas City, MO, 14-19.
Heydari, N., Mansourian, A., Taleai, M. and Fallahi, G.R., 2009. Ontology Based GIS Web Service For Increasing Semantic Interoperability
Among Organizations Involving Drilling In City Of Tehran. GSDI 11
World Conference. Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
Jung, C.T. and Sun, C.H., 2010. Ontology-driven Problem Solving
Framework For Spatial Decision Support Systems. Map Asia and ISG
2010, Kuala Lumpur, Malayasia.
Lieberman J., 2007. Geospatial Semantic Web: Is there life after geo:lat andgeo:long?, Traverse Technologies & Open Geospatial Consortium
European Geoinformatics Workshop.
Lutz M., 2006. Introduction to OWL - Slides based on “An Introduction to
RDF(S) and a Quick Tour of OWL” Slides by Matthew Horridge(University of Manchester), Institute for GeoInformatics, Universityof Munster.
Martin D., Burstein M, Hobbs J., Lassila O., McDermott D., McIlraith S., etal., 2004. OWL-S: Semantic Markup for Web Services, W3C Member

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Submission,
22
November
2004.
Retrievedfrom
http://www.w3.org/Submission/OWL-S/
Raubal M., 2006. Semantic Similarity Measurement In A Way Finding,Institute for GeoInformatics, University of Munster.
Uschold, M., 1998. Knowledge Level Modeling: Concepts And
Terminology. The Knowledge Engineering Review, 13, 5-29.
Zhou N., 2009. Using Semantic and Ontological Technologies in GeoSpatial
Analysis: A Demo of Simulated Flooding Analysis, Department ofGeography, University of Maryland.
Global Disaster Alert and Coordination System (GDACS). Retrieved fromhttp://www.gdacs.org/
United States Geological Survey’s (USGS). Retrieved fromhttp://earthquake.usgs.gov/research/software/
BIOCASTER – Global Health Awareness. Retrieved fromhttp://born.nii.ac.jp/
Group on Earth Observations, Task US-09-01a: Critical Earth Observation
Priorities. 2010. Retrieved from http://sbageotask.larc.nasa.gov/
Data Integration and Analysis System (DIAS). Retrieved fromhttp://www.editoria.u-tokyo.ac.jp/dias/english/index.html

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5th Joint Student Seminar on Civil InfrastructureAN ANALYTICAL INVESTIGATIONOF ANCHORAGE FAILURE
OF RC CONFINED BY TRANSVERSE BAR
BY 3D RBSM
Yoshiyuki TAKANO1, Daisuke HAYASHI2, Kohei NAGAI3
1
Graduate Student, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Japany-takano@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
2
Project Researcher, IIS, The University of Tokyo, Japan
3
Associate Professor, ICUS, IIS, The University of Tokyo, Japan
ABSTRACTTo study the bond performance and failure mechanisms between
reinforcement and concrete around an anchorage zone in a structuralelement, two simulation cases of anchorage failure were carried out by
three-dimensional Rigid Body Spring Model (RBSM). In the first case,simulation of uni-axially reinforced cylindrical specimen subjected totension was made. Splitting crack failure could be simulated. Also strain
distribution of pull-out reinforcements and pull-out behavior was predicted
as well as experiment. Further simulations were also carried out to confirm
the benefits of transverse reinforcement to enhance the anchorage ofreinforcements. These simulations confirm this beneficial effect and show
good agreement with experiment data in terms of anchorage capacity, crack
patterns and failure modes. And also internal crack developments insimulation are shown from analysis.
bar

Keywords: RBSM, anchorage failure, crack development, transverse

1. INTRODUCTION
Nowadays in Japan, seismic design code is becoming more stringent. To
satisfy the stringent requirements, lager amounts of reinforcement must beplaced, resulting in increased reinforcement congestion. This problem
particularly occurs in beam-column joints, where reinforcements meet frommany different directions.
As a result, it becomes difficult to ensure proper concrete compaction
and hence poorer concrete quality may result. As one of these reasons, it isconsidered that the design procedure of anchorage is still defined by
specifications. Thus, in order to develop the rational design procedure foranchorage, anchorage performance must be evaluated based on mechanicaltheory. However, it is difficult to clarify the anchorage performance oncomplicated bar arrangement like beam-column joint, and several bar-end

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shapes. For this, authors considers that anchorage performance onanchorage in structural elements is possible to evaluate by using numericalsimulation reflected the mechanical and material properties aroundreinforcement.
In this study, numerical simulations were carried out to investigate theanchorage performance by Rigid-Body Spring Model, which is a kind of
discrete analysis. And anchorage failure on two types of bar arrangement
was attempted to replicate. First case is a pull-out simulation ofreinforcement embedded in thin cover cylindrical specimen. From this result,
the reproducibility of pull-out behavior is confirmed by comparing toexperiment result. Further, to investigate the effect of transverse bar on
anchorage performance, pull-out simulations by varying the amount oftransverse bar are carried out.
2. ANALYSIS METHOD AND MODEL
2.1 Analysis method
In this study, analysis is carried out by 3D RBSM approach, proposedby Kawai (1978). Two types of elements, namely concrete and steel
elements, are used to define the geometry of a specimens embedded
reinforcing bar. The concrete elements size is set smaller than the maximum
aggregate size, while the steel element size is set according to geometriccomplexity of the reinforcing bar (Figure 1). Three springs (one normal
direction and two shear directions) are assumed to connect each face of theelements. The properties of the springs are determined so as the elements,
when combined together, enable accurate prediction of the response ofConcrete element

Steel elementlaboratory-scale material test. In this study, simulation system developed by
Nagai (2004) is used.
(a) Cross section of elements (b) 3D Rebar shape
Figure 1: Modeling of geometric rebar shape
2.2 Constitutive models
Two elements are used to represent the behavior of reinforced
concrete:(1) Steel element

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The geometry of the steel elements is modeled in an accurate manner
to properly account for the interlock between reinforcement and concrete.
Figure 1 illustrates typical reinforcement geometry used in analysis.
The normal and shear springs used in the steel elements are assumed to be
perfectly elastic. This simulation is not considered reinforcement yielding
because the focus of these simulations is the reproduction of anchorage
failure on several arrangements of reinforcements.
(2) Concrete element
The shape of concrete elements is determined by using the Voronoi
diagrams, expect those nearby the steel elements which were constructedmanually following the geometry of the steel elements. Random element
generation is considered to reasonably replicate concrete fracture process.
The concrete constitutive models for the normal and shear spring areshown in Figure 2. The normal springs are assumed to behave elasticity bothin compression and in tension. After reaching its strength in tension at ft, thestress in the springs is assumed to decrease linearly to zero at the maximum
crack width wmax (assumed to be 0.003mm, Figure 2(a)). The shear spring isassumed to behave in an elastic-plastic manner (Figure 2(b)), with a yieldstrength computed from Equation 1 (adopted from Muto et al.(2004), Figure2(c)). Here, φ=37°.
���� � ������ � ����� ������ � ����� ��� � ����� ��1�� � �� �1 � �����

For regions within 1D (D: bar diameter) from the reinforcement
surface, the concrete constitutive model is modified to account forinterfacial zone between the reinforcement and the concrete (Salem et al.
(2005)). In this zone, the elastic modulus of the spring is assumed to be ahalf of the original value.
(3) Steel-Concrete surface
At steel-concrete interface, the normal spring is considered to be the same tothat of the concrete element (Figure 2(a)), but with a tensile strength of only
a half. The shear spring is assumed to behave elastic-plastic, with the yieldstrength calculated from same concept of criteria to concrete element.
Moreover, the shear strength of the interface spring is assumed to decrease
according to crack width to represent interface fracture (Figure 2(d)).
τσ
ft
Unload & Reload

τmax
ε

wmax
Controlled by crack width

Compression Tension(a) Model of normal spring of concrete
concreteγ(b) Model of shear spring ofAn analyticalAn
analytical investigation
investigation ofof anchorageanchorage failure
failureofofRC
RCconfined
confinedby
bytransverse
transversebar
barby
by3D
3DRBSM
RBSM

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τi

τ
φ

τ

c

Controlled by crack width

σ
ft

0.5fｃ

wmax

w

(c) Failure criterion of concrete(d) Model of shear reduction of
concrete
Figure 2: Constitutive models of springs
3. ANCHORAGE PERFORMANCE IN UNIAXALY REINFORCEDCYLINDRICAL SPECIMENS SUBJECTED TO TENSION
3.1 Analysis case
The cylindrical specimens tested by Daigo (2010) are referenced to examine
the proposed 3D RBSM models. Details of the specimen and loading
condition are shown in Figure 3. The specimen was embedded to one D25
deformed bar placed at the center of 60mm cover thickness cylindrical
specimen. A center-hole jack was used to pull the rebar from one-end. The
development length of the reinforcement was 450mm, calculated using
standard specification defined by JSCE (2007). To eliminate the effect ofconfinement near the loading end, a 300mm un-bonded area was considered.
Material properties of the concrete and the reinforcement are shown in
Table 1. In the analysis, displacement controlled loading was applied, withan increment of 0.2mm in 100steps.
Table 1: Material properties
Concrete

Steel

Maximum load

22
2
2
f' c (N/mm ) f t (N/mm ) E c (kN/mm ) Poisson's ratio E s (kN/mm ) Poisson's ratio ANA(kN) EXP(kN)
52
3.7
33
0.18
190
0.3
221
198

Number ofelements
40,409Figure 3: Experimental setup

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3.2 Result of analysis
3.2.1 Failure pattern and Internal crack
The failure
failure modeand thethe internalinternal crack
crack patternpattern obtain
The
mode andobtain fromfrom thetheanalysis areshown inin Figureanalysisare shown
Figure 44 together
together with
with thethe photo
photo ofof testtest specimens
specimens
after failure.
after
failure. The
The leftleft end
end ofof eacheach figure
figure isis thethe loading
loading end.
end.
In experiment,
experiment, cylindricalcylindrical specimen
specimen was
was splitting
splitting failure
failure due
due toto thetheInstress transferredanalysis failure
stresstransferred fromfrom rebar
rebar ribs.
ribs. The
The analysis
failure mode
mode shows
shows thethe crackcrack
propagated alongpropagatedalong with
with thethe reinforcement.
reinforcement. And
And fromfrom internalinternal crack
crack image,
image, ititis confirmed
crack isas planeplane aroundaround thebeisconfirmed thatthat this
this crack
is spreadspread as
the rebar,
rebar, andand could
could besimulated theobserved inin experiment.
simulated
the splitting
splitting crack
crack observed
experiment.
3.2.2 Load-Slip relationship and Strain distribution
The load-slipload-slip relationshipTherelationship is
is shown
shown inin Figure
Figure 5,5, andand thethe strainstraindistribution ofof pull-out
pull-out reinforcement
reinforcement is
is shown
shown inin Figure
distribution
Figure 66 byby comparison
comparison totoexperiment. Here,
Here, thethe slip
slip means
means integral
integral ofexperiment.
of thethe strainstrain ofof reinforcement
reinforcement
along withalong
with thethe development
development length.
length. And
And thethe maximum
maximum loadload ofof analysis
analysis andandexperiment areexperiment
are listed
listed inin Table
Table 1.
1.
The load-slipload-slip relationshiprelationship shows
shows thatthat inThe
in experiment,
experiment, thethe increasing
increasing ofofload stopped
and only
slip wasload and
only slip
was increasing.
increasing. This
This
load
stopped nearby
nearby thethe maximum
maximum load
behavior means
crack waswas developed
developed fromreinforcement andbehavior
means splitting
splitting crackfrom reinforcement
and being
being
failure. While,with experiment,
experiment, but
failure.
While, analysis
analysis was
was not
not perfectly
perfectly coincided
coincided with
but thethetrend could
Further, toto focus
focus onon thethe initial
initial slope
slope ofof load-slipload-slip
trend
could bebe captured.
captured. Further,relationship, analysis
analysis was
was good
agreement withrelationship,
good agreementwith experiment.
experiment. Thus,
Thus, it
it isisconfirmed thatslip withhigh accuracy
accuracy inin early
stage
confirmedthat analysis
analysis cancan predict
predict thethe slipwith highearly stageof smallsmall crack
crack propagation,
propagation, andand also
also canthe behavior
even withwithof
can treat
treat thebehavior evensplitting crack.
splittingcrack.
The strain
distribution ofof reinforcement
reinforcement shows
shows thestrain developed
developedThe
strain distribution
the strain
from loading-end
fromloading-end toto free-end.
free-end. And
And comparing
comparing thethe strainstrain value,
value, analysis
analysis
could simulate
could
simulate asas wellwell asas thethe experiment.
experiment.
4. FOUR REBARS PULL OUT SIMULATIONS WITH
TRANSVERSE REBARS

Figure5:5:Strain
Straindistribution
distribution
Figureof rebar

Figure6:6:Strain
Straindistribution
distribution
FigureAn analyticalAn
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4.1 Analysis caseTransverse reinforcements may greatly improve the bond performance,
especially for reducing the risk of splitting cracks and for restraining
concrete cover. To investigate these beneficial effects, simulations ofspecimens having different number of transverse bars along the longitudinal
direction are carried out.
Table 2 lists all the analysis cases considered. The longitudinal
reinforcements are pulled out together. Different spacing of transverse
reinforcement are studied: 200mm (TR3), 100mm (TR5), 50mm (TR9), andno transverse reinforcement (TR0).
Table 2: Analysis cases
Case

Number oftransversebar

TR3
TR5
TR9
TR0

D13×3
D13×5
D13×9
0

Clear spacing of Strength of concrete Elastic modulus of22transversebar
steel (kN/mm )(N/mm )
(mm)
Es
f' c
ft
190
200
25
2.5
190
100
25
2.5
190
50
25
2.5
190
25
2.5

Maximum Load
(kN)
ANA
451.2
534.8
675.6
303.3

EXP
411.2
504.9
696.1
-

Number ofelements
147,255
167,179
183,931
141,532

The computer models used in analysis are shown in Figure 7; for acomparison see the details of the test specimens shown in Figure 8. Upon
computational time constraints, only 150mm from the top surface of eachtest specimen is modeled.
300

Un-bond200mm

Un-bond
200mm

Bond 500mm

150
300
65

TR5

65 52.5

TR5

TR5

200

200

50

TR9

100

100

100

50

150

50

100

50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50

150

TR0

50

150

TR3

150

150
52.5

52.5 65

Figure 7: Analysis model

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Un-bonded
200mm

95

Bond
500mm

52.5

Modeling zone

635

340

TR3
TR9

52.5

95

Un-bonded
200mm

200

500
900

200

52.5 65 65 65 52.5
300

Figure 8: Boundary Condition
Reinforcing steels in the specimen model include 25mm deformed
longitudinal bars and 13mm plain round bars. The plain bars are assumed in
the analysis for simplifying the modeling process. All pull-out
reinforcements have a development length of 500mm and un-bonded lengthof 200mm. The rebar ribs at the un-bonded zone are not modeled.
Apply the force displacement to only steel elements

Fix translation and rotation about any axis

Figure 9: Boundary Condition

The boundary condition considered in the analysis is shown in Figure
9. Monotonically increasing displacement-controlled loading is applied tothe steel elements on the loaded end surface.
4.2 Analysis result
4.2.1 Load-Displacement relationshipThe load-slip relationship from analysis is shown in Figure 10(a),while that from experiment is in Figure 10(b). The load shown in both
figures represents the total reaction load of four bars, while the displacement
is the average relative displacement between reinforcement and concrete at
the free-end. Table 2 shows the comparison between the predicted andobserved maximum loads.
From the experimental data, it is observed that the loads
corresponding to the start of the reinforcements being pulling out do notdifferent significantly for the different number of transverse bars
investigated. After the reinforcement starting to pull out, their behaviors
change according to the numbers of the transverse reinforcements provided
along the longitudinal direction. The more the transverse reinforcement
numbers, the higher the load that can be attained.
The same abovementioned behaviors can also be seen from analysis
result. In TR0 (no transverse rebar), the specimen is predicted to attain thesame load level before the reinforcement being pulled out. In other cases,
An analyticalAn
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the load is predicted to increase, reaching a maximum value depending on
the amounts of transverse reinforcement. The ability of the proposed models
to simulation the different maximum load due to the effects of transversebar confirms its superiority not only to simulation the formation of cracks inthree-dimensional space, but also to consider their interactions undercomplex stress states.
4.2.2 Failure pattern
The crack patterns at the peak load are shown in Figure 11, only TR5,
with the photo of relevant test specimen at the peak load, for a comparison.
From TR5, the numerically obtained crack patterns replicate the observed
patterns well, including the transverse and longitudinal splitting cracks andthe intermittent diagonal cracks forming at both side of surface. The
transverse splitting cracks that are caused by the merging of internal cracks
are predicted to form at somewhat middle of the specimen, separating thespecimen into two distinct parts: upper and lower parts (Fujii et al., (1982)).
It is predicted that these splitting cracks are responsible for the failure.

700

700

600

600

500

500

荷重 (kN)
(kN)
Load

Load
荷重 (kN)(kN)

The analysis also captures the splitting cracks along the longitudinal
reinforcements toward the loading end at the center of specimen top surface.
This crack forms subsequently after the aforementioned transverse splitting
cracks. The formation of many diagonal cracks can also be well simulated.
Analysis could show the tendency that increasing the amount of transverse
reinforcement increases the crack number and damage extent by comparing
TR3, TR5, and TR9. This reason is that the bond performance improved due
to increasing the confining effects of the transverse bar, and the stresscarried by top cover concrete became large. Thus TR0 (no transverse bar),
the crack pattern shows that no longitudinal and diagonal crack developed at
the top surface of specimen.

400

400

300

300

200

TR3
TR5
TR9
TR0

100
0
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Displacement
at free-end (mm)
自由端抜出し変位(mm)

1

200

TR3

100

TR5
TR9

0
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Displacement
at free-end(mm)
自由端抜出し変位(mm)1(a) Analysis(b) Experiment
Figure 10: Load-Displacement relationship78
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TR3
No.6

Load = 451.2kN
Disp = 0.60mm (Deformation×20)( 変形×20 )(a) TR3 (3 transverse bars)

TR5
No.1

Load = 534.9kN( 変形×20 )Disp = 1.56mm (Deformation×20)

EXP(b) TR5 (5 transverse bars)

TR9
No.7

Load = 664.9kN
Disp = 1.35mm (Deformation×20)( 変形×20 )

TR0
No.8

Load = 323.7kN
Disp = 0.04mm (Deformation×20)( 変形×20 )(c) TR9 (9 transverse bars)(d) TR0 (no transverse bar)
Figure 11: Failure pattern at the peak load (Analysis)
4.2.3 Crack development
Analysis also captured the crack development from the internal crack
distributions. The distributions of internal crack of TR5 are shown in Figure
12. It is confirmed that the crack was formed at the end of development
length (in the circle), when displacement is 0.1mm (Figure 12(a)), after
starting of pull-out. This means that the pull-out behavior was started
according to the development of tensile stress by the end of rebar. And
comparing the internal crack of displacement 0.1mm and 0.2 (Figure 12(a),(b)), diagonal cracks developed toward the bottom of specimen indisplacement 0.2mm (arrows in Figure). Further 0.3mm, these diagonal
cracks developed more toward bottom, but in side of top surface, there wereno significant difference (Figure 12(c)).
An analyticalAn
analytical investigation
investigation ofof anchorageanchorage failure
failureofofRC
RCconfined
confinedby
bytransverse
transversebar
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And Figure 12(d) and (e) show the internal crack at displacement 0.4 and0.8mm, respectively, after load increasing became slowly. It is confirmedthat the crack development toward bottom stopped and crack formed in the
top cover surface of specimens at displacement 0.4mm. And 0.8mm, crack
in top cover developed more, and also, crack was propagated to side coverconcrete. Thus from analysis, crack developed toward bottom in the stage ofload increasing after starting pull-out, and further, crack was propagated to
top thin cover concrete and load increasing became slowly.
Crack width :0.10mm

0.30mmLoad = 384.1kN
Disp = 0.10mm(a) Displacement 0.1mm

Load = 450.4kN
Disp = 0.20mm(b) Displacement 0.2mm

Load = 510.5kN
Disp = 0.41mm

Load = 493.1kN
Disp = 0.31mm(c) Displacement 0.3mm

Load = 528.8kN
Disp = 0.81mm(d) Displacement 0.4mm(e) Displacement 0.8mm
Figure 12: Distribution of internal crack

5. CONCLUSION
From the results of simulations investigating the anchorage performance on
several rebar arrangements, the following conclusions are made.

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64(1)From the simulation of cylindrical specimen, analysis could be
predicted the steel strain value and pull-out behavior of reinforcement, andalso, failure pattern due to splitting crack.
(2)The advantage of discrete analysis RBSM is demonstrated in thisstudy for simulating the development of cracks around reinforcements
embedded in concrete, including transverse, splitting, and diagonal cracks.
(3)The analysis proposed successfully captures the advantage oftransverse reinforcement to improve the bond performance, including theload-slip relationships and the load-slip relationships and the corresponding
failure crack pattern.
(4)Analysis could simulate the crack development according to thepull-out behavior: crack developed toward bottom in the stage of loadincreasing just after starting of pull-out, thereafter, crack was propagated to
top cover concrete and load increasing became slowly.
ACKNOWLEGE
The original data of pullout experiment investigating the effect of transverse
reinforcement was provided from Shimizu Corporation.
REFERENCES
Daigo, K. and Nagai, K., 2010. Investigation of failure pattern andstress transfer area of mechanical anchorage, Proceedings of JCI, Vol.32,
No.2, 601-606.
Fujii,S. and Morita, S., 1982. Splitting Bond Capacities of Deformed
Bars (Part 1), Transactions of the Architectural Institute of Japan No.319,
44-55. (in Japanese)
Salem H, M. and Maekawa, K., 2004. Pre-and Postyield Finite
Element Method Simulation of Bond of Ribbed Reinforcing Bars, Journalof Structural Engineering, ASCE, 671-680.
Japan Society of Civil Engineering, 2007. Standard specifications forconcrete structures-2007, Design
Kawai, T., 1978. New Discrete Models and Their Application to
Seismic Response Analysis of Structure, Nuclear Engineering Design 48,
207-229.
Muto, S., Worapong, S., Nakamura, H. and Kunieda, M., 2005.
Analysis of Bond Characteristic between Concrete and Deformed Bar by
Meso-scale Analysis. Proceedings of JCI, Vol.27. No.2, 763-768. (inJapanese)
Nagai, K., Sato, Y. and Ueda, T., 2005, Mesoscopic Simulation of
Failure of Mortar and Concrete by 3D RBSM, Journal of advanced concrete
technology, Vol.3, No.3, pp.385-420

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MODELING INTERMODAL TRAFFICASSIGNMENT AND APPLICATION
Yongtaek LIM1, Cheol PARK2
Professor, Chonnam NationalUniversity, Korea
2
Graduate student, Chonnam NationalUniversity, Korea
1

ABSTRACTThis study aims to establish the intermodal network model anddevelop the intermodal traffic assignment model based on the dissimilar
path searching algorithm. For the method used in this study, n-path
algorithm considering the overlap ratio between links in searching theshortest path is used, and the searched path is to consider the transfer
between transits. The intermodal traffic assignment model is established byapplying the Direct Logit Loading model to the established path. One
characteristic of this model is that the dissimilar path allows to overcome
IIA, the limitation of the logit model to a certain degree. In addition, thedeveloped model was evaluated with simple examples of network toestablish the equilibrium condition through the traffic assignment.
Keywords: Intermodal network model, dissimilar path, overlap,transfer, direct logit loading model, equilibrium condition
1. INTRODUCTION
In order to establish the effective system for the eco-green traffic, it isrequired to not only expand traffic facilities but also introduce the transit
modes and transfer centers including needs to manage the travel demand. In
addition, as travelers come to have various transit modes, they become
available to choose the lowest cost-path among paths to the destination bychanging the mode into the transfer during the travel. Therefore, theintermodal network model is required to manage for the transit in order todescribe actual travels in reality. For the study on this, the integrated model
was suggested by Hyunmyung KIM and Yongtaek Lim (1999), which uses
the equilibrium traffic assignment in the integrated network for the transit.
In addition, k-path algorithm is generally used to obtain practicaleffects on the traffic spread, but it has a certain problem in the overlap
among drawn paths. On this wise, Yongtaek Lim (2004) suggested n-path
algorithm to explore the shortest path to prevent the path overlap of higher
than a certain level.
However, its study to explore the shortest path has not been conducted
yet upon the consideration of the inter-path overlap drawn from theintermodal model for the transit. Therefore, this study intends to establish
the intermodal network model based on the dissimilar path algorithm to8383

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explore and develop the intermodal traffic assignment model by applying
the logit route choice model.
2. LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1 Combined Model and Intermodal Model
Most demand models used in the traditional traffic plans have been
divided into the model choice and the traffic assignment. However, as thetransit mode diversifies, actual travelers come to change the transit modethrough the transfer during the travel, and therefore, it is needed to analyze
the mode choice and the traffic assignment processes by integrating them.
For the traffic assignment under the multiple-mode network, its methods are
divided into the combined mode and the intermodal mode, respectively.
The combined model forms the objective function to the minimize the travel
cost of the entire network with keeping individual features of the traffic
assignment model and the mode choice model, but the intermodal model
forms the objective function with the mode choice and the traffic
assignment processes to estimate modes and travel demand of individual
links.
Hyunmyung KIM and Yongtaek Lim (1999) suggested the limitationsof the combined mode through the comparison between the combined andthe intermodal models. Accordingly, this study attempted to apply with theintermodal mode.
2.2 Link-based Shortest Path Searching Algorithm
The study to explore the shortest path with the link cost only, wasconceptually suggested by Potts & Pliver (1972) for the first time, anddemonstrated that this can resolve the problem in the turn penalty easily incase of exploring the path for links' sequences only based on the node.
Hyunmyung KIM et al. (1999) applied this to the intermodal network for thetransit between modes. This study targets to establish the intermodal mode
based this method, and the optimum condition of the link-based shortest
path algorithm is as follows:

LEC (o, i) + MCC[link (o, i), link (i, j )] + LC (i, j ) ≤ LEC (i, j )∀o, i, j ∈ Nodest
St. LEC (o, i ) : link (o,i)’s link-end cost
MCC[link (o, i ), link (i, j )] : transfer cost
LC (i, j ) : link (i, j)’s travel cost

Figure 1. Link-based path84
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As the optimum path is explored based on the link, PI (predecessor link) ismemorized in the existing algorithm.
2.3 k-path algorithm & n-path algorithm
k-shortest path algorithm is frequently used for exploring the shortest
path in general, and saves other k-1 paths to generate. As for its
fundamental concept, it explores the lowest cost path except the shortest
path upon once the shortest path is explored, and then determines the second
and third lowest cost paths. Such k-shortest path algorithm is generally
difficult in applying in a direct way because most drawn paths share thesame links (Yongtaek Lim, 2004)
Different from k-path algorithm, therefore, Yongtaek Lim (2004)
explored the travel cost between existing end stops and the level of pathoverlap (op) as the path choice standard to suggest the algorithm whichcalculates the n-paths according to the level of path overlap (op), without
setting the number of paths in advance, and defined the difference ofalgorithms between k-path and n-path as follows:
Table 1:Difference of algorithms between k-path and n-pathdiv.

k-path algorithm

n-path algorithm

Path choice standard

Travel cost

Travel cost + Level of path overlap (op)

Input data

No. of paths (k)No. of calculated
paths

K (n)
(set in advance)

Level of path overlap (op)- No setting of the number ofpaths in advance- n-paths drawn as the result

3. ESTABLISHING INTERMODAL NETWORK & SEARCHING
DISSIMILAR PATH
3.1 Establishing the intermodal network
This study suggested simple examples to establish the intermodal
network. As shown in Figure 2, the traffic network was composed of 12
nodes and 20 links. 9-12 modes were set for the available stations totransfer to the car or the public transit, and 16, 18, 20 links are for the public
transit. And, link travel cost is Figure 3.
All travelers were assumed to travel from the node 1 as the origin andto the node 20 as the end stop, and q for all travel demands were assumed as
20.

