USMCA 2012
(SEIKEN SYMPOSIUM 71)

ICUS Report 2012-03 (serial No.65 )the 11th International Symposium
on New Technologies
for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia
October 10-12, 2012
The Government House, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
Edited by
Eiko Yoshimoto
Organized by
The Mayor of Ulaanbaatar city,
Mongolian University of Science and Technology (MUST), Mongolia,
andInternational Center for Urban Safety Engineering,
Institute of Industrial Science, The University of Tokyo, Japan
Sponsored by
The Office of the President of Mongolia,
The National Security Council of Mongolia,
The Government of Ulaanbaatar city, Mongolia,
andThe Foundation for the Promotion of Industrial Science, Japan,
Supported by
The President of Mongolia

SYMPOSIUM ORGANISERSSYMPOSIUM ORGANISERSSYMPOSIUM ORGANISERSSTEERING COMMITTEESTEERINGCOMMITTEE
E.Bat-uul,
Mayorof Ulaanbaatar city, Mongolia
STEERINGCOMMITTEE
E.Bat-uul,
Mayorof Ulaanbaatar
city, Mongolia
L.Erkhembayar,
Adviserto the Presidentof Mongolia

STEERING COMSTEERING
COMMI
E.Bat-uul, Mayorof U

E.Bat-uul,
Mayor of Ulaan
L.Erkhembayar,
Advis
L.Erkhembayar,
AdvisertoE.Bat-uul, Mayorof Ulaanbaatar
city,
Mongolia
S.Dashdondog,
AdviseL.Erkhembayar,
AdvisertheVisePresidentof
Mongolia
S.Dashdondog,
Adviser
totothePrime
Ministerof Mongolia
S.Dashdondog,
AdviserDir
toTs.Amgalanbayar,
L.Erkhembayar,Adviser
AdviserthePresidentof
Mongolia
S.Dashdondog,
tototheVise
Prime
Ministerof Mongolia Agency, Mongolia
Ts.Amgalanbayar,
Director,
National
Emergency
Management
Ts.Amgalanbayar,
DirectoYo.Jargalsaikhan,
Sen
S.Dashdondog, Adviser
toOfficer,
theNational
ViseNational
Prime
MinisterofCouncil,
Mongolia
Ts.Amgalanbayar,
Director,
Emergency
Management
Agency, Mongolia
Yo.Jargalsaikhan,
Senior
Security
Mongolia
Yo.Jargalsaikhan,
Senior O
Ts.Amgalanbayar,
Director,
National
Emergency
Management
Agency, Mongolia
N.Gantumur, Deputy
M
Yo.Jargalsaikhan,
SeniorOfficer,National
SecurityCouncil, Mongolia
N.Gantumur,
DeputyMayorof Ulaanbaatar
city, Mongolia
N.Gantumur,
DeputyMay
B.Ganbold,
Director,
Yo.Jargalsaikhan,
SeniorOfficer,National
Security
N.Gantumur,
DeputyMayorof Ulaanbaatar
city, Mongolia
B.Ganbold,
Director,
Asian
Department,
MinistryofCouncil,
Foreign Mongolia
Affairs, Mongolia
B.Ganbold,
Director,
Asia
Ts.Bayarbat,
Director
N.Gantumur,
Deputy MayorofDepartment
Ulaanbaatar
Mongolia
B.Ganbold,
Asian
Ministryof Foreign Affairs, Mongolia
Ts.Bayarbat,Director,
Director,
PolicyDepartment,of city,
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Ts.Bayarbat,
Pol
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Director,
Asian
Ministryof Foreign
Affairs, Mongolia
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and Comm
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andDirector,
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Infrastructure,
Ministryof Construction
Bayarsaikhan,
Director,
Land,Department
Construction,
Geodesy
Agency,Mongolia and Urban Development
Bayarsaikhan,
Director,L
Dire
B. Damdinsuren,
Buildings
and Director,
Communication
Infrastructure,
Ministryof Construction
and Urban Development
Bayarsaikhan,Land,
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Agency,Damdinsuren,
Director,
Mongolian
Universityof ScienceandMongolia
Technology
B.
Director,
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Director,
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Technology
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Director,
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Damdinsuren,Director,
Director,School
Mongolian
Universityof Scienceand Technology
B.
TechnologyDirector, S
Р.Otgonbayar,of CivilEngineeringand Architecture,
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Director, Research
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Mongolian
Universityof Science and Technology
U.Sukhbaatar, Directo
Technology Director,
U.Sukhbaatar,
Astronomy and geophysics,
Academyof Science
U.Sukhbaatar,
Director,FoR
Katsumi Mushiake,
Technology
U.Sukhbaatar,
Director,
Researchgeophysics,Japan
Mongolian Academy of Science
KatsumiMushiake,Foundationof Center
River &Astronomy
WatershedandEnvironment,
KatsumiMushiake,
Mehedi
Ahmed Found
AnsaryU.Sukhbaatar,
Director,
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KatsumiAhmed
Mushiake,Foundationof Center
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IIT
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SudhirMisra,IIT Kanpur
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Kanpur,
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Takeo
Chief
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Public Works Research Institute, Japan
Takeo
Uomoto,Chief Exe
YoshiakiNakano,Dire
SudhirMisra,
IIT
Kanpur,India
Takeo Uomoto,
Chief
Executive,
PublicWorksof
Research
Institute, Japan
YoshiakiNakano,Director,
IIS, the
University
Tokyo, Japan
YoshiakiNakano,Director
Takeo
Uomoto,
Chief
Executive,
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Institute, Japan
TsuneoKatayama,
To
YoshiakiNakano,Director,
IIS, the
UniversityofTokyo, Japan
TsuneoKatayama,
Tokyo
Denki
University,
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WeiKatayama,Cheng Fan,
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YoshiakiNakano,Director,
IIS, the
Universityof Tokyo, Japan
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Tokyo
Denki
University,
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Wei
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Tsinghua
University,
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Wei Worsak
Cheng Fan,CPSR, Ts
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University,
Wei Cheng
Fan, CPSR,
Tsinghua
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China
WorsakKanok-Nukulchai,
AIT, Thailand
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Wei
Cheng
Fan, CPSR,
Tsinghua
University, China
Yoshifumi
Yasuoka, N
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AIT,
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Yasuoka,
NIES,
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Yoshifumi Yasuoka, NIES,
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Yasuoka, NIES, AIT,Japan
Yoshifumi Yasuoka, NIES, JapanTECHNICAL COTECHNICAL COMMITTEETECHNICALCOMMTECHNICALGeneral
COMMITTEE
E.Khurelbaatar,
Gene
E.Khurelbaatar,
Architect, Director of Construction and Urban Planning Department, Ulaanbaatar city,
TECHNICALGeneral
COMMITTEE
E.Khurelbaatar,
Mongolia General A
E.Khurelbaatar,
Architect, Director of Construction and Urban Planning Department, Ulaanbaatar city,
Mongolia

G.Nandinjargal, Head
E.Khurelbaatar, General
Directorof Construction
and Urban
Planning
Mongolia
Mongolia
G.Nandinjargal,
Head of Architect,
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Department,
Ulaanbaatar
city,Department,
Mongolia Ulaanbaatar city,
G.Nandinjargal,
Head ofEU
R. Turbat, Director,
Mongolia
G.Nandinjargal,
Headof UrbanMongolian
Policy Development
Ulaanbaatar
R.
Turbat, Director,
E-School,
University Department,of Science andTechnologycity, Mongolia
R. Turbat,
Director,
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Department,
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city, Mongolia
E.Ninjgarav,
Vice
dire
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E.Ninjgarav,
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Schoolof Civil University
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Chung Sung Gyo, Don
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director,University,
School of Civil
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Chung
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Busan,
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Chung
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ChayanonHansapinyo
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Chung
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Gyo, Dong-A
University,
Busan, Korea
ChayanonHansapinyo,
Chiang
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ChayanonCh
HaruoHansapinyo,
Sawada, ICUS
Chung Sawada,
Sung
Gyo,
Dong-A
University,
Busan,
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ChayanonHansapinyo,
Chiang
Mai University,
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Haruo
ICUS,
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the Universityof Tokyo,
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Haruo
Sawada,IIS
Kiang
HweeICUS,
Tan, Nat
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Chiang
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Sawada,IIS,
the Universityof Tokyo,
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Kiang
Hwee
Tan,ICUS,
National
Universityof Singapore,
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Kiang
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Haruo Hwee
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KimiroMeguro,ICUS,
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Noor,
B
Kiang Hwee
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Munaz
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Kimiro Ahmed
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theUniversity of Tokyo, Japan
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Noor, BUET,
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SomnukTangtermsirik
Pennung
Warnitchai,
AIT,Thammasat
ThailandSomnukTangtermsirikul,
University, Thailand
SomnukTangtermsirikul,
Srikantha
Herath, UnT
PennungTangtermsirikul,
Warnitchai,
AIT,Thammasat
ThailandSomnukUniversity,
Thailand
Srikantha
Herath, United
Nations
University,
Japan
Srikantha
UnitedTaikanHerath,Oki, IIS,
the UN
SomnukOki,
Tangtermsirikul,
Thammasat
University,
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Srikantha
Herath,UnitedNations
University,
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Taikan
IIS, the
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Taikan Oki, IIS, the Unive
Srikantha
Herath,UnitedNations
University, Japan
TaikanOki,
IIS, the
Universityof Tokyo
Taikan Oki, IIS, the University of TokyoORGANIZING COMMITTEE
ORGANIZING
M.Ulziibat,
Head ofCOMMITTEE
Seismological Department, Research Center Astronomy and geophysics, MAS
ORGANIZING
M.Ulziibat,
Head
ofCOMMITTEE
SeismologicalCenterAstronomy
and geophysics,
MAScity
T.Erdenetuya,
GeneralEngineer ofDepartment,
ConstructionResearchand Urban
Planning
Department,
Ulaanbaatar

ORGANIZING COORGANIZINGCOM
M.Ulziibat, Headof S

M.Ulziibat,
Head ofGenera
Seism
T.Erdenetuya,
T.Erdenetuya,
GeneralM.Ulziibat,
of Specialist
SeismologicalResearchCenterAstronomyand Ulaanbaatar
geophysics,
MAS
T. Batbayar,
SeniorEn
S
T.Erdenetuya,
GeneralEngineerofDepartment,
Construction
and
Urban
Planning
Department,
Ulaanbaatar
T.
Batbayar,HeadSeniorof Construction
and
Urban
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Department,
citycity
Senior Specia
M.Oyunchimeg,
Assoc
T.Erdenetuya,
GeneralEngineerof Construction
and
Urban
Planning
Department,
Ulaanbaatar
city
T.
Batbayar, Senior
Specialistof Construction
Urban
Planning
Department,
Ulaanbaatar
city
M.Oyunchimeg,
Associate
Professor,
School ofand
Civil
EngineeringandArchitecture,
Mongolian
Universityof T. Batbayar,
T. Batbayar,
SeniorSpecialistof Construction
Planning
Department,
Ulaanbaatar
Science andAssociate
Technolo
M.Oyunchimeg,
Associate
Professor,
School ofand
CivilUrban
EngineeringandArchitecture,
Mongoliancity
University of M.Oyunchimeg,
Scienceand Technology
AkiyukiIC
M.Oyunchimeg,
Associate
Professor,
School of Civil
Engineeringand Architecture, Mongolian University of Scienceand Kawasaki,
Technology
Scienceand Technology
AkiyukiKawasaki,
ICUS, IIS,
the University
Tokyo,
Japan
AkiyukiKawasaki,
ICUS,II
Kohei
Nagai, ICUS,
Scienceand Technology
AkiyukiKawasaki,
IIS,University
the Universityof Tokyo,
Kohei
Nagai,
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Nagai,
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ShinyaKondo,ICUS,
IIS,thetheUniversity
University
Tokyo,
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Shinya Kondo, ICUS, IIS,
Kohei Nagai,
ShinyaKondo,ICUS,
ICUS,IIS,
IIS,thetheUniversity
UniversityofofTokyo,
Tokyo,Japan
Japan
Shinya Kondo, ICUS, IIS, the University of Tokyo, Japan

PREFACE
On behalf of the Organizing Institutes of the 11th International Symposium on
New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cites in Asia (USMCA 2012), I express
our sincere gratitude to all symposium participants and distinguished guests.
In the Asia and Pacific-Rim regions, rapid economic development along withpopulation growth and concentration, are fast accelerating the pace of urbanization.
Unfortunately, the rapid expansion of urbanization infrastructure is not adequatelybalanced with the appropriate measures for its maintenance and management, thereby
resulting in serious urban disasters. During the last few years, several big disasters
have occurred in Asia and the Pacific Rim regions, such as the killer cyclones Sidr in
Bangladesh (2007), Nargis in Myanmar (2008), and Aila in Bangladesh and India(2009), and Typhoon Ketsna in the Philippines (2009), flooding in Mongolia (2009),
Pakistan (2010) and Thailand (2011), the devastating earthquakes in Sichuan, China(2008), Sumatra (2009), Samoa (2009) and Japan (2011), and heat waves in Russia andJapan (2010). The number of fatalities and missing reported due to these disasters waswell over 200,000. These unprecedented events have evidently shown us the significant
importance of urban safety.
The International Center for Urban Safety Engineering (ICUS) was establishedin 2001 at the Institute of Industrial Science (IIS), the University of Tokyo, with theobjectives of carrying out researches on urban safety and implementing them towards
the realization of safer cities in the 21st century. For over a decade, ICUS has been
actively tackling advanced researches, as well as the enhancement of networking,dissemination and information collection.
Based on ICUS’s past ten-year activities, the “new” ICUS was launched in
April 1, 2011. The purpose of the “new” ICUS is to identify, investigate, and resolve
issues towards the realization of sustainable urban systems. Our goal is to build aprosperous and safe society, while we challenge socio-economic problems such as
depopulation and aging of society, shrinking economic resources, advanced technology,
environmental awareness and climate change, dense and decentralized urbanization,and so forth. Specifically, the three research divisions – “Urban Safety and Disaster
Mitigation”, “Environment Informatics”, and “Social Infrastructure Management” –form the core of the “new” ICUS, with their activities in these fields intended to fulfill
the objectives of “promotion of advanced research,” “construction of networks,” and“information collection and dissemination”, as they take the above-mentioned socioeconomic problems into account.
On March 11, 2011, a gigantic earthquake (officially named "The 2011 Tohoku
region Off-Pacific Ocean earthquake") with moment magnitude (Mw) 9.0 occurred in
the Tohoku (North-East) region of Japan. This largest earthquake in Japanese history
generated a very huge tsunami with the highest run-up elevation reaching over 40
meters, which killed approximately 18,600 people and injured over 6,100 people. Over
400 thousand buildings and infrastructures, including nuclear power plants, weretotally collapsed or heavily damaged due to the tsunami, fires, and ground motion. Dueto the loss of emergency back-up power of the cooling systems in the nuclear reactor,
the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant was also damaged severely, causing a large
amount of radiation to leak out. Because of the accident, over 310 thousand people
living around the power plant were forced to leave their houses for evacuation, and still
have no choice but to keep living in refugee camps and temporal shelters. The totalmonetary loss by the earthquake estimated by the government was 16.9 trillion yen;
nevertheless the indirect losses and damage due to the nuclear power accident were notincluded.
Issues related with the response, recovery and reconstruction of the affectedareas are the typical purposes of the “new” ICUS. In order to fully realize the vision forsafer cities in Asia and the Pacific Rim regions, ICUS has annually co-organizedUSMCA since 2002 with its partners in the Asian region. In 2012, ICUS jointly
organized the 11th USMCA in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, with the Mayor of Ulaanbaatar
City and the Mongolian University of Science and Technology (MUST), also supportedby the Office of the President of Mongolia, the National Security Council of Mongolia,
the Government of Ulaanbaatar City and the Foundation for the Promotion ofIndustrial Science, Japan. The objectives of the symposium was to bring together
decision makers, practitioners and researchers involved in the field of urban safety toshare their expertise, knowledge and experience in tackling the critical issues for safer
cities in Asia and the Pacific Rim regions. It also provided an environment to create andreinforce collaborative networks among experts in the fields relevant to urban safety.
During this two-day symposium, 62 papers in ten parallel sessions and 26
posters in poster session were presented with 5 papers by keynote speakers. Total
participants were 153 from 14 countries, including Mongolia, Australia, China,
Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Nepal, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand,
USA, and Vietnam. The symposium focused on diverse issues: disaster response andrecovery, risk assessment/prediction and early-warning, decision-making technologies,
planning and development of urban infrastructure systems, life-cycle management of
infrastructure systems, climate change mitigation and adaptation, development andapplication of sustainable technologies, and application of geospatial technologies.
I would like to thank all the members of the Steering, Technical and Organizing
Committees, as well as the Symposium Secretariat for their hard work, time and effort
in putting this symposium together. I would also like to thank all our sponsors for theirgenerous support and contribution. Thanks are also due to those who have dedicatedthemselves to the success of this symposium.

Kimiro MEGURO
Director of ICUS, IIS, The University of Tokyo(Co-Chairman of Organizing Committee, USMCA 2012)
Copyright and Reprint Permission:
Photocopy of an article is permitted for authors and other researchers for their own reading
and research. Abstracting and indexing of the papers are permitted but acknowledgement
should be given to “The 10th International Symposium on New Technologies for Urban Safetyof Mega Cities in Asia” and the authors of each specific paper. Written permission should beobtained from the publishers prior to any other type of reproduction. Please contact:

International Center for Urban Safety Engineering (ICUS),
Institute of Industrial Science (IIS),The University of Tokyo, Japan
Tel: +81-3-5452-6472
Fax: +81-3-5452-6476

ISBN: 4-903661-51-2

2012 Program Overview
Time

Tuesday, 9 October

16:00-19:00

Pre-Registration (Bayangol Hotel Reception Desk)Time

Wednesday, 10 October

08:00-09:00

Registration (Government House Reception Desk)

09:00-09:10

09:10-09:20
09:20-09:30
09:30-09:40

Opening Ceremony (Room B)
P.Tsagaan, Head, Office of the President,
Message by The President of Mongolia to the 11th International Symposium on New
Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia
Opening speech
E.Bat-Uul, Mayor of Ulaanbaatar City
T. Shimizu, Ambassador of Japan in Mongolia
Professor Kimiro Meguro, Director of ICUS
Chair: D. Battulga: Ulaanbaatar city Parliament

09:40-10:10
10:10-10:40
10:40-11:10

Keynote Speech (Room B)
Prof.B.Damdinsuren, President of Mongolian University of Science andTechnology and Prof. E. Ninjigarav Vice director, School of Civil Engineeringand Architecture, Mongolian University of Science and Technology
The role of universities in urban safety and security
Dr. Yoshifumi Yasuoka, Center for Research and Development Strategy, Japan
Science and Technology Agency
Integration of urban service infrastructures with urban dynamics modeling andsimulation platform
Visiting Professor Yasuyoshi Ichihashi, ICUS
Impacts of the Fukushima Daiichi NPS accident and Japan's long-term energy &environment policies
Chair: Dr. Nagai, ICUS

11:10-11:50

Group photo and tea-break(Chinggis khan Monument in front of The Government house and visit the State museum)

11:50-12:50

Special poster session (Exhibition Area)

12:50-14:00

Lunch (Khuree restaurant )2F Room A

14:00-15:50

15:50-16:05

16:05-16:55

2F Room B

Session 1：
Urban flood risk management inchanging climate

Session 2：
Risk assessment 1

Special Presentation
Prof. Srikantha HerathSpecial Presentation
Prof. Mehedi Ahmed Ansary

Session Chairs:
Prof. Herath and Dr. Kawasaki

Session Chairs:
Prof. Ansary and Prof. M.Ulziibat

Tea-break (Exhibition Area)

Session 3：
Development and application ofsustainable technologies 1
Special Presentation
Prof. Kimiro Meguro
Session Chairs: Prof. Misra and Dr. Yasuoka

18:30-20:30

Symposium Banquet

Session 4：
Risk assessment 2

Session Chairs: Dr. Mishra and Prof. Koshihara

Main restaurant in Bayangol HotelTime

Thursday, 11 October
2F Room A

08:30-10:15

2F Room B

Session 5：
Disaster response and recovery

Session 6：
Planning and development of urban
infrastructures systems 1

Session Chairs:
Dr. Dutta and Prof. E.Ninjgarav

Session Chairs:
Prof.V.Batsaikhan, NEMA and Dr. T. Kato

Tea-break (Exhibition Area)

10:15-10:30
2F Room A

10:30-11:55

11:55-13:30

13:30-14:35

16:05-16:20

16:20-17:20

2F Room B

Session 7：
Development and application ofsustainable technologies 2

Session 8：
Application of geospatial technologies

Special Presentation
Prof. Tan Kiang Hwee

Special Presentation
Prof. Haruo Sawada

Session Chairs: Prof. Tan and Dr. Uomoto

Session Chairs: Prof. Huang and Dr. Chen

Session 9：
Development and application ofsustainable technologies 3

Session 10：
Planning and development of urban
infrastructures systems 2

Lunch (Khuree Restaurant)

Session Chairs:
Prof. Meguro and Dr. Pradeep

Special Presentation
Prof. Sudhir Misra
Session Chairs:
Dr. Tanaka and Dr. Henry

Tea-break (2F Exhibition Area)
Keynote Speech (Room B)
Dr. S.Demberel, Research center astronomy and geophysics of Mongolian
academy of sciences and T.Erdenetuya, General Engineer of Construction and
Urban Planning Department, Ulaanbaatar city
Estimation of seismic risk for central Ulaanbaatar using building stock inventory
Dr. Taketo Uomoto, Chief Executive, Public work research institute
Importance of maintenance to utilize existing structures
Chair: Dr. Nagai, ICUS

Closing ceremony (Room B)
Dr. U. Sukhbaatar (award presenter and comment)
Dr. Nguyen Hoang Giang (Announcement of USMCA 2013)
Prof. Haruo Sawada(closing speech)

17:20-18:00

Chair: Dr. Nagai.ICUS

19:00-21:00
Time
08:30-16:30

Closing Banquet
Excursion

Elite restaurant

Friday, 12 October

Contents
Keynote Session

page

The role of universities in urban safety and security

1Modeling and simulation of urban dynamics
for integration of urban service infrastructures3

Impacts of the Fukushima Daiichi NPS accident and Japan's long-term energy& environment policies

5

Estimation of seismic risk for central Ulaanbaatar using building stock inventory

21

Importance of maintenance to utilize existing structures

23

Bayanduuren Damdinsuren and Enebish Ninjigarav

Yoshifumi Yasuoka, Kimiro Meguro, Akira Maeda,
Koichi Honma, Junichi Toyouch, Takeshi Mori, Rika Takeuchi,
Kotaro Katsuyama, Kenji Kaneko and Hidenori Kimura

Yasuyoshi Ichihashi

S. Demberel, T.Erdenetuya, Iu. Berzhinskii, L Bezhinskaia, O. Salandaeva,
D Kiselev, D. Tulga and G. Tatkov
Taketo Uomoto

Oral Session
Session 1:
Urban flood risk management in changing climate
Impact of urbanization on flooding and sustainable flood mitigation measures

31

Centralized and decentralized urban flood control measures under physicaland societal constraints

33

Disaster information collection by Thai and foreigners during the 2011 Thai flood

43

A daily river system model for the Murray-Darling Basin, Australia

55

Investigating potential climate change impacts on rainfall intensity
duration frequency curves in Kathmandu, Nepal

67

Chen, Charng Ning

Srikantha Herath, Socheat Penh, Hiroyuki Okui,
Masahiro Imbe and Yoshihiro Kitagawa

Michael Henry, Akiyuki Kawasaki and Kimiro Meguro

Dushmanta Dutta, Justin Hughes, Jai Vaze, Shaun Kim, Ang Yang and Geoff Podger

Binaya Kumar Mishra and Srikantha HerathFlood hazard simulation for lower West Rapti river basin-Nepal
under climate change impact

77

Edangodage Duminda Pradeep Perera, Akiko Hiroe, Kazuhiko Fukami,
Toshiya Uenoyama and Shigenobu Tanaka

Session 2:
Risk assessment 1
Community under fire threat: An assessment of fire hazard vulnerabilityof ward 65 in Dhaka City

87

Vulnerability assessment of snow disaster based on traffic system:
A case study of Chenzhou City in Hunan Province

103

The seismicity in Mongolia

115

Seismic hazard of Ulaanbaatar City

123

Capacity building of seismic disaster risk management in Ulaanbaatar City

125

Evaluation of managed aquifer recharge methods to increase the groundwater
resources for water supply Ulaanbaatar City and flow control Tuul river

133

Hanoi environmental planning to build resilience to climate change hazards– A multi-institutional approach

145

Special Presentation: Prof. Mehedi Ahmed Ansary and Naima Rahman

XU Xiaoge, Jing ai Wang and Takaaki Kato
Baigalimaa Ganbat and Ulzibat Munkhuu
Odonbaatar Chimed

Masaru Arakida, Seiichiro Fukushima and Yujiro Ogawa

Nasanbayar Narantsogtyn

Lan Huong Nguyen, Viet Anh Nguyen and Viet Nga Tran

Session 3:
Development and application of sustainable technologies 1
Development of advanced composite material for seismic safety of non-retrofitted
masonry housing schemes in urban and rural areas of development countries

153

Study on earthquake input motions for the structures in Ulaanbaatar City

165

Numerical simulation of beam-column joint with simple reinforcement
arrangement by three-dimensional RBSM

173

Contemporary middle-rise timber buildings in Japan

181

Special Presentation: Prof. Kimiro Meguro, Saleem Muhammad Umair
and Muneyoshi Numada

Ganzorig Erdene, Batsaihan Tserenpil, Tulga Gantumur and Altanzagas Ochirdorj

Koichiro Ikuta, Daisuke Hayashi and Kohei Nagai
Mikio Koshihara

Session 4:
Risk assessment 2
Study on lightning risk assessment for oil tank area

191

Structural damage detection by using hybrid time reversal process method

201

Fire risk study of Ulaanbaatar City

209

The seismic-engineering survey among multi-store constructions within
the territory of Ulaanbaatar City

211

Hong Huang, Boni Su, Yuntao Li and Fanghui Luo
Usik Lee, Ilwook Park and Jungsik Choi

Bazarragchaa Sodnom and D. Bayan-Erdene

Batsaikhan Tserenpil, Sergei Serebrennikov and Baatarsuren Ganbold

Session 5:
Disaster response and recovery
Study on recovery curves for temporary housing
after the 2011 great east Japan earthquake

221

Disaster management of municipal governments on the Kii Peninsula
after flood and sediment disasters caused by the 2011 Typhoon Talas

229

Study on implementation of remote building damage assessment system
during large scale earthquake disasters

239

News coverage concentration on specific municipalities: Analysis
of TV report contents at 2011 Tohoku Earthquake

249

Reconstruction of Kamaishi City after the 2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami

257

Analysis of disaster information gathering behavior and language ability
after the 2011 Tohoku earthquake

263

Analysis of traffic situation on urban road network after large-scale earthquake

273

Osamu Murao and Kazetaka Kotoku

Shinya Kondo, Kazuyoshi Ota and Yasuhiro Kataie

Makoto Fujiu, Miho Ohara and Kimiro Meguro

Muneyoshi Numada and Kimoro Meguro

Sae Shikita, Maria Bernadet Karina Dewi and Takaaki Kato

Akiyuki Kawasaki, Michael Henry and Kimiro Meguro
Shinji Tanaka, Daisuke Oshima and Takashi Oguchi

Session 6:
Planning and development of urban infrastructures systems 1
Possibility of developing a new special economic zone in Ulaanbaatar City

Oyuntsatsral Tseyenbaljir

281

Roadmap form smoke to the development: Airport city a win-win modelfor the eco-economical context of the capital city development

289

Review on the definitions of vulnerability, resilience, and adaptation

291

Ulaanbaatar City flat region acoustic

303

Eco fence-the improvement of the Ger district living environment

309

Issues and challenge in legal framework related to urban redevelopment in Mongolia

319

A challenge toward application of new urban redevelopment mechanism
in Ulaanbaatar City

329

Davaanym Surenjav

Yuto Shiozaki and Takaaki Kato

Barkhas Sukhbaatar and G. jambalsuren
Ganbat Gantulga, G. Punsaldulam and Sh. Enkhtungalag
Toshiaki Kudo and Tomoko Abe

Tomoko Abe and Toshiaki Kudo

Session 7:
Development and application of sustainable technologies 2
Seismic vulnerability of gravity-load designed buildings

339

Study on the effects of chemical and physical properties of concreteon the behavior of internal water351

The fire resistance issue of reinforced concrete beam

359

Modeling of diffusive and advective transport of ionic species in cemented soil

367

Shear performance of PVA-coarse aggregate-ECC beams
under a rotating stress field

375

Pushover analysis of RC bare frame: Performance comparison
between ductile and non-ductile detailing

385

Special Presentation: Prof. Tan Kiang Hwee, T Balendra and Aziz Ahmed

Chohji Nakamura, Yuya Sakai and Toshiharu Kishi

Duinkherjav Yagaanbuyant and Erdenedavaa Bat-Ochir
Hayato Ikoma, Taiju Yoneda and Tetsuya Ishida

Yoshiyuki Takano, Benny Suryanto and Kohei Nagai

Rammancharla Pradeep Kumar and B. Narender

Session 8:
Application of geospatial technologies
How remote sensing data were used for the Tohoku Earthquake393

The investigation on a potential chemical incident risk in the area of Ulaanbaatar

403

Special Presentation: Prof. Haruo Sawada

Ganzorig Tsogtbaatar, Chimedtseren Purevjav, Sodnomragchaa Dagva
and Algirmaa Erdene-Ochir

The application of geoinformation for emergency management and hazard

417

Successful solution of water ecology and economy in consumption of apartment

427

Spatial distribution of heavy metal contamination in urban soil of Ulaanbaatar

431

Estimation of global anthropogenic PM2.5 by integrating
remote sensing and modeling

441

Sodnomragchaa Dagva

Batbileg Enkhbat, Enkhtungalag SH and Bulgan Zorig

Otgontuul Tsetsgee, Byambasuren Ts and Shabanova. L.B

Hirothoshi Kishi, Wataru Takeuchi and Haruo Sawada

Session 9:
Development and application of sustainable technologies 3
Reinforced soil walls damaged by tsunami impact in the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake

449

Evaluation of internal erosion by turbidity of drained water

459

Application of microbial calcite to hemp fiber reinforced soils
to combat desertification

469

Sliding disaster in Vietnam and a new proposed design methodof reinforced soil wall

477

Estimation of stress distribution in a model ground using bender elements

487

Jiro Kuwano and Junichi Koseki
Mari Sato and Reiko KuwanoSeong R. Choi, Sookie S. Bang, Sangchul Bang, Josh Anderson, Seok J. Lee,
Nam Y. Dho and Sung-Hwan Ko

Nguyen Hoang Giang and Jiro Kuwano
Reiko Kuwano and Sho Oh

Session 10:
Planning and development of urban infrastructures systems 2
Regulatory framework for modern urban housing

497

Conducting advanced technology of public transportation in Ulaanbaatar City

503

The relationship between pedestrian perception and characteristics
of sidewalk environment in case of the central area of Ulaanbaatar City

519

Relation between urbanization and natural disaster risk
in mega cities -Lessons from Tokyo-

529

Special Presentation: Prof. Sudhir Misra
Munhjargal Victor

Amgalan Sukhbaatar, Noboru Harata and Nobuaki Ohmori

Takaaki KatoPhotographs

ICUS
ICUSReport
Report6565

Welcome Boards and Registration

Registration at Bayangol Hotel

Bayangol Hotel

Inauguration Ceremony

Main Hall at Government House

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asiaii

October 2012,
October
2012,Ulaanbaatar,
Ulaanbaatar,Mongolia
Mongolia

Opening Speech

Mr. P. Tsagaan, Head Office of the President, Mongolia

Mr. E. Bat-Uul, Mayor of Ulaanbaatar City

Mr. T. Shimizu, Ambassador of Japan in Mongolia

Prof. K. Meguro, Director of ICUS

Invited Speakers (Keynote)Prof. B. Damdinsuren, President of MUST

ii

Dr. Y. Yasuoka, CRDS, Japan

New
Technologies
forforUrban
Asia
New
Technologies
UrbanSafety
SafetyofofMega
Mega Cities
Cities in Asia

ICUS
ICUSReport
Report6565

Dr. S. Demberel,

Visiting Prof. Y. Ichihashi, ICUS

Dr. T. Uomoto, Chief Executive, PWRI, Japan

Special Presentation Speakers

Prof. M. Ansary, BUET,
Bangladesh

Prof. E. Ninjigarav, MUST,
Mongolia

Prof. S. Herath, UNU, Japan

Prof. H. Sawada,
ICUS, Japan

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Dr. D. Dutta, CSIRO,
Australia

Prof. K.H.Tan, NUS,
SingaporeProf. S. Misra,
IIT,Kanpur, India

iii
iii

October 2012,
October
2012,Ulaanbaatar,
Ulaanbaatar,Mongolia
Mongolia

Poster Session

Closing Ceremony at The Government House

iv

New
Technologies
forforUrban
Asia
New
Technologies
UrbanSafety
SafetyofofMega
Mega Cities
Cities in Asia

ICUS
ICUSReport
Report6565

Dr. U. Sukhbaatar, MAS, Mongolia
as award presenter

Dr. N.G. Giang, NU, Vietnam
announces USMCA2013

Young –Researcher-Award recipients with Dr. U. Sukhbaatar.
Poster presentation award: Dr. N.G. Giang, NU, Vietnam (left), Ms. X. Xu, The Univ. of Tokyo, Japan(second from left)
Oral presentation award: Dr. M. Henry, Hokkaido Univ., Japan, (third from left), Ms. Ts. Otgontuul,MAS, Mongolia (second from right), Mr. K. Ikuta, The Univ. of Tokyo, Japan (right)

Chair man: Dr. K. Nagai

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

vv

October 2012,
October
2012,Ulaanbaatar,
Ulaanbaatar,Mongolia
Mongolia

Press Coverage by UBS and MNB

Break and Lunch Timevi

New
Technologies
UrbanSafety
SafetyofofMega
Mega Cities
Cities in Asia
New
Technologies
forforUrban
Asia

ICUS
ICUSReport
Report6565

BanquetMr. E. Bat-Uul, Mayor of Ulaanbaatar City and Prof. K. Meguro, director of ICUS

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

vii
vii

October 2012,
October
2012,Ulaanbaatar,
Ulaanbaatar,Mongolia
Mongolia

viii

New
Technologies
forforUrban
Asia
New
Technologies
UrbanSafety
SafetyofofMega
Mega Cities
Cities in Asia

ICUS
Report
65 65
ICUS
ReportFarewell party

Tour

Visit to Thermal Power Plant #4

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

ixix

October
2012,
Ulaanbaatar,
Mongolia
October
2012,
Ulaanbaatar,
Mongolia

Visit to Sun Bridge, a project built with Japanese Government Grant-aid project.

With Mongolian wrestlers at Guru camp

At Terelj National Parkxx

NewTechnologies
Technologies forfor Urban Safety
New
SafetyofofMega
MegaCities
CitiesininAsia
Asia

ICUSReport
Report 65
65
ICUSGroup photo of participants

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

xi xi

Keynote Session

The role of universities in urban safety
and security
Bayanduuren Damdinsuren1, Enebish Ninjgarav2
Professor, President of Mongolian University of Science and Technology(MUST), Mongolia
2
Associate Professor, Vice director of School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Mongoli
an University of Science and Technology (MUST)

1

ABSTRACTDisasters an crimes are the threats. Urban security and urban crime and disasters affected tourban areas are spatial entities that are inherently tied to the urban structure that has beencreated in cities and are not philosophical phantoms that amorphously float above cities. The
urban environment encapsulates and defines the everyday lives of urban citizens. Megacity isfacing the challenges and therefore should be taken all possible cares for urban inhabitants
or must be provided urban security. Megacity security is essential issue most terrible things
are any kind of disasters and crime for them. To avoid damage which takes place fromdisaster and crime or be affected to minimum damage megacity inhabitants necessary topossess an adequate knowledge and previously trained to protection techniques and should bedone all possible measures against disaster and crime consequences. The education issue of
inhabitants against disasters and crime is the role of the universities for megacity security.
Universities should train people, include adequate disciplines in curriculum of university anddo research. Universities should prepare well educated and highly skilled specialists in thisconcern, This is the contribution of universities in sustainable development of the nations orsafety and secure live of urban area people. This paper looks at different kind of disasters,
damage from them and the university role in megacity security.
Keywords: role, university, student, disaster, crime , urban ,citizen, urban safety, education,
megacity security

1

October 2012, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia

2

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Modeling and simulation of urban dynamics
for integration of urban service
infrastructures
Yoshifumi YASUOKA1, Kimiro MEGURO2, Akira MAEDA, Koichi HONMA,
Junich TOYOUCH, Takeshi MORI, Rika TAKEUCHI, Kotaro KATSUYAMA,
Kenji KANEKO and Hidenori KIMURA
yyasuoka@ iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
1
Center for Research and Development Strategy,
Japan Science and Technology Agency
2
Director, Professor, ICUS, IIS, The University of Tokyo, Japan
ABSTRACTIn this presentation, we propose a strategy to establish an urban dynamics modeling andsimulation system to evaluate, predict, and efficiently manage the dynamics of the urban
service functions.

The Great East Japan Earthquake and the massive floods in Thailand revealed that urban
service systems collapsed due to a single disaster. The risk of damage from earthquakes andfloods is higher in cities with a higher concentration of people and functions in the world.
There is fear that not only instant disasters but also climate change represented by global
warming may heavily affect urban infrastructures in the medium and long terms. It is now
urgent to promote urban studies, including how to build a future urban system; how toenhance the efficiency of urban service functions designed to deal with large-scale disasters,
an aging society with fewer children, and the coming low carbon society and recyclingoriented society; and how to improve their robustness and resilience.
We propose a system to evaluate, predict, control, and manage those functions efficiently
especially by virtually modeling the service functions of the service infrastructure systems
essential to urban life, such as energy, water, transportation and logistics, and informationand communications. This proposal features the modeling of urban functions in a virtual
space (a cyber space) especially with the movements (dynamics) of people, goods, and land
use as the core of the modeling. The challenges to be addressed are as follows.
(i) Which part of the service functions should be measured and how? How should
the measured data be used (measurement and analysis of urban dynamics)?
(ii) How should we model, predict, and evaluate service functions (modeling andsimulation of urban dynamics)?
(iii) How do we establish a system to manage and control service functions(establishment of a basic system to integrate models in a virtual space [Urban
Dynamics Platform; UrDYP])?
(iv) How do we establish a spatiotemporal theory for urban dynamics analysis?
By addressing these challenges, we aim to establish a system to dynamically measure, model,
and control and manage urban service systems.
Urban research has a long history. The supply system of drinking water and industrial andagricultural water has existed since ancient Greece and that of energy such as electricity andgas significantly developed in the modern era. However, each service has separately andindependently developed because of their long histories, and they have not been integrated
into a system linked with one another. For example, in the Great East Japan Earthquake,there was some confusion in infrastructure systems; trains being stopped while the electricity3

October 2012, Ulaanbaatar,
Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
Mongolia

was being supplied and water being cut off because the electricity went out. Such confusioncaused the spread of the damage.
Taking energy supply as an example, urban energy is considered to be supplied with a
distributed energy system utilizing several power sources in the future. However, it isessential to adopt a distributed integrated control system, such as a smart grid system toefficiently use energy from various power sources. Many studies on smart grids have begun in
the world. As large-scale urban development is becoming increasingly harder with theeconomic slowdown not only in Japan but also in the world, integral linkage among urban
service infrastructures will reduce the future burden.
This proposal aims to enhance the efficiency of urban service infrastructure functions andimprove their robustness and resilience focusing on the dynamics of people, goods, and land
use in cities. The methodologies of establishing new urban service systems proposed by thischallenge are expected to accelerate not only efforts to deal with the coming aging society
with fewer children but also efforts to achieve an energy-saving low-carbon city or arecycling-oriented city to tackle climate change. In addition, it is also expected that resilient
cities will be built that are robust in the event of the large-scale disasters that are expected tooccur. It will be significant if these methodologies contribute to the development of new cities
not only in Asia but also in other countries in the world.
Keywords: urban dynamics, urban infrastructure, systems analysis, modeling, simulation

4

Technologies
Urban
Safetyof Mega Cities in Asia
New Technologies New
for Urban
Safety offor
Mega
Citiesin AsiaImpacts of the Fukushima Daiichi NPS accident andJapan’s long-term energy & environment policies
Yasuyoshi Ichihashi
Visiting Professor, International Center for Urban Safety Engineering,
Institute of Industrial Science,
The University of Tokyo
ABSTRACTThe 3,11 Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami caused level 7 nuclear disaster at Fukushima Daiichi
Nuclear Power Station, and it brought most serious and complex challenge to Japan in the context
of considerations on future energy and environmental situations. The author reports about thelatest moves in Japan in regard to the government initiated policy reviews in the related areas.

1.

3.11 Earthquake & Tsunami“Great East Japan Earthquake”
Earthquake
11 March 2011 (Fri), 14:46:23 JST
Magnitude: 9 (Mw) Duration: about 6 min
Epicenter: 38.6゜N 142.52゜E(about 130 km off the Oshika Peninsula)
Depth: about 24 km
Type: Plate Boundary in the areas of Japan
Trench ( North American Plate, Pacific Plate )Epicentral Area: Length about 450 km,
Width about 200 km
Seismic Intensity: JMA degree 7 (in Northern
Miyagi area ), quakes spread from Hokkaido to
KyusyuTsunamiMax. Tide Height: 9.3 m ( Souma, Fukushima)
Upstream Height: 40.5 m
Inland run: about 10 km ( in Sendai Area)
Sea Water invasion area: 561 km2

35

October
2012,
Ulaanbaatar,
Mongolia
0ctober
2012,
Ulaanbaatar,
Mongolia

Casualties & Situations that had to be dealt with
Death: 15,867 (over 90% by drowning, 65%
above age 60), Missing:2906, Injured: 6109
Wholly destroyed & half damaged houses &buildings: more than 390,000
Electricity cut off: 8.91 mil. household
Water supply cut off: 1.8 mil. Household
Damaged Agricultural land: 23,600 ha
Damaged fishery vessel: 22,000
Evacuees: about 470,000 at peak
Direct damages: JP¥ 16-25 trillion<Rescue Operations>
Police agency: total 307,500
Fire Defense Agency: 6,100
Marin Safety Agency: total 4413 vessels
total 1514 aircrafts
Defense Ministry: 100,000 at peakOversees Rescue teams: 28 countries, areas,& int’l org. ; 128 countries & 33 int’l org
offered assistance; Operation “Tomodachi”
by U.S.Gov.

<Damages & Recovery of Infrastructures &lifelines>
Transport: railway, road, port, air services
each had severe damages and gradually
recovered. ( In Tokyo, about 700,000 people
were not able to go home. )Lifeline: electricity, gas, water supply, sewage,
telecommunication, broadcasting, oil refineryetc. were damaged, and gradually recovered
Public buildings: about 6, 400 public schools
had damages, many waiting for reconstruction
Rivers, Agricultural facilities, Coastal & fisheryfacilities: each had damages and many waits forrecovery
Immediate life assistance to the affected:
food 2.6 mil. meals, water 8 mil. bottles,
blanket 410,000 fuel 16.000 kl, medicine
240.000 boxes, etc.
<On-going process>
Recovery & Reconstruction Plans
Evacuees are still 340,000, hoping for goinghome
Disposal of Debris: 24.9 mil. tons
4

5

6

Technologies
Urban
Safetyof Mega
Citiesin Asia
NewNew
Technologies
for for
Urban
Safetyof Mega
Citiesin AsiaICUS Report 65

2. Fukushima Daiichi NPS Accident◉Of the 6 Units, 3 ( No.4, 5. 6) were not in
operation◉Units No.1, 2, 3 were automatically stopped
immediately after earthquake. But supply ofouter power was cut off, emergency generators
could not continue supplying powers becauseof earthquake & tsunami, and non-electriccooling system also did not work.
◉Eventually this led to melt-down of fuels at
all Units 1-3, and hydrogen gas exploded at
Unit 1 (3/12), at Unit 3 (3/14), and at Unit 2(3/15). Hydrogen Explosion also occurred at
Unit 4 used fuel pool.
◉ As a result, large amount of radioactive
material were released into the air, onto theground, and contaminated water used forcooling the fuel was also leaked into theseawater.
◉ The government ordered evacuation ofresidents within 20 km radius area, andsheltering within 20-30 km radius area.

◉Thereafter tremendous amount of hard workand a long process were necessary to stabilize
the fuel.
◉Nine month later, in Dec. 2011, the gov’t
declared that cold shut down was achieved on
the site.
<Investigation Committees>◉ The government established Investigation
Committee in June 2011, and the Committee
submitted its final report in July 2012.
◉ National Diet of Japan also established
Independent Investigation Commission on
Fukushima Nuclear Accident in December
2011, and the Commission submitted its final
report in July 2012.
◉Both reports severely criticized TEPCO aswell as the government for the disability toprevent level 7 nuclear accident. But both could
not identify how the radioactivity was released
in detail because of non-accessibility to thereactors.
◉All built-in safety measures were structured
on the proposition “ long-time all power loss is
6
impossible”, but it did take place.

Situations that had to be dealt with

◉Care & assistance to evacuees (about 86,000)
from the designated evacuation area ( housing,including temporary shelters, medical care,schooling for children, guarded temporary visit tothe original residence, etc. )◉Monitoring of radiation. Contamination was wide
spread and monitoring posts & activities had to be
expanded largely.
◉Ban on shipment of some vegetables and fisheryproducts, because of detected radiation. The
government introduced a new criteria for theradioactive cesium in foodstuffs in April 2012.
◉Insufficient supply of electricity, due to break
down of NPS & other power plants. TEPCO
carried out “ Planned Electricity Outage” in March
2011. The Government (METI minister) ordered
companies contracting more than 500w electricity
to cut 15% usage in 2011 summer.
◉Decontamination. A special law to carry out
decontamination work was passed by the Diet.
It requires huge amount of financial resources.
◉Compensation for the economic & other damages
caused by nuclear accident. For this purpose, a billto establish Nuclear Damage Liability Facilitation
Fund was passed in the Diet. Temporary payment

has started, but total amount necessary is not known.
◉Nationwide public views against restarting
operations of NPSs. NPSs are obligated to go
through maintenance programs after one year inoperation. Accordingly, after Fukushima, all 54
NPSs stopped operations one by one, but becauseof the local government’s oppositions, they were notable to restart operations. After introducing stresstests, the government decided to re-start two units at
Oi NPS in Shiga Pref. Since then tens of thousandprotesters started to gather in front of the Prime
Minister’s Office to make demonstrations.
◉Separation of regulatory agency from nuclear
promotional ministry (METI).
IAEA also
recommended separation. A new bill to create new
nuclear regulatory body was passed by the Diet inJune 2012. With this, a new independent Nuclear
Regulatory Commission is to be established toreplace previous Nuclear Safety Committee, andprevious Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency
under METI will be re-organized to a new
independent Nuclear Regulatory Agency under the
Ministry of Environment. The new body is
expected to introduce new safety guidelines of the
NPSs.
7

ImpactsImpactsof the Fukushima
DaiichiDaiich
NPS accident
and Japan's
long-term
energyenergy& environment
policies
7of the Fukushima
NPS accident
and Japan’slong-term& environment
policiesOctober
2012,
Ulaanbaatar,
Mongolia
0ctober
2012,
Ulaanbaatar,
Mongolia

93. Change of Public Views on NPSs
◉A drastic change occurred in public views.
Public Opinion Polls by Cabinet Office
Q: How do you think about nuclear power generation from now on ?
(After Oil shock)1976
Betterdevelopmore
Betterabandon50%

Better positively
increase

1999

Dec. 2011

4% Positively promote

Cautiously
increase
Maintain current
30%
level
Abolish in the9%
futureCautiously
promoteMaintain current
27%
level
Abolish in the19%
futureBetter stop
currently
operating ones

2% Abolish soon

2% Abolish soon

2%

Do not know

10% Do not know

9% Do not know

8%

Better cautiously
increase
Better not
Do not know 35%
increase more
Better decrease44%(After 3.11)

2005

5% Positively increase

20%

Same Q:(In global warming
context)(After Three Mile & Chelnobyl)
1997

NHK Survey

39%

8%

Should increase

1.9%

Maintain Current level

26.5%

Should decrease

50.7%

Should abolish all

20.3%

No answer

0.6%

47%
20%
15%

Negative became 70%

Note that before 3.11, negative views were minorities◉ This made reviews of long-term energy policy inevitable.
108Technologies
Urban
Safetyof Mega
Citiesin Asia
NewNew
Technologies
for for
Urban
Safetyof Mega
Citiesin AsiaICUS Report 65

4. Impact on long-term energy policy◉Historical transitions of energy resource composition in Japan

11

12

ImpactsImpactsof the Fukushima
DaiichiDaiich
NPS accident
and Japan's
long-term
energyenergy& environment
policies
9of the Fukushima
NPS accident
and Japan’slong-term& environment
policiesOctober
2012,
Ulaanbaatar,
Mongolia
0ctober
2012,
Ulaanbaatar,
Mongolia

Transition in Power generation facilities capacity, year by year, by resources(Ten thousand kW)

New energy, etc.
pump‐up hydropetroleum

LNG

Hydro power
coal

nuclear

13

Trends in generated electricity, year by year, by resources(100,million kWh)New energy, etc
Pump‐up hydroPetroleum
LNG
Hydro power
Coal

nuclear14

10

Technologies
Urban
Safetyof Mega
Citiesin Asia
NewNew
Technologies
for for
Urban
Safetyof Mega
Citiesin AsiaICUS Report 65(1) Immediately after the war: hydro-power(2) Reconstruction period (‘45-’62)
Coal as main(3) High-speed growth period (‘62-’72)
Transition from coal to petroleum(4) After 1st & 2nd Oil Shock (‘73-late’80s)
Weight on stable supply of resources,
alternative energy resource development,
and energy conservation measures(5) Since ‘90s
Need to adapt to global warming situation;“ nuclear renaissance”
Technology development such as solar panel
2002.6 “Basic Act on Energy Policy”
Principles introduced were:・Stable supply
・adaptation to environmental requirements
・active use of market principles (deregulations)(6) According to the Basic Act, the government
adopted Strategic Energy Plan in 2003, revised it
in 2007, and made the second revision in 2010
(current plan). (Revision is required every 3 yrs.)(7) The 2010 Plan laid emphasis on CO2emission reduction, and called for theconstruction of 9 new or additional NPPs by
2020, and 14 or more NPPs by 2030. It was
packaged with over 30% CO2 reduction by 2030.
( See next graph)
However, after 3.11, such Plan became
obviously unsustainable, and the gov’t decided
that the Plan will be re-created from the scratch
by summer 2012, one year earlier than theoriginal timeline 2013.

15◉ Following was the picture drawn in the 2010 Strategic Energy Plan

16

ImpactsImpactsof the Fukushima
DaiichiDaiich
NPS accident
and Japan's
long-term
energyenergy& environment
policies
11of the Fukushima
NPS accident
and Japan’slong-term& environment
policiesOctober
2012,
Ulaanbaatar,
Mongolia
0ctober
2012,
Ulaanbaatar,
Mongolia(8)Regarding the use of nuclear energy,
Atomic Energy Basic Law was enacted in
1955, and Japan Atomic Energy
Commission (JAEC, for policies) was
created, and later in ’78, Nuclear Safety
Commission (NSC, for regulation) wereseparated. (NSC is to be replaced by NRC
from now on.)AEC developed Long-term Basic
Program for Development and Utilization of
Nuclear Energy 9 times (approx. in every 5
years) since then, and in 2005, Framework
for Nuclear Energy Policy was decided by
the Cabinet.
(9) The 2005 Framework was to bereviewed after 5 years, and in 2010, AEC
set up a New Nuclear Policy PlanningCouncil.
However, after 3.11, consideration was
suspended until summer 2012, due tochange of the situation.

(10) Thus, 3.11 has impacted all-round Japan’s
energy and environment policies &necessitated reviews.
(a) Advisory Committee on Energy and Natural
Resources(Fundamental
IssuesSubcommittee), under Natural Resources andEnergy Agency, METI, is to review
alternative policy options for the current“Basic Energy Plan”(b) AEC, under Cabinet Office, is to review
alternative policy options for the new“Framework for Nuclear Energy Policy”(c) Central Environmental Council, under
Ministry of Environment, is to review
alternative policy options for measuresagainst global warming(d) The Energy & Environment Council (EEC or“Ene-kan”) , set up in 2011 by the Cabinet
Office, National Policy Unit, is to integratethese, and create “Innovative Strategy for
Energy and Environment”.

17

5. Process of the Review◉ In July 2012, National Policy Unit of the Cabinet Office announced 3 options of the future energy
composition in order to gather public views on them. Review process was scheduled as follows.

18

12Technologies
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NewNew
Technologies
for for
Urban
Safetyof Mega
Citiesin AsiaICUS Report 65

6 Three Scenarios◉ Following are three options as announced by National Policy Unit.

19

20

ImpactsImpactsof the Fukushima
DaiichiDaiich
NPS accident
and Japan's
long-term
energyenergy& environment
policies
13of the Fukushima
NPS accident
and Japan’slong-term& environment
policiesOctober
2012,
Ulaanbaatar,
Mongolia
0ctober
2012,
Ulaanbaatar,
Mongolia

21

22

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Technologies
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NewNew
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Urban
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7 Other Issues◉ Decommissioning of Fukushima Daiichi NPS reactors. How? Developmentof technology required. Long time also needed. Huge money necessary.
◉ Also how to deal with decommissioning of other NPS reactors whichreaches 40 years operating time limitation?
◉ How to deal with Japan’s long standing government policy of nuclear fuelrecycling, including FBRs & pluthermal?
◉ Final disposal of the nuclear waste is also an unsettled issue.
◉ How to deal with existing power supply regime? Currently regional 10
electricity companies maintains regional monopoly of power generation,transmission and distribution. Is this system to be changed and deregulated
more? Can separation of transmission bring competition with PPSs (Power
Producer & Supplier, and be effective in supplying low-cost, stable powers?
◉ Higher electricity price is envisaged for both household & industry. And it
may bring about more business/manufacturing companies escaping out of
the country, decreasing domestic employment & worsening deflations. A
vigorous new growth strategy is also needed.
23

8 Latest Development◉ On 4 Sep., Results of National Discussions were shown at Energy& Environment Council.
(examples)2030 Scinario

NHK Opinion
Poll (Aug)Publiccomments

Public hearing
sessions

Deliberarive Polling(early Aug)support 0%

36%

87%

68%

47%

support 15%

39%

1%

11%

15%

support 20‐25%

15%

8%

16%

13%

Others

10%

4%

5%

25%

24

ImpactsImpactsof the Fukushima
DaiichiDaiich
NPS accident
and Japan's
long-term
energyenergy& environment
policies
15of the Fukushima
NPS accident
and Japan’slong-term& environment
policiesOctober
Ulaanbaatar,
Mongolia
0ctober
2012,2012,
Ulaanbaatar,
Mongolia

Summary ofof thethe National
National Discussion
Discussion (( byby National
National Policy
Policy Unit)
Unit)◉ Summary
Majority ofof thethe public
public areare sharing
sharing broad
broad direction
direction toward
toward aa societysociety away
away fromfrom-- Majority
dependency on
on nuclear
nuclear power
power generation.
generation.
dependency
Support forfor Zero
Zero scenario
scenario ++ 15%
15% scenario
scenario was
was 70-80%)
70-80%)(( Support
About thethe time-frame
time-frame && realizability
realizability ofof NPP
NPP non-dependency,
non-dependency,-- About
About half
half ofof thethe public
public hold
hold certain
certain concerns.
concerns. Public
Public does
does notnot yetyet have
have fixt
fixt view
view onon
About“non-dependency byby when”
when”“non-dependency
Reasons ofof highhigh support
support forfor immediate
immediate zero,
zero, oror large-scalelarge-scale demonstrations
demonstrations against
against-- Reasonsrestarting NPP,
NPP, should
should be
be seenseen inin thethe context
context ofof non-confidence
non-confidence onon thethe Government
Government
restarting
after 3.11,
3.11, andand concerns
concerns on
on NPPs.
NPPs.
after
On 44 Sep.,
Sep., METI
METI Minister
Minister reported
reported about
about thethe challenges
challenges ahead
ahead inin creating
creating NPP
NPP nonnon◉ On
dependency situation
situation at
at EECEEC (( Ene-kan).
Ene-kan).
dependency
Tighter electricity
electricity supply/demand→
supply/demand→ Increase
Increase ofof electricity
electricity Price
Price-- Tighter(example: impact
impact forfor householdhousehold )()( except
except single
single household)household)(example:2010 J¥16,900/monthJ¥16,900/month → 2030
2030 max
max ¥32,243/month¥32,243/month2010
Large requirement
requirement forfor new
new investment
investment on
on renewable
renewable power
power generation
generation (( estimatedestimated-- Large¥50 trillion
trillion required
required inin 28
28 years
years ))
¥50
see next
next graph)graph)(( seeIssues ofof final
final disposal
disposal ofof fuelfuel-- Issues
25
Others-- Others

27

16

Technologies
Urban
Safetyof Mega
Citiesin Asia
NewNew
Technologies
for for
Urban
Safetyof Mega
Citiesin AsiaICUS Report 65◉ Feed-in Tariffs for Renewable Energy has just started as of 1
July 2012.
Prices of Renewable Energy during July 2012 ‐ March 2013
Solar

Price
Duration

Wind

Price
Duration

Hydro

Geothermal

Price
Duration
Price
Duration

BiomasPrice
Duration

≧10kW
＜10kW
¥42
¥42
20 years
10 years
≧20kW
＜20kW
¥23.10¥57.7520years
20 years≧1000kW ≧200kW ＜1,000kW＜30,000kW¥25.20¥30.4520 years
20 years≧15,000kW ＜15,000kW¥27.30¥42
15 years
15 years
Biomass fromsewage sludge& animals

ForestThinnings¥40.9520 years¥33.6020 years＜200kW¥35.7020 years

SewageSludge & Construction
Whole Timber
Waste
Municipal
Waste¥25.20¥17.85¥13.6520 years
20 years
20 years28◉On 14 Sept. the government decided upon “Innovative Strategy
for Energy and Environment”, at the Energy & Environment
Council (“Ene-kan”) meeting.
-to aim at zero NPS operation in 2030’s-3 principles: (1) 40 years operation limit for NPS to be strictly
observed. (2) No new NPS construction. (3) Among existing
NPSs, only those on which security is confirmed by new standard
will be permitted to re-start.
-Nuclear fuel recycling will be continued. Researches & work on
ways of direct disposal of spent fuel & disposal location will be
immediately started. Aomori will not be final disposal location.
-”Monjyu” (prototype FBR) will finish its work within limited
time-frame. (prototype Æ research only)
29

ImpactsImpactsof the Fukushima
DaiichiDaiich
NPS accident
and Japan's
long-term
energyenergy& environment
policies
17of the Fukushima
NPS accident
and Japan’slong-term& environment
policiesOctober
2012,
Ulaanbaatar,
Mongolia
0ctober
2012,
Ulaanbaatar,
Mongolia-Power generation by renewable resources will be 3 times morein2030 than in2010. 20% less greenhouse gas emission in’30
than in 1990. “ Green Policy Framework” will be decided by theend of the year, including countermeasures against global
warming.
-Power sector system reform plan will be made by the end of theyear.
-Review from time to time.
◉Later, on 19 Sept., the Government aimed to make a cabinet
decision on the Innovative Strategy on Energy and Environment.
However, due to oppositions from elsewhere, it could only decideto further examine the new strategy, making the Innovative
Strategy as merely a reference.
30◉ There are lots of domestic & international criticism on the new
direction and the way the government handled the issue.
(Economic impact, Contradictions/dilemmas of zero NPS
operations vs. continuation of recycling policies, accumulation of
plutonium, and so on.)◉ Meanwhile, elections of political party’s presidency were heldin both DP and LDP. In DP, PM Noda supported the government
policy directions but 3 other candidates asserted earlier zero
operation. In LDP, all 5 candidates asserted no hasty decision.
◉ It is anticipated that the issue may become a focal issue in theforthcoming general election.
◉ Meanwhile, on 2 Oct., Atomic Energy Commission decided tostop working on new “Framework for Nuclear Energy Policy”,
due to the Innovative Strategy on Energy and Environment,
which required reviews on the way AEC operates, adding more
31
confusions to the situation.

18

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Urban
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9 Conclusion◉ 3.11 Earthquake/Tsunami and Fukushima Daiichi Disaster brought
most serious challenge to Japan. Japan is at a crossroad toward
the nation’s future.
◉ Currently overall direction seems to be heading toward
decreasing dependency on nuclear energy, eventually making
it zero. But many questions still remain: How and in what pace?
Does Japan really abandon all the industrial, technological andhuman resources base for the nuclear power generation in the
country? How can Japan accommodate international
requirements (CO2 emission, plutonium accumulation,
developing countries’ power needs, etc.
◉ Japan’ forthcoming decision will no doubt have a far-reaching
impact globally in the world-wide context of energy and32
environment.

ImpactsImpactsof the Fukushima
DaiichiDaiich
NPS accident
and Japan's
long-term
energyenergy& environment
policies
19of the Fukushima
NPS accident
and Japan’slong-term& environment
policiesOctober 2012, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia

20

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Estimation of seismic risk
for central Ulaanbaatar
using building stock inventory
Iu. Berzhinskii1, L Berzhinskaia2, O. Salandaeva3, D Kiselev4,
S. Demberel, T. Erdenetuya5, D. Tulga6, G. Tatkov7
ABSTRACTThe seismic hazard in Ulaanbaatar City territory is related both to ground shaking fromdistant major earthquakes and active faults in the immediate vicinity of the city that are able
to generate M 8.0 earthquakes. The design seismic intensity in the central part of the city is
estimated at 7 to 8 on the MMSK-86 scale. In the last decade, the population of Ulaanbaatar
city increased from 620 to 1,200 thousand inhabitants. There is a wide variety of modern
housing developments. Besides precast concrete panel apartment buildings that wereconstructed in 1970-1990, the tower blocks are being built under the Japanese, Chinese andSouth-Korean homebuilder’s projects. However, a half of the city population lives in yurts.
Existing buildings inventory involved also the instrumental studies of dynamic characteristics
of buildings at the micro-dynamic effect level, thus providing a possibility to estimate
stiffness and strength. The accepted classification of buildings follows the Russian Seismic
Intensity Scale standard MMSK-86 based on the notion of class of buildings according to thelevel of their seismic resistance. According to the level of seismic resistance, all residentialbuildings in Ulaanbaatar city may be divided into two major classes: C6 and C7. There isdefinite probability that some old buildings do not meet the requirements specified for class
C6. A traditional national housing – well-built yurts –can be assigned to class C7. Seismic
risk has been estimated using the model described in [Larionov et al., 2003]. The model wasused to estimate economic risk for buildings of different types taking into account thebuildings inventory data. The level of impact on population has been estimated throughindividual and collective risks. The value of seismic risk equal to 1×10-5 (1/year) was
considered as acceptable one. Two scenario seismic events have been considered: earthquakes
with intensity 7-8 according to the MMSK-86 scale. The results of computations have shownthat an individual seismic risk considerably exceeds the accepted level. The value of seismic
risk equal to 1×10-5 (1/year) was considered as acceptable one. Two scenario seismic events
have been considered: earthquakes with intensity 7-8 according to the MMSK-86 scale. The
results of computations have shown that an individual seismic risk considerably exceeds theaccepted level. In case of an intensity 7 earthquake it is equal to 1×10-4, and for an intensity 8
quake the level increases to 5×10-4 (1/year); a relative economic damage has been
respectively estimated as 8% and 45%.
Larionov V., Frolova N. 2003. Peculiarities of seismic vulnerability estimations. In book:
Natural Hazards in Russia, volume 6: Natural Risks Assessment and Management, Publishing
House “Kruk”, Moscow, pp.120-131.

21

October 2012, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia

22

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Importance of maintenance to utilize existing
structures
Taketo UOMOTO
Chief Executive,
Public Works Research Institute

ABSTRACT
Many structures are being built in various parts of the world. To use thesestructures for long period of time, maintenance is one of the most important things.
Usually, these structures can be used for more than hundred years, but due todeterioration, accidents, etc., some of the structures must be repaired within 50
years. This paper clarifies the causes of the deterioration and shows examples
how to prevent the deterioration and how to deal with the problem after they are
deteriorated.
1. INTRODUCTION
Japan experienced a rapid economic growth in the period of 1960 to 1990. Morethan 100million cubic meters of concrete were used to construct the structures
such as buildings, bridges, tunnels, dams, roads, railways, etc. to support theactivities of Japanese people. As a result, large stock of these infrastructures isreaching 50 years of service, and due to deterioration of the structures,
maintenance of these structures has become a major interest among the owners
and the civil engineers. In Japan, many different types of hazards attack every
year on these structures, such as earthquakes, tsunamis, typhoons, etc. It isextremely important to prevent the structures collapse due to these hazards.
On March 11, 14:46, 2011, the massive3 “Great East Japan Earthquake” hit thecountry of Japan just off the Pacific coast. The magnitude of the earthquake wasreported as 9.0, and shook Japan from Hokkaido to Nagoya City. The disasterwas tremendous compared to Hanshin-Awaji Great Earthquake which took placein January 17, 1995. A large difference can be seen in not only the vibration of
the ground caused by the earthquake, but the tsunami and nuclear power plant
accident. Such earthquake disasters are occurring quite frequently compared toother countries. The data shows that the earthquake energy occurring in Japan ismore than 10% of the whole earth.
On the other hand, population of Japan is estimated to reduce rapidly from now on
because of fewer babies in a family (approximately 1.2 children per family) thanneeded to sustain the present population. Although high technologies have beendeveloped in recent years, it is sure that fewer engineers will have to take care ofthis huge amount of structures from now on, which has never experienced in the23

October
October 2012,2012, Ulaanbaatar,
Ulaanbaatar,Mongolia
Mongolia

past. Due to reduction in the economical growth, the budget for both construction
and maintenance will be reduced in the future.
Under 1 4B e twe en 15 - 64

Above 6 5

14 0
Popu lation (million )

12 0
10 0
80
60
40
20
0
1 92 0 1 93 5 1 95 0 1 96 5 1 98 0 1 9 95 20 10 2 0 25 20 50

Figure 1 Percentage of different ages in Japan
Considering these situations, the maintenance of existing structures in Japan must
be done with the following conditions: 1) rapidly increasing amount of existing
structures reaching the age of 50 years, 2) less amount of engineers to maintainthe structures, 3) less amount of budget to maintain the structures. Although
there are many hazards in each country, concrete structures are expected to be safe
for long period of time. These structures may deteriorate by many causes
including chemical reactions, physical loads, etc., as time passes by.
If the structure is deteriorated before the hazards, the structure may easily collapse
and it would be difficult to maintain the safety of the people. In order to keep thesafety of urban area, it is important to study and investigate not only on hazards
but also on durability aspects of existing structures. Even a small amount of
concrete spalling may cause large scale traffic accidents as we experienced in
Sanyo-Shinkansen in 1999. Considering these situations now, this paper explains
what is happening now in Japan and how we are dealing with the problems
through research and engineering.
2. GENERAL MAINTENANCE METHODS USDED TILL NOW
The maintenance of concrete structures has been done mostly by the owners of thestructures. In case of public structures, the ministries, etc. maintain the structure
after the structures are completed. For the time being, the methods for the
maintenance differ according to the owners of the structures. Although there aresome differences, the main concept of the maintenance can be summarized asfollows:
1. Periodic inspection and evaluation of deterioration degree
2. Detailed inspection and decision making
3. Repairing and strengthening of deteriorated structures
For periodic inspections, the inspectors inspect the structures visually, sometimes
with the help of binoculars and hammers, once a year or once in several years
according to the importance and time after the structure is completed. The

24

Technologies
Urban
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New TechnologiesNew
for Urban
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inspectors are mostly trained engineers with experiences. The detailed inspection
is done when the estimated degree of deterioration exceeds certain limit, or whensome new phenomenon is found during the periodic inspection. The detailed
inspection is done by visual inspections with the aid of non-destructive tests or
taking core samples out from the inspected structure. The purpose of theinspection is to decide the cause of the deterioration and also to evaluate whether
repair and/or strengthening is needed or not.
To repair or strengthen the existing structures, it is important to design and selectsufficient methods and materials. The most popular repair method for corrosionof steel bars due to carbonation is to eliminate the carbonated concrete and replace
it by new concrete and apply coatings with and without FRP sheets. But in case ofsteel corrosion due to chlorides from the surrounding environment, the highchloride concentrated portions of concrete are taken out, anti-corrosive treatment
is applied to the surface of the bar, and polymer cement mortar is generally used
to repair the concrete before coating the concrete surface.

Figure 2 Deteriorated wharf due to chloride corrosion (Photo by Ema Kato)
3. STANDARD SPECIFICATION OF JSCE
After the investigations of many deteriorated concrete structures, the importanceof durability was fully recognized by the civil engineers. To deal with the
problem, not only JSCE, AIJ, and JCI have been recommending methods to deal
with the problems but also the Ministries, and other authorities started to propose
practical counter measures to cope with the situation. As a result, a large amountof researches has been done related to the durability of concrete structures
including non-destructive inspection methods.
Among these authorities, the Concrete Committee of JSCE, the leading committee
in the field of concrete in Japan, has published the translated version of “Standard
Specifications for Concrete Structures-2002” in English to deal with the problemsof durability. A new version of the Standard Specification was published in the
Importance of maintenanceto utilize
existing structures
Importanceof maintenanceto utilize existing structures

25

October
October 2012,2012, Ulaanbaatar,
Ulaanbaatar,Mongolia
Mongolia

year 2007 in Japanese (JSCE, 2007a, 2007b and 2007c). The concept written in
the specifications will surely be adopted by other institutions. (These standard
specifications can be down loaded directly from the home page of JSCE:
http://www.jsce.or.jp/committee/concrete/e/index.html)
The main proposals of the “Standard Specifications 2007” are the following two
items:
1) Propose a new method to design and construct new concrete structuresthat can be used for specified lifetime without large amount ofmaintenance cost.
2) Propose an effective and economical system to maintain existing
concrete structures with small number of engineers and workers.
The concepts of the new Standard Specifications are briefly explained in thefollowing chapters.
3.1 DURABILITY DESIGN OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES FOR NEW
STRUCTURES
Performance-based durability design was introduced to “Standard Specification ofConcrete Structures” by the Concrete Committee of JSCE in the year 2000 and betranslated to English version in 2005 (JSCE, 2005c). Although durability ofconcrete structures was considered important in the previous specifications,performance-based design method was not used. The previous specifications
described the importance of durability by proposing that the concrete structures
are durable for a long time when specified materials, mixes, covers, etc. are used.
But these specifications did not mention about the duration of service time, etc.
The proposed performance-based new durability design can be summarized asfollows:
1. The concrete structure must be quantitatively checked whether the
structure possesses required performance within the designed period.
2. The degree of deterioration of the structure in service for a specified
cause must be specified.
3. To maintain the structure above the specified degree of deterioration,
the required performance must be specified.
To examine the performance on durability, a kind of limit state design scheme
was introduced for the durability of concrete structures. The equation can be
written as shown in Equation (1):γ i ⋅ Ad A

lim

≤ 1.0

(1)

where, Ad is designed performance of the structure at specified time considering
the specified deterioration cause, Alim is limit of the performance of the structure,and γi is coefficient of the structure considering the importance, etc.
Generally, performance of concrete has to be verified to satisfy the required
performance. Not only resistances against deterioration but also mechanism

26

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properties of concrete have to be verified as shown below.
1. Compressive strength
2. Carbonation rate
3. Diffusion coefficient of chloride ions in concrete
4. Dynamic modulus of elasticity
5. Resistance to chemical attack
6. Resistance to alkali aggregate reaction
7. Coefficient of water permeability of concrete
8. Fire resistance
9. Adiabatic temperature rise
10. Drying shrinkage characteristics
11. Setting characteristic

88
7

OPC

普通ポルトランドセメント

Service time
( Years )

66
5

44
3

22

Wet Environment

乾燥し難い環境，北向きの面など（R=1.0）
乾燥しやすい環境，南向きの面など（R=1.6）

Dry Environment

1

00
40
40

100
100年
75
75年
50
50年
100
100年
75年
75
50年
50
30年
30

45

50
50

55

60
60

65

Water
cement（％）
ratio (%)
水セメント比7070Concrete cover thickness (cm)Concrete cover thickness (cm)The Figure 3 shows an example of the calculated result for minimum cover
thickness to prevent carbonation induced corrosion at different years of service for
OPC concrete and BFSC concrete. As shown in the figure, the cover thickness
required changes according to the type of cement to be used, water-cement ratioof concrete, years of service and exposed condition (wet or dry) of the structure to
be constructed. When the structure is designed for long period of time, the cover
thickness may become too large, and it is recommended to use othercountermeasures such as Epoxy-coated bars.
88
Service time
(Years)100
100年

高炉セメントＢ種（スラグ40％）
Blast
Furnace
Slag Cement

7

66

75
75年

5

50
50年
100年
100
75年
75
50年
50
30年
30

44
3

22

Wet environment

乾燥し難い環境，北向きの面など（R=1.0）
乾燥しやすい環境，南向きの面など（R=1.6）

100

Dry environment

40
40

45

50
50

55

60
60

65

70
70

Water
cementratio (%)
水セメント比（％）

Figure 3: Calculated results of concrete cover according to JSCE Standard
Specification
3.2 METHODS OF MAINTENANCE PROPOSED BYJSCEThe methods used in the new Standard Specification are basically the same as theconventional method. The differences are that the new method requires
maintaining the structure within their required performances throughout theirservice life. Firstly, the listed below issues have to be clearly specified.
1. To maintain a structure, performances required for the structure must
be clearly defined.
2. The performances required for general structures are “safety”,“serviceability”, “hazards to the public”, “aesthetics and landscape”
and “durability”.
And the basic principles of maintenance works are as follows:
Importance of maintenanceto utilize
existing structures
Importanceof maintenanceto utilize existing structures

27

October
October 2012,2012, Ulaanbaatar,
Ulaanbaatar,Mongolia
Mongolia

1.

2.
3.
4.

Structures must be maintained according to a designated maintenancecategory by formulating a maintenance program to retain the performancewithin the specified tolerances throughout their service life. And maintenancesystem includes adequate “initial inspection”, “deterioration prediction”,“inspection”, “assessment/judgment”, “remedial action”, and “record”.
To maintain a structure, in addition to the assessment and evaluation at thetime of inspection, assessment and evaluation must be made throughout theservice life of the structure based on prediction of deterioration.
To predict the deterioration, required performances of the structure must be
clearly defined, and also the design service life must be made clear.
The records on design, construction, initial inspection, deterioration
prediction, periodical inspection, assessment and/or evaluation, and remedialactions must be kept throughout the service life.

In detail, for an example, the standard method for chloride induced deterioration
recommends the model to predict chloride ion diffusion, progress of steel
corrosion, and correction of the prediction. Also the methods of initial inspection,
routine inspection, periodic inspection, and detailed inspection as well evaluationand judgment method are also discussed. Finally, for recommendation remedial
measures, information on measurements of both repair or strengthening also has
to be recorded.

電流量
Ik (mA/cm)
Current
Amperage(mA/cm)One of the difficulties is how to predict the degree of deterioration at the end of
their service life. There are several researches being done to predict thedeterioration in numerical manner. In the published Standard, several numericalprediction methods are introduced as references for structures suffering cyclic
fatigue loads, carbonation induced corrosion and chloride induced corrosion. In
case of cyclic fatigue, S-N curves are used to predict the service life. In case ofcarbonation induced and chloride induced corrosion of steel bars, diffusion
equations for carbon dioxide and chloride are used to predict the degree ofcorrosion. Using these prediction methods, deterioration degree can be estimatedto certain degree. (See Figure 4) But for other deterioration problems, which has
not been studied numerically, a quantitative model has not been proposed yet. To
deal with the problem, a qualitative method, namely “Grading method”, isintroduced in the Standard.
（Temperature:20℃、Crack depth: 7cm）

0.1

Cathode

0.05

Crack

0
-0.05

days
28日
days
91日
days
180日

Anode

-0.1
-0.15

year
1年
years
2年

-0.2
-0.25
0

2

4
6
8
10
モデル端部からの距離(cm)
Distance (cm)12

14

Figure 4: Quantitative prediction of corrosion in marine environment
with cracks (Tsukahara et al., 2000)

28

Technologies
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4. PROBLEMS IN ACTUAL EXISTING STRUCTURES
One example of the problem is as follows: When a civil engineer is asked by theowner to check the safety of an old existing structure, one of the largest problems
is that there are neither drawings nor construction records of the structure
available. No problem may occur in case of important facilities, which ismaintained with great care. But in case of normal structures, the owners do notknow the importance of these documents.

7,300

85 0 65 0
D16120190

4,500

65 0
4,500

250
D25

1,000 30 0

12 023 0

21@300１

1,300

280 8@200

210

5 0 280 9@200

18,390CL

9,390
280 16@200280

D13
120@125
15,620120

Figure 5: Re-designed reinforced concrete pier of a bridge (Okazaki, 2005)
To deal with the problem, NDI is not enough. Fortunately, our structures are not
too old, and they are mostly designed and constructed by the method specified by
JSCE, AIJ or other associations. Considering these, the only way is to re-design
the structure again using the methodologies used at the time of construction.
Figure 4 shows an example of re-designed bridge pier constructed about 35 years
ago. From the figure, it is much easier for a civil engineer to check the safety ofthe structure under several hazards. It will become more important for the owners
and engineers to keep these documents throughout the service life of a structure.
5. CONCLUDING REMARKS
Engineering is not always complete, and further research works are needed. To
sustain existing structures, durability of the structure is important. One good
method is to construct durable structures, but for the existing structures
maintenance is the only way to deal with the problem. Although concretecommittee of JSCE has set up a good system for maintenance of existing concrete
structures, there are still many things to be done: not only researches but also
education to the students and engineers about durability and maintenance. I hope
this paper may become a help to the concrete engineers of the world who aretrying to design, construct and maintain concrete structures.

Importance of maintenanceto utilize
existing structures
Importanceof maintenanceto utilize existing structures

29

October
October 2012,2012, Ulaanbaatar,
Ulaanbaatar,Mongolia
Mongolia

REFERENCES
Concrete Committee of JSCE,“Design”. JSCE, Tokyo.

Standard Specifications for Concrete Structures-2007

Concrete Committee of JSCE, Standard Specifications for Concrete Structures2007,“Materials and Construction”. JSCE, Tokyo.

Concrete Committee of JSCE, Standard Specifications for Concrete Structures-2007“Maintenance”. JSCE, Tokyo.
Okazaki, S., 2005. Development of monitoring system for RC bridge based on restoration
design method. Thesis submitted to the University of Tokyo for Master of Engineering degree.
Tsukahara, E., Koyama, R., Hoshino, T., and Uomoto T., 2000. Estimation Method ofCorroded Portion of Reinforcing Steel Bar by Natural Potential Measurement. Nondestructive Testing in Civil Engineering 2000, Elsevier.
Uomoto, T., and Misra S., 2001. Role of Engineers to Improve Quality of Concrete Structures.
Proceedings of EASEC-8, Singapore.