Modeling Intermodal
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Figure 2: Example of intermodal Network

Figure 3: Link travel cost
3.1 Searching the dissimilar path
For exploring the shortest path to connect the existing end stop in thegeneral network, k-short path algorithm is generally used, but this have theproblem in the overlap between drawn paths. According to examples in thisstudy, the shortest path was explored as (1-4-11-18-20) if the initial travel
demand is 0. Next, the lower-travel cost path is also explored and the pathoverlap is found like Figure 5. So, if there is the path overlap, effects of thetraffic spread could not be expected in the actual network, but the traffic
congestion instead.

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Figure 4: Link travel cost(initial)

Figure 5: Path overlap
Therefore, this study intends to explore the dissimilar path by use ofsuggested the dissimilar path exploring algorithm (n-path) by Yongtaek Lim(2004). n-path algorithm figures out the path travel costs and the level ofpath overlap (op) around firstly explored shortest path to explore subsequent
paths.
In the example of this study, the initial travel cost was calculated uponrs
the assumption of the initial travel demand as q =0 in order to explore thedissimilar path, and the shortest path was explored as (1-4-11-18-20).
Based on the shortest path, the allowable path overlap was also set as
OP=0.4. According to this, the dissimilar path was explored and 3 paths
were drawn as Figure 6.

Figure 6: Searched dissimilar path

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4. INTERMODAL TRAFFIC ASSIGNMENT MODEL
4.1 Intermodal traffic assignment model
4.1.1 Direct logit loading method
This study attempts to apply the intermodal traffic assignment throughthe direct logit assignment on the intermodal network. Direct logit
assignment directly calculates equilibrium condition's path traffic volume
f rs( k ) from the logit mode of probabilistic user equilibrium condition. Thatis, the equation (I) is directly applied to the traffic assignment.
exp(−θckrs )f krs = q rs
(I)∑ exp(−θcwrs )w∈W

St. f krs = k path's traffic volume between r to s
q rs =Travel demand between r to s
ckrs = k path's travel cost between r to s
θ =Parameter
So, the intermodal traffic assignment process in this study is as Figure
7, and the calculation algorithm is as follows:

Figure 7: Intermodal traffic assignment process
4.1.2 Direct logit loading method algorithm[Step 0]Initializing- Setting the initial value: Initial path traffic cost { ckrs , 0 (0) }Travel demand q rs ,Spread parameter θ r , Recurrence n=1[Step 1]Based on { ckrs ,n }, calculating the path traffic volume { f ks ,n }f ks ,n = q rsexp(−θckrs ,n )∑ exp(−θcwrs ,n )
w

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64[Step 2] Renewing the path traffic cost Based on- { f krs }, calculating the path travel cost ( ckrs )[Step 3]Reviewing convergenceIf

max ckrs ,n − c rsp ,nmax w ∈ Wcwrs ,n<ε∀k ≠ p ∈ W (path set), then stop.
Otherwise, proceed to [Step 1] after n=n+1.
4.2 Calculating the dissimilar path cost
In order to calculate the initial travel cost of explored dissimilar pathrs
cost, the travel demand was setting as q =0. Initial travel costs of 3
dissimilar paths mentioned earlier are as below Table 2.

Table 2: Initial travel cost by dissimilar path
Div.

Path

Cost

path1

1-4-11-18-20

6.5

path2

1-4-10-12-14

7

path3

2-9-16-18-20

7.5

In addition, the path travel cost changes according to the demandchange after traffic assignment, and the renewal of the path traffic cost is as[Step 2] of algorithm shown earlier.
4.3. Direct logit loading method
In this study, the Direct Logit Loading Method was used for
calculating the utility value and then directly multiplied by the travelrs
f rs
demand ( q )to get the path traffic volume ( k ). As for its calculation, it
is same as [Step 1] of algorithm suggested earlier. Also, the example of thisstudy assumed as θ = 0.02 , and its calculation is as below:
exp( − 0 . 02 * 6 . 5 )* 20exp( − 0 . 02 * 6 . 5 ) + (exp( − 0 . 02 * 7 . 0 ) + (exp( − 0 . 02 * 7 . 5 )exp( − 0 . 02 * 7 . 0 )
* 20
f2 =
exp( − 0 . 02 * 6 . 5 ) + (exp( − 0 . 02 * 7 . 0 ) + (exp( − 0 . 02 * 7 . 5 )exp( − 0 . 02 * 7 . 5 )* 20
f3=exp( − 0 . 02 * 6 . 5 ) + (exp( − 0 . 02 * 7 . 0 ) + (exp( − 0 . 02 * 7 . 5 )f1=

4.4. Convergence review & Equilibrium value
The logit model is aimed to calculate the equilibrium condition's pathrs
rs
traffic volume ( f k ), in condition when the path travel cost ( ck )ofindividual alternative paths is fixed in the logit model. However, individual
paths' travel costs are uncertain according to the change of each traffic
Modeling Intermodal
Modeling
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traffic assignment
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demand volume, and so it is hard to figure out the exact path travel cost.
rs
Therefore, the cyclic process between path cost ( ck ) and the path trafficf rs
volume ( k ) is required (Yongtaek Lim, 2003).

Accordingly, this study attempted to calculate the equilibrium values
through the example, and it is shown as below <Figure 8>.
Table 3: Path cost & DemandFrequency path1
1
6.50
2
26.70
3
27.27
4
26.69
5
27.10
6
26.85
7
26.99
8
26.91
9
26.96
10
26.93
11
26.95
12
26.94
13
26.94
⋮
⋮

cost
path2
7.00
40.33
33.36
36.79
35.05
35.93
35.48
35.71
35.59
35.65
35.62
35.64
35.64
⋮

path3
7.50
20.70
23.11
22.13
22.55
22.36
22.45
22.41
22.42
22.42
22.42
22.42
22.42
⋮

D1
6.73
6.92
6.73
6.87
6.78
6.83
6.80
6.82
6.81
6.82
6.81
6.81
6.81
⋮

demand
D2
6.67
5.27
5.96
5.61
5.79
5.70
5.74
5.72
5.73
5.72
5.73
5.73
5.73
⋮

D3
6.60
7.81
7.31
7.52
7.43
7.47
7.45
7.46
7.46
7.46
7.46
7.46
7.46
⋮

Figure 8: Equilibrium condition
5. APPLYING INTERMODAL TRAFFIC ASSIGNMENT MODEL
This study used the simple example to establish the intermodal networkmodel and develop the presumed model of the travel demand. Also, by
expanding the intermodal traffic assignment model, various applicability’s
are intended to review.
According to the review on the applicability of the model throughFigure 8, firstly, if the transfer center is improved, it is considered its
effectiveness could be assessed. For example, if the transfer cost is90
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decreased at the existing transfer center, it is considered that the study
regarding the decrease of the total cost shall be conducted.
Secondly, if the travel cost of the public transit is decreased, it isconsidered the analysis of its effectiveness could also be performed.

Figure 9: Application of intermodal traffic model
6. CONCLUSION
This study explores the shortest path based on the link, not the node,different from existing studies. Also, the intermodal network model wasestablished with the dissimilar path exploring algorithm, and developed theintermodal traffic assignment model.
As for the methodology to study, the model was explained with more
simple examples. In exploring the shortest paths, some alternative paths are
explored upon the consideration of the overlap between links, and exploredpaths shall be explored again upon the consideration of the shortest path andthe overlap. In this study, the overlap was set as OP 0.4 to explore 3
dissimilar paths. For explored dissimilar paths, the direct logit assignment
was used. After calculating the effectiveness through the logit model, therspath traffic volume( f k ) was calculated by multiplying the direct travelrs
f rs
demand( q ). Also, the path traffic volume ( k ) changes according to therschange of the travel cost ( ck ), and so it is required to have a certain

repetitive cyclic process to have the single equilibrium value. Consequently,
it was found that the example in this study calculates the equilibrium
condition through cyclic processes of values.

In addition, various explicabilities were reviewed by expanding theestablishing intermodal traffic assignment model.
Reviewing theapplicability of the intermodal model, it is considered available to study thedecrease of the total cost when the transfer cost is decreased due to theimprovement of the transfer center in the actual network of public transits
and transfers. Also, if the travel cost of the public transit is decreased, it isconsidered available apply to the effectiveness analysis as well.
Modeling Intermodal
Modeling
intermodal traffic
traffic assignment
assignment andand application
application

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Considering there would be other various studies on the model application,
future studies shall be performed through the larger-scale Sioux Falls
network, and further in-depth shall be attempted for the applicability of themodel.
REFERENCES
Yongtaek LIM, 2004. Development of a n-path algorithm forproviding travel information in general road network
Yongtaek LIM, 2003. Soution Algorithms for Logit Stochastic User
Equilibrium Assignment Model
Yongtaek LIM, 2010. Equilibrium of transport mode choice in logit
model
Yongtaek LIM, 2010. Equilibrium trip distribution model
Hyunmyung KIM , Yongtaek LIM,1999. Development of anIntergrated network model for Mode Choice ant Trip Assignment
Hyunmyung KIM , Yongtaek LIM,1999. Development of a Global
Searching Shortest path Algorithm by Genetic Algorithm
Analysis also captured the crack development from the internal crack
distributions. The distributions of internal crack of TR5 are shown in Figure
12. It is confirmed that the crack was formed at the end of development
length (in the circle), when displacement is 0.1mm (Figure 12(a)), after
starting of pull-out. This means that the pull-out behavior was started
according to the development of tensile stress by the end of rebar. And
comparing the internal crack of displacement 0.1mm and 0.2 (Figure 12(a),(b)), diagonal cracks developed toward the bottom of specimen indisplacement 0.2mm (arrows in Figure). Further 0.3mm, these diagonal
cracks developed more toward bottom, but in side of top surface, there wereno significant difference (Figure 12(c)).

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SHEAR FATIGUE PERFORMANCE
OF PVA-ECC BEAM MIXEDWITH AGGREGATE UNDER
PRE-CRACKED CONDITION
Rieko KOJIMA1, Yoshiyuki TAKANO2, Benny SURYANTO3
and Kohei NAGAI 4
1
Undergraduate Student School of Eng., The University of Tokyo, Japanr-kojima@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
2
Graduate Student School of Eng., The University of Tokyo, Japan
3
Researcher, The University of Tokyo, Japan
4
Associate Professor, IIS, The University of Tokyo, Japan
ABSTRACT
Polyvinyl Alcohol Engineered Cementitious Composite (PVA-ECC) isa high performance fiber reinforced cementitious composite that has
superior tensile ductility under single-directional tensile stress. Due to theabsence of coarse aggregate, however, it has recently been found thatcracks in PVA-ECC are susceptible to shear. The possible use of coarse
aggregate was demonstrated to increase the resistance of the cracks toshear in previous research. This paper outlines the results of two types ofexperiments. One of them is simple beam test under fatigue load conditions
in both pure PVA-ECC specimens and coarse aggregate mixed specimens,
and the other is initially damaged anti-symmetric four-point-shear test
under static and fatigue load in both materials. The purpose of antisymmetric tests is to investigate shear behavior effectively and also to
simply represent the complex multi-directional stress field by introducing
initial damage and then changing load point. In simple beam tests, acontribution of aggregates to fatigue life was observed. Also from antisymmetric experiments, obvious effect of aggregate for fatigue life (initiallydamaged) was observed. Furthermore, opening and slipping behavior ofcrack was investigated in fatigue load in anti-symmetric experiment, and thecontribution of aggregates to reduction of shear slipping behavior wasobserved in the result of fatigue tests (initially damaged)
Keywords: PVA-ECC, Aggregate, Shear, Pre-crack, Stress rotating
1. INTRODUCTION
PVA-ECC is a Strain-Hardening Cementitious Composites (SHCC) which
realize high ductility and quasi-strain hardening behavior by generating
multiple cracks under uniaxial tensile stress due to contribution of PVA
fiber, which mixed 2% by volume, to resist tensile stress by bridging
between crack surface. Shear performance of PVA-ECC after theoccurrence of crack, however, is not clarified perfectly, and application for

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structural member, like bridge deck, is restricted. In previous research,
PVA-ECC was found to be fragile in shear performance under cracked
condition due to the absence of aggregate. Therefore, a certain volume ofaggregate was introduced into PVA-ECC and improvement of shear
behavior under stress rotating field was observed. In this research,experiments in beam specimens by using normal PVA-ECC and PVA-ECC
which mixed with aggregate were performed to investigate into alterationsof shear behavior by adding aggregate in structural members. Simple beam
tests in fatigue loading were held to confirm the contribution of aggregate toshear. Also anti-symmetric four-point-shear tests under both initiallycracked condition and not initially cracked condition were held toinvestigate into shear behavior under stress rotating field. Rotation ofprincipal stress was represented by introduction of initial crack and changeof loading point. The contribution of aggregate was judged by static
capacity or fatigue life, crack pattern and shear behavior which obtained
from the strain on the surface.
Table 1: Series of experiments
Series of experiments

Name ofspecimen

Bending
Compression
Simple beamAnti-symmetricfour point shear test

Fatigue

StaticFatigue

Precracked
Nonprecracked
Precracked

ECC-F-S
CA-F-S
ECC-S-P
CA-S-P
ECC-S-N
CA-S-N
ECC-F-P
CA-F-P

Material
Normal ECC
ECC + Aggregates
Normal ECC
ECC + Aggregates
Normal ECC
ECC + Aggregates
Normal ECC
ECC + Aggregates
Normal ECC
ECC + Aggregates
Normal ECC
ECC + Aggregates

Size ofspecimen(mm)Longitudinal
reinforcement (%)

a/dReinforcement

150×300×1800

3.80

3.10

3D25
USD685100×200×1200

4.59

2.29

4D16
USD685100×100×400
φ100×200

2. OUTLINES OF EXPERIMENTS
2.1 Material
Tests were held for both Normal PVA-ECC (hereafter abbreviated“ECC”) and PVA-ECC with course aggregates (hereafter abbreviated“+CA”) in all test series. Aggregates were introduced about 10% by volume(15% by solid content) which value could be obtained from previous
research (Suryanto et al, 2009). Also the size of aggregates was set as max
9.5mm, and the property of materials were the same in all experiment series.
All experiments are shown in Fig.1.
2.2 Bending and compression test
Bending tests were held to investigate into tensile behavior ofmaterials (4 specimens for ECC and 5 specimens for +CA). Detail setting
and specimen size is shown in Figure1. Also, to investigate in the material
property, compression test by cylinder were held.

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2.3 Simple shear beam test under fatigue load
100
300
400

D25

100

300
42

150

100

1600

100

Figure 1: Bending test

100

Figure 2: Simple beam test
D16
200
27

100

400

200

400

100

100 300

300 100

400

100

Figure 3: Anti-symmetric four-point-shear test
Y

εy
Crack
εyx
εxy
εx

X

Y’

Y
εy’

X’
εy’x’
εx’y’
εx’
θ
X

PotentiometerTransformation of obtained
Strain gauge
Figure 4: Measurement of strain in mid span
Fatigue loading test in simple shear beam was carried out. Details areshown in Figure 2. To avoid bending failure, high strength rebar (USD685,
D25) was set as longitudinal reinforcement. Load level of fatigue test was
decided as 60% for the maximum and 10% for the minimum of the static
shear capacity of the same specimen (ECC: 284kN, +CA: 276kN) which
had been obtained in other test.
2.4 Anti-symmetric four-point-shear beam test under static load
Static loading test in anti-symmetric four-point-shear beam was
performed to investigate in the shear performance under stress rotating field.
Details are shown in Figure 3. In this series, initial shear crack was
introduced in short span under static loading at first (left part of Figure 3),
and then loading point was changed and reloaded until the failure (right partof Figure 3). Anti-symmetric four-point-shear test was applied to conduct
shear failure effectively in the middle area of span.
High strength rebar (USD685, D16) was set as longitudinal
reinforcement, and no stirrup was prepared.
Tests in this series can be divided into two types. First is normal
loading test, which is not introduced initial cracks, to obtain shear capacityof ECC and +CA. The other type is initially cracked as described former
part. Influence of initial cracks for static shear capacity after principal stress
Shear Fatigue
Shear
Fatigue Performance
Performance ofof PVA-ECC
PVA-ECC Beam
Beam Mixed
Mixed with
with Aggregate
Aggregate under
under Pre-cracked
Pre-cracked Condition
Condition

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rotation was investigated by this test. Hereafter, the first test is abbreviated“non-precracked” and the other one is abbreviated “precracked”,
respectively. Added to this, initial crack was introduced in 55% of static
capacity in non-precracked beam, which was considered as proper value for
initial crack.
2.5 Anti-symmetric four-point-shear beam test under fatigue load
In this series, precracked type test was performed. The load value tointroduce initial crack and the specimen settings are the same as static load
test. Also, load level of fatigue loading is 60% for maximum and 10% forminimum of static load which was obtained from non-precracked static load
test (ECC: 267kN , +CA: 210kN), respectively.
In addition, potentiometers and strain gauges were stuck on the centerof middle span to investigate into strain development on the crack during
fatigue loading (Figure 4). The obtained data were transformed along thecrack, and “opening-closing” behavior and ”shear slip” behavior wasinvestigated. Furthermore, crack surface was observed by using microscope
after the failure to know the state of PVA fibers.
3. RESULTS OF BENDING AND COMPRESSION TEST

Applied Load (kN)

Figure 5 shows the result of bending test for each material. As can be seen,course aggregate lower both tensile strength and ductility, and the same
phenomena were observed in previous research. The reason for these
phenomena is considered that the number of PVA fibers which bridge
across the cracks is reduced because of the existence of aggregate, and
PVA-ECC cannot perform its original tensile behavior. Added to this, thenumber and the distribution of multiple cracks are observed to be reduced
because of aggregate.
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

ECC
+CA
0

96
96

1

2

3

Midspan displacement (mm)Figure 5: Result of bending test

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Also, compressive strength of ECC and +CA was 37.84 MPa and31.59 MPa by the average of 3 specimens, respectively. The reason for the
reduction of compressive strength by adding aggregate is considered that
aggregates produce heterogeneous stress field inside the material. Anotherreason may be that aggregate reduce the restriction, which performed by
PVA fibers, to the perpendicular direction to loading axis during
compression test.
4. RESULTS OF SIMPLE SHEAR BEAM TEST UNDER FATIGUE
LOAD
Figure 6 shows the result of fatigue load test in simple shear beam. Fatigue
life can be seen lengthened by adding aggregate, while there was anaccident at around 7,500 cycles in the test of ECC to be loaded up to about
85% of static capacity. Considering that aggregate lower tensile andcompressive property in material tests, it can be stated that shear resistancein fatigue life in beam member was improved by aggregate.
5. RESULTS OF ANTI-SYMMETRIC FOUR-POINT-SHEAR BEAMTEST UNDER STATIC LOAD
Figure 7 shows the result of static load test in anti-symmetric four-pointshear beam. In ECC materials, shear capacity of ECC-S-P dropped
compared with ECC-S-N, and ECC-S-P showed little ductility around peakof load, which means brittle failure was occurred in ECC-S-P. This result is
consistent with knowledge, which obtained in past research, that shear
resistance of PVA-ECC on crack surface is low.
In addition, the capacity of CA-S-N exceeded ECC-S-N, which means
aggregate contributed to improve static shear capacity in beam members. In
another test to decide fatigue load in anti-symmetric shear beam, however,the static shear capacity of +CA was less than ECC. Generally speaking,there is considerable unevenness in static shear capacity, therefore the shear
capacity of ECC and +CA can be considered as almost the same. Therefore,
300

ECC

250
200
150
100

non-precracked (ECC-S-N)
precracked (ECC-S-P)

50

+CA

250

Applied Load (kN)

Applied Load (kN)

300

0

200
150
100

non-precracked (CA-S-N)
precracked (CA-S-P)

50
0

0

1
2
Midspan displacement (mm)

3

0

1
2
3
Midspan displacement (mm)Figure 7: Result of static load test in anti-symmetric shear beam
Shear Fatigue
Shear
Fatigue Performance
Performance ofof PVA-ECC
PVA-ECC Beam
Beam Mixed
Mixed with
with Aggregate
Aggregate under
under Pre-cracked
Pre-cracked Condition
Condition

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the contribution of fiber for shear resistance is taken account in public code,
ECC-S-N

ECC-S-P

30°

54°
45°

CA-S-N

30°

54°

CA-S-P

Figure 8: Crack observation after the failure
however this result implies that the fact is not completely follow the code.
There is room for further investigation into the static shear capacity of +CA
material.
On the other hand, there is no big difference between the shear
capacity of CA-S-P and ECC-S-P, and decreasing rate of the capacity from
non-precracked to precracked in +CA exceeded that of ECC. It is possible toconsider that the result of this phenomenon is unfavorable distribution of
aggregate in the specimen, however further investigation is required.
Furthermore, Figure 8 shows crack pattern of each specimen after the
failure. In non-precracked specimens, the failure crack occurred on the line
connected between the loading point and the fulcrum. On the other hand,
failure crack in precracked specimens is on the initial crack, therefore it isobvious that initial crack had significant influence for shear failure. In CAS-P, however, some cracks on the line connected between the loading point
and the fulcrum are observed. This finding suggests that aggregate
contributed shear resistance behavior on the initial crack, while the capacityof CA-S-P was relatively low.
6. RESULTS OF ANTI-SYMMETRIC FOUR-POINT-SHEAR BEAMTEST UNDER FATIGUE LOAD
Figure 9 shows the result of fatigue load test in anti-symmetric four-pointshear beam. As can be seen, fatigue life of +CA is longer than ECC,
therefore it is clear that aggregate contributed for shear performance.
Expressly, this fatigue test is in precracked condition, and considering
relatively low static capacity of CA-S-P, the result shows that thecontribution of aggregate is more remarkable in fatigue loading than static98
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loading. This tendency implies particular behavior of aggregate, therefore
35000

(μ)

slip - εx'y'(μ)

30000
25000
20000
15000
10000

ECC (ECC-F-P)+CA (CA-F-P)

5000
0
0

Figure 9: Result of fatigue load testin anti-symmetric shear beam(μ)

5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000

opening and closing - εy'(μ)

Figure 10: “opening-closing” and”shear slip” behavior
on crack

the investigation from the point of view of crack “opening-closing”
and ”shear slip” behavior which obtained from strain measurement.
Figure 10 shows the relation of crack “opening-closing” and “shear slip”
behavior until the failure. In this figure, the result from potentiometer isonly shown because of accuracy of measurement.
In the beginning stage, behavior of both “opening-closing” and “shearslip” developed in ECC and +CA, from a particular point, however, “shearslip” behavior began to proceed in ECC. While the propagation rate of“opening-closing” and ”shear slip” in +CA was almost constant. This result
suggests the contribution of aggregate to shear resistance under fatigue
loading again. From measurement by potentiometer, however, averagestrain in 10cm square can be obtained, therefore local strain on the failure
crack, which is required to investigate into crack behavior directly, is notable to be procured by this equipment. Measurement by image data analysis
is planned to be performed to obtain the local strain behavior.
Furthermore, surface of failure crack was observed by microscope
after the failure. As can be seen in photos in Figure 11, PVA fiber can be
hardly observed on the surface in both materials. Similar phenomenon was

Figure 11: Observation of crack surface by microscope
Shear Fatigue
Shear
Fatigue Performance
Performance ofof PVA-ECC
PVA-ECC Beam
Beam Mixed
Mixed with
with Aggregate
Aggregate under
under Pre-cracked
Pre-cracked Condition
Condition

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also observed in previous research, and this result evinces that PVA fiber
was demolished under opening, closing and slipping behavior of crack
under cyclic loading. Contribution of aggregate is performed by interlocking
therefore aggregate cannot prevent PVA fiber from these serious damage.
7. CONCLUSION
From previous expertise that aggregate contributes improvement of shear
performance under stress rotating field, structural experiments in beam was
performed in this research.
1) In bending test to investigate into tensile behavior, reduction oftensile capacity and ductility by adding aggregate was observed. Also, incompression test, the existence of aggregate lowered the compressive
capacity.
2) In fatigue loading test in simple beam, certain contribution of
aggregate was observed.
3) In anti-symmetric four-point-shear test under static loading withrepresenting stress rotation field by introduction of initial crack and changeof loading point, the effect of initial crack lowered static shear capacity.
Especially the reduction was remarkable in the specimen of PVA-ECC withaggregate.
4) In pre-cracked anti-symmetric four-point-shear test under fatigue
loading, contribution of aggregate for fatigue life was confirmed. Also,
verification into “opening-closing” and “shear slip” behavior of crack
clarified that the resistance of aggregate for shear is considerable.
5) From the observation of failure crack by microscope, PVA fiber
was hardly observed in both materials (PVA-ECC with and without
aggregate), and it was confirmed that aggregate cannot prevent PVA fiberfrom fracture in crack motion.
REFERENCES
Victor C. Li., 2003. On Engineered Cementitious Composites (ECC),
A Review of the Material and its Applications, Journal of Advanced
Concrete Technology, Vol. 1, No.3, pp.215-230.
Suryanto, B. Nagai, K. and Maekawa, K., 2010. Modeling andAnalysis of Shear critical ECC Members with Anisotropic Stress and Strain
Fields, Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 8, No. 2, pp.239-258.
Suryanto, B. Nagai, K. and Maekawa, K., Role of Coarse Aggregate inHigh Performance Fiber Reinforced Cementitious Composite, Proceedingsof JCI, Vol.31, No.1, pp.385-390, 2009
Shimizu, K. Kanakubo, T. Kanda, T. and Nagai, S., 2006. Evaluationof Tensile Properties of PVA-ECC Using Bending Test, J. Struct. Constr.
Eng., AIJ., No.604, pp.31-36.
Suryanto, B. Dalimunthe, M. Nagai, K. and Maekawa, K., 2011. Shear
Fatigue Performance and Crack Surface Observations in PVA-ECC Beams

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without Web Reinforcement, Proceedings of JCI, Vol.33, No.2, pp.1279128

Shear Fatigue
Shear
Fatigue Performance
Performance ofof PVA-ECC
PVA-ECC Beam
Beam Mixed
Mixed with
with Aggregate
Aggregate under
under Pre-cracked
Pre-cracked Condition
Condition

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5th Joint Student Seminar on Civil InfrastructureINVESTIGATING THE INFLUENCE
OF HIGHWAY MEDIAN DESIGNON DRIVER STRESS
Ratthaphong MEESIT1, Kunnawee KANITPONG2and Piyapong JIWATTANAKULPAISARN3
1Transportation Engineering Graduate,
Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand
ratthaphongmeesit@hotmail.com
2
Associate Professor, Transportation Engineering Program,
Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand
3
Transportation engineer, Bureau of Planning,
Department of Highways, Thailand
ABSTRACTThe objective of this study is to investigate the effect of highway
median design on driver stress. Two types of highway median wereconsidered, including raised-curb median and painted median. 80 drivers
equally distributed between males and females across two age groups (i.e.,
18-30 and 31-45 years old) were invited to participate in the experiment.
Physiological changes in heart rate were measured and monitored before
and during the driving tests. The subjects were also asked to rate theirperceived stress level at the completion of each driving test. For divided
highways with raised-curb median, the results from biometric measures aswell as self-perception evaluations suggest that increasing the width of
inner shoulder could help to reduce driver stress load. However, we foundno effect from the width of painted median, though this is probably due tolow volumes of oncoming traffic during the experiment.
Keywords: median, raised-curb, painted median, driver stress
1. INTRODUCTION
The road geometry can affect driver performance by influencing driver’s
perception-reaction and driver maneuverability. The driver performance isfound as a function of driver stress which can indirectly increase risk of roadaccidents (Rowland et al., 2008). Excess stress while driving can cause thefatigue and also influences driving performance. In previous studies, thedriver stress concept has been used as an indicator to assess the efficiency ofdifferent highway geometry in terms of safety (Ackert et al., 2000; Schießl,
2006; Hill and Boyle, 2007). It was reported that drivers with high stress are
more likely to involve in the road crashes than those with less stress or nostress (Hill and Boyle, 2007). Ackert et al. (2000) stated that five main
factors affecting driver stress are road characteristics, traffic condition,

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weather, friction condition on the road, and initial stress of a driver before
driving due to psychological problems.
It is well known that the geometric design of road plays important rolein the road safety. Safe road design leads to sustainable reduction in thenumber of road crash and crash severity. The countermeasures for
improving road safety include the improvement of road alignment, sightdistance, road equipment, roadside features, and cross-section. When drivers
maneuver their vehicles in the dangerous situations such as braking,overtaking, encountering another vehicle, and turning onto or off a road, theamount of available road space can influence vehicle control and chances toavoid accidents. The road cross-section is therefore one of the design
elements that can improve road safety, such as the design of lane width andshoulder width, and the selection of median types.
In Thailand, raised-curb median has been sometimes chosen in thedesign of rural highways which commonly serve high-speed traffic, inaddition to its typical use for urban road design. One area that has been asafety concern is the arbitrary design of inner shoulders in the rural crosssection. Some have narrow inner shoulders of 0.5 meters wide, while manyothers only have an offset of 300 mm. as required by curbing. However,these may be undesirable for driving under high-speed traffic conditions
because the recovery area for errant vehicles is rather limited. Since driving
at high speed increases the risk of vehicles leaving the roadway, narrow
lateral clearance to the physical curb implies that one must be more careful
while driving, which could in turn increase driver stress load.
Another issue is concerned with the lack of the design criteria for
painted median on rural highways. In recent years, painted median has
increasingly been used for road widening projects in Thailand. It is stillquestionable, however, that what should be the appropriate width forpainted median, and how they will affect the driver stress and consequently
driver performance.
The objective of this study is to investigate the effect of highway
median design on driver stress. Two types of highway median wereconsidered, including raised-curb median and painted median. The next
section provides an overview of driver stress and its influence on road safety.
Section 3 describes the experiment design and methodology used to monitor
physiological changes in heart rate as a measure of driver stress and to
perform self-perception evaluation of driving stress among 80 drivers who
voluntarily participated in this study. The results from the experiment arepresented in Section 4. Finally, we summarize and conclude the paper in
Section 5.
2. DRIVER STRESS AND ITS INFLUENCE ON ROAD SAFETY
Stress is a feeling that normally occurred when people encounter theparticular situation, and the stress will stimulate the physical response of

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people such as spasticity, heightened alertness, etc. Stress can be generally
distinguished in two terms, which are eustress and distress. Eustress is apositive stress that occurs in a short-term period, can motivate and focus
energy, is perceived as within coping abilities, make people feel exciting,and can improve performance. However, if the eustress occurs for too long,it can be developed to distress or negative stress that can cause anxiety andunpleasant feeling, is perceived as outside of coping abilities, and finallydecreases performance.
Diver stress is a stress which is created on the driver while driving. It
can be both positive and negative impact to driver (Matthews et al., 1996).
However, distress of driver is deliberately considered in this study. To study
and conduct an experiment, basic knowledge about sources of driver stressshould be carefully considered. Mackenzie (2011) has revealed four main
factors that can affect the level of driver stress. These factors include driving
environment (high-traffic density, narrow road space, poor road surface,
adverse weather, etc. (Ackert et al., 2000; Design manual for roads andbridges, 1993), driver nutrition (taking too much sugar, caffeine or alcohol
influencing unbalanced body (Mackenzie, 2011), driver emotion (anger,
soreness, etc.), and driver physical abilities (sickness, health problems, etc.).
In this study, the driving environment factor is focused to investigate theinfluence to driver stress.
Stress plays an important role as an impact on driving performanceand hence safety. As pointed out by Matthews et al. (1997), little stress canbe advantageous for increasing driver attention. However, if the driver isunder the stress for a long period of time, it can increase higher risk of roadcrash (Beirness, 1993). This is due to the fact that driving under the stresscan cause fatigue, thus affect driver performance. Moreover, stress causes
driving discomfort, irritability, and annoyance. High level of driver stress isfound to decrease driving performance (Design manual for roads andbridges, 1993). Therefore, improving vehicle technology as well as a proper
design of road geometry could enhance the level of safety by reducing
driver stress.
3. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
The driver stress was measured on 40 drivers while driving on the four-lane
highways divided by raised-curb median with narrow and wide innershoulder, and another 40 drivers while driving on the four-lane highways
divided by narrow and wide painted medians.
3.1 Site Selection
Four highway sections were selected in the experiment based on thesimilarity in number of lanes, operating speed, and traffic volume. Thesefour highway sections are as follows:

Influence of highway
geometryon driverstress design of driver stress
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Section 1:

Highway No. 3051, four-lane highway with raised
curb median, narrow inner shoulder (0.5 m.)

Section 2:

Highway No. 305, four-lane highway with raised curb
median, wide inner shoulder (1.5 m.)

Section 3:

Highway No. 4010, four-lane highway with narrow (1m.) painted median width

Section 4:

Highway No. 4142, four-lane highway with wide (2.5m.) painted median width

Sections 1 and 2 were selected to evaluate the effect of inner shoulder
width for raised-curb median on driver stress, and Sections 3 and 4 wereselected to evaluate the effect of the width of painted median on driverstress. Table 1 summarizes the road characteristics and traffic data for all
four highway sections. Figure 1 illustrates the general characteristics of thefour high way sections.
Highway No. 3051

Highway No. 305

Highway No. 4010

Highway No. 4142

Figure 1: Four highways sections in the experiment.
Table 1: Road characteristics and traffic data for all four highway sections
Characteristics of the road
1. Number of lanes
2. Inner lane width (m.)
3.Average traffic volume (vehicles/hour)
4. AADT (vehicles/day)
5. Operating speed (Km/h)
6. Inner shoulder (m.)

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No.3051
No.305
4
4
3.5
3.5
340
360
10366
19303
100-110100-1200.5
1.5

Section 3 and 4
No.4010
No.4142
4
4
3.5
3.5
200
200
2894
6737
90-10090-1001
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7. Driving distance (Km.)
8. Type of central median8
8
Raised-curb median8
8
Painted median

3.2 Driver Selection
The drivers were selected based on the groups of controlled variables,
age and gender. The driver age was divided into two groups, 18-30 (young
driver) and 31-45 (middle-age driver) years old. Ten drivers were randomly
selected for each group of age and gender. Therefore, a total of 40 drivers
were selected to participate in the experiment by driving a car on the
highway with narrow and wide inner shoulder on raised-curb medians, andthen the driving stress was measured. Similarly, another 40 drivers wereselected to participate in another experiment for the highway with narrow
and wide painted median width. The same car was used in the experiment.
Table 2 summarizes the drivers participated in the study.
Table 2: Drivers participated in the experiment for each type of highway
medianAge

18-30 years

31-45 years

GenderMale

FemaleMale

FemaleSample Size

10

10

10

10

3.3 Driver Stress Measurement
This study has applied two methods of driver stress measurement: thePhysiological Indicator and the Self-Report Response. For the Physiological
Indicator method, we drew upon the literature by using heart rate as ameasure of driver stress (Hamaoka et al, 2005; Johnson et al 2011; Kueting,
1977; Mehler et al, 2008; Probst, 1976; Reimer et al, 2010; Ritz et al, 2003;
Rutley and Mace, 1972; Xiao-dong et al, 2005), in addition to its simplicity
and practicability for measuring the stress while driving. The Self-Report
Response is also another method that can be used for driver stressassessment. In this method, the questionnaire survey was applied toinvestigate the level of driver stress.
Heart Rate Measurement
The driver stress can be represented by the heart rate. As the heart
rate increases, the stress increases (Ritz et al, 2003). The heart ratemeasurement is applied to assess driver stress that is affected by several
sources such as road characteristics and traffic conditions in many studies(Hamaoka et al, 2005; Johnson et al 2011; Kueting, 1977; Mehler et al,2008; Probst, 1976; Reimer et al, 2010; Ritz et al, 2003; Rutley and Mace,
1972; Xiao-dong et al, 2005).
Heart rate measurement device is used for measuring the heart rate in
the number of heart beats per minute (bpm). Heart rate measurement is
widely used to assess driver stress because it can show number of heartbeats continuously over time. In this study, a sport heart rate monitor (Polar
FT4 Model) is applied as a device to measure driver stress. Polar FT4 can be
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simply attached to the body of driver, and there is no interruption from the
car vibration on the device. Other advantages of Polar FT4 are smallfeature, high accuracy, and lower cost than other equipment. Before using
the heart rate monitor in this study, the calibration with other medical
equipment is needed to ensure the accuracy of the heart rate measured fromthis device.
The heart rate monitor (Polar FT 4) was calibrated with theelectrocardiogram (EKG) and the fingertip pulse oximeter. The EKG andpulse oximeter are the equipment that can correctly measure the heart rate ofpatients in the hospitals (Figure 2). The calibration was done under control
by a professional medical technologist who has experience in measuring theheart rate. The test was conducted by wearing two types of equipment on
the same person and measure heart rate by using two devices at the sametime. Figure 3 shows the comparison between the average heart ratemeasured by heart rate monitor (Polar FT 4), EKG, and pulse oximeter.
Two plots in Figure 3 present the comparable results between heart ratemonitor (Polar FT 4), EKG, and pulse oximeter as the plots fall very closed
to the equality line. Therefore, it can be concluded that the heart ratemonitor (Polar FT4) is acceptable for the driver stress measurement, and canthus be used in this study.

(a)(b)
Figure 2: Electrocardiogram (EKG) (a), fingertip pulse oximeter and heartrate- monior (Polar FT 4) (b).

(a)(b)
Figure 3: Comparison between heart rate measured by heart rate monitor(Polar FT- 4), and fingertip pulse oximeter (a), EKG (b).

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Questionnaire survey
Many studies have applied the questionnaire survey method to assessthe driver stress (Hill and Boyle, 2007; Reimer et al, 2010; Gulian et al,
1989; Harrison, 2009; Matthews et al, 1997; Reason et al, 1990; Westerman
and Haigney, 2000). In addition to monitoring the drivers’ heart rate as aphysiological measure of driver stress, this study also interviewed thedrivers about their feelings on the stress level when driving on the road withdifferent types of road medians. A questionnaire was designed by using therating scale which is normally used for the estimation of quantitative
driver’s feeling (See Table 3). The questionnaire consists of three parts,
including (1) personal characteristics, (2) driving characteristics, and (3)driver’s opinion. The level of stress reported by the driver was determinedin the last part of the questionnaire.
After driving a car on different types of road medians, an individual
driver was interviewed to rate his/her perceived stress level while thedriving tests. The pictures of the exact locations where the driving
experiment was conducted were also presented during the interview. The
answer is in a rating scale, ranging from 1 (not at all) to 5 (very much).
Table 3: Questions in questionnaire survey
No.

Personal Characteristics

Answers
Male

Female1

Gender2

Age

3

Educational background

Undergraduate

Graduated

4

CareerStudent

Worked5……………………………..Years

Are you always quick-tempered whiledriving?

Never
RarelySometimes
Often
Always6

Are you always in rush while driving?

Never
RarelySometimes
Often
AlwaysNo

Driving Characteristics

7

Driving Experience

8

Types of car

Influence of highway
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medianAnswers………………………………Years
Pick-up
Sedan

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9

How often do you drive on this highway
per week?

10

Do you have stress or pressure when you are driving a car on the inner lane as shown inpictures below?

Raised median (narrow inner shoulder)
littleNot at all

Very

Somewhat

Much

Painted median 1.0 meter
Not at all

Very

Somewhat

Much

Very much

110
110

Raised median (wide inner shoulder)
Not at all

Very little

Somewhat

Much

Very much

Very muchlittleNeverRarelySometimes
Often
AlwaysPainted median 2.5 meters
Not at all

Very little

Somewhat

Much

Very much

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3.4 Pilot Study on Measuring Driver Stress
A pilot study was conducted to examine how to properly measure thedriver stress level while driving. In doing so, two drivers with different ages
and driving experiences were asked to participate in a driving test. The first
driver is a 35 years old male with 13 years of driving experience, and thesecond driver is a 59 years old male with 35 years of driving experience.
They both were instructed to drive along a straight section of a four-lane
highway for 8 kilometers and maintain the speed at 100-110 kph. The heart
rate monitor (Polar FT 4) was used to measure their heart rate at every 5
seconds, starting two minutes before driving until the driving test wascompleted. In addition, a video camera was installed in the test car tomonitor driving conditions and possible incidents that could affect driverstress such as vehicle or pedestrian crossing, unexpected or immediatelychanging lane of a vehicle in front. Each of the drivers was asked to perform
this driving test twice.
After the driving test, the heart rate messured at every 5 seconds wasploted against the driving period in seconds and the driving distance inkilometers as shown in Figures 4 and 5. We found similar results for bothdrivers in that their heart rates during the first driving test tended to behigher than those measured during the second driving test. This could be
due to the fact that both drivers were nervous during the first driving test
and were later getting used to the experiment during the second driving test.
In addition, it was found that the drivers’ heart rate increased suddenly atthe beginning of the driving tests, and then declined gradually until it
became stable at certain levels which were still higher than the initial heart
rates measured before starting the driving tests. This result is consistent withthe study by Hunt et al (1968). In that people have a higher average heart
rate while driving, probably due to a driver stress that normally occurs whiledriving a car in the road environment.

Figure 4: A pilot study on measuring a driver’s heart rate (1st driver)

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Figure 5: A pilot study on measuring a driver’s heart rate (2nd driver)
Given the above findings, it was necessary to determine a period forwhich drivers’ heart rates appeared to be stable in calculating the averageheart rate while driving. As can be seen in Figure 4 and 5, for example, bothtest drivers seemed to have similar stable periods, starting approximately at
100 seconds from the beginning of the driving test until they drove about 5
kilometers. These suggest that it was only the first 5 kilometers of thedriving test when the drivers’ heart rates remained be stable, though the test
drivers performed the driving test for 8 kilometers.
Based on the pilot study described above, the heart rate measurement
procedures for the driving experiment can be concluded and summarized asfollows:
1) A driver was given a full instruction for participating in the experiment.
For example, the driver must have a full rest, no alcohol, or caffeine, orenergy drink before driving test. This was to avoid any stress resulting
from other external factors.
2) Prior to the test, the heart rate monitor was attached to the body of
driver. Gel or glue was applied to the driver body for good attachment of
the heart rate monitor in order to increase the measurement efficiency.
3) The temperature inside the car was controlled at 25 C for driver comfort.
4) Drivers were allowed to drive the test car for a certain period of time toadjust themselves before the experiment starts. During the experiment,
they were instructed to drive at 100-110 km/h along 8 km. in the highspeed right lane on the straight section of the road. Each of theparticipants was asked to perform the driving test twice, and only theheart rate measurement from the second driving was used for the
calculation of average heart rate.
5) Drivers’ heart rates were simultaneously measured starting 2 minutes
before driving until the test drive along 8 km. of the road wascompleted. During the driving period, a research assistant was seatedquietly in the back of the care to record the data so as to avoid any
interference to the driver. Given a limitation for the driver stress

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measurement from the real driving test that some incident or unexpectedcircumstance might take place and could not be controlled as perfectly
as a test undertaken using a driving simulator, the video image of theroad condition during the driving test was taken.
6) The average heart rates before and during driving were calculated, andtheir variation could represent driver stress due to driving along the roadsection. In the case that the video image taken during the driving test
indicated any incident or unexpected circumstance that could affectdriver heart rate, the heart rate data recorded during incident or
unexpected circumstance was excluded in the analysis.
4. ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
4.1 Effect of Inner Shoulder Width of Raised-Curb Median on Driver
StressResults from Heart Rate Measurement
Based on the heart rate data measured from the driving test as
previously described, an individual increase in heart rate is calculated using
Eq.1.
IncHR i(1)

= Driving Heart Rate i - Initial Heart Rate i

where
IncHR i= Increase in heart rate of ith driver
Initial Heart Rate i= Average of heart rate of ith driver measured for 2
minutes before driving
Driving Heart Rate i = Average of heart rate of ith driver measured whiledriving
From the experiment, increases in heart rate while driving along 4lane divided highways with raised curb median are summarized in Table 4.
Overall, the results show that the driver stress occurred as the average of theheart rate measured while driving was about 3.0-4.5 bpm higher than thatmeasured before driving. Increases in heart rate are found to be varied,depending upon differences in age and gender of drivers as well as innershoulder width of raised-curb median. For the latter, we found that increases
in heart rate while driving along the road with a narrow inner shoulder (0.5m.) tended to be higher, compared to those measured for the road with awide inner shoulder (1.5 m). The null hypothesis that there is no differencein the average increases in heart rates between these two driving situations
can be rejected at the 5% significant level. This could imply that the widthof inner shoulder for raised-curb median significantly affects the driverstress. With respect to age and gender, we found statistical evidence thatyoung female drivers (aged from 18 to 30) tended to have higher stresswhen driving on the road with the narrower inner shoulder width.

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Table 4: Increases in heart rate while driving along 4-lane divided
highways with raised-curb medianNarrow innerHypothesis
Wide innershoulder of 0.5m
test:
shoulder of 1.5m
Age
Genderwidth
Difference inwidth(Years)Mean
MeanStandard
MeanStandard(p-value)(bpm)
deviation(bpm)
deviation
4.006
4.076
3.055
3.751
0.1891
Male
18-30
4.654
4.918
3.557
4.311
0.0165 **Female
4.470
2.378
4.232
2.531
0.3751
Male
31-45
3.859
2.897
3.832
3.389
0.9639Female
4.248
3.574
3.669
3.443
0.0277 **All drivers
Note: ** indicates significance at the 1% level, ** indicates significance at the 5% level,* indicates significance at the 10% level.

Results from Questionnaire Survey
When analyzing the data from the questionnaire survey, the results
are practically similar to those based on assessing driver stress throughdirect measurement of heart rate. As shown in Table 5, examining the selfreported stress rating scale reveals that drivers felt more stress while driving
along the road with a narrower inner shoulder width. Similar findings havealso been obtained when analyzing the data with respect to age and gender.
Table 5: Self-reported stress level towards driving along 4-lane divided
highways with raised-curb medianNarrow inner
Wide inner shoulder
Hypothesis
shoulder of 0.5m
of 1.5m width
test:
Age
width
GenderDifference in(Years)StressStressMeanStandard
Standard
ratingrating(p-value)deviation
deviation
scale
scale
2.000
0.942
1.600
0.699
0.0368 **
Male
18-30
2.700
0.948
2.000
0.816
0.0445 **Female
2.800
1.398
2.100
0.875
0.0095 ***
Male
31-45
2.100
1.286
1.500
0.707
0.0237 **Female
2.400
1.172
1.800
0.791
0.0000 ***All drivers
Note: *** indicates significance at the 1% level, ** indicates significance at the 5% level,* indicates significance at the 10% level.

4.2 Effect of Painted Median Width on Driver StressResults from Heart Rate Measurement
The results from applying Eq.1 to the heart rate data measured fromthe driving tests along the highways with painted median are presented inTable 6. Overall, we found that the average increases in heart rate werepractically higher in the case of narrow painted median. An exception is theheart rate data obtained from young female participants, in which an
opposing result was found. However, such differences were not statisticallysignificant. Although this finding would imply that enhancing the design ofpainted median could not reduce driver stress, it was also likely that wewere unable to capture the effect of painted median width due to the factthat the driving experiment was carried out under low-traffic conditions(i.e., average 144 vehicles per hour of oncoming traffic counted during the

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driving tests for narrow painted median, and average 228 vehicles per hour
for wide painted median).
Table 6: Increases in heart rate while driving along 4-lane divided
highways with painted medianNarrow painted
Width painted
medianmedianHypothesis test:
Age
Genderof 1.0 m. width
Difference in Meanof 2.5m width(Years)(p-value)
Mean
Standard
MeanStandard(bpm)
deviation(bpm)
deviation
4.571
3.931
4.140
5.526
0.6558
Male
18-30
4.099
5.289
4.492
5.610
0.6125
Female
2.665
1.422
2.420
2.570
0.6774
Male
31-45
4.153
4.625
2.923
3.102
0.2333
Female
3.872
3.995
3.494
4.336
0.3555All drivers
Note: *** indicates significance at the 1% level, ** indicates significance at the 5% level,* indicates significance at the 10% level.

Results from Questionnaire Survey
When asking all the 40 participants to express to what extent they felt
stress which was then converted into the 1-to-5 rating scale, the results assummarized in Table 7 suggest that the width of painted median did notseem to affect driver stress. We found that the average stress rating scales
from the experiment with narrow painted median were generally higher,
though only marginally. Our statistical tests also confirmed that in thepresent study, participants felt no difference in their stress levels withrespect to different widths of painted median.
Table 7: Self-reported stress level towards driving along 4-lane divided
highways with painted medianNarrow painted
Width painted
Hypothesis
medianmediantest:
Ageof 1.0 m. widthof 2.5m width
GenderDifference in(Years)StressStressMeanStandard
Standard
ratingrating(p-value)deviation
deviation
scale
scale
2.200
0.788
2.100
0.737
0.3434
Male
18-30
2.600
1.075
2.700
1.059
0.3434
Female
2.500
0.707
2.400
0.699
0.3434
Male
31-45
2.500
0.971
2.400
0.965
0.3434
Female
2.450
0.876
2.400
0.871
0.3234All drivers
Note: *** indicates significance at the 1% level, ** indicates significance at the 5% level,* indicates significance at the 10% level.

4.3

Contributing Factors Affecting Driver Stress

To examine the factors that could affect driver stress, the orderedlogistic regression technique has been applied to the data from thequestionnaire survey. The self-reported stress level towards type of highway
median has been regressed against socio-economic and other factors usingordered logit models. The dependent variable is the 1-to-5 stress rating scale,with five orders defined as -1 for ‘not at all’, 2 for ‘very little’, 3 for‘somewhat’, 4 for ‘much’, and 5 for ‘very much’. The independent variablesconsidered in the analysis, as summarized in Table 8, include socioInfluence of highway
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economic characteristics of the drivers, such as gender, age, education,
occupation, personal habits, driving characteristics, such as driving
experience, vehicle type, and driving frequency, and type of highway
median. Testing multicollinearity indicates that there was no correlation
among these variables.
Variables
GENDERAGE
EDUCATION
OCCUPATIONEXPERIENCEVEHICLEDRIVING FREQTEMPER
RUSH
MEDIAN

Table 8: Definitions of the independent variables

Definition
Gender : 1 = female, 0 = otherwise
Age
Education:
1 = lower than Bachelor degree
0 = otherwise
Occupation: 1 = student, 0 = otherwise
Years of driving Experience
Type of vehicle commonly used
1 = car
0 = otherwise
Frequency of driving along the highway section
1 = never, 2 = rarely, 3 = sometimes, 4 = often, 5 = always
Frequency of being quick-tempered while driving
1 = never, 2 = rarely, 3 = sometimes, 4 = often, 5 = always
Frequency of being in a rush while driving
1 = never, 2 = rarely, 3 = sometimes, 4 = often, 5 = always
Type of highway median• Raised-curb median
1 = wide inner shoulder of 1.5m width0 = otherwise• Painted median
1 = wide painted median of 2.5m width0 = otherwise

Table 9: Results from examining factors affecting self-reported stress level

Variables

Model 1: Stress Level
towards Raised-Curb MedianHighway
CoefficientSignificant
Level
0.536
0.083
-0.883-0.374-0.138*-0.152-0.0070.086
0.576-1.113**-97.879

Model 2: Stress Level
towards Painted-MedianHighway
CoefficientSignificant
Level-0.668GENDER
AGE
0.693
EDUCATION
OCCUPATION-0.089**EXPERIENCE
0.045
VEHICLE-0.920**DRIVING FREQ
-0.178TEMPER
1.347
***
RUSH
-0.155MEDIAN-78.395
Log Likelihood
Number of80
80
observations
Note:*** indicates significance at the 1% level, ** indicates significance at the 5%
level,* indicates significance at the 10% level.