30

Technologies
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New TechnologiesNew
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Safety offor
Mega
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

Impact of urbanization on flooding and sustainable
flood mitigation measures
1

Charng Ning CHEN1
Professor Emeritus, School of Civil & Environmental Engineering,
Nanyang Technological University, Republic of Singapore
chen@cnchen.com

ABSTRACT
Uncontrolled urban development invariably causes increase of flood risk and damages to thecatchments. The increases in impervious covers and channelization are the key elements that cause
increases in flood peak and volume, and reduction in base flow. Flood-plain encroachment, groundsubsidence, and poor maintenance of drainage facilities also contribute to the flooding problems.
The impact of these land-use related factors on the changes in flood characteristics are presented.
Interest in mitigating the adverse impacts on water and land through innovative storm-water
management approaches, such as the Low Impact Development (LID), are gaining broader
acceptance worldwide. The approach emphasizes the conservation of natural systems and mimic
the pre-development hydrologic function of a site, and thus reducing the flood peak and enhancing
the base-flow. A similar approach- named as ABC (Active, Beautiful, and Clean) program, wasintroduced in Singapore, relying on the natural systems to detain, retain and treat storm-water onsite. Typical features include pervious pavement, green roofs, rainwater harvesting, rain gardensand green walls, vegetated and bio-retention swales and basins, and wetlands. Examples of
LID/ABC practices in the U.S. and Singapore are presented. These practices have the benefits ofachieving flood control, water augmentation and improvement to storm-water quality in a moresustainable manner.
Keywords: urban flooding, impervious covers, channelization, flood-plain encroachment, groundsubsidence, LID (Low Impact Development), ABC (Active, Beautiful, and Clean), water
augmentation, water quality31October 2012, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia

32

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Centralized and decentralized urban flood
control measures under physical and societal
constraints
Srikantha Herath1, Socheat Penh2, Hiroyuki Okui3, Masahiro Imbe3
and Yoshihiro Kitagawa4
1
Academic Director, Institute for Sustainability and Peace,
United Nations University, Japan
herath@unu.edu
2Graduate Student, Institute for Sustainability and Peace,
United Nations University, Japan
3
Association for Rainwater Storage and Infiltration, Tokyo, Japan
4
Professor, Kokushikan University, Tokyo, Japan

ABSTRACTThis research focuses on an alternative approach to flood control by combining
centralized water retention systems with distributed onsite control using
infiltration and facilities. The flood control requirements in upstream, midstream
and downstream areas for an urban catchment in Tokyo were analyzed for
different return periods. Various combinations of centralized flood control
measures, notably the storage systems and onsite infiltration facilities wereassessed that could meet the flood control demands. Then the least construction
cost combinations of facilities meeting these requirements were identified. Whilethe local government can implement the centralized control measures, thedistributed implementation requires the consent and willingness of the residents ofthe catchment. This was assessed using a controlled household survey that also
analyzed the effect of awareness building on increasing the willingness toparticipate. The study identified that implementing least cost solutions that meetboth physical and societal constraints is possible if residents can be better
informed of the environmental benefits of infiltration systems.
Keywords: urban flood control, public involvement, infiltration systems, least cost
solutions, environment sustainability

1. INTRODUCTION
Urbanization adversely affect water cycle due to changes to hydrologicalprocesses. Concrete houses, building, pavement roads and other infrastructures
have been built and constructed, which change natural land surface to impervious
areas. Loss of natural retention areas and expansion of impermeable area cause
increase the surface runoff volumes as peak discharges and constraint for natural
infiltration to the ground (Hearth & Musiake, 1994). This phenomenon result in
decreasing groundwater recharge leading to low river base flow as well as
increase in surface runoff. When there is heavy rainfall, surface runoff increases

33

October
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Mongolia

rapidly causing floods and inundations occur in downstream areas. According toJapan Sewage Works Association (2009), the rainfall intensity in urban areas ofJapan has been increasing noticeably. Comparing rainfall intensity in the last ten
years to those occurring last 30 years shows that rainfall intensity has been over
50mm per hour by a factor of 1.5, and this tendency exceed the planned scale andcapacity of drainage systems frequently.
Floods in urban area cause many problems for citizens and development activities.
Moderate and frequent urban floods cause inconveniences for daily commuting
to work, school, business, etc. Severe floods that significantly exceed drainage
capacities causes large economic losses to individuals, business and infrastructure,etc. For example, in June 1999, Fukuoka suffered from a severe urban flood,
which took place in the center of the city and storm water flooded underground,and repeated on July 19, 2003 (Herath, 2004). It is of great concern that thesetrends would continue become more serious under climate change conditions(Japan Sewage Works Association, 2009).
Flood countermeasures such as urban drainage and flood control have beendeveloped and improved with various regulations enforced in rapidly urbanizing
areas to deal with increased storm runoff (Herath and Musiake, 1994). Direct
flood countermeasures such as constructing storm water reservoirs, reinforcementof existing drainage system, and enhancing pumping stations have been expanded.
However, these mitigation measures have constraints in field conditions due tolimited land to be installed and large amount of finance to be committed. On theother hand, infiltration systems that consist of infiltration box, infiltration trenchand permeable pavement, which have been installed and attached with households,
building, and public roads have been utilized popularly and effectively to reduce
storm runoff as a distributed counter measure. However, there are limited studies
on the infiltration and storage systems for a whole watershed to control urban
flood considering the different measures for upstream, middle stream anddownstream. At the same time, there is an initiative to alter from the conventional
measures to combination of infiltration and storage system (Japan Sewage Works
Association, 2009).
The paper presents a case study of an urban catchment in the suburbs of Tokyo,
where a combined system of flood storage using centralized systems with
infiltration systems has been studied for optimum combination of the facilities interms of construction cost and feasibility of participatory implementation.
2. METHODOLOGY
2.1 Study overview
An urban catchment in Tokyo metropolitan areas is selected for the study. The
major components in the study are summarized as follows;
1. Analysis of food risk for different future return periods considering thecurrent drainage capacity at upstream, midstream and downstream
locations.

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2. Analysis of feasible combinations of centralized storage facilities anddecentralized infiltration systems to meet required flood reduction
capacities for different design rainfall events
3. Analysis of implementing least cost flood control facilities withparticipatory flood management considering community willingness toengage.
2.2 Analysis of flood risk
Flood risk of the study area is analyzed using a physically based semi-distributedhydrological model. Similar Hydrologic Element Response (SHER) model thathas been developed and used for the design of infiltration systems in the past
(Herath, S, 1991, Herath et. al, 1992) was selected for the study. In applying themodel, a catchment is divided in to a number of Similar Hydrologic Response
Elements, based on soil type, depth to ground water and slope. The hydrologic
response of eachblock is estimatedbased on the land
cover, and using
surfacerouting,
subsurface routing
and ground waterrouting based on thesaturated
andunsaturated
flow
equations.
The
delineationofFigure 1. Schematic diagram of recharging and discharging
blocks also employs
areas (Source: Nippon Koei Technical report, 2011)
theconceptofrecharging
anddischarging areas as shown in figure 1. The current simulation has been carriedout with the In the Extend SHER version (Herath, 1999), which has components
such as rainfall block, surface flow and sub-surface flow block, evaporation block,underground flow block and river modeling block that can be graphicallyassembled to make the catchment simulation model. Setting of the model for aparticular sub-catchment is shown in figure 2.
After setting up the model for the target catchment, calibration and validation,
flood simulations are carried out for 1:10, 1:30 and 1:50 return period design
rainfall events. The peak centered design rainfall pattern is given by,
r = b/T2/3+awhere r: rainfall intensity (mm/h) and T: time (min). For Tokyo area theequations take the following form,

10 years return period: r=1500/T2/3+4.5

Centralized and decentralized urban flood control measures under physical and societal
Centralized and decentralized
35
constraints urban flood control measures under physical and societal constraints

October
October 2012,2012, Ulaanbaatar,
Ulaanbaatar,Mongolia
Mongolia



30 years return period: r=1800/T2/3+4.5



50 years return period: r=1900/T2/3+4.5

Figure 2. Setting up SHER-Extend model for a subcatchment
2.2 Feasible facility installation and cost estimation
In order to assess the feasible combination of flood control facilities, at first, alllocations that can be used to install centralized storage facilities along the river aswell as all locations that can be used to install onsite infiltration facilities in are
identified from the detailed GIS of the catchment area. Then several sets ofsimulations are carried out to assess hydrological response of the study site under
different combinations of storage and infiltration systems under selected design
storms at upstream, midstream and downstream locations of the catchment.
2.3 Constructing Cost of Infiltration and Storage Facilities
In order to select the best combination with minimum construction cost, actual
costs incurred in previous construction projects are used as average cost in thisstudy. The construction costs for 2007 based on cost of different facilities in fieldinstallations are assumed to b valid for current too. The construction costs used in
the study are shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Constructing cost of different types of facilities
Type of Facilities
Size (m)Unit
Total Constructing Cost
Infiltration box
0.35*0.6
167,600 JP Yen
Infiltration trench
0.55*0.6*0.2 1m
29,900 JP Yen
Underground storage 1*1*1
1m3
110,000 JP Yen
2.3 Assessment of participatory flood control management feasibility
While the centralized underground storage facilities can be installed by the local
government in the public spaces identified in section 2.2, the infiltration facility
installation at each individual house require residents willingness to install the
infiltration facilities and maintain them. In this study we were interested in the36

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following 2 aspects of residents willingness to be engaged in the flood control
using onsite facilities.
1. What percentage of residents are willing to install infiltration systems attheir houses and their distribution in the upstream, midstream anddownstream areas?
2. How can raising residents’ awareness on environmental benefits ofinfiltration systems modify this willingness?
In order to address these issues, two sets of survey questionnaire were prepared.
The questionnaires are identical except that one questionnaire has brochures and a
CD as outlined in Table 2. The CD contains a movie clip which describe
comprehensively about the change of water cycle due to urbanization, urban floodand the benefits of installing the infiltration facilities for reducing urban flood
risks and improving groundwater table. The purpose of distributing two sets ofquestionnaires was to investigate whether promoting people’s awareness ofinfiltration facilities affect on their decision to install the facilities.
Table 2: List of materials attached with questionnaire
Attached Stuffs
Without CD
Cover letter
QuestionnaireInfiltration and subsidy program
Information about Infiltration facilities

Subsidy calculation
CD documentaryWith CD







The questionnaire was designed in two parts to collect information as outlined
below;Part 1: General information about respondents (gender, age, members ofhousehold) and Information about experiences with inundation (depth, duration,
economic loss in overall)Part 2:
Section A: For respondents who have known infiltration facilities• For respondents who already installed the facilities• For respondents who have not installed the facilities yet
Section B: For respondents who have not known infiltration facilities• Reasons of installing the facilities• Reasons of not installing the facilities
3. RESULTS
3.1 Study area
Figure 3 shows a map of Yato watershed, located in the Tokyo Metropolitan area,
which was selected as the study site. There are four types of soil in Yatowatershed, namely; Kanto loam, Alluvial lowland, Kazusa group, and Shimosalayer group. Most of the catchment is covered by Kanto loam, which is volcanic
ash and appropriate for installation of infiltration facilities due to very high soil
conductivity. The land use is categorized in to 15 types as forest, rice field,
Centralized and decentralized urban flood control measures under physical and societal
Centralized and decentralized
37
constraints urban flood control measures under physical and societal constraints

October
Octobber 2012,2012, Ulaanbaatar,
Ullaanbaatar,Mongolia
MongoliaM

farming area, sem
mi-developed area,
unoccupied
d area, induustrial area, residentialarea, commmercial areaa, road, green space,public spacce, river, annd others. Infiltration
facilities area currentlly installed
d in someparts of thee catchmennt as a resu
ult of local
governmen
nt initiativee for instaallation of
infiltration systems suupported byy a subsidy
program.
3.1 Flood risk
r assessm
ment
Prior to floood risk asseessment it iss necessary
to check th
he accuracy of the moddeling in amodel valiidation proocess. The catchment
was delinneated to 4 sub catchments,
according tot the availlability of observationodata for simulation as shown inn figure 4.
The year 2009 rainnfall and discharge
dation. The
records weere used for the valid
iffe
coeffic
Nash-Sutcl
cient(E)desscribed by
Figgure 3. Studyy Areatheequationbelow
w was usedd to assess modelingmeffficiency.
Sub-catchment No.4
1
The closer E iis to 1, thee higher thhe model
111
efficiiency in moodeling the catchment response
Sub-catchment No.3
to a ggiven rainfaall input.
2
3
4
Sub-catchment No.2

6
7

5

Where E: modell efficiency coefficientt
Qo: obseerved dischaarge
Qm: moddeled dischaarge

9

10

8
Sub-catchment No.1

Figure 4. Sub-catchm
ments andSHER blocks used
d in thesimulationn

Accoording to Taable 3, the modelmperfoorms wellfor bboth hourly and 10 min
n interval mmodeling,
but modeling efficiency is higherr for 10
minuutes intervall simulationn than hourlyy interval siimulation. T
This is conssistent withthe pperformancee expected fromfa physsically baseed model suuch as SHER
R model athigheer temporall and spatiall resolutionss inputs.
m
Table 3: Accuraacy of the modeling
Moddelefficciency
E (HHourly)E (110 min)38

nt
Suub-catchmen
N
No. 4
0..82
0..848Sub-catcchment
No. 3
0.83
0.95

Sub
b-catchmentt
No
o. 2
0.8
83
0.9
93

Sub-catcchment
No. 1
0.74
0.957

Technologies
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After model validation the current drainage capacity of the study area for different
design rainfall events has been assessed at each of the sub catchments. Figure 5
shows the river flows for different design rainfalls compared with current
drainage capacity of the catchment

1:50
1:30
1:10

Drainage capacity

22

Figure 5. Flood discharge at different design rainfalls at sub catchment 4
3.2 Performance of flood control facilities installation costs
Flood control plans were developed to reduce the river flows to the drainage
capacity level by the combined installation of infiltration and storage facilities.
Obviously, infiltration trench and box are utilized as infiltration facilities. Table 4shows characteristics of the infiltration facilities, such as types of infiltration
facilities, dimension, infiltration capacity, and storage of infiltration facilities. In
this study, residential areas, public facility areas, green areas, and roads are
considered as feasible areas for installing the infiltration and storage facilities.
Table 4: Characteristics of infiltration facilities
Type of
Infiltration
Facility

Dimensions ofFacility

Infiltration
trenchWidth:
0.55m,Height:0.6m

Infiltrationbox

Width:
0.65m,Height:0.7m

Type of
Soil
Kanto
loam
Alluvial
lowland
Shimosa
KazusaKanto
loam
Alluvial
lowland
Shimosa
KazusaSaturated
Hydraulic
Conductivity(Ko, cm/s)
0.00275

Infiltration Facilities
Infiltration Void ratio
capacity/
unit (m3/s)
0.0000899

0.001 0.0000327

Storage
(m3)

0.4

0.132

0.47

0.139

0.00055 0.000018
0.001 0.000032
0.00275 0.0000933
0.001 0.0000327
0.00055 0.000018
0.001 0.000032

Centralized and decentralized urban flood control measures under physical and societal
Centralized and decentralized
39
constraints urban flood control measures under physical and societal constraints

Table 5: Area of Land Use Types for
Installing Infiltration Facilities
Total single houses (Unit)
4000
2
Complex building area (m ) 298917
Unoccupied area (m2)153551
2Road (m )391325
Green space (m2)413283Public facilities (m2)199131

Storage Capacity (m3)October
October 2012,2012, Ulaanbaatar,
Ulaanbaatar,Mongolia
Mongolia

4000

Combined Facilites for 10 Years
Return Period at No. 4

3000
2000
1000

0

0

1
2
Total Infiltration Capacity (m3/s)

Storage Facilty Cost
(million Yen)

Storage Facilty Cost
( million Yen)

Storage Capacity (m3)Residential areas consist of single
6000
house and housing complexes. For
Combined Facilites for 50 Years
single house land use type two units ofReturn Period at No. 4
4000
infiltration box are installed, and forthe rest of land use types, 500 meters
2000
length of trench can be installed in one
hectare as per the guide lines adopted0by Association for Rainwater Storage
01
2
and Infiltration Facilities. The landuse
Total
Infiltration
Capacity(m3/s)
types available for installation of
infiltration facilities are given in Table Figure 6. Feasible combinations ofstorage and infiltration facilities to5.
achieve target flood control levels.
The amount of storage orinfiltration facilities that need to
be installed so that the drainage
Total Cost of Combined Facilities for 1:10
Years at No. 4
capacity at a particular location
800
along the river is not exceeded
600
can be estimated by numerical400
simulation. The infiltration
Cost of each200
facility
facility performance in flood0
control is estimated by the
0
500
1000
methodology outlined by Herath
Total Cost of Infiltration Facility(1994). A given flood control(million Yen)
objective can be achieved byvarious levels of combination ofstorage and infiltration facilities
Total Cost of Combined Facilities for 1:50
as shown in figure 6, where eachYears at No. 4
point corresponds to the storage
1000
volume and infiltration capacity
800
required to achieve drainage
Cost of each600
capacity of at sub catchment 4
facility
400
Total costoutlet, for 1:10 year return200
period rainfall in the top figure0
for 1:50 year return period
0
500
1000
rainfall in the bottom figure.
While 1:10 year design rainfall
Total Cost of Infiltration Facility
canbeaccommodated(million Yen)
completely by either storage orinfiltration facilities, it can be Figure 7. Installation cost of each type of facilities
as well as total cost.

40

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seen that 1:50 year event cannot be managed by infiltration facilities alone, even if
maximum possible amount of infiltration facilities are installed.
Next the installation costs for each of the above configuration can be estimatedfrom the values given in table 1. Figure 7 shows the total cost for infiltration andstorage facility combinations according to the combined systems shown in figure
6. The least cost combination of facilities are summarized in table 6.
3.2 Survey results for participatory management
In order to engage the community in flood control and managing the water cycle
through the installation of infiltration facilities the local government provides a
subsidy for infiltration facility installation. Two infiltration boxes arerecommended to be installed in each single house, and the local government
covers 80% of total cost. Thus, for each single house the residents need to bear
20% of total cost which is about 30,000 Japanese Yen. To understand thewillingness of the residents
to participate in the Table 6. Optimum level of infiltration facilities toprogramme a household have least cost facility combination
survey was carried out by Catchment No.
1:10 yr 1:30 yr 1:50 yr
distributing
1000 Sub catchment 4
20%
20%
20%
questionnaires among the Sub catchment 3
20%
20%
20%
4000 single houses in the Sub catchment 2
20%
20%
30%
Yato
watershed.
173 Sub catchment 1
20%
20%
30%
questionnaires
werereturned by Post, which is
17.3% of total questionnaires distributed. The figure 8 shows that at the current
with additional information
through CD

without additional information
through CD
100.0%
80.0%

80.7
%

60.0%

100.0%
80.0%

19.3
%

40.0%
20.0%

60.0%

62.9
%

40.0%

37.1
%

20.0%
0.0%

0.0%

No

Yes

No

Yes

Figure 8. Willingness to install infiltration facilities according to survey results
level of awareness only about 19% of those responded were willing to participate
in the programme. However, if the community can be made aware of theenvironmental benefits of infiltration systems, as was done through the CD
distributed with the questionnaire, this number increased to 37%.

Centralized and decentralized urban flood control measures under physical and societal
Centralized and decentralized
41
constraints urban flood control measures under physical and societal constraints

October
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Mongolia

4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONSThe simulation study shows that least cost flood control systems for different partsof the catchment consist of having about 20-30% of flood volumes over thecurrent drainage capacity taken by infiltration systems and the rest by centralized
storage facilities. The survey of catchment residents on their willingness toparticipate in infiltration facility installation shows that in order to achieve thislevel of infiltration facility installation, the awareness of the residents on theenvironmental benefits of infiltration system installation need to be raised. Whilecentralized storage facilities provide protection against river floods, infiltration
facilities are effective in reducing surface floods. At the same time, centralized
systems are more reliable in terms of long term maintenance of control andadjustments to suit changing rainfall and catchment conditions. Based on these
considerations, it is recommended to provide a degree of redundancy in the flood
control system by introducing additional protection by having 30-40% of excess
reduction by infiltration systems and having about 70-80% protection from
centralized storage systems.
REFERENCES
Association for Rainwater Storage and Infiltration Technology. (1997).
Engineering guideline for rainwater infiltration facilities. Infrastructure
Development Institute, Japan
Japan Sewage Works Association (2009). Sewage Works in Japan. Japan
Herath S., Hirose N. and Musiake K. (1990). A computer package for theestimation infiltration capacities of shallow infiltration facilities, Proc. 5ht
International Conference on Urban Storm Drainage, Japan, pp.111-118.
Herath, S. (1991) A Physically based model for basin hydrological processsimulation and its application to Hachioji New Town Project, Nippon Koei
Technical Bulletin, No. 12
Herath S., Musiake K., Hirose N. and Matsuda S. (1992). A process model forbasin hydrological modeling and its application, Proc. Japan Annual Conferenceof Society of Water Resources and Hydrology, pp.146-149.
Herath S. and Musiake K. (1994). Simulation of Basin Scale Runoff Reduction by
Infiltration Systems, Water Science and Technology Journal, Vol.29, No. 102,
pp267-276.
Herath S. (1999) Design of Infiltration Systems, UNESCO Workshop on Urban
Storm Drainage Analysis and Modeling, Hanoi, Viet Nam

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Disaster information collection by Thaiand foreigners during the 2011 Thai flood
Michael HENRY1, Akiyuki KAWASAKI2, and Kimiro MEGURO3
1
Assistant professor, Division of Field Engineering for the Environment,
Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Japanmwhenry@eng.hokudai.ac.jp
2
Project associate professor, International Center for Urban Safety Engineering,
Institute of Industrial Science, the University of Tokyo, Japan
3
Professor and Director, International Center for Urban Safety Engineering,
Institute of Industrial Science, the University of Tokyo, Japan

ABSTRACT
From June to September 2011, heavy precipitation in Thailand led to flooding in
the Chao Phraya River Basin. The floodwaters moved slowly south from thenorthern part of the country, eventually submerging the areas surrounding
Bangkok and threatening the city itself by the end of October. Due to theambiguity of the flooding progress, people invariably searched for information
regarding the disaster so that they could better understand the developing
situation and make decisions or preparations regarding whether to evacuate theirhomes or businesses. However, both Thai and foreigners alike experienced
difficulties when it came to collecting accurate and up-to-date information on theflooding, such as incorrect or conflicting reports, false rumors, a lack of Englishlanguage updates, congestion in information networks such as hotlines, and soforth. In order to improve the dissemination of information after future flood
disasters, a survey was conducted to understand how people residing in Thailand
at the time of the flood collected their disaster information. This paper presents asummary of their responses and compares the results of Thai nationals with thoseof foreigners residing in Thailand in order to better understand the disaster
information needs of each group.
Keywords: 2011 Thai flood, disaster information, foreigners, social media,
traditional media

1. INTRODUCTION
From June to September 2011, the precipitation on the Indochina Peninsula was
1.2 to 1.8 times higher than average, with observed increases in Thailand of 134%
in Chiang Mai and 140% in Bangkok. In addition, heavy rainfall continued over
the Chao Phraya River basin into October. This heavy rain caused landslides andflash floods in the northern part of Thailand in August before starting to moveslowly southwards (Figure 1, left). By mid- to late September, the inundation area
had grown as dikes were destroyed in Nakhon Sawan and Chinart Provinces, andin early October floodwaters submerged several industrial complexes in43

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Ayutthaya Province. At the end of October, two flows of floodwater reached
Bangkok, caused by overflow in the upstream Chao Phraya River which
overtopped the King’s Dike and by direct overflow from the Chao Phraya River
where it runs along the Bangkok metropolitan area (Figure 1, right). Following theflooding of Don Muang Airport, 15 kilometers north of the city center, atemporary embankment was constructed north of the city and proper drainage offloodwaters into the Chao Phraya River began as the water level went down.
Southward expansion of the floodwaters was finally halted at Bang Sue canal,
about five kilometers north of the city center, in mid-November, and flooding of
the city was prevented.

Figure 1: Flooding progress and estimated inundation areas in the Chao Phraya
river basin (left) and Bangkok metropolitan area (right)
Unlike an earthquake or tsunami, the Thai flood lasted for several months, slowly
progressing southwards from the northern part of the country. People were thus
highly reliant upon disaster information in order to keep abreast of the flood’s
progress and to make decisions such as preparations for their home, thepurchasing of supplies, whether to evacuate or not, and so forth. However, similar
to the case of the 2011 earthquake, tsunami, and nuclear crisis in Japan (Kawasaki
et al., 2011; Henry et al., 2011), people encountered many difficulties in obtaining
the information they required. In the case of the 2011 Thai flood, some difficulties
may have arisen from the inability to forecast how the flood would progress,
leading to conflicting reports or false rumors about the predicted flooding level orpath. Foreigners faced problems with obtaining information in a language which
they understood. Other issues included congestion of information networks suchas government hotlines or a lack of awareness of support systems.
With the increasing potential for devastating rainfall and flooding caused bychanges to the global climate, it is important to prepare social response systems to
mitigate the effects of future disasters. In order to improve disaster information
dissemination after possible future floods in Thailand, a survey investigation on
disaster information collection was carried out after the 2011 Thai flood. This
investigation had three objectives: first, to clarify the disaster information

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collection behavior and information-related difficulties of people living in
Thailand at the time of the flood; second, to develop proposals for improving
disaster information dissemination after future disasters; and third, to examine thedifferences in information collection behavior and difficulties between different
disaster events and countries by comparing the results of the investigation in
Thailand with a previous investigation conducted after the 2011 Tohoku
Earthquake in Japan. This paper takes the first step towards these objectives bysummarizing and discussing disaster information collection behavior considering
the differences between Thai nationals and foreigners.
2. SURVEY METHODOLOGY
Data on disaster information collection behavior and information-relateddifficulties were collected using a survey. This survey was provided in threelanguages (Thai, Japanese, and English), and the contents were designed to clarify
respondents’ situation of flooding and evacuation, information collection
activities, information difficulties, and demographics (Table 1). The survey was
distributed via two methods: first, requests for participation in an online version of
the survey were distributed through social and professional contacts and throughdirect contact with entities such as embassies; and second, a paper-based versionof the survey was used to collect responses directly from people in the field. The
online survey ran from March 12 to July 23, 2012, and the field survey ran from
April 2 to 17 and from May 9 to 20, 2012.
Table 1: Survey questions
Theme
Flooding &evacuation

Questions Which of the following statements best describes your experienceand response during the 2011 flooding?
 What information sources did you trust the most / the least during
the 2011 flooding?*
Information
 During the 2011 flooding, which media did you use to acquire
collection
information and in what language?* What types of information were most important for your decision toevacuate or not evacuate?* In general, what were the reasons why the above information was
unclear or difficult to understand?* Were you aware that the public Thai PBS TV channel provided aInformation
special English news program on the flood every weekday night fromdifficulties
October to December?
 Were you aware of the flood evacuation center for foreigners in
Bangkok’s Bang Na district?
Demographics  Nationality, region of residence, gender, age, occupation* These questions allowed for multiple responses

3. SAMPLE CHARACTERISTICS
3.1 Demographics

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The survey received 975 responses representing 29 countries (Table 2). People
from Thailand made up 78.5% of the total number of respondents. Among
foreigners, Japanese made up the largest percentage with 38.6%, with respondents
from India, Nepal, Bangladesh, and Vietnam totaling 29.0% and foreigners fromother countries making up the remaining 32.4%. A majority of the represented
countries received fewer than 10 respondents.
Table 2: Distribution of respondents by country of origin
Category(no. countries)
More than 100(1)
50 to 100
(1)
10 to 50
(4)

Less than 10(23)Countries(no. respondents)% of total
respondents% of foreign
respondents

Thailand (765)

78.5%

-

Japan (81)

8.3%

38.6%

6.3%

29.0%

7.0%

32.4%

India (22), Nepal (15),Bangladesh (13), Vietnam (11)Pakistan, The Philippines (9);Myanmar (8); Indonesia (6);Malaysia (4); Cambodia, France,
Sri Lanka, UK, USA (3); China,
Laos, Mongolia, Nigeria (2);Afghanistan, Australia, Austria,
Bhutan, Canada, Denmark,Ethiopa, Niger, Vanuatu (1)When asked what region of Thailand they were residing in before the flooding,
36.2% of Thai and 38.1% of foreigners responded that they were living in
Bangkok and 43.1% of Thai and 56.2% of foreigners responded that they were
living in the provinces in the Greater Bangkok region (Nakhon Pathom,Nonthaburi, Pathum Thani, Samut Prakan, and Samut Sakhon). The remaining
20.7% and 5.7% of Thai and foreigners, respectively, were residing in otherregions of Thailand.
Among Thai respondents, 42.0% identified themselves as male and 56.7% asfemale, with 1.3% preferring not to answer. In contrast, 66.7% of foreigners
identified themselves as male compared to just 32.9% as female and 0.5%
preferring not to answer. The age distribution was more similar between Thai andforeign respondents, as shown in Figure 2, although foreign respondents skewed
relatively younger, with 69.0% of respondents between 20 and 39 (compared to
58.0% for Thai) and Thai respondents skewed relatively older, with 38.8% of
respondents aged 40 or higher (compared to 28.6% for foreigners). Respondents
who preferred not to answer made up 0.4% and 0.5% of Thai and foreign
respondents, respectively.
The distribution of respondents by occupation is given in Figure 3. For Thai
respondents, a variety of occupations were represented, with the most working forforeign companies (28.5%), followed by Thai company employees (14.8%),
students (14.5%), and freelance or self-owned businesses (11.0%). Conversely,
the occupation held by the largest number of foreigners was “student” at 46.7%,

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with foreign company employee in a distant second at 18.1% and foreign
educational institution employee at 13.3%.
Thai

Foreigners

Thai company employee
Foreign company employee
Thai government employee
Foreign government employee
Thai

Thai military

Foreigners

Thai educational institution

10-19

Foreign educational institution

20-29

Freelance/self-owned business

30-39

Student
House maker40-49

No occupation
50-59

Prefer not to answer

60 or higher

Other
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%

Figure 2: Distribution of
respondents by age

Figure 3: Distribution of
respondents by occupation

3.2 Situation of flooding and evacuation
Respondents could be classified into groups depending on whether their residence
was affected or not affected by flooding and whether they chose to evacuate or notevacuate. The distribution of respondents based on these four situations issummarized in Table 3. The percentage of respondents who were not affected byflooding and did not evacuate was similar between Thai and foreigners at 28.5%
and 28.1%, respectively. The percentage was also similar for those who wereaffected by flooding and chose to evacuate, with 37.1% of Thai respondents and40.0% of foreign respondents in that situation. However, more foreigners (28.1%)
than Thai (6.9%) chose to evacuate even though their residence was not affectedby flooding; conversely, more Thai (27.5%) than foreigners (3.8%) chose not toevacuate even though their residence was affected by flooding.
Table 3: Distribution of respondents considering flooding and evacuation

Residence
condition

Respondent action
Did not evacuate

Evacuated

Not affectedby flooding

Thai: 218 (28.5%)
Foreigners: 59 (28.1%)

Thai: 53 (6.9%)
Foreigners: 59 (28.1%)

Affected byflooding

Thai: 210 (27.5%)
Foreigners: 8 (3.8%)

Thai: 284 (37.1%)
Foreigners: 84 (40.0%)

4. SURVEY RESULTS
4.1 Disaster information sources

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Figure 4 shows the most- and least-trusted sources of disaster information. For
Thai respondents, the most trusted source was “Thai news sources,” with 44.7%
of respondents, followed by “family, friends, colleagues, etc.,” with 37.6%. Thisorder was reversed for foreign respondents, 43.3% of whom selected “family,
friends, colleagues, etc.” as their most-trusted source, followed by “Thai news
sources” at 40.0%. No other source was selected by more than 27% of
respondents (either Thai or foreigner) as most-trusted, and nine of the 14
information sources received less than 20% from both Thai and foreigners. Large
differences (albeit at low percentages) between Thai and foreigners could be seenfor “district & sub-district government,” which was chosen as most-trusted byThai respondents roughly five times more than by foreigners, and for“international organization,” “foreign government,” “foreign news source,” and“foreign research/academic institution,” which were chosen as most-trusted byforeign respondents between two and eight times more than by Thai. On average,
Thai respondents selected 2.2 most-trusted sources, compared to 2.4 for foreigners.
Thai

Least-trusted sources

Most-trusted sources

Foreigners

Flood Relief Operation Center
National Thai government
Bangkok Metropolitan Admin.
Provincial government
District & sub-district gov.
Local leader
Thai news source
Thai research/academic inst.
International organization
Foreign government
Foreign news source
Foreign research/academic inst.
Family, friends, colleagues, etc.
Third party other than family, etc.
0%

15%

30%

45%

60% 0%

15%

30%

45%

60%

Figure 4: Most- and least-trusted disaster information sources
A much more pronounced difference between Thai and foreign respondents could
be observed for least-trusted information sources. More than half (53.3%) of Thai
indicated that they distrusted the “Flood Relief Operation Center,” followed by
the “national Thai government,” which was selected by 37.4%. The next highest
least-trusted source for Thai was the “Bangkok Metropolitan Administration” atjust 19.2%; all other information sources were selected as least-trusted by fewer
than 15% of Thai respondents. For foreigners, the top least-trusted information
source was the “national Thai government” with 30.0% of respondents. The next
three least-trusted sources, the “Flood Relief Operation Center,” “Third party
other than family, friends, colleagues, etc.,” and the “Bangkok Metropolitan
Administration” all fell between 25% and 20% of respondents. The largest
difference between Thai and foreigners was seen for the “Flood Relief Operation
Center”: even though it was the second least-trusted source for foreigners, morethan twice as many Thai respondents (by percentage) indicated that they
distrusted that information source. Also, while the top two least-trusted sources
for foreigners were selected by between 24% and 30% of respondents, the top two

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for Thai respondents were selected by between 37% and 54%. However, on
average, foreign respondents indicated they had 2.0 least-trusted sources,
compared to 1.9 for Thai respondents.
4.2 Media & language for disaster information acquisition
The media and language utilized for acquiring disaster information is shown in
Figure 5. Thai respondents almost exclusively utilized Thai-language media, withrespondents on average utilizing 3.6 different media modes in Thai compared tojust 0.5 modes in English and less than 0.1 in other languages. “Television” wasused by 90.3% of Thai for acquiring disaster information, followed by “interpersonal communication,” such as face-to-face and dial-in hotlines, and“traditional internet media,” such as websites and information portals, at 49.5%
and 47.2%, respectively. The least-used media mode (in Thai), “directcommunication tools” such as email, video chat, and instant messenger, was stillused by nearly 20% of the Thai respondents.
Thai
EnglishOther

Foreign respondents

Thai respondents
Television

Television

Radio

Radio

Loudspeaker

Loudspeaker

Printed media

Printed media

Inter-personalInter-personal

Traditional internet media

Traditional internet media

Direct communication tools

Direct communication tools

Social media

Social media

Crisis mapping

Crisis mapping
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Figure 5: Utilized media and language for acquiring disaster information
Foreigners, on the other hand, utilized more languages but overall fewer media
modes, averaging just 2.7 modes per respondent for English and 0.9 and 0.8 forThai and other languages, respectively. English-language, internet-based media
modes were used the most by foreign respondents, with “traditional internet media”
at 56.2%, “social media” such as social networking sites and blogs at 49.5%, and“direct communication tools” at 35.7%. Roughly half of Thai respondents alsoutilized “traditional internet media” (albeit in Thai), but usage of other internetbased media modes in Thai among Thai respondents was less than the usage inEnglish among foreigners. The most-utilized non-English media mode forforeigners was “television,” which only 32.4% of respondents reported they
watched in the Thai language, compared to the more than 90% of Thai
respondents who indicated they used Thai television. Foreigners also did not
utilize audio-only media modes such as “radio” or “loudspeakers” as much asThai respondents, 35.7% and 23.5% of whom used these two modes in Thai,

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respectively, compared to just 9.5% and 4.3% in English among foreigners,
respectively.
4.3 Important disaster information for decision-making
Figure 6 summarizes the importance of disaster information types for decisionmaking considering four different situations, which were introduced in Table 3. In
this case, the decision-making is defined as whether the respondent chose toevacuate their residence or not, and this decision is examined depending onwhether their residence was affected or not affected by flooding.
Thai

No flooding - no evacuation

Foreigner
Safety of family, friends, etc.

Safety of family, friends, etc.

Security & safety of property

Security & safety of property

No flooding - evacuation

Current flood conditions & water levels
Current flood conditions & water levels
Pred. flood progress & rain forecastPred. flood progress & rain forecast
Response preparations & progress Response preparations & progress
Evacuation & shelters

Evacuation & shelters

Food & water supply

Food & water supply

Public sanitation

Public sanitation

Electricity & other utilities

Electricity & other utilities

Transportation systems

Transportation systems

School & business continuity

School & business continuity
0%

Thai

20%

40%

60%

80%

0%

Safety of family, friends, etc.

Safety of family, friends, etc.

Security & safety of property

Security & safety of property

40%

60%

80%

Flooding - evacuation

Flooding - no evacuation

Foreigner

20%

Current flood conditions & water levels
Current flood conditions & water levels
Pred. flood progress & rain forecastPred. flood progress & rain forecast
Response preparations & progress Response preparations & progress
Evacuation & shelters

Evacuation & shelters

Food & water supply

Food & water supply

Public sanitation

Public sanitation

Electricity & other utilities

Electricity & other utilities

Transportation systems

Transportation systems

School & business continuity

School & business continuity
0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

Figure 6: Importance of disaster information types for decision-making
depending on flooding and evacuation situation
For Thai respondents whose residences were not affected by flooding, 78.9%
indicated that they chose not to evacuate based on the “safety of family, friends,
etc.,” followed by “current flood conditions & water levels” at 54.6% and“security & safety of property” at 49.1%. However, for foreign respondents whose
residences were not affected by flooding, the top reason for choosing not toevacuate was “current flood conditions & water levels” at 74.6%, followed by

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and “electricity & other utilities,” both at 45.8%. In contrast to Thai respondents
in this situation, few foreign respondents – only 25.4% and 15.3% – said that“safety of family, friends, etc.” and “security & safety of property,” respectively,
were important for their decision not to evacuate, but more foreigners (45.8%)
selected “predicted flood progress & rain forecast” as important than Thai
(22.0%). On average, however, both Thai and foreigners cited the same number(4.0) of information types as important for their decision not to evacuate.
When looking at the situation where respondents chose to evacuate even though
their residence was not affected by flooding, 73.6% of Thai said that “safety offamily, friends, etc.” was important for their decision to evacuate. For foreigners,
the most-cited important information for deciding to evacuate was “current flood
conditions & water levels” at 71.2% of respondents. The second and third mostcited important information was, however, the same for both groups: “food &water supply” at 50.9% and 69.5% and “electricity & other utilities” at 49.1% and55.9% for Thai and foreigners, respectively. Similar to the case in which theirresidence was not affected by the flooding and they chose not to evacuate, fewer
foreigners selected “safety of family, friends, etc.” than Thai respondents, but thepercentage was higher for the situation in which they evacuated (55.9%) than in
the situation in which they did not evacuate. Again, the average number of
selected important information types per respondent was similar for Thai (4.3) andforeigners (4.6).
In the situation where residences were affected by flooding and the respondents
chose not to evacuate, it should be noted that the number of foreign respondents
was only eight, compared to 210 Thai respondents in the same situation.
Therefore, due to the small sample size for foreigners, it’s difficult to compare
their important information with Thai respondents. For Thai respondents, however,
76.2% cited “safety of family, friends, etc.” as important for their decision not toevacuate, followed by “current flood conditions & water levels” at 56.7% and“security & safety of property” at 50.5%. On average, Thai respondents in thissituation selected 4.0 important information types.
Finally, for Thai whose residences were affected by flooding and they chose toevacuate, “safety of family, friends, etc.” was cited the most by respondents, at
69.4%, as important for their decision to evacuate. For foreigners, however,“current flood conditions & water levels” was the most-cited important
information at 69.0%. Conversely, the second most-cited reason for foreigners
was “safety of family, friends, etc.” whereas for Thai respondents it was “current
flood conditions & water levels.” Similar percentages of both Thai and foreign
respondents selected “food & water supply,” “security & safety of property,” and“electricity & other utilities” as important for their decision to evacuate, and theaverage number of important information types (3.9 and 4.0, respectively) was
also similar for Thai and foreigners in this situation.

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4.4 Problems related to disaster information acquisition
The reasons why respondents encountered difficulties related to informationacquisition are shown in Figure 7. For both Thai and foreign respondents,“confused by conflicting or differing information” was the most cited reason at
64.6% and 71.4%, respectively. “Misled or confused by rumors and/or
exaggerated or false information” was the second most-cited reason for bothgroups, with 60.9% of Thai respondents and 59.5% of foreigners indicating theyencountered this problem. Large differences between Thai and foreigners could beseen for “couldn’t understand information due to lack of language comprehension,”
which was selected by around half of the foreign respondents but just over 10% ofThai. Conversely, 32.3% of Thai respondents reported that they were “unable toaccess information due to mobile congestion, power outage, etc.,” compared tojust 5.2% of foreign respondents. Only 2.1% of Thai and 4.3% of foreigners
indicated that they “did not have issues with unclear or difficult to understandinformation,” with Thai respondents citing 2.0 problems and foreigners citing 2.3
problems related to disaster information acquisition, on average.
Thai

Foreigners

Unable to access information due tomobile congestion, power outage, etc.
Unable to find the information due todifficulty in searching or locating it
Couldn’t understand information due tolack of language comprehension
Was misled or confused by rumors
and/or exaggerated or false
Was confused by conflicting or differing
information
Did not have issues with unclear ordifficult to understand information
0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

Figure 7: Reasons for problems related to disaster information acquisition
4.5 Awareness of disaster support for foreigners
The survey asked respondents whether they were aware that the public Thai PBS
TV channel provided a special English news program on the flood and also if they
were aware of the flood evacuation center for foreigners in Bangkok’s Bang Na
district. The distribution of responses for foreigners for these questions is shownin Figure 8. In both cases there was a lack of awareness of these disaster support
systems for foreigners, with 76% unaware of the English news program and 82%
unaware of the foreigner-specific evacuation center.

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Not applicable
11%

Aware
7%

Aware
24%
Unaware76%

Unaware82%

Figure 8: Awareness of foreign respondents of the Thai PBS English news
program (left) and of the flood evacuation center for foreigners in (right)
5. DISCUSSION
Among the results summarized in this paper, several differences and similarities
in the disaster information gathering behavior and information difficulties of Thaiand foreigners could be observed.
First, there was a marked difference between Thai and foreigners regarding theirflooding and evacuation situation. While similar percentages of respondents choseto not evacuate when their residence was not flooded and to evacuate when theirresidence was flooded, a much higher percentage of foreigners chose to evacuateeven though their residence was not flooded and a much higher percentage of Thaichose to not evacuate even though their residence was flooded. In this situation,
information on the current flood conditions and water levels was the most-citedimportant information, followed by food and water supply, safety of family,
friends, etc., and electricity and other utilities, which were all cited by more thanhalf of the foreign respondents. These results suggest that foreigners made theirdecision to evacuate, even though their residence was not currently being affectedby the flooding, on the belief that they would be affected and that their safety andtheir needs for daily life would be threatened. Thai respondents whose residenceswere already being affected by the flooding and chose not to evacuate also citedthe same reasons, including the security and safety of property, as the mostimportant information for their decision not to evacuate even though theirresidence was affected. This suggests that Thai respondents may have believedthat it was safer for them to remain at home or that they had sufficient supplies tocontinue daily life even though they were affected by the flood.
The results of this survey also confirmed that conflicting or differing reports andrumors, exaggerated, or false information were the main reasons for informationdifficulties among both Thai and foreigners. As Thai respondents almost
exclusively utilized Thai-language media modes, and foreigners primarily used
English media modes (with limited usage of Thai and other languages), theseresults suggest that the source of these difficulties was not caused by conflict
between different language media (as in, reports in English versus reports in Thai),but rather by the information sources. Both Thai and foreigners highly trusted
Thai news sources and family, friends and colleagues as information sources, buthighly distrusted the Flood Relief Operation Center and the national Thai

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government. Considering this stark distinction, these results may be interpreted asthat people found the information given to them by their trusted sources to be
most reflective of the situation they could observe for themselves, whereas theinformation given to them by the least-trusted sources conflicted with what theyknew to be true, thus giving rise to the high citation of conflicting or differing
reports and rumors, exaggerated, or false information as the main causes of
information difficulties. High distrust in the national Thai government, however,
may also have been caused by the policies the government implemented in orderto prevent the flooding of Bangkok. These policies, which placed high priority on
protecting the Bangkok city center, led to the large scale, long-term flooding ofareas to the north of Bangkok. Analysis of the trust-worthiness of information
sources considering the area of residence, such as Bangkok versus greater
Bangkok area, may help to clarify this issue.
Lack of language comprehension also highly contributed to informationdifficulties for foreigners. English-language media were the main modes forforeigners when acquiring disaster information, except for Thai language
television. As TV is primarily a visual medium, it’s understandable that foreigners
could utilize this media mode even without an understanding of the Thai language.
However, the percentage of respondents using Thai television was still relatively
low compared to the other media modes utilized in English such as traditional
internet and social media, and much lower the percentage of Thai respondents
who utilized Thai television. It was also found that foreigners were largely
unaware of the English-language news program broadcast by the Thai PBS; if thisawareness had been higher there may have been a higher percentage of
respondents utilizing English television. This distinct lack of awareness extended
to other support systems for foreigners as well, but it is unclear at this time why
foreigners were unaware of these systems. Future analyses should consider how toclarify why foreigners were unable to find out about these disaster support
systems and propose means for raising awareness.
In addition to the analyses proposed above, further analyses will also consider
differences in disaster information collection and information difficulties
considering income and education levels in order to explore differences which
may arise when examining a population with a wide diversity of wealth andeducation.
REFERENCES
Kawasaki, A., Henry, M., Meguro, K., 2011. Disaster information gathering
behavior after the Tohoku Earthquake Part 1: Results of Japanese respondents.
2011 New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia (ICUS Report
2011-02), Chiang Mai, Thailand, 45-56.
Henry, M., Kawasaki, A., Meguro, K., 2011. Disaster information gathering
behavior after the Tohoku Earthquake Part 2: Results of foreign respondents. 2011
New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia (ICUS Report 201102), Chiang Mai, Thailand, 149-161.

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Citiesin AsiaA daily river system model for
the Murray-Darling basin, Australia
Dushmanta DUTTA, Justin HUGHES, Jai VAZE, Shaun KIM, Ang YANG
and Geoff PODGERCSIRO Land and Water, Canberra, ACT, Australia
Corresponding e-mail: Dushmanta.dutta@csiro.au
ABSTRACTCSIRO has undertaken a research project to build a simplified daily river systemmodel of the entire Murray Darling Basin (MDB). The basin has been divided into
17 regions for the development of the daily simplified MDB river model(SMDBRM). For each region, an individual model has been first built and thenthey are integrated. The key features of SMDBRM are a series of conceptual
rainfall-runoff models for estimation of runoff contribution from gauged andungauged basins, simplified node-link networks incorporating all major flow
gauging stations for river flow routing, simplified approach for irrigation demand
estimation, river-floodplain and river-groundwater flux exchange and a platform
for integrating the 17 regional models using a CPU cluster for computational
efficiency. The regional models have been calibrated for the period of 1975-1999
using an auto-calibration approach and the models are validated for the period of
2000-2009. The paper introduces the SMDBRM with a brief overview of themodelling framework and its development and presents key results from thecalibration and validation of the rainfall-runoff and river routing models in
different regions. The key advantages and current limitations of the model arealso discussed.
Keywords: all small character (except a proper noun)
1. INTRODUCTION
The Murray-Darling Basin (MDB) is the largest Australian river basin covering
an area of approximately 1 million km2. The transboundary river basin, shared byfour states and one territory, is Australia’s most important agriculture region
producing one third of Australia’s food supply (CSIRO, 2008). The MDB
Authority (MDBA) and various state water agencies are responsible formanagement of water resources within the basin. Different organisations use
different river system models (such as IQQM by NSW and Queensland, REALM
by Victoria, MSM-BigMod by MDBA and South Australia) that are appropriate
for their modelling needs. Due to differences in modelling approaches andsimulation time steps, it is cumbersome to combine these individual models to run
together at a daily time step (Yang et al. 2012a). Predicted climate change impacts(CSIRO 2008) and sustainable diversion limits analysis (MDBA 2009) across
MDB have highlighted the need for a whole of basin model that incorporates
various physical and management characteristics for planning and operational55

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purposes. Addressing the need for a more streamlined model for various
applications, this project has aimed to develop a simplified daily river systemmodel with an auto-calibration procedure for the entire MDB, which has focusedaround using a daily time step and implemented it using the eWater Source
integrated modelling software (Welsh et al. 2012). The auto-calibration
procedures allows calibration of the model in a consistent, transparent anddefensible manner applying best practice modelling principles (Black et al. 2011).
The paper introduces SMDBRM, its development, testing and implementation
with key results of calibration and validation for different modelling regions. The
advantages and current limitations of the model are also discussed.
2. MODELLING REGIONSThe entire MDB was divided into 18 contiguous regions in the Murray-Darling
Basin Sustainable Yields (MDBSY) Project (CSIRO 2008). These regions,
namely Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border Rivers, Gwydir,
Namoi, Macquarie-Castlereagh, Barwon-Darling, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee,
Murray, Ovens, Goulburn-Broken, Campaspe, Loddon-Avoca, Wimmera andEastern Mount Lofty Ranges, are primarily the drainage basins of the Murray andthe Darling rivers and their tributaries (Figure 1). SMDBRM includes all regions
except the Eastern Mount Lofty Ranges (EMLR) region in the far south west of
the MDB, which represents less than 1% of the total area of the Basin and does
not contribute significant water to the Murray River. An individual model was
first built for each region and then all 17 regional models were integrated.

Figure 1: Maps of different regions of the Murray-Darling Basin (CSIRO 2008)

3. MODEL DEVELOPMENTThe SMDBRM has been developed using the node-link modelling concept
employed in Source. In this modelling approach, a river system is schematised
into a simplified river network using a node-link structure. The river network
begins and ends with a node, and all nodes are interconnected by links. Runoff
from gauged or ungauged tributaries or local contributing areas between two
nodes is fed into the network as an inflow at the relevant location in the network.

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Links represent a length of stream, which can be zero for near coincident
processes, and are used for transfer of flow between two nodes with or without
routing and transformation. Nodes represent a physical location along a river
where flow either enters the system or is stored, extracted, lost or measured andcan be used for the application of management rules. A set of nodes has been
designed to represent functions of various physical and regulatory flow control
processes in a river network. The details of links and nodes and theirfunctionalities are elaborated in Welsh et al. (2012). The key components of
SMDBRM are: i) Node-link networks, ii) Rainfall-runoff modelling, iii) Stream
flow routing, iv) Irrigation demand modelling, v) Floodplain inundation
modelling, vi) River-Groundwater flux modelling, vii) Auto-calibration procedure,viii) Reservoir operations and management rules and ix) Integration platform.
3.1 Node-link networks
The node-link network for each modelling region was set up based on theavailable storages, flow gauging stations and well-defined hydrologic subcatchments in the MDBSY project (CSIRO 2008). It was aimed to incorporate all
major stream networks, storages, major irrigation, environmental and urban
demand and key resource indicator sites in Murray-Darling Basin. The hydrologic
sub-catchments, geographic locations of gauging locations and high resolution
remote sensing and aerial imagery (Google Earth Pro) were used to define thenodes for calibration and validation, links for modelling river reaches andcontributing ungauged and gauged tributaries connecting to each modelling reach
including confluences and distributaries. At present, SMDBRM includes a total of
477 nodes for calibration and validation (Table 1).
Table 1: Summary of node-links for 17 modelling regions in the current version of SMDBRM
Modelling region
No. ofNo. ofNo. of major
No. ofNo. ofnodes
reachesstoragesconfluences distributaries
Paroo
3
3
0
0
0
Warrego88002Condamine-Balonne
28
31
2
3
3
Moonie22000Border24
26
3
5
3
Gwydir
19
22
1
3
6
Namoi
21
24
4
5
2
Macquarie-Castlereagh
50
52
3
8
8
Barwon-Darling
22
24
0
11
3
Lachlan
48
50
2
10
11
Murrumbidgee
57
58
4
5
6
Ovens
9
10
2
4
0
Goulburn-Broken
20
21
3
15
4
Campaspe
893
13Loddon-Avoca
35
36
3
13
3
Wimmera18
19
2
32
Murray
105
106
14
20
19
477
501
46
106
75
Total

3.2 Rainfall-runoff modelling
Rainfall-runoff (RR) modelling was undertaken to fill gaps and extend observed
daily time series of gauged tributary inflow and to estimate the contribution ofungauged catchments in modelling reaches using a suite of six conceptual daily
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RR models. The models are AWBM (Boughton, 2004), IHACRES (Croke et al.,2006), Sacramento (Burnash et al., 1973), SIMHYD (Chiew et al., 2002),
SMARG (Vaze et al., 2004) and GR4J (Perrin et al., 2003), all of which have been
applied in numerous studies both within Australia and internationally. In the RR
model calibration, model parameters were optimised to maximise an objectivefunction that incorporates the Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency (NSE) of daily runoff
together with a constraint to ensure that the total modelled runoff over thecalibration period is within 5% of the total recorded runoff (Viney et al., 2009).
The model parameters are optimised using a global optimisation method (Shuffled
Complex Evolution, Duan et al., 1993) followed by a local optimisation method(Rosenbrock, 1960). The best performed RR model is then incorporated in the
final river system model.
3.3 Stream flow routing approach
Lag and linear Muskingum routing approaches are used in river flow routing tomodel travel time and attenuation. In the flow routing algorithm, river water (inbank flow) fills the dead storage in a reach prior to propagating through the reach(Welsh et al., 2012).
3.4 Irrigation demand modelling
Two approaches have been used for estimation of irrigation water demands: i)linear regression model and ii) crop-water demand model. In the first approach, a
set of linear regression models are established between the observed diversion andestimated crop-water demand based on rainfall, actual evapotranspiration
estimated from MODIS and LANDSAT TM imagery (McVicar et al. 2011) andactual irrigation area for different reaches (BRS 2006) with diversions for aselected number of years with observed data. The established linear regression
models are used to estimate irrigation diversions for the period of calibration andvalidation (Paydar & Pena Arancibia, 2012). This approach is currently
implemented in monthly scale due to the limitation of the temporal resolution of
the actual evapotranspiration derived from satellite imagery. In the second
approach, irrigation demand is estimated using a daily crop-water demand model
designed based on the concept of FAO-56 using reference evapotranspiration andcrop coefficients (Allen et al.1998).
3.5 Floodplain inundation modelling
For estimation of overbank flow from river to floodplain, an airborne scanninglaser altimetry (LiDAR) digital elevation model (DEM) based rapid inundation
model (LiDAR-RIM) is developed, which allows quick assessment of floodinundation area, volume, depth and duration for different flood events. Simulated
results for different flood events are used to establish river stage-flooded areaflood volume (Hriv-Afp-Vfp) relationships for different modelling reaches. Zhang
et al. (2012) have presented the methodology and its performance in the
Murrumbidgee floodplain.
3.6 River – Groundwater interaction
A two-parameter monotonically increasing loss model is used to estimate flux loss
from river to groundwater in losing streams. The approach uses a function, Monodequation, based on flow using the quantile-based approach. This is used to58

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reproduce the essential shape and features of the river to groundwater loss
function, that is, a monotonically increasing function against flow based on theupper and lower bounds of annual observed/estimated flux. The approach is
explained in Kim et al. (2012).
3.7 Auto-calibration procedure for river systems
An auto-calibration algorithm has been designed for calibration of SMDBRM.
The calibration procedure is a stage wise approach that automatically calibrates
routing and RR model parameters for river reaches (Fig. 2). The method iselaborated in Hughes et al. (2012). The main steps of the method are summarised
below:
1. For a reach with ungauged headwater catchment, six RR models are used toestimate the ungauged inflow from upstream (Qu/s). For any other reach inthe middle of the network, simulated flow from the upper reach is used;
2. Qu/s is adjusted for channel precipitation (P) and evaporation (E), which are
estimated using climate data, channel cross-section, reach length and stream
rating curves;
3. The estimated diversion (Qdv) by irrigation demand model is abstracted fromthe adjusted upstream flow (step 2).
4. The resulting flow and gap-filled gauged tributary inflow (Qtrib) are routed
to the downstream gauge using lag and Muskingum routing with parameters
calibrated using a Monte Carlo simulation and three objective functions(NSE, %bias and modified Index of Agreement). Observed data at
downstream of the reach (Qd/s) is used for calibration of the lag and routing
parameters;
5. Routed flow is adjusted for flux to groundwater (Qgw), estimated by thegroundwater loss model, and overbank flow to the floodplain (Qfp),
estimated using the established Hriv-Afp-Vfp relationships;
6. Each of six RR models is fitted to the residual of the routed flow and theobserved Qd/s using the area of contributing terrain and climate data toestimate ungauged local runoff (Qug);
7. A loss/gain accounting function is derived to minimise bias by removing
remaining unaccounted losses and gains.
8. Reservoir operations and management rules are incorporated to the calibrated
regional models. The models are then recalibrated.
The auto-calibration approach can handle confluences and distributaries and it canbe run together for an entire river network (Hughes et al. 2012). The model foreach region is calibrated in three stages starting with the rainfall-runoff and river
routing, then, the other components (simplified irrigation demands, SW-GW
interactions, floodplain interactions and management rules) are added. Thisapproach was adopted primarily for two reasons: to overcome the limitation ofdata for different components and to evaluate the performance of each modellingcomponent. The three stages of calibration were:
1) calibration of streamflow routing & RR modelling of runoff from ungauged
areas and assess unaccounted differences (steps: 1, 2, 4, 6 & 7).
2) stage 1 + crop water demand model + floodplain model + River-Groundwatermodel (steps: 1 to 7).
3) stage 2 + reservoir operations and management rules (all steps).

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Headwater catchment runoff (Qu/s)

Reach rainfall (P)Reach evaporation (E)A

Diversion (Qdiv)

Gauged tributary inflow (Qtrib)

Flow routing

Node
Reach

Overbank flow tofloodplain (Qfp)

Flux to Groundwdater (Qgw)
B

Ungauged runoff (Qug)

Downstream flow (Qd/s)

Figure 2: Conceptualisation of a river reach in SMDBRM for calibration using auto-calibration

3.8 Reservoir operations and management rules
SMDBRM includes all the major storages located in different regions (refer toTable 1). For calibration in stages 1 & 2, the simulated reservoir release isoverridden by the observed reservoir release. In stage 3, the reservoir release issimulated based on the estimated irrigation demand and by introducing thereservoir operations and management rules. Many of the complex management
rules are simplified before incorporating in SMDBRM and urban andenvironmental demands are included as pre-determined time series or patterns.
3.9 Integration platform for regional models
An integration platform was developed to integrate the individual river systemmodels of the 17 regions using the command prompt version of Source. The
platform parallelises the individual model runs to optimise the computational time.
It includes a graphical user interface (GUI) and allows the integrated model to run
in a CPU cluster. The key features of the integration platform are: parallel
computing mechanism and daily feedback integration. Yang et al. (2012b) haveelaborated the the integration platform and its performance.
The observed daily flow data, river cross-sections and rating curves at different
gauging stations and reservoir storage levels for different regions were obtained
from the databases maintained by the following agencies.
• Water Monitoring Data Portal, Department of Environment and Resource
Management (DERM), Queensland (http://watermonitoring.derm.qld.gov.au)• NSW Water Information (http://www.waterinfo.nsw.gov.au) and historic data
dvd “PINEENA V9.3”• Victorian Water Resources Data Warehouse (http://www.vicwaterdata.net/)• Live river data, Murray-Darling Basin Authority(http://www.mdba.gov.au/water/live-river-data)

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Diversion, water allocation, reservoir characteristics data for NSW, Queensland
and Victoria were obtained from the State Water Corporation, the DERM and theDSE, respectively. SILO gridded climate data (Jefferey 2001) was used for fitting
rainfall-runoff models. Data was available at 0.05° intervals, and was aggregatedby contributing area to each stream gauge. In this way an area weighted climate
file for each stream gauge was produced. These data were also used to gap-filland extend the period of incomplete flow data at the headwater catchments andgauged tributaries. For consistency in calibration of the 17 regional models
representing climatic and hydrological variability with both low and high flows,
all the regional models were calibrated for the period of 1975-1999 (25 years).
The calibrated models were validated with the daily observed flow for the more
recent dry period of 2000-2009.
4. RESULTS
Figure 3 presents the summary statistics (of NSE and absolute bias in %) of stage
1 calibration and validation for all the regions except Murray. During thecalibration, the model has performed reasonably well in all regions in the northernpart of MDB (Paroo, Warrego, Condamine-Balonne, Moonie, Border, Gwydir,
Namoi, Macquarie-Castlereagh and Barwon-Darling) with median NSE above 0.7
for all except for Gwydir (0.66). The median bias is less than 10% for all northern
regions except for Moonie (12%). The performance of the model is less consistentin the southern regions. The model has performed worst in the Campaspe region
with median NSE of less than 0.5 and median bias of above 40%. The medianbias is less than 10% for the rests of the southern regions and median NSE is 0.7
for all regions except for Loddon-Avoca (0.66). Overall, the NSE values show
highest variation in Gwydir, and Macquarie-Castlereagh regions of Northern
MDB and Murrumbidgee, Campaspe and Loddon-Avoca of the Southern MDB.
The validation statistics are less satisfactory for several regions of both northernand southern MDB. In the northern regions, Paroo, Gwydir and MacquarieCastlereagh regions have median NSE of less than 0.7 with median NSE ofMacquarie-Castlereagh significantly lower than the other two. Median bias wasless than 20% for all northern regions with Moonie and Macquarie-Castlereagh
having median bias close to 20%, and the rests had median bias slightly above or
below 10%. In the southern regions, median NSE was above 0.7 for Ovens region
only. The model did not perform satisfactorily in the other regions having very
low median NSE for Campaspe, Loddon-Avoca and Wimmera regions. The
median bias was also very high for Wimmera region. For the rest, median bias
was close or below 20% with less than 10% for Ovens.
It is worth highlighting the performance of the model in Barwon-Darling region,
which is located downstream of 8 northern regions out of which seven regions
contribute flow to this region. Simulated flows from the seven upstream regions
were used as upstream boundary conditions at 13 inflow nodes in Barwon-Darlingmodel. The statistics in Figure 3 show that the model has performed consistently
well in Barwon-Darling region in both calibration and validation. This has clearly
demonstrated that the loss/gain accounting functions (step 7 of auto-calibration)

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minimise the propagation of error from upstream to downstream regions
significantly.
1

45

0.9

40

0.8

35

0.7

30

0.5

%Bias

NSE

0.6

0.4

25
20
15

0.3

10

0.2
0.1

5

0

0

a)

b)
120

1
0.9

100

0.8
0.7

80

0.5

%Bias

NSE

0.6
60

0.4
40

0.3
0.2

20

0.1
0

0

d)

c)

Figure 3: Boxplots showing the summary statistics of stage 1 calibration and validation of allnodes for different modelling regions: a) cal. NSE, b) cal. %bias, (c) val. NSE, d) val. %bias
1
14

0.9
0.8

12

0.7

10

0.5

8

%Bias

NSE

0.6

0.4

6

0.3

4

0.2
2

0.1
0

a)

0

b)
60

1
0.9

50

0.8
0.7

40

0.5

%Bias

NSE

0.6
30

0.4
0.3
0.2

20

10

0.1
0

0

c)

d)

Figure 4: Boxplots showing the summary statistics of stage 1 calibration and validation of upper
reaches of different modelling regions: a) cal. NSE, b) cal. %bias, (c) val. NSE, d) val. %bias

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The variation in the performance of the model in different regions is influenced byseveral factors including irrigation diversion, overbank flow to floodplains, losses
to groundwater and regulatory structures controlling flow based on water sharing
and management rules. These components were not included in the stage 1
calibration and validation of the model. Figure 4 shows the summary of statistics(of NSE and absolute bias in %) for the upper reaches of the river systems above
the floodplains with limited diversion in different regions (Paroo, Moonie,
Barwon-Darling and Wimmera are omitted). The results for these reaches are
significantly better for all regions for both calibration and validation periods.
Median NSE was above 0.7 and bias was less than 10% for all regions during thecalibration. During the validation period, the median NSE was above 0.6 for all
regions and bias was less than 20% for all regions except for Warrego andCampaspe, which have median bias close to 30%. This results show that thediversion, groundwater losses and floodplain models need to be incorporated in
the model calibration for the remaining reaches to improve the performance of themodel. This is also apparent from the summary statistics of calibration andvalidation for the Ovens region (Table 2) with no diversion or, significant losses
to floodplain in the modelling reaches in this region, the model has performed
extremely well with NSE values above 0.8 for all gauges and bias was below 10%
for most of the gauges. The unaccounted differences were less than 10% for all
reaches except for the final reach. The low unaccounted differences demonstratethat the RR model was able to estimate the ungauged contributions satisfactorily
for different reaches.
5. DISCUSSION
The results show that the model has performed well in stage1 auto-calibration in
the upstream reaches of different regions (except in Murray, which is currently
being calibrated) with limited diversion and overbank flow to floodplains. Hughes
et al. 2012 have demonstrated that the auto-calibration approach can successfully
calibrate model reaches with confluences and distributaries. In the case of
distributaries, a split function is generated in the auto-calibration to estimate theflow in the distributaries as a proportion of total flow. The key advantages of theauto-calibration approach is that it is systematic, it explicitly accounts for different
processes and allows consistency in calibrations of reaches in different regions
across the whole MDB. That was not possible until now due to the differences inthe existing models built for different regions of MDB.
The calibration approach needs to incorporate irrigation demand model and HrivAfp-Vfp relationships for obtaining better and satisfactory performance of themodel in the lower reaches of different regions with high irrigation and losses tofloodplains. Paydar & Pena Arancibia (2012) have demonstrated that thediversion can be well accounted for by the linear regression models established
for different reaches in the irrigation districts of southern regions at a monthly
scale. However, the approach does not work well in northern irrigation districts
with large on-farm storages. It is expected that the daily crop model currently
being built using FAO-56 concept will provide improved estimates of irrigation
diversions in both northern and southern irrigation districts at a daily scale. Zhang

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et al. 2012 have demonstrated that the LiDAR-RIM model can be effectively
utilized for establishing Hriv-Afp-Vfp relationships for different modelling
reaches in floodplains using LiDAR DEM. The methodology is currently being
revised to incorporate floodplain reaches without LiDAR DEM. It is expected thatwith incorporation of daily crop model and Hriv-Afp-Vfp relationships forreaches in floodplains in the auto-calibration approach, the performance of themodel will improve significantly in middle and lower reaches of different regions.
Yang et al. 2012b have shown that the run time of the integrated SMDBRM canbe significantly improved using the CPU cluster in the integration platform. In
addition, this approach of building SMDBRM with individual regional models
first and then, their integration using the integration platform has other benefits
such as:• increase efficiency in development and implementation of the model at theregional scale;• implementation of the auto-calibration procedure at the regional scale toovercome the complexity of optimisation of the whole system together; and• the regional model can be implemented with different resource assessmentand ordering systems for water allocations in different regions.
Although the auto-calibration of individual reaches are performed using R script,
the node-link setup for different regions of SMDBRM are built in Source
environment and stage 1 calibrated parameters and loss/gain accounting functions
are transferred from R to Source. The simplified daily crop model and Hriv-Afp-Vfp
relationships can be easily incorporated in Source using its expression editor
functionality. Presently no reservoir operations and management rules areincluded in the model. These can be done after completing stage 2 calibration of
the model. Source includes functionalities for implementing complex reservoir
operations and management rules in different regions of MDB, which have been
rigorously tested in various trial applications (e.g., Dutta et al. 2012).
7. CONCLUSIONSThe paper has introduced the daily simplified river system model developed forthe entire MDB. The results of stage 1 calibration have demonstrated that themodel has performed well in upper reaches of regions where there are limited
diversion and floodplain interactions. It is expected that the performance of themodel will improve in lower reaches with diversion and floodplain losses afterincorporation of daily irrigation demand model and Hriv-Afp-Vfp in the stage 2
calibration of the model. The auto-calibration approach included in the modelallows systematic calibration in a consistent manner across the basin. The modelallows explicit accounting of different processes in each modelling reach and thus,
making the outputs transparent. The integration platform of the model allows to
optimise the run time of the model making it suitable for basin-wide applications
for various planning and management purposes.

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Yang A, Podger G, Seaton S, Power R (2012a). A river system modelling platform for
Murray-Darling Basin, Australia. Journal of Hydroinformatics (in press).
Yang A, Dutta D, Vaze J, Kim S (2012b). A River Modelling Platform for Building a
Simplified Daily River System Model for the Murray-Darling Basin, HWRS 2012
(submitted).
Zhang Y, Dutta D, Vaze J (2012). Rapid inundation modelling using LiDAR-DEM in the
Mid Murrumbidgee floodplain, HWRS2012 (submitted).

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impacts on rainfall intensity duration
frequency curves in Kathmandu, Nepal
Binaya Kumar MISHRA1 and Srikantha HERATH2
1
Research Associate, Institute for Sustainability and Peace
United Nations University, Tokyo, Japanmishra@unu.edu; mishra_binaya@hotmail.com
2
Senior Academic Programme Officer, Institute for Sustainability and Peace
United Nations University, Tokyo, Japan
ABSTRACT
Stationary assumption of rainfall IDF curves is not valid under climate change
scenario. Objective of this study is to assess the change in IDF curves forstormwater management in Kathmandu, Nepal under climate change scenario.
The study area was found to have very few short duration rainfall data, and hence
a simple scaling theory was applied for deriving the short duration rainfall
intensities from daily rainfall data. The scaling behavior of observation rainfall
intensities was examined and it was revealed that the statistical properties ofobservation rainfall follow the assumption of simple scaling. We employed 20-km
daily global climate model (GCM) rainfall output of Meteorological ResearchInstitute (MRI), Japan for investigating the climate change impact. Using
regionalized quantile-quantile bias-corrected annual maximum rainfall data of
1979-2003 and 2075-2099 periods as present and future climate respectively,
potential climate change impacts on IDF curves were assessed. A total of six
different durations (1, 2, 3, 6, 12 and 24-hrs) for return periods of 2, 5, 10, 25, 50
and 100 years were analyzed for preparing the IDF curves. Comparison of IDF
curves for present and future climate indicated a significant increase in maximum
rainfall intensities which has major implications on planning and design of urban
stormwater drainage systems.
Keywords: Bias correction, climate change, rainfall IDF curves, simple scaling
1. INTRODUCTION
Rainfall intensity duration frequency (IDF) curves are important in design ofurban stormwater management infrastructures such as flood detention reservoirs,sewer systems etc. Rainfall IDF curves provides the estimates of rainfall
intensities for different durations and return periods. Annual extreme rainfall
intensities corresponding to particular durations are fitted to empirical ortheoretical probability durations for preparing the rainfall IDF curves. One of thebasic assumptions in preparation of rainfall IDF curves is that historic extremes
will characterize the extremes of future rainfall. However, this assumption is not
valid under changing climatic scenario which will bring change in the magnitudeand frequency for extreme rainfall. Such changes in extreme rainfall pattern point67

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out for new design and regulations in urban stormwater infrastructures
management. Stormwater management has been a major problem in urban areasof Nepal especially in Kathmandu valley. Twenty-five per cent of households in
Kathmandu have been flooded due to inadequate drainage as storm water nolonger drains away as it used to and the technical systems put in place are notsufficiently flexible to deal with a changing climate (IIED report, 2009).
Objective of this research is to assess climate change impact on rainfall IDF
curves in urban Kathmandu valley, Nepal. Assessment of climate change impact
on rainfall IDF curves includes the following major steps: (i) bias correction of
global climate model (GCM) rainfall projections for current and future climate
period; (ii) derivation of rainfall IDF relationships for short-duration rainfall fromdaily rainfall data; and (iii) comparative analysis for rainfall IDF curves.
Climate change projections are widely used to assess likely changes in rainfall
pattern in future. Global climate models (GCM) are currently the most credible
tools available for simulating the response of the global climate system toincreasing greenhouse gas concentrations, and provide climatic variables such astemperature, rainfall etc. These projections are available for current and futureclimate. A very high resolution global climate model (GCM) rainfall projectionsof Meteorological Research Institute (MRI), Japan has been employed forassessing the climate change impact. MRI-GCM is a very high resolution
atmospheric model with 20 km spatial and daily temporal resolution (Kusunoki etal., 2008).
Because of flaws in model structure and coarse resolution input, GCM outputs arefound to be largely biased when compared with observation data (Sperna Weiland
et al., 2010). Therefore, direct use of GCM outputs may not suitable for the
climate change impact assessment at basin level. Downscaling enables GCM
outputs to be used for local/basin scale climate change impact assessment. There
are several downscaling techniques available to transform GCM outputs to local
scale for reliable impact assessment (Coulibaly and Dibike, 2004; Hansen et al.,2006). Downscaling techniques are broadly classified into dynamical andstatistical types. Dynamical downscaling technique converts GCM outputs into
local climate data by using a regional climate model (RCM). RCM enhances thesimulation of atmospheric circulations and climate variables at finer spatial scales.
Statistical downscaling techniques use models of correspondence between GCM
contemporary climate scenarios data and real world data. GCM projection climate
scenario data is used as input to correspondence models to predict the expected
future real world data. Fundamental assumption is that statistical relationship willremain valid under future climate change scenario.
The statistical downscaling is much less computationally demanding as well as
simple than the dynamical downscaling. In many cases, the statistical downscaling
technique can provide similar or better accuracy than that of dynamical
downscaling (Murphy, 1998; Haylock et al., 2006). The most commonly usedstatistical techniques are regression, stochastic weather generator, weather typing,
spatial disaggregation and bias correction. Among these techniques, regression,
stochastic weather generator and weather typing are used for transforming coarse
GCM output to observation locations. Disaggregation is employed fortransforming coarse GCM output to fine resolution output. Bias correction
techniques are employed for transforming GCM output to point as well as gridcell scale.

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In this study, bias corrected daily GCM rainfall data for Upper Bagmati river
basin (U/S of Pandhero Dovan) was used for assessing climate change impact on
rainfall IDF curves in Kathmandu urban valley.
In this study, regionalized quantile-quantile bias corrected data has been used
(Mishra and Herath, 2011). In this technique, a GCM grid cell is linked toneighboring observation stations data. We have proposed delineation ofhomogeneous rainfall regions to link neighboring observation rainfall stations to a
GCM grid cell. Calibration and validation of regionalized quantile-quantile bias
correction technique was performed for 1979-1993 and 1994-2003 periods
respectively. Using bias-corrected data of 1979-2003 and 2075-2099 as current
and future climate respectively, climate change impact assessment on rainfall IDF
curves in Kathmandu valley has been made.
Establishment of IDF relationships goes back to the 1930’s (Bernard, 1932). Since
then, different forms of relationships have been constructed for several regions of
the world. Bell (1969) and Chen (1983) derived the IDF formulae for the UnitedStates based on statistical analysis. Koutsoyiannis et al. (1998) proposed a newgeneralizing approach to the formulation of IDF curves using efficientparameterization. Sub-daily rainfall data of longer periods is rarely available,
which will be enough to prepare rainfall IDF curves, at most of the stations inseveral developing countries including Nepal. Because daily rainfall data is themost accessible and abundant source of rainfall information, it is natural todevelop and apply methods to derive the IDF characteristics for short durations
events from the daily rainfall statistics. The IDF formulae are empirical equations
representing a relationship among maximum rainfall intensity as dependent
variable and rainfall duration and frequency as independent variables. All formsof the generalized rainfall IDF relationships assume that rainfall intensity isinversely related to the duration of a storm raised to a power, or scale factor. Useof scaling properties for deriving the IDF characteristics of sub-daily rainfall fromdaily rainfall is largely popular. Menabde (1999) applied simple scaling theory todescribe rainfall IDF in Australia and South Africa. It was shown that the
cumulative distribution function for the annual maximum rainfall had a simple
scaling property over the range of 30 min to 24 hours and in some instances to 48
hours. Nhat et al. (2006) derived rainfall IDF relationships for short-duration
rainfall from daily rainfall in Yodo river basin, Japan. Bara et al. (2009) applied
the simple scaling theory to the intensity-duration-frequency (IDF) characteristics
of short duration rainfall in Slovakia. The IDF relationships, which were deduced
from daily rainfall, showed acceptable results in comparison with the IDF curves
obtained from at-site short duration rainfall data. In this study, scaling propertiesof extreme rainfall are examined at Kathmandu airport in order to establish
scaling behaviour of statistical moments. Such scaling approach will enable toderive rainfall IDF for shorter durations.
2. STUDY AREA
Kathmandu Valley has been considered for the study. The study area is situatedin Kathmandu, Lalitpur and Bhaktapur districts of Nepal. The valley with area ofroughly 500 km2 lies between 27° 32' N to 27° 49' N and 85° 11' to 85° 32' E.
Kathmandu valley is situated inside Bagmati river system. The valley has a
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centripetal drainage system. The climate of the valley is subtropical to monsoon
with hot and wet summer and cold and fairly dry winter. The maximum andminimum temperatures are 35°C and -2.5°C respectively. About 80% of the total
annual rainfall occurs during the months of June to September. Winter rainfall iscommon but not heavy. The average annual rainfall in the basin is 1650 mm. bias
corrected GCM data of Meteorological Research Institute, Japan; climate change
impact assessment is intended using bias corrected MRI-GCM daily rainfall
values of 1979-2003 and 2075-2009 periods as current and future climate
respectively. Urban Kathmandu valley is in 4 numbers of MRI-GCM grid cells(Figure 1). The grid cells are numbered similar to Mishra and Herath (2011).

Figure 1: Location of urban Kathmandu valley inside MRI-GCM cells
3. SIMPLE SCALING OF RAINFALL INTENSITY
Scaling properties of extreme rainfall are examined to establish scaling behaviorof statistical moments over different durations. Such scaling or scale-invariant
models enable to scale data from one temporal resolution to another, and thus help
to overcome the lack of extreme rainfall data of sub-daily durations.
Based on empirical evidence, it is assumed and verified that random variable Id
and ID as annual maximum rainfall intensities over time duration d and D
respectively can have the following scaling property (Menabde et al., 1999):(1)

In equation 1, the equality refers to identical probability distribution for bothvariables and η represents the scaling exponent. The relationship between the
moments of order q can be obtained by raising both sides of equation to power q
and taking the expected values of both sides (equation 2).
(2)

Estimation of scaling exponent η is illustrated in Figure 2 which includes (i) loglog graph of moments
versus durations of different order q; and (ii) linear
graph of slopes (of moments versus duration lines) and moment order q. If the70

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resulting graph is a straight line i.e., value of η (slope) remain same for different
values of q, it is of simple scaling otherwise it is of multi-scaling.
In this study, rainfall data of 25 years record length ranging from 1979-2003 at
Kathmandu airport were collected for confirming the simple scaling properties.
Menabde et al. (1999) found simple scaling property over the range 30 min to 48
hours. Rainfall intensities of 24-, 48- and 72-hour durations were tested toinvestigate the scaling properties as sub-daily rainfall was not available for longer
periods. A log-log plot of the moments against their durations were examined formoment order q =1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. Figure 3 illustrates qth moment of the rainfall
intensities (mm/h) against different durations.

Figure 2: Illustration for simple and multi-scaling properties (Nhat et al., 2007)

Figure 3: Scaling of the moments at Kathmandu airport
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K(q)In order to determine if the data follows simple scaling or multi-scaling, slopes
K(q) of moment versus duration lines was plotted against the moment order q.
Figure 4 shows linear dependence, thereby confirming about simple scaling.
Hence, simple scaling can be assumed for estimation sub-daily rainfall intensity
duration frequency curves in urban Kathmandu valley. Scale factor is estimatedby slope of the regression line as 0.6761.
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0

y = 0.6761x - 0.0925
R² = 0.9991

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

q
Figure 4: Simple scaling shown by linear regression at Kathmandu airport
4. DERVATION OF SUB-DAILY RAINFALL IDF RELATIONSHIP
Menabde et al. (1999) also showed that the scaling behavior can be found for theparameters of a fitted CDF and for the quantiles estimated from the fitted CDF,
corresponding to different return periods T.
General form of IDF relationship (Koutsoyiannis et al., 1998) with i as rainfall
intensity, T as return period and d as duration of extreme event can be expressedin the following form (equation 3):(3)
The function a(T) can be determined from the probability distribution function of
the maximum rainfall intensity, and the function b(d) is sought in the form
(equation 4):(4)
where θ and η are phenomenological parameters to be estimated. Considering theannual maximum rainfall intensity Id over the time period d characterised by CDF
Fd(i) by equation 5:(5)
Applying scaling theory in terms of CDF:
(6)

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Assuming the CDF of extreme events in standardized functional form:(7)
where F is some function, independent of d. Further assumption of scaling theory
will result the following formulae (equation 8 & 9):(8)(9)
Substituting equations (7), (8) and (9) in formula (5) and inverting it in respect to i,
we get the following IDF general relationship (equation 10):(10)where μ=μDDη and σ=σDDη. Equation 10 shows that the scaling assumption leadsto θ=0 in the general form (equations 3 & 4).
6. RAINFALL EXTREME UNDER CHANGING CLIMATE
With application of the simple scale scaling model for rainfall intensities at
Kathmandu airport station, the scale factor was estimated to be 0.6761. The
rainfall IDF for sub-daily duration rainfall intensities can be estimated using
equation (10). Daily rainfall data for 4 numbers of MRI-GCM covering urban
Kathmandu valley of 25 years length ranging from 1979-2003 and 2075-2099 as
current and future climate respectively yielded following mean and standard
deviation values (Table 1):
Table1: Mean and standard deviation of annual maximum rainfall intensities
MRI-GCM gridcell number
2
3
6
7

Present climate (1979-2003)
Mean, μD=24h
S.D.,σD=24h
4.2
1.1
3.2
1.1
4.0
1.3
3.7
1.2

Future climate (1979-2003)
Mean, μD=24h
S.D.,σD=24h
4.5
1.6
3.5
1.3
4.6
1.4
4.1
1.7

Assuming Gumbel distribution as suitable candidate in equation 10, the following
simple rainfall IDF can be derived (equation 11):(11)
Equation 11 enabled generation of rainfall IDF curves for present and futureclimate over Kathmandu value by smoothing maximum rainfall intensities over dInvestigating
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rainfall intensity
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frequencyduration frequency
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Mongolia= 1, 2, 3, 6, 12 and 24 hours. Figure 5 & 6 show rainfall IDF curves estimated for
2-, 5-, 10-, 25-, 50- and 100-years return periods. Change in rainfall intensities fordifferent duration and return periods are shown in Table 2. An important
observation is made by visual as well as tabular inspection for all return periods,
for all durations that rainfall intensities are significantly greater for future climate
than present climate. Table 2 points out that there will be an average increase of
18.9% ranging from 10.9% to 22.2% in extreme rainfall intensities. Theseobservations have major implications for the design, operation and maintenanceof storm water infrastructures in urban Kathmandu valley.