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Table 9 presents estimation results from the ordered logit models. The
estimated coefficients indicate whether and the extent to which factors could
affect driving stress level. For highways with raised curb median, resultsfrom Model 1 suggest that drivers with longer years of driving experience
are more likely to have less driving stress. This could be due to their driving
skills that have been developed through the experiences, thereby making thedrivers feel more confident and less tension while driving. With respect tothe type of median, it is found that its estimated coefficient is statisticallysignificant at the 5% level and has a negative sign. This suggests thatdriving on highways with wider inner shoulder is more likely to have lessdriving stress. This finding is consistent with other previous studies,
showing the cross-section of highways has a great impact on driver stress.
Wide shoulder provides more lateral space for drivers, which could in turncause less stressful driving condition, especially along high-speed highways.
For highways with painted median, results from Model 2 indicate thatdriving experience, driving frequency, frequency of being in rush whiledriving are significantly related to the extent to which drivers feel stressful.
The negative coefficients of “EXPERIENCE” and “DRIVING FREQ”
variables imply that drivers with longer driving experience and those who
travel more frequently along this highway section are more likely to haveless driving stress. In addition, we find that drivers who travel in rush more
frequently tend to have more driving stress as indicated by the positivecoefficient of the “RUSH” variable. With respect to the width of painted
median, however, the results in the study suggest that it does not
significantly affect the drivers’ perceived stress level.
5. SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION
Evidence revealed in this paper lends support to the notion that a proper
design of road geometry could help to reduce driving stress on the road. The
experiment was designed to evaluate the effect of highway median design
on driver stress. Two types of highway median were considered, including
raised-curb median and painted median. Data were collected from 80 drivers
equally distributed between males and females across two age groups: 18-30
and 31-45 years old. The first 40 drivers were asked to drive along two
highways with raised curb median that have different widths of innershoulder. Physiological changes in heart rate were measured and monitored
before and during the driving tests. Following the completion of the driving
tests, the drivers were asked to assess their perceived stress level during thedriving tests by completing a short questionnaire, which also included
questions related to personal information. The same procedure was applied
to investigate the effect of painted median widths on driving stress among
the remaining 40 drivers.
For raised-curb median, the results showed that both increases in heart
rate while driving and self-reported stress levels were significantly higher
for the driving test along the road section with narrow inner shoulder. As
driver stress load is related to safety and performance behind the wheel, thisInfluence of highway
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finding suggests that the driver’s well-being could be enhanced byincreasing the width of inner shoulder for divided highways with raisedcurb median. With respect to divided highways with painted median, theexperiment in this study indicated that neither heart rate as physiologicalmeasure of driver stress nor perceived stress level was related to the designof the median width. However, this could be due to the fact that the driving
experiment was carried out under low-traffic conditions. Future work isneeded to explore the likely effects of painted median width on driver stressat high volumes of oncoming traffic.
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2003. Heart rate as a measure of stress in Antarctic krill, Euphausia superb.
J. Mar. Biol. Ass. U.K. ,83, 329-330.
Rowland B., Davey, J., Freeman, J. & Wishart, D., 2008. The
influence of driver pressure on road safety attitudes and Behaviours: A
Profile of Taxi Drivers, Proceedings of the 18th Canadian Multidisciplinary
Road Safety Conference, Whistler, British Columbia, June 8-11, 1-16.
Rutley K.S.and Mace D.G.W., 1972. Heart Rate as a Measure in
Road Layout Design, Ergonomics, 15, No. 2,165-173.
Schießl, C., 2006. Stress and strain while driving. Institute ofTransportation Systems, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Germany.
Westerman, S. and Haigney, D., 2000. Individual differences in driverstress, error and violation. Personality and Individual Differences, 29,
981–998.
Xiao-dong, P., Zhen, Y., Zhao-hong, Z., 2005. Relationship between
Variation of Drivers’Heart Rate and Systolic Blood Pressure and Curvature
Radius of Mountainous Highways. Journal of Tongji University

Influence of highway
geometryon driverstress design of driver stress
Investigating
the influenceof highway
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STUDY ON TRANSPORT PHENOMENONIN MORTAR USING THE CESIUMCARBONATE AS A TRACERBY X-RAY CT
Shohei IKEDA1, Takafumi SUGIYAMA2, Takasumi KIKKAWA3
and Kazunori SHIMURA4
1
Graduate Student School of Eng., The University of Hokkaido, Japan
heisho412@yahoo.co.jp
2
Professor, Ph.D, The University of Hokkaido, Japan
3
Graduate Student School of Eng., The University of Hokkaido, Japan
4
Assistant Professor, D.Eng, The University of Hokkaido, Japan
ABSTRACT
Examine the mobility of cesium carbonate solution using a prism
specimen having a notch by micro-focus X-ray CT. When cesium carbonate
solution has 20wt%, 40wt% and 60wt%, it is found that the amount ofpenetration and the CT value is different depending on the concentration.
value

Keywords: cesium carbonate, X-ray CT, X-ray contrast agent, CT

1. INTRODUCTION
In concrete structure, cracks may cause due to various reasons such as aload, drying shrinkage. Various problems such as salt damage andcarbonation have arisen in the structure having a crack, and they cause thedegradation of water-tightness and durability of the structure. The crack is
the pathway of entry of deterioration factors such as water, chloride ion andcarbon dioxide. Therefore numerous studies about the crack have been
carried out in the past. However, the transport phenomenon is often studied
by the crack width and length of the outside of the structure, and theelucidation of the mechanism of transport inside the structure is required.
The usage of X-ray CT is effective to understand the internal structure, so
various studies have been in Japan. It is confirmed that confirm cesium
carbonate is excellent as X-ray contrast agent for the detection of cracks insome studies by Otsuka, so we decide to use cesium carbonate as a tracer tosimulate the process of liquid ingress in concrete with crack in this study.
2. OUTLINE OF EXPERIMENT
2.1

X-ray contrast agent

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Cesium carbonate is used to visualize the movement of water in thecracks. This is the X-ray contrast agent and emphasizes certain parts of theimage with a contrast. Because cesium carbonate is material having X-ray
absorption rate differs significantly from the surrounding material. In X-ray
CT, material which does not absorb the X-ray is black and material which
absorbs this is white. For example, air is black and material having highdensity is white. The density of cesium carbonate used this experiment isbigger than the density of the material of mortar, so cesium carbonate iswhite in the image.
2.2

CT value

Light and shade of the image got in the X-ray CT is based on the CT
value. It is the number that defined in equation (1) by using the X-ray
absorption coefficient of object. It is generally believed that the CT value is
proportional to the density of object.
C= (μt - μw) / μw × K(1)

C: CT value, μt: X-ray absorption of object, μw: X-ray absorption of water,
K: proportionality constant
2.3

Prepared mortar

Table 1 shows the mix proportion and Table 2 shows the materials
used. Grain size of fine aggregate was less than 1.7mm. Driving to the typeof frame 40×40×160mm fresh mortar, frame removal was 24 hours later.
Thereafter, curing was carried out 320 days in water.
Table 1: The mix proportion

W/B (%)
P

50

Unit quantity(kg/m3)
W

CS

AE agents

274

548

1370

0.016

Material
CementFine aggregate
AE agent
X-ray contrast agent

2.4

Table 2: The materials usedAir
content
(%)
5.2

Type
Ordinary Portlandcement
Crushed sandAlkyl ether
Cesium carbonate powder

Compressive
strength (N/mm2)
45.7

Density (g/cm3)
3.16
2.67
4.07

Experiment with prismatic specimens

Examine that cesium carbonate solutions having the different
concentrations are going to penetrate to the interior of mortar with time byusing prismatic specimen with a notch.

2.4.1 Preparation of prismatic specimens

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Figure 1 shows the specimen dimensions and axes. Size of thespecimen is 20×20×40mm and shape is prism. Provide with a notch having
about 2mm in width, 20mm in height on the bottom. There are three test
pieces. Affix the adhesive tape to the side only to prevent the penetration ofcesium carbonate solution from the side in immersion time. Because
penetration is only from the bottom.
20mm
20mm

40mm

Z
Y

20mm
X

Figure 1: The specimen dimensions and axes
2.4.2 Experimental condition
Their test pieces were immersed in cesium carbonate solution having
20wt%, 40wt% and 60wt%. Height of immersion is 2mm from the bottom.
Immersion time is 3h and 12h and 24h. Mass change is measured and thetransport of cesium carbonate is investigated by X-ray CT. The density ofeach solution used this experiment is 1.20g/cm3(20wt%), 1.47g/cm3(40wt%),
1.91g/cm3(60wt%). The density is determined from average of a total ofthree times measurement of mass and volume of solutions.
3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Experiment with prismatic specimens
Create X-Z cross-sectional images and the line profile of CT values
from the images. Consider about the migration behavior of cesium
carbonate solution from the dates created and the relationship between
amount of penetration and immersion time.
3.1.1 Experiment by using cesium carbonate solution having 20wt%
In the image for 3h, cesium carbonate solution has risen to the top
notch and penetrated a little from the notch surface already. Thereafter, therange of penetrating specimen is spread and white has been shown deep
over every time.
Figure 5 shows X-Z cross-sectional image (y=10mm) of immersion
for 24h and Figure 6 shows the line profile of the CT values (z=10mm). It is
Study onStudy
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phenomenon inin mortar
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carbonateas
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found that white in the image of immersion for 24h has been shown to be
deeper than the image of immersion for 3h and 12h because the CT valuesof surface notch and the range of penetration. However, the difference of theCT values of the penetration part and non-penetration part is small and it isdifficult to determine visually the front penetration in the image. From
Figure 6, the CT values were below the 0 in notch part and outside of
specimen because there is air and it does not absorb the X-ray. In the mortar
part of specimen, CT values were 350 to 400 because it absorbs the X-ray.
In part of penetration of cesium carbonate solution, CT values were 400 to
500 and bigger than the mortar part because cesium carbonate absorbs X-ray.
At the surface notch, the CT value was approximately 740 and the biggest in
the line profile. This is estimated that cesium carbonate adheres to thesurface notch and absorbs a lot of X-ray.

Figure 5: X-Z cross-sectional image (y=10mm) of immersion for 24h
950
850
750
CT value

650
550
450
350
250
150
50
‐50

0

5

10

15

20

25

X (mm)

Figure 6:The line profile of the CT values (z=10mm)
3.1.2 Experiment by using cesium carbonate solution having 40wt%

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In the image and the line profile of the CT values of each time, cesium
carbonate solution has risen to the top notch and penetrated to mortar fromthe notch surface already. This state is similar to state of 20wt%. The CT
values of the notch surface and penetration part in 40wt% is bigger than theCT values in 20wt%, but the penetrative depth in 40wt% nearly equals thepenetrative depth in 20wt%. It is decided that the penetrative range in
40wt% nearly equals the penetrative range in 20wt%. In addition, thedifference of the CT values of the penetration part and non-penetration partis slightly big it is easy to determine visually the front penetration in theimage of immersion for each time because this is estimated that the densityof cesium carbonate solution having 40wt% is big and there are a lot of thepenetrating cesium carbonate.
Figure 7 shows X-Z cross-sectional image (y=10mm) of immersion
for 24h and Figure 8 shows the line profile of the CT values (z=10mm).
From Figure 8, the CT values were 350 to 400 in mortar part and this result
is similar to the result of 20wt%. The CT values of penetration part arebigger than the CT values of mortar and 400 to 650 because cesium
carbonate absorbs X-ray. The CT value of the surface of notch is the biggest
in the line profile of 40wt% and approximately 780 and bigger than 20wt%.

Figure 7: X-Z cross-sectional image (y=10mm) of immersion for 24h
950
850
750

CT value

650
550
450
350
250
150
50
‐50

0

5

10

15

20

25

X (mm)

Figure 8: the line profile of the CT values (z=10mm)
3.1.3 Experiment by using cesium carbonate solution having 60wt%

Study onStudy
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phenomenon inin mortar
mortar using
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carbonateas
asaatracer
tracerby
byX-ray
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In the image and the line profile of the CT values of each time, cesium
carbonate solution has risen to the top notch and penetrates to mortar fromthe notch surface already. This state is similar to state of 20wt% and 40wt%.
The CT values of the notch surface and penetration part in 60wt% is bigger
than this in 20wt% and 40wt%, but the penetration depth is small. This isestimated that the resistance to penetration into the mortar is increased
because the density of cesium carbonate solution having 60wt% is big. In
addition, it is easy to determine visually the front penetration in the image ofimmersion for each time because the difference of the CT values of thepenetration part and non-penetration part is slightly big.
Figure 9 shows X-Z cross-sectional image (y=10mm) of immersion
for 24h and Figure 10 shows the line profile of the CT values (z=10mm).
From Figure 10, the CT values were 350 to 400 in mortar part and this result
is similar to the result of 20wt% and 40wt%. The CT values of penetration
part are bigger than the CT values of mortar and 400 to 780. The CT valueof the surface of notch is the biggest in the line profile of 60wt% andapproximately 900 and bigger than 20wt% and 40wt%.

Figure 9: X-Z cross-sectional image (y=10mm) of immersion for 24h

Figure 10: the line profile of the CT values (z=10mm)
3.1.4 The relation between immersion time and amount of penetration

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Calculate the amount of penetration from the density of each cesium
carbonate solution and results of the mass measurement. Figure 11 shows
the relation between immersion time and amount of penetration. From
Figure 11, over half cesium carbonate solution penetrated into specimen for
24h penetrates for 3h. But penetration velocity is decreased for 3h to 12h
and 12h to 24h. The amount of penetration in 40wt% is about half of theamount of penetration in 20wt%. The amount of penetration in 60wt% is thelowest in 3 types of solutions. It is estimated that cesium carbonate solution
having the density is close to the water penetrates many to mortar throughthe notch.

amount of penetration (cm3)

It is determined that the penetrative range in 40wt% nearly equals thepenetrative range in 20wt%, but the amount of penetration in 20wt% islarger than 40wt%. It is estimated that cesium carbonate solution in 20wt%
penetrates to the range of penetration determined by the image and the line
profile of CT values.
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0

0

3

6

9
12
15
Concentration

18

21

24

immersion time (h)
20%

40%

60%

Figure 11: the relation between immersion time and amount of penetration
4. CONCLUSION
It is possible to visualize the movement of cesium carbonate in mortar
by using cesium carbonate. It shows that the amount of penetration tomortar and the CT values is difficult by each concentration. However, it isnecessary to examine in detail the nature of cesium carbonate solution about
the relevance of moisture movement in the future.
REFERENCES

Study onStudy
on transporttransport phenomenon
phenomenon inin mortar
mortar using
using thethecesium
cesiumcarbonate
carbonateas
asaatracer
tracerby
byX-ray
X-rayCT
CT

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Takasumi KIKKAWA，Takafumi SUGIYAMA，Ivan sandi darma，Kazunori SHIMURA：Visualization of bending crack and movement of
cesium carbonate solution by X-ray CT，Japan Concrete Institute，2012
Patent Gazette，Published patent，平 7-134084
Tukashi NAKANO, Akira Thutiyama, Kentaro, Masayuki UESUGI,
Kunio SHINOHARA（2006） "Slice" -Softwares for basic 3-D analysis-,
SliceHomePage(web),http://www-bl20.spring8.or.jp/slice/

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5thSERVICE INNOVATIONFOR DISASTER RESPONSIVENESSWITH MULTI-SPATIAL INFORMATIONSHARING
Kulapramote PRATHUMCHAI1, Masahiko NAGAI2
1
Graduate Student School of Engineering and Technology, RS/GIS,
Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand
st113954@ait.ac.th2
Associate Director, Geoinformatic Center,
Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand
nagaim@ait.ac.th
ABSTRACTThe disaster responsiveness activities are a kind of service, whichinterface between government to civilians and business to customer or NGO
to people. When a disaster occurs, the critical performance of disaster relief
operations is timely responsiveness, which can reduce human suffering andlives lost. Since disaster management is required spatial information for
decision making, therefore, multi sources of the spatial information would
need to integrate for responding to the help requests which are highly
dynamic according to disaster situations. The propose of method, how to
implement the multi-spatial information and mapping technology can be aservice innovation to improve on the disaster responsive service.
Keywords: disaster responsiveness, service, spatial information, flood,social medias
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Thailand’s worst flood in five decades has occurred during September
until December 2011. Flood has destroyed a number of industrial parks andput thousands of factories out of commission. The cost of flooding damage
is widely estimated to reach $ 2500 Billion.
It became apparent that activities in the disaster response such as
evacuation and critical assistance need an improvement for better
management. In order to achieve a higher level of efficiency andaccountability in handling those activities, real time or up-to-date data is
crucially needed for supporting a decision making as a service.

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1.2 State of Problem
Multi-spatial information can be gathering from many sources and inverities format. Spatial information is involving to the data, which containthe geographic information. One source of information that most live in realtime is data from internet, through social network application.
1.3 Objective of the Study
Objective of this study is attempting to integrate and handle multispatial information applying for flood disaster responsive improving alongwith concept of service innovation. Specific Objectives is bellow.
• Propose service innovation for flood responsiveness improvement• Review and pre-analysis on multi-spatial information to support indisaster responsiveness service
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Service innovation is a combination of technology innovation, businessmodel innovation, social- organizational innovation and demand innovation
with the objective to improve existing service systems, create new value
propositions or create new service systems. Often radical service innovation
will create a large population of new customers. Service innovation can also
result from novel combinations of existing service elements. (IfM and IBM,2008)
2.1 Service Case Study of flood responsiveness
Disaster management can be described as the processes of guiding,coordinating and allocating all resources from all related organizations. The
management can be divided into three phases as follows:• Preparation and Prevention activities prior to disasters• Response activities during disasters• Recovery and Reduction activities after disasters
2.2 Case Study of Flood Volunteer Working GroupAs providing of the information from government and television could
not supply the trust of people therefore the social media become one
powerful channel that people can access and get the update the real situationof flood event. There are many groups formed the team and delivered
information via the social media, Facebook. “Rootannam” is one of thevolunteer working groups. This flood volunteers working group has been
selected to study on the service term and considering the probability to
improve their service. The service is illustrated as the working concept
diagram in figure 1 as follow.

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Figure 1: Working plan concept diagram of Rootannam’s working group
2.3 Using Service Blueprint to visualize and analyze service
One method of measuring the effectiveness of specific services
processes is called services blueprinting, a method by which services can beanalyzed, and even visualized, from the customer perspective.(W.P. Carey
School of Business ,2008) Service blueprint can clarify interaction between
customer interactions, employee roles, operational processes andinformation technology. This process is attempting to apply service
blueprint for the flood working group activities service. The tasks on serviceof the working group of Rootannam can be analyzed for the detail of service
has been shown in figure 2.

Figure 2: Detail service blue print of Rootunnum
The activities in red box and interaction through red line is indicatedareas where bottle necks and fail points may occur. We could considered
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August 2012, Thailandthat weak points of the services would be at the process of onstage staff
action (OSA), to answer of flood high level by calling back to people(OSA2) or answer by posting at social media page of the group (OSA3).
Staffs mostly use Google map or manually find elevation value andcalculate flood high in worse case scenario on paper map sheets. Therefore,
this process makes difficulty to provide immediate interaction.
3. PROPOSE SERVICE INNOVATION
3.1 Challenges
It has become increasingly difficult to execute information with fullycompleted government data, especially when disaster occurs. The challengeof providing help services during disaster is timely response. The key
success factor in handling responsive activities is real time data which canbe provided by the local people living in affected areas via social media.
Therefore, mixed social media and multi spatial information is essential fordisaster management.
3.2 The Improving Disaster Responsiveness with a Social Media and eGovernment mix
Figure 3 shows the conceptual framework which illustrates how datafrom different sources can be extracted, integrated, harmonized and verified
in order to support disaster assistance management, particularly the mixedsocial media data and the government data. There are three major sources ofdata including social media, government agencies and private organizations.
The mixed data can support the processes of disaster assistance managementin terms of Supply management; Request management and Assistanceprovision.

Figure 3: Conceptual of Social Media Data Acquisition and Extraction

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3.3 Proposed Solutions
During disaster responding phase, information flows are very
important in providing disaster assistance and managing supply chain (Dayet.al, 2009). However, there are many issues relating to acquiring,harmonizing, integrating and verifying various data supporting theoperations.
3.3.1 Social Media Information Acquisition and Extraction
We can extract interested information from social media with several
steps; retrieving data from social media by using a message gathering tool,
filtering and classification those data, and then using information extraction
technology to extract useful information and organized into structural data.
3.3.2 Data Verification
Before using help demand data received from various sources e.g.,social media, telephone calls, we need to assess the level of data quality(McGilvray, 2008): completeness, accuracy, redundancy, data source
reliability and timeliness.
3.3.3 Data Harmonization and Integration
The syntactic issue raised due to multiple data formats can be resolved
by transforming into a single standard form. As XML has become the defacto standard language for exchange of web data; this problem can beovercome by converting the data from various sources into common XML
data model.
• Data Harmonization
For semantic difference, data standards can be used to harmonize datafor interoperability. As recommended of the previous study (Kawtrakul et.al,
2011a; Kawtrakul et al.,2011b), Thailand has not established data standards
at the national level yet, hence to prepare for and respond to disasters thatmight occur in the future, the processes needed to be prepared would be(1)establishing universal core data standards and (2)Forming a collaborative
group, a Community of Interest, this group should create disaster responsive
common or domain specific data standards.
• Ontology Based Data Integration
An ontology is an explicit specification of a conceptualization (Gruber,1993). It can identify data relationships, both schematic and semantic
relations. Therefore, ontology can be used to support semantic data sharing
and data integration among these organizations (Blomqvist and Öhgren,2007; Dahap et al., 2008; Janssen et al., 2009). Hence, the concept of
ontology is recommended here to support data sharing and integration.
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August 2012, Thailand• Gazetteer Based Spatial Data Integration
Water level estimation cannot be monitored by the satellite remotesensing even it can monitor water extend. The flood water depth is collectedby social network and integrated with spatial data such as DEM (Digital
Elevation Model), flood extend map, etc. Flood depth is point informationthat is provided in meters with latitude and longitude. Those point data fromsocial network usually identify the location by geographical names, such ascity name, village name, landmark, etc. Gazetteer is utilized to convert
geographical names to latitude and longitude (Nagai and Ono, 2008).
Geographical point data are analyzed and interpolated to grid data which
will then be overlaid and integrated with spatial data so as to support floodlevel estimation. In this study, combination or integration of satellite dataand ground field data from social media is very important (see Figure 4).

Figure 4: The framework of integrating data from social media or groundfield to the initial spatial data or satellite data
Proposing the usage of gazetteer and multi-spatial information which
extracting from multi-sources such as social media also can be implemented
to the searching location process. If the place of disaster can be located byusing address that people posted on the social media, it will be very useful
and will improve the service on disaster responsiveness as well.
4. IMPLEMENTATION EXPERIMENT
4.1 Testing of location matching
According to proposing of gazetteer usage concepts with multi-spatial
data, it drives to the data testing process within the conceptual of using
gazetteer and multi-spatial information.(see figure 5)

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Figure 5: Conceptual method of using gazetteer and multi-spatial
information
4.2

Data Used

Data in this study are mainly for testing of using the address orgeographic name and gazetteer integration. Explain about A and B
Set
A

Table 1. Data used in the testing of using gazetteer data

Data
• Address• Gazetteer
B• Address• Gazetteer

Feature Type• Text (100 words
location name)• Geographic location(20,435 features)• Text (100 words
location name)• Geographic location(19,577 features)

Language• Thai• English• Thai• Thai

Source• Facebook/Rootannam• www.diva-gis.com• Facebook/Rootannam• http://earthinfo.nga.mil/gns/html/

4.3 Data testing
In this experiment, the data testing is imitated the process of finding
the location of victim or flood occurrence on the map by using the address
information that people have post in social media as they want to know that,what is highest level of flood in case. The text of address is capturing and is
attempting to match with the gazetteer which it was downloaded from theopen source website.
4.3.1 Working with dataset A (Address text from social media andgazetteer from DIVA-GIS Server)
Firstly, the dataset A, the address text was gathered from social media,
in this case, from Facebook of ‘Rootannam’. Number of locational name isapproximately 100 words. The set of word has been copied for English
translation by using Google Language translator. The translation method isneeded to do because the location name of gazetteer dataset A is performed
in English. Then the outcome of address in English is taken to check andcompare with the original Thai address text. It was found that the correctlyof spelling and meaning name, is remain only about 50 words. After that,
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the translated words is input in Excel program for wording separation. Then,
applying the gazetteer data which downloaded from DIVA-GIS website(http://www.diva-gis.org). The file is open into ArcGIS program and using
the geographic attribute to plot the point locations onto the map. Finally,
the address words from previous process are imported join the attribute
location name. Result of testing with dataset A has shown in figure 6. In theattribute table, it is found that 27 features can be matched. As there are
duplicated locations thus the point of locations is displayed only 4 locations
on the map.
4.3.2 Working with dataset B (Address text from social media andgazetteer from NGA Server)
The dataset B comprises of address text that is the same with dataset
A, the difference is the gazetteer data which acquired from the website of
National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (http://earth-info.nga.mil/gns/html).
The original geographic location name is in English, the data has beentranslated to be Thai words. Thus the address text has directly open into
ArcGIS program together with gazetteer new set. Then, attribute of two data
has been joined with geographic name in Thai fonts. Result of testing withdataset B has presented in figure 6. In the attribute table, it is found thejoined 95 features. The matched points are rather cluster distribution at thecentral part of Thailand. This locations plot is high accurate as the most ofaddress came from the recent flood victims in mainly Bangkok andsurrounding provinces.
4.4 Results of data testing and Discussion
The geographic name that can be joined with gazetteer of dataset A. In
the original gazetteer data which contain of 20,435 features, those features
are location points is taken only central part of Thailand. At the translation
process, from address name in Thai to English, the translation program canprovide the accurate geographic location name about 50%. Then whenmatching to the gazetteer, location can be matched together at slightly morethan 50% (27 of 50 features). However, there some notify that the mostfrequent geographic name matching is ‘Bangkok’ which is found at 25
features.
Summary result of testing dataset B. The geographic name that can bejoined with gazetteer of dataset B is 95 features from about 100 words of
input data. The result matching of address location in Thai font with thegazetteer dataset B, can deliver the correct joining more than 90%.
In the original gazetteer data which gather feature only central part ofThailand has number of location around 19,577 words or features. The
most occurrence matched name is ‘���ง��ึ่ ง.’(Cannel number One), counting
at 20 features.

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DATASET ADATASET B

Figure 6: The results map of location matching using dataset A and B
4.5

Success case of Sentinel Asia ProjectThis session is to expression the success case of implementing thegazetteer and geographic location name which is acquired from the local
news. The case is preparing flood map product to support Sentinel Asia
service activity.
In the web map service of the Sentinel Asia, the country Kyrgyzstan,
Villagers Kazarman in Jalal-Abad reported that flooding continued fromchannel breakout. Breakthrough of the channel occurred during the day
March 27 2012.
The satellite data, pre and post disaster were used the city name offlood occurrence is extract from the providing information. Geographic
name is found that is ‘Kazarman’ and ‘Jalal-Abad’. Next process is finding
the gazetteer data and matching the location by with the city
names.Geographic names of Kyrgyzstan can be joined with the gazetteer
and found the location on the map. (See figure7)

Figure 7: Using information join into gazetteer data

Figure 8: Flood mapping of Kyrgystan
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When the disaster image is acquired, flood mapping has been
produced . Figure 8 displayed the outcome flood map in the Central of
Kyrgyzstan. However, there is some other limitation to show the floodedarea, as it also depending on the available of satellite images. Therefore,
either flood phenomenal is not large enough or the spectral/temporal of thereceiving images may be not proper to show the inundated area.
5. CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the study has achieved the learning on service
innovation approaching to improve the disaster responsiveness activities.
Conclusion for data testing can summarized as following;• Service innovation on disaster management can develop by
implementing of multi-spatial information and mapping technology.
• It is high potential to use the gazetteer to identify the victim locationin the disaster crisis situation with social media information.
• Geographic name of Thailand is more efficient to match with thegazetteer in Thai font format.
• In future study on multi-spatial information integration, it would
involve more issues such as gazetteer creation, data extraction,
ontology and data standard.
REFERENCES
Kawtrakul, A.,2012.The Improving Disaster Responsiveness with a Social
Media and e-Government mix, 12th European Conference oneGovernment– ECEG 2012, Barcelona, Spain.
Ichiguchi, T.,2011 ‘Robust and Usable Media for Communication in a
Disaster’, Information and Communication Research Unit, Scienceand Technology
IfM and IBM.,2008. Succeeding through service innovation: A service
perspective for education, research, business and government.
Cambridge, United Kingdom: University of Cambridge Institute for
Manufacturing. ISBN: 978-1-902546-65-0.
Methler,A.,2006, Spatial Analysis of News Sources, IEEE Transactions on
Visualization and Computer Graphics, Vol.12, No.5.
Nagai,M.,2008, Ontology Development for Interoperability of Observation
Data, The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote
Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences. Vol. XXXVII. Part B2.
Beijing
Oradeedolchet,M.,2012, training document on Service and Value Network
Design in a Service Science context, NECTEC, Thailand.
Pigneur,Y.,e-serice blueprint&visulization, http://www.slideshare.net/ypigneur/service-blueprint-presentation
Rootannam center, http://www.facebook.com/rootannam
Service Innovation Organization, http//www.service-innovation.org
Sentinel Asia, https://sentinel.tksc.jaxa.jp

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W.P.Carey,2008, A key to Service Innovation: Service Blueprinting,
W.P.Carey School of Business, Arizona State University,
http://knowledge.wpcarey.asu.edu/article.cfm?aid=510 ??????????

Service Innovation
Responsivenesswith
withmulti-spatial
Multi-Spatialinformation
Informationsharing
SharingServiceinnovation forfor Disasterdisaster responsiveness

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STUDY OF MECHANISMS OF LANDSLIDEDUE TO SOIL PIPES USING HOLLOWCYLINDER SHEAR APPARATUS
BIRUK ADANE
Graduate Student
Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Japanbiruk@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
REIKO KUWANO
International Centre for Urban Safety Engineering,
Institute of Industrial Science, The University of Tokyo, Japankuwano@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
ABSTRACT
Heavy rainfall incidents are among major causes of landslide andderby flow all over the world. Even though a lot of studies are conducted on
studying the effect of rainfall on reduction of matric suction and incrementof excess pore water pressure which ultimately result in slope failure, theother major cause of landslide, due to blockage of naturally existing soil
pipes, are not known in detail.
This study use Hollow cylinder shear apparatus with modifications tostudy effect of soil pipes on triggering landslide and derby flow. Specimen
with various initial moisture content and relative densities were loaded into
various stress ratios and subjected into water injection. The resulting shear
strain and axial strains were recorded and analyzed.
From this study it was found that, samples with higher initialsaturation and with artificially induced soil pipes are found to undergo
excessive deformation during water injection. Implying both building up ofhigh pore-water pressure and collapse of soil pipes has similar impacts
mobilization of high shear and axial strains in the specimen.
Moreover, using colored water it was found that dissemination ofwater within the specimen to be non-uniform (both lateral and vertically).
Keywords: landslide, pipe flow, rainfall, collapse
1. INTRODUCTION
Landslide can be triggered by various factors either natural or manmade.
Earthquake, rainfall, snow melting, groundwater variation, are among the
major natural causes of landslides. Of all these, rainfall has the major role intriggering landslide. For example, in Italy 69.4% of the landslide is caused
by precipitation and infiltration (Kalsnes et al, 2008). Landslides due to

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rainfall can be caused due to creation of excess pore water pressure andreduction of apparent cohesion due to matric suction. Various researches(laboratory and model tests) are conducted to study slope failure due torainfall. However, most studies focus on failure due to increment of porewater pressure which resulted in reduction of effective stress. It is also
possible to have slope failure due to blockage of soil pipes, due to erosion offine particles, leading into collapse of soil pipes.
Soil-pipes are chain of connected macropores, developed nearlyparallel to the soil surface (Uchida etal., 2002) and are often detected incollapsed slopes scar.
According to the investigation on the granite hill slopes, Out of 64
debris slides scars, only four had no pipes. The remaining 60 had at least
one pipe and there was on average 3.6pipes in a slide scar (Tsukamoto et al.
1982).
A closed pipe will raise the groundwater table downslope from thepipe outlet natural soil pipes provide important pathways for subsurface
movement of water and solutes, as well as contributing to landslide (Sidle etal. 1995).
Soil pipes can facilitate slope failure due to either internal erosion of
sediments which has effect on soil structure or creation of excessive porewater pressure in the sample due to sudden blockage of soil pipes due toheavy rainfall or combination of both.
Sharma et al. (2011) performed model tests on hill slope models
prepared in a flume are with three different soil-pipe configurations: a) nopipe, b) closed pipe and c) open pipe latter closed. Pore-water pressures
were measured at six different locations along a slope. Their results revealed
that the scenario with open first then closed latter of soil pipe has higher
increment of pore-water pressure close to its lower end. It was observed
pore water pressure rises rapidly, leading to immediate soil mass movement.
On the other hand, soil pipe might act as drainage means and will
facilitate downhill water drainage and reduces the pore-water. In the current
study, it was investigated the effect of soil pipes on affecting the soil slope
stability (landslide or derby flow) with the help of water injection into
specimen to simulate rain fall. The results obtained analyzed by consideringvarious cases using the resulted shear and axial strains as indicators.
A case study of landslide and derby flow in Hiroshima prefecture wasused as basis condition for this study. However for the current study
Edosaki sand was used. Foe the next phase material obtained from landslidearea in Hiroshima prefecture (Aida sand) will be used. In this study slopes
having angle between 20~30 degree were created by applying various stressratios, axial and shear stresses.

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For the continuation of this study material obtained from landslidearea in Hiroshima prefecture is planned to be used in addition to Edosaki
sand.
There testing conditions are envisaged,
Case 1: study the soil property with respect to variation of saturation
degree and change in matric suction. (Using Edosaki and Aida sand)without escape of soil particles.
Case 2: study the effect of soil pipes will be incorporated using
repeated saturation and drainage of water to facilitate soil erosion using
open mesh type pedestal (using both Edosaki and Aida sand).
Comparison of the two conditions will give clear idea of effect ofescape of soil particles in soil pipes.
However for the current tests only Edosaki sand is used. The main
selection criteria of Edosaki sand are its high content of fines andavailability of previous research results. The specimen was prepared withvariable initial moisture content and relative density.
2. TEST APPARATUS AND PROCEDUREA Hollow cylinder shear apparatus is used for this study; the apparatus has
been modified to make it suitable for this test. The dimension of thespecimen used was reduced from the original dimension to 100 mm inheight and 100mm and 60mm for outer and inner diameter respectively.
The main reason was to have uniform water distribution throughout the
specimen within reasonably short time.
Water is supplied from bottom to top. Water will start drain out fromthe sample from top after few minutes and uniform conditions can beassumed to be achieved through out the specimen. There will be collapse ofsoil structure at the beginning of water injection. By keeping the same
infiltration rate in all tests similar conditions are thought to be maintained in
the current study.
Sample was prepared by tamping technique and 5 layers having
thickness of 20 mm was used. The target relative density (Dr) was 70%. The
specimen then will be left to consolidate for few hours before shear andaxial stress, with predetermined stress ratio was applied. Then the specimen
will be put on creep for few hours and water was injected. The resulting
shear, axial and amount of water entering into and draining out of thesample were recorded at interval of 0.2 seconds.

Study ofStudy
of Mechanisms
Mechanisms ofof Landslide
Landslide DueDue toto Soil
Soil Pipes
PipesUsing
UsingHollow
HollowCylinder
CylinderShear
ShearApparatus
Apparatus

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Figure 1: Hollow cylinder shear apparatus
The details of experimental conditions are shown in Table 1 and test
findings are discussed in section 4 below.
The particle size distribution of the material used is indicated in figure
2.dosaki sand has Gs=2.705, ρmin=1.135 and ρmax=1.448 gm/cm3.

Figure 2: Particle size distribution of Edosaki sand.

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Table 1: Testing conditions
Test

�z
(kpa)

�r
(kpa)

��
(kpa)

�
(kpa)

� (%)

1

60

60

60

24

7

21.800

0.20

2

60

40

40

24

7

21.800

0.56

0

0.55

Angle

Dr (%)

3

60

40

40

24

8

21.80

4

50

25

25

24

8

25.640

0.63

5

50

25

25

24

8

25.640

0.76

6

40

25

25

20

8

26.570

0.70

7

40

25

25

20

15.6

26.5700.66

RemarkColoredwater
injectedfrom topWith
artificial
soil pipeWith
artificial
soil pipe

Note: Axial Stress (�z), Radial stess(�r), Circumferential stress(��), shear stress(�)moisture content (�), Relative Density (Dr)

3. DEFINITION OF INDICESThe following are some of the indices in this research.
Table 2: Definition of Indices in this research
Index
Injection of water

Soil pipes
Water drained out

Definition and description
Application of water from heightof 1.2 meter, with back pressureof 10 kpa.
Artificially made water passage inthe specimen using hose having
diameter of 3 millimeter.
Drained water collected from thespecimen

4. TEST RESULTS AND EVALUATION
Tests were conducted to analyze the effect of water injection on the soil
structure, using the resulted shear and axial strains. Moreover, the effect ofvarious factors on the shear deformation has been studied. Testing
conditions used are as indicated in Table 1. In one of the tests, the effect ofwater injection on soil collapse and how water disperses into the specimen
Study
Study ofof Mechanisms
Mechanisms ofof Landslide
Landslide DueDue toto Soil
Soil Pipes
PipesUsing
UsingHollow
HollowCylinder
CylinderShear
ShearApparatus
Apparatus

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was studied using colored water, by injecting it from top to bottom for
maximum collapse effect.
The results obtained are discussed hereunder.
4.1 Effect of Anisotropy
In order to simulate the exact stress path in actual slope failure andland slide due to rainfall, a predefined stress path should be adopted.
Moreover, to compare the results obtained using hollow torsional cylinder
shear apparatus with previous results using other apparatus, such as simple
shear, certain anisotropy was applied. As shown in figure 3 below.
From results obtained it can be seen that in the case of anisotropic
condition significant axial strain is observed due to increment of axial stress.
On the other hand the resulted shear strain due to water injection was not
significantly increased. In both cases failure of the slope does not occur.

Figure 3: effect of Anisotropy on Shear and axial strain due to water
injection.
4.2 Effect of Initial water content.
Most of the tests as shown in Table 1 were conducted with more orless similar initial water content. However, the observed shear and axial
strains remain very small indicating the specimen with the give material andstress ratio conditions are safe from failure. For the sake of studying theeffect of initial state of a saturation degree, to simulate creation of highpore-water pressure creation, prepared with higher initial moisture content(w), 15.6%.
From the results obtained, as shown in Fig4 below, for similar stressratio and relative density the slope with higher water content (saturation) has
significantly higher shear and axial strains as a result of injection of water
into the specimen.

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Figure 4: Increment of Shear and axial strains due to initial degree ofsaturation while water injection.
4.3 Effect initial collapse of soil structure on the shear strain observed.
Due to application of water there will be non-uniform moisture
condition in the specimen initially. As a result of this non uniformity effectthere will be soil collapse. To study its impact on the observed deformation
one test was conducted.
For this test, water was injected from top of the specimen so that there
will be significant collapse. Moreover, to study how the water is dispersing
in the specimen colored water was used.
Due to collapse of the soil structure there was relatively rapid
deformation initially as the top part becomes denser than the bottom.
However, rate of deformation decrease quickly and the specimen finallybecomes stable.
Regarding water dissemination in the specimen it was found thatwater movement is not uniformly distributed throughout the specimen it
tends to follow certain paths.

Figure 5: Difference in Shear strain created due to collapse of soil
structure .

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Soil Pipes
PipesUsing
UsingHollow
HollowCylinder
CylinderShear
ShearApparatus
Apparatus

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4.4 Effect of artificially introduced soil pipes on the stability of thestructure.
Two tests were conducted to investigate the impact of soil pipes on thesoil structure and drainage performance improvement. The result hasrevealed that there will be sudden rise shear strain in the soil.
The possible reasons for this scenario can be due to quick drainage ofwater from specimen as result of pipes, there will be erosion of fine particles.
This erosion will result in high deformation on the soil structure. As shownin Figure 6 below.

Figure 6: effect of soil pipe
4.5 Summary
From the results obtained it can be said that a specimen with higher
initial degree of saturation(which can simulate excess pore water pressure
generated) and having soil pipes when subjected to high rainfall events will
undergo sharp displacement and deformation.
The main reason can be erosion of soil as water will be traveling inhigher speed in the soil pipes. Eroded soil particles along with the pipe assoil was not able to drain out from the pedestal and it will accumulate at theout let and will result in excess pore water pressure.
5. ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS FOR EVALUATING FINESEROSION AND EFFECT OF MATRIC SUCTION.
The results obtained here do not incorporate basic parameters forunsaturated soil mechanics like pore water and air pressure which definematric suction.
Currently the pedestals used for this study does not have means forescape of fine particles from the specimen. Therefore, further modificationof the apparatus is mandatory. This modification will help detailed study of
the real situation.

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6. PROCESS AND MECHANISM OF LANDSLIDE DUE TO SOIL
PIPE
General process of expansion of landslide in slopes with soil pipes
suggested like as follows.
A) Initial higher deformation on soil structure due to immediate
collapse of soil structure.
B) Deformation will progress until failure occurs or slope stabilizes.
7. SUMMARY AND FUTURE PLAN
Factors which affect shear and axial strain mobilization due to application ofwater were 1) initial saturation degree 2) presence of soil pipes and 3) fines
wash away.
Combination of these factors will increase the effect of shear and axial
strains. With help of using other parameters such as matric suction, fineparticles erosion.., detailed investigation will be conducted and impact ofsoil pipes can be investigated in detail.
REFERENCES
Kalsnes, B., Nadim, F., Glade, T. (2008), Effects of global change on
landslide risk, proceedings of the First World landslide forum, PP.19-33.
Sharma, R.H., 2010. Konietzky,H., Instrumented failure of hillslopemodels with soil-pipes Geomorphology 130 (2011) 272–279.
Sidle,R.C., Tsuboyama,Y.,Noguchi,S.,Hosoda,I., Fujieda,M. andSimizu,T.(2000) Stormflow generation in steep forested head water: alinked hydrogeomorphic paradigm,Hydrol.process.,14:369-385
Tsukamoto, Y., OKTA, T., and NOGUCH I, H., 1982. Hydrologicaland geomorphological studies of debris slides on forested hillslopes in Japan,
Proc. of the Exeter Symposium, July 1982.
Uchida, T., and Mizuyama, T., 2002. Contribution of Pipe flow onshallow landslide initiation at steep hillslope, Proc. International congress
INTERPRAEVENT 2002 in Pacific Rim congress publication, volume 2
pp.559-569, 2002.

Study ofStudy
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Mechanisms ofof Landslide
Landslide DueDue toto Soil
Soil Pipes
PipesUsing
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HollowCylinder
CylinderShear
ShearApparatus
Apparatus

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5th Joint Student Seminar on Civil InfrastructureTRAFFIC ACCIDENT ANALYSIS BASEDON TAAS DATABASE SYSTEM
Yong-hwan HWANG1,Sung-hi AN2,Choong-shik LEE3
and Hyunmyung KIM4
1
Researcher/Transportation Planning Lab,
Department of Transportation Eng,
College of Engineering The MyongJi University, South Korea
Hyh8905@nate.com
2
Graduate Student School of Eng., The MyongJi University, South Korea
3
Graduate Student School of Eng., The MyongJi University, South Korea
4
Doctor, Director, MyongJi University, South Korea
ABSTRACTThe purpose of this work is to develop a new method to evaluate
traffic safety and apply it in Gimpo-city. By using four types of databases
systems, the new method can evaluate the safety level of roads andintersections in a quantitative way. In order to find the weighted valued
used in the developed method, transportation experts participate to theAnalytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) survey. With these data, the new index,
Traffic Safety Weakness Index (TSWI), is developed. So, with TSWI, we give
weighted value for each traffic accidents and apply this new index toGimpo-City and select 28 intersections as high frequency accidents zone.
Also, our work analyzes these intersections and suggests improvements foreach intersection.
Keywords: Database system, AHP survey, TSWI
1. INTRODUCTION
In Korea, there is a database system for storing traffic accidents related
information; Traffic Accident Analysis System (TAAS). TAAS is operated
by Korea Road Traffic Authority and it serves the GIS(Geographicalinformation system) data about traffic accidents in a whole Korean area.
This database system has a great potential for investigating and analyzing
the reason of traffic accident. However, no traffic safety evaluation index
sufficiently uses the full information of the database system yet in Korea
and only very simple methods have been employed to evaluate the safety ofroad.
The number of cumulated traffic accident last three-year and traffic
accident rate of change are basic index to evaluate traffic safety. However, it
has been criticized since it is not able to reflect the details of traffic
accidents. Thus, it has to be needed to set a new methodology for traffic
safety. Based on AHP (Analytic Hierarchy Process) method, a new traffic

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safety evaluation index is developed named TSWI(Traffic Safety Weakness
Index).
Based on the index, accident-prone intersections and road sections are
selected, and the analysis of traffic accident is performed.
The purpose of this work is finding a new methodology and analyzinga traffic accident deeper. So, additional data, road traffic counts, safety
facilities from Korea Transport DB and other sources are also used. With
TSWI, we can do the detail evaluation of traffic accidents and have moreelaborated tool for diagnosing safety level of road. The new index in applied
to a Korean city, Gimpo-city.
2. TRAFFIC SAFETY DATA-BASE SYSTEM IN KOREA
2.1 TAASTAAS is composed of an Input Management System, a Statistical
Analysis System, a Spatial Analysis System, and a Web-service System.
The Input Management System aggregates and refines the traffic accident
data that is collected from the different agencies. The Statistical Analysis
System conducts multi-dimensional accident analyses using the R-OLAP
tool (Relational Online Analytical Processing). The Spatial Analysis Systemanalyzes the characteristics of accident locations using GIS (Geographic
Information Systems). The Web-service System provides theaforementioned traffic accident information through the Internet in real time.
KoROAD will manage road accident in-depth analysis systems and will
provide road safety action plans for national, regional and local
governments. KoROAD will continuously strive to ensure its function as the
National Road Safety Information Hub.
The TAAS contribute greatly to effective planning of traffic safety
through offering a variety of information such as traffic accident statistics
and spatial information services to traffic administrative organizations.

Figure 1:TAAS system

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2.2 GyungGi-Do Traffic DataBase Center
The purpose of the Traffic DB is to compile the traffic characteristic,
traffic facilities, land use and social-economic indicator for identifying thecurrent traffic condition and makingpolicies. So, GyungGi-Do Traffic
DataBase Center builds Integrated Management System to collect andanalyze traffic Data. It also sets a policy evaluation system to support
sustainable traffic policies for counteracting a sudden change in traffic
environments.
2.3 Traffic Monitoring System
Traffic Monitoring System(TMS) is a traffic information provider
system. It is a main purpose that gives information about road plans, roadbuilding, maintenance and managements, and various kinds of data forinvestigating the current traffic volume of national expressway, general
national road, and local road.

Figure 2: TMS system
2.4 Traffic Accident Database System by the National Police Agency
Traffic Accident Database System(TADB) is an accident data record
written by police officer at an accident site. A police officer uses it as an
official record to judge and analyze traffic accident legally. As shown in
Figure 3, TADB describes accident maps graphically.

Traffic accident
accident analysis
base systemsystemTraffic
analysis based
based onon TAAS
TAAS data
database

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Figure 3: Accident map
3. METHODOLOGYThis work uses socioeconomic index and traffic accident data for analyzing
traffic accident pattern and developing a new traffic safety index. First, weinvestigate last 3-year socioeconomic and traffic data for all cities andcounties in GyungGi-Do.
Second, we use TAAS to analyze traffic accidents. TAAS is statistic
traffic accidents system and GIS analysis system. The data of statistic traffic
accidents system are collected from four databases which are the National
Police Agency Database, the Property Insurance Company Database and the
Mutual Benefit Association Database. Using these data, we collect andanalyze 31 cities' traffic accident in Gyunggi-do.
For traffic accident analysis, we divide accident factors into 4 parts asmonth, day, time of day, and pedestrian accident to figure out accident
location's quality and accident pattern. Considering traffic volume andlength of roads, this work analyzes traffic pattern with socioeconomic
indexes and traffic situations.
Last, we develop a new index named TSWI(Traffic Safety Weakness
Index) and apply it to analyze traffic accidents at Gimpo city. Beside thecumulated number of accident during last three years and the accident ratechange comparing to last year, road safety levelis defined in terms of an
accident rate with consideration of traffic volume and length of road.

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Figure 4: Traffic safety diagnosis process
3.1 AHP
3.1.1 AHP Analysis
Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) is a multiple criteria decision
method. In AHP, all factors are formed with a multiple hierarchy and theweighted values are defined to the factors subjected to the same level. With
the weights, all influencing factors are used for a decision making or
evaluation.
AHP is an important tool to set a weighted-value for each type of
accidents. There are three basic types of traffic accidents that are vehicle
versus vehicle accident, vehicle versus pedestrian and vehicle only accident.
20 transportation experts are asked to join the AHP survey. The hierarchy of
TAAS data which is used in this work is as shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5:Hierarchy of TAAS Data
Traffic accident
accident analysis
base systemsystemTraffic
analysis based
based onon TAAS
TAAS data
database

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3.1.2 Result
Figure 6 shows weight value in accident type. The weighted-value
fora casualty accident is 0.706. For a serious wounded accident, theweighted-value is 0.223 and slight wounded accidents’ weight is 0.071. Tenslight wounded accidents have almost the same value as a one casualty
accident. A one casualty accident, also, has more value than three serious
wounded accidents.
In pedestrian accidents, this work decides that an accidents severity inage will have a difference. So we divide pedestrian victims into three groups
and evaluate accidents severity for each group. Group 1 is children 15 andyounger and Group 2 is people aged 65 and over. Last, Group 3 is the otherpeople.

Figure 6: Weighted-value in Injury typeFigure 7: Weighted-value in AgeThis work considers another weighted-value for other factors. Table 1
shows other weighted-value.

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Table 1: Weighted-value table

Accident Type

Vehicle vs Vehicle
Accident
Vehiclevs Pedestrian
Accident
Vehicle Only
Accidnet

Type

Weight

Rank

Vehicle vs Vehicle
Vehicle vs Pedestrian

0.198
0.700

2
1

Vehicle only
Head on Collision
Broad Side Collision
Rear-Ender on Moving
Rear-Ender on Parking
Crossing a Road
Passing a Road
Passing a Pavement
Passinga Road Side Zone
Car Crash
Overturn
Run off the track

0.102
0.607
0.221
0.109
0.063
0.517
0.109
0.249
0.125
0.240
0.419
0.341

3
1
2
3
4
1
4
2
3
3
1
2

3.1.3 Result of AHP Intersections Analysis
With Figure 6 and Table1, this work computes AHP weighted-value
for each intersections in Gimpo-City.
Table 2: Result of Intersections AHP Analysis

#

2
3
4
5
6

7

8

9

10
11
12

number ofaccident

victimsafetyintersection

evaluation

Sin-godintersection
Front Han-hwa
APTintersection
Terriintersection
Ma-song
intersection
Pung-muintersection
Ha-song
terminal
intersection
North-side
terminal
intersection
Korea
communicationintersection
Front
playgroundintersection
Front Hyun-dai
APTintersection
Gimpo-2dongintersection
Sin-pung
elementary sch.
Intersection

seriousslight

wound

wound

death

AHP

pedestrian accident
traffic-

Name ofdeath

1number ofseriousslight

wound

wound

index

AHP
under
15

15
to
65

ratio ofweightedovertrans-

value

65

portationweighted
value
considering
victim(per100p.p)

vulnerable

3

32

44

3

39

84

34.7

0

9

2

18%

0.277

0.398

0

31

24

0

44

72

29.96

1

2

0

33%

0.189

0.301

2

14

19

2

33

39

20.9

0

0

1

100%

0.111

0.369

3

20

9

3

23

15

16.42

4

8

3

47%

0.414

1.100

0

13

15

0

15

17

10.34

0

4

3

43%

0.092

0.498

1

14

11

1

19

35

14.58

0

4

0

0%

0.128

0.424

0

11

14

0

11

24

9.5

0

2

0

0%

0.072

0.386

1

13

10

1

18

26

12.92

0

2

0

0%

0.098

0.400

0

12

12

0

13

19

9.54

2

4

0

33%

0.062

0.392

1

15

7

1

16

8

10.32

1

6

3

40%

0.259

1.181

1

13

8

1

16

15

10.84

0

3

2

40%

0.135

0.563

0

9

12

0

9

19

7.74

3

4

0

43%

0.175

0.703

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#

14
15

16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24

25

26

27

28

number ofaccident

victimsafetyintersection

evaluation

Humansia
APT.
Intersection
Dae-gugintersection
Front Go-chon
officeintersection
Su-song roadthree-way
intersection
Jung-bongintersection
Front Se-jin
parkintersection
Front ju-gongintersection
Ha-song
intersection
Dok-ja-gol
intersection
Jan-giintersection
Black-bridge
intersection
Dae-myungelementarysch.Intersection
Yang-gok post
officeintersection
Ha-song
township officeintersection
Front Han-sol
partintersection
Front Donggwang APTintersection

seriousslight

wound

wound

death

AHP

pedestrian accident
traffic-

Name ofdeath

13number ofseriousslight

wound

wound

index

AHP
under
15

15
to
65

ratio ofweightedovertrans-

value

65

portationweighted
value
considering
victim(per100p.p)

vulnerable

1

14

5

1

16

16

10.92

1

3

0

25%

0.161

0.621

0

13

7

0

19

19

11.14

1

1

4

83%

0.084

0.488

0

12

8

0

14

12

8.68

0

1

1

50%

0.066

0.420

0

12

7

0

14

18

9.32

0

1

0

0%

0.033

0.243

0

10

9

0

10

11

7.04

2

2

0

50%

0.119

0.761

2

8

7

2

15

22

11.3

0

0

0

0%

0.025

0.202

0

13

4

0

20

8

9.88

0

2

0

0%

0.114

0.623

0

12

5

0

21

17

11.14

0

0

0

0%

0.045

0.332

0

8

9

0

9

11

6.34

2

3

1

50%

0.101

0.653

0

8

8

0

10

18

7.4

0

1

1

50%

0.077

0.428

0

8

7

0

11

21

7.98

0

1

0

0%

0.038

0.252

0

8

7

0

11

13

7.02

1

3

1

40%

0.072

0.556

0

10

3

0

12

8

6.8

2

2

3

71%

0.225

1.268

0

10

3

0

10

4

5.72

7

1

0

88%

0.231

1.832

2

7

2

2

10

8

7.52

0

5

0

0%

0.097

0.623

3

1

1

3

2

2

4.12

0

2

1

33%

0.132

1.641

4. RESULT
4.1 Socioeconomic index and traffic condition in Gimpo-city
The GyungGi-Do includes 31 cities and Gimpo-city is one of them.
The population of the Gimpo-city is about twenty-five million. Of the 31
cities, its population comes in 17th. Also, every year its population has
increased by 3.61%. And it causes traffic growth. Figure 8 is the 2010
population of Gimpo-city.