Figure 5: Rainfall IDF curves at urban Kathmandu valley for present climate

Figure 6: Rainfall IDF curves at urban Kathmandu valley for future climate
Table 2: Percentage change in rainfall intensities at urban Kathmandu valley
Durations(d) in
hour
1
2
3
6
12
24

74

Change (%)
Average rainfall intensities (mm/h) for return periods
2
5
10
25
50
100
12.5
17.7
19.1
20.6
21.4
22.1
12.2
17.9
19.2
20.7
21.6
22.1
12.4
17.8
19.2
20.6
21.3
22.1
12.9
17.9
19.3
20.3
21.3
22.2
12.3
17.9
19.1
20.9
20.8
22.2
10.9
18.6
18.8
21
21.1
22.2
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6. CONCLUSIONS
Potential impact of climate change on rainfall extremes have been studied byanalysing rainfall IDF curves for present and future climate at urban Kathmandu
valley, Nepal. The assessment has been made by using 20-km daily MRI-GCM
rainfall projections over the Kathmandu valley. Regionalized quantile-quantile
bias correction successfully reduced any significant biases in the MRI-GCM
rainfall projections. The properties of the time scale invariance of selected rainfall
quantiles were investigated at Kathmandu airport. It has been shown that therainfall at Kathmandu airport follow assumption simple scaling properties.
Accordingly, following the revision of Menabde et al. (1999), it was possible toderive the rainfall IDF curves for shorter durations from daily rainfall intensities.
Results of this study are of significant practical importance for design, operationand maintenance of storm water management infrastructures under changing
climate scenario.
REFERENCES
Bara, M., Kohnova, S., Gaal, L., Szolgay, J. and Hlavcoval, K., 2009. Estimationof IDF curves of extreme rainfall by simple scaling in Slovakia, Geophysics andGeodesy, 39(3), 187-206.
Bell, F. C., 1969. Generalized rainfall-duration-frequency relationships, Journalof the Hydraulic Engineering, 95(1), 311– 327.
Chen, C.L.,1983. Rainfall Intensity-Duration-Frequency formulas, Journal of
Hydraulic Engineering, 109(12), 1603– 1621.
Coulibaly, P. and Dibike, Y.B., 2004. Downscaling of global climate model
outputs for flood frequency analysis in the Saguenay River System, Department
of Civil Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, Project no. s02-15-01.
Hansen, J.W., Challinor, A., Ines, A., Wheeler, T. and Moron, V., 2006.
Translating climate forecasts into agricultural terms: advances and challenges,
Climate Research, 33, 27-41.
Haylock, M.R., Cawley, G.C., Harpham, C., Wilby, R.L. and Goodess, C.M.,
2006. Downscaling heavy precipitation over the United Kingdom: a comparisonof dynamical and statistical methods and their future scenarios, Int. J. Climatol.,
26, 1397-1415.
IIED report, 2009. Climate change and the urban poor: Risk and resilience in 15of the world's most vulnerable cities (http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/G02597.pdf).
Kusunoki, S., Yoshimura, J., Yoshimura, H., Mizuta, R., Oouchi, K. and Noda A.,
2008. Global warming projection by an atmospheric global model with 20-km
grid, Journal of Disaster Research, 3(1), 4-14.
Koutsoyiannis, D., Kozonis, D. and Manetas, A., 1998. A mathematicalframework for studying Intensity-Duration-Frequency relationships, Journal of
Hydrology, 206, 118– 135.
Menabde M., Seed A. and Pegram G., 1999. A simple scaling model for extreme
rainfall, Water Resour. Res., 35, 1, 335– 339.
Mishra, B.K. and Herath S., 2011. Climate Projections Downscaling and Impact
Assessment on Precipitation over Upper Bagmati River basin, Nepal,
Investigating
potential
climateonduration
rainfall intensity
Investigating potential
climate change
impacts
onchange
rainfallimpacts
intensity
frequencyduration frequency
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Proceedings of 3rd International Conference on Addressing Climate Change for
Sustainable Development through Up-Scaling Renewable Energy Technologies,275-281(http://cecar.unu.edu/groups/cecarweb/blog/?tag=research+article).
Murphy, J., 1998. An evaluation of statistical and downscaling techniques fordownscaling local climate, Journal of Climate, 12, 2256-2284.
Nhat L. M., Tachikawa Y., Sayama T. and Takara K., 2007. Regional rainfall
intensity duration-frequency relationships for ungauged catchments based on
scaling properties, Annuals of Disas. Prev. Res. Inst., Kyoto Univ., 50B, 33-43.
Sperna Weiland, F.C., van Beek, L.P.H., Kwadijk, J.C.J. and Bierkens, M.F.P.,
2010. The ability of a GCM-forced hydrological model to reproduce global
discharge variability, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. Discuss., 7, 687-724,
doi:10.5194/hessd-7-687-2010.

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Flood hazard simulation for lower West Rapti
river basin-Nepal under climate change impact
Edangodage Duminda Pradeep PERERA1, Akiko HIROE2, Kazuhiko FUKAMI3,
Toshiya UENOYAMA4, Shigenobu TANAKA5
1
Research specialist, International Centre for Water Hazard and Risk Management
under the auspices of UNESCO, PWRI, 6-1 Minamihara, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
perera55@pwri.go.jp
2Researcher, International Centre for Water Hazard and Risk Management under
the auspices of UNESCO, PWRI, 6-1 Minamihara, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
3
Chief Researcher, International Centre for Water Hazard and Risk Management
under the auspices of UNESCO, PWRI, 6-1 Minamihara, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
4
Senior Researcher, International Centre for Water Hazard and Risk Management
under the auspices of UNESCO, PWRI, 6-1 Minamihara, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
5
Deputy Director, International Centre for Water Hazard and Risk Management
under the auspices of UNESCO, PWRI, 6-1 Minamihara, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
ABSTRACT
We focused on integrating AGCM results with a river discharge model and an
inundation model to carry out a descriptive present and future flood hazard study
for lower West Rapti river basin. In this study, bias corrected high resolution
AGCM precipitation outputs of Meteorological Research Institute, Japan
Meteorological Agency (MRI-AGCM 3.1s and 3.2s) for IPCC Special Report on
Emission Scenario A1B were utilized to obtain the precipitation patterns over West
Rapti river basin for Present (1980 – 2004), Near Future (2015 – 2039) and Future(2075 – 2099) time durations. PWRI-distributed hydrologic model ver.2 (PDHM)
was employed to obtain the river discharges for above mentioned time durations
followed by frequency analyses for 25 and 50 years return periods flood discharges.
The frequencies and intensities of calculated return period flood discharges showed
increments in ratios when the Future values were compared with the Present values
for both MRI-AGCM 3.1s and 3.2s. Flood frequency increment ratios for AGCM
3.1s and 3.2s were 1.4 and 2.2 respectively while for the flood discharges, ratios
were 1.1 and 1.9 for 50 years return periods flood discharges. Flood inundation
simulations of 50 years return period events for Present and Future were carriedout by rainfall, runoff and inundation model (RRI model) followed by an assessment
for the flood hazards based on the simulated flood depths and distributions atseveral residential locations of the target area. Future flood depths in the area
show a significant increment compared to the Present situation. These variations inFuture climate will cause complex implications on the socio-economic conditions of
the target area such as irrigation, agriculture, livestock, education, health andtransportation.
Keywords: climate change, flood hazards, hydrological modeling, inundation77

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1. INTRODUCTION
Nepal’s vulnerability to climate-related disasters is likely to be exacerbated by theincrease of intensity and frequency of water hazards induced by climate change(IPCC, 2007). Nepal has been identified as a frequent disaster spot in thedeveloping world and consequently in the Global Natural Disaster Analysis Report(Dilley et al., 2005). Nepal was ranked at 11th place on disaster vulnerability in theworld. Most known water hazards in Nepal are floods, landslides, debris flows,
droughts, snow avalanches and glacier lake outbursts (GLOF). In a humid climate
like that of Nepal, there will be changes in the spatial and temporal distribution oftemperature and precipitation due to climate change, which in turn will increase
both the intensity and frequency of extreme events like droughts and floods(Mahtab, 1992). The majority of Nepal’s present population depends on agriculture
for their subsistence but still about 63% of the agricultural lands are deprived ofmodern irrigation facilities (FAO, 2004). The increased precipitation variability
may create difficulties in cultivating these lands and could result in probable foodscarcity for the population. Currently, about 31% of Nepal’s total population is
below the poverty line and 95% of them live in rural areas (MOF, 2005). The poor
people are more vulnerable to climatic extremes as well as gradual changes inclimate than the rich because they have less protection, less reserves, fewer
alternatives and a lower adaptive capacity since they are more reliant on primary
productions (AfDB et al., 2003).
2. STUDY AREA

Upstream

River
Nepal
Nepal-India border
India

Downstream

Figure 1: West Rapti river basin and target area Figure 2: VDCs of target area
The West Rapti river basin is an important river basin concerning its significance inwater supply for agriculture, irrigation, and domestic uses to the West Tarai regionof Nepal. It covers about 6450 km2 and has the total population of approximately
1,046,000 (CBS, 2001). The West Rapti river originates from the Mahabharat range
in Nepal with the average altitude of about 3000 m. According to the topographicalprofile, the basin can be broadly categorized as upper (hilly) and lower (Tarai –plain). Springs and monsoon precipitations are the main contributors for the water
budget of the river. The annual average precipitation is about 1500 mm.
Observations of daily precipitation at 21 rainfall stations which are located inside or

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around the basin and daily discharges at 3 river gauging stations (Bagasothi,
Julkundi, and Kusum) are available for this study (Figure 1).
The study area is located in the lower West Rapti river basin near the NepalIndia border, (Figures 1 and 2) Nepalgunj in Banke district, Nepal which faces
recurrent flood disasters where significant losses of properties, lives and livelihoodof the local population occur. Recent extreme flood events in lower West Rapti
were reported in 1984, 1989, 1998, and 2007. Flood inundations are generally
caused by both the mainstream of the river and local heavy rainfalls, contributing tohigh flows in the tributaries. It is reported that the inundation problem has been
worsened by the construction of the Laxmanpur barrage and Kalkaluwa afflux bundin Indian territory near to the Nepal-India border, since it obstructs the naturaldrains and flows from West Rapti river (UNDP, 2009). In future anticipated climatechange induced high precipitations will intensify the flood inundations in this area.
The study area covered six Village Development Committees (VDCs) namely
Kamdi, Bankatti, Phattepur, Betahani, Holiya and Gangapur in the lower West
Rapti basin (Figure 2). Those VDCs were categorized as most affected, moderately
affected, and less affected according to the historical inundation severity based on
the information received during the field surveys conducted by the authors in Juneand December of 2011 and previous literature (Osti, 2008). Agriculture-based
economy prevails in the area, and the population was approximated as 45,000 in2001 (CBS, 2001). The land cover is mainly consisted of farmlands, forests, andvillages. As categorized in Figure 2, the villages located near Nepal-India border
are quite vulnerable in terms of floods. Likewise, the villages located in the
upstream, are moderately vulnerable whereas the villages located in the middle partare less vulnerable in comparison to the visited VDCs of downstream and upstream.
3. METHODOLOGY

The complete methodology of thestudy is explained in Figure 3.
PWRI-Distributed
HydrologicalModel ver.2 (PDHM) (Sugiura etal., 2008) was calibrated using
observed rainfall and discharge
data of Bagasothi and Julkundi
stations. The calibrated PDHM
was run with the 20 km x 20 km
mesh based rainfall outputs of
AGCMs to obtain the river runoff
at the boundary (RRI inlet) of thetarget inundation simulation area.
River runoff simulation with
AGCM outputs were carried out
for Present (1980 – 2004), Near
Figure 3: Flow chart of the modeling process Future (2015 – 2039) and Future(2075 – 2099).
Frequency analyses were carried out for the 25 years sets of river run off results of
the RRI inlet point using peaks over threshold (POT) method to obtain the 25 years
and 50 years return periods’ peak discharges. Finally inundation simulations wereconducted for obtained 25 and 50 years return periods flood events to understandthe inundation distribution and depths at the selected area.
Flood hazard
simulation
for lower
Rapti river
basin,
Nepal
underimpact
climate change
Flood hazard simulation
for lower
West Rapti
river Westbasin-Nepal
under
climatechangeimpact79

October
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Mongolia

3.1 MRI-AGCM outputs and bias correction
MRI-AGCM 3.1S provided information on possible climate change induced by
global warming, including future changes in tropical cyclones, the East Asia
monsoon, extreme events, and blocking anticyclones (Mizuta et al., 2006). MRIAGCM 3.2S is the improved version of MRI-AGCM 3.1s with the introduction ofvarious new parameterization schemes, and shows improvements in simulating
heavy monthly-mean precipitation around the tropics on the Western Pacific, theseasonal pattern of the East Asian summer monsoon, and so on (Mizuta et al., 2011).
As the lower boundary condition, these climate experiments were performed withthe observed sea surface temperature (SST) and SST change projected byatmospheric-ocean coupled models. These boundary conditions were common forboth MRI-AGCM 3.1S and 3.2S. The future climate experiments are called as
SFOAC and SFAC, while the present climate runs are called as SPOAC and SPAC
with MRI-AGCM 3.1S and 3.2S, respectively. For near future, they are as NFOAC
and NFAC. Bias correction was needed to remove the bias in the GCM outputs. In
this study a statistical bias correction method developed by Inomata et al., 2009 wasapplied. The main objective of the bias correction method is to correct intensity of
GCM daily precipitation samples to express both seasonal patterns and extreme
values appropriately. The basic idea of the bias correction is to adjust theprobability distribution of GCM daily precipitation to that of its observedcounterparts. The bias corrected rainfall data was applied to PDHM model togenerate the river discharge.
3.2 PDHM
PDHM is a conceptual model with three tanks to represent surface flow (surfacetank), groundwater flow (lower tank) and river discharge (river course tank). The
simultaneous flow exchange between tanks is controlled by various parameters. The
distributed nature of tanks within the model area gives freedom to consider various
land uses as well. PDHM model with 800 m x 800 m resolution and simulation
time interval as 1 day was calibrated for the river discharge data for 2006 and 2008at two river discharge gauging points using measured rainfall data obtained fromrainfall stations shown in Figure 1. Flood events of 2006 and 2008 which had peakdischarges above 1000 m3/s at Kusum station were selected for the calibration.
PDHM model’s parameters were tuned by trial and error method to achieve thedifferences between observations and simulations minimum for the selected flood
events at Bagasothi, Julkundi and Kusum river gauging stations.
3.3 RRI model
RRI model simulates the processes of rainfall-runoff and inundation simultaneously
based on two-dimensional diffusion wave equations. The model deals with slopes
and river channels separately. The inflow-outflow interaction between the slope andriver is calculated based on different overflowing formulae depending on waterlevel and levee-height conditions. A storage cell based inundation model suggested
by Hunter et al., 2007 has been applied to calculate lateral flows on slope grid cells.
The model equations are derived based on mass balance equation and momentum
equation for gradually varied unsteady flow (Sayama et al., 2011). Topographic

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data used in this study were obtained from HydroSHEDS (3-s resolution) (Lehner etal., 2008). The resolution corresponded approximately to 90 m x 90 m in thisregion; length and width of the inundation model were 26.7 km and 14.4 km. The
number of grid cells was 47520 in the modeled area. The inundation model area
was 384.5 km2. The model requires information of the river channel locations andcross sections. We used flow accumulation datasets included in HydroSHEDS. For
the river cross sections, 500 m width and 1 m depth of cross section was used forthe simulation based on available field measurements. RRI model was employed tosimulate the inundations for 25 years and 50 years return periods floods in thisstudy. In the simulation of 2007 flood, three rainfall stations were used while insimulating the future flood events 20 km x 20 km mesh based rainfall data wasemployed. The land use of the area was mainly consisted of agriculture and small
amount was allocated for residential area. The topography of the model area wasconsisted of plane and mountainous areas with lowest elevation of 116 m andhighest of 422 m elevation.
4. RESUTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Inundation results for 2007 flood

Date: 2007/07/23
After 6 days

Figure 4: Discharge hydrograph at RRI inlet

Date: 2007/07/27
After 10 days

Date: 2007/07/29
After 12 days

Figure 5: Inundation maps

Figure 6: Inundation depths at villages in the target area
According to the historical information, there was a significantly larger flood had
occurred in 2007 with severe damages to the residents of the area. As mentioned in
the introduction, the households in the area were divided in three groups as mostaffected, moderately affected and less affected. In our study we simulated theinundation for 2007 flood event based on available rainfall data and PDHM model
outputs for river discharges. Simulation results also show that most affected areas
with higher flood levels. Flood depths of moderate and less affected areas show
comparative depths according to their classification. Figure 4 shows the hydrographof RRI inlet point which was obtained from PDHM and rainfalls of fieldmeasurements. 2007 flood event lasted for about 2 weeks started from July 17th to
Flood hazard
simulation
for lower
Rapti river
basin,
Nepal
underimpact
climate change
Flood hazard simulation
for lower
West Rapti
river Westbasin-Nepal
under
climatechangeimpact81

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Mongolia

August 6th of year 2007. The peak was approximated as 2000 m3/s and the
maximum rainfall occurred was 190 mm/day. Figure 5 depicts a series ofinundation maps which clearly explains the flood hazard of 2007. In the simulation
results, the maximum inundation distribution was occurred from 25th to 29th July of
2007. The observed rainfalls around the simulated area were also shown above 100
mm/day during that period. Figure 6 explains the simulated flood depths at the
VDCs located in the modeled area. The VDCs of Piprahawa, Chauperi andPhattepur show the higher flood depths compared to other villagess in the area. The
maximum flood depth was at Piprahawa and it was close to 1.0 m. According to thefield survey information, flood depth of above 30 cm can cause significant damages
for agriculture and household properties of this area. The distribution of flood
depths in the modeled area is reasonably agreed with the village classification of
mostly, moderately and less affected.
4.2 Inundation simulations for Present and Future flood events based on
frequency analysis.
(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 7: Daily discharges at RRI inlet
point for SPAC (a), SNAC(b)and SFAC(c)82

In the present paper, the focus is on thesimulation results which were based on
MRI-AGCM 3.2s. Figure 7 shows RRI
inlet discharges which were simulated
by PDHM model based on the bias
corrected MRI-AGCM 3.2s output
precipitations. It can be clearly seen thatthe river discharge at the RRI inlet point
has increased twice from Present(SPAC) to Near Future (SNFC) andFuture (SFAC). An overall increment ofdischarges can be seen compared to thePresent time period. In SPAC the peaks
have occurred in June or July most of
the times, however for SNAC andSFAC the appearances of high peaks
have been shifted to September andOctober. In SPAC, the peak events’discharges were less than 4000 m3/s
however in SNAC and SFAC, thefrequencies of peaks above 4000 m3/s
are significantly higher. Frequency ofoccurrence of flood discharges morethan 1500 m3/s in SFAC has increasedby 2.2 times compared to SPAC.
Similarly the discharges for 25 and 50
years quantiles have been increased
close to two times. These results show
the possible Future climate changes
compared to Present situation.

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Table 1: Frequency analysis results for RRI inlet point discharges
Probable peakType ofTime
Frequency indischarge (m3/s)
GCM
period25 years
1/25
1/50
MRISPOAC
38
3270
3630
AGCM
SNOAC
38
4090
4600
3.1s
SFOAC
53
3540
3910
MRISPAC
30
4100
4660
AGCM
SNAC
37
7060
8170
3.2s
SFAC
66
7720
8810
PDHM
discharge(based on observed
43
3910
4350
rainfall)Table 1 shows the results of frequency analysis which was carried out to obtain the
discharge quantiles for 25 and 50 years return periods for RRI inlet point based on
MRI-AGCM 3.1s and 3.2s precipitation outputs. The obtained POT values werefitted to exponential distribution to obtained 25 and 50 years return periods floods.
According to Table 1, it can be seen that the MRI-3.1s’ quantiles show lower values
than MRI-3.2s. Probable peak discharges increase remarkably in Near Future andthey change slightly at the end of 21st century for MRI-3.2s. Frequency of floodincreases in Near Future and Future. 25 and 50 years peak discharges which were
calculated based on PDHM output discharges under the observed rainfalls, have thevalues of 3910 m3/s and 4350 m3/s respectively. The 50 years return period flood of
MRI-3.2s is more than double of the peak discharge value based on observed
rainfalls.
4.3 Inundation results of SPAC and SFAC for 50 years return period flood

Figure 8: Discharge hydrographat RRI inlet for SPAC

7 Days10 DaysFigure 9: Inundation depths at villages
in target area for SPAC

8 Days

11 Days

9 Days12 DaysFigure 10: Inundation maps for SPAC flood event

Flood hazard simulation
for lower
West Rapti
river Westbasin-Nepal
under
climatechangeFlood hazard
simulation
for lower
Rapti river
basin,
Nepal
underimpact
climate change
impact83

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Mongolia

Figure 11: Discharge hydrographat RRI inlet for SFAC

Figure 12: Inundation depths at villages
in target area for SFAC

3 days4 days6 days

5 days7 days9 daysFigure 13: Inundation maps for SFAC flood event(a) - 2007 maximum
inundation distribution

Kalkaluwa
afflux bund(b) - SPAC maximum
inundation distribution

Kalkaluwa
afflux bund(c) - SFAC maximum
inundation distribution

Kalkaluwa
afflux bund(m)

Figure 14: Inundation distributions
at the peak of flood events#^!

Less affected villages
Moderately affected villages
Most affected villages

0 - 0.25
0.26 - 0.75
0.76 - 1.5
1.51 - 2.5
2.51 - 4

Table 2: Inundation area where the flood depths equal or exceed 30 cm at the peak2007 flood,
SPAC flood,
SFAC flood,
ASPAC
ASFAC
A2007 (km2)
ASPAC (km2)
ASFAC (km2)
A2007
A2007
60
106
133
1.8
2.2
The figures in section 4.3 explain the simulation results of Present and Future
inundations of 50 years return period floods. The variation of flood depths in SPAC
and SFAC (Figure 9 and 12) shows that the villages located in most affected VDCs
such as Piprahawa, Chaupheri and Gangapur have shown high flood levels
compared to 2007 flood. For Chaupheri, in 2007 it was about 0.6 m and for SPAC

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and SFAC cases the flood depths have been increased to 1.1 m and 1.5 m
respectively. Therefore, in future the anticipated flood depth at Chaupheri will be
increased more than twice of 2007 flood depth. Gangapur which is located close theriver channel will be also severely affected in future since its flood depth in SFAC
is 1.4m while in SPAC and 2007 flood the depths are 0.8 m and 0.3 m respectively.
Similar tendency can be seen in other villages also. Therefore in Future the flood
vulnerabilities of the villages which were categorized as mostly affected VDCs, will
be significantly increased. The possible reason for the high flood levels in
Piprahawa even though it is located somewhat away from the main channel can be
explained as due to the afflux bund in the Nepal-India border. Figure 14 shows the
Nepal-India border and the location of Kalkaluwa afflux bund. This afflux bund
was constructed very near to the border and during the field survey, it was heardthat during the 2007 flood event also it was one of the cause of inundation
especially in Piprahawa area. However, to understand the behavior of this bund in aflood event a very detailed simulation study should be carried out.
Figure 14 depicts the inundation distribution at the peak flood levels of 2007 flood,
SPAC and SFAC 50 years return period floods. In 2007 the peak discharge wasabout 2000 m3/s, in SPAC it was 4660 m3/s and for SFAC it was 8810 m3/s. The
inundation distributions for above mentioned flood peaks show their impacts to thetarget area clearly. In the target area, when the flood depth exceeds 30 cm, theproperty and agricultural damages are high according to the field survey. In Table 2,
the inundation areas which exceed the 30 cm flood depth are shown with ratios
comparing with 2007 flood. It is noticed that in Future the inundation area
exceeding 30 cm will be doubled compared to 2007 flood. When the flood
discharge becomes higher the VDCs which were classified as less or moderately
affected are also showing high level of floods which can be lead to severe disasters
in future. Consequently, there will be more damages to human lives, livestock andproperties in the area if adaptation and mitigation measures are not taken in time.
5. CONCLUSION
The impact of climate change on flood hazards in lower West Rapti river basin in
Nepal was analyzed by feeding present, near future and future climate, projected
precipitations into a distributed hydrological model to achieve the river runoff.
Employment of the obtained river runoff to an inundation model was carried out tosimulate the flood hazards at different time intervals in present, near future andfuture periods.
When the daily discharge values of SPAC, SNAC and SFAC were compared asignificant increase of the magnitude and frequency of high discharges were noticed
in near future and future than present. Moreover shifting of high discharge seasons
from June/July to September/October was seen implying the potential of varying
the climate patterns in future. Such a phenomenon will seriously affect to theagriculture in the target area. In the comparison of inundation areas which exceed
30 cm flood depth, in future the ratio is more than twice compared to 2007 flood.
The flood hazards in the highly affected areas will be increased significantly infuture as a result of increased flood depths in most of the villages in the target area.
Profound countermeasures should be implemented to reduce the flood induced
damages.
Flood hazard
simulation
for lower
Rapti river
basin,
Nepal
underimpact
climate change
Flood hazard simulation
for lower
West Rapti
river Westbasin-Nepal
under
climatechangeimpact85

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REFERENCES
AfDB, DFID, EC, BMZ, OECD, UNDP, UNEP and the World Bank, 2003. Poverty
and climate change:reducing the vulnerability of the poor through adaptation[Sperling, F.(ed.)], Bonn.
CBS, 2001. Statistical Year Book of Nepal, Central Bureau of Statistics, National
Planning Commission, Government of Nepal, 445-446.
FAO, 2004. Compendium of food and agriculture indicators 2004 – Nepal.
(www.fao.org/es/ess/compendium_2004/pdf/ESS_NEP.pdf)
Dilley, M., Chen, R. S., Deichmann, U., Lerner-Lam, A. L., and Arnold, M., 2005.
Natural Disaster Hotspots: A global Risk Analysis. The World Bank Group,
Washiongton, DC.
Hunter, N. M., Bates, P. D., Horritt, M. S., and Wilson M. D., 2007. Simple
spatially-distributed models for predicting flood inundation: a review,
Geomorphology 90, 208-225
Iomata, H., Takeuchi, K., and Fukami K, 2009. Development of a statistical bias
correction method for daily precipitation data of GCM20. Annual Journal of
Hydraulic Engineering, JSCE 55, 247-252.
IPCC, 2007. Summary for Policymakers, In: Climate Change 2007: The PhysicalScience Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, U K.
Lehner, B., Verdin, K. and Jarvis, A. 2008. New global hydrography derived fromspace borne elevation data. Eos, Transactions, AGU 89(10), 93-94.
Mahtab, F. U., 1992. The delta regions and global warming: impact and response
strategies for Bangladesh. In: The regions and global warming: impacts andresponse strategies [Schmandt, J. and J. Clarkson (eds.)], Oxford University Press,
New York.
Mizuta, R., Oouchi, K., Yoshimura, H., Noda, A., Katayama, K., Yukimoto, S.,
Hosaka, M., Kusunoki, S., Kawai, H., and Nakagawa, M., 2006. 20-km-meshglobal climate simulations using JMA-GSM model - mean climate states. Journal of
Meteorology Society of Japan 84, 165–185.
Mizuta, R., Yoshimura, H., Murakami, H., Matsueda, M., Endo, H., Ose, T.,
Kamiguchi, K., Hosaka, M., Sugi, M., Yukimoto, S., Kusunoki, S., and Kitoh, A.,
2011. Climate simulations using MRI-AGCM3.2 with 20-km grid, Journal of
Meteorology Society of Japan 90A, 233-258.
MOF, 2005. Economic Survey – Fiscal Year 2004/05. Ministry of Finance, Nepal,
Kathmandu.
Osti, R., 2008. A feasibility study on integrated community based flood disastermanagement of Banke district, Nepal phase 1(a): Baseline study. Technical note of
PWRI No. 4122, Public Works Research Institute, Tsukuba, Japan.
Sayama, T., Ozawa, G., Kawakami, T., Nabesaka, S., and Fukami, K., 2012.
Rainfall-runoff-inundation analysis of Pakistan flood 2010 at the Kabul river basin,
Hydrological Science Journal 57-2, 298-312
Sugiura, T., Fukami, K., Fujiwara, N., Hamaguchi, K., Nakamura, S., Hironaka, S.,
Nakamura, K., Wada, T., Ishikawa, M., Shimizu, T., Inomata, H., Itou, K., 2008.
Development of an Integrated flood analysis system (IFAS) using satellite-based
rainfall data (Japanese), Journal of River Technology – JSCE 14, 53-58.
UNDP, 2009. Nepal Disaster Report. Ministry of Home Affairs - Nepal and Nepal
Disaster Preparedness Network, Nepal.

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Naima RAHMAN
Research Planner, BNUS, Dhaka, Bangladesh
naima.rahman05@gmail.com
Mehedi Ahmed ANSARY
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, BUET, Dhaka, Bangladesh
ansary@ce.buet.ac.bd

ABSTRACTIn the last few years Dhaka City has been experiencing many fire
accidents due to lack of proper precautionary measures, institutional
inefficiency, insufficient equipment support and lack of public awareness. In
this study, a traditional community of ward 65 of Dhaka has been selected
for vulnerability assessment using Community Vulnerability Assessment
Tool (CVAT). From the fire vulnerability analysis it has been found thatmost of the buildings of the study area are highly vulnerable. 27% criticalfacility was found to be within the highly fire vulnerable areas. Highpopulation density in the high risk zone and plastic recycling andprocessing industries make the area socially vulnerable to fire hazard. 20 %buildings have plastic manufacturing and processing industries which ishighly vulnerable to fire hazard. Most of the buildings (42%) have 3 feetwide staircase. 19% households have only 0-5 feet roads in front of theirhouses which is inaccessible for fire truck. Besides, electric pole is locatedin front of 14% buildings and transformer is located in front of 11%
building. 97% buildings of the study area have different type of fire sources.
In this respect this community is vulnerable to fire hazard. The land use
pattern of ward 65 indicates also the possibility of this kind of hazard. As
being a mixed use residential area, the loss due to fire may be catastrophic.
To increase resiliency of the community in case of fire hazard some steps
should be taken such as change in present land use pattern, relocation ofchemical factory and plastic factory, and widening of road network andstaircase of building.
1. INTRODUCTION
Dhaka City has been experiencing many fire accidents at present and in
most cases lack of proper precautionary measures along with theinstitutional inefficiency, insufficient equipment support and lack of publicawareness are making the situation worse. To mitigate the impact of fire at

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community level, public participation is important. As a high risk area offire hazard, no vulnerability assessment has been conducted in Dhaka City.
In this study, a traditional community of ward 65 of Dhaka has been
selected for vulnerability assessment. Community Vulnerability Assessment
Tool (CVAT) (Lisa et al, 2002) method has been applied to assessvulnerability of the community to fire hazard. At first, a hazard map
showing the different risk zones of fire has been developed by land use in
the study area. Then four vulnerability analyses have been conductednamely social vulnerability, critical facilities vulnerability, economic
vulnerability and structural vulnerability. To accomplish these vulnerability
analyses different field surveys have been conducted for getting complete
scenario of the community. By using some parameters and attributes,
community vulnerability has been evaluated with respect to fire hazard.
Finally some recommendations have been provided to improve the present
condition of the community.
2. BACKGROUND
The A fire hazard is any situation in which there is a greater thannormal risk of harm to people or property due to fire. The physicalvulnerability of the country’s population and infrastructure is compoundedby economic vulnerability. Extensive fire inevitably causes upheavals not
only in the physical but also in the social and economic context where it
occurs. Urban fires have devastating impact on the communities. An
analysis of disaster impacts on urbanizing areas show that fires cause thegreatest loss of life and property. Fires hazards occur frequently in
Bangladesh especially in urban areas. Table 1 describes number of fire
accidents originated by various causes in the last three years in Bangladesh.
Electric fault, kitchen fire, cigarette, naked fire, burning ash, fireworks,
friction of machine, sabotage, mob, unknown and misc (engine misfire,
spontaneous ignition, and chemical reaction) are different causes of fire.
Among these most of the fire occur due to electric fault and kitchen fire.
Table 1: Causes of Fire in Bangladesh
SL
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

Cause of FireElectric Fault
Kitchen Fire
Cigarette
Naked fire
Burning Ash
Fire Works
Friction of Machine
Sabotage
Mob
Unknown
Misc (Engine misfire,
spontaneous ignition,
Chemical reaction)
Total

Number of Fire Incident
2009
2010
3754
43.27%
3188
39.44%
2254
25.98%
2166
25.67%
865
9.97%
789
9.75%
542
6.24%
528
6.52%
229
3.41%
267
3.16%
162
2.41%
204
2.41%
134
1.99%
170
2.01%
85
1.26%
149
1.76%
113
1.68%
241
2.85%
868
1105
536
6.17%
389
4.61%

3760
2137
828
450
358
161
244
104
78
726
464

12182

13041

14682

2011
43.86%
24.89%
9.64%
5.24%
4.17%
1.87%
2.84%
1.21%
0.90%
5.40%

Source: Bangladesh Fire Service and Civil Defense, 2012

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ICUS Report 65

Amount of loss due toresidential fire (in Taka crores)

Residential fire events are increasing in every year tremendously andit causes loss of property and injures many people badly. Industrial fire isalso in increasing trend. (Bangladesh Fire Service and Civil Defense, 2011)
Economic loss due to fire incidents is high. Figure 2 describes amount ofloss due to residential fire in Taka crore from 2002 to 2010. Among theseyears the highest amount of loss (Tk. 272.64 crores) is seen in 2005. In
most of the years the loss amount is above Tk. 100 crores. As Bangladesh isa developing country it cannot afford the huge amount of loss due to fire
accidents every year.
300

272.64250

238.7

213.78200
150

172.78112.21100

110.5992.9107.42

2009

2010

56.45

50
0
2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

Year

Figure 2: Extent of losses due to fire hazards in recent years(1 Million USD = Taka 8.6 crore)(Source: Bangladesh Fire Service and Civil Defense)
Dhaka the capital of Bangladesh often faces fire hazards due to its
dense building concentrations, narrow roads, flammable building materials,
aging water supply and electrical wire, chemical factory in residential areas
as well as the lack of preparedness and response skills among local people
and the fire authority. Figure 3 shows the trend of fire in Dhaka City in thelast six years. Most of the fire events occurred in 2010 than the otherstatistical year.

Number of Fire Incidents

2500
1775

2000
1500

1220

1000

1100

2068

1110
638

500
0
2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011 ( (Up to
March)

Year

Figure 3: Number of fire event in Dhaka city
(Source: Bangladesh Fire Service and Civil Defense, June 2011)
In 3rd June 2010, a devastating fire broke out in the densely-populatedpart of Old Dhaka city at Nimtoli. Fire killed at least 117 people and caused
injury to a hundred people. Most of the affected peoples were women andCommunity under fire threat: An assessment of fire hazard vulnerability of ward 65 in Dhaka City
Community under fire threat: an assessment of fire hazard vulnerability of ward 65 in Dhaka City

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children. Initially it was thought that explosion of two transformers at
Nimtoli started the fire but later it has been known the fire originated froman oil stove and spread to the chemical warehouses nearby and resulted highcasualties and damages.
Two back to back fires occurred in 15th and 16th January 2012 inIslambag and Lalbag areas in Ward 65 in Old Dhaka. The first incident
occurred in a plastic warehouse near the Eidgah ground in West Islambag ataround 10:45 PM started from a gas stove. The next day again at the sametime another fire occurred in Shahid Nagar area at Lalbag around 10:30 PM.
In this case fire originated from a tin shed house. Around 100 shanties, five
shops and a printing press caught by fire. (BNUS field Survey, 2012).
This is a common situation in Old Dhaka where most of the buildings
have small factories like chemical, plastic, rubber etc., and Warehouse andfood shops up to second floor of the residential building. In Old Dhaka no
house is equipped with fire fighting equipments like extinguisher, hose pipe
etc. They don’t have sufficient width of staircase let alone the emergency
exit. In this respect, assessment of fire hazard vulnerability in Dhaka City
especially in the old part is very important. The old part ‘Puran Dhaka’ isthe most vulnerable area in Dhaka City. In this study Ward 65 (Map 1) of
Old Dhaka is selected for the vulnerability assessment. This ward is one ofmost vulnerable to fire hazard than other because of its traditional land use
and population density. Fire incidents are very common phenomenon in thisarea. It is also one of the oldest areas of Dhaka City. This ward is mainly
used as manufacturing industrial area. Besides several land uses like
Warehouse, commercial use, chemical shop, clamber storage and processing
shops are also prominent. Land use of this area makes it more unique thanthe other area of Dhaka City. In this study, assessment of fire hazard
vulnerability of the community has been conducted to examine the existingrisk of fire in the area and prepare the residents to face this sort of disaster.

Map 1: Study Area (ward 65 of Dhaka city)
Source: Dhaka City Corporation

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3. METHODOLOGY
3.1 Study Design
For achieving the objectives, depending on the literature review a checklist
for the study has been designed which has been modified on the basis offindings from pilot survey. The checklist is given in Appendix-A.
3.2 Study Area Selection
The Ward 65 of Old Dhaka is selected as the study area to assess the fire
hazard vulnerability. The study includes the vulnerability assessment of thebuilding stocks. Buildings adjacent to the roads were surveyed.
3.3 Sampling
The total number of buildings of Ward 65 is 3210. For this sample size, total
1078 buildings survey has been conducted keeping the confidence level at
95% and confidence interval is 2.43.
(http://www.surveysystem.com/sscalc.htm, accessed on 25th March, 2011).
3.4 Data Collection
3.4.1 Base map collection and updating map from field survey
A base map of the study area was collected from Dhaka City Corporation(DCC) office to become familiar with the environment of the study area.
Field survey of the buildings was conducted on the basis of the DCC basemap.
3.4.2 Primary Data Collection
A checklist survey was conducted in the study area to find out the existingsocio-economic condition of the residents.
3.5 Data Processing and Analysis
Through data collection, raw data have been collected. Informationcollected from the survey, have been inputted in MS Access and thenconverted to SPSS 12 for processing and analysis.
3.5.1 Fire hazard vulnerability analysis
To assess the community vulnerability of Ward 65 in Old Dhaka,Community Vulnerability Assessment Tool (CVAT) is used to find out theexisting scenario of the area. This tool has 7 steps including:• Hazard identification• Hazard analysis• Critical facilities analysis• Social analysis• Economic analysis• Environmental analysis• Mitigation opportunities analysis
In this study only critical facilities analysis, social vulnerability analysis,
economic vulnerability analysis and in addition structural vulnerability
analysis has been done to assess the vulnerability of the community. The
Community under fire threat: An assessment of fire hazard vulnerability of ward 65 in Dhaka City
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tools and methodologies used in this analysis consist of GIS and spatial
mapping analysis.
3.6 Preparation of Final Report
All information and finding are gathered and presented by tables, graphs
and maps to prepare the final report. Some recommendations based on thefindings are provided to improve the overall conditions of Ward 65 in thereport.
4. FIRE HAZARD VULNERABILITY ANALYSISThe study area is divided into three risk zones including high risk zone,
moderate risk zone and low risk zone according to their land use fromexpert opinion. Land uses of various risk zones differ from other (map 3).
The total area of Ward 65 is 118.1668 acres (0.478 Square Kilometer).
Among this, high risk zone is 52.84 acres (44.72%), moderate risk zone is30.89 acres (26.14%) and low risk zone is 27.95 acres (23.65%). (From GISMap) The livelihoods of the inhabitants of a zone are primarily based onplastic processing industries like plastic manufacturing, recycling andprocessing factories. This zone is considered as high risk area. The name ofthis portion is Islambag. The zone also displays a high building density withmulti-storey buildings and very few urban public spaces left. In themoderate risk area processing factory and different Warehouse (plastic
Warehouse, cattle food storage) are dominant. Residential use withcommercial (retail shop, office, bank and storage) use is considered as the
low risk area.

Map 3: Fire risk zone in Ward 65

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4.1 Critica
al Facilities A
Analysis
The criticcal facilitiess in ward 65
5 were identtified and a complete innventory off
these faciilities was pprepared. Th
here are totaal 22 numbers of criticcal facilitiess
in the sttudy area. Then criticcal facilitiees that are in and withinwcloseeproximity
y to high risk areas were idenntified by overlying thetcriticallfacilities location ovver the maap of fire vulnerable areas. Maap 4 showss
critical faacilities mapp in Ward 65.
6 The mosst common critical faciilities in theearea are asa follow:Map
ap 4: Critica
al facilities M
Map in Warrd 65
Figure 4 shows thatt 27.27% crritical faciliities are loccated at thee high risk,,
9.09% aree located att moderate risk
r area annd 63.64% area located at low riskk
zone. Thee critical faacilities are mainly eduucational innstitution annd religiouss
center. Most
M of the ccritical facilities are loccated in the Lalbagh arrea which iss
comparatively low riisk zone. Inn this area lland use is mainly resiidential andd
in some casecmixed (residentiall, retail shop, commerccial) and thhe people innthis area are less vullnerable to fire hazardd. In high riisk zone i.ee. Islambag,,
dustries are located to veryv
close pproximity too critical faccilities.
plastic ind
High riskarea
27.27%
Low riskarea
63.64%
Moderaterisk area
9.09%

Fig
gure 4: Perrcentage of critical faciilities in difffferent risk zoneszCommunity under fire threat: An assessment of fire hazard vulnerability of ward 65 in Dhaka City
Community under fire thhreat: an asssessment of ffire hazard vulnerability of ward 65 in Dhaka Cityy93

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Critical facilities of the study area are not vulnerable to fire. Besides these
are located mainly adjacent to wider roads. In case of any fire, these can beused as shelter for the inhabitants.
4.2 Social Vulnerability Analysis
Number of population in any building of the study area varies from 0 to 400.
Most of the buildings (28.53%) have 11 to 20 people. 22.03% have 21 to 30
persons and 18.93% have 6 to 10 persons. Building having population morethan 100 is very low (1.6%). But most of the densely populated buildings
are situated in the high risk zone (Map 5) which mainly consists of plastic
recycling and processing factories. In these factories generally woman andchild laborers work. With respect to these conditions of the area it can besaid that the area is vulnerable to fire hazard.
28.53

30.00

Percentage

25.00

18.93

20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00

9.70

22.03

11.11
5.65
2.45

0.00

1.13

0.38

0.09

Number of Population

Figure 5: Population distribution in Ward 65.

Map 5: Population Map of Ward 65

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Percentage

4.3 Econo
omic Vulneerability Analysis
Among thhe surveyedd householdds, 57.22% have differrent types of economicc
activities.. Plastic m
manufacturin
ng and proocessing inndustry is dominatingg(20.22%); others are different ty
ype of factoory (15.19%%), warehouse (8.95%),,iron/metaal shop/factoory (2.8%), gold and siilver shop (1.49%), eleectric goodss
shop (1.3%), chemiccal shop/factory (1.21%%) and otherr (6.06%) etc.
e Groceryy
shop, groocery shopp and bankk, medicinne shop, taailoring shop/laundry,,clamber storage,spapper shop, bank/servicebes, cloth stoore, hotel, marketmanddphone shhop are in other cateegory. Figuure 6 show
ws differennt types off
economicc activities oof the study
y area.
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

42.78

20.22

15.19
8.95
2.8

1.49

1..21

1.3

6.06

Figuree 6: Econom
mic Activitiees of the Stu
udy Area
Some ecoonomic actiivities makes the studdy area vuln
nerable to firef hazard..
Among thhem plasticc manufactu
uring industtry is totallly based onn chemicalss
which proomote fire tto spread withinw
few seconds to thet locality. From landd
use surveey, it is fouund that thee area is mmainly a ressidential areea (36.9%)..
Mixed acctivity is foound in fou
ur categoriees: 1. resideential and commercialcl(31.87%), 2. residenntial and ind
dustry (16.44%), 3. com
mmercial annd industryy(0.93%), and 4. residdential and educatione(00.1%). Figu
ure 7 shows the presenttland use ofo the studyy area.

Commmunity Facility
1.49%

Educational
Institution
0.84%

Mixed (Ressidential& Industry//factory)
16.4%

Industry/Facctory
5.68%
Mixeed(Commercial &Industtry)
0.933%M
Mixed(Residential
andScchool/Educationaa
l Institution)
0.1%
Resideential
36.9
9%

Mixed
M
(Residentiaal& Commercial)
31.87%
Commercial
5.77%

Figurre 7: Presennt Land Usee of the Studdy Area

Community under fire threat: An assessment of fire hazard vulnerability of ward 65 in Dhaka City
Community under fire thhreat: an asssessment of ffire hazard vulnerability of ward 65 in Dhaka Cityy95

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4.4 Structural Vulnerability Analysis
There are other factors in the area which makes it vulnerable to fire hazard.
These factors are width of staircase, road width of the area and accessibility
to the building, position of transformer and electricity pole. If the roads are
not accessible to fire service vehicle to douse/ put off the fire it may cause aloss to the community. For the emergency evacuation process staircase
width is a vital issue to the resident of a building. That’s why these factors
get importance to the vulnerability assessment. The area consists of total
3210 structures. Among these, 55.66% of the structures are situated in highrisk zone; 24.45% structures are situated in moderate risk zone and 19.89%
structures are situated in low risk zone. (Map 6)

Map 6: Structure Map of Ward 65
4.4.1 Age of Structure
From the field survey, 2011, it is found that Ward 65 is composed of bothold and newly developed buildings. 23.3% of surveyed buildings have been
constructed 0-10 years ago. These are the newest structures of the area.
Most of the buildings have been constructed around 11-20 years ago(25.7%). 23.2% and 11.6 % structures have been built 21-30 years and 3150 years before respectively. 15.9% building are 51-100 years old and 0.4%
buildings are more than 100 years old.

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61-70
551-60 3.3%
22.5%
41-50
6.8%

71-80
1.6%

0
81-90
0.3%

91-100
1.4%

above 100
0.4%
0-10
23.3%

31-4
40
11.6
6%
11-20
25.7%

21-30
23.2%

Figuure 8: Age ofo building in the studyy area

Percentage

4.4.2 Nummber of Flooor
From fieeld survey it has observed that in the stu
udy area mostmof theebuildings (29.64% oof surveyed buildings) are one sto
oried. These buildingss
are mainly used as clamber storages
andd processingg activity and plasticc
manufactu
uring and pprocessing. In these sttructures firre can proppagate veryy
swiftly. 22.27%
2buildings are tw
wo storied aand mainly usedu
as resiidential andd
plastic prrocessing acctivity. 3 sttoried are 114.35%, 4 storied are 13.05%, 5storied arre 12.3% annd 6 to 14 storied are 77.36%. 1.03
3% buildinggs are underrconstructiion.
35.00
3
30.00
3
25.00
2
20.00
2
15.00
1
10.00
1
5.00
0.00

29.64
22.27
14.35

13.05

12.30
7.36

1.03

FigureF
9: N
Number of flloor of the bbuilding in thet study arrea
4.4.3 Staiircase Widtth
In the oldder portion oof Dhaka ciity it is a tradition thatt the width of staircasee
is smallerr than the nnew part of Dhaka. From the fieeld survey it has beenn
observed that staircaase width off buildings varies fromm 1-5 feet. Most
M of theebuildings (41.82%) have 3 feeet wide staiircase. 4 feeet wide staaircases aree
nstructed buuildings theeseen in 28.09% builddings. In caase of somee newly con
width is 5 feet (11.733%). Widerr staircase iss essential forf any buildding duringg
the evacu
uation proccess for an
ny disaster. For fire hazardhit getsg
speciallpriority becausebfiree spreads veery quickly in a building. So peopple need too
protect thhemselves fr
from the rag
ge of fire inn a very sho
ort time. In thist respectt
the study area is vulnnerable to fiire hazard.

Community under fire threat: An assessment of fire hazard vulnerability of ward 65 in Dhaka City
Community under fire thhreat: an asssessment of ffire hazard vulnerability of ward 65 in Dhaka Cityy

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olia

5 feet Above 5 feet4%
1.54
11.73%
4 feet28.09%

1 feet0.61%
2 feet16.2%

3 feet41.82%

Figgure 10: Staaircase widtth (feet) of bbuilding in thet study arrea
4.4.4 Roadd Width/ Acccessibility to
t Buildingg
For emerggency respoonse during
g any disasster road widthwis an importantfactor. If tthe road is nnot sufficieently wide tto move firre service’s vehicle it
may causee another ddisaster to the peoplee and it may
m extend the loss.
Building fiire can spreead very quiickly and caan overwhellm propertiees and life.
In the studdy area acccessibility tot each houusehold is not good. The main
roads are w
wide and acccessible to the fire serrvice vehiclle but the loocal roads
and conneccting roads to the build
dings are noot accessiblee to the vehiicle. (Map7)

Ma
Map 7: Accesssibility Mapp of Ward 65
6
Road widtth varies froom 1-40 feet in the sttudy area. Most
Mof thee residents
have 6-10 feet roads in front of their housees (44.73%). 16.31% hhave 11-15
feet roads and 20.42%% have abo
ove 15 feet roads. 18.5
55% househholds have
only 0-5 feeet roads w
which is inacccessible foor fire truck. These narrrow roads
are totally impossiblee for evacuaation and reecue process. In this reespect thiscommunityy is also vvulnerable tot fire hazaard. They area not aw
ware about
widening tthe road.

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21-25 feeet
4.85%
16-20 feett
4.57%

above 30
0.28%
26-30
10.72%

0-5 feet
18.55%

11-15 feet
166.31%
6-10 feet
44.73%

Figure 11: Road w
width (feet) / accessibillity to buildiing in the sttudy area
4.4.5 Transformer aand Electriccity Pole
Position ofo transform
mer and elecctricity polee to a build
ding is also assessed inn
this study
y because these may cause seriious fire hazardhto thhe locality.
Recently in old Dhhaka a firee incident occurred due
dto the blast of amer. The buiildings in th
his area aree constructed very clossely to eachhtransform
other. So that fire caan spread out
o to another building. Among thhe surveyeddbuildings electric ppole is loccated in ffront of 13
3.51% builldings andd
mer is located in front of 11.37 % bbuilding.
transform
Electriic Pole

Traansformer
Yes
11.37%
1Yes
13.51%
No
86.49%

Figure 12:
1 Electric ppole in the sttudy
areaa

No
88.63%

Fiigure 13: Tra
ansformer inn the study
area

4.4.6 Exisstence of F
Fire Source
Most of thet buildinggs of the stu
udy area haave differen
nt type of firefi sources..
Gas stovee, electric w
wire, chemiical factory and plasticc factory arre the mainn
sources ofo fire. Bessides, theree are also some ornaament factoories, metall
factories, recycled pplastic shop,, printing ppress and wholesalew
paaper markett
in the area all of w
which can beb source of great firre hazard. Residentiall
houses arre vulnerablle due to gaas stove (388.4%) and electricewiree (15.84%)..
Househollds with miixed use arre mainly vvulnerable due to plasstic factoryy(17.8%), chemical shhop (16.59%%), metal ffactory (2.8%%) and goldd ornamenttfactory (11.5%). 3.26%% buildingss have no firre source.

Community under fire th
threat:An assassessment
offfirefirehazard
hazard vvulnerability
ward6565ininDhaka
DhakaCity
City
hreat: ansessment of
ulnerability ofofwardy99Percentage

October 2012, Ulaanbaatar,
Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
Mongolia

45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

38.4

17.8

16.59
3.26

0.19

0.56

1.49

15.84

3.07

2.8

Figure 14: Existence of fire sources in the study area

Figure 15: Electric pole andtransformer in front of building

Figure 16: Narrow road withinbuildings

5. MAJOR FINDINGS
Severe fire incidents have occurred in ward 65. From the firevulnerability analysis it has been found that maximum numbers of buildingsof the study area are highly vulnerable (55.66%). Most of the highly firevulnerable buildings are located in Islambag Road. Buildings of Water
works Road and Lalbag area are less vulnerable because of being residential
areas with mixed commercial use.
27.27% critical facility was found to be within the highly firevulnerable areas. Most of these facilities (63.64%) are situated in the lowrisk zone. So critical facilities of the study area are moderately vulnerable tofire.
Population density in the high risk zone is high and the area consistsof plastic recycling and processing industries. In these factories generally
woman and child labors work. So it can be said that the area is sociallyvulnerable to fire hazard.
Most of the buildings of the study area have different kind of
economic activities. Only 36.9% buildings are residential with no economic

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activity. 20.22% buildings have plastic manufacturing and processing
industries which is highly vulnerable to fire hazard.
Most of the buildings (41.82%) have 3 feet wide staircase. 18.55%
households have only 0-5 feet roads in front of their houses which is
inaccessible for fire truck. Besides, electric pole is located in front of
13.51% buildings and transformer is located in front of 11.37 % building.
96.74% buildings of the study area have different type of fire sources. In
this respect this community is vulnerable to fire hazard.
6. CONCLUSIONS
Urban fire incidents have been determined to have a high likelihood of
occurrence in our country. But no mentionable fire risk assessment has been
performed although fire hazard characterization information is available in
the Fire Service and Civil Defense (FSCD). In this study after conducting
vulnerability assessment using Community Vulnerability Assessment Tool
(CVAT), it is found that ward 65 is vulnerable to fire hazard. The land use
pattern of ward 65 indicates the possibility of this kind of hazard. The area
comprises of residential use as well as commercial and industrial uses likeplastic manufacturing and processing factory and chemical factory which
may induce massive fire. As being a mixed use residential area, the loss due
to fire may be catastrophic. To minimize the social and economic loss,
Mitigation Planning is required. A change in present land use pattern isrequired. Chemical factory and plastic factory should be relocated. Road
network as well as staircase of building should be wider to evacuate thecommunity people. Community awareness should be raised. Although
CVAT has been applied in this small area of Dhaka city, it can be applied to
any type of hazard in any location of the country both at micro and macrolevels.
REFERENCES
Lisa, K. Flax, Russell, W. Jackson and David, N. Stein (2002) “Community
Vulnerability Assessment Tool Methodology” Natural Hazards Review Vol.
3 (ISSN 1527-6988), 162-176.
http://www.surveysystem.com/sscalc.htm, accessed on 25th March, 2011.
BNUS field survey, 2012.

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Vulnerability assessment of snow disasterbased on traffic system: A Case Study ofChenzhou City in Hunan Province
Xiaoge XU1, Jing`ai WANG2, and Takaaki KATO3
1
Graduate Student School of Eng., The University of Tokyo, Japan
xuxiaoge@city.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp
2
Professor, School of Geography, Beijing Normal University, China
3
Associate Professor, ICUS, IIS, The University of Tokyo, Japan
ABSTRACT
From January to February in 2008, a 50-year snow disaster was occurred inSouth China, and Chenzhou City, which is located in the southeast of Hunan
Province, became one of the hardest affected areas in this disaster. The paper
establishes pattern of urban snow disaster system based on the theory of regional
disaster system, which consist of factors concerning hazards, hazard-formativeenvironments and disaster affected bodies. The disaster chain is also drawn andindicates that traffic system and lifeline system which are the primary disaster
affected bodies in urban areas are also the medium exacerbating damages. In thiscase, the paper sets up a vulnerability assessment index framework mainly basedon traffic system, and applies it in Chenzhou City. The results of assessment
indicate that obvious geographical differences exist in the vulnerability of snow
disaster affected bodies. Furthermore, improved model involving meteorologicalindex is also used to assess the vulnerability of disaster affected bodies under
diverse hazardous conditions considering the dynamic characteristic of hazardformative environments. The data shows that the vulnerability of traffic system in
Chenzhou City obviously increases in 2008 winter compared with 2007.
Keywords: urban snow disaster system, disaster chain, vulnerability assessmentof lifeline, China.

1. INTRODUCTION
The 50-year snow disaster occurred from January to February in 2008, affected 17
provinces and more than 100 millions victims were affected in South China.
Chenzhou City, which is located in the south-east of Hunan Province, was one of
the hardest affected disaster areas. Over 4 millions victims were affected in thiscity, and the constant snow led the city become an isolated island because of theinterruption of traffic and electricity system.
The problem of urban snow disaster has been increasingly prominent; however,compared with other types of disasters, the research on urban snow disaster ismuch fewer at present. Existing study of snow disaster is focused on climatechange and disaster prediction (Weisman, 1996; Onton, 2001) or the pollution
problem of urban snow remnants (Viklander, 1996; Engelhard and de Toffol,103

October 2012, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
October 2012, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia2007). Japan, as a high-urbanization and snowstorm-prone country, is moremature in the field of urban snow disaster. Urano et al. (1987) studies the impactof snow slide on urban area based on runoff characteristics; Tomabechi et al.
(1997) pointed out that snow damages caused by snowstorms are strongly
influenced by the wind velocity and temperature and snow disaster break out moreeasily in Hokkaido than in the Hokuriku districts according to the survey from1971 to 1990; Kaneda et al. (1997) focused on the evacuation facilities under thesituation of snow disaster; Sugimori and Sano (2002) set up the theory of urban
snow disposal system and applied it in Tokamachi. There are also some studies on
the evaluation of the damage of urban snow disaster, which mainly focus on theextent of economic losses (Umemura et al., 1993) or the extent of buildings
affected snow pressure (Suzuki et al., 1991). Research on the vulnerability ofnatural disasters in China began in the 1990s; however, the research was primarily
aimed at other types of disaster, such as drought (Sang and Shi, 1998), earthquake(Xu et al., 2004), fog (Wang, 2004), etc. Hao et al. (2003) used the example ofpastoral areas of Inner Mongolia to assess the vulnerability of animal husbandry,
but the urban disaster affected bodies are completely different from the ones inpastoral areas, and the evaluation model cannot directly be applied in urban areas.
As stated above, the damage of urban snow disaster has been aggravated, while
the research on this problem is still little concerned about. In this situation, thepaper establishes the patterns of urban snow disaster system and disaster chain
based on the theory of regional disaster system(Shi, 1996). In addition, the paper
sets up the vulnerability assessment index framework mainly based on trafficsystem, and applies them in Chenzhou City, so that to provide scientific basis fordisaster reduction decision-making.
2. URBAN SNOW DISASTER SYSTEM AND SNOW DISASTER CHAIN
2.1 Urban snow disaster system
Based on the theory of regional disaster system (Shi, 1996), urban snow disastersystem consists of hazards, hazard-formative environments and disaster affectedbodies (Figure 1). Hazards (H) mainly refer to the persistent large-scale snowfall.
Hazards factors include intensity (H1), frequency (H2), duration (H3), regional
range (H4) of the snowfall, snow depth (H5), land surface temperature (H6) and theland surface slippery level (H7).
H1, H2, H3, H4, H5, H6, H7…

H

Enc1, Enc2, Enc3, Enc4,
Enp1, Enp2, Est1, Est2, Est3,
Esp1, Esp2, Esp3, Esb1, Esb2,
Ess1, Ess2, Ess3, Eer1, Eer2, Eer3,
Eei1, Eei2, Eei3, Eec …

D

E
S

E

D1
D2
D3
D4
D5
D6

Sb1, Sb2, Sb3, Sf1, Sf2, St1, St2, St3, Sl1, Sl2, Sl3, Sl4, Sl5, Sl6, Sp1, Sp2, Sm1, Sm2, Sm3, Sm4, Sg1, Sg2, Sh, Sa…

Figure 1: Urban snow disaster system

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ICUS Report 65Hazard-formative environments (E) include natural environment (En), social
environment (Es) and economic environment (Ee). Natural environment isconcerning with the climatic condition (Enc) and the topography condition (Enp):
the former involves average winter temperature (Enc1), winter precipitation (Enc2),
average annual humidity (Enc3) and average annual wind velocity (Enc4); thelatter contains slope (Enp1) and aspect (Enp2). In social environment, disaster ismainly affected by traffic system (Est, Est1-Traffic density, Est2-Accessibility,
Est3-Distribution of street trees), urban population (Esp, Esp1- Population size,
Esp2-Population density, Esp3- percentage of vulnerable people), structures (Esb,
Esb1-Density of structures, Esb2- Constructions of structure) and administrative
measures (Ess, Ess1-Disaster-related laws, Ess2- Public awareness of disaster,Ess3-Scientific research on disaster reduction). Economic environment (Ee)mainly refer to disaster preparedness (Eer, Eer1-Per capita GDP, Eer2- Industrial
output value, Eer3-Relief supply reserves), inputs of disaster relief (Eei, Eei1Relief funding, Eei2-Relief supplies, Eei3-the number of labor input) and disasterrecovery capabilities (Eec). Urban snow disaster affected bodies (S) cover fixedclass and movable class (Table 1).
According to the theory of regional disaster system (Shi, 1996), Damage (D) isthe product from mutual combination of hazards, hazard-formative environments
and disaster affected bodies. In this urban snow disaster system, damage includes
traffic system damage (D1), human’s health damage (D2), animals and plants’
health damage (D3), lifeline system damage (D4), residents stranded (D5),structures damage (D6), etc.
Table 1: Classification of urban snow disaster affected bodies
Structures (Sb)
Fixed
Class

MovableClass

Factories (Sf)
Traffic system (St)
Lifeline system (Sl)Plants (Sp)
Transportmachinery(Sm)Flow of goods(Sg)
Human being (Sh),
Animals (Sa)

Residing house (Sb1), Office(Sb2), Historicalrelic (Sb3)
Production line (Sf1), Industrial equipment (Sfs)
Highway (St1), Railway (St2), Airport(St3)
Water supply pipes (Sl1), Drains piping (Sl2),
Cable (Sl3), Communication network (Sl4), Oiland gas pipeline (Sl5), Heating pipe (Sl6)
Street tree (Sp1), Frost tree (Sp2)
Aircraft (Sm1), Train (Sm2), Car (Sm3), Cycling(Sm4)
Transporting goods (Sg1), Storage of goods (Sg2)……

2.2 Urban snow disaster chainIn order to analyze the interaction among hazards, hazard-formative environments
and disaster affected bodies, the disaster chain is drawn. Disaster chain is a seriesof disaster phenomenon caused by some hazard factors, and usually includes
serial disaster chain and simultaneous disaster chain. Urban snow disaster chain is
initially established by summarizing massive snow disaster cases the disastersystem theory (Figure 2).
Vulnerabilityof Snow
DisasterBased
Traffic
A Case Study ofVulnerability assessmentof snowAssessment
disaster basedon trafficsystem:A on
case
studySystem:ofChenzhou
City
in
Hunan
Province,
China
105
Chenzhou City in Hunan ProvinceOctober 2012, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
October 2012, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
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Figure 2: Urban snow disaster chain

From the disaster chain, the urban snow disaster is usually complicated by freeze
or storm, brings about a series of secondary disasters such as traffic jams,
structural damage, environmental pollution through chain reactions, in which thedamage of traffic system and lifeline system is the main cause to exacerbate andenlarge the effects of disaster, blocking the flow of people, goods and information,
resulting in casualties and property losses.
3. VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT INDEX FRAMEWORK OF SNOWDISASTER BASED ON TRAFFIC SYSTEM
3.1 Vulnerability assessment model
Vulnerability assessment methods can be divided into two types: generalized
vulnerability assessment which evaluates the whole regional disaster system, andspecial vulnerability assessment which only focuses on the sensitive extent of
human related social and economic system to hazard factors. This paper adopts
the generalized one proposed by Shi (2002), as follows (equation 1):

V = V SE  V E  V ST = f ( H , E , φ , λ , h , t )(1)

In which VSE is the regional spatial and temporal vulnerability, VE is thevulnerability of hazard-formative environment, VST is the vulnerability of disaster

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ICUS Report 65affected body, H is the human system, E is the natural environment system,  islatitude,  is longitude, h is the height and t is the time (Shi, 2002). Considering
the dynamic characteristic of hazard-formative environments, the urban snow
disaster vulnerability assessment model is built up as follows (equation 2 andequation 3):
A.

Vulnerability of traffic system under the same hazards condition:
VS =  N ik × Wi

(2)
In which VS is the vulnerability of assessment unit k in the same hazard-formative
condition, Nik is the normalization value of the disaster affected body vulnerability
factor i in assessment unit k, Wi is the corresponding weight of factor i.
B.

Vulnerability of traffic system under the diverse hazards condition:
VD =  N ik × Wi + H ik × Wi

(3)
In which VD is the vulnerability of assessment unit k in the diverse hazardformative condition, Nik is the normalization value of the disaster affected bodyvulnerability factor i in assessment unit k, Hik is the normalization value of thehazard-formative environment vulnerability factor i in assessment unit k , Wi is thecorresponding weight of factor i.
3.2 Vulnerability assessment index of snow disaster based on traffic system
3.2.1 Characteristics of urban traffic disaster affected body
Blaikie et al. (1994) point out that, the key of disaster mitigation is to reduce thevulnerability and increase the resilience capacity of disaster affected bodies due tothe difficulty of changing hazard factors. As stated above, according to studies ofa great many snow disaster cases, urban snow disaster is exacerbated mainly
though the traffic system.Traffic system, which is one of the main disaster
affected bodies in urban snow disaster has the following attributes: (1) highway
develops fast but also enjoys larger blocking risk than regular roads, especially insnowy and rainy conditions; (2) car traffic is more vulnerable compared to nonmotor vehicles or trans; (3) vulnerability of traffic system is closely related toslope of the road: the higher the slope, the larger the vulnerability; (4)vulnerability of traffic system is positively related to the height: the bigger theheight, the lower the temperature, the higher the humidity, and the easier for theroad surfaces to form ice layer
3.2.2 Vulnerability assessment index
According to the attributes of traffic system as stated above, this paper builds up avulnerability assessment index framework of urban snow disaster where trafficsystem is seem as the main disaster affected body. The vulnerability of trafficsystem is mainly concerned with terrain, topography and traffic capacity. Under
some particular conditions such as rain or snow weather, the outage risk ofdifferent types of roads should also be considered in the index framework. In
addition, according to different snowmelt rates in different aspects, the aspect
factor is also involved in the assessment. Follow the principles of importance,comparability and quantitative assessment, five factors is selected: altitude (Al),slope (Sr), aspect (As), regular traffic capacity (Ch), and outage probability (Rt).
Vulnerabilityof Snow
DisasterBased
Traffic
A Case Study ofVulnerability assessmentof snowAssessment
disaster basedon trafficsystem:A on
case
studySystem:ofChenzhou
City
in
Hunan
Province,
China
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Chenzhou City in Hunan ProvinceOctober 2012, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
October 2012, Ulaanbaatar, MongoliaFirstly, altitude (Al) is negatively related to road surface temperature and thus thehigh-altitude area is easily blocked due to snow thawing and accumulating.
Secondly, slope (Sr) directly influence the speeds or cars, the larger the roadgradients, the slower the cars run and the easier the traffic jam occurs, and inspecial weather conditions, cars cannot even run in areas where slopes are toolarge. Thirdly, aspect (As) of road is mainly related to the speed of snow melting.
Generally speaking, snow in sunny slope melt faster than those in shady slope,
while the half sunny, half shady slope thaws in a medium speed. Fourthly, regulartraffic capacity (Ch) is used to measure the transmitting ability of roads in each
grade without hazards. Transmitting ability, which is also named road capabilityor traffic capability means the possible largest number of transmitting objects,
including cars or people, in certain position, roadway or fragment, in a time unit.
The transmitting ability is designed to be different for railroads or highways in
different grades. Lastly, outage probability (Rt) means the possible traffic control
that would results in disasters such as road and passenger blocking in special
weather conditions including snow and rain. Furthermore, as stated above, snow
disaster is mainly caused by the spatio-temporal difference effect of the hazards’
intensity and disaster affected body's vulnerability. Considering the dynamic
characteristics of hazard formative environment, the paper picks up winterprecipitation anomaly percentage (Pw) and winter temperature anomaly
percentage (Tw) to investigate the regional diversity of vulnerability under
different levels of hazards’ intensity.
3.3 Distribution and grading of vulnerability assessment index weights
The assignment of index weight uses the method combined of AHP(Analyticalhierarchy process) and expert making method. AHP is a decision-making methods
that combines qualitative and quantitative analysis. It is a process that models andquantifies the decision-making person’s thinking process of a complex system.
The paper compares the related elements in the system, constructs the judgment
matrix based on relative importance, and then uses MATLAB programming tocalculate the weights. The results would be taken consistency test to ensure therealism of evaluation thinking finally. The weight is shown in Table 2.
Table 2 Vulnerability assessment index and weight of urban snow disaster
WeightFactorAssessment Index
SymbolV1
V2
Altitude/mAl
0.2142 0.1273
Slope/%
Sr
0.1211 0.0725
Vulnerability of regional
Aspect/°As
0.0765 0.0462
disaster bearing body
Regular Traffic Capacity/Ch
0.3892 0.2192
cars per hour
Outage Probability
Rt
0.1990 0.1385
Intensity of Regional
Winter Precipitation
Pw
0.1273
Hazards
Anomaly Percentage/%
Winter TemperatureTw
Anomaly Percentage/%
0.2686
Note: V1 – the same hazard condition; V2 – diverse hazards condition.

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There still remains the problem of unify the dimensions during multi-index
modeling. Quantify and grade the above evaluation indexes to unify thedimensions of variable indexes. The value of each grade is assured according toanalysis of a great many snow disaster cases. Take slope (Sl) for example. Its
largest value recommended is 4% and the limitation is 6% when the car speed is
80km/h. While when the car runs at the speed of 20km/h the recommended largest
gradient is 8% and the limit is 9%. Besides, the designing standard of regular auto
vehicles limits its capable slope at the value of 15%. Therefore, the paper divides
slope into four grades: (1) 0% -4%; (2) 4%-8%; (3) 8%-15%; (4) more than 15%.
4. CASE STUDY IN CHENZHOU CITY
4.1 Overview of the study area
Chouzhou City, located in the southeast of Hunan Province, China, is a
mountainous area and the terrain of southeastern part is higher than the one ofnorthwest. The cold air is always easily accumulated in the foot of mountains,while the warm air is strong in the high altitude area. The two flows of air are
gathered together to become “the Lanning Stationary Front”, which lead
Chenzhou to the frozen-prone area. The distribution map of aspect, elevation andslope in Chenzhou is shown as Figure 3. The data of map is calculated using
ArcGIS based on DEM data (1: 250000 in 2007) and overlapped with district map.

(1) aspect of slope (degree)(2) Elevation(m)(3) Slope(%)

Figure 3: The terrain condition of Chenzhou City
On the other hand, as an inland area with undeveloped water carriage, the main
connecting methods of Chenzhou with outside are railroads and trans-territory
roads. The traffic system of Chenzhou City has developed fast and its roadturnovers have been remaining a constant high growing speed. In the end of 2007,
the cargo turnovers of the urban roads reached 8970 million ton km, and its
passenger turnovers reached 3940 million person km. The road traffic supports theflows of the whole area, and its influence on the urban disaster affected body insnowy low-temperature weather is direct and huge. In the snow disaster occurredin Jan.2008, road surfaces of highway in length of more than 80 km were coveredby ice, and approximately ten thousands of cars and people were blocked in
Chenzhou areas.

Vulnerabilityof Snow
DisasterBased
Traffic
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Chenzhou City in Hunan ProvinceOctober 2012, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
October 2012, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
4.2 Assessment results in Chenzhou City
According to the urban snow disaster vulnerability assessment model, the paper
assesses the vulnerability of the main traffic network in Chenzhou for
350m*350m grid as an evaluation unit. The maps use the super-scale to show theroads, which is 10–50 times larger than the original roads. ArcGIS is used to do
grid computing, and the distribution map of vulnerability of Chenzhou city under
the same hazard condition is drawn. (see Figure 4).The map shows following facts
under the same hazard condition. Vulnerability of Chenzhou section of the
Beijing-Zhuhai expressway that above
0.3 is the highest in Chenzhou city andthe maximum value is 0.360. The total
length of roads whose vulnerability
above 0.3 in the whole area is 52.5 km,
and the Guidong – Qingguangping partof 106 State Road, Mangshan Farm
section in Yizhang County, Tuqiao –Yijiang section in Rucheng County and
Yangtoujiao – Shen-ao part in Zhixing
city belong to this high-vulnerability
interval. Minimum value in Chenzhou is0.116, and total length of roads whose
vulnerability below 0.2 is 593.6 km. The
vulnerability of lateral roads insouthwestern region is less than 0.2.
Under the same hazard condition, theaverage vulnerability of Chenzhou city Figure 4: Vulnerability distribution of
traffic system under the same hazard
is 0.210.
The distribution maps which under diverse hazards condition (data in 2007 and2008 winter) are also made (Figure 5). Under diverse hazards condition, themaximum value of vulnerability of all research area is 0.228 in 2007 winter, andthe region with the maximum value is Guidong –Chetouao section. The total
length of roads whose vulnerability above 0.2 is only 8.75 km. The vulnerabilities
of Chenzhou section of Beijing-Zhuhai expressway and Chenzhou–Zhixing
expressway, main roads in Rucheng County and Mangshan Farm section in
Yizhang County are at interval of 0.1–0.2, and the total length in this interval is300.3 km. Vulnerabilities of roads in most of the southwestern region are less than0.1, and the total length of roads whose vulnerability below 0.1 reaches 949.2 km,
up to 75.4 % of the total length of Chenzhou. The average vulnerability in 2007 is
0.074. In 2008 winter, due to the heavy rainfall and low-temperature, averagevulnerability of Chenzhou city obviously increases to 0.219. Max value regions
lie in Yizhang–Yongxing section of Beijing-Zhuhai expressway and Datang–
Qingguangping section in Guidong County, and the maximum value is 0.335. The
total length of roads whose vulnerability above 0.3 reaches 36.05 km. Except for
Guiyang County and Anren County which are located in southwest, thevulnerability of main roads in other counties are all more than 0.3. The minimum
value of vulnerability in 2008 is 0.122, while the minimum in 2007 is just 0.007.

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a. 2007 winterb. 2008 winterFigure 5: Vulnerability distribution of traffic system under diverse hazards
The assessment result of traffic system in Chenzhou city is shown in Table 3.The
results of assessment indicate that obvious geographical differences exist in thevulnerability of snow disaster affected bodies. Firstly, vulnerability of Chenzhou
section of the Beijing-Zhuhai expressway is the highest in Chenzhou city, whichis due to its higher outage probability and higher traffic capacity. Secondly, thesoutheastern counties are more vulnerable than the northwest region. This isbecause the altitudes and slope in south eastern counties such as Gongdong
County and Rucheng County are higher than the ones in northwest, and the
aspects of roads in southeast are mainly ubac or half shady slope. Finally,
according to the snow disaster vulnerability dynamic process analysis, thevulnerability of Chenzhou city had an obvious increase in 2008 winter comparedwith that in 2007 winter. This is decided by the weather of low-temperature andheavy rainfall.
Table 3: Vulnerability assessment results of traffic system in Chenzhou
Vulnerability distribution of traffic system
Hazards
Percentage of the interval covers thecondition
total length of roads (%)
Max. Min. Average
0–0.1
0.1–0.2 0.2–0.3 0.3–0.4
V1
0
46.11
49.81
4.08
0.360 0.116 0.210
2007
75.44
23.87
0.69
0
0.228 0.007 0.074
V2
2008
0
35.47
61.66
2.87
0.335 0.122 0.219
5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
The paper based on a large number of urban snow disaster cases, establishes urban
snow disaster system and urban snow disaster chain for the first time, which
reveals the mechanism of snow disaster and how it was affected by hazards,
hazard-formative environment and disaster affected body. The disaster chain
Vulnerabilityof Snow
DisasterBased
Traffic
A Case Study ofVulnerability assessmentof snowAssessment
disaster basedon trafficsystem:A on
case
studySystem:ofChenzhou
City
in
Hunan
Province,
China
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Chenzhou City in Hunan ProvinceOctober 2012, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
October 2012, Ulaanbaatar, Mongoliaindicates that the vulnerability of traffic system and the lifeline system is the main
respect to exacerbate the snow disaster. The vulnerability assessment index
system of urban snow disaster based on traffic system is set up for the first time.
The assignment of index weights uses the method combined of AHP and expert
rating, and then the paper builds up the urban snow disaster vulnerability
assessment model, which provides the foundation for evaluation. The paper
applies the vulnerability assessment model in Chenzhou city, Hunan, China. The
assessment results show that obvious geographical differences exist in thevulnerability of snow disaster affected bodies, which mainly due to the
topography diversity. . According to the snow disaster vulnerability dynamic
process analysis, the vulnerability of Chenzhou city obvious increases in 2008
winter compared with 2007 winter, because of the weather of low-temperatureand heavy rainfall in 2008 winter.
For the reason of data acquisition difficulty, the paper is still insufficient invulnerability assessment of traffic system. The next step on this research is toconsider include the buffer zone of roads, its population density and economic
index. The evaluation objects will also be extended to urban lifeline systems andstructures to further improve urban snow disaster vulnerability assessment index
system, and to make it more applicable.
REFERENCES
Blaikie, P.T. Cannon, I. Davis and Wisner B., 1994. At Risk: Natural Hazards,
People`s Vulnerability, and Disasters, Routledge, London,
Engelhard, C. and de Toffol S, 2007. Environmental impacts of urban snow
management- The alpine case study of Innsbruck [J]. Science of the Total
Environment, 382:286-294.
Hao L., Wang J. and Shi P., 2003. Vulnerability assessment of regional snow
disaster of animal husbandry: taking pasture of Inner Mongolia as an example [J].
Journal of Natural Disasters, 12(2):51-57. (In Chinese)
Kaneda Y., Masamichi E. and Aratani N., 1997. Evacuation plan in the snowy
areas[R]. Science Synopsis Album.D-1, (9):949-952. (In Japanese)
Onton D.J. , 2001. Diagnosic and sensitivity studies of the 7 December 1998 great
Salt Lake-effect snowstorm[J]. Mon.Wea.Rev., 129:1318-1338.
Maria Viklander, 1996. Urban snow deposits-pathways of pollutants[J]. The
Science of the Total Environment,189/190:379-384.
Sang,Y., Shi, P.,1998. Discussion on the role of anthropogenic factors in theforming of agricultural drought disaster process[J]. Journal of Natural Disasters,(4):35-43. (In Chinese)Shi, P.,1996. Theory and practice of disaster study[J]. Journal of Natural
Disasters, 5(4):6-17. (In Chinese)
Sugimori, M. and Sano,H., 2002. Theory and application of network analysis ofurban snow disposal system[C].Proceedings of Urban Forum in the northern
Aomori Cities:17-20. (in Japanese)
Suzuki, T. Kitara, M. and Takahashi A., 1991. Study on Evaluation of Urban
Snowy Risk for Each District[R]. Journal of Archit.Plann.Environ.Engng.AIJ.B,(9):59-62. (In Japanese)112

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ICUS Report 65Tsukasa,T., Yamagata,T. and Yamamoto, H., 1993. Analysis of snow damages
from the planning of a region development and construction [J]. Journal ofArchit.Plann.Environ.Engng.AIJ, 447(5):61-68. (In Japanese)
Umemura,T., 1993. Study of Amout of Snow Damage in an Urban Area with
Heavy Snowfall [J]. Japan Society for Natural Disaster Science, 14(1):77-86. (InJapanese)
Urano,S. Takeshi,T. and Yamamoto,H.,1987. Runoff Characteristics of the
Toyohora River and Effects of Snow Dumping on Them, in the Sapporo Urban
Area[J]. Journal of Environmental Science in Hokkaido University, 3:49-60. (InJapanese)
Wang, Z. and Wang, J., 2004. Discussion on several relative problems of fog
disaster[J]. Journal of Natural Disasters, 13(2):134-139. (In Chinese)
Weisman.R.A., 1996. The Fargo Snowstorm of 6-8 January 1989[J].Weather
Forecasting, 11:198-216.
Xu,W., Wang, J. and Shi,P., 2004. Hazard degree assessment of urban earthquake
disaster in China[J]. Journal of Natural Disasters,13(1):9-15. (In Chinese)

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The seismicity in Mongolia
Baigalimaa GANBAT
Researcher, Research Center Astronomy and Geophysics Of Mongolian
Academy of Sciences, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
baigalaa@rcag.ac.mn
1
Baigalimaa GANBAT , Ulziibat MUNKHUU2
1
Researcher, Research Center Astronomy and Geophysics Of Mongolian
Academy of Sciences, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
baigalaa@rcag.ac.mn
2
Head of Seismological Department, Research Center Astronomy and Geophysics
Of Mongolian Academy of Sciences, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
ABSTRACTThe Mongolian Seismological Observatory was established in 1957 – theInternational Year of Geophysics – with an analog seismic station (SKM-3) on thefoundation of our center (Research Center of Astronomy and Geophysics ofMongolian Academy of Sciences - RCAG, MAS). The same year, the 4 December
1957, the strong Gobi-Altay earthquake occurred (Mw=8.1). It confirmed thehigh seismic activity (three other events with magnitudes more than 8 occurred
the 1905/07/9, the 1905/07/23 and the 1931/08/10) and the hazard associated with
it in Mongolia despite this high activity, associated with India-Asia collision,
seems to be abnormally high during the XX century.
Seismic activity of Mongolia is associated with the deformation induced by theworld largest collision, the collision between India and Eurasia. Mongolia islocated at the transition between compressive structures associated to IndiaEurasian collision and extensive structures localized in north of the country as
Hövsgöl area and Baykal rift Unlike earthquakes that occur along plateboundaries, continental earthquakes are widely distributed over large regions andtypically have shallow depths, in the range of 10 to 25 km beneath the surface.
Major continental earthquakes usually occur along seismically active faults,
which individually have very long recurrence intervals (in the range of several
thousand years). Late Quaternary deformation in Mongolia is distributed over avast region, and includes a full spectrum of deformation styles and structuralorientations. At the north, the activity is dominated by the Baikal rift and the
Hövsgöl, Busiingol and Darhad grabens with a transfer zone following the Tunka
Basin. At the west, the activity is related to the deformation of the Altai range,
characterized mainly by right lateral strike-slip motion. The occurrence anddistribution of strong earthquakes are related to these widespread and varied
styles of deformation.
Keywords: seismicity, seismic activity

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1. INTRODUCTION
Since 1957 is started instrumental seismological study in Mongolia. Mongolia has
experienced four major earthquakes (Ms>8) and many more moderate earthquakes(Ms 5.3-7.5) in this century. The seismic activity in Mongolia is related to its
location between the compressive structures associated with the collision of the
Indian and Eurasia plate with the Eurasian plate on the one hand and theextensional structure associated with the Baykal rift system on the other. The
historical records (1903 onward) of the seismicity in Mongolia show a highconcentration of seismic activity along the Mongolian-Altay, Gobi-Altay,
Khuvsgul Darkhad, Bolnay ranges and around Mogod east of Hangay mountain.
2. SEISMIC STATION NETWORKIn the Mongolian seismic station network has running renewed digital regional 9
seismic stations with one component short period seismometer, surrounding
Ulaanbaatar has working 5 telemetric digital stations. Since 2000, we haveinstalled 5 mini array with seismic, infrasound, radionuclide stations and in realtime to MNDC. And now has working 6 accelerographs, surrounding Ulaanbaatar
has working 3 accelerographs and in the west part of Mongolia has working 3
accelerographs. Data acquisition and interpretation of all stations are going on
Mongolian National Data Center of Research Center of Astronomy & Geophysics
of Mongolian Academy of Sciences (MNDC, RCAG, MAS). The quality of
research study is improving by influence of enlargement of seismic station
network with modern high sensibility seismic station and great seismic database.
(Figure.1)

Figure.1 Seismic station network of the Mongolia

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3. SEISMIC ACTIVE ZONE OF MONGOLIA
Most events are located in the west and the north Mongolia as the Khuvsgul active
rifting zone and the Altay transpression zones. In the south Mongolia, the active isconcentrated near the Gobi-Altay zone. The center of Mongolia, the Hangai dome,
looks relatively a seismic and we can clearly track the boundary of the dome by its
seismic activity as at the north and east border of Hangai dome where are active
Bolnay and Mogod zones. South of Ulaanbaatar, at around 180-250 km, is a clear
EW seismic elongated zone near the Deren city. In the eastern part of Mongolia,
the seismic activity is low. (Figure.2)

Figure.2 Seismic activity zone
Gobi-Altay
The Gobi-Altay zone is oriented EW active faults connected or parallel to the
Bogd fault which ruptured during the Govi-Altay earthquake (4 December 1957)
with Mw=8.1 and 270 km of surface rupture. They are all oriented EW, associatedto left lateral strike-slip with a small reverse component. The geodynamic
behavior of all this area is considered homogeneous. The eastern end has been
defining where there is no any large known structure (more then 100 km long) andwhere the EW morphology of the Gobi-Altay range disappears. We extended thezone to the east of Dalanzadgad by 150 km. Bayasgalan et al., (1999) showed thatthe end of large strike-slip faults often turn and are associated with thrust faulting.
The Unegtei and the Buuryn Hyar active faults are most likely the eastern limit ofGurvan Saihan faults zone. Nevertheless, we extended the eastern limit of theGobi Altay zone more to the east in order to assure that large Gurvan Saihan
strike-slip faults zone is taken into consideration.