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Figure 8: Population in GyungGi-Do (2010)
The transportation vulnerable is divided into two groups. Group1 isChildren 15 and younger and Group 2 is people aged 65 and over. Figure 9shows changing rate of group 1 during the last five years in Gimpo-city andits rate counts -0.36%. Considering other 31 cities', its rate comes in 10th.
Figure 10 describes changing number of group 2. It increases consistently
and its rate is 7.21%. This rate ranks 9th comparing with other cities'. It
shows that Gimpo-city rapidly becomesan aging society. It means that
number of transportation vulnerable is increasing, too. So analysis fortransportation vulnerable has to be needed.

Figure 9: Changing population of Group1

Figure 10: Changing population of Group 2
The number of registered vehicles in Gimpo-city takes ranking 15thand it is increasing 4.22% per year. Figure 11 shows 2010 vehicle
registration number in GyungGi-Do.
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Figure 11:The number of registered vehicle in GyungGi-Do (2010)
4.2 Analysis of intersection and road section
4.2.1 Analysis of Intersection
For AHP analysis, 28 intersections are selected as a high accident
frequency location and 11 intersections are selected for making an
improvement.
With these 28 intersections, this work compares and analyzes in twoways. First, based on total number of traffic accidents, the safety of intersections is analyzed. Second, traffic-safety evaluation index for a logistics
company
The level of traffic safety at an intersection has been measured interms ofthenumber of traffic accidents in Korea. However, it does notconsider the detail safety level of intersection. The notable example is26thintersection (Ha-song township office intersection) in Table 3. 13 traffic
accidents were happened in this area during the past three year, so it isregarded as a safe area. Considering pedestrian accidents, however, thisintersection is ranked as 4th grade. It means this area is not safe.

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Table 3: Rank of high accident-frequency spot for in Gimpo-CityIf we consider only total number of accidents, the 1st intersection (Singok intersection) is the most serious intersection in Gimpo-city. However, if
we consider pedestrian accident severity, the 4th inter section (Ma-songintersection) has more pedestrian accidents than the 1st intersection. The 4thintersection also has high death rate.With TAAS database, Figure 12 shows
the number1 intersection (Sin-gok intersection). This spot is the highest
accident frequency location in Gimpo-city. 35 traffic accidents were
happened during the last three years. Accidents between vehicle versus
vehicle were happened 26 times, and there were nine accidents to vehicle
versus pedestrian. Three incidences of casualty were occurred on thisintersection and all of these accidents are pedestrian accidents at night. .

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Figure 12: Accident map at the No.1 intersection (Sin-gok)
Figure 13 and Figure 14, demonstrates time of day accident patterns andaccident types patterns, respectively. Most incidences of casualty are
happened when people are walking at night. Other accidents are happened
during the morning/evening rush hour time. Most accidents are happened
between vehicle versus vehicle

Figure 13: Analysis of time od day accident pattern

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Figure 14: Analysis of accident types pattern
4.2.2 Analysis of Road Section
Figure 15 describes accident map at the Gimpo-market road. Many
pedestrian accidents are happened on this road section. This area is acommercial district and only has a single lane on each direction. Every fifth
day, the side of road is occupied by market stalls and merchants so thepedestrian road in this area is very crowded. Mainly vehicle versus
pedestrian accidents are occurred on this street and two incidences ofcasualty are happened.

Figure 15: Accident map at the Gimpo-Market Road
Figure 16 shows time of day accident patterns. The greatest
occurrence of traffic accident is in 12:00 to 16:00. Most road accident
victims are women in their 40s who visit market.

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Figure 16: Analysis of time of day accident pattern
5. CONCLUSION
With TAAS which is web-based system, our work creates new safety
evaluation index by using various kinds of data. 20 of transportation experts
participate to the AHP survey to set TSWI. With TSWI, we analyze 28
intersections in Gimpo-city. The high accident frequency zones differ bymethod of analysis: Analysis by total number of accidents and TSWI.
Gimpo-city is currently showing an increase in transportation vulnerable
population, therefore the TSWI is more adequate.
In the future, more accurate levels of AHP value will be acquired
through additional professional assistance. Also, through survey targeting
the general people, comparison and analysis will be made between theprofessionals and the general people regarding their notions about theweights.
REFERENCES
TAAS., taas.koread.or.kr/index.jps
GyunGi-Do Traffic DataBase Center., www.ktdb.go.kr/
Traffic Monitoring System., www.tms.or.kr/
Gimpo-City., 2008, The Planning of the Rural Area public
transportation in Gimpo-City
Gimpo-City., 2009,The Amendment of the Urban Master Plan for theyears 2020in Gimpo-City
Ministry of Land, Transport and Maritime Affairs, 2010, The 2nd
Guideline for Local Traffic Safety Master Plan
Gimpo-City., 2011, the Planning of Traffic Safety in Gimpo-City

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5thMODELING OF TENSILE BEHAVIOR
OF MORTAR IMMERSEDIN NaCl SOLUTION
1Taito MIURA1, Yasuhiko SATO2
Doctoral 2nd degree Student, Faculty of Eng., Hokkaido University, Japant.miura@eng.hokudai.ac.jp
2
Associate Professor, Faculty of Eng., Hokkaido University, Japan

ABSTRACTIn this study, meso-scale mortar specimens were immerged in NaClsolution for 180 days and then three-point bending tests of the specimens
and chemical analyses were conducted so as to determine tensile softening
curves from load displacement curves using a back analysis and to clarify
how the amount of hydrate affects tensile characteristics. Consequently, it
was found that the elastic modulus and the tensile strength decreased as theamount of hydrates CH and C-S-H decreased. Besides, based on theexperimental results, the model formula of elastic modulus, tensile strength,
fracture energy and tensile softening curve that can consider the amount ofhydrate change were proposed.
Keywords: leaching, hydrate, tensile strength, elastic modulus,
fracture energy, tensile softening curve
1. INTRODUCTION
In concrete structures exposed to freshwater, Calcium leaching would cause
reduction of the hardness of hydrated cement (Taylor, 1997). Leaching is arelatively slow phenomenon that may reduce the durability of marine
structures and radioactive waste treatment plants (Faucon, 1997 and Xie,
2008). In snowy cold region, de-icing agent containing NaCl would
accelerate the deterioration caused by leaching (Yokozeki, 2002). In
addition, chloride ions accelerate freezing and thawing deterioration (JCI,
1999), and as a result mass transfer resistance and the mechanicalcharacteristics of concrete are changed. Therefore, the mechanisms ofleaching and of freezing and thawing deterioration in the presence ofchloride ions should be clarified.
In this study, using meso-scale specimens with the height of 5mm(Sato, 2010), the relationships between chemical composite and tensile
behavior, such as elastic modulus, tensile strength, fracture energy andtensile softening curve are clarified. Besides, the model formulas of tensile
behavior which can consider that hydrates change with time are proposed.

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2. EXPERIMENTAL OVERVIEW
In this study, the concentration of CH and C-S-H in the specimens was
reduced continuously so as to evaluate the relationships between the amountof hydrate and the tensile characteristics with time. Soaking periods of 0, 30,
60, 90 and 180 days were applied, and ten specimens were tested in eachsoaking period in order to improve the reliability of the results.
2.1 Specimens conditions
The specimens were made from ordinary Portland cement. Fine
aggregates whose maximum size was 1.7 mm were used. Water-to-cement
ratio was set to 50%. The ratio of water, cement, and fine aggregates was 1:
2: 6.
Firstly, in this experiment, mortar prisms with a height of 40 mm, awidth of 40 mm and a length of 160 mm had been casted and cured in waterfor 60 days. After curing, meso-scale specimens with 5 mm height, 30 mm
width and 70 mm length were cut from the mortar prisms. Actual size of
specimens was within the range of ±0.5 mm of the target one.
2.2 Experimental conditions
Immersion solution made from powdery NaCl and ion-exchanged
water so as to be solution with a chloride ion concentration of 20g/l. Ten
specimens were hanged with corrosive-resistant strings were placed in a 15l
poly container filled with the solution, as shown in Photo 1. The containers
with the specimens were maintained at 20 oC in a temperature-controlled
room. The immersion solution in each container was replaced with fresh
solution every 30 days.
2.3 Bending test
After the immersion test, the specimens were dried in desiccators for
24 hours, and then bending tests were conducted. The LVDT sensors werelocated at the center of the span and at the supporting points of thespecimens, as shown in Photo 2. The loading speed was set to 1µm /sec.

Photo 1: Immersion condition
condition

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2.4 Chemical analysis
The amount of CH was determined by the thermo gravimetric anddifferential thermal analysis (TG-DTA), and the amount of C-S-H wasdetermined according to an analysis using heavy liquid and salicylic
acid/methanol. The amount of CH and C-S-H in the specimens wasmeasured during each soaking period. In addition, 4 specimens wererandomly selected among ten specimen tested and pulverized in a ball millto powder with the grain diameter of 0.04 mm.
2.5 Determination of tension softening curves
With JCI-S-001-2003 (JCI, 2003), a multi-linear approximation
technique was used to transform the load displacement curves into tension
softening curves. In the back analysis, the tensile strength was also
determined, and the fracture energy was calculated from the area enclosedby the tension softening curve and the x-axis.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
3.1 Chemical composition change
The relationships between the change in CH and C-S-H in specimens
immersed in NaCl solution and the duration of the soaking periods areshown in Figure 1 and 2. The weight percentage of CH decreases
incrementally as the duration of the soaking period and the weightpercentage of CH becomes almost zero after 90 days. The weightpercentage of C-S-H does not change for the first 30 days. After that, it isgradually decreased and then, after 180 days, the C-S-H concentration
becomes approximately 37% of the initial one.

Figure 1: The change in CH and C-S-H in specimen with time
3.2 Stress displacement curve and elastic modulus
The average of flexural stress and displacement curves of thespecimens immersed in NaCl solution with time is shown in Figure 3. The
flexural stress was calculated as follows;

NaClsolution
Modeling ofModelingof tensile
tensile behavior
behaviourofofmortar
mortarimmersed
immersedininNaClsolution

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σ=
(1)

3PL
2bh 2

where P is the applied load (N), L is the span length (50 mm), b is the width(30±0.5 mm) and h is the height (5±0.5 mm)
Figure 4 shows the relationships between elastic modulus and theduration of the soaking periods. As shown in Figures 3 and 4, flexuralstrength and elastic modulus decrease as soaking period becomes longer.
After 180 days, the average value of elastic modulus becomesapproximately 38% of the initial one. When taking particular note ofsoftening zone of stress and displacement curves shown in Figure 3, thesoftening gradient just after the peak stress does not change with time.

Figure 3: The change in stress and displacement curves with time

Figure 4: The change in elastic modulus with time
3.3 Tensile characteristics
Figure 5 shows the change in the average of tensile softening curves,
while Figures 6 and 7 show the relationships between the change in tensile
strength and soaking periods and fracture energy and soaking periods,
respectively.
As shown in Figure 5, it can be found that tensile stress when crack
width is greater than 0.03 mm is almost the same for different periods. As
shown in Figure 6, tensile strength tended to decrease along with time. As

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shown in Figure 7, it appears there is no relationship between fractureenergy and soaking periods.
3.4 Tensile characteristics and amount of hydrate change
Figure 8 shows the relationships between tensile strength, elastic modulus,
and fracture energy normalized by initial one and reduction rate of hydrate
to initial amount of hydrate. Elastic modulus and tensile strength decreased
along with the reduction of the amount of CH and C-S-H, as shown in
Figures 8(a), 8(b), 9(a) and 9(b). As shown in Figure 8(c) and 9(c), fractureenergy does not show strong connectivity with the reduction of CH and CS-H.

Figure 5: The change in tensile softening curve with time

Figure 6: The change in tensile strength with time

Figure 7: The change in fracture energy with time

Modeling ofNaClsolution
Modelingof tensile
tensile behavior
behaviourofofmortar
mortarimmersed
immersedininNaClsolution

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August 2012, Thailand(a) Elastic modulus(b) Tensile strength(c) Fracture energy

Figure 8: The relationships between the reduction of CH and tensile behavior(a) Elastic modulus(b) Tensile strength(c) Fracture energy

Figure 9: The relationships between the reduction of C-S-H and tensile behavior
4. MODELINGIn this experiment, the change in tensile behavior influenced by the chloride
ion was determined. Then, the model formulas of elastic modulus, tensile
strength and fracture energy which can take into consideration the amountof hydrates are proposed based on the experimental results.
It is well-known that strength decreases along with increasing ofporosity size (Roy, 1975). Therefore elastic modulus and fracture energy
can be also related to its strength. In this paper, elastic modulus, tensile
strength and fracture energy are approximated by the following equations
because the reduction rate of hydrate might be related strongly to theporosity change.
(2)

(3)

⎡ ⎧
ΔCH
ΔCSH
ΔCH
ΔCSH ⎫⎤
E= exp ⎢− ⎨α E ⋅+ βE ⋅+ γ αE ⋅+ γ βE ⋅
⎬⎥
E0
CH 0
CSH 0
CH 0
CSH 0 ⎭⎦⎥
⎣⎢ ⎩

⎡ ⎧
ft
ΔCH
ΔCSH
ΔCH
ΔCSH ⎫⎤= exp ⎢− ⎨α ft ⋅+ β ft ⋅+ γ αft ⋅+ γ βft ⋅
⎬⎥
ft0
CH 0
CSH 0
CH 0
CSH 0 ⎭⎥⎦
⎢⎣ ⎩

Gf
Gf0

(4)

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⎡ ⎧
ΔCH
ΔCSH
ΔCH
ΔCSH ⎫⎤= exp ⎢− ⎨α Gf ⋅+ β Gf ⋅+ γ αGf ⋅+ γ βGf ⋅
⎬⎥
CH
CSH
CH
CSH 0 ⎭⎦⎥
0
0
0
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where E and E0 are elastic modulus and initial one, ft and ft0 are tensile
strength and initial one, Gf and Gf0 are fracture energy and initial one, ΔCH
is the reduction of CH, CH0 is the amount of CH before immersion, ΔCSH isthe reduction of C-S-H, CSH0 is the amount of C-S-H before immersion, αE,
αft, and αGf are the coefficient factors of which ΔCH/CH0 influences eachtensile behavior, βE, βft, and βGf are the coefficient factors of which
ΔCSH/CSH0 influences each tensile behavior, respectively.
With this understanding, the coefficient values α and β were
determined from regression analyses with experimental results and thecoefficient values and determination coefficient |r2| are shown in table 1.
Table 1: Coefficient values

In this study, the prediction equation for softening curves proposed by
Hordijk (1991) is used.
⎡⎧
⎪
⎢⎪
⎣⎩

⎛

σ = f t ⋅ ⎢⎨1 + ⎜⎜ c1 ⋅

(5)

⎝

3
⎤
⎛
w⎞ w
w ⎞ ⎫⎪
3⎟⎟ ⎬ ⋅ exp⎜⎜ − c2 ⋅ ⎟⎟ −⋅ 1 + c1 ⋅ exp(− c2 )⎥wc ⎠ ⎪
wc ⎠ wc
⎥
⎝
⎭
⎦

(

wc =

5.14 ⋅ G f

)

ft

(6)
where ft is tensile strength, σ is tensile stress, wc is maximum crack width, w
is crack width, c1and c2 are constant values (c1=3, c2=6.93(Hordijk, 1991)).
Figure 10 shows the comparisons of experimental tensile softening curves
and the predicted one calculated by the equations 2 to 6. The proposed
equations can predict the tensile behavior appropriately.

(a) before immersion(b) after 90 days(c) after 180days

Figure 10: The verification of tensile softening curves calculated by model
equationNaClsolution
Modeling ofModelingof tensile
tensile behavior
behaviourofofmortar
mortarimmersed
immersedininNaClsolution

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5. CONCLUSIONSThe changes in elastic modulus, tensile strength, fracture energy and tensile
softening curves along with the change of the amount of CH and C-S-H in
meso-scale specimens immersed in NaCl solution were clarified. Elastic
modulus and tensile strength tended to decrease linearly along with the
reduction of hydrate.
The model formulas of elastic modulus, tensile strength and fractureenergy which can consider the change of the amount of hydrate were
proposed.
With the model formula of tensile strength and fracture energy, tensile
softening behaviour of the deteriorated mortar immersed in solutions
including chloride ions was predicted with reasonable accuracy.
REFERENCES
H.F.W. Taylor, 1997. Cement Chemistry 2nd Edition. Thomas Telford,
London, p.380.
P. Faucon, F. Adenot, J.F. Jacquinot, J.C. Petit, R. Cabrillac, M. Jorda,
1998. Long-term behavior of cement pastes used for nuclear waste
disposal: Review of physico- chemical mechanisms of water degradation.
Cement and Concrete Research 28, p.847-857.
S.Y. Xie, J.F. Shao, N. Burlion, 2008. Experimental study ofmechanical behavior of cement paste under compressive stress and chemicaldegradation. Cement and Concrete Research, Vol.38, p.1416-1423.
Kosuke Yokozeki, Kenzo Watanabe, Yasuhiko Furusawa, Masaki
Daimon, Nobuaki Otsuki, Makoto Hisada, 2002. Analysis of old structuresand numerical model for degradation of calcium ion leaching from concrete.
Journals of Japan Society of Civil Engineers, No.697/V-54, pp.51-64 (InJapanese).
Deterioration of Concrete Structures by Deicing Salt in Japan: Japan
Concrete Institute, 1999.11 (In Japanese).
Yasuhiko Sato, Taito Miura, Yuji Oiwa, 2010. Meso-scale mechanicalcharacteristics of chemically deteriorated mortar. Proceedings of 2ndInternational Symposium on Service Life Design for Infrastructures, pp.2732.
Method of test for fracture energy of concrete by use of notched beam
JCI-S-002-2003: Japan Concrete Institute Standard (In Japanese).
Kazuyuki Torii, Mitsunori Kawamura, Masahiro Yamada, SusantaChatterji, 1992. Deteriorated of cement mortars immersed in NaCl and
CaCl2 solution. Cement Science and Concrete Technology, No.46 (InJapanese).
D.M.Roy, G. R. Gouda, 1975. Optimization of strength in cement
pastes, Cement and Concrete Research, Vol.5, pp.153-162.
Dirk Arend Hordijk, 1991. Local approach to fatigue of concrete.
Graduate Thesis, Delft University of Technology

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5thINFLUENCE OF SURFACE STRESSESON A THREE-DIMENSIONAL ELASTIC
MEDIUM WITH MODE-I CRACK
Pong-in INTARIT1, Teerapong SENJUNTICHAI2, Jaroon
RUNGAMORNRAT3
1
Doctoral candidate, Faculty of engineering,
Chulalongkorn University, Thailand
2
Professor, Faculty of engineering,
Chulalongkorn University, Thailand
Teerapong.S@eng.chula.ac.th3
Assistant Professor, Faculty of engineering,
Chulalongkorn University, Thailand
ABSTRACT
Study on nanoscale systems has received wide attentions in recent
years due to its importance in various advanced engineering applications.
The surface-to-volume ratio of nanoscale elements is relatively highcompared with that of macroscale elements and the effect of surface freeenergy becomes important. Surface energy effects are also important in the
study of soft elastic solids. A theoretical framework based on continuum
mechanics was developed to incorporate the influence of surface energy
effects by Gurtin and Murdoch. In this paper, a penny-shaped crack in an
infinite elastic medium subjected to mode-I loading is considered with thepresence of surface stresses by employing the Gurtin-Murdoch continuum
theory of surfaces elasticity. Hankel integral transforms are used to solve
the boundary-value problems associated with surface stresses. A set ofsimultaneous dual integral equations is solved by employing appropriate
solution scheme. Selected numerical results are presented to portray the
influence of surface stresses on the bulk elastic field. It is found that thesurface stresses have a significant influence on the bulk elastic field.
Numerical results also reveal that material becomes tougher with thepresence of surface stresses. In addition, the bulk elastic field shows thesize-dependent behavior with the consideration of surface stresses. The
solutions presented in this study provide fundamental understanding of theinfluence of surface stresses on the bulk elastic field in fracture mechanics
of nanoscale structures and soft elastic solids.
Keywords: Continuum mechanics; crack; fracture mechanics; surface
elasticity; surface stresses
1. INTRODUCTION

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Study on the mechanics of nanomaterials and nanostructures becomes
important in various advanced engineering applications due to theirpossession of superior properties. In nanoscale structures, the influence of
surface/interfacial free energy becomes significant due to their high surfaceto-volume ratio. Naturally, analysis of nano-scale materials can be carriedout by employing an atomistic modeling technique. However, this approachis computationally demanding when applied at a device/system level.
Considering nanosize effects based on continuum concepts is very efficient
option to obtain first-approximation solutions in the analysis of nanoscale
systems. The effect of surface energy, which is generally ignored in theconventional continuum mechanics, is one of the aspects that have been
employed to describe the properties of structures and devices in the range ofnanometer. A rigorous theory based on continuum mechanics concepts wasdeveloped to incorporate the surface and interfacial energy effects by Gurtin
and Murdoch (1975, 1978). The surface is modeled as a zero thickness layer
perfectly bonded to the underlying bulk material. Miller and Shenoy (2000)
examined the size effect of the nano-scale plates and bars by employing
Gurtin-Murdoch continuum model associated with surface stresses andfound that the results were in excellent agreement with those based on
atomistic simulations.
Fracture mechanics study is one of most interesting field in anengineering approach. It has important applications for improving themechanical properties of engineering devices and structures. Several crack
and dislocation problems were studied in the context of classical continuum
theory by considering the influence of surface stresses (Wu, 1999; Wang etal., 2008; Fu et al., 2008; Intarit et al., 2010; Kim el al., 2010, 2011). A
literature survey indicates that all existing studies related to crack problems
with the presence of surface stresses are concerned with plane problems. In
this paper, a fundamental problem of penny-shaped crack in an infinite
elastic medium is examined by adopting Gurtin-Murdoch theory of surface
elasticity. An axisymmetric vertical load is applied on the crack surface anda perfectly sharp crack tip is assumed. Hankel integral transform together
with a solution technique for dual integral equations are employed to solve
the boundary-value problem involving non-classical boundary conditions
associated with the surface stresses. Selected numerical results are presented
to describe the influence of surface stresses on the elastic field.
2. GOVERNING EQUATIONS AND GENERAL SOLUTIONSConsider a penny-shaped crack with a radius a subjected to axisymmetricvertical loading in an infinite elastic medium as shown in Fig. 1. The
response of the elastic medium is modeled by the Gurtin-Murdoch
continuum theory (Gurtin and Murdoch 1975, 1978). According to thismodel, the surface energy effects are considered by modeling the surface asa mathematical layer of zero thickness with relevant elastic properties andresidual surface tension that is perfectly bonded to the underlying bulk
material.

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In the absence of body forces, the equilibrium, the constitutive
equations and the strain-displacement relationship of the bulk material are
given respectively by where ui, σij and εij denote respectively thecomponents of displacement, stress and strain tensors. In addition, μ and λare Lamé constants of the bulk material.
z

p(r)
r

2a

Figure 1: A penny-shaped crack in an infinite elastic medium

σ ij , j = 0(1)

σ ij = 2 με ij + λδ ij ε kk
(2)

ε ij =

1( ui, j + u j ,i )2

(3)

On the crack the surface, the equilibrium equation, constitutive laws
and strain-displacement relations can be expressed as (Gurtin and Murdoch
1975, 1978).

σ isα ,α + σ ij n j = 0
(4)
s
σ βα
= τ sδ βα + 2 ( μ s − τ s ) ε βα + ( λ s + τ s ) ε γγ δ βα + τ s uβs ,α , σ 3sα = τ s u3,α

(5)
s
ε αβ
=

1 s
( uα ,β + uβs ,α )2(6)where the superscript ‘s’ is used to denote the quantities corresponding to
the surface; μs and λs are surface Lamé constants; τs is the residual surface
stress (or surface tension) under unstrained conditions; and ni denotes the

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components of the unit normal vector of the surface. In addition, Greek
subscripts denote the field quantities associated with the surface and take thevalue of 1 or 2, while the Latin subscripts adopt values from 1 to 3.
Due to the symmetry about the z-axis of the penny-shaped crackshown in Fig.1, the stress fields under consideration are therefore
independent of θ, i.e. σrθ = σzθ = 0. The general solutions for the bulk
stresses and displacements can be expressed with respect to a cylindricalcoordinate system by using Hankel integral transforms as (Sneddon 1951),∞2(λ + μ ) ∞ 2 dΦ
⎡ d 3ΦdΦ ⎤−σ rr = ∫ ξ ⎢ λ 3 + ( λ + 2 μ ) ξ 2
J
ξ
r
d
ξ
⎥ 0( )∫ ξ dz J1 (ξ r ) dξ
dz
dz
r
⎣
⎦
0
0
(7)
∞
2(λ + μ ) ∞ 2 dΦ
⎡ d 3ΦdΦ ⎤+σ θθ = λ ∫ ξ ⎢ 3 − ξ 2
J
ξ
r
d
ξ
⎥ 0( )∫ ξ dz J1 (ξ r ) dξ
dz ⎦
r
⎣ dz
0
0
(8)
∞
⎡
d 3Φ
dΦ ⎤
σ zz = ∫ ξ ⎢( λ + 2 μ ) 3 − ( 3λ + 4 μ ) ξ 2⎥J 0 ( ξ r ) d ξ
dz
dz ⎦
⎣
0

(9)

⎡ d 2Φ
⎤σ rz = ∫ ξ ⎢ λ 2 + ( λ + 2 μ ) ξ 2 Φ ⎥J1 ( ξ r ) d ξ
⎣ dz
⎦
0

(10)

λ + μ ∞ 2 dΦJ1 ( ξ r ) d ξ
ξ
dz
μ ∫0

(11)

⎡ d 2Φ λ + 2μ 2 ⎤uz = ∫ ξ ⎢ 2 −ξ Φ ⎥J 0 ( ξ r ) d ξ
μ
⎣ dz
⎦
0

(12)

∞

2

ur =
∞

where

Φ(ξ , z ) = ( A + Bz )e

−ξ z

(13)

Note that Jn(ξ) denotes the Bessel functions of the first kind of order n.
In addition, A and B are the arbitrary functions to be determined from theappropriate boundary conditions.
3. SOLUTIONS OF BOUNDARY-VALUE PROBLEMS

Consider a penny-shaped crack with a radius a subjected to axisymmetricvertical loading p(r) in an infinite elastic medium as shown in Fig. 1. Due tothe symmetry about z-axis of the problem together with the assumption that
surface tension is constant, the boundary conditions on the crack surface (z= 0) can be expressed as

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5thICUS Report 64⎛ d 2u z 1 du z ⎞σ zz + τ ⎜ 2 +⎟ = − p(r )r dr ⎠⎝ drsuz = 0⎛ d 2ur 1 dur ur ⎞
+
− ⎟=0
2
r dr r 2 ⎠⎝ dr

σ rz + κ s ⎜σ rz = 0

when 0 < r < a(14)

when a < r < ∞(15)when 0 < r < a(16)when a < r < ∞(17)where κs = 2μs+λs is a surface material constant. By substituting stresses anddisplacements from Eqs.(7) – (12) into Eqs.(14) - (17), a set ofsimultaneous dual integral equations is constituted. The arbitrary functions
A and B can be obtained by solving dual integral equations using solution
technique proposed by Erdogan and Bahar (1964)
4. NUMERICAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Due to the complexity of fundamental solutions for the penny-shaped crack
considering the effects of surface elasticity, the solutions for elastic fields
have to be computed by using numerical quadrature scheme. In this section,
selected numerical results are presented to demonstrate the influence of
surface stress on the elastic field of the medium. The surface elastic
constants can be obtained by employing atomistic simulations (Miller and
Shenoy 2000, Dingreville). In the numerical study, It is convenient tointroduce the following non-dimensional quantities, r0 = r/Λ; z0 = z/Λ and a0= a/Λ, where Λ = |κs/μ| and it has the dimension of length. The numericalresults in the present study correspond to the case of a penny-shaped crack
in an infinite elastic medium subjected to a uniformly distributed verticalload, P0 applied on the crack surface. In addition, the material properties of
λ/μ = 1.94, Λ = .24983 nm and τs = 0.6056 N/m for Si [100] (Miller and
Shenoy, 2000) are used in the present study.
To verify the accuracy of solution technique used in the study, theconvergence of the present study solution is plotted for the classical case,where the surface stress is excluded (i.e. κs = τs = 0), compare with theanalytical solution in classical elasticity. In Fig. 2, the convergence ofpresent solution is shown for non-dimensional vertical stress in the vicinityof crack tip. Note that the broken line denotes the classical elasticity
solutions. It can be seen from the figure that the present solution shows
excellent agreement with classical elasticity solution proposed by Fabricant(1989).

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Figure 2: Convergence of non-dimensional vertical stresses in the vicinityof crack tip
Figures 3 and 4 demonstrate the influence of surface stress on theelastic field of an elastic medium near the crack region. A non-dimensional
crack radius, a0 = 1.0 is considered in the numerical study. In Fig. 3, thevariation along the r-axis of non-dimensional vertical stresses in the region
near the crack tip is presented, whereas Fig. 4 displays the non-dimensional
crack opening displacements. The non-dimensional stresses anddisplacements shown in Figure 3 and 4 are presented for Si [100] andhypothetical material (λ/μ = 1.94, Λ = .24983 nm) with different values ofresidual surface stress (i.e. τs = 0.1 and 1.0 N/m). Note that the broken lines
in Fig. 3 and 4 denote the classical elasticity solution (Fabricant, 1989),
which can also be obtained from the present solution with the absence of
surface stress (i.e. κs = τs = 0).

Figure 3: Non-dimensional vertical stress profiles in the vicinity of crack tip
under uniformly distributed vertical load for different residual
surface stresses.

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Figure 4: Non-dimensional crack opening displacement under uniformly
distributed vertical load for different residual surface stresses
The variation of non-dimensional vertical stress on the crack plane in
the region near the crack tip shown in Fig. 3 reveals that the surface stresshas a significant influence on the vertical stresses, especially in the vicinityof the crack tip where the vertical stress approaches infinity for bothclassical and present solutions. It is observed from the figure that thepresence of surface stress effects results in the reduction of vertical stresses.
Similar aspect is also found in the case of plane strain cracks (Kim et al.,2011), except that in their cases the stress at the crack tip is finite due to theassumption of finite stress at crack tip. In Fig. 4 the influence of the surface
stress on the crack opening displacement is presented. As in classicalelasticity, the maximum displacement is located at the center of the crack
before gradually reduces to zero at the crack tip. In addition, it can be seenfrom the figure that the presence of surface stress causes the reduction of thecrack opening displacement.
5. CONCLUSIONS
The fundamental solution of a penny-shaped crack in an infinite elastic
medium is derived with the consideration of surface stress influence byadopting the Gurtin-Murdoch continuum theory and the Hankel integral
transform. A set of simultaneous dual integral equations is solved by
employing appropriate solution scheme. The solutions of stresses anddisplacements are expressed in terms of semi-infinite integrals and can becomputed accurately by employing a numerical quadrature scheme. It isfound from the numerical results that the surface stress has a significant
influence on the elastic field. Both vertical stress and crack opening
displacement from the present study show similar trends with their classicalsolutions. It is also found that the consideration of surface elasticity effects

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results in some decrease in the solutions when compared to their classicalcounterparts.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The work presented in this paper was supported by research grants from theThailand Research Fund (TRF).
REFERENCES
Dingreville, R., Qu, J. and Cherkaoui, M. (2005), “Surface free energy
and its effect on the elastic behavior of nano-sized particles, wires andfilms”, J Mech Phys Solids, 53, 1827-1854.
Erdogan, F. and Bahar, L.Y. (1964), “On the solution of simultaneous
dual integral equations”, J Soc Ind Appl Math, 12, 666-675.
Fabrikant, V.I. (1989), Applications of potential theory in mechanics:
a selections of new results, Kluwer Academic, The Netherlands.
Fu, X.L., Wang, G.F. and Feng, X.Q. (2008), “Surface effects on thenear-tip stress fields of a mode-II crack”, Int J Fract, 151, 95–106.
Gurtin, M.E. and Murdoch, A.I. (1975), “A continuum theory ofelastic material surfaces”, Arch Rat Mech Anal, 57, 291-323.
Gurtin, M.E. and Murdoch, A.I. (1978), “Surface stress in solids”, Int
J Solids Struc, 14, 431-440.
Intarit, P., Senjuntichai, T. and Rajapakse, R.K.N.D. (2010)“Dislocations and internal loading in a semi-infinite elastic medium withsurface stresses”, Eng Fracture Mech, 10.1016.
Kim, C.I., Schiavone, P. and Ru, C.Q. (2010), “The effects of surface
elasticity on an elastic solid with mode-III crack: complete solution”, ASMEJ Appl Mech, 77, 021011: 1-7.
Kim, C.I., Schiavone, P. and Ru, C.Q. (2011), “Analysis of planestrain crack problems (Mode-I & Mode-II) in the presence of surface
elasticity”, J Elast, 104, 397-420.
Miller, R.E. and Shenoy, V.B. (2000), “Size-dependent elastic
properties of nanosized structural elements”, Nanotechnology, 11, 139-147.
Sneddon, I.N. (1951), Fourier transforms, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Wang, G.F., Feng, X.Q., Wang, T.J. and Gao, W. (2008), “Surface
effects on the near-tip stresses for Mode-I and Mode-III cracks”, ASME J
Appl Mech, 75, 011001: 1-5.
Wu, C.H. (1999). “The effect of surface stress on the configurational
equilibrium of voids and cracks”, J Mech Phys Solids, 47, 2469-2402

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DESIGN OF RECONSTRUCTION
TO SAVE PEOPLE IN IWANUMA, MIYAGIRina GOTO
Graduate Student School of Eng, The University of Tokyo, J apan
Mikio Koshihara Laboratory
Rina1119@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp

ABSTRACTThe catastrophic earthquake and tsunami devastated the Pacific coastof north-eastern, Japan, on Friday, March 11,2011. The magnitude of theearthquake was 9.0, the most powerful earthquake ever measured in Japan.
About 19,000 people are dead and missing. However, the damages arevaried in areas. In the Sendai plain, where has plains along the shore but
not hills, flooding area spread widely.
This year, from April to July, as a part of the reconstruct of MIYAGI
area, the design studio was held. Building sites are the west of Tamaura
town, Iwanuma city. The site is 27.8ha, spreading from Megumino
residential area to paddy fields. In the eastern side, there are a main roadand educational, public facilities. In recent years, the center of the city,
Megumino has been developed and urbanized. A farming village has
survived around area.
We design in terms of topography, vegetation, and view. In our
proposal, Tamaura mound will save more and more people than before.
Keywords: a devastating earthquake, Iwanuma area, sea shore,
mound, Igune, a rice field (except a proper noun)
1. INTRODUCTION
Hiyoriyama, a small man-made mound, saved some flood victims intsunami.
For the mound is 10 meters in height, waves didn’t come to the top of
it. Since then, Hiyoriyama have been the help of their memories. Coming
people said to have an emotional time, remembering the disaster and native
places. Therefore, we proposed that Tamaura mound save more and more
people in the disaster and everyday life. When waves are coming, themountain has a large capacity, 1500 people in the site and 2400 people inMegumino. In daily, they have an emotional time, looking at the village andMegumino area. Igune, a kind of woods in this area, save their houses fromthe strong wind. In addition, some kinds of events are held for seasons there
and taken over for next generation.

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2. ANALYSIS AND PROPOSAL
2.1 Flooding and sea level
In Sendai plain, these figure and data show that a little mound is aplace of refuge. For example, Hiyoriyama is 10 meters in height and waves
didn’t arrive at the top of it. Highway played a role of a tide embankment.
Moreover, this map shows that people can take refuge from the tidal wave
to Tamaura mound.

Tamaura mound developed in the site is 37500 ㎡ in area, as an open
space or a park provided by the reconstruction plan. We establish the mound10 meters to have an incline for living people, a capacity as a shelter, and afine view. To save the site and around area from strong wind, the mound isplaced to the northwest and will be an indispensable part as Jinaimyojin, aspiritual space in cultural houses in this area.

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2.2 Memory of scenerySix villages coming from sea shore area had seen moats, rice fields,
rivers, and the sea, where people had rowed a boat, fished and swum. In ourplan, Tamaura mound sees new sceneries. Six villages surround this moundand a reservoir spread at the foot of it.

For several years, Tamaura mound will make people see an extensive
rice fields, the sky high above them, the eternal flowing rivers, a vast curvedline, a pine grove, the horizon, sea over there, and native paces. These
sceneries save them to recall the past, not to forget their important memories.

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2.3 Igune, a kind of cultural woods
Igune, composed a lot of kinds of woods, appears to be a small
forestry scenery and is indispensable for people to endure a hard life, during
blowing a seasonal wind.

Igune plays an important part in dividing areas, such as playgrounds,
seasonal symbol, secure of the privacy, a place of rest and relaxation.
Children work hard and play hard. Cherry trees make the street morebustling. People can spend a calm time for the shade of trees in their own
houses.

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2.4 Rituals for seasons
This site as shown in figure was given the earliest as the place for agroup move in stricken area, for a close bond of affection during villages.
This bond has been made up by people admiring the beauty of seasons.

Annual events, cultural festivals will be taken over in this new site.
Tamaura mound colored by seasons have people connected to nature and six
villages integrated at seasonal changes. Living people continue to admire
cultural events and wealthy nature.

3. PLANNING
Six villages, Hujisone, Ainokama, Ninokura, Hasegama, Kamasaki, andShinhama, surround Tamaura mound and are divided softly by Igune.
Groups composing villages possess fields. Anyone can use Yama housefreely. It connects one group to another. Tamaura mound overlooks a vivid
life for villages and stand in front of them. Living people know plentiful
seasonal views anywhere.

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4. NEW LANDSCAPE IN TAMAURA
A row of cherry trees leads to Tamaura mound. Spring festival is held ineach village under the trees.

Summer night coming, feeling summer festival over there, andlooking at lighting bugs in a stream, will have reminded climbing people ofmoats along the sea.

In autumn, harvest time, deck is filled with people and the crops.
Igune turns yellow and shroud each village gently.

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A general meeting having taken over for a long time will have been
held continuously, during wintertime, in the gathering house. The trees are
shedding their leaves. Their fields of a vision suddenly open up. The
grandeur of nature stands in front of us.

Therefore each culture unifies communities and people live insymbiosis with nature throughout the year. For several years, spring coming,
the great sceneries, glittering fields, Igune, villages, and sea over there, will
have revived again.

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5. CONCLUSIOON
We proposed that Tamaura mound saved more people. If these villages
decline in several decades, streets and mound will be left and continue towork as an evacuation route. Prospects spreading around villages have beenengraved on their mind. Igune leading to the mound makes up features ofthe scenery and give them the presence of mind. Seasonal events stimulate
succession to nature and culture. Therefore our suggestion aims at
sustainable reformation. We desire that our design save lives and memories
of more and more people.
REFERENCES
The Ministry of Land, The Tohoku Earthquake, April 9, 2012
http://www.mlit.go.jp/common/000139083.pdf
Japanese Weather Society, Summary of The Tohoku Pacific
Earthquake 2011
http://www.jwa.or.jp/static/topics/20110422/tsunamigaiyou3.pdf
Nakajima Michiro, 1963, RESIDENCIAL WOODS IN JAPAN,
laboratory in the promotion of industry
Igune distribution in Sendai Plain(1),(2),(3) Kikuchi, Sato, Nihei,
Naito, Abe, Miura, Iwata, Tohoku Gakuin University
The Geographical Survey Institute(2011), plan of reconstruction in thedisaster
http://www.gsi.go.jp/kibanjoho/kibanjoho40023.html
Iwanuma-City(1992), Classification of Land in Iwanuma, PASUCO
joint-stock company
History of Iwanuma-City, editing committee(1984)
Sasaki Kiichiro(1961.11-1967.9), Story of Iwanuma, Iwanuma
tourism Society

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5thANALYSIS OF TRANSBOUNDARYIMPACTS OF HYDROPOWER
DEVELOPMENT IN THE MEKONG:
CASE OF 3S SUB-BASIN
Seemanta BHAGABATI1, Akiyuki KAWASAKI2,
Mukand BABEL3and Peter ROGERS4
1
Graduate Student, School of Engineering and Technology,
Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand
seemanta0605@gmail.com
2
Visiting Associate Professor, WEM, SET,
Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand
3
Associate professor, WEM, SET,
Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand
4
Gordon McKay Professor of Environmental Engineering,
Harvard University
ABSTRACT
Hydropower dam development has enormous economic,
environmental, and social impacts at a local, national, and trans-national
level. It has become a priority in water resources, environmental, andeconomic planning in transboundary water systems. The impact on
downstream users is of particular concern, as hydropower development hashistorically both positively and negatively impacted downstream players insignificant ways. It has been suggested that transboundary water conflicts,
such as those that may arise from hydropower dam development, may beresolved through benefit sharing. Game theory has been used as aconceptual tool to analyse the possibilities for benefit sharing and theirrelative optimality and equitability. This study attempts to investigate theutility of a game theory approach for the impact of hydropower dam
development on water resources adaptation in transboundary sub-basins.
The study area is the 3S basin in the Mekong River Basin, covering areas inCambodia, Laos, and Vietnam. Regional stakeholders’ feedback has been
incorporated to define models and methodologies, and an adaptation
strategy for the area has been proposed. This study proposed a methodology
for analysing complex transboundary river-basin issues, which will provide
an important basis for local policy decisions and regional planning in the
Mekong River and beyond.
Keywords: 3S sub-basin, Cambodia, game theory, hydropower
development, Laos, Mekong River Basin, optimization, transboundary water
issues, Vietnam

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1. INTRODUCTION
Rivers are one of the main sources of fresh water. They play a dominant rolein sustaining ecosystems. Rivers have always played a vital role in theeconomic development of mankind and human settlement has always beennear-by Rivers. A healthy river is typically one with: protected watersheds,
preserving soil fertility and reducing contaminant and sediment soiltransport; conserved wetlands, floodplains and groundwater recharge areas,
to maintain their natural capacity to buffer river flow and water quality
variations; protected aquatic and riverine terrestrial biodiversity; andcontrolled water abstraction and wastewater discharge, to manage riverflows and water quality (Sadoff, C.W. et al, 2002).
There are hundreds of rivers in the world, out of which there are morethan 200 river basin shared by two or more countries. Hence these rivers arecalled International River and their basins are known as International river
basins. Proper water resources allocation is a very important issue and there
have been many critical debates and conflicts throughout the world in thehistory of mankind. Conflicts among the riparian countries prevent themfrom making the best use of their shared water resources. Negotiating forthe adequate sharing of these resources is a very critical subject of discourse
involving fields like public policy, environmental sciences, engineering andeconomics. The work has evolved in the recent years as previous literature
has used numerous economic and mathematical frameworks to quantify andguide the decision-making process in water resource allocation.
The impact of hydropower development on transboundary basins is a
key issue and it must consider local, national as well as transnational
stakeholders . With the increasing demand of energy along with the
population growth and increasing domestic, agricultural and industrial needs,hydropower development has become increasingly critical in policy
decisions. It has always been perceived that water allocation is a zero-sum
game, i.e. water resources are finite and that one use will always preclude
another. Although physically speaking, water is finite, but there are many
non-consumptive uses of water as well, viz. hydropower generation,
fisheries, recreation and navigation. The use of water in these will notnecessarily diminish the water availability in the ecosystem for other uses.
Hence, if proper planning and cooperation exists, water allocation may be
converted into a positive sum game.
1.1 Statement of problems
The demand of energy has been increasing rapidly. Energy is one ofthe vital requirements for developing countries like Vietnam, Thailand,
Cambodia, etc. With the depleting coal mines and petroleum, which werethe main sources for energy production, it is required that new sources ofenergy to be found out. Hydropower is a renewable source of energy and isalso environmental free. Its maintenance cost is also fairly low compared toother sources of energy and doesn’t produce any waste products.

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Although, Hydropower is very promising, it has many negative impacts on
the downstream region. In case of an International river, the upstream anddownstream may not lie in the same country, resulting disputes and conflicts
among the riparian countries. The environmental dimensions of geopolitics
is needed to be rethought and the relation of humanity to ‘nature’ is to bereconsidered (Dalby, S. 2003). Hence, if the riparian countries cooperatethen these disputes can be minimised and the outputs can be maximised.
1.2 Objectives of the Study
The study aims in studying the transboundary water issues in the 3S
Basin of the Mekong River. The objectives can be summarized as:
1. Development of a comprehensive method to assess the benefits andcosts of HEPs.
2. Optimization of the hydropower development with benefit sharing.
1.3 Game Theory for transboundary analysis
Game Theory models strategic situations, or games, in which anindividual’s success in making choices depends on the choices of others(Myerson, 1991). According to Jean-Pierre P Langlois, Game Theory can be
described as the science of strategy or that of conflict resolution; at its core,
it has the characteristics of a mathematical construct: a set of concepts andassumptions, fundamental theorems, and applications to real world issues.
The discussion on benefit sharing takes it for granted that there are indeed
benefits of cooperation in the transboundary context that can be realized andshared. In this context, Sadoff & Grey (2002) distinguished benefits fromriver, to the river and beyond the river, as well as reduced costs because of
the river. Dombrowsky (2009) has pointed out: “The idea is that cooperation
can be driven by direct benefits from various water uses, by joint concerns
for environmental protection, by a broader interest in regional integration orby the will to reduce the costs of conflict”.
2. STUDY AREA
2.1 The 3S sub-basin: Sekong, Sesan and Sre Pok
The Sekong, Sesan and Sre Pok sub-basins, commonly known as the
3S Basin, is the largest tributary system of the Mekong River. It covers theborder areas of the “Indochina Junction” in Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam.
With a total area of 78,650 km2, the 3S is the largest tributary system of the
Mekong River. The 3S basin amounts to 10% of the Mekong River basinand contributes 17% of the total runoff (He, J. et al, 2010). The 3S basin is
located in Cambodia (33.03%), Lao PDR (28.69%) and Vietnam (38.28%).

Analysis ofAnalysisof transboundarytransboundary impacts
impacts ofof hydropowerhydropower development
developmentin
inthe
theMekong:
Mekong:casecaseofof3s
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2.2 Hydropower in the 3S sub-basin
Hydropower potential of the 3S area has attracted attention for morethan 50 years. A number of hydro-power plants (HEP) are alreadyconstructed and many are under construction or in the designing or masterplan phase. The total number amounts to 41 (as of April 2009) (AsianDevelopment Bank, 2009). These 41 plants are shown in the Figure 2.1
based on their stage.
Currently, power production in Cambodia is heavily relied on fossil
fuels. A significant percentage of the energy is imported. Hence, Cambodia
would like to reduce its dependence on imported energy. In Laos, one of themost sparsely populated countries in the world, while domestic energy
demand is growing, hydropower development is focused on revenue
generation through exporting energy to Vietnam and Thailand. Vietnam, on
the other hand, already has many HEPs but still it has to import energy tomeet its requirements.

Figure 2.1: The hydropower plants based on stage of the 3S sub-basin
3. METHODOLOGYThis chapter provides the research procedure and followed methods of thestudy to achieve the objectives. This study uses the concept of game theory
to optimize the hydropower scenario and minimize the conflicts anddisputes arising due to hydropower plants and show that cooperation willlead to a better outcome.

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3.1 Economic valuation of benefits
Hydropower dams, apart from the production of electricity, provides
many other forms of benefits as well, such as benefits from reservoir
fisheries, irrigational benefits, flood control, saline intrusion, recreational
benefits and so on. For the present study the following four factors havebeen considered for calculating the benefits viz. (a) Energy production, (b)Irrigational benefits, (c) Benefits from fisheries and (d) Flood control.
(a) Energy production
There exist many different methods for estimating the costs andbenefits of hydropower projects. The valuation method based on the conceptof “replacement cost” has been used. It calculates benefits from alternative
energy production to produce the equivalent amount of energy provided by
a HEP. It is different for each country based on the most popular method ofalternative energy generation (coal in Vietnam, coal/diesel combination in
Laos and Cambodia). This valuation also includes the benefits and costs ofexport/import of electricity. This method was chosen because of its
suitability for the policy decisions with which this study is concerned. Using
this method, based on the annual energy production, the benefits fromenergy production of all the HEPs were calculated.
(b) Irrigational benefits
Large scale irrigation, using irrigation canals, is often seen in
agricultural fields. The irrigation canals drastically improve the agricultural
productivities. The same can be seen in the case of Nam Theun 2 multipurpose hydropower plant (NTPC, 2011). Based on the past governmental
records of irrigated yield for the year 2007 and the projected yield for 2030
(with optimal water management), the annual net benefits from irrigatedcrops for the three countries has been estimated (MRC, 2010). The
individual country benefits, based on the 3S area, were then distributed
evenly among the HEPs constructed for the purpose of Irrigation.
(c) Benefits from fisheries
Directly or indirectly, most of the local communities along the river
basin are dependent on fisheries and aquaculture. Reservoirs of thehydropower plants promote aquaculture to a great extent. For estimating the
economic benefits, market prices of 2010 and culture fish were used. The
annual benefit also considered the production/fishing costs along with themarketing expenses. Due to lack of reliable data, for the estimation of
benefits from fisheries, household surveys were done my MRC, whichsurveyed peoples’ consumption of fish and other aquatic animals. Based on
the 3S area, the benefit of each country was calculated. A linear relation
between the catchment area and this benefit has been established for all thethree countries. Using this relation, the benefits for each HEPs has been
calculated based on the catchment area of each HEP.
(d) Flood Control
The annual economic benefits of mitigating floods during the wet
season due to the improved regulation of river flows has been estimatedAnalysis ofAnalysisof transboundarytransboundary impacts
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August 2012, Thailand(MRC, 2010). This benefit includes lower crop losses and well as reduced
damage to houses, businesses and public infrastructures, i.e. roads, schools,
health centres etc. The area of land benefiting from flood risk reduction was
estimated from the expected hydrological changes resulting from theconstruction of the UMB and LMB dams. These locations were thenmapped using the GIS database and the resulting benefited areas were
estimated. This total reduction of annual net economic damage due toflooding has been evenly divided among the HEPs constructed for the
purpose of flood control.
3.2 Economic valuation of Costs
The estimation of all the costs of a HEP in a transboundary river basin
is a very challenging task. Apart from the cost of construction or theinvestment cost, there are many other costs such as loss of fish, social losses
like resettlement loss, water quality loss, cultural loss, navigational loss, lossof natural habitats like wetlands, grasslands, etc. which are related with theconstruction of a hydroelectric power project. Estimating the cost of all ofthese factors is beyond the scope of this study. For the present study thecosts that were considered are (a) Annual costs of project (b) Cost oftransmission lines (c) Socio-economic costs (d) Loss of fish (e)Navigational loss (f) Environmental loss(a) Annual cost of project
The annual cost of the project is the amortized annual value of theinvestment cost calculated using the Capital Recovery Factor (CRF). CRF is
the ratio of a fixed annuity to the current value of receiving the annuity for agiven period of time i.e., CRF converts a present value into a number of
equal annual payments for a given period of time, for a specific discountrate (interest).
CRF is calculated as:L［（1＋r）］＊r

Capital Recovery Factor =［（1＋r）L］－1
where, r = discount rate and L = time period.
In context of hydropower development, estimated project life, L is
considered as 50 years with a discount rate r of 10%.
(b) Cost of Transmission lines
A total of 14 HEPs have the provision of exporting electricity. The
cost of construction has been calculated based on the distance of thedestination grid of the country from the dam site. The cost of the “Na BongUdon Thani Power Transmission Project” has been used as a reference. The
project includes a 27 km 500 V transmission line and the 500/230kV Na
Bong substation (ADB, 2007). The total cost of the project is 760,000 US$.
Based on the total cost of the project and the length of the transmission line
along with the sub-station to be constructed, the price of construction oftransmission lines per km has been found out to be US$ 28,150 per km of
length. It was assumed that the hydropower importing country bears this
cost.