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The seismicity in Mongolia

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Mongolia

BolnayThe Bolnay zone lies between Hangai Dome and Khuvsgul extensional zone.
From geological and seismotectonic data, the left lateral strike-slip fault ispredominant. In this zone occurred two large earthquakes, Tsetserleg earthquake(July 9 1905) with Mw=8.0 and 190 km of surface ruptures and the Bolnay
earthquake with Mw=8.3 and 455 km of surface ruptures (Schlupp 1996). The
seismicity seems connect the Tsetserleg fault with the Busiin-Gol rifting. The
seismicity recorded along Bolnay fault is more concentrated in the middle of thestructure.
HangayKhuvsgul and Busiin-Gol zone is one of extension zone. The area produces highseismic activity and the largest earthquake occurred on 27th December, 1991,
called Busiin-Gol, with magnitude of Mw=6.5. The seismicity of Khuvsgul zone
is complex. There are three seismic NS basins: Busiin-Gol, Darhad and Khuvsgul
lake area. Most of epicenters are concentrated in the Busiin-Gol zone connectedwith the Sayan active zone to the west and the Baikal active rifting zone to the NE.
Mogod
The Mogod zone is oriented NS with right lateral active faulting. On the 5th
January, 1967 a large earthquake occurred with Mw=7.2 and produced more than
45 km of surface rupture (Bayasgalan, 1999). Mogod zone shows a local highconcentration of earthquakes.
Ulaanbaatar
Ulaanbaatar seismotectonic zone contains a large and wide topography, clearly
different from adjacent zone. The main orientation of this smoothed relief is N30.
The geodynamic behavior seems to be related with some recent general uplift as
indicated by several rivers incising the relief. We include into this zone theseismic active area of Deren where took place a recent event felt at Ulaanbaatar(Mw=5.6, 1998/09/24; Ms=5.2, 2010/01/09;). This zone is located around 180 km
south from Ulaanbaatar city. The seismic acvity Deren zone is oriented EW.
4. SEISMICITY
The map of “One century of seismicity in Mongolia 1900 - 2000”, published by
RCAG in collaboration with DASE, displays the known seismic activity of thewhole Mongolia during the XX century and shows several characteristics of thearea. (Figure.3) We collected three kinds of seismic data: international publisheddata (before 1964), seismic data recorded by the Mongolian seismic network
consisting in 10 analogical seismic stations (1964-2000) and completed since
1994 by several digital telemetric stations widespread around Ulaanbaatar city andin western Mongolia.

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The largesst known historicalheaarthquakes in Mongoliia area wass the 10 AugustA
1931, 09 aand 23 July, and 04 Deecember 195
57 which arre called Mongol-Altai
Mi (FuYun), Buulnai, Tsetserleg and Gobi-Altayy earthquakkes whose size (estim
matedmoment mmagnitudes moremthan 88) and locatiion (somew
where in wesstern Mongoolia)
The largeest instrum
mentally reccorded natu
ural earthqquake in Mongolia
M
w a
was
magnitudee 7.0 in 05
5th Januaryy, 1967; Tsagaan shivveet 1970, magnitudee 7.0;
1991,
Tahiin-Shaar 1974, maagnitude 6.77; Buteel 19989, magnitude 5.6; Busiin-Gol
Bmagnitudee 6.5; Derenn 1998, maggnitude 5.6.

Figure.3 Seismicitty of Mongoolia (1964-22000 Ml ≥2..5)
Since 20000, moderatte earthquakkes occurreed Chuya 22003, magn
nitude 7.3; Bogd
2006, maggnitude 5.8; Tushig 20006, magnittude 5.2; G
Gobi-Altay 2007,
2
magnnitude
5.4; Bayaanteeg 2009
9, magnitudde 5.15; Deeren 2010, magnitude 5.0; Govi-A
Altay
2011, maggnitude 5.19; Bayantsaagaan 2011
1, magnitudde 5.2; Khaankhnogor 2011,
2
magnitudee 5.8; Nom
mgon 2012,, magnitudee 5.1; Fu-Y
Yun 2012, magnitudee 5.4.
(Figure.4)

The seismicity in Mongolia
The seismiccity in Mongolia

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October

Figure.4 Seismicity of Mongolia (2001-2012.07 Ml ≥2.5)
The Figure.5 shows Gutenberg-Richter relation calculated magnitude between
1900 to 2012.07. We can obtained a=6.07 and b=0.678 for magnitude. This low
value of b is consistent with relatively high number of large earthquakes andparameter “a” characterisized the number of events.

Figure.5 Gutenberg-Richter relation using magnitude between 1900 to 2012.07.
From 1900 to 1963 are reported more than 300 earthquake, with magnitude 3.5
and 8.2 including four large events. The Figure.6 shows the maximum magnitude
distribution with time. (1902-2012.07)

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Figure.6 Distribution of the magnitude and time in Mongolia (1902-2012.07)
The Figure.7 shows the cumulative number of events function of time. We can see
the increasing of detected event starting from 1994, when our network upgraded.
The increasing in 1991, 2003 are related to the numerous aftershock related to themagnitude 6.5 event.

Figure.7 Cumulative number of events time (1902-2012.07)
REFERENCES
Baljinnyam, I., A. Bayasgalan, B.A. Borisov, A. Cisternas, M.G. Dem'yanovich, L.
Ganbaatar, V.M.Kochetkov, R.A. Kurushin, P. Molnar, H. Philip, and Y.Y.
Vashchilov (1993), Ruptures of Major 50th anniversary earthquake conference
commemorating the 1957 Gobi- Altay earthquake July 25 – August 08, 2007,
Ulaanbaatar - MONGOLIA 11Earthquakes and Active Deformation in Mongolia
and its Surroundings. Vol. Memoir 181 of Boulder, Colorado: The GeologicalSociety of America, Inc.
The seismicity in Mongolia
The seismicity in Mongolia

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Ulaanbaatar,Mongolia
Mongolia

Bayasgalan, A., Jackson, J., Ritz, J.F., and Carretier, S (1999), Field examples ofstrike-slip fault terminations in Mongolian and their tectonic significance,
Tectonics, 18, 394-411.
Bayasgalan A and J. A. Jackson (1999). A re-assessment of the faulting in the1967 Mogod earthquakes in Mongolia, Geophys. J. Int. 138, 784-800.
Khilko S.D., R.A. Kurushin, V.M. Kochetkov, L.A. Misharina, V.I. Melnikova,
N.A. Gilyova, S.V.Lastochkin and D. Monhoo, (1985). Earthquakes and the baseof the seismic zoning of Mongolia.Vol. 41 of The joint Soviet-Mongolianscientific - Reasearch Geological Expedition. 225 p.
ONE CENTURY OF SEISMICITY IN MONGOLIA (1900–2000): Coordinators :Dr. Dugarmaa T., and Dr. Schlupp A. ; Authors : Adiya M., Ankhtsetseg D.,
Baasanbat Ts., Bayar G., Bayarsaikhan Ch., Erdenezul D., Mungunsuren D.,
Munkhsaikhan A., Munkhuu D., Narantsetseg R., Odonbaatar Ch., Selenge L., Dr.
Tsembel B., Ulziibat M., Urtnasan Kh. and in collaboration with DASE since
1994 and its scientific (DASE/LDG) and technical (DASE/TMG) teams.,
Research Centre of Astronomy & Geophysics of the Mongolian Academy of
Sciences (RCAG), Mongolia and Laboratoire de Teledetection et Risque Sismique,BP12, Bruyeres le Chatel, France 2003
Schlupp A. (1996): Neotectonic of western Mongolia using field, seismologicaland remote sensing data. Laboratoire de Sismologie et de Physique de la Terre,
Ecole et Observatoire de Physique du Globe de Strasbourg - Université Louis
Pasteur de Strasbourg, PhD, 1 map, 270 pages, in french.
Schlupp A and Cisternas A. (2007), Source history of the 1905 great Mongolian
earthquakes(Tsetserleg, Bolnay), Geophys. J. Int. (2007) 169, 1115–1131, doi:
10.1111/j.1365-246X.2007.03323.x
Ulziibat M, (2006) The 2003 Chuya sequence “North Altay range”, PhD, Doctorof Sciences, University of Nice, Geosciences Azur, France, 172 p.

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Seismic hazard of Ulaanbaatar City
Chimed ODONBAATAR
Project Researcher, Research Center Astronomy and Geophysics Of Mongolian Academy of Sciences,
Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
odon@rcag.ac.mn
ABSTRACTThe main active faults near the capital of Mongolia, Ulaanbaatar with about 1.2 M inhabitants, arelocated at less than 20 km and could produce large earthquakes with magnitude up to 7.5. This active
fault can produce ground motion intensity VII-IX at the Ulaanbaatar basin area. Another hand the city
is built on a sedimentary basin, of a thickness up to 100 meters, which may generate site effects. To
quantify their impact on the amplitude and the duration of the ground motion, according to thefrequency, I used weak motion, at 32 sites, and ambient noise records, at 104 sites. For that, I appliedhorizontal to vertical (HV) and sedimentary to rock site (SSR) spectral ratio. An analysis of thereliability of the results shows that the HV ratio amplitude varies in relation to the noise level and thatwhen there is a particular local noise source the amplified frequency polarizesitself perpendicularly tothe source direction.
A velocity structure of the basin, determined by 3 microtremor array measurements, and a 3D digitalmodel of the basin were used to produce 1D and 2D simulations. The amplified frequency (HV) is well
explained by the 1D simulation but the shape of the peak (SSR) fits better with the 2D simulation. At
the end amplified frequency zoning deduced from observation and theoretical calculation results.

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Capacity building of seismic disaster risk
management in Ulaanbaatar City
Masaru ARAKIDA, Sei’ichiro FUKUSHIMA, Yujiro OGAWA
JICA Expert Team, The Project for Strengthening the Capacity ofSeismic Disaster Risk Management in Ulaanbaatar City, Mongolia
ma-arakida@adrc.asia
ABSTRACT
Government of Mongolia and government of Ulaanbaatar city are promoting
Earthquake Disaster Management in Ulaanbaatar city since several active faults
near Ulaanbaatar city were found recently. In this paper, Project titled as“CAPACITY BUILDING OF SEISMIC DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT INULAANBAATAR CITY” which is now implementing as by JICA is introduced. The
Project consists of Earthquake Risk Assessment in UB city, Building Construction
Guideline, Urban planning for safer city and Earthquake disaster education.
Keywords: Mongolia, earthquake, risk management, risk map, education
1. INTRODUCTIONIn UB, the capital of Mongolia, the number of unfelt earthquakes has been
increasing since 2005; especially its trend has been more obvious after 2009. A
French research institute pointed out in 2010 that UB City and its suburbs are
surrounded by 4 faults including newly discovered ones which might cause theearthquakes of Magnitude 7 (M7) level. Also according to the 2000 simulation by
National Academy of Mongolia, it is predicted that approximately 300 buildings
and 60,000 citizens would be affected if the M7 level earthquake hits UB City.
2. PROJECT OUTLINE
2.1 Objectives
To strengthen the capacity for seismic disaster risk management in UB City and totransfer relevant skills and technologies to personnel concerned with the Project
2.2 Remarkable Outcomes
Followings are outcomes of this project;- Formulation of integrated seismic risk map for UB,- Revision of regional seismic disaster risk management plan,- Preparation of the draft construction guideline for middle-high storied building
considering seismic disaster risk resilient urban development, and,- Capacity development of the relevant authorities and citizens in seismic
disaster risk management.
2.3 Project Implementation Policy

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Eleven policies listed below are employed in conducting the project;- Maximum utilization of existing technology in Mongolia,- Formulation of achievable seismic disaster risk management plan,- Utilization of ground motion Intensity map by Mongolia Academy of Science,- Proposal of early warning system utilizing existing infrastructures,- Establishment of scenario earthquakes,- Enhancement of ownership by participation of CPs and promotion of close
cooperation among relevant organizations,- Importance of capacity development and implementation of capacity
assessment,- Fulfilling publicity activities utilizing media such as TV, Radio and Internet,- Importance of emergency drill and education at schools,- Seismic Risk Mitigation Awareness Campaign in UB City, and,- Establishment of SC and WG
2.4 Project Schedule
Figure 1 shows the brief schedule of the project.
1st Field Survey
2012.03-2012.07

2nd Field Survey
2012.08-2012.12

3rd and 4th Field Survey
2013.01-2013.06

Hazard Analysis

Risk Assessment

Awareness Campaign

Building Vulnerability

Risk Mapping

Building Guideline

•
•

•
•

Fault Identification
Ground Survey

Field Survey
Material Testing

Infra Vulnerability•

Field Survey

Disaster Mngt. Planning
Existing Planning

Capacity Building

Figure 1 Project Schedule

3. OBJECTIVE AND METHODOLOGY
3.1 Risk Evaluation
3.1.1 Earthquake Scenario
Two scenarios are employed in this project; (1) ground motion by Hustai Faults,and (2) larger ground motion by Emeelt Fault or Gunjiin Fault. The former
corresponding to the current ground motion intensity in UB, and the latter is
employed as the worst case.
The characteristics of the faults are summarized in Table 1 with moment
magnitude Mw estimated from the size of the fault. Also, Locations of the faults
are shown in Fig.1.
Table 1 Characteristics of faults

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The characteristics of the faults are summarized in Table 1 with moment
magnitude Mw estimated from the size of the fault. Also, Locationsof thefaults
ICUS
Report65
are shown in Fig.1.
Table 1 Characteristics of faults

Location
StrikeDip
LengthHustai Fault
Emeelt Fault
Gunjiin Fault
Extending to southwest
southwest 15 km from
Extending to northeast
from about 30 km New Technologies
Ulaanbaatar for
cityUrban Safety
from
5km northeastof Mega
Cities in Asia
southwest from central
distance from Ulaanbaatar
Ulaanbaatar city
city
NE-SW
NW-SE
NE-SW
SE
NE
unknown
80 km
About 30 km
15-20 kmFigure 2 Locations of faults

3.1.2 Ground Motion Estimation
The empirical method that gives the stable results are employed to estimate
ground motion parameters at given location. The formula by Kanno et al. (2006)
is selected for the following reasons;- It gives peak ground acceleration almost identical to the one used in theexisting seismic hazard map,
- It evaluate not only peak ground acceleration but also peak ground velocity andspectral acceleration, which are compatible to the risk assessment of buildings
and infra-structures, and,- Amplification effects of surface soil can be considered by the parameter of
AVS30 that is the mean shear wave velocity of the surface soil up to the 30m
depth.
3.1.3 Surface Soil Survey
For grapes the ground condition of the study area, we plan to conduct boring
survey with standard penetration test and PS logging, surface wave survey,
microtremor measurement. Considering existing boring points and groundconditions, we planned surveying points shown as in Figure 3. However, about
the satellite districts, for check ground conditions in residential area, we set thesurvey points shown as figure 4.

Capacity building of seismic disaster risk management in Ulaanbaatar City

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Figure 3 Survey point in Central UB

Figure 4 Survey point in satellite districts

The boring points and geophysical surveying points maybe changed depending on
the results of permission from authorities and owner.
3.1.4 Expected Outcome
Comprehensive risk seismic hazard maps are provided, by which the existingdisaster prevention/reduction planning will be reviewed appropriately. Also
relevant techniques and knowledge are transferred to CPs. Figures 5 and 6 show
the tentative results, which will be modified after completion of ground survey.

Figure 5 Distribution of AVS30

Figure 6 Distribution of PGV by Emeelt Fault

3.2 Seismic Capacity of Buildings
Damage of building is estimated by comparing the deformation under seismic
loading and allowable deformation. Among various methods to estimate
deformation are proposed, such as static push-over analysis or dynamic response
analysis, employed is the method recently proposed in Japan to check the ultimate
capacity of building.
3.2.1 Methodology
Given the scenario earthquake, spectral acceleration at a site is calculated and isconverted to the complex spectrum, which shows the relationship between
spectral displacement SD and spectral acceleration SA. The conversion is based on
the following formula,
SA=ω2SD,
where, ω is circular frequency and is derived from natural period.

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On the other hand, building is modeled as an equivalent single freedom systemwith nonlinear displacement-force relationship called as a skeleton curve.
Dividing force by mass, the skeleton curve is converted to the relationshipbetween displacement and acceleration, so that this relationship can be overlaid on
the complex spectrum.
An intersection point shows the displacement and acceleration of the building
under the earthquake loading. It is noted that the complex spectrum may be
modified reflecting the increment of damping due to non-elastic behavior. The
outline of the ultimate capacity design is illustrated in Fig. 7.

Figure 7 Outline of ultimate capacity design

3.2.2 Expected Outcome
UB city will be able to establish appropriate earthquake disaster management planand urban plan to reduce earthquake damage by utilizing earthquake risk
evaluation. Also relevant techniques and knowledge are transferred to CPs.
3.3 Fire Risk of Gel Area
3.3.1 Introduction
The population in UB city has rapidly increased from 0.65 million to 1.22 in 2012.
As it is not easy to supply houses for half of million new residents only in about
decade, residential area is expanded to the suburbs of UB city and most of them
lives in traditional Ger. Ger is made of wood and cloth with coal stove. According
rapid expand of Ger area, there is no city planning to construct road as well aswater supply system, sewage system except electric power supply in the area.
3.3.2 Methodology
Fire risk should be considered high in Ger area in this situation. To identify therisk in Ger area should be divided to risk of fire break and risk of fire spread. Not
only Ger but also wooden houses and brick or concrete made houses are
increasing in Ger area.

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Figure 8 Ger area near center

Figure 9 Ger area in suburb

3.3.2.1 Fire Break Risk
Fire break risk is based on method developed by Tokyo Fire Department.
- Total number of fire break is sum of fire from collapsed house and fire fromfacilities using fire.
- Number of fire break from collapsed houses is sum of fire from electric
equipment and fires from electric line.
- Fire break possibility of each case is used past statistic data developed by
Tokyo Fire Department because of no statistical data in Mongolia.
3.3.2.2 Fire Spread Risk
There are several fire spread risk methods. Among them, Fire Spread Cruster
Method which developed by Tokyo Fire Department is used. This method is to
identify area (cruster) which will be burned by one fire.
3.3.3 Expected Outcome
UB city will be able to establish appropriate earthquake disaster management planand urban plan to reduce earthquake fire damage by utilizing earthquake fire risk
evaluation.
3.4 Disaster Education
3.4.1 BackgroundIn 2010, NEMA and ADRC cooperated in conducting the disaster reduction
related seminar and the emergency drill for teachers and students in 2 schools in
UB City according to Japan cabinet office project "Transfer of Japanese Disaster
Reduction Related Technique". This activity consisting of lectures and game-like
drills obtained good reputations from both NEMA and schools' teachers andstudents, so the activity is recognized as an effective way to increase citizens'sense of danger.
In this project, JICA project team and UB city are planning to conduct "Seismic
Risk Mitigation Awareness Campaign" in UB.
At first, project team conducted evacuation drill and disaster prevention workshop
during the Japan-Mongolia Joint Seminar on Preparedness and Mitigation to the
Seismic Disaster on March 2012 in Mongolia.

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3.4.2 Methodology
The working group (WG) of disaster education, consist of JICA project team andUB city, are planning to have a workshop (WS) on 17-18 September 2012 formore discussion and sharing information. It is a part of preparation of "Seismic
Risk Mitigation Awareness Campaign" on June 2013. In this WS, we'll have some
lectures and technical discussions of disaster education structure for effective
outcome, and also have some demonstrations of disaster education program forbetter understanding.

Figure 10 Activities of “Iza-Kaeru Caravan” Performed on Feb. 2011 in UB CityOne of the disaster education program which the Campaign will be based on, isthe "Iza-Kaeru Caravan", the new style emergency drill conducted at 2 schools in
UB City by ADRC in 2011.
"Iza-Kaeru Caravan" is a game-like emergency drill, through which people canlearn a variety of knowledge and techniques related to disaster management withfun. This drill was developed by Plua-arts, the NPO, aiming more attendance ofthe generations not interested in emergency drills. This activity has already been
incorporated in JICA Hyogo Center and was successfully introduced to Indonesia,
Guatemala, El Salvador and Costa Rica. This activity also had a good reputationfrom teachers and students in the implementation in Mongolia in Feb. 2011 withrecognition as an effective tool to increase citizens' sense of crises, and is now
examined its development in Mongolia, so such a situation is duly considered in
the Project.

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The WG estimates 200 participants in the drill with examination of the method ofrecruitment. Cooperation with other events such as local festivals will also be
examined.
WS combined with the trainers training of local staffs are implemented toincorporate the local needs and to develop the facilitators for the Campaign to beheld in 2013. Preparation for the Campaign is also done by the developed
facilitators.

Figure 11 Learned from “Great Hanshin-Awaji earthquake in 1995” on Mar. 2012 in UB City

3.4.3 Expected Outcome
The mechanism of earthquake and necessary preparations will be recognized tothe participants of the Campaign.
UB city will be able to conduct disaster education in local level by utilizing
disaster education tool developed in this project.
Schools will be able to conduct disaster drill and training to school children byutilizing disaster education tool developed in this project.
REFERENCES
Activities for communities, 9 May 2011, Asian Disaster Reduction Center,The
report of “Project on Transfer of Disaster Management Measures ofJapan to Enhance DRR Capacity in Asia 2010”, Mar. 2011, Urban
Disaster Research Institute
Amornthip P., Research Paper, Study on Dissemination of Disaster Prevention
Kanno T. et al., A New Attenuation Relation for Strong Ground Motion in Japan
Based on Recorded Data, Bull. of the Seismological Society ofAmerica, Vol.96, No.3, pp.879-897, June 2006.

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Evaluation
Evaluationofofmanaged
managedaquifer
aquiferrecharge
recharge
methods
methodstotoincrease
increasethe
thegroundwater
groundwater
resources
resourcesfor
forwaterwatersupply
supplyUB
UBCityCityandandflow
flowcontrol
controlTuul
Tuulriverriver
Narantsogtyn
Narantsogtyn
NASANBAYAR
NASANBAYAR
Lecturer,
Lecturer,
Hydraulics
Hydraulics
andandHydro
Hydro
construction,
construction,
EED,
EED,
SCEA,
SCEA,
MUST,
MUST,
Mongolia
Mongolia
nnasan_4@yahoo.com
nnasan_4@yahoo.com
ABSTRACTABSTRACT
Ulaanbaatar
Ulaanbaataras asthethecapital
capitalcitycityof ofMongolia
Mongoliais isthetheprimaryprimaryhub
hubforfor
commerce
commerceand
andindustry
industryand
andgenerates
generatesnearly
nearly7070percent
percentof ofGross
GrossNational
National
Product(GNP).
Morethana million
inhabitants,
20,000factoriesandbusinesses,
Product(GNP).
Morethana million
inhabitants,
20,000factoriesandbusinesses,
400
400hectares
hectaresof ofirrigatedirrigatedfarms,
farms,330,000
330,000livestock
livestockand
and3 3power
powerplants
plantsin in
Ulaanbaatar
rely
onon
water
suppliedfromTuulriver.
Ulaanbaatar
rely
water
suppliedfromTuulriver.
Research
objectives
areareto tofindthethesuitablemethods
of ofartificial
groundResearch
objectives
findsuitablemethods
artificial
groundwater
recharge
forforthetheMongolianharsh
continental
weather
conditions,aquiferwater
recharge
Mongolianharsh
continental
weather
conditions,aquiferrecharge
management
possibilities
likelikeaquifer
infiltrationfromprecipitation
andrecharge
management
possibilities
aquifer
infiltrationfromprecipitation
andsurfacesurfaceflow
flowduring
duringwetwetseasonsseasonssummer
summerand
andautumn
autumncollectcollectgroundwater
groundwaterin in
artificial
artificialrecharged
rechargedaquifer,aquifer,aquifer
aquiferstorage
storagepossibilities
possibilitiesof ofsurface
surfacewater
waterbyby
infiltrationin infloodingseason
in in
order
to to
useuse
in in
low
flow
periodlikelike
winterandinfiltration
floodingseason
order
low
flow
periodwinterandspring,also
increaseor ordecreaseof ofgroundwater
resources
byby
pumpingfromspring,also
increasedecreasegroundwater
resources
pumpingfromaquiferduringthethewintercold
seasonto to
makeiceicestorage
in in
order
to to
reflowing
aquiferduringwintercold
seasonmakestorageorder
reflowing
river
byby
melting
in indrydryseason
March
and
April
where
Tuul
river
doesn’t
flow,
river
meltingseason
March
and
April
where
Tuul
river
doesn’tflow,
researchsurfacewater
evaporation
in in
winterseason
and
smoke
in in
airairresearchsurfacewater
evaporation
winterseasonandabsorbing
absorbingsmoke
decreaseit bysnowing.
decreaseit bysnowing.
Keywords:
Aquiferrecharge,
basin,
injectionwell,flood,
humidity
Keywords:Managed
ManagedAquiferrecharge,
basin,
injectionwell,flood,
humidity
Introduction
Introduction
Ulaanbaatar’s
current
andandfuturewater
supplyoptions
dependwhollyonon
Ulaanbaatar’s
current
futurewater
supplyoptions
dependwhollythetheTuul
Tuulriver.
river.ToTodate
datethethecity
cityhashasbeen
beensupplied
supplieddeep
deepwells
wellsthat
thatdraw
drawonongroundwater
sourcesfromanan
unconfined
aquifer
that
runs
along
thethebedbedof ofthethegroundwater
sourcesfromunconfined
aquifer
that
runs
along
river
riveror orononexploiting
exploitingadditional
additionalalluvialalluvial-proluvial
proluvialdeposits
depositsfrom
fromthetheTuul’s
Tuul’stributaries.
tributaries.
Ulaanbaatar’s
water
supplies
areareextracted
fromdeep
wells,
locatedin in
4 4
Ulaanbaatar’s
water
supplies
extracted
fromdeep
wells,
locatedsites:
thethe“uppersource”
just
below
thetheconfluence
of ofthetheTereljandandTuulRiverssites:“uppersource”
just
below
confluence
TereljTuulRiversin inthetheupperbasin,
andand3 sources
in in
thethecity
itself“central”,“industrial”,
andandupperbasin,
3 sources
city
itself“central”,“industrial”,“meat
factory”. Ground
water
is is
thetheonly
sourceof ofdrinking
water
supplycapital“meat
factory”. Groundwater
only
sourcedrinking
water
supplycapitalcityof ofMongolia.
city
Mongolia.
The
undergroundwater
sources
forforwater
supplyof of
Ulaanbaatar
city
monitored
in in
The
under
groundwater
sources
water
supplyUlaanbaatar
city
monitored
4 points.
Every
year
in in
February,
MarchandandAprilground
water
table
drink
water
4 points.
Every
year
February,
March
April
ground
water
table
drink
water
sourcesdecreaseto tominimum
14-15mfromsurface,June,
JulyandandAugustsourcesdecreaseminimum
14-15mfromsurface, in in
June,
July
Augustreachto tohighest
level
2-3m
deep
from
earth
surface.
The
data’sfrom
Ulaanbaatar
reachhighest
level
2-3m
deep
from
earth
surface.
The
data’sfrom
Ulaanbaatar

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Octobber 2012,2012, Ulaanbaatar,
Ullaanbaatar,Mongolia
Mongolia
M
Octoberwater supply grooundwater monitoring stations at upper sourcce, shows th
hat groundwater table decrrease every year.
The data showss ground waterw
table llevel decreaase 2.7m frrom the yeaar 2001 to
20088 .
Ground water abstrraction is exxpected to increaseiin the future becausebof
expected population growwth, and inddustrial dev
velopment in the citty. Due topossiible increasse in tempeerature caussed by clim
matic changee, evaporatiion is also
expected to incrrease. All thhese effects may lead tot a lower gground wateer recharge
and a reduction of sustainab
ble ground w
water resou
urces availabbility.
water tabless in Ulaanbbaatar have been show
wing a markked decline
Groundw
over the last 500 years. Water is beingg abstracted
d faster thann the rate off recharge.
As tthe city groows and waterw
demannd increasees, this prooblem is inntensifying.
Accoording to goovernment figures,
fwatter use is esstimated at 212,000 cu
ubic meters
per dday and is predicted too reach 2866,000 cubicc meters in 2010, 438,000 cubic
meteers in 2020, and 708,00
00 cubic metters by 2050
0.

Graph 1 Water D
Demand ProjectionsP
s/ The study on waater supply system in U
Ulaanbaatar and surrou
undings /1993-1995, JICCA/

Seasonall water sho
ortages are growing ev
ven more ccommon, an
nd various
studiies warn thhat sometim
me within thhe next 10 years the city will beb facing a
criticcal shortfall in water av
vailability.
Water supply everry days is increasing with the developmen
nt of city,
indusstries and ggrowth pop
pulation butt ground waater source is decreasing by theclimaate change and last decade year fflow of TUU
UL river duuring the ev
very springin M
March and A
April come off or doeesn’t flow. Therefore, we need decidedthisprobllem by buillding compllex of hydraaulic structu
ures, flow control and buildbsome
artifiicial grounddwater recharge system
ms like drain
nage or flooding area near drink
water extractionn wells.

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Main Part.
1.1 The Managed Aquifer Recharging methods.
The Artificial underground water resource recharging for water supply has
significant role for decision problems for human life condition development.
Recharge occurs both naturally (through the water cycle) andanthropologically (i.e., "artificial groundwater recharge"), where rainwater and orreclaimed water is routed to the subsurface.
Groundwater is recharged naturally by rain and snow melt and to a smaller extent
by surface water (rivers and lakes).
The Artificial Recharging Ground water Recourses or Managed Aquifer
Recharge is a engineering and technical complex provision for building newreserve of fresh water resources cohering and combining its natural groundwater alimentation of surface water. Recharge refers to the replenishmentof an aquifer's groundwater. An aquifer is a layer of underground sand,gravel or spongy rock where water collects. Groundwater recharge or deep
drainage or deep percolation is a hydrologic process where water moves
downward from surface water to groundwater. This process usually occurs
in the vadose zone below plant roots and is often expressed as a flux to thewater table surface.
This method has economical benefits for drinking water supply systemconstructing and utilization expenditure, because reduce water supply system andtransport capital and shortening constructing term. This method useful for
constructing new water intake abstraction structure and improving water
extraction structure.
Main structure of Artificial Recharging ground water resources is a spreading
structure.
There are 2 types of percolation structure:
1. Surface spreading structure. Recharge basin, spreading channel andflood area
2. Subsurface spreading structure. Injection well, Filtration bore andshaft
Surface spreading methods require extensive land areas, permeable surface
materials with high vertical permeability, periodic maintenance to prevent
clogging, and little or no water retreatment (Kimrey, 1989). On the other hand,high evaporation losses and groundwater vulnerability to surface contamination
make these methods inapplicable for nearby land use. In the case of subsurface
spreading, evaporation losses and required land area are minimized but initialcosts are increased. Besides, it is difficult to clean these structures (Reddy, 2008).
Disadvantage of surface recharge structure are that is occupying large areaof intake structure, and dependence of natural climate condition is more therefore
in cold season covering with ice has bad air change. Therefore temporary workout in short cold season area or warm land is applicable.
1.2 Direct Injection
Another method of artificial recharge is direct injection. Recharge wells
and aquifer storage and recovery (ASR) wells are examples of direct injection
methods, where water is injected into the aquifer (Philiphs, 2003). Figure 2.2
shows examples of both recharge and ASR wells. The recharge well and its
Evaluation
management
aquiferrechargethemethods
to increase
the groundwater
Evaluation of managed
aquiferofrecharge
methods
to increase
groundwater
resources
resourcesforwater
supplyUB
andflow
controlTuul
river
for water supply Ulaanbaatar City and flow control Tuul river135

October 2012,2012, Ulaanbaatar,
Ulaanbaatar,Mongolia
Mongolia
October

purpose were briefly described with equations derived from idealized boundaryand permeability conditions by Thiem (1923). Simpson (1948) described thefactors affecting recharge rates in wells. Dewey (1933) summarized the conditions
where recharge wells can be used successfully.
Subsurface spreading structures can be used to protect from becoming
salty and polluting aquifer in operation, cool industrial apparatus, re-use
underground water using air conditioning equipment many times and flowtransferring water to the aquifer in operation from stratum with adequate wateringin water intake with low productivity of industrial and household water supply.
But it must be transferred from aquifer with water of high quality. It is impossible
to use this method in permafrost grounds or long term frozen grounds in winterand autumn.
Table 1. Advantages and disadvantages of artificial recharge methods.

DISADVANTAGESADVANTAGES

•

136

•
•

WATER SPREADING METHODSSURFACESUBSURFACESPREADINGSPREADINGMETHODSMETHODS
Initial low capital• Used where surface
cost
layers of low
permeability
Simplepreclude surface
maintenanceinfiltration
Low operation andmaintenance costs • Co-exists withother surface urban
uses• Minimize
evaporation losses� Require:•� Near surface•
aquifer� Permeable soil•
profile with highvertical permeability� Frequent
maintenance toprevent clogging
� High evaporation
losses andgroundwater
vulnerability tosurface contamination

Higher initial
capital cost
Limited aerial
extendDifficult to clean/maintain

DIRECTINJECTION
METHODS
Used where verticalpermeability islimited• Occupy small
surface areas• Fit in most landpatterns• Utilize existingwater supply
infrastructures
� High:� Capital cost
� Energy
requirements
� Operation andmaintenance costs
� Require:� Frequent pumping
to remove clogging
� Pretreatment prior
to recharge•

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1.3 Underground Dam
Underground dams are also considered as an artificial recharge method,which prevent groundwater flow and store water beneath the ground (Nilsson,1988). They are used where surface storage becomes impractical owing to highevaporation rates, reservoir siltation, pollution risks, etc (Boochs and Billib, 1994).
efficiency and simplicity has revived interest (Foster and Tuinhof, 2004).
Detailed information about physical conditions, design and construction ofunderground dams are given by Nilsson (1988). Underground dams are usuallyconstructed in arid regions, where irregular rainfall is observed. Well defined andnarrow valleys, natural dikes are preferred for locating underground dams. Inhydrogeological point of view, the river beds consisting of sand and gravel areconsidered as best localities, where suitable storage and flow characteristics areobserved.
Research purpose:“Management of Aquifer recharge” is known in Mongolia as well as but
we are lacking of experience and practice in this field of work.
Purpose and Scope:• Provide information for future improvement in solving the water supply
related issues in Ulaanbaatar to find simple, low needed capital costs,
cheapest and reliable method.
• Research the balance between consumption and recharge in order todevelop strategies to solve water shortages using managed aquifer
recharge.
• Study the feasibility of flow control methods to eliminate discontinuance
Tuul river in dry season.
• Research humidity and evaporation from water storage in winter coldseason to absorbing smoke Ulaanbaatar city decrease air pollution bysnowing.
Research Objectives:
Due to over purposes in the Ulaanbaatar water supply Central source muststudy following researches:
1. Research aquifer storage possibilities of surface water by infiltration inflooding season in order to use in low flow period like winter.
2. Research aquifer recharge management possibilities, also increase or
decrease of ground water resources by artificial recharging during thewinter cold season
3. Research aquifer infiltration from precipitation and during wet seasons.
building artificial recharge basin to study percolation of monitoring ofunderground water flux control in Mongolian weather condition.
4. In winter cold season making ice storage by pumping ground water from
artificial sources in order to using reflow river flow by melting in dry
season in March and April.
5. Research the balance between consumption and recharge in order todevelop strategies to solve water shortages using managed aquifer
recharge.
6. Determine the most suitable and efficient method of Injection wells or
Recharge basins in Mongolian extreme weather conditions.
7. Making fog from artificial water storages and search air pollution
decreasing by humidity in winter season.
Evaluation
management
aquiferrechargethemethods
to increase
the groundwater
Evaluation of managed
aquiferofrecharge
methods
to increase
groundwater
resources
resourcesforwater
supplyUB
andflow
controlTuul
river
for water supply Ulaanbaatar City and flow control Tuul river

137

Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
Mongolia
October 2012, Ulaanbaatar,

2. Managed Aquifer Recharge water sources.
2.1 Central source upper side A zone.
The drinking water supply system Central source of the city Ulaanbaatar
was put into operation in year 1959. Drinking water extraction comes from 93
ground water wells with deep well pumps, 7 booster pumping station. The
capacity of source reserve is 114000 m3/day, nowadays water extraction 87-90
tousand.m3/day from 70-80 wells supply to capital city.
/The report of feasibility study of Multi“МОNHYDRОCОNSТRUCTION” LLC 17p/

purpose

dam

on

the

Tuul

river

The research work will be conducted through central source branching Tuulriver near Gachuurt, derivate flowing into the old river channel, making
percolation channel, recharge basin and injection funnel well and using methods
to increase water resource. It includes of digging channel to take water in the riverbench, flowing into the river channel, building earth dam and flowing into the oldchannel.

Figure-1. Derivation area Gachuurt of Tuul river side.

Figure-2 Central source Gachuurt-Uliastai /Google Earth/
Channel will be digged in the bench of river bank from the upper side of theCentral source or lower part of Mongol shiltgeen near Gachuurt and water will bederivate flown into the old channel. In order to flow by the old channel additional
embankments will be built in three places to flow into the currently existing
channel of old river channel. Also water abstraction structures will be made in twoplaces of currently existing embankment. In this way water will be brought by theold channel into the initial operating wells of the Central source and discharged
water by the water abstraction structure under the embankment
1. will be given to the recharge basins through stream channel
2. plain between wells located in the part of Tuul river will be flooded
3. water will be given by the subsurface spreading well funnel shaft into
wells located upper percolation channel.

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Figure-3. Variant of Managed Aquifer Recharge /MAR/ in Central source
upper side of Ulaanbaatar water supply system. /Google Earth/Figure-4. Perimeter and square measuring of flooding area. /Google Earth/
In this area flooding field perimeter 5678m, flooding square 949285m2 or 95
hectare. Flooding area water storage capacity 189651m3 or 1.9 million.m3.
In the Khujirbulan side from Gachuurt to Bayanzurkh Bridge of Central
source has 20-30 thousand.m3/day, 600-900 thousand.m3/month available
dynamic reserve. Available storage capacity of flooding area 189651m3 it’s enable
to alimentation by melting ice storage in low flow months March and April whenmake ice storage in cold winter times through pumping artificial resources ofunderground water.
2.2 Central source B zone.
In Central source area down side for water supply UB city will be built
surface spreading recharge basin, injection well, funnel shaft, flooding area,
underground dam combined with National Garden Park construction .

Evaluation
management
aquiferrechargethemethods
to increase
the groundwater
Evaluation of managed
aquiferofrecharge
methods
to increase
groundwater
resources
resourcesforwater
supplyUB
andflow
controlTuul
river
for water supply Ulaanbaatar City and flow control Tuul river

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Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
Mongolia
October 2012, Ulaanbaatar,

2.3 Industrial source recharge methods.
Flow of Selbe and Tuul rivers and water resource will be used to takemeasures to artificially increase underground water resource in the Water supply
industrial part. In order to do it underground water resource will be increased
through flowing water by derivation channels to the operating injection wells bywater volume of industries or 3rd and 4th power planets and infiltrating it. Water
will be intake from the bench of Selbe river on the northern west part of the 3rd
power planet by the derivation channel and brought into water supply wells of thepower plant and water will be brought by the percolation channels into therecharge basins and each well.

Figure-5. The version of artificial recharging ground water Industrial zone
water supply wells through derivation channel, recharge basins. /Google Earth/
Let’s choose cheap and economically efficient version to derivate flow ofSelbe river in order to be flooded in the square enclosed by embankments of watersupply of 3rd and 4th power plants to protect from flood.

Picture-6. The flooded area version of Industrial water supply wells. /Google
Earth/The Industrial source for water supply was established 1961 operating 16
deep water pumping wells, 4 booster pumping station. 25-30 tousand.m3/day
water extracts and supply to capital city.
/The report of feasibility study of Multi purpose dam on the Tuul river“МОNHYDRОCОNSТRUCTION” LLC 17p/
The Industrial source side of water supply where tributary Selbe river toTuul river flooding area perimeter 3887m, water storage area length 1819m,
flooding square
S2=180553ì2 + 642130 ì2=822683ì2,S3=207870ì2 + 333882 ì2+191395ì2=733147ì2,

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Totally 1555830 ì2 or approximately 155.58 hectare will be flooded.
Available storage volume of flooding area2
12
1
W1 = S1 ⋅ + S 2 ⋅ = 180553 ⋅ + 642130 ⋅ 3 + 642130 ⋅ = 2260802 ì 3
3
3
3
3
1
1
10
1
W2 = S1 ⋅ 3 + S1 ⋅ + S2 ⋅ 2 + S3 = 103935 ⋅ + 2 ⋅ 437817 + 191395 ⋅ = 1317781.5 ì 3
32
32
Volume of the artificial water pool flooded in water from bridge of Selbe
river to the inward zone to Tuul river is 3.58 millions .m3 and during the low flow
period in spring time or in March and April water resource in the draining part of
Selbe river of industrial water supply source will be collected, frozen and during
the melting period in spring it is possible to replenish underground water supply
by water of above mentioned melted ice in February.
3. Flow control of TUUL river.
In order to improve flow of Tuul river and increase flow in the low flow
period in spring will be built overflow dam or barrage with water abstraction
structures upper the bridge of Yarmag using closed industrial water supply
protection embankment.

Picture7. Tuul river bed. 2012.04.14.

Figure 8. Flow control water reservoir-I /Google Earth/
Water reservoir for flow control Tuul river between 2 bridges Yarmag andSonsgolon will be with length 2470m, perimeter 5571m.
Evaluation
management
aquiferrechargethemethods
to increase
the groundwater
Evaluation of managed
aquiferofrecharge
methods
to increase
groundwater
resources
resourcesforwater
supplyUB
andflow
controlTuul
river
for water supply Ulaanbaatar City and flow control Tuul river141

October 2012,2012, Ulaanbaatar,
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Mongolia
October

Water submerged area will be:
721 + 341 721 ⋅ 771
S 4 = S1 + S2 = 1748 ⋅+= 928188 + 277945 = 1206133.5 ì 2
2
2
Totally 120.6 hectare and volume of the reservoir would be.
122
W4 = S1 ⋅ 6 + S1 ⋅ + S2 ⋅ = 928188 ⋅ 6.5 + 277945 ⋅ = 6125870.34 ì 3 or 6 ,13million.m3
2
3
3
The minimum flow rate of river Tuul in dry season is 2.0m3/s. This will bereserve in cold season in the reservoir-I between bridges of Yarmag andSonsgolon and it will shed by ice melting in March and April during the cut off
period of Tuul river: 6125810.34/60õîíîã/24öàã/60ìèí/60ñåê=1.18ì3/ñ it’s low thandry season flow of Tuul river than one more reservoir need to be enable waterflow in dry season for flowing Tuul river.

Figure-9. Flow control water reservoir-II of Tuul river. /Google Earth/
The area between next two bridges Bio and Sonsgolon will be submerged
4507m length, perimeter 14639m. Submerged square of flow control reservoir
Tuul river is1954 + 3053 3053 ⋅1356
Sáèî −ñî í ñ = S1 + S 2 = 3151 ⋅+=22= 7888528.5 + 2069934 = 9958462.5 ì 2 = 996hectare
The volume of submerged area of flow control reservoirs:
102⋅24W4 = S1 ⋅ 2 + S1 ⋅ + S 2 ⋅= 55219699 ,5 + 2069934 ⋅ =23
33= 55219699 ,5 + 27599 = 57979611.5 ì = 57.979million.m3
Ice will be frozen and reserved in the valley between bridges of Tuul riverand Bio-Sonsgolon and it will shed by ice melting in March and April during thecut off period of Tuul river. It would be:
57979611.5 ì3/60days/24hours/60minute/60secund=11.18ì3/ñ
It is more than annual average run-off of month April 6.431 ì3/ñ, therefore
must be built flow control structure embankment dam in the valley between
bridges of Tuul river Bio Complex and Sonsgolon.

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4.

Smoke absorbing method.

The water reservoir in the submerged area has significant role for flow control
Tuul river. In watery and rainy season collect and store water in reservoir and use
it in dry season to annual run-off possibilities Tuul river. Let’s take absorbing
methods in air pollution after the built flow control reservoir and surface
spreading structures and reduce air pollution.
Table.2. Annual evaporation distribution in cold season of Tuul river.
№
Month
I
II
III
X
XI
XII
season1
Evaporation
0
1.0
1.3
2.0
1.2
1.0
6.5%
Evaporation
2
layer
0
2.92 3.8
5.8
3.6
2.9
19.02
( E)ìì
To calculate difference of evaporation or winter steam formation
19.02 mm of it forms from the area of 24.56 km2:
Will be from the flooded area by water
S1=949285ì2 or 0.95 êì2 of square 11.89ìì
S2=822683ì2, or 0.82 êì2 of square 23.7ìì
S3=733147ì2, or 0.73 êì2 of square 9.14ìì
S4=12061335ì2 or 12.1 êì2 of square 151.4ìì
S5=9958462.5ì2 or 9.958 êì2 of square 124.6ìì
TOTAL 320.73mm
It is definite to form great amount of steam in the winter time. This steam
will be fully absorbed capital city’s smoke itself in the winter time and become
frost snow and landed to the earth. Above mentioned items were observed on 01
and 02 January 2012.
On 31 December 2011 fog landed and tomorrow morning frost landed and themorning became clear without smoke. It was happened next day again.
In this way in the winter time water reservoir evaporation and fog loss absorbs
smoke of Ulaanbaatar city, becomes frost and snow and lands in the earth and it
will be most ordinary, efficient and optimal version to eliminate air pollution of
Ulaanbaatar city.
The above mentioned table has been shown that in case water pool is built,
water loss losing from water pool will be increased evaporation into Tuul river a
year and precipitation will be increased in this amount. Evaporated water is lostunder the wind influence and but it is comparatively less and dominating
directions are from eastern and western directions. Also evaporated water by airpressure difference will move into the higher part of Khentii mountain and it will
become clouds there and precipitation will become and be landed back.
It will feed rivers of Khentii mountain to consist source of flow of Tuulriver and Terelj river and as well as it will influence in flow of Tuul river well andnatural flow adjustment will be done.
Also during the low flow period in spring evaporation conducts regularly andit will become the main factor to create favorable and humid climate to remove
dust of the capital city and grow greenery.

Evaluation
management
aquiferrechargethemethods
to increase
the groundwater
Evaluation of managed
aquiferofrecharge
methods
to increase
groundwater
resources
resourcesforwater
supplyUB
andflow
controlTuul
river
for water supply Ulaanbaatar City and flow control Tuul river143

October 2012,2012, Ulaanbaatar,
Ulaanbaatar,Mongolia
Mongolia
OctoberConclusion:
Choice of methods to artificially increase underground water resource of watersupply sources of Ulaanbaatar city and research work on Tuul river flow
adjustment aims at solving the pressing issues of water supply of population of thecapital city in the most ordinary and low invested and cheapest method andrestore flow of Tuul river during the low flow period in spring and the following
conclusions have been made.
1. It is fully possible to use water resource of non-using wells inwater supply sources located in the valley of Tuul river
2. It is possible to build water pool using increased flow of Tuul riverand during the months of much more precipitation and increase
underground water artificially
3. It is possible to collect and froze flow of surface in the winter’s
cold time and use it during the low flow period of spring
4. Based on the modeling of underground water of water sources of
Ulaanbaatar city it has advantages to choose the most efficientversion, determine increasing amount and increase water resource
feeding conditions and utilization balance through using method to
artificially increase underground water resource artificially andfunnel percolation shaft, percolation water pool and method to be
flooded by water.
5. It is possible to make flow adjustment to eleminate cut off of Tuulriver.
6. Evaporation evaporated from recharge basin of Tuul river will be
increased precipitation and create humid environment to theclimate of the capital city.
7. It has advantages that in the winter time fog evaporated from thewill eliminate smoke of the capital city and become frost and land
to the earth and clean air.
These planned work will either increase flow of Tuul river during the low flow
period or be formed frost in the winter, absorb smoke of the capital city itself andclean air and in summer evaporation will be increased, precipitation will be
increased, watering of greenery of the capital city and favorable conditions toplant trees and plants will be created.
REFERENCES
1. The final results report of feasibility study Multi purpose dam built on the
Tuul river “МОNHYDROCONSTRUCTION” LLC
2. Geoecology Institute. The report of water quality, aquatic environmental
ecology study. 2003.
3. Geoecology Institute. The report study works of Tuul river water reserves
decreases reason, protection provision. UB. 1997
4. Geoecology Institute. “The ecological assessment of Tuul river” UB 1999
5. B.Myagmarjav, M.Davaa. Surface water of Mongolia. Ulaanbaatar .1999
6. Mongolian climate and surface water reserve atlas. UB. 1985
7. Mongolian National Atlas. UB. 1990
8. Google Earth144

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Hanoi environmental planning to build
resilience to climate hazards– A multi-institutional approach
Lan Huong NGUYEN1; Viet Anh NGUYEN2;Viet Nga TRAN3
1
Lecturer, Researcher, IESE, National University of Civil Engineering, Vietnam
lanhuong1184@gmail.com
2
Associate Professor, Vice Director, IESE, National University of Civil
Engineering, Vietnam
3
Lecturer, Researcher, IESE, National University of Civil Engineering, Vietnam
ABSTRACT
Hanoi city lies in the centre of the Red River Delta, one of the mostseriously affected areas by climate hazards. This paper focuses on the
Hanoi government’s multi-institutional approach in Environmental
planning for adaptation and mitigation against climate hazards. By
discussing the vulnerabilities to climate hazards of Hanoi city, the paperemphasizes that to minimize the impacts of climate change and natural
disaster affected to humans as well as to the process of economic
development of Hanoi, both adaptation and mitigation of climate hazards
should be implemented simultaneously. The framework proposed consists offour main groups of measures to cope with climate change and natural
disaster namely: Environmental planning, construction planning,
institutional and mechanism tools, and multi sectoral planning. Finally the
paper highlights the prioritized programs should be implemented for Hanoi
to build resilience to climate hazards to year 2020 with vision to 2030.
Keywords: Urban environmental planning, resilience, climate hazard.
1. INTRODUCTION
Hanoi is the capital city and the second largest city in Vietnam that contributes
12.73% GDP of the country (2010). Hanoi has undergone large urban sprawl
with the urbanized area doubled from 1991 to 2004. Despite fast socio- economic
growth, Hanoi is considered as flood prone and seriously affected by climate
hazards. The city lies in the centre of Red river delta; the region has highest
vulnerability level of exposure to storm and flooding (MONRE). In addition,
vulnerabilities of lives and livelihood to climate risks are primarily the resultof inadequate and unsustainable urban planning practices that does not accountclimate hazards risks management and planning in the socio-economic
development of the city .
2. VULNERABILITY OF HANOI TO CLIMATE HAZARDS
To access vulnerability of Hanoi to climate hazards, we emphasize on thevariation of climate components such as temperature, precipitation that results in

145

October 2012,2012, Ulaanbaatar,
Ulaanbaatar,Mongolia
Mongolia
October

occurrence of flooding, landslides, water stresses and the impact to the city socioeconomical development as well as impact to livelihoods.
2.1 Climate components variability
Hanoi lies in the centre of the Red River Delta Vietnam, experiences typicalNorthern region climate with summers are hot and humid, and winters are
relatively cool and dry summers, lasting from May to September, receiving the
majority of the annual 1,680 millimeters (66.1 in) of rainfall. The winters are short,the temperature could sometime drop below 10°C. For the period of 50 years todate, the temperature of Hanoi areas has increased together with the increasing ofoverall temperature of Vietnam by 0.5°C but with faster pace compare to otherregions in the country. The frequency of cold fronts decreased, numbers of
extreme cold days recorded decreased. Meanwhile the sustained period of a cold
front increase with the highest recorded in 2011 (1 month).
Data from the Climate Change Scenarios for Vietnam ( 2009) for Low emission(B1) and High emission (A2) scenarios show that within the next 50 years, thetemperature of the North Delta (including Hanoi area will projected to increased
1.4 - 1.6 0C.
Rainfall in dry season would decrease and increase in rainy season. By year 2060,
annual rainfall of the North Delta would increase, relative to the period of 19801999 about 4.5% (scenario B1) and 5% (Scenario B2). Rainfall in period ofMarch to May would decrease about 3-6%, whereas rainfall in middle of the rainyseason would increase for 7-10% by the year of 2100.
2.2 Flood and inundations
According to Vu Dinh Thanh et al (2011), in three decades, the Red- Thai Binh
River - has experienced three major floods (1996, 2002 and 2007) with waterlevel of peak flood in Hanoi was 12 meters causing breaking of dikes. In addition,
heavy rains in 2003 and 2008 caused severe flooding in the Red River Delta,
damages to people and properties. Particularly the Red river large flood in 8/1996
with the peak flood over the alert level 3 causing landslide and breaking of morethan 390 dykes, with a total length of 142 km (119 km including 23 km of dykes
and embankments); total life loss is 60 people, thousands of homes were swept
away, damaged and flooded, the damage estimated up to 730 billion. Unexpectedheavy rains occurred in November 2008 was recorded as largest in recent 35 years
in Hanoi. Total damage caused to the northern provinces are tremendous, as 101
people found dead, estimated loss of 8590 billion VND ( 500mil.USD , 2009equivalent).
In the urban districts of Hanoi, there are remaining 25 local flooded areas to 50100mm rainfall per hour. There are flood prone areas in other urban centers of thecity.
Inundation is a stress to Hanoi, given as following reasons:- Gaps between urbanization and drainage infrastructure development.
- The old and low capacity of underground sewage irrigation is unable
to discharge water when rainfall is higher than 100 millimeters per hour;- The design drainage capacity for rain with frequency of 2-5 years leading
to insufficient capacity (canals, irrigation pumping stations).

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Due to urbanization, ponds and lakes in Hanoi has been replacing withresidential areas and roads, reduction of permeability and water restoration
capacity
The urbanization boom has led to inefficient solid waste disposal, resulting
in inundation and stagnation of underground water
New urban planned areas relating to elevation system of urban
infrastructure are usually higher than the older part, causing difficulties forrainwater to drain leading to flooding.
Table 1: Flood prone areas in Hanoi

1

2004

Flooded area (ha)Left Day
Right Dayriver
river bankbank
60,972
2793

2

2006

58,740No Year

Northern Notes
Hanoi
7560
8450

Severe flooding in Hadong
district
Severe flooding in theSouth. Nhue river,3
2008 56,500
exceeding drainage pumpcapacity(Source: Drainage planning of Hanoi capital in 2030, Vision 2050)
6813

2.3 Surface water depletion
According to experts, under the impact of climate change, water demand increases
during the dry season, while decreases capacity of soil moisture and groundwater
recharge. The river flow regimes become higher in the rainy season and lower
during the dry season, causing urban flooding, salinity and ground water
degradation.

Figure 1. Water level and Flow of Red River (2003-2010)
Source: Hanoi Statistical Yearbook
Hanoi environmental planning to build resilience to climate change hazards
Hanoi environmental planning to build resilience to climate hazards– A multi- 147－ A multi-institutional approach

institutional approachOctober
October 2012,2012, Ulaanbaatar,
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Mongolia

Regulation of the river water in the reservoir in the dry season are seems to
improving the condition of lower stream. However, the water downstream of Red
river and Thai Binh is recorded to drop sharply might be due to the regulations are
not in accordance with current legislation. In addition, the regulation regimes ofHydropower reservoirs of Red River upper streams contribute downstream water
depletion in the dry seasons. Particularly from January to mid March / 2007, theamount of Red river water depletion has drop 45-55% in Hanoi. Daily averagewater level decrease to 1.95 m, the minimum water level was 1.21 m (lower thanthe period 1956-1985 is 1.11 m), average daily flow is 797m3 / s (less than the
period from 1956 to 1985 is 166m3 / s) (Hanoi Statistical Yearbook 2010 2011).
2.4 Landslide
Climate change is showing its clear signs under forms of natural disasters in thecapital. Many dykes are at risk of facing landslides due to more floods from thesystems of Hong (Red), Da and Duong Rivers, which can threat lives ofresidential areas along the rivers, the department elaborated. Especially, heavy
rains and floods also cause difficulties for drainage, resulting in prolonged serious
submergences in the city (DONRE). Hanoi government has put much effort toconstruct embankments and relocating houses, many anti-landslide projects overthe past years as well as implemented projects on upgrading river dyke systems by
2020. however, number of landslide prone spots is increasing. Climate change isshowing its clear signs under forms of natural disasters in the capital. Many dykes
are at risk of facing landslides due to more floods from the systems of Hong (Red),
Da and Duong Rivers, which can threat lives of residential areas along the rivers,
the department elaborated. Especially, heavy rains and floods also cause
difficulties for drainage, resulting in prolonged serious submergences in the city,
the department added. To mitigate impacts of climate change, Hanoi has invested
in many anti-landslide projects over the past years as well as implemented
projects on upgrading river dyke systems by 2020.
2.5 Climate hazards impact
environmental protectiontosocio-economic

development

andThese climate related events cause a multitude of potential impacts and risks not
only to natural areas but specifically to populations of densely built up
metropolitan areas of Hanoi. Negative effects such as severe urban floods,
disturbances of the energy supply or public transport systems in urban areas leadto decrease of GDP of the city. The table below describes climate related impacts
in urban areas in order to estimate the possible damages that might arise forhuman-influenced systems by climate change, including climate hazards. There
are two elements that classified into columns and rows: first, the probability of theoccurrence of the events and second the “elements” at risk. Events to be included
are flood, water depletion and landslide. "Elements” at risk are institutional bodies
including urban infrastructure services or economic losses, human health or
livelihood. The goal of this matrix is to visualize climate hazards impact to inform
decision makers and the general public about climate change risks, and to increase
their capacity to implement necessary adaptation measures and to increase theresilience of the urban system of Hanoi.

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Water shortage for hydropower
generation

Lack of water for water supply andwaste water for daily consumption ,production of urban areas

EnergyWater Supply

Business
services,
Loss due to water shortage
trade, tourism

Health, public health

Construction,
infrastructure,development

Agriculture

Transport

Industry

Flooding

Landslide

Exceeds capacity of the treatment plant andpumping stations when heavy rainfall occurs

Increased exposure to water borne diseases
such as gastrointestinal diseases, skin diseases Life and properties losses due
Increased risk of injury or death from storms, to landslides
flood.
Reduce recreational activities, outdoor service
Disrupted communications affect tourist
The amount of electricity generated per year
increased to about 0.8% of total electricity
generation capacity (scenario B2)

Increase in flooding in the city and the Damage
toroads,
surrounding urban
infrastructure along riverbank

Change of hydrological regime of the river,promoting extremist phenomenon, increasing
the average number of flood, flashflood
Water
shortageforindustrial Scarcity of materials and delay of processing
production, cooling system
due to traffic disturbance by flooding
Damages to railway lines, roads, river ports.
Flooding of river ports.
Irrigation water shortage
Serious erosion leading to
Water quality: polluted with urban
loss of agriculture land andwastewater.
crops

Surface water depletion

Water Resources and
Red River water depletion
Environment

Sectors affected

Table 2. Climate hazards impacts to socio-economic development and environmental protection

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3. INSTITUTIONAL
CLIMATE HAZARDSAPPROACH

TO

BUILD

RESILIENCETO

After an international workshop on flood mitigation, emergency preparedness,and flood disaster management in Hanoi in 1992, the First National Strategy andAction Plan for Disaster Mitigation was developed and approved in 1994 (updated
1995). Since then, the central government and city authorities has made much
effort to strengthen capacity for climate change adaptation. Taking basic principle
to cope with climate hazards, Hanoi is engaging in the following adaptation
activities (Box 1):
Actively improve the food preparedness and prevention standards forsustainable development.
Current food prevention probability level is 0.8 percent, but the target is 0.4
percent and then 0.2 percent in the future;
Strengthen the dike system to protect the right bank of the Red River (AsianDevelopment Bank project);
Strictly monitor, investigate, and respond to dike emergencies throughinstitutional strengthening:
Clear river bed and unlock river flows to ensure prompt food discharge in the
Red River, including lifting collapsed war-damaged bridges, lowering theelevation of inner dikes, relocating houses and construction from therestricted barrier of foods, and dredging river estuar deposits;
Build upstream water reservoirs to control the flood pressures for Hanoi;
Strengthen flood discharge and construction (following design procedures) toprotect Hanoi in flood emergencies. Issue detailed socio-economic policies forflood discharge and control processes to ensure social equity;
Plant and protect upstream forests (e.g., 5 million hectares forestation programwith targets an increase in forest coverage up to 40 percent by 2010); andImplement “channelization” initiative for selected parts of the Red River thatflow within the Hanoi zone.
Source: The World Bank, 2009
Investment has been made to the city’s flooding prevention activities; however thecity still suffered from flood and inundation when heavy rain occurs. Climatechange adaptation and mitigation grow much attention from city residents andauthorities, pressing urban planners to search for solutions. The environmental
plan for Hanoi for the period 2015-2020 with vision to 2030 addresses the issue ofclimate hazard adaptation planning with the multi-institution approach. Thisapproach is base on principle of building resilience city to climate change byenhancing the capacity of people and communities to adapt to and cope withclimate hazards (Figure 2.)
Measures to cope with climate hazards adaptation is divide into 5 groups ofstructural and non-structure including
Planning and design focus on water supply and drainage system;
cooperation between ministries, neighboring provinces and cities inregulating water regimes of Red River system, especially irrigation

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headwork, hydro power reservoirs; renovating and conservation of lakes
and rivers; land use planning
Construction measures focus on constructing of complete dyke systems
including emergency spillways along the dikes for selective filling of flood
retention basin; completing drainage systems, irrigation dams andreservoir to uptake over flow storm water, protection of urban areas.
Non-structural measures: institutional strengthening including completingcity’s legal documents such as Regulation on Flood and Storm warning,
prevention and disaster relief; facilitate green industry, energy saving andenvironmental industries ( focuses on taxes and subsidies); mobilizing
investment from public and private sectors; public awareness raisingthrough official education, propagandas, media…

Figure 2: Principles of building resilience city to climate change

Measures by sectors: focus on sectors that are affected by climate hazards( from table 2)
Finance and businesses with climate change: investment strategies for both
adaptation and mitigation of climate change encourage, ensuring
competition and large-scale investment. Mitigating climate change should
be considered as economic opportunity, social and environmental.
Reducing carbon emissions per unit of GDP should be the approach of
Hanoi. There is a need for modification and amendment of current
financial policies (especially energy subsidies and taxes)

Hanoi environmental planning to build resilience to climate change hazards
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－ A multi-institutional approachOctober 2012, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia

Figure 3. Multi-institutional approach for Hanoi Climate Change planning
REFERENCES
Hanoi Statistical Department, 2011. Hanoi Year book 2010. Hanoi: Statistical
Publishing House.
Dinh Vu Thanh, Nguyen Van Viet, 2011. Socio-economical losses account for
natural disaster, climate change and relocation in Vietnam. National Conference
on Hydro-meteorology, Environment and Climate Change.
Le Bac Huynh, Bui Duc Long, 2011. Initial steps for Climate Change impact
assessment relating to flood, flash flood and drought in Vietnam. National
Conference on Hydro-meteorology, Environment and Climate Change.
Luong Tuan Anh, Hoang Thi Thanh Thao, 2011. Water utilization of upperstream and Red river basin resource impact assessment report. Institute for
Hydro-meteorology and Environment.
Nguyen Cong Kien, 2008. Assesment of stability of the Red River embarkment in
Hanoi downtown areas.
Nguyen Nhu Y, Le Van Linh, Nguyen Thanh Son, Tran Ngoc Anh, 2011. Climate
Change Impact to Day River flow regime in the Hanoi area. Science andTechnology Journal.Vietnam National University, 27: 192-199.
Hanoi People’s Committee, 2012. Hanoi Drainage and Sewerage plan to year
2030 , with a Vision to 2050. Hanoi Plan: Hanoi People’s Committee
Tran Thanh Xuan, Tran Thuc, Hoang Minh Tuyen, 2011. Climate Change Impact
on Water resource in Vietnam. Science and Engineering Publishing House..
The World Bank, 2009. Climate Resilient Cities: A Primer on Reducing
Vulnerabilities to Disasters. The World Bank.

Hanoi environmental planning to build resilience to climate hazards– A multiinstitutional approach
New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia
152

Development of advanced composite
material for seismic safety of non-retrofitted
masonry housing schemes in urban andrural areas of developing countries
Saleem Muhammad Umair1
PhD Candidate, Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Tokyo
mumair@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
Muneyoshi Numada
Research Associate, ICUS, IIS, The University of Tokyo, Japannuma@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
Kimiro MEGURO
Professor, Director, ICUS, IIS, The University of Tokyo, Japanmeguro@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
ABSTRACTThe present study deals with the earthquake disaster reduction by thedevelopment of new composite material to mitigate the collapse of unreinforced
masonry structures (URM) in urban and rural areas in developing countries.
Collapse of unreinforced masonry walls causes a large number of humancausalities due to a strong ground motion. Masonry walls are relatively strong forin-plane shear and much weaker in out of plane direction resulting collapse ofmasonry structure. Being highly expensive, FRP is a strong material and cansignificantly increase the out of plane bending strength of masonry walls. Beingan expensive material, FRP exhibits a highly catastrophic brittle failure under
extreme loading leaving no warning and evacuation time for residents. On thecontrary, polypropylene band (PP-band) is a cheap material with much larger
ductility and holding capacity to avoid sudden failure, caused by the breaking ofwall into small fragments which has been found as a major cause of causalities.
In this study, an attempt has been made to find a composite material by using FRP
and PP-band to increase the shear capacity and to avoid the catastrophic brittle
failure of masonry walls under strong ground shaking. In order to achieverequired objectives, out of plane load tests have been carried out using six
masonry wallets consisting of three non-retrofitted masonry wallets, PP-band
retrofitted masonry wallet, FRP retrofitted masonry wallet and FRP+PP-band
retrofitted masonry wallet. Behavior of wallets has been carefully observed interms of peak strength, deflection and deformation capacity. It has been foundthat retrofitting of masonry walls using FRP and PP-band is much viable solution
as compared to conventional retrofitting techniques because FRP+PP-band
reduced the overall cost of retrofitting due to confining and holding effect of PPband which is a very low cost material.
Keywords: retrofitted, composite, polypropylene, fiber reinforced polymer

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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
Masonry is one of most popular and oldest construction material. Because of its
low cost and local availability, its significance as a construction material has
become more relevant. Better aesthetics, good heat and sound insulation, high fire
rating and economical construction are some of additional inherent advantages ofmasonry construction. Masonry contributes a large number of structures inworld’s inventory of non-engineered construction and almost all of theconstruction is composed of unreinforced masonry (URM). Seismic vulnerabilityof URM is highly questionable in the region of high seismic activity. According to
Coburn and Spence [Coburn and Spence, 1992], collapse of URM masonryhouses is the biggest cause of human causalities in under developed parts of world
during earthquake hazards. Understanding and realizing the shortcomings of
URM masonry, many researches worldwide started efforts to strengthen andretrofitting of existing masonry construction. In this regards many retrofitting
techniques have been developed such as adding concrete frames, masonry
jacketing, ferocement coatings, applying near surface mounting sheets ormembers using wire mesh. Most of these methods are expensive, aesthetically notgood and add mass to the masonry wall system.
Masonry walls are strong enough in in-plane direction of seismic force. On theother side, out of plane failure of masonry wall system is hazardous and explosive
causing almost complete collapse of masonry structure [Bruneau, 1994]. There is
no doubt to say that URM is more vulnerable when seismic force is acting in outof plane or perpendicular to longitudinal axis of wall. It is the idea of many
researches that behavior of masonry walls in out of plane direction requires moreexperimental and theoretical investigation. [Flagan et al 1993, Drysdale et al1994].

Fig (a): Canterbury, New ZealandFig (b): Gedikbulak, Turkey

Figure 1: Typical out-of-plane failure of an unreinforced masonry.

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Figure 1(a) shows typical out-of-plane failure of an unreinforced masonry wall on
the second level of 146 Kilmore Street in Canterbury New Zealand [EERI, 2012].
The light blue concrete column, hanging from the second floor, has no
reinforcement. Figure 1(b) shows the out of failure of masonry house during Van,
Turkey Earthquake of October 23, 2011. [EERI, 2012].
1.2 Literature Review
Among some of recent retrofitting methods Fiber Reinforced Polymers (FRP) has
become very popular because of its less retrofitting time, better aesthetics, highstrength and ease in application over the masonry surface. On the other hand, FRP
can increase the initial shear strength and out of plane bending strength to thegreat extent.
Meguro and Mayorca [Meguro and Mayorca, 2003] have developed
polypropylene band (PP-band) retrofitting method considering economic
affordability, local acceptability, material availability and technologicalapplicability required for retrofitting. PP-band is a very cheap material with fairly
large deformation capacity. Main objective of PP-band retrofitting is to hold themasonry components into a single unit and to prevent the collapse of masonry
structure. After carrying out a series of experiments ranging from small-scalemodel to full-scale masonry house, it was found that PP-band retrofitted walls canwithstand much stronger input ground motion without collapse [Meguro et al,2005].

(a): PP-band retrofitting of amasonry house in Indonesia(b): PP-band retrofitted wall in thelaboratory.

Figure 2: Retrofitting of masonry wall using PP-band in the field and laboratory.
1.3 FRP and PP-band Composite Retrofitting TechniqueIn this research we proposed a new retrofitting material which is a composite of
Polypropylene band and Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP). Both of thesematerials are applied on masonry wall system as a composite material and thiscomposite not only increases initial shear strength but also serve satisfactory tokeep integral the structural system by providing sufficient deformation and energy
Developmentof advanced
material
fornon-retrofitted
seismic safety of non-retrofitted
Development of advanced
compositematerialcomposite
for seismic
safety ofmasonryinhousing
schemesurban
rural areasof development countries
masonry housing schemes
urban andrural inareasof anddevelopment
countries

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Mongoliadissipation capacity. FRP is a brittle material and has ultimate tensile strain
ranging from 2 to 4% [V. Turco and S. Secondin, 2005]. Whereas, PP-band
cannot increase significantly initial strength of non-retrofitted masonry, it canenhance the structural deformation capacity up to 50 times larger than that of nonretrofitted one [Meguro et al, 2005]. FRP can serve satisfactory if it is appliedcompletely or fully wrapped to hold the brick units which can increase
tremendously the retrofitting cost and still do not allow the structural system areasonable deformability, while PP-band is not only a fairly ductile anddeformable but can also be wrapped completely to the wall system because ofvery low retrofitting cost.
In order to achieve the required objectives, a series of out of plane load tests arecarried out using different wallet schemes. A total of six masonry wallets aretested, three non-retrofitted and three are retrofitted. Among retrofitted masonrywallets, one is PP-band retrofitted masonry wallet, one is CFRP retrofitted
masonry wallet and one is CFRP+PP-band retrofitted masonry wallet. The main
objective of this study was to investigate the effect of PP-band and CFRP
composite on increasing bending strength and deformation and energy dissipation
capacity in the out of plane direction of masonry walls.
2. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
2.1 Material testing
2.1.1 Properties of masonry
Compression, Shear and bond tests are carried out in order to determine theproperties of brick, mortar, and masonry. Table 1 shows the properties of different
materials used for construction of masonry wallets. Bricks compressive strength isdetermined according to ASTM C-67. Three samples of burnt brick were tested
under direct compression. Three mortar cubes of 50mm×50mm×50mm containing
a weight mixed proportion of cement, lime and sand (250g: 1,000g: 2,800g) were
tested with 0.25 water/cement ratios according to ASTM C-109. Three samples ofbrick triplets, each triplet consisting of three bricks joined together by 5 mm
mortar thickness were prepared to evaluate the shear strength of masonry units.
Three masonry prisms each consisting of five bricks were tested according to
ASTM C-1314.
Table 1: Characteristics of materials used in experiments

Test

Compressive
strength ofbrickCompressive
strength ofmortar cube

Specimen
1
2
3
Average

(MPa)
25.10
26.60
26.70
26.10

(MPa)
1.08
1.07
1.34
1.16

156

Compressive
strength ofmasonry
prism
(MPa)
15.95
11.60
13.25
13.60

Shear
strengthofmortar
(MPa)
0.24
0.15
0.21
0.20

Bond
strengthofmortar(MPa)0.00400.00500.00400.0043

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2.1.2 Axial tensile test on polypropylene (PP) band
Three sample of PP-band with 6mm×0.6mm in nominal area of cross section and
150mm in gauge length are tested under uniaxial tensile loading using
displacement control universal testing machines (UTM). Table 2.0 shows thetension test results of PP-band.
Table 2: Polypropylene band tension test results
Maximum
Axial
SpecimenStress(MPa)
PP-1
254.20PP-2
246.50PP-3
234.40
Average245.03

InitialModulusResidual
Modulus

FailureStrain

(GPa)
7.38
6.95
6.42
6.92

(GPa)
1.91
2.06
1.96
1.98

(%)
12.30
12.67
11.91
12.29

2.1.3 Properties of CFRP and epoxy
Properties of CFRP and epoxy are provided by the supplier of these materials. Bi
directional type of fiber layout is used in CFRP. Thickness of CFRP sheet is
0.5mm. Bond E-250 epoxy is used to apply CFRP over the brick surface. Table 3
and Table 4 show the properties of CFRP and epoxy. All epoxy strengthparameters are examined at temperature of 20±1oC after curing time of 7 days.
Table 3: Material properties of CFRP
Material

Tensilemodulus

Bending
strength

Bending
modulusCompressive
strength

Ultimate
Elongation

CFRP

(GPa)
120

(MPa)
130

(GPa)
90

(MPa)
900

(%)
2

Table 4: Material properties of Epoxy

Material

Tensilestrength

Epoxy

(MPa)
20

Tensileshear bondstrength(MPa)
9.6

Bending
strength

Compressive
strength

(MPa)
45

(MPa)
50

Compressive
shear bondstrength(MPa)
21

2.2 MAOSNRY WALLETS TESTING SCHEME
2.2.1 Masonry wallets testing and experimental setup
Four types of masonry wallets are shown in the Fig 3. Size of masonry wallet is
475mm x 238mm x 50mm. All of these wallets are constructed using 75mm x
37mm x 50mm burnt brick units. Cement lime mortar with a weight mixed
proportion of cement, lime and sand (250g: 1,000g: 2,800g) is made with 0.25
Developmentof advanced
material
fornon-retrofitted
seismic safety of non-retrofitted
Development of advanced
compositematerialcomposite
for seismic
safety ofmasonry
housing
schemes
in
urban
and
rural
areas
of development countries
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Octoberwater/cement ratios. Masonry wallets are constructed, cured and tested undersimilar conditions. In case of CFRP and CFRP+PP-band retrofitted masonrywallets, CFRP is pasted on wallet surface with the help of strong epoxy and cured
for 24 hours whereas PP-band and CFRP+PP-band retrofitted, PP-band is appliedon both faces with the help of ultrasonic welder and also connected in out of plane
direction.

Figure 3: Masonry wallets retrofitting scheme for out of plane load test.
Three of the masonry wallets are retrofitted using different retrofitting schemes.
One is PP-band retrofitted, one is CFRP retrofitted and one is CFRP+PP-band
retrofitted. Two CFRP strips of dimension 475mm x 40mm x 0.5mm are used on
both faces of CFRP and CFRP+PP-band retrofitted masonry wallets. PP- bandmesh pitch of 50mm is used for PP-band retrofitted and CFRP+PP-band
retrofitted masonry wallet.
2.2.2 Test Setup

Each of the wall specimen was tested like a simply support beam of center tocenter span of 440mm with one displacement at the center of span in the form ofline load throughout the width of the masonry wallet as shown in Fig 4 (a) and (b).
Total size of masonry wallet is 480mm from edge to edge of specimen. Verticaldisplacement is applied at center of the specimen at a loading rate of 0.1 mm/min.
Two LDTV displacement transducers with 500×10-6/mm sensitivity are used atquarter span to measure the deflection. Wall specimen is simply supported on twosteel rollers and displacement is transferred from machine to specimen with thehelp of steel roller and a cap plate. A small initial displacement is applied toassure the full contact of the wallet and loading arrangement. Specimens werecompletely inspected in throughout the length of loading increments. Different
displacement loading rates are selected depending upon the failure displacement

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and duration of test. All displacement and loading data is recorded in acomputerized digital acquisition system.

(a): Schematic diagram(b): Experimental setup

Figure 4: Test setup of out of plane load test
3. TEST RESULTS
3.1 Non-retrofitted masonry wallet
One of the main focuses of experimental results was load-displacement curves ofmasonry wallets. Figure 5 shows the load displacement curve of non-retrofitted
masonry wallets. All URM specimens are tested using same loading rate of
0.1mm/min. Although preparation, curing and testing conditions of masonrywallets were similar still the non-retrofitted wallets show a variety of peakstrength with an average value of 0.7 kN with almost similar initial stiffness.
Behaviour of wallets was almost linear up to the peak value. Sliding type of
failure has been observed exhibiting a weak brick mortar joint at verticaldisplacement range from 0.6mm to 1.2mm as shown in Fig.5 (a).
1

URM-1
URM-2

Load(kN)

0.8

URM-3

0.6

0.4

0.2

0

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

Deflection (mm)Figure 5: Load-displacement curves of non- retrofitted masonry wallets.
Developmentof advanced
material
fornon-retrofitted
seismic safety of non-retrofitted
Development of advanced
compositematerialcomposite
for seismic
safety ofmasonry
housing
schemes
in
urban
and
rural
areas
of development countries
masonry housing schemes in urban and rural areas of development countries

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3.2 PP-band retrofitted masonry wallet
Figure 6 shows the load displacement curve of PP-band retrofitted masonry wallet.
It has shown almost similar initial stiffness and peak strength of 0.79 kN which isalmost same as that of non-retrofitted masonry wallet. Up to initial peak loading
rate of 0.1mm/min is used and after that the test was continued at a loading rate of
2.0 mm/min. In case of PP-band retrofitted masonry wallet after the displacementof 1.2 mm/min the sample again started taking load with some reduced stiffness,even it has gone up to a displacement of 57.7 mm with a load value of 0.88 kN.
PP-band retrofitted masonry wallet has shown a fairly long deflection anddeformation as compared to URM masonry wallets
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0

1.4
1.2

Load(kN)

1
0.8

0

0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

2

0.6
0.4

URM-1

0.2

URM-3

0

URM-2
PP-ret.
0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

Deflection (mm)Figure 6: Load-displacement curves of non- retrofitted masonry wallets and PPband retrofitted masonry wallet.
3.3 CFRP retrofitted masonry wallet
Figure 7 shows the load displacement curve of non-retrofitted masonry wallet, PPband retrofitted and CFRP retrofitted masonry wallet. CFRP retrofitted masonrywallet is tested at a loading rate of 0.25mm/min and use of CFRP has increased
initial peak strength of no-retrofitted masonry wallet from 0.8 kN to 8 kN. CFRP
retrofitted masonry wallet has shown a high initial stiffness as compared to URM
and PP-band retrofitted masonry wallets. Use of CFRP has also increased the mid
span deflection from 1.2 to 5.0 mm but it is far less than PP-band retrofitted case.
PP-band retrofitted masonry wallet has increased the displacement from 1.2mm to58 mm. It can also be seen from figure 7 that CFRP retrofitted wallet has shown asudden drop in strength from 1.6 kN to 1.0 kN at a displacement of 0.65mm. Thissudden drop was due to detachment and falling of one layer of brick at the inneredge of masonry wallet. After that it again started taking load and reached to peakstrength of 8.0 kN. CFRP was acting just like tension reinforcement on tension
face of a simply supported beam and bricks were taking care of compression justlike a simply supported beam having reinforcement on both of the faces.

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8

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

7

Load(kN)

6
5

0

1

2

3

10

15

20

4

URM-1
URM-2
URM-3
PP-ret.
CFRP-Ret.

4
3
2
1
0

0

5

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

Deflection (mm)Figure 7: Load-displacement curves of non- retrofitted masonry wallets, PP-band
retrofitted and CFRP retrofitted masonry wallet.
3.4 CFRP+PP-band retrofitted masonry wallet
Figure 8 shows the load-displacement curve for URM, PP-band retrofitted and
CFRP+PP-band retrofitted. In case of CFRP+PP-band retrofitted masonry wallet
initial strength of URM is increase from 0.8 kN to 5.5 kN and displacement
carrying capacity is also increased from 1.2mm to 62mm. After the peak strengthof 5.5 kN, there is a sudden drop but still CFRP+PP-band retrofitted masonrywallet has shown a good residual strength up to the final failure of wallet.
Proposed composite material has increased intial strength, deformation capacity,and residual strength of non-retrofitted masonry wallet.
6

URM-1
URM-2
URM-3
PP-ret.
CFRP+PP-band

Load(kN)

5
4
3
2
1
0

0

5

10

15

20

25 30 35 40
Deflection (mm)

45

50

55

60

65

Figure 8: Load-displacement curves of non- retrofitted masonry wallets, PP-band
retrofitted and CFRP+PP-band retrofitted masonry wallet.
Developmentof advanced
material
fornon-retrofitted
seismic safety of non-retrofitted
Development of advanced
compositematerialcomposite
for seismic
safety ofmasonryinhousing
schemesurban
rural areasof development countries
masonry housing schemes
urban andrural inareasof anddevelopment
countries

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4. FAILURE MODES
Figure 9 shows that failure pattern of different type of masonry wallets under outof plane loading. Figure 9 (a) shows a pure bending type of failure with major
central cracking with spalling of bricks in the central part of masonry wallets.
There were no signs of shear failure near supports. Figure 9 (b) shows that PPband retrofitted masonry wallet failure. It is almost same type of failure as that of
URM but PP-band kept holds the masonry units. As PP-band is attached with theout of plane connectors, so it has not provided any increase in bending strength
but after the peak, it kept the brick unit as single mass to further take load up to adisplacement of 58 mm as shown in Fig 6. Figure 9 (c) shows the failure thefailure of CFRP- retrofitted masonry wallet. CFRP- retrofitted masonry wallet has
shown a step wise failure initiated with the fall of inner and outer brick layers.
Failure of wallet was mainly due to detachment and debonding of CFRP frombrick surface. CFRP+PP-band retrofired masonry wallet failure has shown in theFig 9 (d). Use of PP-band along with the CFRP has changed the failure mode of
only CFRP retrofitted masonry wallet as the step was failure is vanished. In CFRP
retrofitted case the wallet was disintegrated into longitudinal strips but CFRP+PPband retrofitted masonry wallet has avoided the delamination of brick layers form
the wallet. It kept hold the entire brick mas into a single system even upto thefinal failure of masonry wallet.

(a) Failure pattern of URM(b) Failure pattern of PP-band
retrofitted masonry wallet(c) Failure pattern of CFRP-retrofitted
masonry wallet(d) Failure Pattern of CFRP+PP-band
retrofitted masonry wallet

Figure 9: Failure pattern of different types of masonry wallets under out of planeloading.

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5. CONCLUSIONSFRP is an expensive and has very high initial stiffness with a failure strain ranging
from 2-4% whereas PP-band is a cheap material with very high failure strain
ranging from 12-14%. Non retrofitted masonry wallet has shown very sudden
failure breaking the wall into small pieces. PP-band has provided very highdeformation and energy dissipation capacity but the release of energy throughproper crack distribution on all over the masonry wall units. CFRP has increased
the initial strength of masonry wall but it could not increase the deformation andenergy dissipation capacity of masonry wallet exhibiting a very high brittle failure.
Failure of CFRP was mainly due to debonding of CFRP strips from the bricksurface. In order to further increase the performance of masonry wall units lessthickness with more surface area with good brick surface conditions arerecommended. CFRP+PP-band together have not only increased the initialstrength, deformation capacity, energy dissipation capacity but also the residual
strength of masonry wallet in post peak behaviour. This increase in residual
strength is due to holding effect of PP-band provided to the bricks and CFRP and
it reduces the chances of further detachment of CFRP from brick surface as wallet
undergoes further displacements. CFRP+PP-band retrofitted has changed themode of failure of CFRP retrofitted wallet from sudden brittle failure to gradualductile failure. Use of both the materials has given a very high performance andcost effective technique for retrofitting of masonry structures which can saveproperty and human life during a seismic hazard.
REFERENCES
Coburn A., Spence R., 1992. Earthquake protection. Wiley. Chichester.
Bruneau, M., 1994. Seismic evaluation of unreinforced masonry building: A stateof art report. Can J. Civ. Engrg., Ottawa, 21, 512-539.
Flanagan, R. D., Bennett, R. M., and Beavers, J. E., 1993. Seismic behavior of
unreinforced hollowclay tile infilled frames. ASTM design and construction
problems and repair, ASTM STP 1180. ASTM, West Conshohoken, Pa.
Drysdale, R. D., Hamid A. A, and Bake, R.L., 1994. Masonry structures behavior
and design. Prentice- Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
EERI special earthquake report, 2012. The Mw 7.1 Erciş-Van, Turkey Earthquakeof October 23, 2011.
Mayorca, P., and Meguro K., 2003. Strengthening of Masonry Structures usingth
Polypropylene Bands. Proc. of the 58 Annual Conference of the JSCE, CD-ROM.
Meguro K., Mayorca P., Sathiparan N., Guragain R., Nesheli N., 2005. Shaking
table tests of 1/4 scaled masonry models retrofitted with PP-band meshes.
Proceedings of the Third International Symposium on NewTechnologies for
Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia, Singapore. 1, 9-18.
Turco V., Secondin S., Morbin A., Valluzzi M.R., Modena C. 2006. Flexural andshear strengthening of unreinforced masonry with FRP bars. Composites Scienceand Technology. 6:1, 289–296.

Developmentof advanced
material
fornon-retrofitted
seismic safety of non-retrofitted
Development of advanced
compositematerialcomposite
for seismic
safety ofmasonry
housing
schemes
in
urban
and
rural
areas
of development countries
masonry housing schemes in urban and rural areas of development countries

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Study on earthquake input motions
for the structures in Ulaanbaatar CityGANZORIG Erdene1 , BATSAIHAN Tserenpil2 , TULGA Gantumur3
and ALTANZAGAS Ochirdorj4
1

Ph.D., Ass. Professor on Structural Engineering, School of Architecture
and Civil Engineering, MUST, midiid@magicnet.mn
2
Ph.D., Head of Seismology Division, Research Center for Astrology andGeophysics, Mongolian Academy of Science, batsaihan523@yahoo.com
3
Structural Consultant, Tulga Project LLC, Mongolia,
tulproject@yahoo.com
4
Lecturer, Department of Structural Engineering, School of Architecture
andCivil Engineering, MUST, oaltanagas@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
For design of high rise buildings, Mongolian National Design Code is required toperform an analysis using time histories and its response spectrum curve ofearthquake excitations. Time Histories and Response Spectrums are must be
developed for the real building site. In the Code also stated that, the requirements
for the time histories and response spectrums are must be established fromCentral Government organization. In this paper, carefully studied areinternationally common requirements for the time histories and its response
spectrums and first time developed are the requirements in Mongolian condition.
Developed are the requirements for design response spectrum, on basis of therequirements in codes of Russian Federation, USA, Japan, China and Turkey etc.
Developed are first time in Mongolia, in Ulaanbaatar, real time histories andresponse spectrums on site of 25 story Hotel Building of Tuushin Company, using
up-to-dated common approaches in international practices. As the case studies,
performed are structural calculations using these records and curves anddiscussed the results, compared with the results of conventional design response
spectrum method calculations.
Discussed are further research needs for the developments of local requirements
for the time histories and response spectrums.
1. PRESENT CONDITION OF THE STUDY
In “Design of Buildings and Structures in Seismic Region”, BNbD 22.01*/2006
of Mongolia, it is specified that “To design of important and high-rise buildings(higher than 16 story), seismic analysis of the building shall be performed using
ground motion records of base soil as well as synthesized accelerogram. In thosecases maximum amplitude of the base soil acceleration shall be at least 100, 200
and 400 cm/s2 apparently taking into consideration of 7, 8 and 9 grade of165

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earthquake intensity of the site” [1]. Synthesized accelerogram is an artificial
acceleration record that may generated from the probable earthquakes on the site
[7].
In the above provision it is specified to use two different types of accelerograms
including the historic seismic events and artificial records in the analysis of one
building. This provision has been included in the code since 1981 but it has notbeen required to use this provision up to the recent period. Once there was no
demand therefore almost no research has been conducted in this area. Moreoverseismic data in the national code of Mongolia has been just adopted from the
Code Russian Federation.
Today when structural design analysis theory and tools are rapidly developing, it
has been common that codes and regulations of foreign countries have required
use of records of potential earthquakes on that area and similar earthquakes that
occurred in a different area in the seismic analysis. This requirement has been
widely put not only on the high-rise building but also low rise buildings [5].
Therefore many studies on accurate development of seismic data andcharacteristics and effective usage in the design, have been carried out in foreigncountries [3].
It is clear that seismic source, propagation condition and soil characteristics that
apply to the design of building are different on every building. Those factors aredefinitely within territory of Mongolia. Particularly, only an earthquakes within
300 and 400 km is hazardous for building that is being designed in Ulaanbaatar.
Therefore, we need to have seismic data and parameters of own country to be
used in the structural analysis. Aim of this paper is definitely directed to it.
On the other hand, many buildings higher than 16 stories have been designed andbuilt recently in Ulaanbaatar. Thus, we are required to implement the above
requirement of our code in actual structural design of the high-rise buildings.
In order to describe in input motion and its synthesized record, micro seismic
study and measurements are carried out in the site of the building. The record varydepends on many factors, such as seismic history, potential sources, tectonic
formation of soil, hazard level, water table, thickness and density of base soil
layers of the site.
Synthesized accelerogram is developed mostly in bed rock or in the alluvial soil
surface. Accelerogram is developed using an earthquake source model, historicalearthquakes, travel condition, soil geotechnical characteristics and geophysicalparameters of the site [11].
This accelerogram is corrected by using the acceleration records of the actual
earthquakes in order to match with the design response spectrum of the Code bymany indicators such as duration and energy contents etc. It is the main difficulty
to develop the accelerogram [6].
The acceleration record of the historical earthquakes is taken from the record bankand it is an important input data for the analysis and research, because it contains
mechanism of earthquake and process and all indicators of the soil excitation (e.g.
amplitude, frequency, energy contents, duration and phase etc). It is also proper toreflect all factors including the earthquake source, propagation ways and soil
characters of the site in the analysis. Also the accelerogram can be used in theanalysis by scaling the amplitude and correct reflecting attenuation law.
It is complicated to choose proper accelerogram developed by the micro seismic
investigation for the analysis. In the code it is specified that state administrative

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organization is in charge for establishment of requirements on the accelerogramand its response spectrum curve to be used in the analysis. In the most codes it isspecified to use several accelerograms in the analysis of one building.
2. MICRO SEISMIC STUDY OF THE SITE OF TUUSHIN HOTELBUILDING
Seismic hazard assessment of the site of 25 story hotel building of “Tuushin” LLC
to be built in the territory of Sukhbaatar district of Ulaanbaatar city was executed
based on geophysical measurement, fund materials, analysis methodology andbasic hazard study [4].
Client provided topography and required information on engineering–geology andhydro geology.
View and model for the structural analysis of the hotel building of Tuushin LLC
are shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. 3D view and model of the structural analysis of the hotel.
Propagation velocity of primary and shear waves were determined till the bedrock
depending on the depth in the site of the hotel building. Etalon velocity of theseismic wave that is observed in the bedrock in the vicinity of Ulaanbaatar city
was chosen and the seismic model of the site was developed.
Horizontal gradients of the basic signal of potential strong earthquake wasdeveloped by the first step. Strong earthquake accelerogram to hazard the base, its
response spectrum and frequency characteristics are estimated and developed onhorizontal (EW) and vertical (Z) gradients (Figure 2).
Basic input data of the seismic actions are within the following limit: seismic
hazard intensity is 8.1 grade according MSK scale. Maximum amplitudes of theacceleration to be observed by the strong earthquake is 213 and 127 cm/s2 onhorizontal (EW) and vertical (Z) direction respectively. Maximum amplitude of
the acceleration response spectrum is 1,4; 3,3 in the horizontal and 1,27 Hz on thevertical and they are 51,6 and 27,7 cm/s on horizontal (EW) and vertical (Z)directions respectively.

Studyearthquake
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a, cм/c 2
220
110
0
-110

0

5

10

15

20

-220
t, c

(Б)

S(f), см/c
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0

5

10

15
f, Гц

(В)

IuI
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

f, Гц

Figure 2. Accelerogram and its response spectrum, frequency
characteristics in horizontal direction
Intensity of the seismic action was determined based on assumption that soil
deformation is elastic and bases on the intensity scale descriptions.
3. ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE OF TUUSHIN HOTEL
The accelerogram and its response spectrum developed by the micro seismic
study of the site were taken as example and used in the analysis of the structure.
Structural system consists of cast-in situ RC core, shear walls, SRC frame systemwith shear walls, and lateral loads resisted mainly by RC core and shear walls.
Concrete grade is B30, compressive strength is 224 kgs/cm2, Young’s modulus–
3.3x105 kg/cm2 and Poisson’s ratio - 0.2 in the design. Column section iscomposite from H type steel section and cast in place external concrete part.
Strength of the column and beam steel was taken as 3000-3300
kg/ cm2
depending on its thickness.
Foundation is 2 m thick cast-in situ RC raft foundation. Structural analysis modelof raft foundation is taken as the slab on Winkler sub grade. Earthquake intensityof the site was grade 7 by micro zoning and grade 8 by micro seismic study.

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Figure 3 . Structural analysis using an accelerogram by MIDAS program

Figure 4. Structural analysis using an accelerogram by LIRA program
The structure was analyzed for the seismic actions at IST construction consulting
company of Republic of Korea using MIDAS program [13]. Also it was analyzed
at design company Goo Van Consulting of Mongolia using LIRA - 9.4 program[9]. First, structural analysis used the design response spectrum by conventional
response spectrum method on both of the above two companies. Next analysis
was calculated using the accelerograms by MIDAS program and mode
superposition method (Figure 3). Also analysis was made by direct integration ofdifferential equation of the motion method and mode superposition method by
LIRA program (Figure 4).
4. RESULTS OF THE STUDY
Commonly used international requirements are studied and the requirements for
Mongolia are developed for the first time. Also the requirements on the response
spectrum curve to be used on the analysis of the high-rise building wereStudy on earthquake
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determined and proposed based on experiences of Russian Federation, USA,
Japan, P.R. C and Turkey [10].
Following the above requirements potential seismic record and response spectrum
curve were developed on case of Ulaanbaatar city in accordance withinternationally used methodology.
Also the results analyzed by using the Time Histories and compared to the results
analyzed by the conventional Response Spectrum Method. The results used
MIDAS program was 60 – 70% and LIRA program was 40 – 50% of this result.
From this, results of the analysis are more less than the conventional response
spectrum results and it proves ineffectiveness of the analysis using thisaccelerogram.
According the accelerogram developed by Research Center for Geophysics
Astrology and predominant frequency is observed to be 0.2-0.3 seconds but the
response spectrum curve given relatively wide range and takes the maximum
value between 0.1-1.0 seconds and it shows inappropriateness between them. Also
as for the response spectrum curve its form is much different than MNCN code of
Moscow and Japanese code shown in the Figures. (Figure 5,6,7).
Also it is needed to clarify reason for high amplitude of the response spectrum
curve. It is needed to study experiences and methodology of foreign countries.
Low predominant frequency of the accelerogram results in relatively low analysis
result of the analysis used the accelerogram. Therefore, it is required to consider
an amplification of base layers, methodology to choose earthquake that potential
to be hazardous for that building from earthquakes that occured in foreigncountries or internationally used earthquakes and solve the problem urgently.

Figure 5. Registered in Moscow acceleration record and its Furies spectrum,
МNСN code, 4thof March, 1977. Moscow
Etalon record developed on bedrock is must be same on total territory of
Ulaanbaatar city thus it is insufficient to reduce and increase the amplitudedepending on the intensity of the site not considering amplification of the baselayers. Also, the accelerograms are varied only by their amplitudes along thehorizontal and vertical directions.

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Figure 6. Design Response Spectrum curve for the analysis, МNCN code,
Moscow.

Figure 7. Design Response Spectrum for the analysis of high-rise buildings,
notification #1461,2001 by MLIT Japan
Another requirement on the accelerogram is its duration. For example, duration is
80 sec in MNCN code of Moscow, 56 – 160 sec in DBN code of Ukraine, at least
1 minute in BSL code of Japan and 30 sec in DBYBHY code of Turkey while
period of our accelerogram is 23 sec and it is seems insufficient [5].
It is needed to compare with scenario earthquake of Ulaanbaatar city by professor
N. Kawase and others [12].
Also it is required to provide fundamental period base layer of the site anddirection of earthquake excitation.
Result of the study is determined and further concerning issues in this aredeveloped.
5. CONCLUSION
1. Etalon record developed on bedrock is must be same on total territory of
Ulaanbaatar city thus it is insufficient to reduce and increase the amplitude

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2.

3.
4.

5.

depending on the intensity of the site not considering amplification of thebase layers.
According to the above mentioned conclusion only one accelerogram canbe used in the site with same earthquake intensity. Therefore it is needed
to develop at least several accelerograms and use two or three of themwhich are seems more hazardous to the structure.
To increase relatively less duration time of the accelerogram compared toforeign countries.
To develop a national code or regulation to carry out micro seismic
investigation of the site urgently. In other words, it is required to set
requirements on accelerograms and site response spectrum to be used in
the design of buildings and structures.
To continue the research further and develop the design response spectrum
curve to be used in the analysis of the high-rise structures and have it
approved by the central government organization.

REFERENCES[1]. “Design of Buildings and Structures in Seismic Region”, BNbD
22.01*/2006,Mongolia[2]. E.Ganzorig and others, “Commentary to the Code for Design of Buildings
and Structures in Seismic Region, BNbD 22.01*/2006”, BD 22-101-07[3]. Ts.Batsaikhan. Geophysical investigation of seismic hazard level of
Ulaanbaatar city. Dissertation for Ph.D., Irkutsk, Russia, 2006.
[4]. Ts. Batsaikhan, В.E.Jurik,, Earthquake hazard assessment of theconstruction site of the hotel of “Tuushin” LLC to be built in the territoryof Sukhbaatar district of Ulaanbaatar city, 2009[5]. International Association for Earthquake Engineering, Regulations for
Seismic Design, A World List - 2006, Tokyo, Japan, 2006[6]. Seismology Committee, Structural Engineers Association of California,
Recommended Shear Force Requirements and Commentary,1996, Sixth
Edition[7]. Earthquake Motion and Ground Conditions, Architectural Institute ofJapan, Tokyo, 1993
[8]. Anil K. Chopra, Dynamics of Structures. Theory and Applications to
Earthquake Engineering. Prentice Hall, 2001[9]. Gorodetski A.S. and others. “Structural analysis of cast in-situ high-risebuildings”. Kiev, Publisher Fact, 2004
[10].
B.N. Gordiev and others, Loads and effects on Structures.
Publisher ASB, Moscow, 2007
[11].
Yasin M.Fahjan, “Selection and Scaling of Real Earthquake
Accelerograms to fit the
Turkish Design Spectra, Digest 2008” Technical Journal, Turkish Chamber of Civil Engineers, Volume 19,
December 2008[12]. UN Habitat Project MON 99/301, Earthquake ”Disaster Risk
Management Scenario For
Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, Final Report,
2001
[13].
“Analysis Manual for MIDAS/Gen”, MIDAS IT Co.Ltd., 2006

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Numerical simulation of Beam-Column joint
with simple reinforcement arrangementby three-dimensional RBSM
1

Koichiro IKUTA 1, Daisuke HAYASHI2, Kohei NAGAI3
Graduate Student, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Japanikuta@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
2
Project Researcher, IIS, The University of Tokyo, Japan
3
Associate Professor, ICUS, IIS, The University of Tokyo, Japan

ABSTRACT
Structural performance at beam-column joint varies much depending on thearrangement of reinforcement steel bars at joints. To investigate the influence ofthe bending radius of reinforcement bars at beam-column joints on rigid flameand study the failure mechanisms of beam-column joints, analyses were carriedout by three-dimensional Rigid Body Spring Model (RBSM). Simulations of L
beam-column joints with simple reinforcement arrangement were carried out toexamine the failure pattern at L beam-column joints. In this paper, only
monotonic loading (two types, open and close) to the joint part was carried out.
These simulations showed the different crack patterns and failure modes
according to the loading direction. These results would be beneficial to improve
the analysis model for further proper numerical simulations of L beam-column
joints.
Keywords: RBSM, crack pattern, beam-column joint, bending radius
1. INTRODUCTION
Nowadays in Japan, seismic design code is becoming more stringent. To satisfy
the stringent requirements, lager amounts of reinforcement must be placed,
resulting in increased reinforcement congestion. This problem particularly occurs
at beam-column joints, where reinforcements meet from many different directions.
As a result, it becomes difficult to ensure proper concrete compaction and hence
poorer concrete quality may result. Moreover at the L beam-column joints,
structural performance is thought to change depending on the arrangement ofreinforcement. However, it is difficult to clarify the structure performance oncomplicated bar arrangement like beam-column joints, so only little analysis havebeen done for the beam-column joints. In this study, numerical simulations arecarried out to investigate the influence of the bending radius of reinforcement at
the L beam-column joints by Rigid-Body Spring Model (RBSM), which is a kindof discrete analysis.

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2. ANALYSIS METHOD AND MODEL
2.1 Analysis method
In this study, analysis is carried out by 3D RBSM approach, proposed by Kawai(1978). Two types of elements, namely concrete and steel elements, are used todefine the geometry of a specimens embedded reinforcing bar. The concreteelements size is set smaller than the maximum aggregate size, while the steel
element size is set according to geometric complexity of the reinforcing bar(Figure 1). Three springs (one normal direction and two shear directions) are
assumed to connect each face of the elements. The properties of the springs are
determined so as the elements, when combined together, enable accurate
prediction of the response of laboratory-scale material test. In this study,
simulation system developed by Nagai (2004) is used.
Concrete element

Steel element(a) Cross section of elements (b) 3D Rebar shape
Figure 1: Modeling of geometric rebar shape
2.2 Constitutive models
Two elements are used to represent the behavior of reinforced concrete:(1) Steel element for steel bars
The geometry of the steel elements is modeled in an accurate manner to properly
account for the interlock between reinforcement and concrete. Figure 1 illustrates
typical reinforcement geometry used in analysis. Bi-liner model is adopted for the
steel elements to reproduce the yielding of steel.
(2) Concrete element
The shape of concrete elements is determined by using the Voronoi diagrams,
expect those nearby the steel elements which were constructed manuallyfollowing the geometry of the steel elements. Random element generation isconsidered to reasonably replicate concrete fracture process.
The concrete constitutive models for the normal and shear spring are shown in
Figure 2. The normal springs are assumed to behave elasticity both incompression and in tension. After reaching its strength in tension at ft, the stress inthe springs is assumed to decrease linearly to zero at the maximum crack width
wmax (assumed to be 0.003mm, Figure 2(a)). The shear spring is assumed tobehave in an elastic-plastic manner (Figure 2(b)), with a yield strength computedfrom Equation 1 (adopted from Muto et al.(2004), Figure 2(c)). Here, φ=37°.

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�1�

For regions within 1D (D: bar diameter) from the reinforcement surface, theconcrete constitutive model is modified to account for interfacial zone between
the reinforcement and the concrete (Salem et al. (2005)). In this zone, the elastic
modulus of the spring is assumed to be a half of the original value.
(3) Steel-Concrete interface
At steel-concrete interface, the normal spring is considered to be the same to thatof the concrete element (Figure 2(a)), but with a tensile strength of only a half.
The shear spring is assumed to behave elastic-plastic, with the yield strength
calculated from same concept of criteria to concrete element. Moreover, the shear
strength of the interface spring is assumed to decrease according to crack width torepresent interface fracture (Figure 2(d)).
στ

ft
Unload & Reload

τmax

ε

wmax
Controlled by crack width

Compression Tension

γ
τi

τ
φ

τ

c
σ

0.5fｃ

Controlled by crack width

ft

wmax

w

(a) Model of normal spring of concrete (b) Model of shear spring of concrete(c) Failure criterion of concrete(d) Model of shear reduction of concrete
Figure 2: Constitutive models of springs
3. L BEAM-COLUMN JOINT SIMULATIONS WITH DIFFERENT BENDRADIUS FOR BENDING BAR
3.1 Analysis cases
The arrangement of reinforcement at the joint part is thought to have a significant
influence to the structural performance of beam-column joints. To investigate theinfluence of the bending radius of the steel bar to the structural performance at the
An analytical investigation of applicability of mechanical anchorage system to beamNumerical simulationof beam-column
joint withsimple reinforcement arrangement
columnjoint by3D discrete
model
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L beam-column joints, in this study the several simulations with different bend
radius at the corner, 25mm(1D), 75mm(3D), 200mm(8D), were analyzed. Here, Dmeans diameter of steel bar. The arrangement of reinforcement is simplified thanthe practical due to calculation cost. Table 1 shows all simulation cases. The
models used in analysis are shown in Figure 3. Reinforcing steel bars in the modelare diameter 25mm and 10mm deformed bars.
The boundary condition considered in the analysis is shown in Figure 4
Displacement controlled monotonic loading was applied to the left surface ofspecimen, with an increment of 0.1mm for each steps and all elements on thebottom surface were fixed. Two types of loading, Open and Close, were carriedout. Open means pull the left surface to left direction, and Close means push theleft surface to right direction.
Table 1: Analysis cases
Case

C1
C3
C8
O1
O3
O8

Open
or
Close
Close
Open

Bend
Radius25(1D)
75(3D)
200(8D)
25(1D)
75(3D)
200(8D)

Concrete
Strength(N/mm2)
ft
f’c

25

Steel bar
Elastic
Yielding
modulusStress(kN/mm2)
(MPa)

2.5

190

Numberofelements
222871
198837176451
222871
198837176451600

D25 Steel bar

Maximum
Load inanalysis
(kN)
207.7
198.3
196.9
122.6
119.8
169.9

800

800
300

R=8D

500
500
D10 Steel bar
450

C8,O8
100

100
450

R=1D

R=3D

C1, O1C3, O3Figure 3: Analysis models

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Open

Close

LOAD
to leftsurface

FIX the bottom surface

Figure 4: Boundary condition
3.2 Analysis result
3.2.1 Crack patternFigure 5(a) shows the crack pattern for close cases at the maximum load andFigure 5(b) shows the crack pattern for each open cases at the displacement of
1.3mm. Deformation is enlarged 25 times.
In all close cases (Figure 5(a)), shear cracks were formed from the bottom-rightside to top-left side and only few bending cracks on the top surface were observed.
This means all three cases had shear failure at the column area. At first, shear
cracks occurred at column part from the bottom-right side and then it propagatedto the beam part. In these analyses, almost all cracks concentrated on only
column part, and no cracks occurred at bending reinforcement area. The reason ofthis behavior is a boundary condition introduced to this model. In this analysis all
bottom surface elements were fixed and could not rotate, as a result stressconcentrated at column area and it led to the failure at column area before cracks
occurs at the joints.

Load

Load
Crack propagation

Case C1(at displacement of 1.5mm)

Crack propagation

Case C3

Crack propagation

Case O1(at displacement of 1.3mm)

Crack propagation

Case C8(at displacement of 1.4mm)(at displacement of 1.4mm)

Steel bar

Steel bar(a) Close cases

Steel bar
Load

Load

Load

Load

Crack propagation

Crack propagation

Case O3(at displacement of 1.3mm)(b) Open cases

Case O8(at displacement of 1.3mm)

Figure 5: Cracks pattern
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In all open cases (Figure 5(b)), shear cracks occurs from the bending point ofreinforcement bar to the bottom surface and these shear cracks propagated inaround 45 degree direction. These analyses shows that location of the crackchanges depending on the bending radius of reinforcement and the cracks startfrom the bending start point.
3.2.2 Load-Displacement RelationshipThe load-displacement relationships from analysis are shown in Figure 6.
In all close cases (Figure 6(a)), the load-displacement relationship is not so
different although the bending radius is different. Figure 7 shows the stress
distribution for close cases at the maximum loading. In all cases, compression
stress formed diagonally from the bottom of column to the loading side. Tensilestress generated around the bending reinforcement area. Shear failure occurs incolumn in all three cases, so the maximum load of 3 cases is almost same.

(a) Close cases (C1, C3, C8)(b) Open cases (O1, O3, O8)

Figure 6: Load-displacement

TensionLoad
Compression

Case C1

Load
Compression(at displacement of 1.5mm)

TensionTensionCase C3(at displacement of 1.4mm)

Load
Compression

Case C8(at displacement of 1.4mm)

30 (Mpa)-10
Figure 7: Stress distribution of close cases
In open cases (Figure 6(b)), the load-displacement relationship of O1 and O3 were
almost same, but O8 was different: the maximum load of O8 (169.9kN) was
larger than other two (O1:122.6kN, O3:119.8kN).
Figure 8 shows the stress distribution of 3 open cases when displacement is
1.3mm (O1 and O3 is after maximum loading, O8 is before maximum loading). In
all cases, compression strut was formed from the bending part of steel bar. In this178

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analysis, it seems that width of the compression strut is defined by the bending
reinforcement area. It means that compression strut area is influenced by bending
radius of steel bar. As a result, the size of compression strut of O8 is larger thanother two and this may be a reason for the increment of maximum loading.
Figure 9 shows the shear stress distribution of 3 open cases. Shear stress area isdifferent and in all cases shear stress is from bending start area of steel bar tobottom surface in around 45 degree direction. The shear stress area accords with
the internal crack area also (Figure 10). In case O1 and O3, shear cracks reachalmost corner, left side of bottom, of the column, so the stress transfer only along
the shear cracks. However in case O8, shear cracks does not reach the corner andstops at bottom surface which is fixed, so the stress can transfer from bending bar
to the bottom surface through compression strut widely. This may be the reason
for that the load of O8 is still increasing at the displacement of 1.3mm.

Load

Compression
strut

Case O1(at displacement of 1.3mm)

Load

Load
Compression
strut

Case O3(at displacement of 1.3mm)

Compression
strut

Case O8(at displacement of 1.3mm)-1030 (Mpa)
Figure 8: Stress distribution of Open cases

Load

Load

Case O1(at displacement of 1.3mm)

Load

Case O3(at displacement of 1.3mm)

Case O8(at displacement of 1.3mm)

015 (Mpa)
Figure 9: Shear Stress distribution of Open cases

Load

Load

Load
Shear crack

Case O1(at displacement of 1.3mm)

Shear crack

Case O3(at displacement of 1.3mm)

Shear crack

Case O8(at displacement of 1.3mm)(Green: 0.03mm width crack, Yellow: 0.1mm width crack)
Figure 10: Internal cracks for Open cases

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4. CONCLUSIONS
From the result of simulations investigating the influence of reinforcement
arrangement to the L beam-column joints, the following conclusions are made.
(1)The analysis of RBSM for L beam-column joints simulated the different crack
patterns according to the loading direction and boundary condition.
(2)The analysis of loading Close direction could not simulate the cracks in joint
area because of the boundary condition problem. This boundary condition
problem should be solved next.
(3) In the analysis of Open direction, compression strut was formed and the sizeof the strut depends on the bending radius of steel bar that caused the difference of
maximum loading capacity.
REFERENCES
Salem H, M. and Maekawa, K., 2004. Pre-and Postyield Finite Element Method
Simulation of Bond of Ribbed Reinforcing Bars, Journal of StructuralEngineering, ASCE, 671-680.
Kawai, T., 1978. New Discrete Models and Their Application to Seismic
Response Analysis of Structure, Nuclear Engineering Design 48, 207-229.
Muto, S., Worapong, S., Nakamura, H. and Kunieda, M., 2005. Analysis of Bond
Characteristic between Concrete and Deformed Bar by Meso-scale Analysis.
Proceedings of JCI, Vol.27. No.2, 763-768.
Nagai, K., Sato, Y. and Ueda, T., 2005, Mesoscopic Simulation of Failure ofMortar and Concrete by 3D RBSM. Journal of advanced concrete technology,
Vol.3, No.3, pp.385-420.

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Mega
Citiesin AsiaContemporary middle-rise timber buildings
in Japan
Mikio KOSHIHARA
Professor, IIS, the University of Tokyo, Japan
kos@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
ABSTRACT
Buildings in Japan have been constructed using timber since olden times. At thesame time, Japan is a country beset by earthquake and timber buildings wereweak against fire. So, from 1950 to 1987 wooden buildings over 13m height wereprohibited by law. Revision of the Building Standards Law 2000 allowed theconstruction of buildings four-story or taller with fire-resistance performance. MBldg. built in 2005 is the first five-storied timber building after established
Building Standard Law in Japan. The possibilities of middle-rise and high-risetimber buildings in Japan are extended by completion of this building and somemiddle-rise timber buildings were built.
This paper describes the detail of three middle-rise timber buildings below.
Eastern Saitama Regional Development Center “Kasukabe Convention Hall” issix storied mix structure convention hall. From 1st to 4th stories of this building
are steel structure and top of 2 stories are timber structure. “Wood Square” isfour storied timber based hybrid structure office building.”Shimouma Project” isfive storied timber apartment house.
Keywords: seismic performance, fire resistance performance
1. INTRODUCTION
Buildings in Japan have been constructed using timber since olden times.
Traditional timber temples and shrines, such as the Horyu-ji Temple, look thesame as they did when constructed more than 1400 years ago. Many large-scale
timber buildings were constructed during that time, and include the Hall of theGreat Buddha in Todai-ji Temple (height: 46.8 m, area: 2878 m2) and the fivestory Pagoda in Toji Temple (height: 54.8 m). Even after the Meiji Era, four andfive-story timber buildings were used as factories, warehouses, and inns, until theconstruction of large-scale timber buildings was restricted by the Urban Building
Law of 1919, and the Building Standards Law of 1950 further restricted theconstruction of large-scale timber buildings. In 1959, the Architectural Institute ofJapan carried a resolution against timber construction to prevent fire, storm, andflood damage, making it impossible to construct large-scale timber buildings.
Timber building height restrictions were loosened in 1987, allowing theconstruction of three-story structures and buildings taller than 13 m. Eaves having
a height of more 9 m were also permitted using large sections of laminated timber.
Revision of the Building Standards Law in 2000 allowed the construction ofbuildings four stories or taller with fire-resistance performance. The present study

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Octoberreports the structural and fire resistance characteristics of the first timber-based
hybrid structure in Japan, the five-story Kanazawa M building (Kanazawa M
Bldg.), constructed in 2004.
2. KANAZAWA M BUILDING
2.1 Outline of the building
The five-story Kanazawa M Bldg. (height: 14.237 m,
area: 6.195 m x 12.100 m) was constructed in
Kanazawa City, Ishikawa Prefecture.(Photo 1) The
first story has a Reinforced Concrete structure and thesecond to fifth stories have a timber-based hybrid
structure with built-in steel materials. Building data arelisted in Table 1, and the floor plan and elevation are
shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2.
Table 1: Building data
Architect
Structural
DesignArea
Use
HeightNumberof stories
Structure-architect office- Strayt Sheep
Kirino Structural Engineering Office374m2(total floor) / 74.96m2(building)School14.237m
5th stories
RC construction(first story)
Timber-based hybrid construction(2-5 storied)

Figure 1 : Floor plan

182

Photo.1: External viewof Kanazawa M Bldg.

Figure 2 : Elevation

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2.2 Members
The building mainly uses the structural members listed below to satisfy therequirements for vertical load performance, seismic performance, and fire
resistance. This building is required fire resistive construction, and structuralelements are required 1 hour fire resistive period.
(1) Column, beam, and brace
The building uses laminated timber with built-in steel materials for columns,
beams, and braces to satisfy the structural and fire resistance requirements of afive-story building. The cross section of each member is shown in Figure 3.
The column is square laminated timber (larch E105-F300, 200 x 200 mm) withbuilt-in square steel bars (SS400, 65 x 65 mm). The beam is laminated timber(200 x 330 mm) with steel plates (SS400, PL-22x300). The cross section of abrace looks identical to that of a column, which is necessary for fire resistancecertification.
(2) Floor and roof
The floors and roofs are made of reinforced concrete slabs joined together withlag screws and steel plates built into the beams.
(3) WallThe longitudinal walls are load-bearing and made of nailed plywood. The lateralwalls are non-load-bearing, because of setting braces.
(4) Stairs
The stairs are made of steel frames.

columnbeam
brace
Figure 3 : Cross sections of column, beam, and brace
2.3 Structural planning
Similar to ordinary timber buildings, a five-story timber-based hybrid structure
requires verification of its safety against self weight, live load, vertical load bysnow coverage, and horizontal load under a horizontal force, such as anearthquake or wind. Fire resistive buildings are also required to maintain building
integrity in the event of a fire. Based on these structural performance requirements,
the following structural verification was conducted on the Kanazawa M Bldg.

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2.3.1 Vertical Load
The timber and steel frame function together as a structural member in the second
to fifth stories of a timber-based hybrid structure. To clarify the function of thetimber and the steel frame about each member, the joint was designed as follows:(1) Beam
Since the vertical deformation is equal between the timber and the steel frame,vertical load should be shared depending on their ratio of flexural rigidity, EI (E:Table 2: Flexural rigidity ratio of timber and steel frame
E
I
EI
EI/∑EI(N/mm2)(mm4)(Nmm2)
Timber frame
1.05x104
5.55x1080.583x1013
0.366
Steel frame
2.05x105
4.95x107
1.01x1013
0.634
Young's modulus, I: Geometric moment of inertia). The flexural rigidity ratio EI /∑EI is shown in Table 2.
The timber and steel frame of the beam are joined at a beam edge using drift pins
to transmit the load from the timber to the steel frame, so the steel frame bears all
the shear force at the edge. The gusset plate from the steel frame of the column
and the steel frame of the beam are joined with hightension bolts for the column-beam connection. The holes in the side of the timber
frame are filled with timber after high tension bolts are clamped. (Figure 4).
Snow load stress on both the timber and steel frame of the beam are designed not
to exceed the short-term allowable limit, even in the very rare case of a snow loadwith a vertical depth of 1.2 m (multiplied by 1.4).
(2) Column
Vertical load is transmitted to the steel frame of a column through a gusset plate,and vertical loading of the timber is avoided using a 3 mm clearance, which isessential for combining the timber with the steel frame. The timber of the column
functions as a buckling restraint for the steel frame, and, as the structuralexperimentation, alone, the steel frame of the column buckles at about 20% of theyield stress. However, the timber-based hybrid column did not buckle when thesteel frame yielded to axial force compression because the timber functioned as abuckling restraint.

Figure 4 : Joint (Lateral)

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Figure 5 : Joint (longitude)

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2.3.2 Horizontal load
The structural planning of the building is different from each direction. A timberbased hybrid beam is suspended laterally and supported by columns of identicalmaterial, and the longitudinal beam is built in a reinforced concrete slab. Damage
limit seismic force produces greater horizontal force than the load exerted by veryrare wind, as prescribed in the Building Standards Law, so horizontal resistingelements are braces the lateral roof face and the longitudinal plywood (loadbearing) walls.
(1) Beam
A lateral timber-based hybrid beam bears axial force and produces a reaction
force of braces during an earthquake. The steel frame bears axial force, the timber
frame functions as a buckling restraint, and calculations confirmed the absence ofbuckling within the safety limits of applied axial force.
(2) Column
During a lateral earthquake, a timber-based hybrid column produces a reaction
force of braces. This column does not buckle when the steel frame yielded to axial
force compression as mentioned above.
During a longitudinal earthquake, vertical shear force is transmitted from theplywood bearing wall to the timber of the column through the vertical frame(Figure 5). The timber has a bearing plate of the steel frame (PL-19) at both endsof the timber of the column, and when the timber collides against the bearing
plates, axial force is transmitted to the steel frame of the column. Therefore,
during an earthquake, the timber functions as a buckling restraint.
(3) Brace
A brace bears axial force during a lateral earthquake. Only one steel frame (PL22x65), at the center, contributes to the structure as the steel frames. Buckling of
the brace was not observed under significant plastic deformation of the steel frameby compression axial force.
(4) Plywood bearing wall
A plywood bearing wall bears horizontal force during a longitudinal earthquake,and consists of structural plywood (thickness: 24 mm), screws (diameter: 8 mm)
and both vertical and horizontal frames of laminated timber arranged around theplywood (Figure 5). Vertical shear force of the plywood bearing wall is asmentioned in Section (2), and horizontal shear force is transmitted from thestructural plywood to both the horizontal frame and the downstairs plywood
bearing wall through anchor bolts (M16) embedded in the reinforced concrete slab.
2.3.3 After Fire
(1) Beam
Only the steel frame bears vertical load on the assumption that the timber had
burnt completely. Although timber actually stops burning, the remaining timbercannot be used as a structural member under present law. The vertical load is
assumed to be the same as before a fire, and for safety reasons, the steel frame
stress should not exceed the long-term allowable limit.
(2) Column
The column also bears vertical load only using the steel frame and the stressapplied should not exceed the long-term allowable limit for buckling.
(3) Brace

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The timber of a brace is also assumed to have completely burned. The windpressure, at the maximum momentary wind velocity of 15 m/s, is set as theconstant wind load, and both brace tension and beam bending resist the lateralhorizontal force. In this case, the steel frame stress is prevented from exceeding
the short-term allowable limit.
(4) Plywood bearing wall
A plywood bearing wall is assumed to have completely burned.
(5) Longitudinal RC beam
An RC slab has a built-in longitudinal RC beam, as shown in Figure 5. The rigid
frame structure, consisting of the RC beam and the steel frame of the column,
resists the longitudinal horizontal force produced by the constant wind.
2.4 Calculation of response and limit strength
We created an analytical model of the building based on the experimental results,
and verified the safety against seismic force by predicting response deformation
using the performance-based design method (“Calculation of Response and Limit
Strength”).
2.4.1 Verification by Safe Limit Strength Calculation(1) Safe limit drift angle
A safe limit drift angle of 1/50 was set for both the lateral and longitudinal
directions. Since the strength of longitudinal plywood bearing wall rose to a drift
angle of approximately 1/20, 1/50, as a safety margin, is more than adequate. Thismargin was set in accordance with the deformation tracking performance of a sash
window used for an outside wall of an ordinary building.
(2) Calculation of response
The experimental and analytical safety limit strength exceeded the required safety
limit strength, and the true response value is calculated as follows:a) Creating a relation diagram of the load-deformation curve (Sa-Sd) at the
representative material point of the buildingb) Calculating the acceleration (San) of input into the building at equivalent
cycles by considering building attenuation at each stepc) Plotting San on a straight line connecting Sa-Sd (load deformation of thebuilding) andthe origin at the step

lateral direction
longitudinal direction
Figure 6 : Prediction of responses at the time of an earthquake

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ICUS Report 65d) The true response value is the intersection of the San curve at each step(demand curve) and the Sa-Sd curve of the building.
Results of the calculation are shown in Figure 6. The safety against seismic force
both direction was verified. In the lateral direction, strength hardly increases after
the yielding of horizontal resisting elements. In the longitudinal direction, theplywood bearing wall is in an elastic area, up to 1/50 of the safe limit drift angle.
2.5 Performance of M Bldg.
Besides verifying the safety against seismic force, to satisfy the fire resistance
performance required for fireproof buildings, we verified fire resistance using a
beam-loaded heating test, a column-loaded heating test, and a joint heating test.
Based on the results of structure and fire resistance research, Japan's first building
using a timber-based hybrid structure, having 1-hour fire resistance, wascompleted in Ishikawa Prefecture in 2005,
3. “Kasukabe Convention Hall” building
The Eastern Saitama Regional Development Center “Kasukabe Convention Hall”
was constructed in Kasukabe City, Saitama Prefecture in 2011.(Photo 3) This

Photo 3 : “Kasukabe Convention Hall” Bldg.
(Photo by YAMASHITA SEKKEI INC.)
Architect
Structural Design
Area
Use
Heightnumber of storeys
Structure

Table 3: Building data

YAMASHITA SEKKEI INC.
YAMASHITA SEKKEI INC.
10529.08m2(total floor) / 2848.04m2(building)
Convention hall
27.086m
6 stories
Steel structure (1st-4th stories), Timber structure (5th-6th storiees)

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Octoberbuilding is six storied mix structure convention hall. From 1st to 4th stories of thisbuilding are steel structure and top of 2 stories are timber structure.
Feature of this building is that 2x80mm thick wall is used as shear walls. Thiswall is made of LVL (Laminated Veneer Lumber). These seismic elements areallowed lower fire resistance than column, beam and floor which support verticalload, such as self weight or live load. So these members can be exposed itself
without fireproof coating and can be used as a finishing material.
4. “WOOD SQUARE” building
The “WOOD SQUARE” Bldg. was constructed in Koshigaya City, Saitama
Prefecture in 2012.(Photo 3) This four storied timber building have a timberbased hybrid structure with built-in steel materials same as M Bldg.

Photo 3 : “WOOD SQUARE” Bldg. (left: exterior, right: interior)(Photo by POLUS)
Table 4: Building data
Architect
Structural Design
Area
Use
Heightnumber of stories
Structure

JR EAST DESIGN CORPORATIONJR EAST DESIGN CORPORATION
6592.63m2(total floor) / 1353.51m2(building)
Office21.000m
4 stories
Timber-based hybrid construction

This building use the maximum timber-based hybrid beam obtained the approvalby the Minister. The beam is 663mm depth and 325 wide, H-600x200 covered byglulam. This member can realize 12.8m span space. 641 cubic meters of glulam isused in this building.
5. ”Shimouma Project””Shimouma Project” is under construction in Setagaya-ku, Tokyo.(Photo 4) Thisbuilding is five storied timber apartment house.

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Timber characteristic appearance is not only finishing member but also a
structural member. This lattice-shaped member work as a bracing.

Photo 4 : “Shimouma” Project (Photo by KUS)
Architect
Structural Design
Area
Use
HeightNumber of stories
Structure

KUS
M.Koshihara, T.Sato, Y.Kirino
122.89m2(total floor) / 92.83m2(building)
Apartment
16.200m
5 stories
RC structure(1st story)
Timber structure(2-4 story)

6. CONCLUSION
After completion of M Bldg. various middle-rise timber building were constructed
and will be construct. A technology of middle-rise timber building about seismic
performance and fire-resistance performance is developing. New technology will
create new timber architecture. Eve in the city we have a new choice, timber
structure, not only steel structure and RC structure.
REFERENCES
M.KOSHIHARA, H.ISODA, et al.: A Study of five storied timber based hybrid
building for practical use (Part 1-3), Summary of Technical Papers of Annual
Meeting Architectural Institute of Japan, C-1, pp.201-206, 2005
S. YUSA, T.YOSHIKAWA, et.al: Research in practice on 5-story fire resistancehybrid wooden structure building, Summaries of Technical Papers of Annual
Meeting Japan Society for Finishing Technology, pp.7, 2005

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Study on lightning risk assessment
for oil tank area
Boni SU1, Hong HUANG2, Yuntao LI1 and Fanghui LUO1
1

Institute of Public Safety Research, Department of Engineering Physics,
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
2
Professor, Institute of Public Safety Research, Department of Engineering
Physics, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
hhong@tsinghua.edu.cn
ABSTRACT
Along with economy's growth, energy demand is rising unceasingly. Many
countries are increasing oil reserves to satisfy the daily industry and national
defense requirements. When unexpected events happen, oil reserves are importantto national stability. In recent years, many oil tank accidents caused by lightning
occurred, which means that studying on the disaster risk assessment model of theoil tank in lightning weather has practical significance.
In this paper, models of lightning and floating roof tanks were establishedaccording to domestic and international standards. The risk probability oflightning hitting oil tanks was calculated using these models. After that, the risk
probability of fire when lightning hit oil tanks was estimated according to someexperimental results. Finally, practical methods for lightning protection in oiltank areas were given.
Keywords: lightning, floating roof tank, fire, probability, risk assessment
1. INTRODUCTION
With the continuous development of economic, many countries are increasing oil
reserves to satisfy the daily industry and national defense requirements. The
expansion of oil reservoirs cause safety risks. Oil tanks are often used to store
toxic, flammable or explosive chemicals. Once accidents occur, a great deal ofheat and dangerous substances will be released, causing serious casualties andeconomic losses. Among those accidents, lightning-caused accidents account for alarge proportion. According to statistics, in 529 oil tank fire incidents, 31% werecaused by lightning (Drabkin M. M. and Grosser A, 2006). There were several
serious accidents caused by lightning hitting oil tanks, such as the Huangdao oil
depot fire in August 12, 1989, and the Orion Noroo Oil refinery fire in July 7,
2001. Therefore, lightning protection in oil tank areas is very important. In thispaper, the risk of lightning hit floating roof tanks was evaluated and theprobability of fire caused by lightning was calculated.

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2. MODELS OF LIGHTNING AND OIL TANKS
2.1 Model of lightning
Thunderclouds contain positive and negative charge. When the electric fieldstrength reaches a certain threshold, the air between thundercloud and ground (oranother thundercloud) will breakdown, forming a discharge. This is lightning. The
three most common types of lightning are Cloud-to-Cloud (CC) lightning,
positive Cloud-to-Ground (CG) lightning and negative CG lightning. CC lightning
has little effect on the ground, positive CG lightning only occurs in someparticular natural disasters. Therefore, we mainly consider the prevention ofnegative CG lightning in lightning protection. Each lightning discharge consists of
one or more partial lightning strikes (DEHN 2011). The possible combinations ofpartial lightning strikes are shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Possible combinations of partial lightning strikes
In a lightning current, first impulse current always exists and is the maximum, so
we only consider first impulse currents in this paper.
Lightning currents are load-independent. According to International Electro
technical Commission (IEC) standard IEC 62305-1 (IEC 2010), the current shapesof impulse currents in lightning can be approximated as:

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I
i =
⋅
2
k 1 + (t / τ 1 )1010(1)Where i is lightning current (A), I is the peak current (A), t is the time (s), τ1 is thefront time constant (s), τ2 is the tail time constant (s), k is the correction factor forthe peak current. For the first negative impulse, τ1=1.82μs, τ2=285μs, k=0.986(IEC 2010).
The amount of charge discharged by lightning, Q (C), equals to i on t integral:
Q=I×2.872×10-4s(2)Distribution of peak current can be obtained according to statistical data. As we
don't have statistical data, Chinese standard DL/T 620-1997 (Ministry of ElectricPower Industry of the People’s Republic of China 1997) is used to estimate the
distribution:
lgP=-I/88(3)

Where I is current (kA), P is the probability of lightning's peak current exceedingI.
2.2 Model of oil tanks
There are two kinds of oil tanks: metal tanks and nonmetal tanks. Because of theirpoor electrical conductivity, nonmetal tanks usually bring sparks when hit bylightning. That is dangerous. Furthermore, when a nonmetal tank catches fire, it ishard to put out the fire. The serious fire in Huangdao oil depot was caused bylightning which hit a nonmetal tank, the fire couldn't be put out until it burnt thewhole oil tank area. After that accident, constructing nonmetal tanks to store oil isforbidden in China. Nowadays, large oil tanks are usually floating roof tanks
made by metal. Unlike nonmetal ones, metal tanks have low resistance and have agood electromagnetic shielding ability. Therefore, induced lightning has little
impact on metal tanks. So we only consider direct lightning in this paper.
Basic structure of a floating roof tank is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Basic structure of a floating roof tank

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The floating roof floats as the liquid level changes. The gap between the floating
roof and the tank shell is about 250mm wide. In order to reduce the leakage of oilgas, rim seal is used. Currently, most floating roof tanks use a primary seal and asecondary seal. There are three kinds of primary seal: mechanical seal, elastic seal
and tubular seal. Mechanical seal reduces leakage by pushing steel plates against
the tank shell using a boom system. Elastic seal and tubular seal are collectively
referred to as soft seal. Soft seal reduces leakage by filling the gap with elastic
material (foam or liquid).
There are a set of floating roof tanks' dimensions in a manual (Zhengxi Li andSiwen Xu 1997), as shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Standard dimensions of floating roof tanks in reference document
Volume/m3
10000
20000
30000
50000
100000

Diameter/m
28.50
40.50
46.00
60.00
81.00

Height/m
15.85
15.85
19.35
19.35
21.10

In practice, tanks' volume and dimensions may be adjusted according to local
conditions.
3. CALCULATION OF PROBABILITY OF ACCIDENTS
3.1 Probability of lightning hitting a tankAccording to IEC standard IEC 62305-2 (IEC 2010), the average annual numberof dangerous events due to lightning ND (a-1) can be calculated using the following
formula:
ND=NG·AD·CD×10-6(4)

Where NG is the lightning ground flash density (km-2· a-1), AD is the collection area(km2), and CD is the location factor.
According to Chinese standard GB50057-2010 (China Machinery Industry
Federation 2010), when statistical data are unavailable, NG can be estimated by:
NG=0.1Td(5)

Where Td is the number of thunderstorm days per year. Take Qingdao City (where
Huangdao oil depot fire happened) for example, Td =23. So N G =2.3/km2 /aaccording to the formula, which means that there will be 2.3 events of lightning
hit ground in 1.0 km2 per year on average.

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The collection area AD of a building with a height of H and a radius of R is:
AD=π(R+3H)2(6)

Large oil tanks are often built near each other, thus they are surrounded by objectsof the same height or smaller. So CD is 0.5 according to IEC 62305-2.
By taking different tank dimensions in Table 1 into these formulas, we got
different ND of tanks of different volume, as shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Average annual number of lightning hitting tanks
Volume/m3
10000
20000
30000
50000
100000AD/m3
1.20×104
1.44×104
2.06×104
2.44×104
3.38×104

ND/ km-2· a-1
0.01380.01660.02370.02800.0389Figure 3: Average annual number of lightning hitting tanks
It can be seen that larger oil tanks are more likely to be hit by lightning.
3.2 Probability of spark causing fire
In recent floating roof tank accidents in China, most of the fires caused bylightning started at the rim seal. Shunts on the secondary seal are the main sourcesof ignition in floating roof tank fires. In most floating roof tanks, shunts are set up
at intervals of 3m or less. The intervals are assumed to be 3m in this paper. We
can calculate the number of shunts on tanks of different dimensions by dividing
3m into the circumference. Experimental results show that a shunt will generate
sparks when the lighting reaches a peak current of about 400A (Haiyan Hu et al.

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2011). The floating roof is metal and is very large, thus it has low resistance.
Therefore, we consider the floating roof is equipotential and all the shunts areparallel connected. So lightning should reach a peak current of n×400A, where nis the number of shunts. According to formula (3), the probability of lightningcause sparks can be calculated. We can get the average annual number of such
events by multiplying the average annual number of lightning hit tanks. The resultis shown in Table 3.
Table 3: Probability of lightning causing sparks on tanks
Volume/m3 Numberof Shunts
10000
30
20000
43
30000
49
50000
63
10000085

Peak Current
Needed/kA
12
17.2
19.6
25.2
34

Probability
0.73
0.64
0.60
0.52
0.41

Annual Number
of Events
0.01010.01060.01420.01450.0160It can be seen that the probability of lightning cause sparks decreases slowly as
the tanks get larger. But considering that larger tanks are more likely to be hit bylightning, the average annual number of lightning cause sparks increases as thetanks get larger.
If sparks occur and the concentration of oil gas reaches the explosive limit, the oil
gas will explosion. According to statistical data, in 4% of tanks that using soft
primary seal and 19% of tanks that using mechanical primary seal, theconcentration of oil gas between the primary seal and the secondary seal arebeyond the explosive limit (Xuqing Lang et al. 2008).
By multiplying the average annual number of lightning cause sparks by theprobability of oil gas reach the explosive limit, we get the average annual numberof lightning cause fire by sparks.
Table 4: Annual number of lightning causing fire by sparks
Volume/m3
10000
20000
30000
50000
100000196

Using Soft Primary Seal
0.000403
0.000424
0.000568
0.000579
0.000640

Using Mechanical Primary Seal
0.019150.020120.02700
0.02752
0.03038

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Figure 4: Annual number of lightning causing fire by sparks
In fact, in tanks that using mechanical primary seal, sparks can occur at someparts other than shunts, like the gap between the seal plates and the tank shell. So
the actual annual number of accidents in tanks that using mechanical primary seal
should be higher than the estimated value in this paper. Comparing to tanks thatusing soft primary seal, such accidents are much more likely to occur on tanks
that using mechanical primary seal. That is in line with the fact that almost all the
recent floating roof tank fires caused by lightning in China occurred on tanks thatusing mechanical primary seal (Hong Gong et al. 2008).
3.3 Other possible accident forms
There are other ways how lightning can cause oil tank fires. For example, oil gas
leaks through the rim seal and reaches the explosive limit, and then lightning canignite the oil gas and cause a fire. However, the leak rate of floating roof tanks isvery low under common condition, and the concentration of oil gas is far below
the explosive limit. Large amounts of leakage can happen only when loading andunloading oil. This kind of accidents can be avoided by using weather forecast
and avoiding loading or unloading oil during a thunderstorm. Therefore, thispaper does not consider the probability of such accidents.
4. CONCLUSIONSThis paper computes the probability of direct lightning strokes causing floating
roof tank fires by sparks at the rim seal. Based on these data, we can draw thefollowing conclusion: comparing to tanks using soft primary seal, tanks using
mechanical primary seal are more likely to catch fire due to lightning. This
matches the actual situation of recent floating roof tank fires caused by lightning
in China.
To reduce the accident rate of floating roof tank fires caused by lightning, thefollowing methods can be used.
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October 2012, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia(1) Reduce the probability of lightning struck a tank. Direct lightning strokes canonly cause fire when they hit oil tanks. When selecting oil depot sites, try to avoid
the lightning-prone areas. For oil depots that have already been built, set up
lightning rods to reduce the probability of lightning struck a tank.
(2) Reduce the use of mechanical seals. Although mechanical seals have long life
and are easy to maintain, their ability of defense is not as good as soft seals. In
lightning-prone areas, less mechanical seals and more soft seals should be used.
(3) Improve shunts on the rim seal. If shunts don't produce sparks any more, theaccident rate of floating roof tank fires caused by lightning will decreasesignificantly. Currently, there are some attempts. For example, the American
Petroleum Institute (API) put forward that shunts should be moved to 0.3m below
the oil surface (American Petroleum Institute 2009), and China Petroleum &Chemical Corporation put forward that wax scraping device can be used as shunts(Haiyan Hu et al. 2011). Although these ideas are not mature now, it is inevitablethat shunts on the rim seal should be improved in the future.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was supported by Ministry of Science and Technology of the People’s
Republic of China under Grant No. 2012BAK03B03 and 2011BAK07B02.
REFERENCES
Drabkin M. M., and Grosser A., 2006. Lighting protection of flammable storage
facilities. International Conference on Grounding and Earthing & 2nd
International Conference on Lightning Physics and Effects.
International Electrotechnical Commission, 2010. Protection against lightning Part 1: General principles. IEC62305-1.
International Electrotechnical Commission, 2010. Protection against lightning Part 2: Risk management. IEC62305-2.
Ministry of Electric Power Industry of the People’s Republic of China, 1997.
Overvoltage protection and insulation coordination for AC electrical installations.
DL/T 620-1997.
Zhengxi Li, and Siwen Xu, 1997. Oil Storage and Transportation Design Manual.
Beijing: Petroleum Industry Press.
China Machinery Industry Federation, 2010. Code for design protection of
structures against lightning. GB 50057-2010.
DEHN, 2011. Lightning Protection Guide. http://www.dehn-usa.com/dehnLightning- Protection- Guide-pubcid4.html.
Haiyan Hu, Baoquan Liu, Quanzhen Liu, Tingting Zhang, and Xin Gao, 2011.
Analysis on Second Sealing Oil and Gas Space Discharge in Floating Roof Tank.
China Safety Science Journal 21(3): 106-109.
Xuqing Lang, Xin Gao, Hong Gong, Quanzhen Liu, and Ting Wang, 2008.
Research on Reducing Oil Gas Concentration in Large Floating Roof Tank Seals.
Journal of Oil and Gas Technology 30(2): 618-619.
Hong Gong, Quanzhen Liu, Xiangsheng Song, Xuqing Lang, and Jianxiang Li.
Analysis of Fire Accidents Caused by Lightning Strike on the Seal Ring of Large
Floating Roof Tanks. Safety Health & Environment 8(10): 7-8.

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American Petroleum Institute, 2009. Recommended Practice for Lightning
Protection of Aboveground Storage Tanks for Flammable or Combustible Liquids.
Washington, DC: API Publishing Service.

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New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Structural damage detection by using hybrid
time reversal process method
Usik LEE1, Ilwook PARK2, and Jungsik CHOI3
Professor, Dept. of Mechanical Eng., Inha University, Korea
ulee@inha.ac.kr
2
Graduate Student, Dept. of Mechanical Eng., Inha University, Korea
iwpark@inha.edu
3
Graduate Student, Dept. of Mechanical Eng., Inha University, Korea
blue4325@yahoo.co.kr
1

ABSTRACTThis paper presents a hybrid time reversal process method (HTRPM) for the
structural damage detection. The HTRPM is characterized by three key features:(1) In the HTRPM, the forward process of the time reversal process is conductedby the measurement while the backward process is conducted by the computation;(2) For structural damage detection, the damage signal is obtained by extracting
the comparison signal from the signal reconstructed by the time reversal process;(3) The imaging method is used to visualize the damage location by using thedamage signal. The HTRPM is applied to the aluminum plates and composite
laminated plates. Experimental results show that the proposed HTRPM cansuccessfully detect the damages generated in the plate specimen.
Keywords: structural damage, damage detection, hybrid time reversal process
method, time reversal, plate
1. INTRODUCTION
Lamb waves are the guided waves which can travel a long distance in the thinwalled structures such as the plates (Viktorov, 1967). When the guided wave
travels through a region where damages exist, scattering may occur in all directions
to change the characteristics of the guided wave. Thus it is possible to detect
structural damages by comparing the response signals measured at the damaged
state with the baseline date measured at the intact state. As the baseline date may
change due to the change of environmental or operational conditions, the baselinebased damage detection methods often provide inaccurate damage detection results.
Thus, recently some researchers (Wang et al., 1998; Park et al., 2007) haveproposed some baseline-free damage detection methods by using the time reversal
process (TRP) of Lamb waves.
The standard TRP consists of two processes which are conducted by actuatorand sensor-based measurements: the forward process and the backward process. In
the forward process, an input voltage is applied to a PZT actuator (say, PZT A) andthe response signal is measured by a PZT sensor at other location (say, PZT B).
The measured response signal is then time reversed and it is used as the input201

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signal for the next backward process. In the backward process, the role of PZT A
and PZT B is reversed: PZT B now plays as the actuator and PZT B as the senor.
The time reversed measured response signal is applied to PZT B and then the
response signal is finally measured by PZT A. The response signal measured by
PZT A is called the reconstructed response signal. If there are no damages on thepaths between PZT A and PZT B, the reconstructed signal will be identical to theinitial input signal applied to PZT A: this is the case of the perfect time reversal of
the non-dispersive waves. However if there exist damages on the paths between
PZT A and PZT B, the time-reversibility of the Lamb waves will be break-down.
Thus the difference between the initial input signal and the reconstructed response
signal has been used for detecting damages in the baseline-free damage detection
methods (Wang et al., 1998; Park et al., 2007).
In the standard TRP, both forward and backward processes of the TRP are all
conducted by the actuator and sensor-based measurements. In most existing TRPbased damage detection methods (e.g., Park et al., 2007), the pattern comparison
methods have been widely used, where the shape of the initial input signal iscompared with that of the reconstructed response signal for detecting damages.
Very recently Lee and Choi (2010) and Lee et al. (2012) proposed a hybrid TRP
where the measurement-based backward process is replaced by the computationbased process. The advantages of the hybrid TRP over the standard TRP can bereferred to Jun and Lee (2012). As the shape of initial input signal can be changed
during the TRP by many other reasons than the damage itself, the conventional
pattern comparison methods may not be always appropriate.
Thus this paper presents a hybrid TRP-based baseline-fee damage detection
method where damage signals are used to visualize damage locations by using an
imaging technique.
2. GENERAL PROCEDURE OF STRUCTURAL DAMAGE DETECTION
2.1 Computation of the reconstructed signal
The general procedure of the hybrid TRP to obtain the refined reconstructedsignal by an actuator-sensor PZT pair is as follows (Lee and Choi, 2010; Jun andLee, 2012):(1) Exert a narrowband tone-burst input signal to an actuator PZT placed at alocation (location A) of the plate under inspection as illustrated in Figure 1. The
center frequency of the input signal is chosen to excite Lamb wave A0 and S0
modes only and it is tuned so that A0 mode becomes dominant over S0 mode.
(2) Measure the response signal at other location (location B) of the plate byusing a sensor PZT.
(3) Refine the measured response signal by removing small S0 mode whichcomes first at the sensor PZT.
(4) Reverse the refined measured response signal in time.
(5) Compute the refined transfer function by dividing the refined measured
response signal by the input signal applied at the location A.
(6) Compute the reconstructed response signal by multiplying the time
reversed refined measured response signal (used as a new input signal applied at

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the location B) and the refined transfer function. The result is illustrated in Figure
1.
The above procedure is repeated for all other actuator-sensor PZT pairs or
Lamb wave propagation paths. The benefit of the hybrid TRP is to remove
excessive unnecessarily wave signals otherwise to be generated by the S0 mode
from the refined reconstructed signal, which will make the signal processing much
simple and efficient. In order to improve the damage detection results obtained byusing the imaging method (Wang, 1998; Ihn and Chang, 2008; Jun and Lee, 2012),
the wavelet transform (WT) is applied to the reconstructed response signals. From
the time-frequency responses obtained by WT, the time responses at the center
frequency of the input signal are extracted and used as the final forms of thereconstructed response signals.

Vs

200

Input

0
-200

0

20

40

60
Time (μ s)

80

100

100

120

140

----- Reconstructed
Output (VTR)

mVs

A

0

-100

0

20

40
60
Time (μ s)

80

100

120

140

Figure 1: Input signal and reconstructed response signal
2.2 Damage detection method
The reconstructed response signal for a specific actuator-sensor PZT pair ingeneral consists of a main wave packet and single pair (multiple pairs) of
sidebands due to a single damage (multiple damages). As a unique feature of the
TRP of Lamb waves, the sidebands always appear on both sides of the main wave
packet in a symmetric form. For instance, a pair of sideband illustrated in Figure 1
is formed by the wave signals which propagate back to the initial input excitation
point (location A) via the damage during the forward and backward processes.
Thus, the TOA (time of arrival) of each sideband signal can be computed by using
its group velocity and traveling distance. The traveling distance of a sideband isdetermined by the linear distance between two PZTs used as an actuator-sensor
pair and the location of damage. This implies that the TOA of each sideband
contains damage information. Thus, the TOA of each sideband can be used todetect damage.
The pattern comparison methods have been used in the previous TRP-based
damage detection methods (e.g., Park et al., 2007) where the difference between
the initial input signal and the main wave packet part of the reconstructed signal isused to detect damage. However, the difference may come arise due to not only
the damage but also the other sources such as the dispersive and damping
characteristics of a structure. Thus, instead of using the pattern comparison
method based on the difference between the initial input signal and the main wave
packet part of the reconstructed signal, the TOFs of the sidebands will be used todetect damage.
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Figure 2 shows an input signal and the corresponding reconstructed response
signal for a specific actuator-sensor PZT pair. It is obvious from Figure 2 that theshape and magnitude of the reconstructed response signal are not identical tothose of input signal due to the effects of damage, damping, and dispersive
characteristics of the structure. Thus, in order to use the sideband signals on bothsides of the main wave packet for damage detection, the authors propose a method
to remove the main wave packet from the reconstructed response signal byutilizing the input signal (Lee and Choi, 2010).
The input signal can be modified in magnitude and phase so as to match withthe shape of the main wave packet of the reconstructed response signal. The shapeof the main wave packet part is characterized by three parameters as displayed in
Figure 3. The input signal modified in such a way is called the comparison signal
and it is compared with the reconstructed response signal in the top of Figure 4. In
Figure 4, all signals are displayed in enveloped forms. By subtracting thecomparison signal from the reconstructed response signal, the main wave packet
part can be removed to obtain the damage signal which now contains only the
sideband on the right-hand side of the main wave packet. The damage signal for a
specific wave propagation path between PZT A and PZT B is displayed in thebottom of Figure 4. The damage signals for other wave propagation paths can beobtained in the similar manner for the use in the damage detection. By applying
the imaging method to damage signals, the damage locations can be visualized asa color image (Ihn and Chang, 2008; Jun and Lee, 2012).

Normalized

1

Input
Reconstructed

0

-1
20

40

60

Time (μs)

80

100

120

Normalized

Figure 2: Comparison of the input and reconstructed signals
∆V

T

1

Vmax

0
-1
20

30

40

50

60

70
Time (μ s)

80

90

100

110

120

Normalized

Normalized

Figure 3: Parameters of the main peak of the reconstructed signal

100Reconstructed signal
Comparing signal

20

40

A→ B

60
80
Time (μ s)

100

1

0
0

120

140

Damage signal
A→ B

20

40

60
80
Time (μ s)

100

120

140

Figure 4: Damage signal for the wave propagation path between PZT A and PZT B

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3. EXPERIMETAL RESUTLS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Experimental set-up
The experimental setup used for the present study is shown in Figure 5. It consistsof a data acquisition (DAQ) system, a function generator, a linear amplifier, three
digitizers, a personal computer, and the plate specimen with four surface bonded
PZTs. The LabView waveform generator is used to generate a narrowband toneburst analog signal. The analog signal is then transformed into the digital signal
and exerted to a PZT by the function generator, after being amplified by the linear
amplifier. The response signals are measured by other three PZTs and stored in
the DAQ system via the digitizers. The personal computer is used to conduct thesignal processing of the measured response signals, the computation-based
backward process of the hybrid TRP, and the diagnostic digital imaging process.
The damage in the aluminum plate is represented by the added mass (circular steel
bar of diameter 10mm) attached on the plate surface.

DAQ Chassis(LabVIEW)

Function
Generator

Digitizers

ComputerLinear
Amplifier

PZT A
PZT D

PZT B
PZT C

Added Mass
(Damage)

Figure 5: Experimental set-up for the present study
3.2 Experimental results
Experimental results of damage detection are displayed in Figure 6 for thealuminum plates with single damage and two damages and in Figure 7 for thecomposite laminated plate with single damage.
900
40
800
35
700
30
600
25
500

Y

20
400
15
300
10
200
5
100
0
0

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

(a) Single damage

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October

900
3.5
800
3

700

⊗

600

⊗

2.5

500

Y

2

400
1.5

⊗

300

⊗
1

200

0.5

100
0

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

0

X

(b) Two damages
Figure 6: Damage detection results for the aluminum plate with (a) single damageand (b) two damages
500

110

450

100

400

90
80

350

⊗

Y

300

⊗

70
60

250

50

200

⊗

⊗

40

150

30

100

20
50
10
0

0

100

200

300

400

500

X

Figure 7: Damage detection result for a composite laminated plate with single
damageFigures 6 and 7 show that the present hybrid TRP and imaging method-based
damage detection method is quite successful to detect damages generated in themetallic plate as well as in the composite laminated plate.
4. CONCLUSIONS
A hybrid TRP and imaging method-based structural damage detection method is
proposed in this paper. The damage signals obtained by extracting comparison
signal from the reconstructed response signal are used for structural damage
detection. Experimental results show that the proposed structural damage
detection method can successfully detect damages generated in the aluminum andcomposite laminated plates.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was supported by Basic Science Research Program through the
National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of
Education Science and Technology (Grant number 2010-0007741; 2012-004482).

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REFERENCES
Jun, Y. and Lee, U., 2012, Computer-aided hybrid time reversal process forstructural health monitoring. Journal of Mechanical Science and Technology 26,
53-61.
Lee, U., Jun, Y. and Park, I., 2012, A computer-aided time reversal process forstructural damage diagnosis. Advanced Materials Research 393-395, 3-6.
Lee, U. and Choi, J., 2010, Structural damage diagnosis method by using thetime-reversal property of guided waves. Journal of the Korean Society for
Precision Engineering 27, 64-74.
Ihn J.B. and Chang, F.K., 2008, Pitch-catch active sensing methods in structural
health monitoring for aircraft structures, Structural Health Monitoring 7, 5-15.
Park, H.W., Sohn, H., Law, K.H. and Farrar, C.R., 2007, Time reversal active
sensing for health monitoring of a composite plate, Journal of Sound andVibration 302, 50-66.
Wang, C.H., Rose, J.T. and Chang, F.K., 1998, A synthetic time-reversal imaging
method for structural health monitoring, Smart Materials and Structures 13, 415423.
Viktorov, I.A., 1967, Rayleigh and Lamb Waves: Physical Theory and Applications,
Plenum Press, NY.

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Fire risk study of Ulaanbaatar City
master D.Bayan-Erdene1, doctoral candidate S.Bazarragchaa2
Head of complex laboratory, мajor of emergency agency
Researcher and heat engineer, senior officer, major of emergency agency

ABSTRACTThe population of Ulaanbaatar city is increasing rapidly in connection with the economic
growth and infrastructure of our country. This leads to the construction of buildings and structuresthat don't fulfill urban development and fire safety requirements built on areas and grounds that
don’t fulfill standard requirements, as well as to the formation of carelessly built streets and ger
district concentration. These all lead to the situations increasing of possible fire risks and to thetroubles to the firefighting measures.
From previously carried out studies we can see that the amount of fire occasions, damage
size caused by them, as well as the scope of such incidents is permanently increases. This showsthat an urgent situation for performing fire risk research works to incorporate this study andresearch works to the Ulaanbaatar city’s emergency situation map.
During carrying out of this research work the legal environment isn’t clear enough for theterminology and definition of buildings and structures including of high buildings, as well as forproviding of fire safety. For example, the following don’t fulfill the requirements of standards,
norms and rules. These are: evacuation road and exits, safety sizes between buildings andstructures, internal and external water supply, ventilation, smoke circulation system, firefighting
first aid and equipment, auto-mechanic ladder for evacuation and rescue operations, fire
resistance of building structures etc. From this we observed the need of implementation of state fire
inspection and control, as well as the fire prevention measures and operations. Thus these issues
should be solved. This research work is a work that attempts a new approach by covering all above
stated factors as a whole issue, assessing of fire risks of Ulaanbaatar city and incorporating theachieved results to the emergency map. As we assessed the fire risks of Ulaanbaatar city based on
this research work we came to conclusion that an abrupt renovation works should be implemented
urgently at the level of taking measures for risk decreasing. Thus, it is urgently required to carryout the management and measures to eliminate the vulnerable and disadvantageous issues.
Furthermore, we came to conclusion that it is inevitably required to incorporate the following
issues to the standards, norms and rules. These are the application of modern technic andtechnologies for providing of fire safety of building and structures, especially of high buildings, aswells the utilization of recent construction materials.