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ICUS Report(c) Socio-Economic
Socio-Economic Costs
Costs
(c)
This cost
includes resettlement
local communities
communities andThiscost includes
resettlement ofof localandcompensation measures
measures used.
used. ItIt also
also includes
includes livelihood
livelihood programs
programs adopted
compensation
adoptedfor thethe welfare
welfare of
local communities,
water quality
quality monitoring,wildlife
forof thethe local
communities, water
monitoring, wildlife
programs, public
public training
management. These
These costs
costs forfor thetheprograms,
training andand watershedwatershed management.
Nam Theun(NT2) dam
dam hadhad been
been estimatedestimated to
to be
be aroundaround US$
US$ 8888 million
million
Nam
Theun 22 (NT2)(ADB, 2004).
2004). Using
Using this
this data,linear relationshiprelationship between(ADB,data, aa linear
between thethe sociosocioeconomic loss
loss andand thethe active
active storage
storage ofof NT2NT2 HEPHEP hashas been
been formed
formed asas
economic
where SEC(i)SEC(i) isis thethe total
total socio-economic
socio-economic cost
cost ofof HEPHEP ii inin millions
millions USD
USD andand
where
A(i) isis thethe active
active storage
storage ofof HEPHEP ii inin million
million cubic
cubic meters.
meters.
A(i)Annual socio-economic
costs, SEC
SECaa(i)(i) == SEC(i)SEC(i) xx CRF.
CRF.
Annualsocio-economic costs,
It hashas been
been observed
for thethe NT2
NT2 dam,dam, thecommunities up
50It
observed thatthat forthe communities
up to
to 5060 kms
kms downstream
downstream were
were severely
severely affectedby thethe construction
construction ofof thethe dam.
dam.
60
affected byHence, forfor thethe present
present study,
study, same
same concept
concept has
has been
been used.
Simple GIS
hasHence,
used. Simple
GIS hasbeen used
to calculate
calculate thethe affectedaffected areas
were divided
dividedbeen
used toareas andand hence
hence thethe costs
costs wereaccordingly wheneverwhenever needed.
needed.
accordingly(d) Loss
Loss ofof FishFish(d)
The seasonalseasonal fish
fish migration
migration isis an
an important
important factor
factor ofof thethe economic
economicThe
welfare andand sustenancesustenance ofof thethe communities
communities throughout
throughout thethe basin.
basin.
welfareConstruction ofdams onon thethe river
river course
course restricts
restricts thethe migration
migration ofwhich
Constructionof damsof whichhampers thethe fishfish productivity
productivity aa lot.
lot. This
This loss
loss ofof fishfish duedue toto hydropowerhydropower
hampers
development has
has been
extensively estimatedby MRCfor thethe three
three countries.
countries.
development
been extensively
estimated by
MRC for
The lossloss ofof fishfish perunit catchment
catchment area
area has
has been
been calculated,calculated, taking
taking into
intoThe
per unit
account thethe total
total catchment
area ofof thethe HEPs
HEPs ofof eacheach country.
country. From
From thisaccount
catchment area
thisrelation, thethe individual
individual annual
loss ofof fishfish has
has been
been calculated.
calculated.
relation,annual net
net loss(e)(e) Navigational
Navigational Loss
Loss
Water transport
is oneone ofmost economical
economical inland
inland navigationalnavigational
Watertransport isof thethe most
systems (Mihic,
S. et
et al,al, 2011).
2011). Many
Many communities
the 3S
3S dependdepend on
systems(Mihic, S.
communities ofof theoninland navigation
navigation (especially(especially country
as thethe mainmain mode
mode ofinlandcountry boats)
boats) asof transporttransportof goods
goods asas wellwell asmass. Construction
Construction ofof dams
dams affects
this systemsystem byofas mass.
affects thisbyrestricting their
their free
free movement.
movement. This
This loss
loss has
has been
and assigned
restricting
been calculated
calculated andassigned
to eacheach ofof thethe three
three countries
countries based
based onon thethe 3S
3S sub-basin
sub-basin area
they share.
toarea theyshare.
This loss
loss isis thenthen assigned
assigned equallyequally among
among all
all thethe HEPs
HEPs ofof thethe three
three countries.
countries.
This
(f)
Loss
(f) Environmental
Environmental LossAs environmental
environmental losses
losses only
only theloss tofor thesubAs
the lossto thethe wetland
wetland forthe 3S
3S subbasin was
was available.
MRC 2010
has estimatedthe wetland
loss inin thebasin
available. MRC2010 hasestimated thewetland loss
the 3S
3S
sub-basin resulting
from HEP
development. For
For this
this estimation
only readily
sub-basin
resulting from
HEP development.
estimation only
readily
available data
was used,used, nono fieldwork
fieldwork was
was done.
done. The
The assessment
assessment was
was limited
limitedavailable
data wasto areas
areas directly
directly affectedaffected byby changedhydrological andqualitytochanged hydrologicaland waterwater quality
conditions inin themainstream, including
including areas
areas affectedaffected byby combined
combinedconditions
the mainstream,
flooding (backwater
flooding) nearconfluences ofof tributary
rivers andandflooding(backwater flooding)near thethe confluences
tributary rivers
also toto areas
areas where
where there
was aa direct
dependence on
also
there wasdirect dependence
on capture
capture fisheries,
fisheries,
delineated byby theextent ofof fishfish migration.
migration. This
This annual
annual loss
loss was
was thenthendelineatedthe extent
assigned toto eacheach HEPHEP onon itsits active
active storage.
storage.
assigned
AnalysisAnalysis ofoftransboundary
impactsofhydropower
development
inthe
Mekong:case
ofof3s3s
sub-basin
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Optimization Model
The hydropower planning process is modelled as a mathematicalprogram where each country is a player and has two options: to build or not
to build additional dams. The objective is to maximize the net total annual
benefits (difference between total annual benefits and total annual costs) for
the 3S. The Grand Coalition case seeks to maximize total benefit across all
the three countries.
Sets
I
HEPs identified by Project ID
JCountries – Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam
Parametersstagei1 – operational, 2 – under construction, 3 –design phase,
4 – master plan
1 – Laos, 2 – Cambodia, 3 – Vietnam
countryi
budgetj
country hydropower investment fundbi,jbenefits of HEP i on country jci,jcosts of HEP i on country j
Variables
xi = {0,1}
HEP decision variable
Objective Function:

where C is a particular coalition status among the set of all seven possible
coalitions.
The constraints of this optimization models are the Benefit-cost ratio
of individual HEPs and the individual country investment funds.
Scenarios considered
Seven different scenarios were considered. They are briefly explained
below.
0. Status quo: Only the HEPs in operation, i.e. only Stage 4 HEPs, havebeen selected.
1. Complete current projects: All HEPs under construction (stage 3)
have been considered along with scenario 0.
2. Maximize individual country benefits: Each country maximizes its
benefits by constructing additional HEPs in stage 1 and 2 within
individual budget constraints.. (a) Laos, (b) Cambodia and (c)Vietnam
3. Maximize two countries: Two countries maximize individual
benefits (i.e., builds HEPs in stage 1 and 3) simultaneously within
individual budget constraints; third country does not build any
additional HEP. Results of scenario 1 have also been added. (a)Laos & Cambodia, (b) Cambodia & Vietnam and (c) Vietnam &Laos
4. Maximize two countries with joint budget: Two countries combine
their individual budgets and then maximize within the joint budget
constraint; third country does not build any additional HEP. Resultsof scenario 1 have also been added. (a) Laos & Cambodia, (b)Cambodia & Vietnam and (c) Vietnam & Laos

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5. Grand coalition with separate budgets: All the three countries
maximizes together but within their individual budget limits. Resultsof scenario 1 have also been added.
6. Grand coalition with joint budgets: All the three countries combine
their budgets and then jointly maximizes. Results of scenario 1 havealso been added.
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
For individual country maximization, the highest benefit was achieved when2(a) Lao PDR maximizes (the total benefit increased by 204.7 Million US$).
For two player coalition, highest benefit was reaped when 3(c) Vietnam and
Lao PDR maximizes together. The total benefits increased by 242.8 Million
US$ (38.1 Million US$ more than 2(a) scenario). Again for two player
coalition with joint budget, 4(c) Vietnam and Lao PDR maximizes together,
gives the highest benefits.
The grand coalition will offer the maximum individual benefit toCambodia of 251.1 Million US$, more than two times the maximum benefit
achieved (123.5 Million US$) when it jointly maximizes with Vietnam(scenario 4(b)). In case of Vietnam, the small decrease in benefits of 44.2
Million US$ can be seen; whereas for Laos, the benefit decreases to 239.5
Million US$. But the total benefits increased from 856.0 Million
US$ (scenario 4(c)) to 990.9 Million US$ (increase of 134.9 Million US$).
Normally, it will not matter much for Vietnam to cooperate unless there
exists any benefit sharing.

(a)(b)
Figure 4: Graphical representation of the benefit core for (a) present
situation and (b) future scenario
Figure 4.1 is a ternary plot with Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam in thethree axes. For Cambodia, the line is drawn parallel to Laos, for Laos it isparallel to Vietnam and for Vietnam it is parallel to Cambodia. For each of
the three countries two values are shown, first is the maximum individual
country benefit while the second one shows the maximum benefit that canbe achieved through cooperation and benefit sharing. Figure 4.1 (a) shows
the present situation whereas figure 4.2 (b) shows the future scenario.
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5. CONCLUSION
Energy is a vital requirement for developing countries like Thailand andVietnam. Hydropower is very promising in terms of energy production. It isa renewable source of energy, is highly efficient and is environment friendly.
But in the context of an international river basin, hydropower development
has resulted in disputes especially due to the downstream costs. While thesecosts minor compared to the benefits, deep understanding and estimation ofthese costs is very vital to develop strategies to effectively counter them.
The study tried to estimate to a total of 10 parameters related to thehydropower development such as energy production, benefit from irrigation,socio-economic costs, fish loss, environmental loss, etc. To some extent, all
the costs and benefits for the HEPs in the study area have been estimated.
Various scenarios were assumed and then optimized for maximizing
benefits.
A game theoretical analysis allowed us to quantify and examine theroles of the three players in the game. Although Lao PDR has the lowest
GDP of all three countries, this analysis has evidenced its political power inthe hydropower game as a key exporter. Lao PDR’s decisions about where
and how much energy it will produce and to whom it will export this energy
greatly influences the resulting benefit allocations.
As seen from all the coalition scenarios, there always exist partial
coalition scenarios which yield higher individual net benefits compared to
the grand coalition scenario. In order for cooperation schemes to be
successful, there must be economic incentives for individual players to stayin the grand coalition.

REFERENCES
Asian Development Bank. 2004. Summary environmental and social
impact assessment, Nam Theun 2 Hydroelectric project in Lao people’s
democratic republic.
Asian Development Bank. 2007. Na Bong-Udon Thani Power
Transmission Project Report: Lao People's Dem Rep
Asian Development Bank. 2009. Sesan, Sre Pok and Sekong RIver
Basins Development Study in the Kingdom of Cambodia, Lao People's
Democratic Republic and Socialist Republic of Viet Nam. Pilot testing IHASGAP in the 3Ss Basins Inception Report.
Dalby, S. (2003). Geopolitical identities: arctic ecology and global
consumption. Geopolitics.181-202.
Dombrowsky, I. (2009). Revisiting the potential for benefit sharing in
the management of transboundary rivers, Water Policy.
Mekong River Commission. 2009. Hydropower Sector Review for the
Joint Basin Planning Process, Basin Development Plan Programme, Phase
2.

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Mekong River Commission. 2010. Economic Benefits and Costs,
Technical Note 13 of basin- wide development scenarios, Basin
Development Plan Programme, Phase 2. Work in Progress.
Mekong River Commission. 2010. Social Assessment, Technical Note
12 of Assessment of basin-wide development scenarios, Basin Development
Plan Programme Phase 2. Work in Progress.
Mekong River Commission. 2010. Power Benefits. Technical Note 6of Assessment of basin-wide development scenarios. Basin Development
Plan Programme Phase 2. Work in Progress.
Mihic, S., Golusin, M., Mihajlovic, M. (2011). Policy and promotionof sustainable inland waterway transport in Europe-Danube River,
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 1801-1809.
Myerson, Roger B. (1991). Game theory: analysis of conflict.
Harvard University Press.
Sadoff, C. W. & Grey, D. (2002). Beyond the river: the benefits ofcooperation on international rivers. Water Policy. 389–403

Analysis ofAnalysisof transboundarytransboundary impacts
impacts ofof hydropowerhydropower development
developmentin
inthe
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Student ReportREPORT FROM STUDENT PARTICIPANTS ON
5TH JOINT STUDENT SEMINARON CIVIL INFRASTRUCTURE
DATE: August 20-21, 2012

Participants at Sasa International House, Chulalongkorn University

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PRESENTATION SESSION

Seminar room and participants

On the first day, the 5th Joint Student Seminar on Civil Infrastructure was held at the Sasa
International House. This seminar was composed of four parts: keynote presentations,student presentations, review comments and closing remarks, followed by an award
presenting banquet.

Keynote presentations

The first speaker was Dr. Michael Henry from Hokkaido University, who spoke about“Information collection and needs after disasters: lessons from the 2011 Tohoku
Earthquake and 2011 Thai Flood.” He mentioned the importance of information networks
because many foreigners panicked due to the lack of accurate information from theJapanese government. The second keynote speaker was Dr. Punchet Thammarak from
Chulalongkorn University, who spoke about “Numerical analysis of lateral pile motion
under dynamic loadings.”

Student presentations

Sixteen students from AIT (Thailand), Chulalongkorn University (Thailand), Chonnam
National University (Korea), Myongji University (Korea), the University of Tokyo(Japan) and Hokkaido University (Japan) gave presentations. Four students presented
about city planning, four talked about traffic planning and eight presented about civilengineering topics such as concrete technology, geo-techniques and hydrology.

Review comment, closing remarks and banquet

Prof. Hiroshi Yokota from Hokkaido University gave some comments in review of theseminar, and Dr. Kunnawee Kanitpong from Chulalongkorn University closed theseminar. After that, a wonderful banquet was held at the Sasa International House, and
one Japanese student and one Korean student were awarded as Best Presenters.

Best Presenters: Ms. Suug-hi Ah and Mr. Yoshiyuki Takano(second and third from left)

Seminar attendees from Hokkaido University

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Field Trip in Joint Student Seminar 2012
We went on a field trip on the second day. The first place we visited was
Vimanmek Palace in the central part of Bangkok. It was the former residence ofThailand president, built in 1900s, and currently a national asset. Kings’ collectionof hunting weapons, tapestry and tableware were kept. Then we had lunch,
enjoying the Thai cuisine together before taking a boat trip.

Group photo at Vimanmek Mansion

Lunch time at Thai restaurant

The boat trip was along the Chao Phraya River in Bangkok. The tour guide
explained us about the historical places and area we passed by the boat. There arelots of residential areas on the waterfront side. We also fed fish.

Boat tour on Chao Phraya River

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Boat tour on Chao Phraya River visiting Koh Kred Island

About one hour journey, our boat reached Wat Arun Temple, one of the important
temples in Bangkok. The temple’s skyline looked beautiful from the water,
covered by Chinese porcelain. It was built in Ayuthaya period in 18th century. On
the way back, we visited the Throne Hall, an Italian style building. Then we cameback to the hotel.

At Wat Arun Temple

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Impressions from the Student Participants
The 5th Joint Student Seminar on Civil Infrastructure
was a good experience for me. I attended theseminar last year. Attended as a participant, I had tolearn the various fields of research. After the field
trip I and friends from Tokyo University went to
Khaosan Road, where we had a good time.
This year seminar was very interesting for me andI’ve got information to be studied. I participated in
the last year seminar only as a listener, but this year
I was also a speaker and presented my study.
Unfortunately, due to some technical problems with
my PPT-presentation I stressed a lot, but it was auseful experience for me. The seminar had very interesting research topics. And I
was very impressed by the presentations’ structure of other colleagues.
I had great time during this field trip, and I would like to attend the next seminaras well.

(by Cheol Park, Chonnam National University, Korea)

The 5th Joint Student Seminar on Civil
Infrastructure in Bangkok was very meaningfulexperience for me. Actually I have neverparticipated in any conferences, even speaking in
English, related to my major, so I was very excited
but nervous on the one hand. The seminar's
atmosphere was warmer and friendlier than I
thought, because most people, speakers andobservers, in this seminar are students. So I could
concentrate and understand comfortably what
speakers want to say about, also it was easy topresent my work such speaker. In presentation
sessions, we shared our researches with many students from Thailand, Japan,
South Korea and so on. Though there are various fields in civil engineering, I felt
it is not so wide and I could widen up my scope on different areas of civilengineering from the seminar.
Without reference to seminar, transportation system in Thailand was very
interested for me. Especially BTS, one of the most important public transportationin Bangkok, was so impressive. When I visited BTS Control Surveillance Center,
the COO explained what BTS has problems and we shared some ideas for solving
these problems. It gave me good experience and I felt confidence and pride about
my major. Also it was good opportunity to experience characteristics of walking
and driving environment in Thailand. I hope that there are more international
conferences like this seminar to share and meet other countries' students.
(by Sung-hi Ah, The Myongji University, South Korea)

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The Joint Student Seminar on Civil Infrastructure
provided me with a fantastic experience to meet new
friends, present my research work in front of foreign
students who came from several countries, and thismade me know about how to present a paper at an
academic conference. It also gave me a good chance
to learn different areas in civil engineering such as
structure engineering, geotechnical engineering, andso on. Therefore, it was a great pleasure for me toattend the Joint Student Seminar for Civil
Infrastructure. Finally, I am willing to say “thank youvery much” for everybody who made this wonderful
event happened, and I hope that it will have a good seminar like this for very year.
(by Ratthaphong Meesit, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand)This is the third time that I join in the Joint
Student Seminar on Civil Infrastructure. However
this is the first time for me as a presenter. The
Joint Student Seminar on Civil Infrastructure gave
me a very good opportunity to gain more
knowledge with a lot interested researches related
to my research area. I hope this Joint Student
Seminar will be held continuously in order toforward the great opportunity to next generation.
(by Bhawat Chaichannawatik, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand)

The 5th Joint Student Seminar of Civil
Infrastructure was a great platform for amateur
researcher students to present their work in aninternational environment. Although I attended it
the last year as an audience, I participated this year
as a speaker. It was a nice experience for me. I got
the opportunity to meet students from a wide
variety of fields and got to know about the parallel
researches going on in other countries. I reallyenjoyed the seminar along with the field trip. I
would like to express my sincere thanks to all theparticipants who shared their work as well as to theorganizing committee who made this event a great success. I am looking forward
to attend it next year.
(by Seemanta Sharma Bhagabati, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand )Report fromstudent
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This was my first time to present my study at
The Joint Student Seminar on Civil
Infrastructure held at the Asian Institute ofTechnology (AIT). It was great opportuniny formy experience on international presentation. It
was also good chance to open my ideas andknowledge by listening our friend’s works.
These motivate me to improve my work andpresentation skill. Moreover, I could gain more
network among students from Asian countires.
Finally, I wish this program is continuing forlong as it is very worth for students who will be good researchers.

(By Kulapramote Prathumchai, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand)

I wish to take an outstanding moment to express my
deep appreciation to the organizing committee of the
5th International Joint Student Seminar on Civil
Infrastructure, 2012 for providing me such valuable
platform to present my idea and work during the
Seminar. I also would personally like to express mysincere thanks to respected Dr. Akiyuki Kawasaki
for offering me such wonderful opportunity. Last
but not the least; my word would be incomplete
without expressing my reverential gratitude tohonorable Dr. Masahiko Nagai for his exquisite
supervision, valuable suggestions and feedback as asupervisor. The seminar conveyed knowledge regarding various researches going onin the field of Civil Infrastructure to me. At the same time, it gave me a chance tointeract with the students of other universities with multi-cultural background. It was
indeed a very good experience I had from academic and social point of view. I reallylook forward to join the other continuing seminars of International Joint Student
Seminarinthefutureaswell.
(by Ashik Rajbhandari, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand)

5th Joint Student Seminar was really goodexperience for me. This was my first time to givea presentation in English. I can't say I did well, buthave no doubt that preparation for this seminar
improved my English and presentation skills.
Also, other students from various universities
inspired me to broaden my outlook. I think having
interest in not only my own research topic, butalso other related fields is very important for civilengineers.
Field trip was also interesting. The ornament of temples was great. It was a bit
similar to Japanese temples. I felt I should learn more about Japanese history andculture to enjoy foreign culture.

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Making use of this experience, I would like to spend meaningful study life.
(by Rieko Kojima, The University of Tokyo, Japan)

The Joint Student Seminar was a valuable
experience for me by giving a presentation to
the international meeting and sharing the
research with the other participants. Because I
come from a background of urban planningand architecture, sometimes it was difficult forme to understand specific terms in structural
engineering, but it is very good that thisseminar gave me new knowledge and widens
my viewpoints in problem solving. During thecoffee-break and lunchtime/dinner, we got
opportunity to discuss more about our research
and activities with the other students and researchers. Not only discussing about
academic aspects, but also our culture and becoming friends with the participants.
The field trip on the second day was also interesting. I really appreciate and thankthe organizer of this seminar, for the opportunity to attend, also to the participants
for the knowledge and experience.
( by Maria B K Dewi, The University of Tokyo, Japan)

The 5th Student Seminar was a great experience tome. Students were from the universities inThailand and Korea, and their nationalities werevarious. It was a great chance for me tocommunicate with people from different countries.
Also, in the lecture and presentation session, I
could learn about many topics on civil engineering,such as traffic, geotechnology, urban planning,
information in disaster, and concrete material andstructure. Furthermore, in the field trip, I learned
beautiful culture upon the Kingdom of Thailand, and the size of damage from theflood which attacked wide area in Thailand in 2011. The seminar gave me an
opportunity to think about the importance and necessity of infrastructure, and I
would like to continue learning about civil engineering.
( by Yoshiyuki Takano, The University of Tokyo, Japan)

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2012, Thailand

The 5th Student Seminar was a great opportunityand privilege for me to take part in. I got an
opportunity to present my research topic andreceive valuable comments and suggestion fromparticipants and professors attending the seminar.
Moreover, I got a chance to learn about various
research topics from other fellow students attending
the seminar and it had helped me to widen myknowledge.
I also made friends from students from various
countries especially from Korea and Thailand. Field
trip has given me a chance to know about the Thai
flood occurring in 2010 and culture and History of Thailand. Finally I would liketo express my deepest gratitude and appreciation for ICUS and others who havearranged the successful 5th Joint Student Seminar.
(by Biruk Adane, The University of Tokyo, Japan)
I had a presentation about Tohoku Disaster. It
was what I worked hardest in this semester. Still
now, many people are worried about their lives
but they have had hope for the future. In thisseminar, I wanted to tell about the realcondition and their hope. Everyone had a great
research and presentation. It was stimulate.
Coming back to Japan, I thought that I wanted
to study more and try again. It was good for me
to have a next aim. Moreover, we could see a
lot of things in Thailand. There are unknown
views, such as many remains. I don’t forget
scenery in Ayutthaya. I thought that it was real great to have rich nature andhistory. This is precious for us to know Thailand. Thank you, ICUS for us to havegreat experiences. I will continue to have an aim and send out my study.
(by Rina Goto, The University of Tokyo, Japan)
In this 5th Joint Student Seminar in Thailand, I
learned research of civil engineering, architecture
and city planning and Thailand culture. This seminaris my third time of English presentation. I tried topresent attractively but I could not do that becauseof unskillfulness of my English proficiency.
However, at the question and answer period, I built
confidence because I could communicate in English.
In addition, I felt that our final goal of study isalmost same though methodology is different,
especially, many Japanese presenters spoke about the great east Japan earthquake.
On the other hand, I had visited to Southeast Asia at the first time. So, I touchedvery interesting culture of developing country in Asia. In Thailand, I felt the speed

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modernistic city than I imagined. I would like to visit to Thailand once again forexperiencing culture of Southeast Asia.
(by Taito Miura, Hokkaido University, Japan)
The 5th Joint Student Seminar on Civil
Infrastructure and Field trip Program in Bangkok
were a great experience for me. In Presentation
session, I am glad to share our researches withmany students from Japan, Thailand, and Korea.
Although it was difficult for me to understand theirpresentation perfectly, I am interested in various
researches. Also, after presentation I could not
discuss about my topic because it was very hard forme to speak English. So I want to study English for
speaking it very well. In Field trip, I studied industry and history, culture and got
very good memories in Thailand. Particularly, red pepper I ate at lunchtime gave
me a strong impact. So I want to be careful if I have a chance to eat the red pepper
then. Finally, I would like to show gratitude all people involved in the 5th Joint
Student Seminar.
(by Shohei Ikeda, Hokkaido University, Japan)
It is a great honor for me to participate in this 5thStudent Seminar in Thailand. This was the firsttime for me to present in English. I felt little
nervous until my turn come, fortunately my turnwas the third on student presentation, it ended all
too soon and I was able to listen to presentation ofothers carefully. All speeches were very
interesting though the subjects of those werevaried. This impression might be had caused byfundamental knowledge of civil engineering I
have as a student majoring civil engineering.
During coffee breaks, mealtimes, and the next day field trip, I could talk withstudents from University of Tokyo, Korea, and Thailand in English. There were
free from tension of academic seminar, we could talk about casual things with afriendly manner in English. These times were very important and blessed for me.
All experience in this Student Seminar were very useful to me, so I hope thisseminar be held continue and more student participate in it.
(by Yuriko Yamamoto, Hokkaido University, Japan)

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Venue: Sasa International House (Room: Dipak C. Jain), Chulalongkorn University
Date: 20 August 2012
Time
8.30
9.00-9.30
9.30-10.00

10.00-10.45
10.45-11.45

13.00-13.15
13.15-13.30
13.30-13.45
13.45-14.00
14.00-14.15
14.15-14.30
14.30-14.45
14.45-15.00

15.30-15.45
15.45-16.00
16.00-16.15
16.15-16.30
16.30-16.45
16.45-17.00
17.00-17.15
17.15-17.30
18.00

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Topic

SpeakerDr. Akiyuki Kawasaki

Registration
Opening remarks
Group Photo & Coffee BreakInvited Lectures (chair: Dr. Kunnawee Kanitpong)
Information collection and needs after
Dr. Michael Henry,
disasters: Lessons from the 2011 Tohoku
Hokkaido University
Earthquake and 2011 Thai Flood
Numerical Analysis of Lateral Pile Motion
Dr. Punchet Thammarat,
under Dynamic Loadings
AIT
Lunch
Student Presentation 1 (chairs: Dr. Hyunmyung Kim)
Reconstruction of Kamaishi-city after the
Maria B.K. Dewi,
2011 Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami.
University of Tokyo
Activity-based land use and transportation
Yonghwan Hwang,
combined model and its application
MyongJi University
Analysis of transboundary impacts of
Seemanta Sharma Bhagabati,hydropower development in the
AIT
Mekong: case of 3s sub-basin
Structural performance assessment of
Yuriko Yamamoto,deteriorated unreinforced concrete structures
Hokkaido University
Mesoscopic Simulations of RC Anchorage
Yoshiyuki Takano,
Performance in Multi-directional
University of Tokyo
Reinforcements by 3D Discrete Analysis
The analysis of three dimensional crack in an
Pong-in Intarit,
infinite elastic medium with surface elasticity.
Chulalongkorn University
Modelling Intermodal traffic assignment and
Cheol Park,application
Chonnam National University
A Shear Performance of PVA-ECC Beam
Rieko Kojima,with Coarse Aggregate in Damaged Condition
University of Tokyo
under Static and Fatigue Load
Coffee BreakStudent Presentation 2 (chairs: Dr. Henry Michael)
Study on transport phenomenon in mortar
Shohei Ikeda,
using the cesium carbonate as a tracer by
Hokkaido University
X-ray CT
Departure-time choice (DTC) behaviour for
Mr. Bhawat Chaichannawatik,Inter-city travel during a long-holiday
AIT
in Bangkok, Thailand
Mechanism of Rainfall induced landslide
Biruk Adene,
University of Tokyo
Traffic accident analysis based on TAAS data
Sung-Hi An,
base system
MyongJi University
Modelling of tensile behaviour of mortar
Taito Miura,
immersed in NaCl solution
Hokkaido University
Influence of highway geometry on driver
Mr.Ratthaphong Meesit,
stressAIT
Design of reconstruction to save people in
Rina Goto,
Iwanuma, Miyagi
University of Tokyo
Review comment
Prof. Hiroshi Yokota
Closing Remarks
Dr. Kunnawee Kanitpong
Dinner at Sasa International House
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5th Joint Student Seminar on Civil Infrastructures
Field trip Program
Date: 21 August 2012
Time
09.00

Descriptions
Meet everyone at Lobby
Grand Palace ( Vimanmek Mansion)- Please be reminded that you are on the palacegrounds and noises kept at low level- Proper dresses should be worn, no shorts, no dresses
showing bare shoulders (Clothes rental available
inside)- Please do not enter flowers garden or pick theflowers- It is prohibited to carry weapons

09.30

11.30-12.00

Departure from Grand Palace
Lunch
Traveling along the Chao Phraya River-visit koh kred island

13.00-15.30

To inspect riverside communities affected by last year's
floods, along the Chao Phraya River hit by severe flooding
late last year.
Depart from Chao Phraya RiverGo back to Chula University

15.30
16.00
Expected No. (Bus)
Japan
Thai
Korea
Total

No. of Student
9
4
4
17

No. of Faculty2
Organizing team 2
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