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TheThe seismic-engineering
seismic-engineering survey
survey among
among
multi-store
multi-store constructions
constructions within
withinthethe territory
territory ofof Ulaanbaatar
Ulaanbaatar City
City
Batsaikhan
BatsaikhanTSERENPIL
TSERENPIL1,1,Sergei
SergeiSEREBRENNIKOVSEREBRENNIKOV2,2,Baatarsuren
BaatarsurenGANBOLDGANBOLD33
11

Head
Headlaboratory,laboratory,Research
ResearchCenter
CenterofofAstronomy
Astronomyand
andGeophysics
GeophysicsMAS,
MAS,
Ulaanbaatar,
Ulaanbaatar,Mongolia
Mongolia
batsaikhan@rcag.ac.mn
batsaikhan@rcag.ac.mn
22
Institute
Instituteofofthe
theEarth’s
Earth’sCrust
CrustSBSBRAS,RAS,Irkutsk,
Irkutsk,Russia
Russia33
Researcher,
Researcher,Research
ResearchCenter
CenterofofAstronomy
Astronomyand
andGeophysics
GeophysicsMAS,
MAS,Ulaanbaatar,
Ulaanbaatar,
Mongolia
Mongolia
ABSTRACTABSTRACTThe
The article
article presents
presents brief
brief analysis
analysis ofof data
data toto validate
validate initial
initial seismicity
seismicity
Ulaanbaatar
Ulaanbaatar city
city andand engineering-geologicalengineering-geological conditions
conditions forforconstruction.
construction. There
There
were
were built
built numerous
numerous multi-store
multi-store constructions
constructions within
within thethe territory
territory ofof UBUB inin thethe
past
past1010years.
years.
The
Thestatus
statusofofsoil
soilunder
underconstruction
constructionarea
areaofofthose
thosehighhighbuildings
buildingshad
hadundergone
undergone
throughthrough thethe analyzes,
analyzes, thatthat were
were based
based onon thethe results
results ofof seismic-engineering
seismic-engineeringstudiesstudiesmade
madewithin
withinthe
theterritory
territoryofofthose
thosebuildings.
buildings.
The
The authors
authors give
give key
key parametersparameters settlement
settlement accelerogram
accelerogram forfor aa platform
platform ofof
buildings(forbuildings(for example
example Koyoto
Koyoto company
company buildingbuilding site):site): thethe maximum
maximum values
values ofof
acceleration
acceleration ofof fluctuations
fluctuations ofof soil,
soil, thethe frequency
frequency ofof thethe basic
basic maximum
maximum ofof aa
spectrum.
spectrum.
Keywords:seismic-engineering,
Keywords:seismic-engineering,multi-store
multi-storeconstruction,
construction,acceleration,
acceleration,frequency,
frequency,
seismic
seismicwave
wave
1.1.INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION
CentralCentralAsia
Asiaisisaaregion
regionwith
withaahighhighlevel
levelofofseismic
seismichazard.
hazard.The
Thedeformation
deformationinin
Mongolia
Mongolia can
can bebe attributed
attributed toto thethe collisioncollision andand subsequent
subsequent penetration
penetration ofof thethe
IndianIndian plate
plate with
with respect
respect toto Eurasia.
Eurasia. InIn northern
northern Mongolia
Mongolia there
there isis extensional
extensional
tectonics
tectonics component
component related
related toto thethe active
active Baikal
Baikal rift
rift system.
system. Continental
Continental
earthquakes
earthquakesare
aredistributed
distributedoveroverlarge
largeregions
regionsand
andtypically
typicallyhave
haveshallow
shallowdepths,
depths,ininthetherange
rangeofof10
10toto25
25km
kmbeneathbeneaththethesurface.
surface.During
Duringlast
lastcentury,
century,Mongolia
Mongoliahas
hasbeenbeenknown
knownone
oneofofthe
themostmostseismic
seismicactive
activeintra-continental
intra-continentalregions
regionsininthe
theworld
world
withwithseveral
severalvery
verylarge
largeearthquakes.
earthquakes.Since
Sincethetheyearyear1900,
1900,there
therewere
wereoccurredoccurred69
69
earthquakes
earthquakes with
with MM 6.0.
6.0. Among
Among them
them 44
44 earthquakes
earthquakes were
were with
with magnitude
magnitude
6.0
6.0M<
M<7.0.
7.0.InInthethemagnitude
magnituderange
rangeofof7.0
7.0M<8.0,
M<8.0,there
therewere
were2020earthquakes
earthquakes
andandvery
verylarge
largeM8.0,
M8.0,44earthquakes
earthquakeshave
havetaken
takenplace
placeininMongolia
Mongoliaso
sofar:
far:
Tsetserleg
Tsetserleg1905
1905withwithmagnitude
magnitudeM
M==8.0,8.0, produced
produced 190
190km
kmlengthlengthofof surface
surfacerupture;rupture;Bulnai
Bulnai1905,
1905,withwithmagnitude
magnitudeM
M==8.4,
8.4, produced
produced375
375km
kmlonglongofofsurface
surfacerupture;rupture;211

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Fu-Yun 1931, with magnitude M = 8.0, produced 180 km long of surface rupture;Gobi-Altai 1957, with magnitude M = 8.2, km produced 270 km long of surface
rupture.
These major continental earthquakes occurred along active faults that have very
long recurrence intervals (~3000 years for the 1957 earthquake; Ritz et al 1995).
However, the large number of active faults capable of producing a devastating
earthquake (Mw 6.5+) in Mongolia makes the prospect of strong events very
concerning.
2. BRIEF ANALYSIS OF DATA TO VALIDATEINITIAL SEISMICITY ULAANBAATAR CITY
In last few decades, most scientists working in Mongolia focussed on these largest
earthquakes and their spectacular impact on the landscape. They considered thatthe main tectonic and seismic activity takes place in the west of the country,
several hundred kilometres from Ulaanbaatar. However, the most recent
earthquake with Mw>7 happened near Mogod (1967, Mw=7.2), a mere 250 km
from the capital city. Due to the relatively recent settlement of Ulaanbaatar in the
Tuul Valley, knowledge of historical earthquakes in the region is limited and only
covers a few centuries, i.e. a fraction of the several millennia long recurrence
periods.
For an estimation of separate building sites in territory of Ulaanbaatar the reliable
justification of its initial seismicity on the basis of the data on a geologicalstructure, tectonics, data on strong earthquakes [1], EQ zones and to their key
parameters, the return period and its likelihood estimations (Solonenko, 1985;
Solonenko, 1959; Dzhurik, 2004) is necessary.
For territory of Ulaanbaatar now such estimations don't exist, and initial
seismicity is accepted according to the acting, confirmed map (the Map of seismic
zoning into districts MNP, 1985 (Solonenko, 1985) and Mongolian Building
document 22.01*/2006 (БНбД 22.01*/2006). According to this map and the city
territory is carried to intensity 7. Return period of EQ with intensity 7 is 1 times
per 1000 years.
In relation to size of the accepted initial seismicity it is necessary to notice that the
territory of Ulaanbaatar is in the Mongol-Baikal seismic zone, one of the mostseismoactive on the Earth (Medvedev, 1971). Therefore to problems of seismic
division into districts and seismosafety of a city it is given particular attention.
Last 30 years near of the city there were some notable earthquakes to a powerclass (K) equal 8-11. Their epicenters are located in radius of 10-60 km and coverpresumably sites with the raised seismic potential. Earthquakes (around 10) with
K>12, in radius to 300 km, were felt in a city with force of 3-6 intensity, but on
considerable damages was not informed. This position is confirmed also with thedata of the registered epicenters of earthquakes with 1964 on 2009, with inclusionof the data of registration by a network of modern digital seismic stations. The
basic source the zones influencing initial seismicity are located from 75 to 300 km(Figure 1), potential from 0-10 to 300 km. Therefore there are bases to consider
that the initial seismicity of a city estimated intensity 7, needs its specification orrevision taking into account the received new data on a geological structure,tectonics, seismicity and probability of strong earthquakes (Dzhurik, 1995).

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On the basis of told, in the present conclusion initial seismicity is accepted
according to operating standard documents for territory of Ulaanbaatar andintensity is equals 7 (Batsaikhan, 2008) though this estimation is not declared on amodern seismic situation of a city. It is necessary for considering to designers andbuilders.
Today, some recent observations raise strong concerns on seismic activity around
Ulaanbaatar. The number of potential and still unknown fault structures in theregion beneath a Hustai, Emeelt and Gunjiin active fault area which is locatedabout 10 to 40 km west and 10 km to east of Ulaanbaatar have been discovered.
See Figure 2. These sceintific findings dramatically altered our view on therelative seismic quiescence about Ulaanbaatar.

Figure 1: Map of epicenters of EQ between 1964 and 2010 years
and the EQ’s generation zone (signed by white circle).

Figure 2: Potential active fault structures around Ulaanbaatar city.
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The high seismic activity of Ulaanbaatar area starts from middle of 2005 and still
continues up to today. The number of earthquakes occurred between 1970 and2009 contains totally 2420 events, 900 events recorded during 1970 - 2004 and
1340 events occurred from 2005 to 2009. There were 508 earthquakes
corresponds only for 2009, and 510 events were already occurred mid of 2010.
See Figure 3. These statistics showing seismic activity is increasing and migrating.
Distribution of these swarms, with more than 2000 events, has interconnected tothe major active structures in Ulaanbaatar area by a steeply dipping fault surface
striking East-West Hustai and North-South Emeelt fault. The Hustai fault area isactivated by the 2009 and 2010 swarms. It shows probable main potential
structure which may produce large earthquakes, starts to be cracking and moving.
Most activity is occurring east end of the Hustai active fault and shows somehow
connection between these two active faults as well as there is Gunjiin faults in thesame structure.

Figure 3: Seismicity around Ulaanbaatar
The facts:
Important seismic activity has been taking place near and within Ulaanbaatar
since 2005. This concerns 1) the Emeelt area with small but numerous events
perfectly aligned and showing a large deep active fault, 2) several earthquakes ofmagnitude 4 and more took place during last 5 years in the vicinity of Ulaanbaatar,some of them were actually felt by inhabitants of Ulaanbaatar.
Large active faults have been identified less than 30 km from Ulaanbaatar (e.g.
Hustai, Emeelt and Gunjiin, see Fifure 4). Their morphology indicates they arecapable to produce earthquakes of magnitude 6.5 to 7.5.
An earthquake rupturing one of these faults will produce at Ulaanbaatar severe
ground shaking of an Intensity of VIII to X at rock (VIII is associated with manycollapses of weak buildings - X is associated with many collapse of buildings wellmade in concrete without earthquake resistant conceptions). These intensities will214

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be increased (and the related destructions) for buildings on sediments due to site
effect amplification. This is the case for the most part of the city, which sits within
a sedimentary basin.

Figure 4: Map of seismic activity and active faults around Ulaanbaatar

3.

CALCULATION OF SEISMIC DANGER IN POINTS DEPENDING
ON SOIL CONDITIONS OF PLATFORM OF BUILDINGThe design procedure of seismic danger in points meets the requirements ofexisting standard documents, both in Russia, and in Mongolia. For calculations ofseismic danger of a platform the acoustic stiffness method was used. The
increments of intensities were estimated by comparison of seismic characteristics
of soils, received by direct measurements under Medvedev's formula [10] andagree Tables №1:
JрV= 1.67.lg(э . Vэ/i . Vi )(3.1)

where э. Vэ and i. Vi - acoustic stiffness reference and investigated of grounds,
J - settlement values of increments of intensities.
For water sated of soils to the formula (3.1) the amendment is entered, agrees
expressions:
JGWL = К *е-0,04h*h(3.2)

The factor "K" for territories where prevail sandy and clay grounds in the top 10
meters layer, is accepted equal 1; where maintenance of gravel, a pebble,
rockwaste, landwaste, boulders is more than 70 %, is equal 0,5. If level of groundwaters is located below 10 m from a surface, amendment JGWL is not entered.
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Resonant properties of a layer soul of grounds are estimated through calculationof frequency characteristics (Section 3.2). The amendment for a relief is entered at
its inclinations from a horizontal more than 15 degrees. In our case of such
amendment it is not required.
Thus, for an estimation of seismic danger in points, are necessary: a standard
choice, definition of average speeds of seismic waves in the top 10 meters layer
soils, their volume weight and depth Ground Water Level.
Speeds of seismic waves were measured by a method of the refracted waves(Dzhurik, 1998) 24 channels digital station McSEIS-SX 24 XP (Japan).
Measurements were spent separate search with maintenance counter and making
up hodograph. The length hodograph made 46 m. Excitation of seismic
fluctuations by means of blows. The binding on district was carried out on GPS
geodesies. Supervision were spent with possibility of registration of longitudinaland cross-section waves. Such measurement technique allows to receive averagevalues of speeds in the top zone of a cut to depth of 10-30 m.

Point measurements
MS 637….
MS 649….
MS 661
Seismic station

Latitude47,90021°N….
47,90041°N….
47,90061°N
47,90017°N

Longitude
106,91029°E 1283m….
106,91038°E 1283m….
106,91046°E 1283m
106,91035°E 1283m

Figure-5. Example. The scheme of an arrangement of points ofseismosounding near of the territory of “Coyote” company(blue color lines) and mobile seismic station (white color ellips).
By the technique stated above it is direct on a building site it is executed
seismosoundings (Figure 5) for studying of speeds of seismic waves in Rock"reference" and average not water sated soul grounds more than 20 searching.
Characteristic counter seismograms of records of useful waves are presented in
Figure 6, 7.
Speeds of seismic waves in "reference" Rocky grounds were measured on their
exposures in a vicinity of Ulaanbaatar. For an estimation of their most probablevalues were used as the share and literary data about measurements of speeds of216

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seismic waves in soul and Rocky grounds around Ulaanbaat;ar (Dzhurik, 1998;
Dzhurik, 2001; Batsaikhan, 2006) and it is direct in its territory in a vicinity of theplatform (Dzhurik, 1980; Dzhurik, 1989; Dzhurik, 1995). The most probableaverage values of speeds in the top 10 meter layer of Rocky grounds are As aresult established. Were for this purpose used and the conclusions drawn authors
received earlier (Seismic division into districts., Solonenko, 1971).

Figure-6. Seismogram (see Figure-5, points MS-637 and MS-661).

Figure-7. Seismogram (see Figure-5, point MS-649).
Calculation of intensity of seismic danger under the formula 3.1 and 3.2,
concerning reference rocky soils, leads to value of an increment of intensity for aplatform of building at the expense of seismic rigidity (JрV) equal 0,834:

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JрV= 1.67∙lg (2,5∙2400) / (2,11∙725) =0,991
where: 700 – average speed of P- waves in 30 meter layer on a site of building ofa complex.
The amendment at the expense of depth of GWL (JGWL) is equal 0,451 points at
h=1,6м:JGWL= 0,5∙ехр (-0,04∙h2)=0,451
As a result the total increment of intensity will constitute 1,442, and intensity ofseismic danger of a platform of building on a method seismic rigidity is estimatedin 7,44.

4.

SEISMIC INFLUENCES ON A CASE OF STRONG EARTHQUAKES

The basic maxima of spectra of "accelerations" (spectral density in sm/sec, T - theperiod in second, f = 1/Т – frequency of fluctuations in Hz) have on frequencies
1,27 - 3,3 Hz, and their maximum values are equal 32,9 and 17,7 sm/sec, forcomponent NS and Z. The spectrum of accelerations is specified in the sense thatas the initial information for calculations digital record accelerogram set serves in
sm/s2. Under this data it is possible to calculate a considerable quantity of thespectra, which used for the decision of various tasks, including for calculations offrequency characteristics and spectra of reaction for concrete constructions in
sm/sec2. For realization of calculations, data on construction attenuation in thelatter case are required.
The maximum values of acceleration of fluctuations of soil for EW and Z acomponent reach values of 136 and 81 sm/sec2 – according to (Figure 8). It
according to scales of intensity is equated to the seismic influence close to 7,44.

Figure-8. Horizontal a component (EW) of the calculated accelerogram
Concerning the executed theoretical calculations of seismic influences it is noticed
that they are conducted in the assumption of elastic deformation, that is all energy
is shown in elastic fluctuations soils. Sizes of residual deformations can be
determined on seismic scales, on values of the received settlement accelerations.
In turn it is approached by the decision as transition from values of characteristics
soils in an elastic stage to characteristics in a stage of not elastic deformation
practically isn't studied. Therefore the estimation of seismic danger of a platform

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of “Coyote” company building was based on a number of known assumptions.
The cores from them are reduced to the following provisions, the received relative
characteristics of oscillative motions at weak earthquakes can be extrapolated onstrong, and the spectral railroad train of strong earthquake can be estimated byextrapolation of the weak. Reliability of these assumptions and the theoreticalpreconditions used by us can be established only experimentally. In this respect
and, to some extent, for confirmation of the received results we will result
available data (Medvedev, 1971) about studying of relative sizes of fluctuations
soils according to records of weak earthquakes near to a building platform.
5.

CONCLUSION

The justification of engineering-seismological conditions of a site of “Coyote”
company building in area Sukhbaatar district of Ulaanbaatar city is conducted on
the basis of direct measurements, use of the found materials, the data settlement
methods and parameters of initial seismicity. The topographic basis of the site andengineering-geological data were provided by the customer in the form of reports.
In this conclusion we give resume on seismicity area near of Ulaanbaatar city. It isshown that weak earthquakes in a city vicinity constantly are registered and theparameters of probable strong earthquakes are measured as: epicenter distance 0240 km, magnitude 5.5-8.0, intensity 8, focus depth 10-20 km and its focal
mechanism can be slip and reversed strike-slip fault.
Our calculations provided in the first approximation the initial seismicity of theconstruction area, which was defined as intensity 7 according to acting normative
documents.
For a site of building distribution of speeds of S- and P-waves with depth toradical breeds is established. Reference values of speeds of the seismic waves,corresponding to their probable values for radical breeds of territory of
Ulaanbaatara are chosen, seismic models for soil thicknesses of residentialbuildings serving by bases are constructed. The initial signal for horizontal thecomponents, answering to parameters of probable strong earthquakes for the city
territory is generated, as a first approximation. Their spectra and frequency
characteristics of fluctuations are calculated on a case of such shake of soul in abasis of a building for maximum horizontal (EW) and vertical (Z) a component
accelerogram.
In the seismic relation the site of “Coyote” company building is estimated, as
rather homogeneous in intensity 7. When a building is erected, an artificial
foundation must be removed from the ground.
The basic settlement parameters of seismic influences is in following limits:seismic danger in intensity 7,44. The maximum value of accelerations at possible
strong earthquake can reach 136 and 81 sm/sec2, accordingly for horizontal (EW,
NS) and vertical (Z) component. Maxima of spectra of accelerations have on
frequencies of 1,4 and 3,3 Hz, and their maximum values are equal 32,9 and 17,7
sm/sec accordingly for EW and Z a component.
The calculations are performed with the elastic deformation implied. Concerning
the conducted calculations of seismic influences it is noticed that they are
conducted in the assumption of elastic deformation and sizes of residual

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Octoberdeformations can be determined on scales of intensity taking into accountsettlement values of the maximum accelerations.
The established level of seismicity for the territory of Ulaanbaatar city may be
exceeded with 10% probability during 50 years (Т=1000) or with 90% probabilityof non-exceedance for the same time span. If the class of responsibility of an
construction is raised by designers even at the expense of a floors, it is necessary
to review and results of calculations of seismic influences on new level oflikelihood estimations, intensity 8.
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Ritz, J.-F., E. T. Brown, D. L. Bourle`s, H. Philip, A. Schlupp, G. M. Raisbeck, F. Yiou,
and B. Enkhtuvshin, Slip rates along active faults estimated with cosmic-ray-exposures
dates: Application to the Bogd Fault, Gobi-Altay, Mongolia, Geology, 23, 1019–1022,
1995.
В.П. Солоненко, Н.А. Флоренсов. Землетрясения и основы сейсмического
районирования Монголии. М., Наука, 1985. 224 с.
Солоненко В.П. О сейсмическом районировании территории Монгольской
Народной Республики. – ДАН СССР, 1959. Т.127, вып.2
Солоненко В.П. О некоторых особенностях землетрясений Монголо-Байкальской
сейсмической зоны. Бюлл. Совета по сейсмологии. Москва: 1959. №10. С. 414-418.
Dzhurik V.I., Dugarmaa T., Batsaikhan Ts., Serebrennikov S.P., Drennov F.A. The
technique of seismic risk mapping for the territories of economic development ofMongolia. Proceedings of Mongolian Academy of Sciences.2004, p.16-29.
Глубинное строение и геодинамика Монголо-Сибирского региона. Наука,Новосибирск,1995, 185с.
С. В. Медведев. Сейсмическое районирование Улан-Батора. М.: Наука, 1971. 200 с.
Джурик и др. Отчет: «Сейсмическое микрорайонирование площадок Аймачных
центров Дзун-Мод и Сухэ-Батор и площадки второго микрорайона г.
Улаанбаатара». Иркутск-Улан-Батор,1980. 198 с.
Джурик В.И. и др. Инженерно-сейсмологические условия территории г. Аргалант
(площадки гражданского и промышленного строительства). Иркутск-Улан-Батор:1989. 261 с.
Джурик В.И. Проект комплексных исследований по сейсмическому
микрорайонированию территории г. Улан-Батора. Иркутск –Улаанбаатар: 1995.
Джурик В.И., Дугармаа Т. и др. Сейсмическое микрорайонирование аймачных
центров Монголии. Улаанбаатар: АНМ,1998. 248 с.
Джурик И.И., Дугармаа Т. Вопросы оценки сейсмического риска для Улаанбаатараи его окрестностей. //Geophysics & astronome. №1. Улаатбаатар:,2001. С.47-59.
Батсайхан Ц. Инженерно-геофизическая оценка сейсмической опасности грунтов
территории г.Улаанбаарара. Диссертация на соискание ученой степени к.г.-м.н.
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Ц.Батсайхан.
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инженерно-сейсмологических
условий
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Воину) г. Улаанбаатара». 2008, 32с.
Улаанбаатар хот. Хан-уул дүүргийн 1-р хорооны нутагт барих “КОЁОТЭ” ХХКний оффис, үйлчилгээний барилгад зортулсан инженер-геологийн судалгааны
дүгнэлт. "Жоншит-Уул" ХХКомпани. Улаанбаатар хот. 2012 он.
Газар хөдлөлтийн бүс нутагт барилга төлөвлөх барилгийн норм ба дүрэм. БНбД22.01*/2006. Монгол улсын Барилга, хот байгуулалтын яам. Улаанбаатар хот 2006
он. 42 стр.

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Study on recovery curves
for temporary housing
after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake
Osamu MURAO1 and Kazetaka KOTOKU2
1
Associate Professor, Faculty of Engineering, Information and Systems
University of Tsukuba, Japanmurao@risk.tsukuba.ac.jp
2
Graduate School of Systems and Information Engineering,
University of Tsukuba, Japan

ABSTRACTAs of the time we are writing this paper, One year and five months have passed
since the 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku Earthquake and post-tsunami urban
recovery has been progressed in each damaged area. One of the important
activities for the victims is construction of temporary housings in the earlier stageof urban recovery process. The authors were provided temporary housing
construction data after the event by Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport
and Tourism in order to construct recovery curves, which are quantitative tool tocompare regional recovery processes. In this paper, the authors firstly present
how temporary housing had been constructed in Iwate, Miyagi, and Fukushima
since the event. Then they develop recovery curves and compare them. The
analysis clarified that the speed of the construction is the highest in Iwate, and thelowest in Fukushima.
Keywords: 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake, temporary housing, recovery
process, Iwate, Miyagi, Fukushima

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 BackgroundThe 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku Earthquake, which occurred on March
11, 2011, catastrophically devastated the eastern part of Japan. It damaged morethan one million houses: heavily 129,914, moderately 258,591, and slightly
711,376 (National Police Agency, 2012). More than one year passing, recovery
activities started in most damaged areas in the serious aftermath of the event.
1.2 Purpose
Temporary housing construction is one of the most important recovery activities
in the early stage of recovery process. However, its construction situation isdifferent according to regional condition of the damaged areas. This paper aims
to clarify the difference of temporary housing construction process between the221

Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
Mongolia
October 2012, Ulaanbaatar,	 	 most affected three prefectures due to the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake:
Iwate, Miyagi, and Fukushima.
In order to gain the purpose, we use the recovery curve method proposed by
Murao and Nakazato (2010). Recovery curve is a measure to quantitatively
compare the long-term recovery process of the damaged areas after disasters.
Using the tool, Murao and Nakazato (2010) clarified the regional differences ofreconstruction process in terms of temporary houses and permanent houses in Sri
Lanka after the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami. Also, Murao et al. (2011)
constructed the recovery curves after the tsunami disaster in Thailand andIndonesia, and compared those processes.
2. METHOD
The following procedure is employed to construct recovery curves for eachprefecture.
2.1 Data Used
In order to construct the recovery curves for temporary houses, the authors use thetemporary housing data provided by Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport
and Tourism (MLIT, 2012). The dataset has been weekly updated since April 11,
2011, and the authors arranged the monthly data of Iwate, Miyagi, and Fukushima
as of January 2012.
2.2 Recovery Ratio Calculation
To plot the recovery curves, it is necessary to normalize the recovery condition ofdamaged areas of varying size. This was done by comparing the recovery ratio of
the number of buildings constructed per month to the total number of constructedbuildings as of January 2012.
2.3 Selection of Optimal Recovery Curve
For the time period of 10 months, the cumulative ratio of building completion isassumed to be fitted a sigmoid curve such as Cumulative Normal Distribution
curve, Logistic curve, or Gompertz curve. A curve showing the highest
correlation with observed data is considered to represent the most optimal
recovery curve for the temporary houses.
2.4 Development of the Recovery Curves
After the optimal curve is determined, prefectural curves are constructed
respectively. Finally, the construction conditions of temporary houses between
three prefectures are quantitatively compared with the developed recovery curves
and probability density functions.

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ICUS Report 65	
 3. TEMPORARY HOUSING CONSTRUCTION SITUATION AFTER THE
2011 GREAT EAST JAPAN EARTHQUAKE
Temporary housing is constructed by Japan Prefabricated Construction Suppliersand Manufactures Association or local construction companies according to orderfrom the damaged local governments, or at the request of MLIT. Sometimes
instead of the temporary housing, public housing or rented apartments managed
by private companies are used for the victims to save the construction. The
number of the affected households by the earthquake in the rented apartments is
67,648 as of July 24, 2012 (Reconstruction Agency, 2012).
As for the construction of temporary housing after the event, there were several
problems. One of the critical problems was shortage of available land for theconstruction. Because of the huge earthquake of March 11, the inundated areas
totally extended for 561km2 (GSI, 2011), and enormous number of houses became
necessary in the affected areas. Nevertheless, it was difficult for some local
governments to prepare the spare sites for temporary housing out of the damaged
areas because of the geographical condition, especially in the mountainous areas
along the Sanriku Rias Coastline. Those governments dealt with the problem by
the way of using outer lands or farmlands, but it spent a long time to convince theaffected residents and to properly allocate the provided lands. Those were reasonsof delay in construction process of the temporary housing in some areas.
Another problem was difficulty of construction material obtention. A link ofsupply chain was broken, for factories producing materials or manufacturecompanies themselves located in the damaged areas were devastated by thetsunamis or shaking. They handled it with imported building material and otherlocal governments’ supports, yet they faced other difficulties of transportation andarrangements.
The most serious situation arose in Fukushima among the three prefectures.
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster forced the residents around to be evacuatedfrom the evacuation zone or the emergency evacuation preparation zone
surrounding the Fukushima No.1 nuclear power plant. The complicated situation
delayed the temporary housing construction in some municipalities in theprefecture.
4. PREFECTURALCONSTRUCTIONCOMPARISONOFTEMPORARYHOUSING

Monthly-completed construction situation of temporary houses in Iwate, Miyagi,
and Fukushima Prefecture based on the provided dataset (MLIT, 2012) is shownin Table 1 and Figure 1. The prefecture with the largest number of required
temporary house units is Miyagi, and the smallest is Iwate.
In April 2011, Prime Minister Naoto Kan announced that all temporary housing
would be constructed by mid-August. Also Iwate prefecture announced that allunits would be completed before September 11, 2011, a half year after the event.
That timeline can be a mark to evaluate the recovery process.
Iwate estimated the required units to be 18,000 at first. Although the number
decreased to 13,984, the construction effort almost achieved the goal in August

Study on recovery curves for temporary housing after the 2011 Great East Japan
Study on recovery curves
for temporary housing after the 2011 great east Japan earthquake
Earthquake

223

October
October 2012,2012, Ulaanbaatar,
Ulaanbaatar,Mongolia
Mongolia
Ñ½¬±¾»®
îðïîôË´¿¿²¾¿¿¬¿®ô
Ó±²¹±´·¿	 	 2011. ×²
In Ó·§¿¹·ô
Miyagi, çëòçû
95.9% ±ºof ¬¸»
the ²»½»­­¿®§
necessary ¸±«­»­
houses ©»®»
were ½±³°´»¬»¼completed ¾§by ß«¹«­¬
August îðïïô
2011,
îðïïò
and ¿´´
all ¬¸»the ½±²­¬®«½¬·±²
construction ¸¿¼
had ¾»»²
been º·²·­¸»¼
finished ¾§by Ü»½»³¾»®òDecember.
¿²¼
On ¬¸»
the ±¬¸»®
other ¸¿²¼ô
hand, Ú«µ«­¸·³¿
Fukushima ­¬·´´still ®»³¿·²»¼
remained ·²
in ¿a ¼·ºº·½«´¬
difficult ­·¬«¿¬·±²
situation »ª»²
even ·²inÑ²January îðïîò
2012. Ì¸»
The »³»®¹»²½§
emergency »ª¿½«¿¬·±²
evacuation °®»°¿®¿¬·±²
preparation ¦±²»
zone ­«®®±«²¼·²¹
surrounding ¬¸»theÖ¿²«¿®§
Fukushima Ò±òïNo.1 ²«½´»¿®
nuclear °±©»®
power °´¿²¬ôplant, ©¸·½¸
which ©¿­was ®»¹«´¿¬»¼
regulated ±²
on ß°®·´
April îîô22, îðïïô
2011, ©¿­
was
Ú«µ«­¸·³¿
lifted ±²
on Í»°¬»³¾»®
September íðô
30, ¿²¼
and ¬»³°±®¿®§
temporary ¸±«­·²¹
housing ½±²­¬®«½¬·±²
construction ·²
in ¬¸»the ¦±²»zone ¹±¬got´·º¬»¼permitted. ß´¬¸±«¹¸Although ¬¸»
the ½±²­¬®«½¬·±²
construction ®¿¬·±
ratio ¿½¸·»ª»¼
achieved çìòèû
94.8% ¿­as ±ºof Ö¿²«¿®§January îðïîô
2012,°»®³·¬¬»¼ò
the ²«³¾»®
number ±ºof ®»¯«·®»¼
required ¸±«­»­
houses ©¿­was ­¬·´´still ·²½®»¿­·²¹ò
increasing.
¬¸»
Table ïæ1: Ó±²¬¸´§ó½±³°´»¬»¼
Monthly-completed ½±²­¬®«½¬·±²
construction ­·¬«¿¬·±²
situation ±ºof ¬»³°±®¿®§
temporary ¸±«­»­
houses ·²
in ×©¿¬»ô
Iwate,
Ì¿¾´»
Miyagi, ¿²¼
and Ú«µ«­¸·³¿
Fukushima Ð®»º»½¬«®»
PrefectureÓ·§¿¹·ô
Iwate
×©¿¬»

MiyagiÓ·§¿¹·

ð0
533
ëíí
6,869
êôèêç
9,694
çôêçì
13,112ïíôïïî
13,983ïíôçèí
13,984ïíôçèì
13,984ïíôçèì
13,984ïíôçèì
13,984ïíôçèì
13,984ïíôçèì

ð0
1,426
ïôìîê
10,294ïðôîçì
14,160ïìôïêð
16,988ïêôçèè
21,189îïôïèç
21,826
îïôèîê
21,899îïôèçç
22,042îîôðìî
22,095îîôðçë
22,095îîôðçë

13,984ïíôçèì

FukushimaÚ«µ«­¸·³¿

Total
Ì±¬¿´

ð0
437
ìíé
6,332
êôííî
9,021
çôðîï
11,181ïïôïèï
13,573ïíôëéí
14,284ïìôîèì
15,514ïëôëïì
15,700ïëôéðð
15,788ïëôéèè
15,788ïëôéèè

22,095îîôðçë

ð0
2,396
îôíçê
23,495îíôìçë
32,875íîôèéë
41,281ìïôîèï
48,745ìèôéìë
50,094ëðôðçì
51,397
ëïôíçé
51,726
ëïôéîê
51,867
ëïôèêé
51,867
ëïôèêé

16,659ïêôêëç

52,738ëîôéíè

25,000îëôððð

Iwate
×©¿¬»20,000îðôððð

MiyagiÓ·§¿¹·
FukushimaÚ«µ«­¸·³¿

15,000ïëôððð
10,000ïðôððð

2012/1

2011/122011/112011/10

2011/92011/8

2011/7

2011/6

2011/5ð0

2011/4

5,000
ëôððð

2011/3

Number of ConstructedTemporary Houses

Month
Ó±²¬¸
March îðïï
2011
Ó¿®½¸
April îðïï
2011
ß°®·´
May îðïï
2011
Ó¿§
June
2011
Ö«²» îðïï
July îðïï
2011Ö«´§
Aug. îðïï
2011
ß«¹ò
Sep. îðïï
2011Í»°ò
Oct. îðïï
2011
Ñ½¬ò
Nov. îðïï
2011
Ò±ªò
Dec. îðïï
2011
Ü»½ò
Jan. îðïî
2012
Ö¿²ò
RequiredÎ»¯«·®»¼
Units
Ë²·¬­

MonthsÓ±²¬¸­
Figure ïæ
1: Ý±³°´»¬»¼
Completed ½±²­¬®«½¬·±²
construction ­·¬«¿¬·±²
situation ±ºof ¬»³°±®¿®§
temporary ¸±«­»­
houses ·²
in ×©¿¬»ô
Iwate, Ó·§¿¹·ô
Miyagi,Ú·¹«®»and Ú«µ«­¸·³¿
Fukushima Ð®»º»½¬«®»
Prefecture
¿²¼

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New Ì»½¸²±´±¹·»­
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Asia
Ò»©
º±®
Í¿º»¬§
Ó»¹¿Ý·¬·»­·²

ICUS Report 65	
 5. CONSTRUCTION OF RECOVERY CURVES FOR TEMPORARY
HOUSING
Optimal approximate recovery curves were then selected for the temporary houses.
Assuming that the relationship between elapsed time and recovery ratio closely
fits a sigmoid curve, we considered three kinds of Sigmoid Curves; Cumulative
Normal Distribution curve, Logistic curve, and Gompertz curve.
As a result, we found that a Gompertz Distribution is the best fit among the three
for the temporary house data, as well as the previous research for Sri Lanka by
Murao and Nakazato (2010). Then the Gompertz Distribution is used for making
the recovery curves for the three prefectures.
The factors of time (months) and the ratio of building completion are used toconstruct recovery curves. The time period starts in March 2011, with April 2011
being regarded as month “1”, and extends over 10 months until January 2012.
The ratio of building completion for a given time period is calculated based on the
total amount of completed buildings. For a time period of t (months), thecumulative ratio of building completion R(t) can be described by the Gompertz
curves, using the following equation:

R(t) = a b(1)twhere a and b, are coefficients.
Recovery curves for the prefectures can now be plotted using the regional€construction data. However, it should be noted that the number of buildings
constructed in Fukushima was less than that of necessary construction as ofJanuary 2012. Since the recovery curves can thus be considered to closely reflect
the actual situation, a parameter, K, reflecting the completion realization ratio foreach prefecture can be combined with Eq. (1) to give Eq. (2) for the temporary
houses, as the final building recovery functions. In addition, Eq. (3) shows theprobability density function of the Gompertz curve.
  R(t ) = Ka b     P(t ) = Ka b ⋅ log a ⋅ log b   

t

bt

(2)  
t

(3)  

Thus, the recovery curves and the probability density functions for temporary
houses were obtained as shown in Table 2, Figure 2 and Figure 3.
Table 2: Recovery curve parameters for temporary housings in Iwate, Miyagi, andFukushima Prefecture
Month
Iwate
Miyagi
Fukushima
Totala0.0000432
0.0002036
0.0001958
0.0001476

b

0.296
0.361
0.424
0.375

R2

0.986
0.986
0.974
0.991

K

Study on recovery curves for temporary housing after the 2011 Great East Japan
Study on recovery curves
for temporary housing after the 2011 great east Japan earthquake
Earthquake

1.00
1.00
0.95
0.98

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October 2012,2012, Ulaanbaatar,
Ulaanbaatar,Mongolia
Mongolia
October	 	 Figure 2: Recovery curves for temporary housing in Iwate, Miyagi, andFukushima Prefecture

Figure 3: Probability density functions for temporary housing in Iwate, Miyagi,
and Fukushima PrefectureHigh correlations, more than 0.97, were observed between the curves developedin this study and the observed data, so the curves are considered to properlyreflect each recovery condition. The average completion months is 2.19 in Iwate,
2.46 in Miyagi, and 2.92 in Fukushima. The difference between Iwate andFukushima is 0.73 months.

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	 ICUS Report 65

6. CONCLUSION
In this study, recovery curves for temporary housing in Iwate, Miyagi, andFukushima, the most seriously damaged prefectures due to the 2011 Great East
Japan Earthquake, were developed using the dataset provided by Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism. It was found that a Gompertz Distribution
was the better fit than Cumulative Normal Distribution curve and Logistic curve.
Then the difference of the construction process between the three prefectures wasquantitatively clarified: the speed of the construction is the highest in Iwate, andthe lowest in Fukushima.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was supported by the recovery support program for the Great East
Japan Earthquake granted by University of Tsukuba.
REFERENCES
Geospatial Information Authority of Japan (GSI), 2011. Information of Inundation
Areas by the Tsunami of March 11, 2011, the fifth report,
http://www.gsi.go.jp/common/000059939.pdf
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT), 2012.
Information
relatedtotemporary
housings,
http://www.mlit.go.jp/report/daisinsai_kasetu.html.
Murao, O., and Nakazato, H., 2010. Recovery curves for housing reconstructionin Sri Lanka after the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami. Journal of earthquake andTsunami, Vol.4, No.2, 51-60.
Murao, O., Sugiyasu, K., and Nakazato, H., 2011. Study on Recovery Curves for
Housing Reconstruction in Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Indonesia after the 2004
Indian Ocean Tsunami, Proceedings of the 10th International Symposium on New
Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia (USB), 8p., Chiang Mai,
Thailand, 2011.10
National Police Agency, 2012. Damage by the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake
andTsunamiandResponse,
http://www.npa.go.jp/archive/keibi/biki/higaijokyo.pdf.
Reconstruction Agency, 2012. Process of the number of households in rented
apartments. http://www.reconstruction.go.jp/topics/0724_mincin.pdf.

Study on recovery curves for temporary housing after the 2011 Great East Japan
Earthquake
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Disaster managementof municipal governmentson the Kii Peninsula
after flood and sediment disasters
caused by the 2011 Typhoon Talas
1

Shinya KONDO1, Kazuyoshi OTA2 and Yasuhiro KATAIE3
Project Researcher, ICUS, IIS, The University of Tokyo, Japankondos@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
2
Civil Engineering Department, Wakayama Prefecture, Japan
3
Kaiso Branch Office, Wakayama Prefecture, Japan

ABSTRACTThe Kii Peninsula protrudes to the south from the center of Honshu, Japan. This
area is surrounded by the Pacific Ocean, and most of the peninsula ismountainous. It is predicted that the Kii Peninsula will suffer huge damage fromthe Tokai, Tonankai and Nankai earthquakes. However, Typhoon Talas also
caused serious damage to the mountainous areas of the Kii peninsula due tolarge-scale debris flows and river flooding. There were 87 casualties across thethree prefectures of the Kii Peninsula (Wakayama, Nara and Mie). In addition,
because of communication failures during this disaster, people could not accessdisaster information. Lessons from this disaster could be useful for futurecountermeasures before, during and after the Tokai, Tonankai and Nankai
earthquakes and for the design of flood and sediment disaster information
dissemination systems in Asia.
In this paper, the authors summarized the disaster management activities of threemunicipalities in the southern part of Wakayama Prefecture during and after
Typhoon Talas through interviews with personnel. Their disaster management
was organized from two perspectives: “flowchart of disaster information
generating process” and “flowchart of disaster information communication
process.” As a result, the following three points were clarified. First,
municipalities must make an effort to increase residents’ understanding thatfacilities which aim to mitigate the effects of disasters have the ability to reducethe disaster impact. Second, it is necessary to secure the multiplex communication
network, such as telecommunications infrastructure and services (Social Network
Service, among others). Third, municipalities need to carry out public relations sothat people can decide whether to evacuate before dark without fear of time goingto waste.
Keywords: disaster management, flood disaster, sediment disaster, typhoon,
evacuation229

October 2012, Ulaanbaatar,
Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
Mongolia

1. INTRODUCTION
The Kii Peninsula protrudes to the south from the center of Honshu, Japan. This
area is surrounded by the Pacific Ocean, and most of the peninsula is mountainous.
It is predicted that the Kii Peninsula will suffer huge damage by ground motion,
tsunami, and sediment disaster from the Tokai, Tonankai and Nankai earthquakes.
However, Typhoon Talas also caused serious damage to the mountainous areas of
the Kii peninsula due to large-scale debris flows and river flooding. There were 87
casualties across the three prefectures of the Kii Peninsula (Wakayama, Nara andMie prefecture). In addition, because of communication failures during thisdisaster, people could not access disaster information. Lessons from this disaster
could be useful for future countermeasures before, during and after the Tokai,
Tonankai and Nankai earthquakes and for the design of flood and sedimentdisaster information dissemination systems in Asia.
In this paper, the authors summarize the disaster management activities of threemunicipalities in the southern part of Wakayama Prefecture during and after
Typhoon Talas through interviews with personnel. Their disaster management isorganized from two perspectives: “flowchart of disaster information generatingprocess” and “flowchart of disaster information communication process.” People
can consider the design of flood and sediment disaster information dissemination
systems in Asia.
2. INVESTIGATION SUMMARY
2.1 Typhoon Talas (Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) 2011)
On 3 September, Typhoon Talas made landfall on Shikoku Island and reached the
Sea of Japan on the next day after crossing Shikoku and Chugoku regions.
Because Talas had a large scale strong wind area and moved very slowly, it
induced moisture advection for many hours and caused the record-breaking heavy
rainfall over a wide area from western to northern Japan, especially along themountains.
Especially over a wide area of the Kii Peninsula, the total amount of the
precipitation from 17 JST, 30 August exceeded 1,000 mm. The observing station
at Kamikitayama-village in Nara Prefecture observed 1,652.5 mm rainfall in 72
hours, hitting the record high in Japan. The total amount of the precipitation at thestation reached 1805.5 mm and precipitation amount in some areas was estimatedto be over 2,000 mm based on Radar/Raingauge Analyzed Precipitation. (Figure1)
Human casualties caused by this typhoon are 81 people dead (5 people related
death) and 16 people missing. Especially in the Kii Peninsula, human casualties
are 71 people dead (5 people related death) and 16 people missing (Fire andDisaster Management Agency: FDMA 2012). This means that a large damage
occurred around the Kii Peninsula by this typhoon. There were 3 rivers beyond

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estimated high-water level, 91 debris flows, 30 landslides, and 80 slope failures(Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism: MLIT 2012).

Kamikitayama

50

100

200

400

600

800

1000

1200 (mm)Figure 1: Precipitation during Typhoon Talas coming(30th August – 4th September)
2.2 Investigation area
In this study, investigation areas are Shingu city, Nachi-Katsuura town andKozagawa town, Wakayama prefecture (Figure 2). These municipalities arelocated in the southern part of Kii Peninsula. Central area is located in the coastal
area. In the mountainous area, there are parts of World Heritage site, Kumano
Taisha and Kumano Kodo, and many small districts.
Table 1 shows human casualties. These were caused by inundation by riverflooding and sediment disasters. Figure 3 shows the relationship of precipitation,
heavy rain warning and landslide warning information at Nishikawa, themountainous area of Kozagawa town. Rain became heavily at early morning on
2nd September after heavy rain warning issued. Landslide warning information
was also issued at 11:45 on 2nd September at Shingu city and at 21:45 on this day
at Nachi-Katsuura town and Kozagawa town. Shingu city was damaged by
Kumano river flooding and sediment disaster. Nachi-Katsuura town was damaged
by debris flow along to Nachi river. Kozagawa town was damaged by Koza riverflooding.
Disastermanagementof municipal
on the Kii Peninsula after flood andDisaster managementof municipal
governmentson thegovernment
Kii Peninsula
sediment
disasterscausedbythe2011
TyphoonTales
after flood and sediment disasters caused by the 2011 Typhoon Talas

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October 2012, Ulaanbaatar,
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ShinguNachi-Katsuura
Kozagawa

Figure 2: Investigation area
Table 1: Human casualties at three municipalities
ShinguNachi-Katsuura
Kozagawa

Death
13
27
0

Hourly (Left scale)
Total (Right scale)

Related death032Missing
1
1
0

Total
precipitation

Monthly average precipitation(September): 401.8mm
Hourlyprecipitation
Advisory

Heavy rain and flood warning
Landslide warning

Figure 3: The relationship of precipitation, heavy rain warning and landslide
warning information (Kozgawa town)
In this study, the authors conducted interviews about disaster response (from thetime that typhoon Talas would affect Kii Peninsula was expected) for disastermanagement staff of three municipalities.

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3. RESULTS OF INTERVIEW
3.1 Shingu city
Shingu city is a municipality that has been established by merged by Shingu cityand Kumanogawa town which was at mountainous area of Shingu city. Disaster
operation center was opened at main government building at 19:00 on 2nd
September. But disaster management staff operated for the people living in
Kumanogawa town area at Kumanogawa branch office. For example, whendisaster management staff decides evacuation directives for Kumanogawa town
area at main government building, Kumanogawa branch officials will tell people
to evacuation. At 16:00 on 2nd September, main road leading to Kumanogawa
town area were closed to traffic because of heavy rain. At 19:00 on 2nd
September, the level of Kumano river became higher beyond embankment.At
early morning on 4th September, second floor of Kumanogawa branch office wasflooded.
Disaster management officers issued evacuation directives monitoring the level of
Kumano river. At 20:40 on 2nd September, evacuation instruction was issued at
Kumanogawa town area. On the other hand, evacuation directives were issued
step-by-step at dangerous area around coastal area after 20:40 on 3rd September.
There are 10 dams in Kumano river. Objective of dams is not flood control but
power generation except one (Sarutani dam). Figure 4 shows the flow and storageof Sarutani dam. We can see inflow and outflow of this dam were equal fromearly morning on 2nd September. There is an agreement that dam manager sends
FAX to disaster management officers once an hour when the outflow of dam
becomes three thousand tons per second. At that time, dam manager sent FAX todisaster management officers once thirty minutes. Disaster management officers
told residents about dam information by email and public wireless network fordisaster prevention. Some residents at Kumanogawa town area had experience ofinundation, so they collected river information by themselves using internet.
storage ratio (%) storage (103m3)

rain(mm/h) flow (m3/s)
0
10
20

100

2000
1600

16000

1200
50

12000

800

8000

400

4000

0

rain

20000

9/1

9/2

inflow

9/3

9/4

outflow

9/5

0storage0storage ratio

Figure 4: Flow and storage (Sarutani dam)Disastermanagementof municipal
on the Kii Peninsula after flood andDisaster managementof municipal
governmentson thegovernment
Kii Peninsula
sediment
disasterscausedbythe2011
TyphoonTales
after flood and sediment disasters caused by the 2011 Typhoon Talas

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Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
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October 2012, Ulaanbaatar,

In this disaster, it was not easy to ensure communication tool. From 3rd to 7th
September, fixed-line was interrupted. There were portable radios at meeting
place of the districts, but most of them were submerged. Furthermore, mobile
phone was interrupted at mountainous area. Web and mail server was notavailable then anyone could not access to disaster management officers by official.
Disaster management officers started to use official twitter account for disastermanagement (Ishikawa 2012).
3.2 Nachi-Katsuura town
At Nachi-Katsuura town, there is Nachi river at the northern part of there andthere is Ohta river at the southern part of there. Disaster management officers
thought Ohta river was not better situation. On 2nd September, there was no
damage and some residents at mountainous area started to evacuate by themselves.
On 3rd September, disaster management officers started to prepare evacuation
centers. Disaster operation center opened at 18:00 on 3rd September.
At 22::40 on 3rd September, emergency discharge of Kodakumi dam (upstream of
Ohta river) was transmitted to residents in the siren and public radio network.
Kodakumi dam is managed by Nachi-Katsuura town. Disaster management
officers got the dam information successively. The water level of Nachi river wasincreased at 1:00 on 4th September then disaster management officer issued
evacuation directives at 1:45. At 4:00, entire area was flood.
Town officials dispatched to the evacuation center, and disaster management
officers communicated to them by mobile phone but they could not communicate
after 3:00 on 4th September. At “A” evacuation center (Figure 5) along Nachi
river, evacuee decided to move to “B” evacuation center (upstream of Nachi river)(Figure 6) by themselves. After moving, “A” evacuation center was damaged bydebris flow. We can see the damage at the wall of house from Figure 5.

Figure 5: “A” evacuation center (Nachi-Katsuura town)

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Figure 6: “B” evacuation center (Nachi-Katsuura town)
3.3 Kozagawa town
The entire Kozagawa town area is the watershed of Koza river. At upstream ofKoza river, there is the Shichikawa dam. Kozagawa town officer communicatedto dam manager and knew the level of Koza river. Figure 7 shows the flow andstorage of Shichikawa dam. It can be seen that the dam earned the time toevacuate.
flow (m3/s)

water level (m)1600

inflow (m3/s)
115

outflow (m3/s)

1200

water level (m)

105

800

95

400

0
24

06

12
9/1

18

24

06

12
9/2

18

24

06

12
9/3

18

24

06

12
9/4

18

24

85

Figure 7: The flow and storage of Shichikawa dam
Kozagawa town officials did anything for evacuation. They did not fear to be auseless. After heavy rain warning issued, in the morning on 2nd September,officials started to prepare evacuation centers, and residents started to evacuate bythemselves at 14:00 on 2nd September. At 22:00 on 2nd September, officials told
to district leaders to prepare for evacuation instruction because of heavy rain. At
6:00 on 3rd September, some residents started to go back their home. Therefore,
Disastermanagementof municipal
on the Kii Peninsula after flood andDisaster managementof municipal
governmentson thegovernment
Kii Peninsula
sediment
disasterscausedbythe2011
TyphoonTales
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officials continued to call them for evacuation and issued the information
prepared evacuation.
In the evening on 3rd September, the outflow and the inflow of Shichikawa dam
became equal. Before then, officials knew that situation. So officials issues
evacuation instructions at 16:00 on 3rd September. The water level of Koza riverrose and all plains along the river were flooded. At 0:00 on 4th September,evacuation directive was issued, but PR car could only go around governmentbuilding. And government building was isolated because of flood.
From midnight on 2nd September, power outage lasted intermittently. At 2:00 on
4th September, phone was interrupted. Officials could not communicate toresidents, but human casualties were kept to minimum because of early
evacuation.
4. DISASTER INFORMATION TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
Figure 8 shows “flowchart of disaster information generating process” atinvestigation area on Typhoon Talas. Central government and prefectural
government collectively issued warning and information according to the criteria
based on observation information. JMA issued weather information. Local
meteorological observatory and prefectural branch office issued flood forecast andlandslide warning information. Flood forecast is intended for rivers that are
specified in advance. At investigation area, only Koza river was specified.
Municipalities got warning, forecast, observation information, dam information,and reports from the field. According to these information and warning,municipalities were issued evacuation instruction/directive. Residents decided
their evacuation based on this evacuation instruction/directive. But some residents
who had experience of inundation collected river information by themselves using
internet. And municipality official urged residents to evacuate.
Figure 9 shows “flowchart of disaster information communication process” atinvestigation area on Typhoon Talas. Central government and prefectural
government sent observation information, forecast and warning to residents using
television, radio and internet. Municipalities got dam information and water levelof rivers using mobile phone. Municipalities sent evacuation information toresidents using public radio network and PR car. Some residents who had
experience of inundation collected river information by themselves using internet.
However, residents who lived at mountainous area could not get any information
because most of all communication service was interrupted. Using PR car anddispatch of officials to evacuation center were difficult because of road trafficinterruption. Municipalities could not send any information by official because of
fixed-line phone and web server interruption. Some municipality urged residents
to evacuate before flood in the daytime. Some evacuee in the other municipality
area moved other evacuation center by themselves in the nighttime. Therefore,
human casualties were minimized.

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Precipitation
Level of river
Centralgovernment
Prefectural
government

Observation
Information
Observation
Information

Reports fromthe field

Municipality

Dam
information

Disaster/Damage
Estimation•Disaster/Damage estimation
by numericalsimulation•Setting thecriteria•Setting thecriteria forevacuation•Disaster/Damage estimation
based onexperiences

Warningand Information
Weather informationFloodforecast

Landslidewarning
information

Evacuation
instruction/directive

Judgment ofevacuation

Residents Visual observation

Evacuation

Evacuation

Figure 8: The flowchart of disaster information generating process
Getting information using
mobile phone

JMA

MLIT

Centralgovernment

Prefecture
Officials

Dam
Some residents who had
experience of inundationcollected river informationby themselves using
internet

Municipality

Municipalities could notsend any information by
officials

Information transmission
using PR car and public
radio network
Early evacuation in thedaytime by officials

Informationtransmission using
television and radio

Residents

Evacuation by themselves

Figure 8: The flowchart of disaster information communication process
5. DISCUSSION
From the results of interview and two types of the flowchart, the following items
were revealed. First, municipalities must make an effort to increase residents’
understanding that facilities which aim to mitigate the effects of disasters have theability to reduce the disaster impact. Second, it is necessary to secure theDisastermanagementof municipal
on the Kii Peninsula after flood andDisaster managementof municipal
governmentson thegovernment
Kii Peninsula
sediment
disasterscausedbythe2011
TyphoonTales
after flood and sediment disasters caused by the 2011 Typhoon Talas

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multiplex communication network, such as telecommunications infrastructure andservices (Social Network Service, among others). Third, municipalities need tocarry out public relations so that people can decide whether to evacuate before
dark without fear of time going to waste.
6. CONCLUSIONSIn this paper, the authors summarized the disaster management activities of threemunicipalities in the southern part of Wakayama Prefecture during and after
Typhoon Talas through interviews with personnel. Their disaster management
was organized from two perspectives: “flowchart of disaster information
generating process” and “flowchart of disaster information communication
process.” From the results of interview and two types of the flowchart, lessons of
the design of flood and sediment disaster information dissemination systems in
Asia have become clear.
REFERENCES
Japan Meteorological Agency, 2011. Typhoon Talas relevant information -Portal-.
http://www.jma.go.jp/jma/en/typhoon_Talas.html
Fire and Disaster Management Agency, 2012. Disaster management of firefighting in 2011 Typhoon Talas.(Japanese)
http://www.fdma.go.jp/bn/data/%E5%8F%B0%E9%A2%A8%E7%AC%AC12%
E5%8F%B7%E3%81%AB%E3%82%88%E3%82%8B%E8%A2%AB%E5%AE%B3%E7%8A%B6%E6%B3%81%E3%81%AB%E3%81%A4%E3%81%84%E
3%81%A6%EF%BC%88%E7%AC%AC18%E5%A0%B1%EF%BC%89.pdf
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, 2012. Summary ofDamage caused by 2011 Typhoon Talas, (Japanese)
http://www.mlit.go.jp/common/000166361.pdf

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Study on implementation of remote building
damage assessment system
during large scale earthquake disasters
Makoto FUJIU1, Miho OHARA2 and Kimiro MEGURO3
1
Ph.D. Candidate, Department of Interdisciplinary Information Studies,
The University of Tokyo, Japanfujiu@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
2
Associate Professor, Interfaculty Initiative in Information Studies/ Institute of Industrial Science,
The University of Tokyo, Japan
3
Professor, Interfaculty Initiative in Information Studies,/ Institute of Industrial Science,
The University of Tokyo, Japan
ABSTRACT
Building damage assessment is necessary for governments to issue the Victim
Certificates for residents who suffered from housing damages. The process ofassessment needs accuracy, quickness, objectivity and fairness because the resultsof assessment are used as criteria for providing public monetary supports forrebuilding of their livelihood. In Japan, several big earthquakes are expected tooccur in the near future. A lot of structural damages due to these earthquakes willcause enormous needs for building damage assessment. However, there is a limit
action on the number of specialists with adequate assessment skills who canaccess the damaged area under bad traffic conditions. Delay in building damage
assessment by local governments can disturb rapid reconstruction of the damaged
area.
Considering these problems during large-scale earthquake disasters, authors
proposed the new system for building damage assessment using photos ofdamaged houses taken by residents or volunteer fire corps in the damaged area.
Specialists outside the damaged area confirm these photos on the website andassess their damage levels. All the data used for building damage assessment ismanaged with GIS database on a management server located outside thedamaged area under cloud condition. This kind of digital management system cancontribute to enhance the accuracy and efficiency of the procedures for issuing
the Victim Certificates for residents.
In this paper, the remote system for specialists to assess the damage levels wasdeveloped as a web-based service for supporting building damage assessment.
Furthermore, authors conducted operation tests with some local government
staffs to evaluate the effectiveness of the developed systems. As a result of these
operation tests, it became clear that the developed system could be used for theassessment of the damaged houses.
Keywords: earthquake disaster, building damage assessment, IT system239

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1. INTRODUCTION
In Japan, several big earthquakes are expected to occur in the near future. A lot ofstructural damages due to these earthquakes will cause enormous needs forbuilding damage assessment. Building damage assessment is necessary forgovernments to issue the Victim Certificates for residents who suffered housing
damages. However, the current number of human recourses who are trained withthe procedures of building damage assessment is not enough. It is necessary todevelop the new system which enables quick building damage assessment in caseof the next large-scale earthquake disaster.
The guidelines of general procedures for inspecting building damage due todisasters were published by the Cabinet Office in 1968, 2001 and 2009. However,in the past disasters, various problems of building damage assessment have been
pointed out such as inaccurate inspection, difficulty in quick inspection and lackof human recourses with sufficient skills of assessment.
In order to solve the past problems and achieve quick building damage assessment,
authors proposed new remote system for building damage assessment using IT
technologies. So far, a prototype system was developed. But, the functions of thesystem need to be verified through operation tests. In this paper, authors
conducted operation tests with some local government staffs to evaluate theeffectiveness of the developed systems.
2. CONCEPT OF NEW REMOTE SYSTEM FOR BUILDING DAMAGE
ASSESSMENT
As a new system for achieving all the solutions for the problems reported at thepast building damage assessments, we proposed a new remote system forsupporting building damage assessments during large-scale earthquake disasters.
The concept of the system is illustrated in figure 1.
The total system consists of two sub-systems. The first one is photo upload systemin the damaged area. Photos of a damaged house are taken by residents or
volunteer fire corps in the damaged area and those data is uploaded to the server.
The second one is remote assessment system for specialists. Specialists locatedoutside the damaged area confirm these photos through the website, and assess
their damage levels.
All the data used for building damage assessment is managed with GIS databaseon the management server located outside the damaged area under cloud
condition. This kind of digital management system can contribute to enhance theaccuracy and efficiency of the procedures for issuing the Victim Certificates forresidents.

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Taking a picture of damaged house in damaged area

Remote building damage assessment by specialist

・Demand of necessary
photograph・Correspond to
inspector's demand.

Instruction oftaking picture

Upload ofphoto

System-１

Area-BArea-A

Interactive condition

Area-C

Area-D

Area-E・GIS information
・Photo information

Input
damagedleverforeach houses

System-２

Photo data・Inspector’s name・GIS information・Monitoring of execution condition etc.

Web・GIS Server

Figure 1: Concept of remote building damage assessment system
3. DEVELOPMENT OF REMOTE BUILDING DAMAGE ASSESSMENTSYSTEM
3.1 Development of photo upload system in damaged area
Photo upload system in the damaged area was developed as an application on
smart phones used by residents or volunteer fire corps in damaged area. Prototypeof this system was developed by Android as the mobile phone operating system
which is installed in almost all the smart phones except iPhone.
Firstly, residents or volunteer fire corps as inspectors input the basic informationsuch as GPS information, an address and an owner name. Secondary, they uploadsome photos such as an overview of the damaged house, incline of the damaged
house and the damaged point of their roofs, walls and fundamentals. Finally, they
confirm the input data and some photos.
Method of completing for photo upload in the damaged area using upload
application is as follows. Inspectors take some damaged house photos which arefull views of the damaged house (north side, east side, south side and west side)
and closeup views of the damaged points. Inspectors should take pictures of thedamaged house concerning three factors: externals, inclination and building
element (roof, exterior wall and foundation). Furthermore, they have to relate
closeup views of damaged points to full views using touch screen functions.
These photos are uploaded to an exclusive server in cloud condition using upload
application. The comments about damage levels and damage locations, etc can be
added to the photo, if necessary. The prototype system of photo upload system
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was developed based on the data of totally damaged houses due to the 2011 off
the Pacific coast of Tohoku Earthquake in Japan.
3.2 Development of remote assessment system for specialists
Here, prototype of “remote assessment system for specialists” was developed asshown in figure 2. Specialists outside the damaged area confirm the photos
uploaded on the website and assess their damage levels. All the data used forbuilding damage assessment is managed with GIS database on the management
server located outside the damaged area under cloud condition.
Flow of remote assessment system is as follows. Firstly, specialists who are
registered architects and experienced workers outside the damaged area confirm
the basic information such as shape of the damaged house, location and seismic
level on the web system and overview all the photos of the damaged house.
Secondary, they assess the damage level and area based on their inclines and thedamaged points of roofs, walls and fundamentals. Finally, specialists confirm the
input data. Then result of the first assessment is passed to the next specialist to
carry out double check.

Basic information
confirmation screen

Whole damage
confirmation screen

Overview judgment screen

Repetition when the building havesome damage level.

Damage area input screen

Damage level input screen

Final result confirmation screen

Repetition of 4 directions which are in front of entrance, back sideof entrance, left side of entrance and right side of entrance.

Figure 2: Remote building damage assessment system
Figure 2 shows the prototype system of primary inspection in case of a moderate
damaged house as an example. Total damage level of a house is decided based ondamage levels of three factors: externals, inclination and building element. The
photos taken at the 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku Earthquake were used fordescribing the damages.

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Specialists can see close-up photos, if necessary. They evaluate the photos andselect the damage levels and its area from pull down choices in each page. In
addition, they can request additional photos for more accurate assessment toinspectors in the damaged area. In final page, they fill in the special or cautioncomments of the assessed house and pass the result to the next specialist.
Assessment for one damaged house should be conducted by two or three
specialists to double-check the result for achieving accurate, fair and objective
assessment. When the assessment ends here, a Victim Certificates for the resident
is issued from the local government.

4. EVALUATION OF EFFECTIVENESS OF REMOTE BUILDINGDAMAGE ASSESSMENT SYSTEM
4.1 Condition of Operation tests
Authors conducted operation tests for twenty local government staffs who
experienced building damage assessment due to the the 2011 off the Pacific coastof Tohoku Earthquake. They belonged to Yokohama city in Kanagawa Prefectureand Sendai city in Miyagi Prefecture as shown in figure 3. The staffs of
Yokohama city were sent to Sendai city after the Earthquake for supportingbuilding damage assessment.
The operation tests were held during April 26-27th, 2012 in Yokohama city, andon May 15th in Sendai city. The total time for one test was about two hours. At
the beginning of the operation test, system of remote building damage assessment
was briefly explained. After that, the operation test was done using the developed
system. When the operation test finished, staffs answered the questionnaire survey
regarding usability and feasibility of the developed system.
Table 1 shows the conditions of the operation tests. Seven scenarios including
four damage patterns and two cases respectively (except major-moderate damage)were examined by the operation test. Tested damage patterns were major damage,major-moderate damage, moderate damage and minor damage. Two scenariosmean easy or difficult cases for assessing the damage levels. Figure 4 shows
examples of damage photos used for moderate damaged houses in the system forthe operation tests. These are photos of damages due to the 2011 off the Pacificcoast of Tohoku Earthquake which are moderate damaged houses. Scenario 4 isfor a moderate damaged house which is easy to assess for everyone, and scenario
5 is for a moderate damaged house which is difficult to assess even for an
experienced person.

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Figure 3: Operation test in Yokohama city
Table 2: Condition of operation test
Scenario

Damage Level

１

Major damage

Easy to assess for all test persons

２

Major damage

Easy to assess for all test persons

３

Major-moderate damage

４

Moderate damage

Easy to assess for all test persons

５Moderate damage

Difficult to assess for experienced person

６

Minor damage

Easy to assess for all test persons

７

Minor damage

Difficult to assess for experienced person

Scenario 4

Test Conditions

Difficult to assess for experienced person

Scenario 5

Figure 4: Example of damage photos for remote assessment system

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4.2 Result of Operation test
Figure 5 shows the result of the assessment by participants. All the staffs could
assess the correct damage level for scenario 1 and 2. On the other hand, scenario
3,4,5,6 and 7 were not assessed perfectly. The correct ratio for scenario 4 washigher than scenario 5. Scenario 4 was an easy case, and scenario 5 was a difficult
case to assess even for an experienced person. As a result, the correct ratio of the
difficult case was 20% lower than that of the easy case. Scenario 6 and 7 had thesame result.
全壊（建物１）
Scenario
1

19

全壊（建物２）
Scenario
2

20

大規模半壊
Scenario
3

3

12

半壊（建物１）
Scenario
4

2

15

半壊（建物２）
Scenario
5

4

10

一部損壊（建物１）
Scenario 6

2

10

一部損壊（建物２）
Scenario 7

4

10
0%

20%

40%

60%

correct

80%

100%

incorrect

Figure 5: Result of assessment
Figure 6 shows the result of the judged damage level for scenario 7. Scenario 7
was a difficult case to assess even for an experienced person. The house of
scenario 7 had three walls which located at the left or back side of entrance. The
red circles in the figure 6 indicate correct judgment. As a result, about 70% of theparticipants could assess the correct damage level of the wall. However, about
30% of the participants could not assess the damage level correctly because they
could not identify small cracks.
Figure 7 shows the result of the judged damage area for scenario 7. As a result,
the wall 1 and wall 2 was assessed to be larger than the correct area, but the wall 3
was assessed to be smaller than the correct one. This was because participants
could not identify small cracks and misjudged the damaged area. These results
indicated that small cracks in the photos were difficult to be assessed on the
remote assessment system. It is necessary to install the functions that support
finding damages and deciding its damaged area such as showing damage
examples, showing grid meshes, etc.
Figure 8 shows the result of the questionnaire survey that was conducted after thetests to understand usability and feasibility of the system. The participants
answered that the proposed system was very useful because this had moreadvantages than the present procedures. Especially, participants highly evaluatedon “reducing inspection time” and “Result of inspection is managed by digital
data.”

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1

9

wall壁２
2

9

3

1

Damage level 1
被害程度１

1

被害程度２
Damage level 2

wall壁１
3

4

10
0%

20%

3

40%

60%

被害程度３
Damage level 3

1

被害程度４
Damage level 4

1

80%

Damage level 5
被害程度５

100%

Figure 6: Result of assessment of damage level (wall inspection)

wall壁３
1

8

wall壁２
2

1

4

4

wall壁１
3

2
2

1
1

9
0%

20%

2
3

3
40%

60%

1

80%

100%

5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
over
40%以上

Figure 7: Result of assessment of damaged area (wall inspection)

支援要員が赴くことが不要
Inspection staffs don’t have enough knowledge.
作業方法を熟知していなくとも従…
To keep fairness
調査の公平性の担保
To keep quickness
調査の迅速性の担保
To keep objectivity
調査の客観性の担保
Resultof inspection is managed by digital data .
デジタルデータが管理できる
Inspection夜間・荒天でも認定が可能
can carry out under bat weather condition.
Inspectors don’t
explain to resident of damaged house.
住民への説明が必要ない
Local governments don’t need to total.
データの集計が必要ない
Reducing the inspection time.
現場での調査時間の短縮
Inspection staffs not need to go to damaged area.

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Figure 8: Result of questionnaire survey regarding usability and feasibility
5. Conclusions
In Japan, several big earthquakes are expected to occur in the near future. It isnecessary to develop the new system which enables quick building damage
assessment in case of the next large-scale earthquake disaster. In this paper, a new
system for remote building damage assessment was developed and operation tests
were conducted to verify its effectiveness.

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The prototype system of remote building damage assessment system wasdeveloped using the photos of the damaged houses due to the 2011 off the Pacificcoast of Tohoku Earthquake. The operation tests were conducted with local
government staffs who experienced the building damage assessment at the
Tohoku Earthquake. As a result, it became clear that the developed system could
be used for the assessment of the damaged houses and the system had moreadvantages than the present procedures.
In the future, we plan to evaluate the effect of the proposed system in case of theTokyo metropolitan Earthquake.
REFERENCES
Murao, O., Yamazaki, F., 1999, Comparison of Building Damage Evaluation by
Local Governments after the 1995 hyogoken-nanbu earthquake, Journal ofArchitecture Planning and Environmental Engineering, No.515, pp.187-194
Shigekawa, K., Tanaka, S., Horie, K., Hayashi, H., 2005, Some Regulational
Issues on Building Damage Assessment –A Case Study of Niigata-ken Chuetsu
Earthquake- , Journal of social Safety Science No.7, pp.133-140
Horie, K., Shigekawa, K., Maki, N., Tanaka, S., Hayashi, H., 2005, Applicationof Damage Assessment Training (DATS) to Ojiya City following 2004 Niigata-ken
Chuetsu Earthquake –Through a Disaster Response Support Activity for IssuingVictim Certificate- , Journal of social Safety Science No.7, pp.123-132
Yoshitomi, N., Hayashi, H., Urakawa, G., Shigekawa, K., Tanaka, S., Horie, K.,
Matsuoka, K., 2005, The Development of a Damage Certificate Issuing Support
System –A new disaster response database schema created for the Niigata
Chuetsu Earthquake- , Journal of social Safety Science No.7, pp.141-150
Tanaka, S., 2008, A Study on the Building Damage Assessment Processes for the2007 Niigata Chuetsu Oki Earthquake Disaster : Kashiwazaki Case Study ,Proceedings of social Safety Science No.22, pp.35-38
Fujiu, M., Ohara, M., Meguro, K., 2011, Development of remote system forsupporting building damage assessment during large-scale earthquake disaster,Proceedings of the Eighth International Symposium on New Technologies for
Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia, Chiang Mai, Thailand, CD-ROM
Fujiu, M., Ohara, M., Meguro, K., 2012, Development of remote building damage
assessment system during large-scale earthquake disaster, Proceedings of the
15th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, CD-ROM, Lisbon, Portugal

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News coverage concentration
on specific municipalities:
Analysis of TV report contents
at 2011 Tohoku Earthquake
Muneyoshi NUMADA1 and Kimiro MEGURO2
1
Research Associate, ICUS, IIS, The University of Tokyo, Japannuma@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
2
Professor, ICUS, IIS, The University of Tokyo, Japan
ABSTRACT
Following the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake in Japan, we have noticed that TV
coverage highly emphasized certain municipalities, repeatedly reporting its
damage and disaster response activities. Nuclear power plant accident was also
extensively highlighted. The news coverage focusing on specific regions induced
aid and support – e.g. distribution of relief supplies and donations -- to certain
areas only. This problem of unbalanced press coverage has also been witnessedin the past disasters -- Hokkaido Nansei Oki Earthquake in 1993, Hokkaido Toho
oki Earthquake in 1994, and the Southern Hyogo prefecture earthquake in 1995.
While the same issue arose again in the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake, lopsided media
coverage again failed to offer disaster overview or enhance understanding thetotal damage, both of which are crucial in times of such massive earthquake. We
believe that TV media bears heavy responsibility and should therefore play theleading role in providing information that helps people to make appropriate
decisions and judgments.
The purpose of this research is to conduct a quantitative analysis of themunicipalities that were repeatedly featured in TV news reports. Media coveragerate by municipalities was analyzed to find out the relationship between media
coverage amount and damage level.
The result showed that even if the damage levels were equal, the amount of TV
news coverage among the municipalities differed -- a common and distinctive
feature among all TV stations. One of the reasons can be explained by the factthat TV crew was unable to reach certain cities and towns due to damaged roads
and traffic. However, another reason and perhaps the essential problem lie in the
longtime tendency of Japanese TV stations: to follow and conform to successful
reports which has given impact and sensation. The unbalance occurs because
each TV station is driven by the fear of missing out on a scoop. The results of thisstudy, based on quantitative analysis, are an indication of these alarming
phenomena.
Keywords: TV news coverage, TV media, disaster information, Tohoku
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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview of the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake
At 14:46 JST (5:46 UTC) on March 11th, 2011, an earthquake of a moment
magnitude 9.0, the largest earthquake ever recorded in Japan, struck off the shoreof the Sanriku area in the Tohoku Region. The “mega tsunami” followed, deeply
hitting indented coastal areas and bringing enormous and devastating damage tomany cities and villages in the area. Damage by the “mega tsunami” was not only
limited to buildings, but the resulting fires destroyed many communities, taking
lives of thousands. Moreover, nuclear power plant (NPP) facilities sufferedcomplicated and serious damage. This earthquake was later officially named “The2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku Earthquake” by the Japan Meteorological
Agency (JMA).
1.2 Importance of TV programs
In this earthquake, people faced difficulty in grasping the full scope of thedisaster since the damage was extremely widespread and diverse. To obtain
information on damage conditions, safety confirmation, news and announcementsfrom municipalities, all kinds of media were used. In addition to the conventional
television, radio and the Internet, new types of information-sharing tools such as
Twitter and Facebook were utilized. The Internet TV news sites, such as
USTREAM and NICO-NICO DOUGA, were also capable of broadcasting NHK(Japan Broadcasting Corporation) programs and commercial TV stations at nocharge. Furthermore, people could watch TV programs in the open air byreceiving one-segment broadcasting services.
According to a survey (Nomura Research Institute, Ltd. 2011) on “trends inmedia contact associated with the 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku
earthquake”, TV was ranked no.1 and no.2 as the important information source.
On acquiring earthquake information, about 80.5% considered “NHK TV” and56.9% considered “commercial TV stations” as important. “Newspaper” and“Internet” both ranked below TV.
Likewise, another survey (My Voice Communications, Inc. 2011) shows "howpeople gathered information on the 2011 Tohoku earthquake". Here again, TV
was ranked top at 93.5%, followed by newspapers at 44.9%, Internet news sites at
44.8%, Internet portal sites (e.g. Yahoo) at 42.8% and radio at 31.1%. These
results evidently show that the majority relied on TV as the main tool to get
information.
According to the Article 108 of the Broadcasting Act and Disaster
Countermeasure Basic Act (Tanaka 2008), broadcasting organizations are obliged
to provide useful services in order to prevent and minimizing disasters. Also, theMinistry of Internal Affairs and Communications has requested NHK and the
National Association of Commercial Broadcasters in Japan to provide accurate
and detailed information to the public as quickly as possible (Ministry of Internal
Affairs and Communications 2011).
Considering the above, we can say that the expected role of TV news is not justreports on damages but also to provide useful information that prevent further
damage. TV news is indeed counted on as one of the “disaster prevention

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organizations” – to make appropriate contributions in disaster management.
1.3 Problems of TV programs
Immediately after the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake, certain affected areas, where
TV reporters could easily reach, were repeatedly exposed from an early stage,leaving strong impact on the viewers. Obviously, specific municipalities wereintensively covered by TV news than others. High emphasis was also placed on
the nuclear power plant accident. We can say that the news coverage was prettymuch unbalanced, especially when considering the vast extent of the affectedareas. This unfairness eventually led to the uneven allocation of aid activities,
with distribution of relief supplies and donations concentrated to limited
municipalities while other areas were left neglected.
Although this problem of media coverage concentration has been repeatedly
pointed out in the past earthquakes (Nakamori 1995) such as Hokkaido Nansei
Oki Earthquake in 1993, Hokkaido Toho oki Earthquake in 1994, and theSouthern Hyogo prefecture earthquake in 1995, the same issue arose again in the2011 Tohoku Earthquake (Nakamori 2011). Unbalanced media coverage on
certain topics and areas does not offer the audience comprehensive views orunderstanding of total damage, both of which are crucial especially at the time ofsuch massive disaster. TV media is heavily responsible for providing information
to the public so that they can make correct decisions and take appropriate actions.
Previous studies on TV news coverage and contents after the Tohoku
earthquake include: chronological analysis of TV news contents (NHK 2011),
verification of early media coverage, confused and disordered reports of thenuclear power plant accident, and analysis of foreign media reports (Generalincorporated association of Tokyo-sya 2011). But never before had there been any
quantitative analysis of TV news coverage unbalance conducted.
1.4 Purpose of this research
The purpose of this study is to conduct a quantitative verification of theunbalance in media coverage by municipalities during the emergency period after
the Tohoku earthquake. The correlation between media coverage and damagelevel during the first ten days after the disaster was analyzed.
2. TV news data
In this study, we selected six major TV stations, namely NHK, NTV, TBS, Fuji
TV, TV Asahi, and TV Tokyo. TV content analysis generally requires text datafrom each program section. Especially for this study, we adopted a database called"Document-Analyser" by JCC Corporation, which allowed us to obtain text dataof all six TV stations for 365 days a year, 24 hours a day and by the unit ofseconds. The database enabled us to comprehend the full details of when, what,
where, and how each TV stations reported. Table 1 shows an example of the text
data of NHK on March 12th.
The target period of this research covers the ten days from March 11th to 20th,
considering the importance of TV news reports at an early stage immediately after
News coverage
concentration
on specificmunicipalities:
Analysisof TV report contents
News coverage concentration
on specificmunicipalities:
Analysisof TV reportcontents
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the disaster. We paid attention to how the damage situation became apparent
along with how much influence the news reports gave on supply of relief goods.
Table 1: Example of the text data of the TV program (259 characters)

In Miyagi Prefecture, by the earthquake, 53 people were
killed. The details is 17 people in the Higashimatsushima city,
12 people in the Kesennuma city, 8 people in the
Shichigahama town and 5 people in the Sendai city. In the
coastal town of Minamisanriku where was attacked by thetsunami, many buildings and houses were washed away by
the tsunami except the hospital building constructed by
concrete, and many people were missing. In the area alongwith the port of Kesennuma in Kesennuma city, the largescale fire occurred caused by the outflowing oil from the tankat the port. The video of Kesennuma city. (March 12, NHK)
3. Concentration of TV PROGRAMS
Contents of news programs broadcasted by each TV station were more or lesssimilar; no big difference or distinctive feature was observed from the reports
produced during the ten days after the disaster.
3.1 Index “C” Definition: Concentration-ratio of municipality news coverage
This chapter analyses by text data the way each TV station focused its reports
on specific municipalities. “Concentration-Ratio of the News Coverage on
Municipality” is defined as Index "C”. The “C” is indicated by the ratio of "thetotal number of all municipalities each TV station has picked up" and "the numberof each municipality each TV station has picked up." Here, the definition of "pickup” implies the appearance of municipality name in text data as underlined inTable 1. For example, Higashimatsushima City marked “1”, Kesennuma City “4”,Shichigahama Town “1”, Sendai City “1”, and Minami-Sanriku Town “1”respectively in the text given in Table 1.
If the Index C scores high, it indicates that the TV station has made intensive
reports focusing on a particular municipality. If the Index C is low, it suggests thatno specific municipality has received unusual attention. If the Index C is zero,then municipalities got no coverage at all.
3.2 Correlation between “C” value and damage level
In this section, we discuss the relationship between the “C” value and damage

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level. Although previous studies have conducted a quantitative analysis ofcorrelation between newspaper coverage and damage level (Matsumura 1998), therelationship between the TV report coverage and damage level has not yet beenstudied.
The definition of "earthquake coverage rate" is indicated by the ratio of quakerelated reports in all newspaper articles excluding advertisements. The result
suggests a high correlation between “earthquake coverage rate” and the numberof casualties, but not much correlation with the number of totally collapsedbuildings.
Number of casualties

10000

Number of casualties

10000

Higashimatsusima city
Otsuchi town

1000

1000

Kesennuma city
Yamamoto town

Kamaishi city

Kamaishi city

100

10

10

0%
5%
10%
市町村報道率（%）
Concentration-ratioof the municipality C

15%

1

0%
5%
10%
市町村報道率（%）
Concentration-ratioof the municipality C(a) NHK

Number of casualties

10000

Higashimatsusima city
Otsuchi town
Kamaishi city

1000

Higashimatsusima city
Otsuchi town

1000

Kesennuma city

Kamaishi city

Yamamoto town

100

10

10

0%
5%
10%
市町村報道率（%）
Concentration-ratioof the municipality C

15%(b) NTV

1000
100

0%
5%
10%
市町村報道率（%）
Concentration-ratioof the municipality C

15%

Number of casualties

10000

Higashimatsusima city
Otsuchi town
Kamaishi city

1(e) TV-Asahi

Number of casualties

10000

Kesennuma city

Yamamoto town

100

1

15%

(d) Fuji-TV

Number of casualties

10000

Kesennuma city

Yamamoto town

100

1

Higashimatsusima city
Otsuchi town

1000

Kesennuma city

100

Yamamoto town

Otsuchi town

Higashimatsusima city
Kesennuma city

Kamaishi city
Yamamoto town

10

10
1

1
0%
5%
10%
Concentration-ratioof the municipality C
市町村報道率（%）

15%

0%
10%
20%
市町村報道率（%）
Concentration-ratioof the municipality C

30%(c) TBS(f) TV-Tokyo
Figure 1: Relationship between the number of casualties and the concentration–
ratio of the municipality

News coverage
concentration
on specificmunicipalities:
Analysisof TV report contents
News coverage concentration
on specificmunicipalities:
Analysisof TV reportcontents
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Number of casualties

Number of casualties

1000

50

Otsuchi ctown

40
30

Yamamoto town
Higashimatsusima city

20

Higashimatsusima city

Kesennuma city

10

Kamaishi city

100Kesennuma city

100

Ofunato city
Natori city

Sendai city

1

0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
市町村報道率（%）
Concentration-ratioof the municipality C

25%

0%
5%
10%
15%
市町村報道率（%）
Concentration-ratioof the municipality C

20%(a) the day of the earthquake,(b) three days after the earthquake,2011.3.11
2011.3.13
Figure 2: Relationship between the number of casualties and the concentration–
ratio of the municipality of NHK
Using the above result as reference, this paper analyses the relationship between
casualties and the Index C of TV news coverage. The number of total casualties
used here represents the sum of the missing and the dead.
Figure 1 shows the relationship between casualties and the Index C on March
11th. In calculating the Index C here, the total number of news coverage onmunicipalities from March 11th to 20th is used, and the number of casualties
referred to those confirmed by March 20th.
Focusing on the municipalities with over 1,000 casualties, NHK showed thehighest Index C score for Kesennuma City, followed by Kamaishi City, Otuchi
Town, Higashimatsushim City and Yamamoto Town. This result shows that eventhough the number of casualties is similar, significant difference is seen in theamount of TV news coverage on municipalities.
Similarly, when looking at Nihon-TV’s reports on municipalities with over1000 casualties, the Index C of Kesennuma shows high value, while Yamamotoand Higashimatsushima show relatively low value. The same tendency isobserved in other TV stations. This tendency can also be observed from thechronological analysis as given in Table 2 (a) and (b). On March 14th, in
Higashimatsushima City, 152 dead and 400 missing people were found, likewiseon March 15th in Yamamoto, 111 dead and 638 missing people were found.
Despite these findings of high number of casualties, no obvious reaction wasobserved in the Index C.
Figure 2 shows the relationship between casualties and the Index C of NHK on
the day the earthquake hit, the third and the tenth day after disaster. The C iscalculated by the number of coverage on March 11th, the day of the earthquake,the sum of the coverage of the third and the tenth days respectively. The numberof casualties used is the sum of dead and missing people on the day of theearthquake, by the third and tenth days since March 11th respectively.
The Index C of the Sendai and Natori cities on the day of the earthquake is high,subsequently followed by Ofunato City, Kamaishi City, Kesennuma City,
Higashimatsushima City and Yamamoto Town. At this stage, Otsuchi Town is notcovered as seen in Figure 2 (a). Now, we will discuss by comparing two
municipalities of Kesennuma City and Otsuchi Town.

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On the third day (Figure 2 (b)), both Kesennuma and Otsuchi showed increasein the number of casualties. Nevertheless, the Index C of Kesennuma rose whilethat of Otsuchi remained unchanged. By the tenth day, the number of casualties ofboth reached almost the same level, yet a large gap in Index C is observed.
These results have proved quantitatively that difference exists in Index C, despite
the fact that the casualty level is the same. Therefore, the figures indicates that thenews report coverage is unbalanced, and this tendency is common among all TV
stations. Of course, one of the reasons may be explained by the accessibility tocertain municipalities due to road conditions. However, another reason may bethat TV stations tend to conform with reports by major successful TV stations
which have managed to deliver news with strong impact because they are driven
by the fear of missing out on a scoop. The results of this study, based on
quantitative analysis, are an indication of these alarming phenomena.
4. CONCLUSIONSThe concentrated news coverage induced the unfair allocation of relief supplies
and donations to some specific areas. This problem has repeatedly happened in
the past disasters. This research has proved quantitatively that difference exists in
Index C, regardless whether the casualty level is the same or not. This fact has
shown the fact that news report coverage is unbalanced among all TV stations.
One of the reasons may be the accessibility to certain municipalities due to theroad conditions. However, another reason may be that the TV stations have thetendency to conform with reports by major successful TV stations which managed
to deliver news with strong impact, and they are driven by the fear of missing out
on a scoop. The results of this study, based on quantitative analysis, are an
indication of these alarming phenomena.
Led by these results, we propose the following strategy to improve the standardof fairness in TV news reporting ahead of the next disaster. Considering thelimited time and human resources at TV stations, we strongly advise them to: (1)grasp the overall damage conditions and perspective accurately, (2) provide
information that corresponds to the direct needs of the audience, and (3) promote
cooperation among TV stations, pay respect to press freedom, avoid unbalanced
news coverage focusing on specific municipalities only, and lastly, improveaccess to obtain necessary information.
With regards to the role of the press, TV stations are expected to provide useful
information, thereby contributing to appropriate disaster response, both frominside and outside the disaster-affected areas (Cabinet Office of Japan 2008). The
above-mentioned strategy will serve as the guideline for improvement in this
aspect.
In the next phase of this study, we will develop similar analysis using theamount of reporting time, then verifying the difference from text data. Moreover,
we will carry out further study to find out what kinds of subject matters werereported intensively.

News coverage
concentration
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Analysisof TV report contents
News coverage concentration
on specificmunicipalities:
Analysisof TV reportcontents
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AKCNOWLEDGEMENT
This research has been supported by Mr. Takatoshi Ishii of JCC Corporation.
REFERENCE
General incorporated association of Tokyo-sya (2011). Journalism of
unprecedented disaster and tribulation, Journal of general journalism research,
No.217, pp.9-18, 26-51
Japan Cabinet Office of Japan (2008). Basic Disaster Management Plan, pp.48-49.
Kazuo Matsumura (1998). Reaction of society against the earthquake disaster
reported by the newspaper, Journal of Architectural Institute of Japan. 511,
pp.61-67.
Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications (2011). The request for Japan
Broadcasting Corporation and National Association of Commercial
Broadcasters in Japan about the information providing of the 2011 Off the
Pacific Coast of Tohoku Earthquake, http://www.soumu.go.jp/menu_news/snews /01ryutsu07_01000018. html. [Accessed at 2011.4.1]
My Voice Communications, Inc. (2011). Questionnaire survey on "How to gather
information about the 2011 Off the Pacific Coast of Tohoku Earthquake ",http://www.myvoice.co.jp/biz/surveys/15417/index. html. [Accessed at
2011.5.30]
Nakamori H., (1995). Problems about initial and regional-detail information
focused on the city of Hanshin region, Journal of the Institute of Social Safety
Science (5), pp.21-28.
Nakamori H., (2011). Problems of news and mass media in the 2011 Off the
Pacific Coast of Tohoku Earthquake. Journal of Urban problems, Vol.102,
pp.4-9.
NHK (2011). What kinds of contents did TV stations provide in the 2011 Off the
Pacific Coast of Tohoku Earthquake, NHK broadcasting studies, Vol. 61, No.5,
pp.2-7.
NHK (2011). What kinds of contents did TV stations provide in the 2011 Off the
Pacific Coast of Tohoku Earthquake (2), NHK broadcasting studies, Vol. 61,
No.6, pp.2-9.
Nomura Research Institute, Ltd. (2011). Research on trends in media contact
associated with the earthquake, http://www.nri.co.jp/news/2011/110329.html.
[Accessed at 2011.3.29.]
Tanaka H., and Yoshii A., (2008). Introduction to Disaster Information Theory,
Koubundou, pp.164-165, 218-227.

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Reconstruction of Kamaishi City after
the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami
Maria Bernadet Karina DEWI1, Sae SHIKITA2, Takaaki KATO3
1
Graduate Student, ICUS, IIS, The University of Tokyo, Japandewi@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
2
Undergraduate Student, ICUS, IIS, The University of Tokyo, Japansae.shikita@gmail.com
3
Associate Professor, ICUS, IIS, The University of Tokyo, Japankato-t@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
ABSTRACT
Hakozaki Peninsula, Kamaishi city, consists of eight villages, located alongside
the coastal area of Iwate Prefecture. During the 2011 Tohoku earthquake andtsunami, the casualties were 1,061 dead and missing, 2,954 completely destroyedhouses, and 687 partially destroyed houses. Currently, the population lives in
temporary houses in scattered locations. As other cities in the Tohoku affected
area, this city faces the very significant problem of a declining society, as well asother problems.
Kamaishi city’d population data and economic and governance systems areresources that should be considered with regard to reconstruction. Since the 2011
Tohoku earthquake the process of reconstruction with the involved stakeholders—
the national government, municipalities, communities, NPOs, and others has beenongoing. This paper analyzes the current situation of the recovery, community
activities for reconstruction, and relation between these activities, then finding
problem between the process and involved stakeholders.
Keywords: reconstruction, Kamaishi city, Hakozaki Peninsula, community
participation, problems, solution.
1. BACKGROUND – KAMAISHI CITY BEFORE THE DISASTER
Kamaishi city is located in the southeastern part of Iwate Prefecture, along thecoastal line towards the Pacific Ocean, with total area of 441.43 square kilometers.
Kamaishi city was well known for its fishery and iron industry. In 1857, Nambu
Domain constructed the Ohashi blast furnace at Kamaishi as the first westernstyle blast furnace in Japan. In 1934, the Meiji Government established Nippon
Steel, the city’s population at that time reached 40,388. At the same time, roads
and railways were developed, and the role of Kamaishi Port became significant.

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Figure 1: Changes in population and the number ofhouseholds in Kamaishi (Source: National Census)

Figure 2: Population pyramid ofKamaishi City in 2010
(Source: National Census)

Figure 1 shows the population trend in Kamaishi City, the densely inhabited
district (DID) population, and the number of households, with the data obtained
from the National Census. The population is estimated from 2010 until 2040.
From this graph, it can be assumed that population will greatly reduce in the
future. The decrease can be seen in the general population, as well as in theurbanized area. On the other hand, the declining household rate is smaller
compared to rate of population decline. Figure 2 explains how the population has
been subject to a declining birth rate with the majority of the population between
age of 55 and 79.
The situation of industry in Kamaishi City in 2007 was decreasing, with primaryindustry becoming 3.8%, secondary industry 33.3%, and tertiary industry 67.6%.
The number of employees had been declining about 30% from 1990 until 2010. In
particular, the decline of the primary industry was significant, having halved in 20
years. Agriculture has decreased about 65% among others. Though the number offish caught has not decreased much, the revenue of the fishery industry has been
declining, especially from 2000 until 2009.
2. CASUALTIES AND DAMAGE CAUSED BY THE GREAT EAST
JAPAN EARTHQUAKE AND TSUNAMI
Kamaishi City suffered great tsunamis in 1896, 1933, 1960 and most recently in
2011. With the highest tsunami wave reaching 10.1 m at Kamaishi harbor during
the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami on March 11, 2011, Kamaishi City
suffered 885 fatalities, with 176 missing, 9,883 evacuees to other areas, and 633
evacuees inside the city (Kamaishi, 2011). The number of dead and missing in
Kamaishi City was the third largest in Iwate Prefecture, after Rikuzentakata andOtsuchi Town. The number of totally collapsed buildings is 2,954, with 396
highly destroyed, 291 partially destroyed, and 907 damaged.

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3. CURRENT SITUATION
Refugee location was completed by October 8th, 2011, and temporary housing wascompleted by August 5, 2011 with 3,164 relocated to 50 sites. An estimated 50%
of debris from the total amount of 762,000 tons was removed by April 2012 witha process of 3% (23,000t). Currently, the population is living in temporary
housing in scattered locations.
4. RECONSTRUCTION
4.1. AUTHORIZED RECONSTRUCTION PLAN BY THE GOVERNMENTIn September 2011, the Basic Policy for Reconstruction was enacted, which
initially consisted of a policy and Reconstruction Plan timetable. Then in
December 2011, the Basic Reconstruction Plan (Figure 3) was enacted. However,the detailed landscape plan and land use will be decided after consultation with
communities (Figure 4).

Figure 3: The ideal image of the city
as per the Basic Reconstruction Plan
(Source: Kamaishi, 2011)

Figure 4: Draft of land use plan for thecentral area
(Source: Kamaishi, 2012)

4.2. COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION
Sets of interviews were conducted regarding the settlement of Ryoishi and
Shirahama by the Crisis & Environmental Management Policy Institute (CeMI)
and Kato Takaaki Laboratory of ICUS, the University of Tokyo in order tounderstand the conditions and expectations of the communities in terms of thereconstruction process. The interviews were conducted with people who had
moved to temporary housing, in the reconstruction target area, especially those
who left the town right after the earthquake. To reverse the stem the decline is as
important as ensuring citizens to live in it. The basic reconstruction of Kamaishi
City was organized and meets the needs of stakeholders. However it was not
sufficiently transparent in assuring the opinion of representative organizations andReconstructionof Kamaishi
afterearthquakethe 2011 Tohoku
Earthquake and Tsunami
Reconstruction of Kamaishi
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0ctober 2012, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
Octobercitizens, regarding the details of the residential area plan and disaster prevention
measures. Therefore, it should be a matter of policy that residents’ awarenessplays a role in achieving stakeholders satisfaction.
Community participation across Hakozaki Peninsula is becoming more effective,
and the community bond between districts is becoming stronger. This movement
began in June 2011 with the combined involvement of four villages, mainly heldby finshermen in Ryoishi Village with support from Non-Profit Organization(NPO) CeMI. Community members and NPOs had been working together for thereconstruction process, including discussing the reconstruction plan. Then in
October 2011, events were held mainly by residence of Katagishi Village to raiseawareness and encourage residents’ participation. In March 2012, a new NPO wasestablished, named O-Hakozaki Shimin Kaigi (Community Association ofHakozaki Peninsula) consisting of community members and professionals. The
involved community is located across the following villages: Ryouishi,
Kuwanohama, Kariyado, Shirahama, Hakozaki, Nebama, Katagishi, andMurohama.
Starting in August 2012, O-Hakozaki Shimin Kaigi’s activities are conducted via
four working groups. Working Group 1 manages community recovery for the
future, including physical, social, and human factors; Working Group 2 addresses
economic issues, creating job opportunities and new industries related to fishery;
Working Group 3 focuses on human capacity building such as disaster mitigation
and response; and Working Group 4 focuses on economic development, based on
the resources of this area, and product marketing and value addition.
5. DISCUSSION
Challenges and problems
During the reconstruction process, there have been several challenges for all
stakeholders. One positive note is that the community has been quite adaptable tothe scattered location of temporary housing and has formed a new community intheir new location.
Top-down planning strategies have been applied in this area from the very
beginning. Citizens trust the government to develop and implement thereconstruction plan. However, differentiation in the reconstruction division has
posed a challenge, since there is no sufficient cohesion between all of thedivisions. For example, reconstruction is mainly focused on the physical aspects
with some considering the other aspects such as social and economic. However,such interlinked functioning is needed to have a comprehensive approach to thereconstruction process, and to bridge the involved stakeholders. Possible solutions
are achievable through citizen participation.
The second challenge is that there has not been much chance for the community toparticipate and share their aspirations. The reconstruction plan management
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plan was held. The other difficulty is the community has a short-term view
regarding their economic, social, and built-environment situation, while the local
government has a long-term view. In the area, fishermen and fisheries dominate
with local fishermen participating in a cooperative union aimed for their working
purpose. The profile of community in the area is fishermen and fisheries industry,
with their fishermen cooperative union which aimed for their working purpose.
Japan, now a developed , needs to adopt a different approach for reconstruction
than those that were implemented after prior disasters during the developing
period. The next challenge is overcoming the issue of the ageing population of
Kamaishi City, as well as the deteriorating economic condition. The majority ofcommunity leaders and most of the people are aged 70 years old. However, ayoung generation does exist in Shirahama to support the reconstruction process. In
addition, the community members who are elderly tend to stay in their previous
place and/or city, and do not want to move to other cities. The interviews resultthat the community has a strong attachment to the area. The future of the cities
lies in ensuring that safety and sustainability issues are addressed incomprehensive ways; how to attract the people to stay in this area also needs to betaken into account. Considering the formation of a compact, smaller town, is also
important to maintain the population and sustainability in the future.
6. CONCLUSION
Currently Kamaishi City and the other affected area in Japan are in the early phaseof reconstruction. Considering the past of Kamaishi City, and the present situationof the ageing society, Kamaishi City has several challenges to face during thereconstruction process, especially related to the developed state of Japan and thecurrently applied planning system, as well as in the character of the community toadapt to the new situation.
Further study is necessary to analyze the challenge of the reconstruction process,including finding influencing factors, considering the needs of citizens, andnsuring citizen involvement, and consensus between all stakeholders. Then,
analysis can be aimed to find possible suggestions to achieve a comprehensive
reconstruction process.
REFERENCES
Kamaishi City. 2011. Reconstruction Plan Kamaishi. Basic Town Plan. Iwate
Prefecture, Japan: Kamaishi City. Data obtained on December 22nd, 2011.
Kamaishi City. http://www.city.kamaishi.iwate.jp/index.cfm/8,0,76,425, html
Iwate Prefecture. 2012. Iwate Prefecture NPO activities.
http://www.pref.iwate.jp/~hp0301/npo-info/ninsho/sinseininshodantaiichiran/ichiran-10(451-500).htm. Data obtained on June 2012.
Website of Reconstruction from the Central Government
http://reconstruction.go.jp. Data obtained on June 2012.
Japan Non-Profit Organization . 2012.
nonprofitjapan.home.jgc.org/npo/mpojp.html. Data obtained on June 2012.
Reconstructionof Kamaishi
afterearthquakethe 2011 Tohoku
Earthquake and Tsunami
Reconstruction of Kamaishi
City after
the 2011 City
Tohokuand tsunami261

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New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Analysis of disaster information
gathering behavior and language ability
after the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake
1

Akiyuki KAWASAKI1, Michael HENRY2, and Kimiro MEGURO3
Project associate professor, International Center for Urban Safety Engineering,
Institute of Industrial Science, the University of Tokyo, Japanakiyuki@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
2
Assistant professor, Division of Field Engineering for the Environment,
Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Japan
3
Professor and Director, International Center for Urban Safety Engineering,
Institute of Industrial Science, the University of Tokyo, Japan

ABSTRACT
After the March 11 Tohoku Earthquake, people living in Japan were faced with
confusing and conflicting messages from differing information sources which
created an atmosphere of uncertainty and led many people, particularly
foreigners, to relocate to western Japan or leave the country entirely. In order toimprove the dissemination of information after future disasters, a survey was
conducted to understand how people in the Kanto region – the most populous
area of Japan and border the Tohoku region – received their disaster information,
what difficulties they encountered related to disaster information and how these
may have affected their post-disaster decisions. This paper presents analyses anddiscussions on the relationship between language ability and disaster information
gathering behavior, information difficulties, and demographic characteristics.
Keywords: 2011 Tohoku Earthquake, disaster information, language ability
1. INTRODUCTION
At 14:46 on March 11th, 2011, a magnitude of 9.0 earthquake with a hypocenterin the Pacific Ocean off the Sanriku area of Tohoku struck, causing enormous
damage mainly in the eastern area of Japan. This earthquake (which shall bereferred to as the “Tohoku Earthquake”) was not only the largest earthquake
recorded in Japan and resulted in a massive tsunami which hit the Tohoku andKanto regions, but also triggered a nuclear power plant crisis which included core
meltdown and the release of radioactive material.
The news of this earthquake was immediately delivered all over the world, butdifferences in the reported urgency level of the crisis and disagreements andcontradictions between the contents of overseas and domestic media after theearthquake soon emerged. Under these circumstances, a large number offoreigners residing in Japan hurriedly evacuated for short- or long-term periods
either inside the country or outside Japan. This evacuation had broad implications

263

October 2012,2012, Ulaanbaatar,
Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
Mongolia
Octoberon socio-economic activities. These effects include the withdrawal of foreign
government functions in Japan due to the relocation or closure of embassies,
reduction in productivity due to the relocation or stoppage of foreign companies’
functions, relocation of supply chain or human resources outside of Japan, and soforth. The educational field was particularly hard-hit, as up to 80% of foreign
students in the Tohoku region returned to their country, and many did not returnto Japan; this effect was also felt in the Kanto region and other areas of Japan, andthe withdrawal of large numbers of foreign student had a large impact on someuniversities’ economic situation. The tourism industry was also affected by thecancellation of trips, tours, conferences, and so forth.
After the Tohoku Earthquake, many important questions about disaster
information dissemination – particularly as it relates to foreigners – were raised.
How did foreigners residing in Japan collect disaster information? Which sources
did they trust when faced with a wide variety of information released from both
domestic and overseas sources? Did differences in their Japanese and English
language ability affect their information collection behavior or which information
sources they trusted the most or least? What aspects of disaster information may
have contributed to the widespread flight of foreigners? What should be done toimprove disaster information dissemination to foreigners after future disasters?
To contribute to solving these issues, we conducted a questionnaire survey
targeted at Japanese and foreigners residing in the Kanto region at the time of theearthquake. Previous analyses have introduced general results focusing on the
differences between Japanese and foreigners (Kawasaki et al., 2011; Henry et al.,2011). In this paper, we examine the disaster information gathering behavior andrelated difficulties considering the language ability in order to better understand
how we may improve disaster information dissemination in the future.
2. SURVEY METHODOLOGY & SAMPLE CATEGORIZATION
2.1 Survey design & distribution
We carried out an online questionnaire survey focusing on people in the Kanto
region, which is the most populous area in Japan and includes Tokyo and sevensurrounding prefectures. In order to collect samples from the major foreign
nationalities, we prepared the survey in nine different languages. A detailed
overview of the survey contents is provided in Kawasaki et al. (2011) and Henryet al. (2011). The survey was distributed via two methods: first, through social andprofessional contacts; and second, through direct requests for cooperation withentities such as business communities, universities, embassies, and so forth.
Responses were gathered for two weeks beginning roughly 10 weeks after theearthquake occurred.
2.2 Categorization by language ability
A total of 1,357 responses were collected in this survey, of which 497 were fromJapanese and 860 were from foreign nationals representing 73 countries. We first264

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categorized the respondents into groups according to their self-assessed Japanese
speaking and listening and English proficiency levels, as summarized in Table 1.
Language proficiency was classified into five levels: “native,” “advanced,”“intermediate,” “basic,” and “none.” The purpose of this analysis is to investigate
how the difference in language ability levels affected disaster informationcollection behavior, so the respondents who chose the upper or lower two levels
were defined as “skilled” or “unskilled,” respectively. They were then divided
into three categories based on language proficiency as follows: “JPN+ENG” forhigh proficiency in both Japanese and English, and “ENG only” or “JPN only” forhigh proficiency in only English or only Japanese. This resulted in the extractionof 767 respondents, who were then divided into five groups depending on theirlanguage ability category and nationality (Japanese or foreigner).
Table 1: Categorization of respondents according to language ability
English proficiency
NativeJapanese
proficiency

NativeAdvanced

Intermediate

Basic

None

Advanced

JPN+ENG
F:198 J:76

F:74
J:135

JPN only
F:42 J:236

Intermediate

F:152

F:57 J:1

F:30 J:1

Basic

ENG only
F:215

F:56

F:9 J:1

None

3. ANALYSIS BY LANGUAGE ABILITY
3.1 Disaster information sources
The most-trusted disaster information sources are shown in Figure 1 bynationality and language ability. For foreigners [JPN+ENG] and [ENG only], themost-trusted sources were International Organization, Japanese news source, andJapanese government. For foreigners [JPN only], however, the most-trusted
source was Japanese news source, followed distantly by Japanese government andinternational organization. For Japanese respondents, the most-trusted source wasJapanese news sources, followed by the Japanese government and Japanese
research/academic institutions.
F:JPN+ENG

F:ENG only
32
Overseas news

25 Overseas news

Overseas news source

31

Overseas28

Overseas government

F:JPN only

J:JPN+ENG

J:JPN only

19 Overseas news

16

Overseas news

15

17

Overseas10

Overseas

Overseas

Overseas research/academic

31
Overseas
research/

27
Overseas
research/

17
Overseas research/

International organization

41International

43International

38 International

517Overseas research/
28

11
10

International

Family, friends, etc.

Family, friends, etc.
1724
Family,friends, etc.

24
Family,friends, etc.

18
Family, friends, etc.

Third party other than family,

8Third party other than

10
Third party other thanThird party other than3 Third party other than

6

5

7

4

5

TEPCO

7

TEPCO

TEPCO

TEPCO

TEPCO

Japanese news source

Japanese
news
37

40
Japanesenews

64 news
Japanese

59 news
JapaneseJapanese government

42 Japanese

40

38

39

34
Japanese
research/

31
Japanese
research/Japanese research/academic
0

25

50

75

100

Japanese

0

25

50

75

100

Japanese

33
Japanese
research/
0

25

50

75

100

20

66
46

Japanese

39 research/
Japanese
0

25

50

75

100

36
0

25

50

75

100

Figure 1: Most-trusted disaster information sourcesof disaster
information
behavior
and language ability after the 2011
Analysis of disasterAnalysis
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gathering
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ability
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Figure 2 shows the least-trusted disaster information sources. A similar trend canbe seen for foreigners [JPN+ENG], [ENG only], [JPN only] and Japanese[JPN+ENG], with the top least-trusted information source being the Tokyo
Electric Power Company (TEPCO), followed by the Japanese government andoverseas news sources. For Japanese [JPN only], TEPCO is still the top leasttrusted source, followed by the Japanese government and Japanese news sources.
F:JPN+ENG

F:ENG only

44
Overseasnews

Overseas news source

14

Overseas

17

Overseas government

7 Overseas research/

Overseas research/academic

International

6

International organization

F:JPN only

43
Overseas
news
17

Overseas

J:JPN only

J:JPN+ENG

31
Overseas news

32
Overseas news
12

Overseas3

5 Overseas research/

5 Overseas research/

3

Overseas research/

1

2

0

1

International

2

International

International

Family, friends, etc.

Family, friends, etc.
18

13Family, friends, etc.

12Family, friends, etc.

13Family, friends, etc.

Third party other than family,Third
15 party other than

16 party other than
Third

Third party other thanThird
24 party other than

TEPCO

57 TEPCO

52 TEPCO

57 TEPCO

59 TEPCO

Japanese news source

23 Japanese news

18 Japanese news

19 Japanese news

22 Japanese news

Japanese government

49 Japanese

50 JapaneseJapanese research/academic

4 Japanese research/

4 Japanese research/

0

25

50

75

100

0

19

Overseas

25

50

75

100

36
2
0

Japanese

45 JapaneseJapanese research/

4 Japanese research/

25

50

75

100

0

25

50

75

100

10
19
55
25
43
7
0

25

50

75

100

Figure 2: Least-trusted disaster information sources
In order to evaluate the net trust-worthiness of information sources, the percentageof respondents who found a source to be un-trustworthy was subtracted from thepercentage who found a source to be trust-worthy. These results are summarized
in Figure 3. For foreigners [JPN+ENG] and [ENG only], the source with thehighest net trust-worthiness was international organization, and for foreigners[JPN only] and Japanese [JPN+ENG] and [JPN only], the source with the highest
net trust-worthiness was Japanese news source. The source with the lowest net
trust-worthiness for all groups was TEPCO. Large differences by language ability
could be seen for international organization and Japanese news sources: in thecase of the former, the net trust-worthiness was much lower for Japanese [JPN
only] than for the other groups; conversely, for Japanese news source, the net
trust-worthiness was much lower for foreigner [JPN+ENG] and [ENG only] thanfor the other groups.
F:JPN only

J:JPN+ENG

J:JPN only

-40
-60

-5
-11-12-16-20-7
Overseas
government

-20

-1

5

11

TEPCO

1112

8

45
41
37
22
15

-8 -6
-14 -14
-21

-8 -9

36
283031 29

3

2
Japanese
news source

01214101

Third party otherthan family, etc.

5Internationalorganization

16
11

26

Family,friends, etc.

2422

Overseas
research/academic

20

40
36 38

Overseasnews source

40-5-50-47-50 -50-55

Japanese
research/academic

F:ENG only

Japanesegovernment

F:JPN+ENG
60

Figure 3: Net trust-worthiness of disaster information sources
3.2 Media & language for disaster information acquisition
The media and language utilized for acquiring disaster information is shown in
Figure 4. Foreigners [JPN+ENG] used Japanese TV the most, followed bytraditional internet in both English and Japanese. These respondents also tended to266

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use Japanese more for non-internet media modes and English more for internet
media modes. For foreigner [ENG only], however, English was overwhelming
used for all media modes, with traditional internet and TV being the most-used.
Conversely, foreigners [JPN only] showed the opposite trend, with Japanese being
the most-utilized language for nearly all media modes. In this case, Japanese
television was the most-used mode, followed by Japanese traditional internet andtraditional internet in other languages. The media and language usage pattern forJapanese [JPN+ENG] and [JPN only] was fairly similar, with Japanese television,
traditional internet, and printed media as the most-used media modes. Japanese[JPN+ENG] did, however, tend to use English in addition to Japanese much morethan Japanese [JPN only].
Japanese
EnglishOther

F:ENG only

F:JPN+ENG

Television

87

41

18

Television

19
5
4

Radio
Printed media

Printed media

37
33
27

Interpersonal

16

Interpersonal

Radio

35
34

Internet:traditional

33

Internet: directcomm. tools

26
31
22

Internet: social
media
Internet: crisis
mapping

Internet:traditional

70
70

43
16

Internet: directcomm. tools

45
10Internet: social
media

Internet: directcomm. tools

3

Internet: social
media

4

17

17
21
5

Internet: crisis
mapping

4
1

32
45

0

Printed media

25

50

75

100 0

12
26
2
36
10
36
36

Radio

InterpersonalInternet:traditional

7

50

75

100

0

Interpersonal
79

Internet:traditional

Internet: social
media
Internet: crisis
mapping75

100

0Television
Radio

59

41
5
16
13
1
43
24
1
14
5

Internet: directcomm. tools

50

95

14
1
33
11
3

Printed media

45

25

18
1
36
3
1

Television
Radio

26
12
33
19
24
14

Internet: crisis
mapping20
25

83

Television

J:JPN only

J:JPN+ENG

F:JPN only

28
64
9
3
10
3
5
27
10
5
41
21
13
81
23

Printed media
Interpersonal
88

25

50

97

1
31
48

1
29

Internet:traditional

1411Internet: directcomm. tools

1

Internet: social
media

35
3

Internet: crisis
mapping

1

75

100 0

86

10
25

50

75

100

Figure 4: Utilized media and language for acquiring disaster information
3.3 Problems related to disaster information acquisition
Figure 5 shows the reasons why respondents encountered difficulties related to
information acquisition. Confused by conflicting or differing information was thereason cited by the highest percentage of respondents for all groups except forforeigners [ENG only], for whom language comprehension was the largest
problem, and Japanese [JPN+ENG], for whom inability to access information wasjust as highly rated as conflicting or differing information. The differences basedon nationality and language ability were relatively small for most reasons except
for inability to access information and language comprehension. For the former,
Japanese respondents appeared to have more trouble with accessing information
due to mobile congestion, power outage, and so forth than foreigners did. For thelater, foreigners [ENG only] – the only group not skilled in Japanese – cited
language comprehension difficulties much more than the other groups.

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F:JPN+ENG

F:ENG only

F:JPN only

J:JPN+ENG

J:JPN only

100
80
60
40

78

71
55
40

48

70

74 71 70

20
0

73

58

11
Unable to access
Confused by conflicting or
information (mobile
differing information
congestion, power outage,etc.)

18 21 21
2

1

28 27

25 23

1

Couldn't understand(language ability)

Couldn't understand(terminology)

24
10

15

Unable to find information(difficulty in searching or
locating)

Figure 5: Reasons for problems related to disaster information acquisition
4. DISCUSSION
4.1 Dissemination of disaster information to foreigners in English
After the Tohoku Earthquake, to what extent did information originating fromdomestic (Japanese) sources get disseminated to foreigners residing in the Kanto
region? Were foreigners who can understand Japanese the only ones able to utilize
information from domestic sources, whereas those less skilled in Japanese wereunable to receive domestic information? We propose the hypothesis that major
Japanese information provided by domestic information sources was somehowtransmitted to many foreigners in English. If so, then even Foreigner [ENG only]
was able to obtain the same Japanese-language information delivered fromdomestic information sources as Foreigner [JPN+ENG], and this fact led to bothgroups having a similar pattern for most- and least-trusted information sources.
However, Foreigner [JPN+ENG] tended to collected information from both
Japanese and English media, whereas Foreigner [ENG only] collected information
mainly in English with a very low percentage of information collection in
Japanese. Therefore, the hypothesis that “information related to the Tohoku
Earthquake provided by domestic information sources was disseminated toforeigners in English” arises. By analyzing the “open response” part of our survey,
we found that there were primarily three means by which the information fromdomestic information sources was disseminated to foreigners in English.
The first was via NHK (Japan Broadcasting Cooperation), Japan’s only publicbroadcaster. For regular NHK General TV programs, two news programs aretranslated in English simultaneously using alternative audio, however, after the
Tohoku Earthquake two additional news programs were also translated in English
simultaneously with extended airtime. In addition, NHK also broadcast the news
briefings of TEPCO and press conferences of the Prime Minister withsimultaneous English translation using alternative audio. Furthermore, “NHKWorld,” a 24-hour English news program which normally can only be viewed
overseas, was delivered after the earthquake via the Internet and via cable TV in
Japan through special arrangements with domestic cable TV companies. Throughthese supporting activities led primarily by NHK, there were a variety of Japanese
news programs choices which could be viewed in English for a period after the
Tohoku Earthquake. Although the utilization of television in both Japanese and268

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English by Foreigner [ENG only] was not as high as other media modes (asshown in Fig. 2), we believe that TV played an important role as one of the usefuldomestic information sources in English.
The second means was through the use of social media such as Facebook tocollect or find domestic information translated into English by a third party.
Several respondents cited the “Fukushima Reactor Feed” as a helpful andimportant information source after the earthquake in their open responsecomments. The Fukushima Reactor Feed was a Facebook page launched at noonon March 12th by a foreigner residing in Japan, with the intention of sharing
information on the nuclear power plant crisis by translating news broadcasts andarticles related to situation in Fukushima. Some of this information included
URLs referring back to the original information source, whereas some
information was from other individuals’ translation of domestic TV broadcasts
and news articles. As a result, information translated with a wide range ofaccuracy was available to many foreign audiences. Similarly, some individuals
and groups provided Japanese information by translating it into English on their
blogs and websites.
The third means was automatic translation of Japanese text into English usingtranslation software or translation applications via a web browser. In this case, it
is difficult to obtain an exact translation of a Japanese sentence into a English one,but some people may believe consider it is possible to understand the approximate
meaning by identifying keywords from the translation result.
As described here, an environment was built on the Internet which allowed
foreigners to understand the circumstances by collecting secondary English
translations of Japanese information or by translated broadcast contents. Thus,
Foreigner [ENG only] was able to obtain similar information as Foreigner[JPN+ENG], which may explain why their reliability on domestic information
sources was similar.
4.2 Reliance of foreigners skilled in English on overseas information sources
Why did Foreigner [JPN+ENG], who collected domestic information in both
Japanese and English, and Foreigner [ENG only], who collected domestic
information mainly in English, both tend to place higher reliability on overseas
information sources, and why did they both tend to distrust domestic information
sources? Through analysis of the open responses provided by foreigners thefollowing reasons were derived.
Both groups (Foreigner [JPN+ENG] and Foreigner [ENG only]) may have felt
discomfort or anxiety due to a gap between the actual situation in Japan and theoverly urgent and sensationalist reports coming from overseas. In addition, as aresult of the Japanese government’s low awareness of crisis management,
foreigners may also have distrust in the Japanese government’s and TEPCO’s
response due to the government’s lack of involvement or intervention at thenuclear power plant along with a distinct lack of active publishing of specificinformation. Furthermore, these feelings of anxiety and so forth may have beenof disaster
information
behavior
and language ability after the 2011
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ability
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exacerbated by the shortage of reliable English information from public
institutions. These reasons may have produced higher distrust of domestic
information sources (albeit the difference was small) and greater trust in overseas
information sources.
The major opinions of foreigners provided in the open response section as related
to information from domestic sources are summarized below.
a) Passive attitude of information disclosure to the public- A lack of proactive information provision based on the precautionary principle.
For example, the continual reporting of facts such as “we can see a large amountof smoke in the sky above the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant” or“currently, the measured radiation level is   millisievert  without any
analysis, evaluation, verification, or prediction, which forced people to makedecisions or take action based on less useful information- No information about the worst-case scenario and risks which might occur overthe medium- to long-term time period, such as response to radioactive
contamination, nor information about the expected radiation levels such as theprediction of short- to long-term dispersion considering weather conditions suchas wind direction- Analysis results should have been open and transparentb) Repetitious, meaningless and ambiguous information- Difficult to understand the actual meaning due to the high frequency ofambiguous expressions used by many Japanese to avoid being assertive, such aswe cant exclude the fact that  did not occur
- No consistency in information or large amounts of contradictory information- Repeated broadcasting of the same images and information seen and given after
earthquakec) Disappointment in the Japanese government’s response to the nuclear power
plant crisis- This is a fundamental problem related to the Japanese government’s crisis
management, but many opinions were received in the open response section ofquestionnaire: “even if the nuclear power plant problem is a national crisis, it ishard to understand why the Japanese government entrusted the resolution of thenuclear problem to TEPCO, which is just a public company – why wasn’t the
government more deeply involved;” “the Japanese government was too slow ingetting involved;” “we were confused because the government said that it wassafe without showing any scientific evidence about the radioactive contaminationof soil, water, and food.” From these actions of the government, it gave theimpression to many foreigners that the Japanese government lacked theprecautionary principle, and that the government underestimated the situation due
to poor crisis management ability. In addition, foreigners were very concerned
whether the Japanese government and TEPCO were hiding information.

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4.3 Reliance of foreigners skilled in Japanese on domestic Japanese
information sources
Contrary to other groups of foreigners based on language ability, Foreigner [JPN
only] mainly used Japanese media or, in some cases, their native language (except
English) for collecting information, but they rarely used English (Fig. 3). There isa large difference between this group’s reliance on domestic information sources(57%) versus overseas information sources (32%).
A similar level of reliance (based on percentage) could also be observed forJapanese [JPN+ENG]. The majority of Japanese [JPN+ENG] collected
information in Japanese, although there was some limited use of English. Even
when the amount of information collected from overseas information sources was
small, even if they were able to collect using both English and Japanese language,
it resulted in low trust in overseas information sources; this tendency was evengreater for Japanese [JPN only].
Foreigner [JPN only] appeared to collect some information in their native
language (excluding English), in which the urgency of crisis may have beendifferent from domestic broadcasts. Japanese [JPN+ENG] also collected overseas
information in limited manner. As both of these groups collected information in asimilar manner in Japanese, both Foreigner [JPN only] and Japanese [JPN+ENG]
also tended to trust similar information sources. However, Japanese [JPN only]
only collected domestic information, and as such their evaluation oftrustworthiness was biased towards domestic information sources.

REFERENCES
Kawasaki, A., Henry, M., Meguro, K., 2011. Disaster information gathering
behavior after the Tohoku Earthquake Part 1: Results of Japanese respondents.
2011 New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia (ICUS Report
2011-02), Chiang Mai, Thailand, 45-56.
Henry, M., Kawasaki, A., Meguro, K., 2011. Disaster information gathering
behavior after the Tohoku Earthquake Part 2: Results of foreign respondents. 2011
New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia (ICUS Report 201102), Chiang Mai, Thailand, 149-161.

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ability
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Analysis of traffic situation on urban road
network after large-scale earthquake
Shinji TANAKA1, Daisuke OSHIMA2, Takashi OGUCHI3
1
Associate Professor, Institute of Urban Innovation,
Yokohama National University, Japan
stanaka@ynu.ac.jp
2
Research Fellow, Institute of Industrial Science, the University of Tokyo, Japan
3
Professor, Institute of Industrial Science, the University of Tokyo, Japan
ABSTRACTThis paper analyzed the traffic situation on a road network after the occurrence ofa large-scale earthquake.
The Great East Japan Earthquake that occurred in March 2011 brought serious
damages including transportation facilities to the Tohoku region, Japan. Even
Tokyo metropolitan area, which is more than 300km away from the epicenter,also experienced serious traffic jam and congestion throughout the road network
until the next morning, even though there were very few damages of road facilities.
If such congestion occurs in case holding physical and human damages, it would
make serious influence on a lot of important activities such as evacuation, rescue,inquiry, and so on. It is essential to clarify the mechanism how such congestion
occurred.
This study analyzed the traffic situation by this earthquake using a traffic
simulator and reproduced the phenomenon observed on the day. As a result, it isfound that rapid demand increase of returning home after the earthquake
occurrence made gridlocks on the network and they speared out very quickly.
Keywords: traffic congestion in disaster, traffic simulation
1. INTRODUCTION
The Great East Japan Earthquake occurred in March 2011 in the Tohoku region,
Japan. It caused huge human and material damages by strong shaking and hightsunami. Transportation facilities such as roads, railways, ports etc. were also
seriously damaged in that area, and the movement of people and goods were
influenced very much for a long time.
Tokyo metropolitan area is more than 300km away from the epicenter, and there
were few damages on the transportation infrastructure. However, all the train
operations were suspended and the Metropolitan Expressway was closed forsafety check, then very serious traffic jam and congestion occurred throughout theroad network after the earthquake until the next morning. A lot of people tried togo home by car or by walk, but they had to spend several hours on the jammed
streets. If such congestion happens when there are a lot of human and material
damages, it would make serious influence on a lot of important activities such as
evacuation, rescue, inquiry, and so on. Therefore, it is essential to clarify and to273

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Octoberunderstand the mechanism how such serious congestion occurred so as to prepare
for future potential earthquakes that may occur around Tokyo.
Based on this background, this paper aims to analyze the situation of traffic
congestion on the road network in Tokyo by this earthquake using a traffic
simulator. This analysis would become a kind of the basis to makecountermeasures such as traffic regulation and traffic control in disaster situation.
2. METHODOLOGYTo reproduce complicated traffic situation, traffic simulation is one of the usefuland powerful tools. This chapter describes the outline of the methodology toanalyze the traffic situation using traffic simulation.
2.1 Traffic Simulation Model
This study uses a traffic simulation model which can deal with an urban scale
network. This model simplifies the representation of link and node properties suchas lane configuration, traffic signals etc. but it can treat a relatively large area.
Vehicles move along a link according to the FIFO (First In, First Out) principle,
and form a queue at the downstream end of the link if the arriving rate is higher
than the node (=intersection) capacity, which regulates the outflow rate to the next
links.
Based on the input traffic demand (OD table), each vehicle has their origin anddestination. Two types of users are modeled, that is, captive group and choicegroup. The choice group changes their route depending on the traffic situation e.g.
travel time while the captive group sticks to the fixed route. Vehicles moves totheir own destination according to their route, and some of them (choice group)
can change it en route.
As mentioned above, two components of vehicle movement module and route
choice module are iterated each other to carry on the simulation calculation. The
outlook of the traffic simulation model is shown in the Figure 1.

Figure 1: Outlook of traffic simulation model

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2.2 Study Network
Figure 2 shows the location of the study area and the road network used for thisstudy. It consists of major arterial streets in Tokyo and it includes the emergency
routes that are designated in the disaster prevention plan. The number of the nodes
and links are 526 and 1472 respectively, and the total length of the network is1656.8km. Vehicle trips are generated and attracted at 91 centroids that are set allover the OD zones and the edge of the network. Each link has information oflength, number of lanes, and directional outflow capacity to the next link and soon.

Figure 2: Study area and network
2.3 Demand Estimation
It is necessary to estimate traffic demand as an input to the simulator in order toreproduce the traffic situation in disaster. This study estimated it by applying theresult of a questionnaire survey on returning home behavior on the day of theearthquake to the general person trip survey.
First, the increase of vehicle trips due to the train service suspension etc. wasestimated. According to the questionnaire survey on the travel mode, the modal
share of vehicles on that day that includes private/company vehicles and taxis was
24.0%, whereas the normal vehicle share is 13.4%. Therefore, it was assumed that
24.0% of people who were outside their home used vehicles to go back home. It
corresponds to 2.3 million trips, and it is larger than normal vehicle trips by one
million. It is estimated that the number of parked vehicles in Tokyo during thedaytime normally is approximately one million, so the amount of demand increasein disaster can be explained by those unused vehicles.
Next, the time distribution of the traffic demand was estimated. Anotherquestionnaire survey showed that approximately 50% of people began returning
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Octoberhome before 5pm on that day and very few people began traveling after the
midnight. Then, the estimated 2.3 million trips were distributed according to theratio of the trip start time obtained from the survey between 3pm to 12am.
Figure 3 shows the time-series distribution of the estimated traffic demand. Itshows a sharp peak just after the earthquake occurrence, which means significant
volume of (more than double of the normal) traffic demand was supposed to begenerated in a very short time period onto the network. This hourly traffic demand
was used as an input for the disaster case simulation.

earthquake
occurrence[trips]700,000
600,000

disaster

500,000
400,000

normal

300,000
200,000
100,000

平常時

震災時

24時台

23時台

22時台

21時台

20時台

19時台

18時台

17時台

16時台

15時台

14時台

13時台

12時台

11時台

9時台

10時台

8時台

7時台

6時台

5時台

4時台

3時台

2時台

1時台

0時台

0

time

Figure 3: Estimated demand in normal and disaster cases
3. SIMULATION RESULTThis chapter describes the result of the simulation analysis. First, thereproducibility of the simulator was checked by a normal case scenario, and thenthe disaster case scenario was implemented to analyze the traffic situation.
3.1 Reproducibility Check
First, a normal case scenario simulation was conducted in order to calibrate thesimulation parameters and to check the model reproducibility. Here, the result of
the person trip survey in Tokyo metropolitan area was used as traffic demand of anormal day. Average vehicle ridership of 1.3 [person/vehicle] was used to convert
the unit to the vehicle basis. As the simulation network is simplified and it has lesslinks than actual, the input traffic demand was also reduced for a certain rate.
Figure 4 shows the reproducibility of the normal case scenario at 6pm, showing
the link speed by different colors. The left is simulated and the right is observed
value. The overall status is quite similar although there are some minor
differences. The simulation parameters are shown in Table 1.

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5km/h 以下
5km/h～10km/h
10km/h～15km/h
15km/h～20km/h
20km/h 以上

Figure 4: Link travel speed at 6pm (left: simulated, right: observed)
Table 1: Simulation parameters
Parameter
Dial assignment theta
Maximum speed
Route choice interval
Scan time
Packet size
Vehicle length

Description
Sensitivity to the link cost
Free flow speed of the link
Update interval of route choice function
Update interval of vehicle movement
Group of vehicles of same OD
Length of vehicle and headway

Value
0.01
60 km/h60 sec3 sec
10 vehicles
8m

3.2 Estimation of the Traffic Situation after the Earthquake
Using the model parameters and the estimated traffic demand, the disaster casescenario simulation was conducted to reproduce the traffic situation after theearthquake. Figure 5, 6 and 7 show the link speed of the simulated and theobserved values in different time periods. These figures show that the generaltransition of the traffic status is the same both for the simulation and theobservation, that is, the congestion started just after the earthquake (4pm), spreadout rapidly to the jam (6pm), and dissolve to the normal again (next 5am).
It was revealed that a large part of the network became gridlock situation in thecongested time period. The links and nodes were packed with vehicles to thecapacity, and only very little movement was allowed. This would be caused by the
rapid increase of the unusual traffic demand as well as the reduction of theintersection capacity due to a lot of pedestrians spilled over from sidewalks.

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5km/h 以下
5km/h～10km/h
10km/h～15km/h
15km/h～20km/h
20km/h 以上

Figure 5: Link travel speed at 4pm (left: simulated, right: observed)

5km/h 以下
5km/h～10km/h
10km/h～15km/h
15km/h～20km/h
20km/h 以上

Figure 6: Link travel speed at 6pm (left: simulated, right: observed)

5km/h 以下
5km/h～10km/h
10km/h～15km/h
15km/h～20km/h
20km/h 以上

Figure 7: Link travel speed at next 5am (left: simulated, right: observed)

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4. CONCLUSION
This study analyzed the traffic situation on Tokyo metropolitan road network after
the Great East Japan Earthquake using traffic simulation. The simulation was able
to reproduce the traffic situation in disaster as well as its time transition. It was
revealed that the serious traffic jam and congestion were formed by the network
gridlock, and it would be caused by the rapid demand increase and the intersection
capacity reduction.
Based on these results, effective countermeasures to alleviate the congestion andto maintain the network function should be considered and examined for the next
steps. Traffic simulation would be useful for such kind of scenario analysis.
REFERENCES
Yoshii, T., Kuwahara, M. and Morita, H., 1995. A network simulation model foroversaturated flow on urban expressways. Traffic Engineering, Vol. 30, No.1, 3341
Okamura, H., Kuwahara, M., Yoshii, T. and Nishikawa, I., 1996. Development
and validation of surface street network simulation model. Proceedings of 16th
Symposium on Traffic Engneering, 93-96
Nippon Research Center, Ltd., 2011. Survey on the residents’ response to theGreat East Japan Earthquake.
Marketing Service Co. Ltd., 2011. Survey on attitude to disasters regarding theGreat East Japan Earthquake.

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afterroadlarge-scale
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Possibility of developing a new special
economic zone in Ulaanbaatar City
Oyuntsatsral TSEYENBALJIR
Senior Lecturer, School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, MUST, Mongolia
ts_oyuntsatsral@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
Developing Special Economic Zone (SEZ) is a commonly used method to improve
economic condition of developing countries. Although 4 SEZs have been underconstruction in the rural areas of Mongolia since 2002, progress of those SEZs isslow. Thus it’s better to build a new SEZ in the center of the country where themost of the population lives and infrastructure condition is better. World trend ofdeveloping SEZ also shows locating SEZs in the cities or near cities is successfulcompared to SEZs in rural areas. Ulaanbaatar will have a new international
airport as replacement of existing Chinggis Khaan International Airport by 2015.
But there is no a proper plan for the existing Chinggis Khaan International
Airport after completion of the new airport. If the facilities and infrastructures
such as electricity, water, drainage and sewage systems of the existing airport canbe used as SEZ infrastructure basics, SEZ development cost will be reduced
drastically. This paper analyzes possibilities of developing a SEZ in Ulaanbaatar
city.
Keywords: special economic zone, international airport
1. INTRODUCTION
Special Economic Zone (SEZ) is a commonly used method in developing
countries to generate economic growth, to attract foreign direct investment, toincrease employment and to improve living conditions. There are several
important reasons for establishing SEZs, as follows:
•
•
•
•
•
•

Attract foreign direct investment
Develop manufacturing
Develop and diversify exports
Job creation
Develop infrastructure
Regional development

Most developing countries are trying to develop a various types of SEZs for thelast four decades. Mongolia, as a developing country, is also included the list of
countries which are developing SEZs. But many developing countries are facing a
number of problems to develop SEZs, Mongolia as well.

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2. SEZs IN MONGOLIA
Mongolia entered a new era of market economy after the 70 years of a socialist
economy by the help of the democratic revolution in the early 1990s. Nowadays
implementing successful model of development is crucial for development of thecountry.
Influenced by successful cases in other countries, Mongolian parliament has
already approved “The Concept of Establishing Free Economic Zone in
Mongolia” in 1995 and law on Free Zones in 2002. The Law on Free Zones
consists of 3 chapters and 18 articles. In the Law on Free Zones, the SEZ is
defined as follows:“Free zone” shall mean part of the territory of Mongolia under special conditions
for business and investment and which should be considered to be separate interms of custom and taxation.
And also the law announces that the SEZ in Mongolia will be pure public asfollows:
The State Ih Hural (Parliament) shall decide on the creation, forms, location andthe size of territory, borders, change and dissolution of free zone in Mongolia
upon submittal of respective proposal by the Government.
There are 4 zones under implementation; in the northern, southern, western borderareas and along the railway - Altanbulag FTZ, Zamyn-Uud FEZ, Tsagaannuur
FTZ and Choir FEZ (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Potential SEZs in Mongolia

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Even Mongolia’s SEZs projects were started several years ago, number ofproblems facing these projects such as legal and regulatory framework, lack offunding and lack of experience. These main problems facing to SEZ development
in Mongolia can be discussed hereunder.
a) Political problems
Frequent changes of governments are observed in the least developed country like
Mongolia. Mongolia uses unicameral parliamentary system and the parliament
selects its members every four years by general election. According to the election
results, changes of the organizational structure of ministries, agencies and humanresource will happen after the every parliamentary election. Key projects also
suffer from a change of project personnel along with the change of government
which ultimately make difficult to attain the targeted schedule and cost.
b) Financial problems
Government oriented programs are facing lack of financial source dependent on
government budget. Due to insufficient amount of budget, given to SEZ projects
every year, progress of project is prolonged. Table 1 shows the total investment
was given by the Government of Mongolia since the SEZs were announced todevelop.
Table 1: Total investment for SEZ development in Mongolia, million
tugrug20032005
2006
2007
2008
Total
2004
Altanbulag FTZ
224.9
615.9
48.0
109.2
629.0
1627.0
Zamyn-Uud FEZ
1300.0 1892.0 3192.0
Tsagaannuur FTZ
60.0
37.3
1111.5 1208.8
Choir FEZ
35.0
135.0
170.0
Total
224.9
615.9
108.0
1481.5 3767.5 6027.8
Source: Free Zone Committee, 2010c) Organizational problems
Preparatory work of SEZ project development had not well been done. None of
the 4 projects have feasibility study and cost-benefit analysis. Moreover,preparing the necessary studies to implement SEZ projects are suffering from lackof experienced specialists in SEZ projects.
d) Laws and Regulations
The law on Free Zones, approved in 2002, does not have a full set of
implementation regulations. The revised law on Free Zones has been discussed
since 2005. Approving the laws and regulations related to the zone activities takes
time and effort.

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3. POSSIBILITY OF DEVELOPING A NEW SPECIAL ECONOMIC
ZONE IN ULAANBAATAR
While all existing on-going SEZs in Mongolia are located in very rural areas andtheir construction is pro-longed, it is crucial to develop a new SEZ with successful
features for the development of Mongolia. The author was searching a possibilityof developing a new SEZ in the area with more advantages compared to theexisting failed SEZs. And she found out that Ulaanbaatar, capital city of Mongolia
will have a new international airport as replacement of existing Chingis Khaan
International Airport by 2015. The airport will be built with Japanese assistance in
Tov province. Japanese Government will be giving a 40-year loan of US$270
million. The project has already initiated. However the future development plan ofexisting Chingis Khaan International Airport has not yet decided by thegovernment. And the author noticed that there is high possibility for developing a
new SEZ based on the lessons learned from the world successful SEZ cases in theexisting international airport. It is possible to use the building facilities andinfrastructures such as electricity, water, drainage and sewage systems of existing
international airport as SEZ infrastructure basics. The project can reduce its
development cost drastically. Ulaanbaatar City is located just 15 km from theexisting airport. Therefore it will not difficult to get work resources.

Figure 2: Location of Existing and New Ulaanbaatar International Airports

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The author made the preliminary feasibility study of this plan and named this planas “Ulaanbaatar Airport SEZ” construction project. The author also evaluated thefeasibility study level of the new SEZ to-be-built by using the evaluation checklist based on the New Scheme of Feasibility Study. Table 2 shows the results ofauthor’s evaluation. It shall be understood that while there is no concrete plan toestablish Ulaanbaatar Airport SEZ, evaluation is basically based on the technicalfeatures of the location. However this plan has much higher feasibility level than 4
on-going SEZ projects.
Table 2: The feasibility study level of a new SEZ in existing airport
Description of
conditions

Market Demand
Feasibility

Technical
feasibility

Competitive advantagesof the zone site location
Competitive advantagesof the zone offering forinvestors
Distance from capital
city
Close to international
schoolClose to hospital withinternational standards
Close to stores andsupermarkets withinternational standards
Population within 15km
Easy to find labour
force

Economicalfeasibility
Financialfeasibility
Environmental
feasibility
Concurrence of
stakeholders

Cost of infrastructuredevelopment
Financing resource

New SEZ
Airport is the world sky gateway
and it has more possibility toconnect other countries except
only the neighboring countries;
Russia and China.
NA
15 km
Yes
Yes
Yes
1,071,700
Yes(easy to employ from the capitalcity, Ulaanbaatar where the half oftotal population lives)
Less cost to access SEZ site
NA
Environment friendly industries
should be invited
PPP type scheme should be used

Before establishing SEZ, what kinds of industries should be invited to the SEZ
is one of the crucial issues to decide. Most countries make decision based on their
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Octoberown advantages. Somehow it is possible to make decision by supplier side view.
But the emerging globalization issue reminds to consider not only own interests
but also international and regional trends. Mongolia is a low-population,
landlocked country located between two giant neighbors. In Mongolian case, it isbetter to consider 3 variants for choosing potential industries to be located in SEZ.
Also the author considered that in case developing SEZ on the basis of the airport,
the products to be produced should be light weighted.
• Traditional industry based on the agriculture sector of Mongolia• High tech industry based on the natural resources of Mongolia• High-tech service industry based on the geographical location of Mongolia
4. CONCLUSION
Based on the world trend there is a demand for adjusted new type of SEZ in
landlocked, low population countries such as Mongolia. New type of SEZ in
landlocked country such as Mongolia should consider following matters.
1. Near to the international gateway
In case of landlocked country, the location should be next to an airport.
2. Save infrastructure expenditures
Using existing infrastructure for establishing SEZ will be a cost effective
way for developing country such as Mongolia.
3. Industries in SEZ should be based on advantages of host country
In Mongolian case, the industries can be based on rich mineral recourses
and strategic geopolitical location of Mongolia.
For preventing same unsuccessful stories as exist in Mongolia, Mongolian SEZ
projects should follow the world trend of private sector participation in SEZ
project development so as to avoid reliance on government funding. Attracting
private sector participation in SEZ development needs preparation work related tolaws, regulations and planning. Especially for the planning, complex feasibility
study is crucial to develop SEZs in landlocked developing countries. An
appropriate scheme of feasibility study should be prepared for encouraging SEZ
development in developing countries.
REFERENCES
Law on Free Zones, 2002. Ulsiin Ih Khural, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
Introduction
toAltanbulag
FTZ.
URL:
http://www.altanbulag.gov.mn/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=125&Itemid=162
Law on the Legal Status of Altanbulag FTZ, 2002. Ulsiin Ih Khural, Ulaanbaatar,
Mongolia
Introduction to Zamyn-Uud FEZ. URL: http://www.zufez.mn/preface#content
Introduction to Tsagaannuur FTZ. URL: http://www.tsagaannuur.mn/
TFTZ, 2009. ”Master Plan of Tsagaannuur Free Trade Zone”, Government ofMongolia, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia

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Tseyenbaljir O. , 2009. Current Situation of Special Economic Zones in Mongolia,
Proceedings of the 11th International Summer Symposium, JSCE, Japan, pp. 165168

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Roadmap from smoke to the development:
Airport city as a win-win model for the ecoeconomical context of the capital city development
S.Davaanyam
Doctorant, Researcher, National Development InstituteDavaanyam1206@yahoo.com

ABSTRACTThe cities around the world occupy 0.4% of the world territory, yet they accommodate 51%of the world’s population and generate 83% of the global GDP. Likewise, as of 2010 in thecity of Ulaanbaatar, which occupies only 0.3% of the country’s territory, reside 45% of thecountry’s population and 62.7% of the national GDP is produced. According to the recent
comparative study among the world’s 200 major cities, Ulaanbaatar leads with its growthrate in terms of GDP and number of employed population. It is obvious that in order tofacilitate sustainable economic growth, a city should ensure healthy and safe environmentand competitive infrastructure development. However, in Mongolia the adequate balance ofthe human settlement is lost. This can be clearly exhibited from the country’s leading positionin terms of the share of territory per person against the number of the population per city,
exept the case of island-states and city-states. The national security of Mongolia is
negatively affected by the fact that a 45% of its total population is living the city, which has
the worst air pollution level globally. Moreover, the intensive population and economic
growth in the capital city Ulaanbaatar lead to the overburdened urban infrastructure andother negative impacts such as traffic congestion and environmental pollution. Over
concentration around a socio-economic single-center in area of Baga-Toiruu, where there
are state administration, healthcare, education and commercial services are concentrated,
will likely further magnetize population concentration. For instance, 80% of the central andlocal government institutions such as ministries, parliament and city government, as well as
68% of the employees and university students are concentrated within the 1.4 км2 area of the
Baga-Toiruu. In addition the population of vehicles in the capital city has been increasing
intensively on an annual basis. If 50% of the total 200,000 vehicles be aligned in 4 lanes
along the street, then such a queue would be two fold longer than the length of the most
crowded 84.3km long road section. It shows that unless the over concentration around BagaToiruu be unbundled, the traffic congestion problem would not be solved. Hence, for thelandlocked country – Mongolia it is being proposed to develop an Airport-City with 300,000400,000 population as a win-win model in terms of competetiveness and eco-economic
parameters based on the International Airport in Khushig Vallye in 53 kilometers from
Ulaanbaatar and move there a half of the state and public institutions as ministries andagencies, in order to reduce the over concentration pattern around Baga-Toiruu area. It isestimated that it would then enable the reduction of Ulaanbaatar air pollution by 30-40%.
Key words: Over concentration around a socio-economic single-center, migration andmovement, Airport City.

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Review on the definitions of vulnerability,
resilience, and adaptation
Yuto SHIOZAKI1 and Takaaki KATO2
1
PhD candidate, Department of Urban Engineering,
The University of Tokyo, Japanyuto@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
2
Associate Professor, ICUS, IIS, The University of Tokyo, Japan
ABSTRACTThe concepts of resilience, vulnerability, and adaptation are increasingly used in
the fields of global climate change, natural disasters, and ecological and social
systems. However, each of the concepts has different definitions. This paper
reviews the definitions of vulnerability, resilience, and adaptability, and showsthat the concepts can be categorized based on some attributes. First, there are
two major definitions for the concept of vulnerability: the exposure to hazards andthe degree of coping capacity. Most vulnerability concepts involve exposure,sensitivity, and adaptability. Criticality is also an important concept invulnerability. Second, the concept of resilience is classified into engineeringresilience, ecological resilience, and social resilience. Regime shift is also an
important concept in ecological resilience. Social resilience includes the aspectsof learning and adaptation in addition to engineering resilience and ecologicalresilience. Third, the concept of adaptation/adaptability is classified into thecontext of the target to be operated, the degree of system modification, as well as
the timing and duration. As a result, the concept is grouped into coping capacity,
adjustment capacity, and transformability. Finally, the linkages between the three
concepts are demonstrated using a scenario of a city exposed to a natural disaster.
Keywords: vulnerability, resilience, adaptation, catastrophic regime shift,
criticality, natural disaster
1. INTRODUCTION
In the recent years, the concepts of resilience, vulnerability, and adaptation
have been increasingly used in the context of global climate change, natural
disasters, and ecological and social systems. The perspectives of the three
concepts are used as approaches for understanding how and why a system
responds to hazards. These concepts have been applied to ecological systems,social systems, and socio-ecological systems (coupled human-environmental
systems). These concepts can form an interdisciplinary and comprehensive
framework. However, since no unified definition exists for these concepts, and theexisting definitions are different, the use of these terms may lead to confusion. In
Japan, especially after the Great East Japan Earthquake in 2011, these terms haveoften been used when discussing natural disaster management and reconstruction,291

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but without clear definitions. As a result, the discussions in this field are subject toconfusion.
To prevent such confusion, this work first highlights the fundamental
definitions and components of the three concepts by reviewing relevant articles
and reports in the fields of global climate change, natural disasters, and ecologicaland social systems. These components represent the aspects of a system’s
behavior in response to hazards. Therefore, understanding them is considered to
be useful for establishing a framework for analyzing and managing a system.
Second, this article uses a scenario of a city responding to a rapid natural disasterto demonstrate the components. This example clarifies the linkage between thethree concepts and facilitates a discussion on the focal points of urban analysis
and management in preparation for natural disasters.
2. SYSTEM AND HAZARD
The concepts of resilience, vulnerability, and adaptation are used to represent
the manner in which a system responds to hazards. Hence, it is necessary to
clarify the definitions of system and hazard before the definitions and componentsof vulnerability, resilience, and adaptation are explained.
2.1 System
A system is generally “a group of related parts that work together as a whole
for a particular purpose” (Longman, 2009). Systems focused upon in this work are
generally ecological systems, social systems, and socio-ecological systems. The
definitions of a system are listed in Table 1. For example, a lake or forest is an
ecological system, in which many animal and plant species interact with eachother. A community, city, or country are types of social systems. Examples ofsocial-ecological systems are a fishing village or an agricultural community, inwhich people are both dependent on and influence their surrounding ecologicalsystems. Any system is generally associated with subsystems and higher-ordersystems (e.g. a tree-patch-forest system or a household-community-city system).
2.2 Hazard
According to Turner et al. (2003), “hazards are defined as threats to a system,comprising perturbation, stress (and stressors), and the consequences they produce.
A perturbation is a major spike in pressure beyond the normal range of variability
in which the system operates. Perturbations commonly originate beyond thesystem or location in question. Stress is a continuous or slowly increasingpressure, commonly within the range of normal variability. Stress often originatesand stressors (the source of stress) often reside within the system.”
In other words, there are two types of hazards: perturbation and stress. The
former is a rapid environmental change that occurs in the short term (e.g., a tidal
wave or hurricane), and the latter is a chronic environmental change that
influences a system over the long term (e.g., sea level rise, soil degradation). As aresult, hazards might cause damage to the system. In social systems, in addition toenvironmental change, political or social changes may also act as hazards, such aspolitical upheaval, war, and aging of the society.

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Table 1: Definitions of Systems
SystemEcologicalsystem(Ecosystem)

Definition
All the animals and plants in a particular area, and the way
in which they are related to each other and to theirenvironment (Longman, 2009).
The people in a society are considered as a system organizedSocial system
by a characteristic pattern of relationships (Miller, 1995).
A social-ecological system consists of a bio-geo-physicalSocialunit and its associated social actors and institutions. Socialecologicalecological systems are complex, adaptive, and delimited bysystemspatial or functional boundaries surrounding particular
ecosystems and their problem context (Glaser et al., 2008).
3. VULNERABILITY
3.1 Background of Vulnerability
The word “vulnerability” has been derived from the Latin word “vulnare,”which means “to wound” (Dow, 1992). The concept of vulnerability has its rootsin the study of natural disasters (Janssen et al., 2006). It is considered to focus on
the relationship between a social system and its surrounding natural environment.
From the 1990s, research on natural disasters started to focus on the vulnerabilityof social systems to environmental change, and particularly, to climate change.
3.2 Definitions of Vulnerability
There are many different definitions of vulnerability, but Dow (1992) has
pointed out that there are two major definitions. In the first definition,
vulnerability is defined as exposure to the hazards of natural disasters andenvironmental changes. In the second definition, vulnerability is defined as thelack of coping capacity to hazards.
In the first definition, the vulnerability of a system can be measured by the
degree of potential or actual hazards that the system is exposed to. For example,
exposure is the degree of estimated or actual damage to humans, infrastructure,buildings, and other properties in the case of a natural disaster.
In the second definition, the exposure of a social system is a given condition,and the coping capacity, depending on the components or the condition of thesocial system, is assumed to affect the degree of damage caused to the system by ahazard. Coping capacity is considered to be composed of two types of social
system abilities. One is the ability to absorb the impact of hazards and continue tofunction, and the other is the ability to recover losses. Dow (1992) defines theformer ability as resistance, and the latter, as resilience.
Additionally, there is a combined definition that encompasses those describedabove, in which a social system with low coping capacity and high hazard
exposure is assumed to be the most vulnerable (Cutter, 1996).
According to Adger (2006), the concept of vulnerability is most often
conceptualized by three components: exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity.
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Exposure is “the nature and degree to which a system experiences environmental
or socio-political stress.” Sensitivity is “the degree to which a system is modified
or affected by perturbations.” Adaptive capacity is “the ability of a system to
evolve in order to accommodate environmental hazards or policy change and to
expand the range of variability with which it can cope.”
Gallopin (2006) defines the three components of vulnerability in a similarmanner: exposure, sensitivity, and capacity of response. His definitions of
exposure and sensitivity are the same as those of Adger (2006), and he defines thecapacity of response as “the system’s ability to adjust to a disturbance, moderatepotential damage, take advantage of opportunities, and cope with theconsequences of a transformation that occurs.”
Turner et al. (2003) also defined exposure and sensitivity in a similar manner,
although they distinguish the capacity to cope/respond from the capacity ofadaptation, in their framework of vulnerability analysis. Capacity to cope/respondis the ability of a system to moderate potential damage immediately after anenvironmental change, and to influence the recovery situation of system. On theother hand, capacity of adaptation is the ability of a system to restructure itself
after the coping/response action is taken.
Finally, the concept of criticality is introduced, which is related to the conceptof vulnerability. Even if a system is exposed to a hazard, the system can cope to acertain degree because of its adaptability or capacity to cope/respond. However,the system is considered to be deteriorated in the case of the occurrence of ahazard whose magnitude is beyond the adaptability or the capacity of the system
to cope/respond. Kasperson et al. (1996) defined such a situation as criticality,
which refers to a situation in which the extent or rate of environmental
degradation precludes the continuation of the current system or levels of humanwell-being, given feasible adaptations and societal capabilities to respond.
4. RESILIENCE
4.1 Background of Resilience
The term resilience was originally used in the field of material science, where it
meant “to bounce back to the original point” (De Bruijn et al., 2007). It was
introduced by Holling (1973) as a concept for representing an ecological system’s
responses to environmental change. At first, resilience was used in the field of
population ecology and in the study of ecosystem management, and it wasmathematically based and model oriented. Since the late 1980s, the concept has
been used increasingly in the analysis of social-ecological interactions and applied
to human systems under the umbrella of social-ecological system studies. At
present, there are studies in which the concept is applied to only social systems,
focusing more on human society or communities than on ecological systems(Janssen et al., 2006; Wilson, 2011).
4.2 Definitions of Resilience
There are also many definitions of resilience; however, they can be grouped
under three general categories: (1) engineering resilience, (2) ecologicalresilience, and (3) social/community resilience (Holling, 1996; Adger 2000;

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Wilson, 2011). In this section, we first explain how a system responds to an
environmental change and then present the definition for each category.
Assuming that a system is in an equilibrium condition, the system may respondto environmental change in any of the following manners (De Bruijn, 2004):i) The system does not react at all.
ii) The system reacts but soon returns to the equilibrium condition.
iii) The system reacts and switches to another stable condition.
iv) The system enters an oscillating unstable condition.
In the first case, the system completely absorbs the impact of environmental
change. In the second case, assuming that a system is always dynamicallychanging, the system is not expected to completely return to the same condition,
but the system is expected to change within the domain, wherein its fundamental
structure of variables and processes that control system behavior are maintained,
and to return to an equilibrium condition. Such a domain is called the domain of
attraction of equilibrium. In the third and fourth cases, the system changes to sucha great extent that it cannot maintain its fundamental structure. In the third case, asa result, the system switches to another domain of attraction where thefundamental structure of the system is different. In the fourth case, the systemdoes not settle in any domain of attraction.
Engineering resilience is an important attribute in the second case, when asystem can return close to the initial equilibrium point after an environmental
change. Engineering resilience is defined as the ability of a system to return to theequilibrium situation after an environmental change (Holling, 1973). It can bemeasured by the time required for a system to return to the equilibrium situation.
Ecological resilience is defined as the ability of a system to persist despiteabsorbing changes in state variables, driving variables, and parameters (Holling,1973). In other words, it is the ability of a system to maintain its fundamental
structure while undergoing environmental change. Ecological resilience can bemeasured by the magnitude of environmental change that can be absorbed before
the system changes to another domain of attraction. In ecological systems, if asystem changes to another domain of attraction by environmental change, thesystem will restructure by changing the variables and processes that control its
behavior. This phenomenon is called regime shift (Scheffer & Carpenter, 2003).
For example, the abrupt change from a clear-water lake to an algae-dominatedlake occurs when the ratio of a nutrient reaches the threshold in the process ofeutrophication. Once a regime shift occurs in a system, it is difficult for thesystem to return to the previous domain of attraction. Understanding theconditions and processes of regime shift is required in order to maintain a system
in a desired state, and hence, the concept of ecological resilience is important forthe management of a system.
The concept of ecological resilience has been applied to the field of socialecological systems. The concept is expanded in this field, and it is described as (1)the amount of environmental change a system can absorb and still remain within
the same state, (2) the degree to which the system is capable of self-organization(versus lack of organization, or organization forced by external factors), and (3)the degree to which the system can build and increase the capacity for learningand adaption (Folke, 2006).

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In the field of social systems, Adger (2000) focuses on the resilience of humansociety and communities, terming it social resilience. Cutter et al. (2008) definessocial resilience as “the ability of a social system to respond and recover fromdisasters and includes those inherent conditions that allow the system to absorb
impacts and cope with an event, as well as post-event, adaptive processes thatfacilitate the ability of the social system to re-organize, change, and learn in
response to threat.” Social resilience has the attributes of engineering resilienceand ecological resilience. Additionally, the aspects of learning and adaptation ofsocial systems are more emphasized in social resilience.
5. ADAPTATION
5.1 Background of Adaptation
According to Smit and Wandel (2006), the term “adaptation” has its roots innatural science, and specifically, in evolutionary biology. The definition ofadaptation in natural science is “the development of generic or behavioral
characteristics, which enable organisms or systems to cope with environmental
changes in order to survive and reproduce.” The term “adaptation” is used in thecontext of anthropology, in which cultures or societies that can cope withenvironmental change quickly and easily are considered to have high adaptability.
Since the late 1990s, the concept of adaptation has been used in the study ofclimate change. The concept of adaptation/adaptability is usually included in theconcept of vulnerability and resilience.
5.2 Definition of Adaptation
In the field of climate change, adaptive capacity is defined as “the ability of asystem to adjust to climate change, to moderate potential damages, to takeadvantages of opportunities, or to cope with the consequences” (Gallopin, 2006).
Adaptation is defined by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
as follows: “(it is the) adjustment in ecological, social, or economic systems in
response to actual or expected stimuli and their effects or impacts. This term
refers to changes in processes, practices, or structures to moderate or offset
potential damages or to take advantage of opportunities associated with changes
in climate. It involves adjustments to reduce the vulnerability of communities,
regions, or activities to climatic change and variability” (Macarthy et al., 2001).
Adaptability is synonymous with some terms such as adaptive capacity, coping
capacity (capacity to cope), and response capacity (capacity to respond).
Adaptation also has some synonyms: mitigation and adjustment. These
synonymous terms are used with the same definitions as adaptability or adaptation
in some cases, but they use different definitions in other cases. In the case ofdifferent definitions, the synonymous terms are often used to distinguish
adaptability or adaptation in the context of the target to be operated, the degree ofsystem modification, as well as the timing and duration.
In the context of the target to operate on, IPCC differentiates between
adaptation, by defining it as “actions that operate upon the system itself,” andmitigation, by defining it as “actions that operate upon the origin and attributes ofthe environmental change” (e.g., greenhouse gases reduction) (Gallopin, 2006).

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In the context of the degree of system modification, adjustment can be
distinguished from adaptation. Adjustment is the action of a system in response toenvironmental change that does not essentially alter the system itself, and it tends
to result in a short-term and minor system modification. On the other hand,
adaptation is the action of a system in response to environmental change that
fundamentally alters the system itself, and it shifts the system to a new state(Gallopin, 2006). The definition of adaptability and transformability by Walker etal. (2004) is considered to be related to this viewpoint. For them, adaptability is
the collective capacity of the human actors in the system to manage the sensitivity
and ecological resilience of system, given that the fundamental characteristics ofsystem are maintained. Transformability is “the capacity to create a fundamentallynew system when ecological, economic, or social (including political) conditions
make the existing system untenable.”In the context of timing and duration, coping capacity can be distinguishedfrom adaptive capacity. Coping capacity is the relatively short-term ability of asystem to survive crises, whereas adaptive capacity is the ability of a system toachieve more sustainable and relatively long-term adjustment (Smit & Wandel,2006). Gallopin (2006) indicates that there are generally two types of components
in the concept of adaptive capacity. The first is “the capacity of the system to copewith environmental contingencies (to be able to maintain or even improve its
condition in the face of changes in its environment(s)).” This is assumed to be a
relatively short-time ability and to be manifested immediately after anenvironmental change. The second is “the capacity to extend the range ofenvironments to which it can adapt.” This is assumed to be a long-term ability andis expected to manifest before an environmental change or after the first one
occurs.
As described above, this article classifies the concepts of adaptation into threegroups: (1) coping capacity, (2) adjustment, and (3) transformability. (1) Coping
capacity is the relatively short-time ability of a system to survive a crisis and copewith contingencies during or immediately after environmental change. This is theability of a system to prevent the existing fundamental structure from collapsingin an emergency situation. It is also related to resistance and resilience, which
Dow (1992) defined, and to engineering resilience. (2) Adjustment is therelatively long-term ability to modify a system, while its fundamental structure ismaintained, in preparation for expected environmental changes or after an actual
environmental change. The adjustment after an actual environmental change canbe also called learning. Adjustment includes the ability to extend coping capacity,
described as (1). (3) Transformability is the ability to create a fundamentally new
system when the existing system is untenable (in the case of a regime shift or
criticality).
6. LINKAGE OF THE THREE CONCEPTS
The definitions and components of vulnerability, resilience, and adaptation
have been explained. Now, the linkages between the concepts and components are
discussed for a city exposed to a rapidly occurring natural disaster.

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Figure 1: Relationship between the magnitude of a hazard and the degree ofdamageFigure 2: Engineering resilience and ecological resilience
Figure 1 conceptually represents the relationship between the magnitude of ahazard and the degree of damage to a system. The horizontal axis indicates themagnitude of a hazard to which the system is potentially exposed (exposure). The
magnitude of the hazard gradually increases towards the right, although it isgenerally thought that a larger magnitude hazard tends to occur with lower
probability. The vertical axis indicates the degree of damage that the system
undergoes because of the hazard. The function of figure 1 is to indicate the extent
to which a system may be damaged if it is subjected to hazards of various
magnitudes (Mens et al., 2011).
As the figure shows, the system undergoes no damage up to a certain degree of
hazard. For example, assuming that a city is protected against floods by dikes, thecity would suffer no damage from small-scale flooding as the dikes can cope withfloods to a certain degree. The system starts to undergo damage at a certain
magnitude of hazard. In figure 1, the trajectory of the function shown can be
discontinuous, and the gradient of the trajectory may not constant, although it is acontinually increasing function. This function corresponds to sensitivity, which is
a component of vulnerability. The higher the resistance of a system is, the more
gradual the trajectory of the function becomes. In this context, sensitivity is related
to resistance.
Assuming that there is a threshold point of regime shift/criticality, the system
can maintain the existing fundamental structure, provided the degree of damage

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does not reach the threshold. In this case, the system can recover or regeneratefrom the damage without losing its structure. The time taken for recovery is theengineering resilience or resilience, which Dow (1992) has defined (see figure2.a). After the process of recovery, adjustment may be used in preparation for the
next hazard. Adjustment can also be used before an anticipated hazard. This abilityof a system is assumed to improve sensitivity, engineering resilience, andecological resilience.
Conversely, a system cannot continue and recover if the degree of damage isbeyond the threshold. In this case, the system loses its structure and cannot
continue to persist. The maximum degree of damage that the system canwithstand without resulting in a regime shift or criticality is ecological resilience(see figure 2.b). The system enters an untenable situation if a regime shift or
criticality occur. In such a case, the system requires to fundamentally modify itself
to create a new system. This ability corresponds to transformability.
7. CONCLUSION
The concepts of vulnerability, resilience, and adaptability have originated indifferent fields. However, these concepts have been applied to ecological systems,social-ecological systems, and social systems, and linked with each other. All
these concepts are used as approaches for understanding how and why a system
responds to environmental change and for managing the system in an appropriate
and efficient manner.
Each of the concepts can be divided into some components. There are two
major definitions of the concept of vulnerability, while the concept is generallycomposed of exposure, sensitivity, and adaptability. A system can collapse if themagnitude of a hazard exceeds the adaptability of the system. This situation iscalled criticality. Further, the concept of resilience is classified into engineeringresilience, ecological resilience, and social/community resilience. Engineeringresilience is the speed of system recovery when the system returns to equilibrium
conditions. Ecological resilience is the ability of a system to maintain its existing
fundamental structure while undergoing environmental change. Regime shift isalso an important concept in ecological resilience, and it is similar to criticality.
Social resilience includes the aspects of learning and adaptation in addition toengineering resilience and ecological resilience. Finally, the concept ofadaptation/adaptability is classified based on the target to operate on, the degreeof system modification, and the timing and duration. As a result, the concept isdivided into three groups: coping capacity, adjustment capacity, andtransformability. Finally, the linkages between the three concepts are discussed in
the case of a city exposed to a rapid natural disaster.
REFERENCES
Adger, N., 2006. Vulnerability. Global Environmental Change, vol. 16, pp. 268281.
Adger, N., 2000. Social and ecological resilience: are they related? Progress in
Human Geography, 24[3], pp. 347-364.

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Cutter, S. et al., 2008. A place-based model for understanding community
resilience to natural disasters. Global Environmental Change, vol. 18, pp. 598-606.
Cutter, S. L., 1996. Vulnerability to environmental hazards. Progress in Human
Geography, 20[4], pp. 529-539.
de Bruijn, K. M., 2004. Resilience and flood risk management. Water Policy, vol.
6, pp. 53-66.
de Bruijn, K. M., Green, C., Johnson, C. McFadden, L., 2007. Evolving Concepts
in Flood Risk Management: Searching for a Common Language. In: S. Begum, M.
J. Stive J. W. Hall (Eds.), Flood Risk Management in Europe. Dordrecht: Springer,
pp. 61–75.
Dow, K., 1992. Exploring differences in our common future(s): The meaning ofvulnerability to global environmental change. Geoforum, 23[3], pp. 417-436.
Folke, C., 2006. Resilience: the emergence of a perspective for social-ecologicalsystem analyses. Global Environmental Change, 16[3], pp. 253-267.
Gallopín, G., 2006. Linkages between vulnerability, resilience, and adaptive
capacity. Global Environmental Change, vol. 16, pp. 293-303.
Glaser, M. et al., 2008. Human/nature interaction in the Anthropocene: Potentialof social system analysis. GAIA, 17[1], pp. 77-80.
Holling, C. S., 1973. Resilience and stability of ecological system. Annu. Rev.
Ecol. Syst., vol. 4, pp. 1-23.
Holling, C. S., 1996. Engineering Resilience versus Ecological Resilience. In: P.
C. Schulze (Eds.), Engineering Within Ecological Constraints. Washington DC:
The National Academy of Sciences, pp. 31-43.
Janssen, M., Schoon, M., Ke, W. Börner, K., 2006. Scholarly networks onresilience, vulnerability and adaptation within the human dimensions of global
environmental change. Global Environmental Change, vol. 16, pp. 240-252.
Kasperson, J. X., Kasperson, R. E., Turner II, B. L., 1996. Regions at risk:
Exploring environmental criticality. Environment, 38[10], pp. 4-15, 26-29.
Longman, P., 2009. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. 5th edition.
Harlow: Longman ESL.
McCarthy, J. J. et al. (Eds.), 2001. Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation,
Vulnerability. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Mens, M. J., Klijn, F., de Bruijn, K. M. van Beek, E., 2011. The meaning ofsystem robustness for flood risk management. Environmental Science & Policy,
vol. 14, pp. 1121-1131.
Miller, G. A., 1995. WordNet: A lexical database for English. Communications of
the ACM, 38[11], pp. 39-41.
Smit, B., Wandel, J., 2006. Adaptation, adaptive capacity and vulnerability.
Global Environmental Change, 16[3], pp. 282-292.
Scheffer, M., Carpenter, S. R., 2003. Catastrophic regime shifts in ecosystems:
linking theory to observation. TRENDS in Ecology and Evolution, 18[12], pp.
648-656.
Turner II, B. L. et al., 2003. A framework for vulnerability analysis insustainability science. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of theUnited States of America, 100[14], pp. 8074-8079.
Walker, B. et al., 2004. Resilience, adaptability and transformability in socialecological systems. Ecology and Society, 9[2], art. 5 [online], URL:
http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol9/iss2/art5/300

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Wilson, G., 2011. Community Resilience and Environmental Transitions. 1stedition. New York: Routledge.

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Ulaanbaatar City flat region acoustic
S.Barkhas1, G.Jambalsuren2
Mongolian University of Science and Technology
architecture 2nd course, School Building Engineer and Architechtureba_james@yahoo.com

ABSTRACTIn architecture, the noise outside of the building is protected by planning,
structural, technological and operational way.
Planning ways in architecture are the most common and economical methods toprotect rooms from street and industrial noise. The essence of this method is todivide environs into the noisy and quiet region. The city’s noise is divided into the
4 zone by noisy level.
1.

Industrial the zone is the most noisy .it is 80db by sound level.
There are many factories and streets
2.
Public and big trading organizations The noisy zone. It is 70db by soundlevel. Transports are movement
3.
Flat region is less noisy. It is 60db by sound level.
4.
Quiet zone there are hospitals , libraries and children centers in that zone.
Key words. Apartments, road of transport, noisy
1. INTRODUCTION
Neiderland and Dany’sscientists did research by sound quality. E.Robinson and
P.Dadson made research that all animal organization make noises that man’s
can’t hear and can hear abilities
Green structure is the most important planning to struggle against the city noise.
The industries and means of transport make noise in city. And means of transportnoise is more than others. From the scientists research result, the noise from thetransports are:Trolleybus- 66-76db
Car- 66-86db
Bus- 64-90db
Truck (1.5tn)- 70-90db
Truck (5tn)- 80-98db
Motorcycle- 130-140db
But noise from transport is more than this level. Too much noise is very bad forpeople’s mind and the nervous system. In our research result, there are manybuildings and flats along the Ulaanbaatar city arterial magisterial road. From

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researches, 20-25db leveled that can’t influence against human health for a longtime.
To see Russian scientist P.E. Leyusheni trees take 26 present and take away 74
presents .Without green land is get more noisy 5 than green land in 2 metres

To see from the developed countries experience, buildings along the central roadare protected by many planning methods.

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Elements to protect and separate flats from the road noise

The buildings at center of Ulaanbaatar is along the magisterial road .

Ulaanbaatar City flat region
acousticCity flat region acoustic
Ulaanbaatar

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The buildings at center of Ulaaanbaatar is along the magisterial road .
To do research for a sound wave along the UB city arterial road:
The 12th of the March in 2012
The noise and sound wave along the city arterial road:
5pm-7pm 68-75db
07am-09am 74-79.2db
12pm-02pm 71db
Air humidity 30.8%rh
4 road crossing 68-74db
Bus station 75-80db
To meet to people who live in flat along the arterial road and measure the soundwave:
In No 3, 2nd floor, 1st entrance, 25-30 flat, 5th region, Sukhbaatar district, soundwave was 59.7db at 09pm-11pm. To talk with the citizens, their bedroom is locatedin road side. And the older people and children live here and there is always noisy attheir home.

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The tools
tools that
The
that we
we havehave used
used forfor thethe research.
research.
Universal DT-8820
DT-8820
Universal
Light 0-20000lk
Light
0-20000lk
Dampness 25-95%
Dampness
25-95%

Temperature
Temperature 20-750’C
20-750’C
Sound 35-100db
35-100db
SoundWe
offer anan idea
idea toto savesave energy
energy and
We offerand protect
protect people’s
people’s healthhealth forfor solve
solve thethe problem
problem ofofbadtransports’ noisethat thethe people
live inflats along
the arterial
bad influence
influence ofof transports’noise thatpeople who
who livein flats
along thearterial
magisterial
magisterial road.
road. ItIt isis possible
possible toto realize
realize thethe idea
idea inin ourour country
country forfor our
our own
own
resources
resources andand veryvery effective
effective toto savesave energy.
energy.

Sun screen
Working
Working temperaturetemperature -40’C-40’C -- +40’C+40’C
LampWorking temperaturetemperature -250’C-250’C -- +400’C+400’C
Average
Average work
work hourshours- 6000hr
6000hrStorage charge
City flat region acoustic
Ulaanbaatar
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region acoustic307

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October
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Working temperature -250’C - +500’C
Capacity 65a.hr
Light power by 50wt Additional source of charge is 11wt
Time to turn on light by energy that storage a day is 100hr
Sun battery system’s main advantages:-No need to constantly care, fuel and professional worker-Any bad influence for surroundings, ecological clear source of energy-Comfortable to use in a country where substructure doesn’t developed well-Working years- 20-30years-There are 7-21days are not sunny in a year and very few cases to be cloudy formore than 2 days
Structural materials that used for our offering idea:
Glass barrier: 12mm thick dried glass
Width 180cm, height is 330cm
1m2 12000�
4.5 times durable than ordinary glass
Storage sun battery: 60cm width
180 cm long one panel is 20000� worth
Frame and column:330m height- 4000�
Total money sum: 7,696,000� in 30m distance
24,320,000 in 100m distance
Assessment
We have done research and report by topic “Ulaanbaatar city flat region acoustic”.
By this report, we have researched to protect people’s health for solve the problemof bad influence of transports’ noise that the people who live in flats along thearterial magisterial road.
1. From researches, 20-25db leveled that can’t influence against human health for along time. But in result of our research, nowadays in Ulaanbaatar city, this statistic
opposite and people who live in flats along the arterial road is getting hurt by theirhealth, the nervous system and mentally. There is lack to supply people’s
comfortable environment.
2. Flats window along the Ulaanbaatar city arterial magisterial road is not to beenough to protect from noise influence. So theplace high performed windows that
do notconduct noise is very important way to help those people.
3. So we hope that to implement our idea, to summarize and improve the process togrant city places to people and architecture planning, and do researches fromprofessional organizations for make up people’s acceptable living environments andfollowing the example of developed countries and make enough level of protectingfrom noise, will give an effective result.
Resources:
V.V.Aurov “ArchitecturnayaPhysica” 2001
N.M.Gusev “Osnoviistroitelnoyphysicii” 1990
V.M.Ilinelskii “Stroitelnoyphysicii” 1984
Lectures of Magister S.Amgalan
Lectures of Magister B.Mandakh
Writers: architecture 2nd course S.Barkhas
G.Jambalsuren
Leaded teacher: B.Mandakh

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Eco fence the improvement of the Ger districtliving environment
G.Ganbat1, G.Punsaldulam2 and Sh. Enkhtungalag3
University of Science and Technology, Civil Engineering andArchitect School
Architectural and Drawing Department
Ganbat_art0713@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Since 21st century started human life development has been intensively increasing.
The one view of such development is the wonderful cities which are making theface of each countries. The biggest cities of the world are paying the higher
attention to the tendency for the eco – solutions which toward to thecommunication between the human and the nature, except the construction
exterior, façade view and the interior design of the construction development. City
development is improving its quality based on the recent requirement of suchcities and is creating the eco-development designs for them. According to thistendency we aim to create the development solutions for the ger area in thecapital city of Mongolia – Ulaanbaatar, which are really common placed in every
area around the city. Recent problems in the Ger districts:• Unordered location• The dust from the soil road
• Air pollution /smoke/• Open trashes and garbage• The city view
• Lighting system• Un safe usage of the water
As we known, the recent fences are only for the separation of the private-owned
land. This influence for the city view harmfully and make a bad design for themodern city. In order to break this traditional style, we offer the mono-usage andmulti - beneficial solution. This is the ECO-FENCE, which can solve the city view
recent problem
The survey result in the Ger district: By the survey, we have chosen 1500 families
in Khan-Uul district, and 1410 families or 94% of them have wooden plate fences,
67 families or 4.5% of them have block-stone fences. The rest 23 families or 0.5%of them have brick and metal fences. We have made the below calculation basedon the above survey result, it means for 94% of the ger district families. This ecofence can design the comfortable living environment in the ger district and solve
the messy locations, saves cost and nature-friendly decisions for the life style ofpeople. It also can influence to the beauty and psychological view of people intheir living environment. Not only in UB city, in the provinces this solution brings
very reliable and comfortable fence generation.

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Mongolia

Introduction
This project is the most common project for replanning the ger micro-district of
Ulaanbaatar. Therefore it was included in the senior development plan of
Ulaanbaatar city 2020 and certified the strategic project “Development of ger
micro-district”. Current fences of ger micro-districts are becoming the front side
but it’s appearance doesn’t look well. That is why displacement of current fences
into eco-fence is beneficial..By the changing fences we can reduce the use ofwood in ger micro-district and improve the appearance of Ulaanbaatar city.

Preface
70% of Ulaanbaatar’s citizens are living in ger micro-district also ger microdistrict’s expansion raised to 60% .For example in 2000 year 51623 people of all
citizens were living in ger district, in 2011 it raised to 103241.60% of populationin aimag’s center are living in bad environment. The rise of citizens fromcountryside raises the ger district’s expansion.
That is why it is the most important issue to decide. Government has started the
housing area project but it is cannot house all people who live in ger micro-district.
According th international analysis housing raises the population and crime
possibility.
Since 21st century started human life development has been intensively increasing.
The one view of such development is the wonderful cities which are making theface of each countries. The biggest cities of the world are paying the higher
attention to the tendency for the eco – solutions which toward to thecommunication between the human and the nature, except the construction
exterior, façade view and the interior design of the construction development. City
development is improving its quality based on the recent requirement of suchcities and is creating the eco-development designs for them.
According to this tendency we aim to create the development solutions for the ger
area in the capital city of Mongolia – Ulaanbaatar, which are really common
placed in every area around the city.

1.Characteristics of eco-fence.
Wooden fences are used as a separator of privet-owned lands. Also this fences arelosing it’s quality, form and facade by time. In order to break this traditional style,
we offer the mono-usage and multi - beneficial solution

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1.1Eco-block stone.
1.1Eco-block stone.
Eco-blockare material
made of whichalabasterEco-block stones are
made of stones
alabaster
arematerial
speciallywhich are speciallyforaminated.
most importantis not harmful for man,foraminated. The mostimportantThecharacteristic
is notcharacteristic
harmful for man,easy
use, resistantand thermalpreservation
high.Blockstone size iseasy to use, resistantandtothermalpreservation
is high.Blockstoneissize
is150x250x1000
150x250x1000
Technical details ofTechnical
the physicaldetails
andofchemical
the physicalcharacteristic
and chemicalof thecharacteristic
Blockof the Block
Stone
Stone
Unit Meaning of the details
Meaning of the details
Analyze result
By the Analyze result
Standard By theStandard
δ=10sm δ=15smδ=10sm δ=15sm
δ=20sm
Bar density 1 Bar density
kg/м3Less kg/м3
than
600Less than 600
600
600
600
700
700
Bar weight 2 Bar weight
Kg/pc
Less Kg/pc
than
20 Less than 2020
2020
23
23
Bar capacity 3 Bar capacity
KN
Less KN
than
1.5 Less than
2 1.5
22
1.5
1.5
Sound separation
4 SounddBseparation Less dB
than
41 Less than 4241
4542
30
30
Heat separation
5 HeatRoseparation Ro
0.590.88
0.59
1.18
0.88
(м2oС/Вт)(м2oС/Вт)Stability of the6 Stability
Kg/h/sм2of the Kg/h/sм2 17 1717
1717
pressurepressure
Individual radio
7 Individual
Bk/кg radio Less Bk/кgthan
Less than 212.1
212.1
activenessactiveness
370
370
Fire Resistance8 Fire minute
Resistance Less minutethanLess than 180<
180<
180
180
Characteristics

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Characteristics
Unit

1.2 Solar battery. 1.2 Solar battery.
absorbs totheproduce
solar energy
to produce theis usefull andTiO2 absorbs theTiO2
solar energy
the electricity,Itis electricity,Itusefulleasy tois aofplate
made of cooper,silinium
and easy to produce.It
is aproduce.It
plate madecooper,silinium
and indiumand indium also it issemi-conductor
solar element.
also it is semi-conductor
solar element.

Ecoofofthedistrictenvironment
Eco fence-thefence- theimprovement
improvement
Eco fencethe
theGerGer
improvement
districtliving
livingof theenvironment
Ger district living environment

311

δ=20s
600

20
2

45

1.1

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October 2012, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia

2012,
Ulaanbaatar,
Mongolia
OctoberOctober
2012,October
Ulaanbaatar,
Mongolia
2012,
Ulaanbaatar,
Mongolia

Domestic use of electricity,cost of electricity:
One house usage is 17000-25000kW:
1.Iron-1monthly-8h*1.4kW=11.2kV*84=940kW
Domesticuse of electricity,costof electricity:
Domesticuseof electricity,costof electricity:2.
Oven-1h-2kW,
1daily-4h=8kW,
One
house
usage
is
17000-25000kW:
One house usage is 17000-25000kW:
1.Iron-1monthly-8h*1.4kW=11.2kV*84=940kW
1monthly=240kW*84=2016kW
3.
1.Iron-1monthly-8h*1.4kW=11.2kV*84=940kW
2. Oven-1h-2kW,
1daily-4h=8kW,
Light-1h=100W,
1daily-6h=600W,
2. Oven-1h-2kW, 1daily-4h=8kW,
1monthly=240kW*84=2016kW
3.
1daily=600*30=18000W=18kW
1monthly=240kW*84=2016kW
3.
Light-1h=100W,
1daily-6h=600W,
4.
Washing machine-1h=330W
1daily=4h=1320W=1.32kW
Light-1h=100W,
1daily-6h=600W,
1daily=600*30=18000W=18kW
1monthly=6.6kW
5.Vacum
cleaner-1h=1.5kW
1daily=600*30=18000W=18kW
4. Washing machine-1h=330W 1daily=4h=1320W=1.32kW
1monthly=7.5kW
4. Washing1monthly=6.6kW
machine-1h=330W 5.Vacum
1daily=4h=1320W=1.32kW
cleaner -1h=1.5kW
6.
Rice cooker-1h=0.8W
1monthly=6kW
1monthly=6.6kW
5.Vacum
cleaner -1h=1.5kW
1monthly=7.5kW
6. Rice cooker-1h=0.8W 1monthly=6kW
1monthly=7.5kW
1.3 Garbage
bin.
1.3
Garbagebin.
6. Rice cooker-1h=0.8W
1monthly=6kW
The very importantthing
the ger isdistrict
is the garbage
problem.
The very important
thing in thegerindistrict
the garbage
problem.
In In
order
to
keep
the
human
labor
we
also
offer
the
garbageassortment
order
to
keep
the
human
labor
we
also
offer
the
garbageassortment
1.3 Garbage bin.
solution
this area.
garbage
willgarbage
be installedwiththesolution
thisarea.inthingThe
garbagewillbinsbeinstalledwiththe
EcoThe veryinimportantin theThegerbins
district
is theproblem.
InEco‐ Fence
it would
separatedforbelow:
Fence
and
itand
would
be be
separatedthethebelow:
order to
keep
the
human
labor
wefor
also
offer
the garbage assortment• Recyclable
garbage•
Recyclable
garbagesolution in this area. The garbage bins will be installed with the Eco• Bio-Garbage• andBio-Garbage
Fence
it would
be separated for the below:• Ashes•• Ashes
Recyclable garbage• Bio-Garbage
1.4 Pure water line
1.4 Purewater line
• AshesThat fencepureandthehelps
toThat fence contains
purecontains
water lines,
and water
helps tolines,
decreaseuncleanusageof thewelllinewater, and keeps the human labor in ger districts.
1.4 Pure
water
decrease
the unclean usage of the well water, and keeps
That fence contains pure water lines, and helps to decrease the unclean
usage of thethe
wellhumanwater, andthe humanlabor in ger districts.
laborkeeps
in gerdistricts.

Well
Well

Families
Well

Families

Families

1.5 Lighting.
Lighting.
Street nickel1.5lighter,
3.5 m high
Water
Streetnickellighter, 3.5Supply
m high
1.5 Lighting.
Water Supply
Street nickel lighter, 3.5 m highWater Supply

Installing all of this instruments makes

environment more

Installing allcomfortableof this instruments
more
comfortable
for andfor peoplemakes.Solar environment
battery will be
installed
to the wall
people .Solar
battery
willlighting
be installed
to theelectricwall andit will supply lighting
it will
supplyand othergadgets.
Installing
all
of
this
instruments
makes
environment
more comfortable forand other electric gadgets.
people .Solar battery will be installed to the wall and it will supply lighting
and other electric gadgets.
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2.2.The
Thesurvey
survey2. TheresultresultsurveyininthetheresultGer
Germicro-district:inmicro-district:the Ger micro-district:
By we
the
survey,we havechosen1500
families
indistrict,
Khan-Uul
By
Bythe
thesurvey,
survey,wehavehavechosen
chosen
1500
1500
familiesfamilies
ininKhan-Uul
Khan-Uul
district,andanddistrict,
1410
1410 and 1410
familiesor94%
ofwoodenthem
havewoodenplate
fences,67
families
orthem
4.5% of themfamiliesfamiliesoror94%
94%ofofthem
them
have
have
woodenplate
plate
fences,fences,6767families
familiesor
or4.5%
4.5%ofofthem
have block-stone
rest 23families
orthem0.5%
of brick
them
have
have
haveblock-stone
block-stone
fences.
fences.The
Thefences.
rest
rest2323The
familiesfamilies
oror0.5%
0.5%ofofthem
have
have
brickandand brick andmetal fences.
metal
metalfences.
fences.

brick brickblock
block blockmetal
metal metalbrickWe
WehavehavemademadeWe havethethebelow
below
madecalculation
thecalculation
below calculation
based
basedon
onthe
the
based
above
above
onsurvey
thesurveyabove
result,result,surveyitit result, itmeans
meansforfor94%
means
94%ofofthefortheger94%
gerdistrict
districtof the families.
ger
families.
district families.

Eco fence-theimprovementof thethe improvement
Ger
districtlivingenvironment
Eco
EcofencefencethetheEco
improvement
improvement
fenceof
ofthe
the
Ger
Gerdistrict
districtof theliving
Gerliving
districtenvironment
environment
living environment

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Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
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October 2012, Ulaanbaatar,

3.Cost:Total fences of the ger district: 103.241pc
If we estimate that a family has 70m long fence, it must contain 3-4 m3 wood. On
the recent market this amount of wooden plate cost 450.000MNT-600.000MNT,
which only for the frame usage.
From above, total ger district fence price will be like below:
103.241x500000=51.620.500.000MNT
If a family were involved for the apartment program, it would take 20 years atleast. It says that during this time, a family has to renew their fence every 7-12
years. In this case the fence cost will be like below:
51.620.500.000x2=103.241.000.000MNT
4.Ecological survey:
Total ger micro- district fence requires 103241x4m3=412.964m3
Normally, one tree can be divided into 12 pieces of the wooden plates. It means
1m3 wooden plate destroy 10 trees. In the forest of Mongolia there are 2500-3000
trees in every one hectare area. Until the apartment program will have
implemented,
412964x10=4129640 4129640:3000=1377 hectares
If each family renew their fences twice within 20 years, 2754x3000=8.262.000
trees or 1377x2=2754 hectares of the forest will be destroyed completely.
5.Implementation.
• Eco block stone /25x100см/
3.000 MNT-5.000 MNT• Pure water lines• Lighting : Street nickel lighter, 3.5 m high , Price 185.000 MNT• Garbage bin• Solar battery – 200.000 MNT – 250.000 MNT• Budget cost: 750.000 MNT – 850.000 MNT for the single family fence ,based on the owned area

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Fence design.Hammer like ornament:
1. National pattern.
2. Lesser material usage.

Ecofence-theimprovement
of ofthetheGer
districtlivingenvironmentEcofence- theimprovement
Ger
districtlivingenvironment315

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Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
Mongolia

3. Hammer like ornament never ends.
Our fence height will be 1.8 m which is very confident with the human
average height.

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Conclusion
ConclusionThis
eco-fence
cancomfortable
design the comfortableliving environment
in the ger district
This eco-fence
candesign theliving environment
in the ger district
solvelocations,the messysaves
locations,saves
cost and nature-friendly
and solve theandmessy
cost andnature-friendly
decisions fordecisions
the life for the life
styleIt of
people.
It also can
the psychologicalbeauty and psychologicalview ofstyle of people.
also
can influence
to influence
the beautytoandview ofpeoplein environment.
their living environment.
Notcity,
onlyininthe
UBprovinces
city, in theprovinces thispeople in theirlivingNot only in UB
thissolutionbrings very
and comfortablefence generation.
solution brings
very reliable
andreliable
comfortablefence generation.
Used resources:
Used resources:o http://ecomngl.posterous.com/1 or What does the garbage mean?
o http://www.earoph.info/pdf/2009papers/P1.pdf Population prevalence,urban living environmento Google Eartho http://biznetwork.mn/blog/show/id/6147
o Ornament symbolism
o http://barilga.mn Lightingo http://ecomngl.posterous.com/1 or What does the garbagemean?
o http://www.earoph.info/pdf/2009papers/P1.pdf Population
prevalence, urban living environmento Google Eartho http://biznetwork.mn/blog/show/id/6147
o Ornament symbolism
o http://barilga.mn Lighting

Eco fence-theimprovementof the Ger
districtlivingfenceimprovementof theenvironment
Ger districtliving environment
Eco fencetheEco
improvementof theGer districtlivingenvironment317

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Issues and challenge in legal framework
related to urban redevelopment in Mongolia
1Toshiaki KUDO1, Tomoko ABE2
General Manager, Urban & Regional Development Department,
Global Division, Oriental Consultants Co. Ltd., Japan
kudot@oriconsul.com
2
Planner, Overseas Department, ALMEC Corporation, Japan

ABSTRACTThis paper describes current issues and challenge of legal framework for urban
redevelopment in Mongolia, and mechanism of urban redevelopment projects in
Ulaanbaatar. The Urban Redevelopment Law (URL) has been drafted since 2010
and is to be finalized. The law is expected to facilitate urban redevelopment
projects in a more proper and smoother manner, though it still requires operational
improvement through actual application. Ideas to apply new urban redevelopment
mechanisms are proposed by a JICA project, the Project on Capacity
Development in Urban Development Sector in Mongolia (MUGCUP) based on
studying and monitoring actual urban redevelopment projects in the city since
May 2010.
Keywords: urban redevelopment, urban redevelopment law, ger area development,
old apartment reconstruction
1. INTRODUCTION
Ulaanbaatar City’s population has grown at a 3.3% per annum over the last two
decades much faster than the national average of 1.3% per annum. Most of them
have settled in so-called ger area where engineering and social infrastructure are
not develop adequately because the central apartment area in Ulaanbaatar City
cannot absorb all the increasing population. Presently in Ulaanbaatar City around
60% of the city population live in ger area and the rest live in the central
apartment area which is connected to the central utility systems.
This urbanization trend has caused ger area sprawling toward outside, andredevelopment in the central area and redevelopment of ger area in a rather
disorderly and unplanned manner. From safety aspects, ger area has been
expanded without proper infrastructure that hampers emergency vehicle approachand flash flood control, so on; on the other hand, in the central area, many oldapartment buildings are evaluated as non seismic resistant and many infill
development are implemented on apartment courtyards.
To cope with these urban developments, the legal framework related to urban
development has been reformed by amendment of existing laws and new laws
under the New Development Program approved in June 2010. Among them, the319

October
October 2012,2012, Ulaanbaatar,
Ulaanbaatar,Mongolia
Mongolia

Urban Redevelopment Law (URL) has newly been drafted to facilitate urban
redevelopment projects.
The JICA Team of the Project on Capacity Development in Urban Development
Sector in Mongolia (MUGCUP) has worked with the Mongolian counterparts
since June 2010. The project has worked on overall legal framework related tourban development with focus on the Urban Redevelopment Law and its rules andregulation, as well as smooth implementation of urban redevelopment projects in
Mongolia based on issues found through monitoring the actual urban development
situation in Ulaanbaatar.
2. PROPOSED LEGAL FRAMEWORK OF LAWS RELATED TO URBAN
DEVELOPMENT
2.1 Legal framework related to urban development
After having reviewed the legal structure related to urban development in
Mongolia, the JICA MUGCUP Team has proposed a legal structure related tourban development with the Urban Development Law as the center with major
relevant laws, as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Overall Legal Framework related to Urban Development
2.1.1 Current Legal framework related to urban development
In general, all Mongolian legal frameworks are complied and/or coherent with theConstitution of Mongolia and Civil Code of Mongolia in terms of rights andduties of the Mongolian governments and people.

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Construction activities shall follow the technical norms and standards stipulatedby the Construction Law. Urban planning and development activities are ruled by
the Urban Development Law, which stipulates mandates, powers and duties of thegovernment sector for urban development planning and projects implementation.
This law is the core of the legal system for urban development.
Land issues have been complicated in Mongolia since the time when landownership started being privatized (700m2 per person), and are related to several
relevant lows, that is: Law of Mongolia on Land; Law of Mongolia on Land Fees,
Law on Allocation of Land to Mongolian Citizens for Ownership, Land issues on
are also related to administration of housing, geodesy and land management,
taxation of property tax and other land systems. For these ends, several laws havebeen newly developed, enacted and amended since 2002 when land privatization
policy was executed. Privatization process of land somehow urbanization
spreading outward which thereby make it difficult to acquire land necessary for
urban engineering and social infrastructures.
Development and construction of urban infrastructures and utilities are regulated
by respective law and/or regulations, such as Law on Utilization of Urban Water
Supply and Sanitation, Law on Roads, Law on Energy, Law on
Telecommunications, so on. In addition to these laws, technical standards fordesign and construction are regulated by respective “norms.”
2.1.2 Reformed legal structure for urban development
As illustrated in Figure 1, urban development-related laws are composed of threelaws with a hierarchy with the Urban Development Law (UDL) which is due to beamended, followed by the Urban Redevelopment Law (URL) under drafting.
Needless to say, these laws must be complied with principles of the Mongolian
Constitution and Civil Code. The UDL shall cover the basic policies and legal
framework of powers, responsibilities, and duties of the government sector for
urban planning, land use and urban development. Under this policy umbrella, the
URL, or the administrative law for urban redevelopment projects, is to be enacted.
These urban-related laws are interrelated or referred to other relevant laws such as
land-related laws, housing-related laws, infrastructure-related and environmental
laws.
3. URBAN REDEVELOPMENT LAW
3.1 Urban Redevelopment Law under drafting
In urban development sector, the JICA Team has focused on urban redevelopment
projects and worked on the Urban Redevelopment Law (URL) and cooperated
with the Mongolian counterpart of Ministry of Construction and Urban
Development (MCUD) and Ulaanbaatar City since 2010.
The latest draft of the Law was made in June 2012. The Law consists of nine
chapters and 30 Articles with the following: general provisions, plenary power ofIssuesand framework
challenge inrelated
legal framework
related to urban
redevelopment in Mongolia 321
Issues and challenge
in legalto urban redevelopment
in Mongolia

October 2012,2012, Ulaanbaatar,
Ulaanbaatar,Mongolia
Mongolia
Octobergovernment organizations handling urban redevelopment activities, urban
redevelopment project types, implementing body, requirements of project andproject area, funding, obligations and responsibilities of project participants, realestate and its right conversion in project area, monitoring system, compulsory
land acquisition.
The URL covers five types of urban redevelopment projects, namely: (1) land
readjustment projects in ger area, (2) redevelopment (ger-to-apartment) project inger area, (3) reconstruction of old apartment, as well as (4) redevelopment of thearea that does not meet the planning standards, and (5) redevelopment project inpublic land.
3.2. Important issues of Urban Redevelopment Law and related laws
The URL is composed of several vital concepts which shall be coherent with otherrelevant laws. In this regard, there are several concepts: (1) land use control(zoning) , (2) compulsory land acquisition, (3) compensation, (4) land andproperty evaluation, (5) right conversion, (6) reconstruction of old apartments,and (7) public participation.
(1) Land use control (zoning)
Urban redevelopment projects should be planned and designed in urbanized area,
not in environmentally preventive and/or conserved zones. Thus, the land use
zoning policies in the city is consistent with those stipulated in the URL, or more
specifically, legal directions deliberated in the Urban Development Law and theLand Law.
(2) Compulsory land acquisition
The URL needs to regulate the procedure of land expropriation process, in casethat some land owners or right holders will not participate in the urban
redevelopment projects, but move out of the project area, getting thecompensation in any form. In general, the urban redevelopment project isundertaken in such a way that all right holders residing in the project area shallgain more comfortable and valuable living environment rather than before, with
their property rights being protected. For the sake of compulsory land acquisition
for public service facilities, the legal process has not been properly regulated,
although this aspect is stipulated by several laws, including the Mongolian
Constitution, the Urban Development Law, the Land Law and Law on Allocationof Land to Mongolian Citizens for Ownership. Since the legal framework for thisissue is not integrated, but still fragmented, the independent law, named “Law on
Land Expropriation” will be soon proposed by MCUD with ADB’s technicalassistance. However, the logical consistency between this law and the URL
should strictly be kept.
(3) Compensation
The rational compensation scheme, which is mostly related to the land
expropriation issue, needs to be cleared for those who are negatively affected by
the urban redevelopment project. This aspect is mentioned in the Mongolian

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Constitution, the Civil Code, the Land Law and the Urban Development Law. The
basic concept should be mutually coherent among those relevant laws.
(4) Land and Property Evaluation
It is clearly stipulated in the Mongolian Constitution that the compensation shallbe evaluated at market prices. However, as the market mechanism in the realestate sector is often distorted or not perfect, thereby being likely to be speculated,
the rational evaluation of land and property is of a vital issue for land, urban
development administrations. Although the Cadastre Law, the Property
Evaluation Law and the Condominium Law stipulate this issue with respective
purposes, a rational method of the valuation needs to be defined.
(5) Right conversion
The right conversion may be a new concept. However, this is the most vital partof procedure attached to urban development projects. The original rights ofproperty owners should be maintained during and after the project, even if theoriginal right is converted to another form, that is: the land to apartment floor, theland to another plot of land, old apartment floor to new apartment floor, so on.
The Housing Law, which stipulates right conversion of the old apartment floor to
the new apartment floor, is directly pertinent to the URL on this issue.
(6) Reconstruction of old apartments
Since the Housing Law, amended in February 2010, depicts an official procedureof the reconstruction of old apartment buildings, the URL shall basically refer tosuch a procedure as defined. In this process, the most noteworthy policy is that thetripartite agreement among the apartment owner, the investor and the local
government shall be made for the implementation of the old apartment
reconstruction project in which the old apartment building is evaluated as “nonseismic resistant and urgently need to be rebuilt” by the State Inspection Agency.
(7) Public participation
A participatory approach in a democratic manner is indispensable to facilitate any
types of urban redevelopment activities. This perception has been prevailed in the
Urban Development Law. The public participation has two types of involvement:
one is the public hearing type where a wide range of stakeholders are involved inplanning and decision-making process of the project; and the other is theconsensus building type among right holders of and/or directly-affected people by
the project. The former is relevant to the Urban Development Law and the lattershall be functionally regulated by the URL and the Housing Law.
4. RULES AND REGULATIONS OF URBAN REDEVELOPMENT LAW
4.1 Rules and regulations stipulated in Urban Redevelopment Law
Mongolian manner for the legalization process is as follows: (1) laws should be
drafted in accordance with the “Law on Preparation of Draft Laws & Parliament
Resolution and its Submission” and submitted to the Parliament for approval, andIssuesand framework
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October(2) rules/regulations stipulated in the law should be prepared and approved by
Minister’s Order.
“Rules and Regulations” which are defined and/or stipulated in the draft Urban
Redevelopment Law shall be prepared by Agency of Land Administration,
Geodesy and Cartography (ALAGaC) under the MCUD in close collaboration
with the JICA Project Team. In the draft URL Law (June 2012 version), thefollowing seven rules/regulations are due to be prepared and approved.
(1) Methodologies for Calculation of Compensation and Rules for Payment,
which shall be regulated by the Government of Mongolia(2) Rules on Land Reduction and Contribution for Land Readjustment Project,which shall be regulated by the Government of Mongolia(3) Rules on Selection and Designation of Project Area which shall be regulatedby the Government of Mongolia(4) Rules and Guidelines to Manage Project Implementation Process” which shallbe prepared by MCUD,(5) Rules and Guidelines to Facilitate Old Apartment Reconstruction Projects”
which shall be prepared by MCUD
(6) Project Implementation Model” which shall be prepared by ALAGaC(7) Model Format of Tripartite Contract/Agreement” which shall be prepared by
ALAGaC
4.2.2

Proposed rules and regulations

In addition to the above mentioned seven rules/regulations, the JICA Project
Team has proposed that vital issues be stipulated by rules and regulations under
the draft URL, including (1) materialization of urban redevelopment basic policy,(2) implementation body, (3) consensus building, (4) participation and protectionof right holders, (5) computation and payment of compensation, (6) beneficiarypay-principle, (7) tripartite contract/agreement, (8) right conversion, (9) land
expropriation, (10) establishment of monitoring committee and its responsibility
and duties, (11) project financing and subsidy system.
(1) Materialization of urban redevelopment policy
The draft URL stipulates that the Urban Redevelopment Basic Policy must be inaccord with the following principle for urban redevelopment projects as well as
Urban Development Basic Policy stipulated by the draft URL. To materialize thebasic policy, the following shall be ensured: (1) citizens’ right to live in a healthyand safe environment, (2) social interest and rights, and (3) prevention andprotection from natural disaster based on evaluation of disaster risk andevacuation.
In this regards, the following should be included: secure of land for public
facilities in urban redevelopment promotion area and their development,
restriction on construction and land right transaction, and special measures inurban redevelopment project area.
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The draft URL stipulates that the implementation body of the urban
redevelopment project is: (1) aimag or city governor or (2) legal entity.
Qualification requirement and selection process of legal person and projectrelated rights as the implementation body shall be regulated.
The following items should be included as regulation: qualification and capabilityof implementation body, conduct of competition to select implementation body,
independent project account, repeal of approval of implementation body.
(3) Consensus building
To secure smooth implementation of the project, a guideline to build consensus
among residents is to be provided. Detailed process for projects of Redevelopment
Projects of sub-standard, inadequate urbanized area, Reconstruction of Old
Apartments, Land Readjustment Project in ger area, and Urban Redevelopment
Project in ger area are to be regulated.
The rules/regulations should include: residents’ consensus on urban
redevelopment area and draft basic plan, agreement of right holders on project
implementation plan and tripartite contract, criteria for execution of compulsory
land acquisition.
(4) Participation and protection of right holders
Right which the residents who take part in the urban redevelopment project holdproject before the project must be legally protected during and after the project.
Accordingly regulations shall be provided, including scope of right holders to beprotected, preservation of original right during construction period, legal base forresident representative organization, resident participation and decision making
process by consent of majority.
(5) Computation and payment of compensation
The draft URL defines compensation and provides that the government decides
compensation items and their calculation and payment methods. Compensation
for the right holders who do not participate in the project and move out or theright holders whose lands are acquired is to be stipulated.
The rules/regulations should include: compensation items in urban redevelopment
projects, calculation method of compensation money, payment of compensation
money, settlement money.
(6) Beneficiary-pay-principle
Within the extent of economic benefits accrued from the project that theimplementation body and right holders receive, it is reasonable and necessary torequest them to shoulder some portion of development cost of certain public
facilities in order to uplift public welfare and realize an equitable society, which isthe base of urban redevelopment projects.

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Accordingly rules and regulations on beneficiary-pay-principle are proposed,
including: cost burden sharing system for development of public facilities, basic
principle of land donation in land readjustment projects.
(7) Tripartite contract/agreement
The draft URL stipulates “Tripartite Contract” which shall be concluded among(1) the aimag (city) governor, as project initiator, (2) the implementation bodyselected through a proper competitive bidding process, and (3) the organization
representing the right holders. This contract is the base for the project
implementation. Urban redevelopment projects are prescribed as not only an
economic activity but also a public social activity.
The tripartite contract should include: legal status of tripartite contract, invalidityof tripartite contract, explicit responsibility of project continuity.
(8) Right conversion
Right conversion, stipulated in the draft URL, is one of the most important
procedure in urban redevelopment projects. Accordingly, rational right evaluation
method and appropriate rules of right conversion are required for consent of theright holders. A basic rule of right conversion in Japan is equal value based
exchange while in Mongolia, the Housing Law stipulates equal-floor-area based
exchange of apartment units for reconstruction of old apartment buildings.
The right conversion system should include: land evaluation method andevaluation base, apartment building evaluation method and evaluation base, rightconversion between ger (khashaa, or wooden fence) land and apartment, rightconversion in old apartment reconstruction projects, right of shops on first floor
and its compensation in old apartment.
(9) Land expropriation
The purpose of the URL is to improve living environment by securing landnecessary for development of public facilities with consent of the residents, not bycompulsory land acquisition. Thus, compulsory land acquisition stipulated in thedraft URL should be the last resort to take. This should be coordinated with the
Law on Land Expropriation which is now under draft.
(10) Establishment of Monitoring Committee and its responsibility and duties
In order for the Monitoring Committee stipulated in the draft URL to function
effectively, establishment, responsibility and power, and operation andmanagement of the Monitoring Committee shall be specified.
The rules/regulations should include: procedure of establishment of monitoring
committee, monitoring activities and internal articles of the monitoring committee.
(11) Project financing and subsidy system
As for “Financing for urban redevelopment project” stipulated in the draft URL,
the implementation body shall basically finance the project cost. However,development cost of public facilities needs to be shouldered by the administrative

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entities of public facilities. In addition, a wide range of subsidy is required tofacilitate quality urban redevelopment projects.
Such governmental support should include: government budget for infrastructure
projects, utilization of public financing system, technical assistance to formulationof plans of urban redevelopment projects, subsidy system for urban
redevelopment projects, tax reduction for urban redevelopment projects,
independent project account system.
5. CONCLUSIONS
The rapid urbanization has caused urban sprawl in the ger area without adequate
infrastructure on the one hand; many old buildings in the central area should bereconstructed because they have become non-seismic resistant. At the same time,
the city suffers from traffic congestion, air pollution and other urban problems.
To solve these urban problems, the Mongolian Government has made an effort toamend or newly enact laws relevant to urban development under the New
Development Program. However, Mongolia, which had adopted urban planningsystem under state-planned economy, has to introduce planning and development
concepts under market economy which are new to them. Accordingly, it is rather
difficult to develop many urban development related laws with consistency in ashort time.
Presently Mongolia is experiencing a transition period in urban planning anddevelopment under rapid urbanization pressure accelerated by mining-sector led
economic growth. In this situation, the following among others are of importanceto promote urban development sector properly in Ulaanbaatar: (1) establishmentof comprehensive and coherent legal framework related to urban development, (2)development of proper operational rules and regulations of the URL, (3) adoptionof democratic, participatory approach in planning and development process, (4)introduction of new concept of right conversion based on appropriate property
evaluation, and (5) strict enforcement of these laws and regulation.
The JICA MUGCUP Project has monitored actual projects of land readjustment
projects in ger area, redevelopment projects in ger area, and old apartment
reconstruction projects to sort out issues, and has proposed legal framework
related to urban development and operational rules and regulations of the URL,
and working together with Mongolian counterpart to finalize it. Ulaanbaatar City
will be reformed to more safe against disasters such as earthquake and flashflood
through proper urban redevelopment projects in ger area and the central area,
which are stated in the Urban Redevelopment Law and promoted by the JICA
MUGCUP Project.
REFERENCES
JICA, Final Report, the Study on Master Plan and Urban Development Program
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in Ulaanbaatar City in Mongolia (UBMPS) , March 2009
JICA, Progress Report 4, JICA project, the Project on Capacity Development in
Urban Development Sector in Mongolia (MUGCUP), May 2012
Working Group of Urban Redevelopment Law, Ministry of Construction and Urban
Development of Mongolia (MCUD), the Urban Redevelopment Law (draft), June 2012

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redevelopment mechanism in Ulaanbaatar City
Tomoko ABE1, Toshiaki KUDO2
Planner, Overseas Department, ALMEC Corporation, Japan
abe@almec.co.jp
2
General Manager, Urban and Regional Development Department,
Oriental Consultants Co. Ltd., Japan
1

ABSTRACTThis paper describes experiences and current issues, proposed mechanism ofurban redevelopment projects in Ulaanbaatar City which are proposed by a JICA
project, the Project on Capacity Development in Urban Development Sector in
Mongolia (MUGCUP) which has been conducted since May 2011. The basic
principle of urban redevelopment projects are aimed to improve living
environment with basic infrastructure, by applying of “right conversion” whichassess property value fairly and redistribute new properties (land or apartment
floor), or resettlement with compensation. However it is still difficult for citizens
to understand this concept which is new and unfamiliar to them. After stipulationof the new Urban Redevelopment Law, it is expected that both citizens anddevelopers understand and agree to the process of right conversion withparticipatory process, and urban redevelopment projects will be further promoted.
In parallel with formulation of new legal and institutional system, efforts ofpromotion of understanding of citizens are indispensable. Proposals and ideas toapply new urban redevelopment mechanisms based on lessons learned fromcurrent challenges and issues in the city as well as experiences in Japan are stated.
Keywords: new urban redevelopment mechanism, right conversion, consensus
building, public participation, urban redevelopment law
1. INTRODUCTION
The urban structure of Ulaanbaatar City is clearly separated into apartment area
where central infrastructure network are connected, and Ger area where urban
infrastructure and utility services are limited or not available. Though citizens in
Ger area originally immigrated from rural areas, younger generations seek formodern residential types such as detached houses and apartments. Though
residents of old apartments in the city center can easily access to water, sewage
and heating, they are in danger of collapse and destruction of apartments in theevent of strong earthquake, which were constructed from 1930’s to 1960’s. The
central and local governments have implemented policies and projects toredevelop Ger area into apartment areas, and to reconstruct old apartments for
citizens’ safety and improvement of air pollution.

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Since 2011, JICA has implemented “the Project on Capacity Development in
Urban Development Sector in Mongolia”, which aims to develop capacities toimplement and manage urban development by improving the policy and legal
framework for urban development in Mongolia and by enhancing the capacity oforganizations and individuals responsible for the urban sector.
In this project, several ongoing urban redevelopment projects in Ulaanbaatar City
have been monitored to analyze and review challenges and issues to reflect Urban
Redevelopment Law and related regulations which have been drafted by Ministryof Construction and Urban Development (MCUD) and relevant authorities. For
implementation of urban redevelopment projects, some issues similar to Japan
have been found of whose legal system of urban redevelopment has already been
consolidated, while other issues are specific to Mongolia where the city has
rapidly urbanized and the legal environment for urban development has not been
established yet.
2. TYPE OF URBAN REDEVELOPMENT PROJECT
2.1 Current Situation of Ulaanbaatar City
In the socialism era, many apartments were constructed in the city center. Theseapartments have been deteriorated and many apartments constructed in 1930’s –1960’s face risks of collapse in case of earthquake.
Around the apartment areas in the city center, Ger areas have been expanding
without urban infrastructure and utilities not being connected and immigrants
have settled. It is said more than half of citizens in Ulaanbaatar City settle in Ger
areas, and these areas have been uncontrolled by the government (see Figure 1).

Figure 1: Distribution of Apartment and Ger Area in Ulaanbaatar City, 2011

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2.2 Type of Urban Redevelopment Project
According to the draft Urban Redevelopment Law, the basic principles of urban
redevelopment project are stipulated as follows: (a) sanitary and safe living
environment development for residents, (b) consideration of public interests, and(c) requirement of participation of residents.
To tackle the urban issues in both apartment and Ger areas and to satisfy basic
principles of the law above, urban redevelopment projects stated in the draft
Urban Redevelopment Law are categorized into five (5) types:
y Reconstruction of areas that do not meet architectural, urban development
and urban planning requirements;y Demolishment of the buildings and structures that to not comply with
exploitation requirements, rebuild new buildings;
y Reorganization of Ger area;y Redevelopment of Ger area for apartment development; andy Redevelopment of public spaces
Among the five types above, (i) old apartment reconstruction, (ii) land
readjustment project in Ger area, and (iii) urban redevelopment (Ger to apartment)
projects have been studied in the JICA project (see Figure 2).

Figure 2: Types of Urban Redevelopment Project

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3. FINDINGS AND ISSUES OF URBAN REDEVELOPMENT PROJECTS
3.1 Land Readjustment Project in Ger area
3.1.1 Principle and Methods of Land Readjustment Project
The principle of land readjustment project is to secure public lands for public
facilities and to replot and readjust land parcels in order by converting land rightand contributing some areas of land for public facilities and sales (“reserve land”).
Profit of sale of reserve land is utilized for project finance, while reserve lands for
public facilities are used for roads, parks and schools.
In Japan, land readjustment project is called “mother of urban planning”, whichhave been implemented covering app. 400,000 ha, 1/3 of DID (Densely Inhabited
District).

Figure 3: Method of Land Readjustment Project3.1.2 Land Readjustment Project in Ulaanbaatar
In Ulaanbaatar City, there are no specific methods and systems for redevelopment
and living environment improvement in Ger area at this moment. International
donors and local NGOs have conducted projects such as water kiosk development,
urban utility development (e.g. water pipeline, electricity, improvement of heating
equipment, sanitation), and community empowerment, etc. Ironically, these
efforts have caused settlement and expansion of Ger area without adequate utility
facilities and public services by the government.
To consolidate comprehensive urban redevelopment approaches for Ger area,
several pilot projects which have adopted the basic concept of land readjustment
project have been implemented by the Land Department of Ulaanbaatar City.
The Land Department of Ulaanbaatar City launched a Land Readjustment Projectin Bayankhoshuu, 11th Khoroo of Songinokhairkhan District as the first model

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project of Land Readjustment in the city. This project aims to reshape land plots(3.07 ha, 49 households) and develop roads and necessary facilities.
In 2009, the Land Department negotiated with the 49 land owners and got basic
agreements for setback (see Figure 4). By the end of 2010, several households
along the planned road at the east end already set back the khasshas (wooden
fences of each plot). Some part of the road was widened (w=7.5 m), and somestreet light poles were installed. Since then, there has been no major improvement
because of lack of finance and agreement among relevant departments of the
Ulaanbaatar City. After the restructuring of the government due to the national
general election and city council election in August 2012, Bayankhoshuu has been
selected as a model project by the government, and the city government has
started to review current progress and issues to formulate the project withfinancial resource.
3.1.3 Lessons Learned for Land Readjustment Project
Based on experiences in Bayankhoshuu, the following issues for applying land
readjustment project are identified:i)

Difficulty of land contribution: Only small land parcel of several
households reduced land size, so reserve land for public facilities and forsales were not secured. It means project finance is not secured by the
project itself, and local government bears all financial responsibility.

ii) Difficulty in understanding by residents: The residents cannot understandthe land readjustment project mechanism well and are reluctant to reduce
land size. As most of Ger residents are low-educated and low-income so it
is difficult for them to express own opinions.
iii) Difficulty of independent financial allocation for the project: The Landdepartment of the city initiated the project without enough discussion andcoordination among other relevant departments such as Construction and
Urban Development Department, Road Department, and Investment
Department. Consequently budgets are allocated ad hoc for individual
projects by each department, but not for completion of a land readjustment
project in a comprehensive manner. In principle, it is necessary that afinancial scheme for a land readjustment project should be independentaccount which should be closed with its revenue and expenditure equal.
3.2 Urban Redevelopment (Ger to Apartment) Project3.2.1 Principle and Methods of Urban Redevelopment Project
The urban redevelopment project in Japan is applied mainly for renovation ofdeteriorated areas to construct apartments and buildings with necessary roads andpublic facilities. While land right is converted to new land right in case of land
readjustment project, it is converted to floor right of new apartments in case ofurban redevelopment project (see Figure 4).

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Features of urban redevelopment projects are to combine individual land rights
and convert them to floor rights of mid or high-rise apartments to utilize limited
land effectively. After rights of original land owners are converted to the newapartment floors, the remained new floors of apartments (“reserve floor”) are soldfor project finance.

Figure 4: Method of Urban Redevelopment Project3.2.2 Urban Redevelopment Project in Ulaanbaatar City
There are several ongoing urban redevelopment projects mainly in the central areaof the city. These areas are mixed with apartments, detached houses and Gers. Ger
residents have settled for long years while apartments have been newly
constructed, so socio-economic condition among residents are varied.
The 14th Khoroolol is the first urban redevelopment project in Ulaanbaatar City.
In the first phase, 2-story wooden apartments were demolished and high-riseapartments were constructed on that area. At that time, the same floor area of theold apartment was exchanged to the same area of the new apartment without any
payment by residents.
In case of the 7th Khoroolol project, which the Ulaanbaatar City initiates, theUlaanbaatar City allocated the budget for compensation of land acquisition forroad and utility development in the first phase. The standard price of the 7th
Khoroolol for compensation was 100,000MNT/m2, while the official land pricewas 13,200 MNT/m2 at that time.
Though the state allocates budget for compensation to develop road and utilities,
the local government does not allocate compensation to develop public and social
facilities. According to the Urban Development Law, land can be acquired for the
purpose of civil engineering and social infrastructure.
According to the Land Law and the Land Privatization Law, land can be acquired
for special needs with compensation for land ownership right, and with or without

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compensation for land possession right and land use right. Land for special needs
are not clearly defined, what kind of road, infrastructure and social infrastructure
are covered.
The Detailed District Plan of East Selbe area was carefully formulated based on
experiences of other areas which had not been realized. The planning teamconsulted with each land and apartment owner if they would agree with theproposed plan, and the proposed draft plan was opened for public in compliancewith the Urban Development Law. Originally, it is expected that this would be thefirst urban redevelopment project with public participation to gather opinions forreconstruction or not. At the end, the plan does not include enough public
facilities and road network to serve for future population and the city government
cannot enforce land owners to secure lands for public facilities.
3.2.3 Lessons Learned for Urban Redevelopment Project
Based on experiences in East Selbe area and other project sites, following issues
for applying urban redevelopment project are identified:i)

Difficulty of construction restriction: In general, the District Detailed Plan
is formulated and approved by the city government in compliance with the
Urban Development Law. In case of the urban redevelopment project, theDistrict Detailed Plan is formulated covering the whole area, which project
implementation plan including implementation body, finance, etc. is notplanned in detail. Furthermore, there is no legal power to enforce torestrict land transaction and construction activities in the Detailed Planarea to make it comply with the approved plan. It is found that the District
Detailed Plan is the drawing of no practical use under current legal system.

ii) Difficulty to secure lands for public facilities and road network: Public
facilities and road network are not planned enough to afford future
development and population. Furthermore, since right conversion system
has not been established with legal basis, land acquisition and resettlementwith compensation is only the measure to acquire lands in compliancewith the Land Law and the Urban Development Law.
iii) Difficulty to negotiate with property owners for agreement: It is difficult
for the government to negotiate with residents without having standards ofland value and land assessment measures for compensation or rightconversion. At this moment, the land price of 100,000MNT/m2 is a kind of
standard for compensation in the central area, but this price cannot beapplied to suburban and remote Ger area where infrastructure is notconnected. In addition, many land owners in the central area are eager tosell their lands for higher price, or to construct an apartment building by
themselves. So it is difficult for the government to control land transaction
and construction activities to materialize the approved plan which aims to
improve the area as a whole.

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3.3 Old Apartment Reconstruction Project3.3.1 Principle and Methods of Old Apartment Reconstruction ProjectIn case of Japan, there are many old apartment complexes which were constructed
more than 40 years before, during rapid economic growth period in 1950’s - 70’s.
The residents of these apartments are mostly aged, and many of these apartments
are vacant and facilities have been deteriorated. In addition, crimes inside theapartment complex happen in these days.
In Mongolia, many apartments were constructed in 1930’s to 60’s in socialist era.
These apartments face danger of collapse in case of earthquake and it is dangerous
to live in. The State Inspection Agency of Mongolia has designated many
apartment buildings to be lived in and to be reconstructed.
Though the background of reconstruction of the old apartment buildings isdifferent from Japan and Mongolia, the principle of project implementation
mechanism is the same, which is based on consensus building and rightconversion (see Figure 5). The apartment floor owners exchange original floor
right to new floor right, and construct mid or high-rise buildings whose total floorarea after the project is increased.
In Japan, the floor area before the project is exchanged to the new floor area
whose floor value is the same as before (equal value based exchange). On theother hand, the floor area before the project is exchanged to the new floor area
which the floor area size is the same as before (equal size based exchange), incompliance with the Housing Law in Mongolia. After right conversion of rightowners, supplemental floor areas are sold to market to cover portion of project
finance.

Figure 5: Method of Old Apartment Reconstruction Project

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3.3.2 Old Apartment Reconstruction Project in Ulaanbaatar
Some private developers and construction companies have worked for oldapartment reconstruction projects. At first, they tried to purchase all floor rightsfrom owners, but it took long time to negotiate with each owner, and the privatecompanies could not afford enough finance to purchase all rights in advance toproject implementation.
Even private companies successfully concluded agreement of reconstruction fromoriginal owners, they faced financial difficulty in construction cost, compensation
cost for resettlement, etc. The initial cost for project implementation is so largethat the private company cannot secure it. At this moment, the government does
not have a technical and financial support mechanism for most of privatecompanies which work for old apartment reconstruction.
3.3.3 Lessons Learned for Old Apartment Reconstruction Project
Based on experiences in several project sites, following issues for applying oldapartment reconstruction project are identified:i)

Difficulty to get agreement from residents: Since the reconstruction projectwill demolish the original apartment, most of residents are hesitate it and it
is difficult for them to understand the project mechanism and roles ofresidents. Most of residents of old apartment buildings settle for long
period, they don’t want to move out.

ii) Difficulty to get agreement from commercial floor owners: There are many
shops in the 1st floor of apartment, which intrude sidewalks. In principle,
they must have a land possession or use right, construction permission,and a commercial license. Business owners claim their business rights nomatter whether they have these certificates and titles or not. Privatecompanies need to take into consideration how to compensate commercial
activities and to secure new floors for continuation of their activities. It
also causes unfairness among residents and business owners in the sameapartment building.
iii) Difficulty to secure finance: There is no subsidy system by the government,
so it is difficult for private companies to secure project finance to affordfrom initial stage to completion.
4. CONCLUSIONSIn compliance with the Urban Redevelopment Law under drafting, urban
redevelopment projects will be implemented efficiently in a comprehensive
development approach. Urban redevelopment projects are featured as follows:(a) The urban redevelopment project improves comprehensive living
environment including housing, roads and public facilities based oncooperation between the government and residents.

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Mongolia(b) The tripartite contract among right holders, government, project
implementation body (the city governor or legal entity) is a legal basis for aproper project implementation.
(c) Right conversion is to secure original land and property rights during project
implementation period based on a fair property assessment.
(d) Residents of Ger area who participate in the land readjustment project canselect detached houses or apartments, though they need to construct new
dwellings by themselves. Residents can choose not to participate in the
project and move out with compensation.
(e) A project implementation body can allocate project finance by selling reserve
land or reserve floor.
The urban redevelopment project also enables to strengthen capacity of disaster
resistance with appropriate provision of road network, parks and openspace which
can be utilized for emergency. In the process of project implementation, acommunity activity will be also promoted, and it will be sustained even after the
project completion to manage the community service and facilities by themselves.
The government has a responsibility to support residents and private sectors’
initiatives to improve the city environment.
Though the legal structure and project implementation mechanism of Japan andother countries will be good references for Mongolia, it is necessary to takespecial conditions into consideration. Most of poor Ger residents put priority toearn a living, so it might be necessary to develop a comprehensive program
including urban redevelopment and socio-economic development in parallel topromote understanding and agreement of residents for implementation of urban
redevelopment project.
It is said that “community” has not been consolidated in Mongolia since a historyof Ger settlement in Ulaanbaatar City is not so long. The principle of disastermanagement of “self-help, community-help and public-help” should be promoted
as a common idea for urban redevelopment project which contribute to acomprehensive environment improvement.
REFERENCES
JICA, Final Report, the Study on Master Plan and Urban Development Programin Ulaanbaatar City in Mongolia (UBMPS), March 2009
JICA, Progress Reports 1 to 4, the Project on Capacity Development in Urban
Development Sector in Mongolia (MUGCUP), May 2012
Working Group of Urban Redevelopment Law, Ministry of Construction and
Urban Development of Mongolia (MCUD), Draft Urban Redevelopment Law,
June 2012
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT) of Japan, Outlineof Urban Redevelopment Project

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Seismic vulnerability of gravity-load designed
buildings
Kiang Hwee TAN1, T BALENDRA2 and Aziz AHMED3
Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
National University of Singapore, Singapore
tankh@nus.edu.sg
2
formerly Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
National University of Singapore, Singapore
3
PhD Candidate, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
National University of Singapore, Singapore
1

ABSTRACT
Buildings designed primarily for gravity loads are prone to suffer shear failuresin walls, columns and beams when subjected to far field effects of earthquakes. In
previous studies, pushover analyses carried out on these buildings were
terminated when a local shear capacity is reached. However, by considering
shear yielding, ductile shear hinges can be used to model the behaviour of suchbuildings. By comparing the capacity determined with this new modeling feature
with the seismic demand due to long distant earthquakes, the performance of atypical gravity-load designed, 25-storey building at critical soil sites in Singapore
is investigated in this study.
Keywords: concrete structure, ductile shear hinge, post local shear failure
behavior, pushover analysis.

1. INTRODUCTION
Many buildings in large Asian cities like Bangkok, Kuala Lumpur, Seoul andSingapore are designed primarily for gravity loads due to little or no local seismic
activities. However, it has been realized that such gravity-load designed (GLD)
buildings are not totally immune to the effects of far-field earthquakes, especially
if they are sited on soft grounds that are likely to amplify the seismic waves.
Research on seismic performance including capacity of GLD reinforced concrete
structures has been carried out in Singapore context (Balendra et al. 1999, 2001,
Kong et al. 2003). A microscopic model calibrated for shear walls has been used
to determine the capacity of full scale shear wall structures (Kong 2004). Also, amacroscopic model for capacity evaluation of shear wall-frame structures waspresented in Balendra et al. (2007), with which a pushover analysis of a 25-storey
point block was carried out and the analysis was terminated at the onset of shear
failure at the base of the shear wall.
This study focused on ductile shear failure using SAP2000 (2009) software,
taking advantage of its shear hinge feature to model the post elastic shear behavior339

October 2012,
2012,
2, Ulaanbaatar,
Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
Mongolia
Octoberin addition to moment hinges to model the flexural yielding in beams, columns
and walls. Shear hinge waswas incorporated in all the frame elements including theequivalent columns simulating the shear walls in order to detect ductile shear
failures.
ailures. The effects of infill were
were accounted for and the implication on theperformance of the building is shown by superimposing the resultant capacity
curve on the demand curve of a critical soil site, for two possible scenarios ofearthquakes of moment magnitude
andat 600 km fromSingapore.

2. MODELING OF STRUCTURE
2.1 B
Building
uilding under study and simplified model layout
A typical 25
25-story
story building with plan view shown in Figure 1 is considered. The
plan dimension of the building is 25 m by 20 m and the total height is 65 m (eachstory of height 2.6 m). Slab thickness is 100 mm and the typical dimensions ofbeams and columns are 230 mm x 450 mm and 300 mm x 1200 mm, respectively.
The structure comprises ofo moment resisting frames, two II-shaped shear walls
locatedocated in the center and four L-shape
L shaped shear walls located at corners. Details of
the floors and beams are identical for all stories, but the dimensions and details ofcolumns and shear walls vary with the height.

(a) Plan view(b) SAP2000 model

Figure 1:
1 Typical 25
25-storey
storey building
The building has been designed according to BS8110 (1985), with no seismic
provisions. Longitudinal reinforcing bars in members have design yield strengthof 460 MPa, and transverse reinforcing bars have design yield strength of 250
MPa. The cube compressive strength of concrete waswas taken as 25 MPa. The
unfactored dead loads (DL) calculated for the typical floors and the roof floor
were
re 4.6 kN/m2 and 3.6 kN/m2, respectively. Unfactored
nfactored live load (LL) wass taken
as 1.5 kN/m2, and the
he load combination of 1.0.0 DL + 0.4 LL wa
was used.

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The effects of masonry infill walls, expected to be beneficial in minor to moderate
seismic regions were included (Mainstone 1974). Columns and shear walls wereassumed to be fixed at the base. The L-shaped shear walls at corners were eachsimulated by two equivalent columns. The I-shaped shear walls at the center ofthe structure were each simulated by five equivalent columns. Rigid links wereused to connect the equivalent columns simulating the shear wall and also toconnect them to the adjoining members. Beams and columns were modeled withframe type RC beam and beam-column element respectively. Flexural rigidity inthe local y-y and z-z directions, denoted as EIyy and EIzz respectively, were
calculated by multiplying the corresponding values by the reduction factors
obtained from tests (Li 2006). Values of 0.58 for columns, 0.8 for shear walls and0.35 for beams were used. Rigid planar diaphragms were used at each floor levelto simulate the slab action.
2.2 Modeling of nonlinear hinges
Five types of nonlinear hinges were used in modeling this building. The
orientations of the hinges are presented in Figure 2. Location of theses hinges arepresented in Figure 3.
P-M2-M3 hinge simulates nonlinear behavior of a column under axial load andbiaxial moment. Shear hinges V2 and V3 were used simultaneously in eachcolumn to model the shear failure mechanism in two orthogonal directions. For
beams, only V2 hinge was used at each end of the beam. Axial hinge P was usedin masonry struts to simulate the post compressive failure behavior. M3 hinge
was used to simulate the nonlinear flexural behavior of the beam.

(a) Positive axial force and torque(b) Positive moment andshear in the 1-2 plane(c) Positive moment and shear in the 1-3 plane
Figure 2: Typical P, M2, M3, V2 and V3 orientations used in SAP2000 (2009)

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October
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Figure 3: Locations of nonlinear hinges iin
n beams, columns and braces
P-M2
M2-M3
M3 hinges wewere
re located at each end of the column. Shear hinges V2 and V3
were
re located at 0.4
0.4L and 0.6L
0.6 of the columns, where L is the clear height of thecolumn. This approach is based on the fact that moment is highest at the ends ofthe column and shear force is constant throughout the length of the column.
Of these five nonlinear hinges, P-M2
P M2-M3
M3 and M3 hinges wewere
re automaticallymodeled by SAP2000 using FEMA-35
FEMA 356
6 (2000) Tables 6-7
6 7 and 66-8
8 respectively.
respectively.
The shear and axial hinges were
were modeled manually based on experimental data.
2.2.1 Shear hinge
Shear walls and wide columns are likely to fail in shear with a certain degree ofductility, especially with flexural yielding of the longitudinal reinforcement(Chowdhury(Chowdhury, 2007; Elwood & Moehle
Moehle, 2004; Patwardhan,
Patwardhan, 2005). Considering
this fact and bbased
ased on experimental data, models for ductile shear hinges (that is,displacement
displacement-controlledcontrolled hinges) werere proposed as follows.
The constitutive relation for the shear behavior of the shear walls without flexural
yielding is based on the experimental
experimental study by Kong (2004). The idealized shear
stressstress-shear
shear strain curve for the shear wall is shown in Figure 4(a) and reproduced
reproducedin Figure 5(a)5(a).. That is, a bilinear relationship with yield shear strain of 0.0015
and ultimate shear strain of 0.0023 is assumed
assumed.
Also, babased
sed on tests on threetwide columns similar to those in the building
considered, an idealized shear stress-she
stress shear
ar strain curve is obtained in Figure 4(b).
That is, a yield shear strain of 0.003, ultimate shear strain of 0.011 and a postelastic strength of 14% as shown in Figure 5(b) are assumed
assumed. The shear strain at
initial flexural yield ( ) is calculated aas (Elwood
Elwood and Moehle 2003):
(1)

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where= column moment at yielding of the longitudinal reinforcement, L is thelength of column, G = shear modulus, E = Young’s modulus, and= 5/6
isthe shear area of the column cross section.
2
1.8
Shear stress, MPa

1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4

Shear wall test (Kong 2004)
Proposed shear hinge

0.2
0
0

0.00050.001

0.00150.002

0.00250.003

Shear strain(a) Shear wall3
Test 3

Shear stress, MPa

2.5
Test 22

Test 1

1.5
Proposed shear
hinge

1
0.5
0
0

0.005

0.01

0.015

Shear strain(b) Column
Figure 4: Idealized shear stress-shear strain behaviour
For both shear wall and wide column, the elastic shear strength of each member( ) is calculated according to equations 2 to 4, based on ACI 318 (2005).

(2)

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October 2012,
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Mongolia
Octoberu = 1.14yyu = y(a) Shear hinge in shear wall(c) axial hinge in brace(b) Shear hinge in column(d) moment hinge incolumn: P
P-M2-M3M3(e) moment hinge inbeam: M3

Figure 5: Constitutive relations
where
(3)

(4)
where Nu = axial compression force; Ag = area of the cross section; = cylinder
compressive strength of concrete,concrete, in MPa
MPa;= width of the web; Av = area ofhorizontal shear reinforcement at a vertical spacing s; d = effective depth, taken as
5h/6;; h being the dimension of member in direction of loading, and = yieldstrength of steel. Also, the ultimate shear strength u is taken equal to V/Av.
2.2.2 Axial hinge
The stressstress–strainstrain curve shown in Figure 5(c) is based on the model suggested by
Oktem and Pala (2003) and was used in modeling the nonlinear behaviour of theaxial hinge. Also
Also, the tension limit for the elements simulating the infill is
assigned as zero to represent the inability of infills to act under tension. The
compressive stren
strength
gth and elastic modulus of the infill werere assumed as 12 MPaand 6000 MPa respectively (Kaushik et al. 2007). Thus the yield strain of theequivalent compression strut was 0.002, and ultimate strain wa
wass assumed as 0.004.
2.2.3 Flexural hinge
Using the yield moment and ultimate rotation capacity for non
non-conf
conforming
components as per Tables 6-7
6 and 6-88 of FEMA356 (2000), the flexural hinges PP
M2-M3
M3 for colcolumnumn and M3 for beam wewere
re defined as in Figure
Figures 5(d) and 5(e).

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2.3 Verification of nonlinear hinges
Verificationrification studstudies
ies were
we performed to justify the accuracy of flexural and shear
hinges in columns. Scaled
Scaled model
models of a sub-frame
suband a shear wall, which werewtested under pushover loading by Li (2006) and Kong (2004) respectively, were
weconsidered. The dimensions are shown in Figures
Figure 6(a) and 7(a).
7(a) Pushover
ushoveranalyses wewere carried out as per the test
tests. Figures
Figure 6(b) and 7(b) show that resultsfrom SAP2000 compare very well with experimental results and that given by
ABAQUS model (Kong, 2004).
20
90
80

Ultimate
flexuralcapacity

Base shear, kN

70
60

Flexuralyielding

50
40
30
20

SAP2000

10

Test data

0
20

0

40

60

Top displacement, mm.

(a) Plan view and dimensions(b) Comparison of test resultswith SAP2000

Figure 6: Sub
Sub-frameframe tested by Li (2006)

160
140
120
Base shear, kN

100
80
60

Shear wall test
(Kong 2004)
ABAQUS

40
20

SAP2000

00(a) Plan view and dimensions

1
2
3
4
Top displacement, mm(b) Comparison of test results with
SAP2000 and ABAQUS models

Figure 7: Shear wall tested by Kong (200(2004)
Seismic
vulnerability
ulnerabilityof gravity-loadoad designed buildingsb
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October

3. CAPACITY EVALUATION
To obtain the capacity of the structure, nonlinear pushover analysis was carriedout. This is a simple option for estimating the strength and displacement
capacities in the post-elastic range and it can also be used to highlight thepotential weaknesses in the structure. In the pushover analysis, lateral loads wereapplied in one direction at the master nodes of the floor levels and were increased
until the collapse of the structure. From modal analysis, computed modal
participation ratio justified the adequacy of considering only the fundamental
mode to estimate the seismic behavior of the structure by static pushover analysis.
The variation of lateral load applied along the building height was based on thefirst translational mode shape of that direction. The capacity curves obtained
from the pushover analysis were for a multi-degree-of-freedom (MDOF) system.
In order to compare with the demand curves, the capacity curves were converted
into the spectral acceleration-spectral displacement (A-D) format for an equivalent
single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) system (Freeman et al. 1975; Freeman 1978).
3.1 Ductile shear failure behavior
Figure 8(a) shows the stepwise base shear in the building for loading in the criticaly-direction (see Figure 1), and Figure 8(b) shows the shear carried by three criticalcomponents, W1, W2 and C1 at various loading stages. At Step 5, first local
shear capacity is attained in the first storey at the web of the shear wall W1. Due
to displacement ductility, W1 maintains the shear strength in subsequent loading
steps, and any additional base shear demand is carried by W2 and C1. At Step 11,
W2 reaches its strength capacity and thereafter C1 carries the additional demand.
At Step 16, C1 reaches its shear strength capacity and the additional increase inbase shear demand is carried by other columns. Finally, at Step 22, thedisplacement capacity is reached at the first storey of component W1, and the load
drops, causing a soft-storey-like failure mechanism. This point corresponds to theultimate capacity in Figure 9. It demonstrates that the capacity would be grossly
underestimated if the first local shear strength capacity was to be considered as
the ultimate capacity. It is worth noting that based on the shear strength capacity
the ultimate capacity would have been only 8% of the self weight of the building,whereas it is 27% when shear failure is based on the displacement concept.
3.2 Performance of the structure
Figure 9 superimposes the demand curves obtained for a critical site affected by
andearthquakes. At the performance point for the
scenario, the base shear is 13% of self weight and the spectral displacement is
55 mm which is equivalent to 0.1% drift. At this performance point, shear strength
capacity is reached at the web of the shear wall at the first storey and several
beams have yielded in flexure. All other components along with non structural
masonry walls remain in the elastic range. This suggests that although initiationof some shear cracks may be observed at the base of the shear wall, overall the life
safety of inhabitants is not compromised under these two earthquake scenarios.

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16000

1600

C1

1400

12000

1200

10000

1000

W2

Shear, kN

Base shear, kN

14000

8000
6000

800
600

4000 W1

400

2000

200

0

5

11

16

0

22

W1
C1
W2

5

11

16

22

Analysis step

Analysis step(a) Steps at which shear capacity of
W1, W2, and C1 is reached(b) Shear resistance provided by
W1, W2 and C1

Figure 8: Base shear carried by building and its critical components

0.3

Demand Mw 9.5
Demand Mw 8.9
Capacity

Spectral acceleration, g

0.25

Global shear
failure

0.2

0.15
0.1

First local
shear capacity
reached

0.05
0
0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

Spectral displacement, mFigure 9: Performance of the structure

4. CONCLUSIONSThe proposed FEA model incorporating ductile shear hinge for walls and columns
is a reliable and elegant tool to determine the seismic performance of full-scalebuildings. Using this model, the seismic vulnerability of a typical GLD shear

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wall-frame building was evaluated for two earthquake scenarios on a critical soil
site. The ultimate capacity of the building was found to be significantly higher
than the demand under assumed earthquake scenarios.

REFERENCES
ACI318, 2005.
Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete andCommentary. American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Michigan, USA
Balendra, T., Li, Z. J., Tan, K. H., and Koh, C. G., 2007. Vulnerability of Buildings
to Long Distance Earthquakes from Sumatra. J. Earthquake and Tsunami 1(1), 71-85.
Balendra, T., Tan, K. H., and Kong, K. H., 2001. Ultimate Strength of a Reinforced
Concrete Frame-Wall Structure Designed According to BS8110”, ICCMC/IBSTInternational Conference on Advanced Technologies in Design, Construction and
Maintenance of Concrete Structures, Hanoi, Vietnam, 66-72.
Balendra, T., Tan, K. H., and Kong, S. K., 1999. Vulnerability of Reinforced
Concrete Frames in Low Seismic Region, When Designed According to BS 8110. J.
Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics 28(11), 1361-1381.
BS8110, 1985. Structural Use of Concrete: Parts 1, 2 and 3, British Standards
Institution, UK.
Chowdhury, T., 2007. Hysteretic Modeling of Shear Critical Reinforced Concrete
Columns. M.Sc. Thesis, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.,UK
Elwood, K. J., and Moehle, J. P., 2004. Evaluation of Existing Reinforced Concrete
Columns, Thirteenth World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Vancouver, B.C.
Paper no. 579.
Elwood, K. J., and Moehle, J. P., 2003. Shake Table Tests and Analytical Studies on
the Gravity Load Collapse of Reinforced Concrete Frames. PEER Report Series
2003/01.
FEMA356, 2000. Prestandard and Commentary for the Seismic Rehabilitation of
Buildings. Federal Emergency Management Agency, Washington, D.C.
Freeman S. A., 1978. Prediction of Response of Concrete Buildings to Severe
Earthquake Motion. Special Publication SP-55, American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, Michigan, USA.
Freeman S. A, Nicoletti J. P., and Tyrell, J. V., 1975. Evaluation of Existing
Buildings for Seismic Risk — A Case Study of Puget Sound Naval Shipyard, 1st US
National Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Berkeley, California, USA.
Kaushik, H. B., Rai, D. C., and Jain, S. K., 2007. Stress-Strain Characteristics ofClay Brick Masonry Under Uniaxial Compression. J. Materials in Civil Engineering
19(9), 728-739.
Kong, K. H., 2004. Overstrength and Ductility of Reinforced Concrete Shear-Wall
Frame Buildings Not Designed for Seismic Loads. Ph.D. Thesis, National Universityof Singapore, Singapore.
Kong, K. H., Tan, K. H., and Balendra, T., 2003. Retrofitting of Shear Walls
Designed to BS8110 for Seismic Loads Using FRP, 6th International Symposium on
FRP Reinforcement for Concrete Structures, Vol. 2, 1127-1136.
Li, Z., 2006. Seismic Vulnerability of RC Frame and Shear Wall Structures in
Singapore. Ph.D. Thesis, National University of Singapore, Singapore.
Mainstone, R. J., 1974. Supplementary Note on the Stiffness and Strengths of Infilled
Frames. Current Paper CP 13/74, Building Research Station, Garston, Watford.
Oktem, O. and Pala, S., 2003. Nonlinear Analysis of RC Frames with Masonry Infill
Wall, 13th Mechanical Congress, Gaziantep, Turkey.

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Patwardhan, C., 2005. Strength and Deformation Modeling of Reinforced Concrete
Columns. M.Sc. Thesis, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.
SAP 2000, 2009. CSI Analysis Reference Manual. Computers and Structures, Inc,
Berkeley, California.

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Study on the effects of chemical and physicalproperties of concrete on the behavior ofinternal water
Chohji NAKAMURA1, Yuya SAKAI2 and Toshiharu KISHI3
1
Graduate Student, School of Engineering,
The University of Tokyo, Japanchoji@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
2
Assistant Professor, IIS, The University of Tokyo, Japan
3
Professor, IIS, The University of Tokyo, Japan
ABSTRACT
A lot of deterioration in the concrete structures are caused by liquid water
existing inside of the structures. For evaluation of durability of the concrete
structures, it is important to understand the behavior of liquid water in pores inorder to predict precisely the deterioration caused by water. In this paper, theeffects of chemical and physical properties of concrete on the behavior of internalliquid water are discussed by using the apparent contact angle and the thresholdpore radius as chemical indicator and physical one, respectively. The apparent
contact angle is measured by water and ethanol absorption test. The thresholdpore radius is measured by mercury intrusion porosimetry by using epoxy coatedsamples.
As a result, it is indicated that the difference of chemical property by the kind of
admixture affects scarcely the capillary pressure of penetrating water into
concrete. Instead, physical property such as pore structure dominates the
behavior of water in the case of water transport driven by pressure gradient.
Keywords: behavior of water, Washburn’s equation, contact angle, threshold poreradius
1. INTRODUCTION
A lot of deterioration, such as drying shrinkage, creep and chloride ion ingress inconcrete structures are closely related to liquid water existing inside of thestructures. Therefore, for evaluation of durability of the concrete structures, it isimportant to understand the behavior of liquid water in pores of concrete in orderto predict the deterioration precisely. So far, some researchers have tried toquantify the behavior of liquid water in cementitious material in different ways
(Maekawa et al., 2009; Okazaki et al., 2011). The objectives of this study are tounderstand the effects of chemical property, e.g. the surface charge of pore wall,and physical property, e.g. pore structure, on the behavior of liquid water inconcrete by conducting some tests on the specimens which have different curingconditions and mix proportions.

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2. THE EFFECT OF CHEMICAL PROPERTY ON THE CAPILLARYPRESSURE
2.1 Contact angle
When a drop of liquid is put on an ideal solid surface, liquid forms into the curved
shape by own surface tension shown as Figure 1. The shape of liquid/vapor
interface is determined by the Young-Laplace equation as follows (Young, 1805),








(1)

Where γSV is the solid/vapor interfacial energy, γLV is the liquid/vapor interfacial
energy (i.e. the surface tension), γSL is the solid/liquid interfacial energy, and θE isthe equilibrium contact angle. Therefore, the contact angle is the angle between
the tangent of a drop of liquid and a solid surface when a thermodynamic
equilibrium between the three phases is established. It is used as the indicator of
the wettability of a solid surface by a liquid. It also quantifies the capillarypressure which is the driving force when a liquid penetrates into a hydrophilic
porous material like concrete. Therefore, if the contact angle is measured between
water and concrete which have different curing conditions and mix proportions,the effect of chemical property of concrete on the capillary pressure could be
evaluated. However, it is difficult to measure the contact angle between a liquidand a porous material because a liquid penetrates into the material as soon as adrop of liquid is put on the surface. Besides, the contact angle is extremely
sensitive to contamination and smoothness of a solid surface. In order to avoid
these problems, we have measured the apparent contact angle by using Letey’s
method as reference (Letey et al., 1962).
2.2 Method to measure the apparent contact angle between water andconcrete
We assume that pores in concrete are several capillaries shown as Figure 2.
Therefore, weight of absorbed liquid during the liquid absorption test on
horizontal condition is expressed as follows,(2)

Where M is weight of absorbed liquid, ρ is density of liquid, n is the number ofchannels, r is radius of channels, and L is absorbed length. Absorbed length L is
considered to be expressed as equation (3) which is derived from Washburn’s

Figure 1: Contact angle

352

Figure 2: Conceptual
diagram of pores in concrete

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equation and Hagen-poiseuille’s equation (Washburn, 1921).

(3)

Where γ is the surface tension, θ is the contact angle, μ is the viscosity of liquid,
and t is time. Because Haneveld (2008) has reported that this law is established ina 5nm height channel, there would be no problems to apply this law to pores incementitious materials. Then, substituting Equation (3) into Equation (2), we
obtain,


(4)



(5)



Where C is the pore structure parameter of concrete. When these properties of aliquid are known, parameters except C and θ can be obtained by measuring weightof absorbed liquid during absorption test. Here, it is considered that the contact
angle between ethanol and every solid surface is zero. Therefore, the value of C
parameter can be obtained by ethanol absorption test. If the same specimens as
ethanol absorption test are used for water absorption test after they are driedenough, the contact angle θ between water and concrete can be calculated byusing the value of C parameter.
2.3 The absorption test
Mix designs of the specimens are shown in Table 1. AE water reducing agent andair entraining agent is added with 0.2% and 0.004% of cement weight,
respectively. Specimens are demolded 3 days after the casting and under-water
curing is given until the age of 28 days, and after that, all specimens are cured in aroom of 20 degree Celsius for 2.75 years. Figure 3 shows the diagram of theabsorption test. After the specimens are dried in a drying stove at 105 degree
Celsius for 3 days, they are put in 95% ethanol which is kept 6cm depth and 20
degree Celsius. The weight of absorbed ethanol is measured at given intervals for
3 hours. Then, the specimens are again put in drying stove at 35 degree Celsius
and 20% humidity and after the weight of them become the same as before
ethanol absorption test, water absorption test is conducted with the same
conditions. Though there is possibility that micro cracks are induced in thespecimens during drying at 105 degree Celsius, it scarcely affects the results since
the same specimens are used in ethanol and water absorption tests.
Table 1: Mix designs of the specimens(kg/m3)
N40
N55
N70
FB55
FC55
BA55
BB55

W
180
180
180
172
169
179
174

C
450
327
257
251
216
260
159

FA or
BFS
62
92
65
159

S
708
805
886
791
783
787
792

G
978
984
960
1007
1017
1002
1008

Figure 3: The diagramof absorption teston the effects
of chemicaland physicalproperties of concrete on the behavior of
Study on the effectsStudyof chemicaland physicalpropertiesof concreteinternal
water
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2.4 The results of measured apparent contact angles

Apparent C. A. (degree)

Figure 4 shows the result of absorption test of N40. As shown in Figure 4, theslope decreases as the weight of absorbed liquid increases. The main reason isconsidered that the area of seepage face decreases as liquid ingress is progressedsince liquid is absorbed into the specimens three-dimensionally. In order to avoid
this, we use the data 5 minutes after the beginning of the test.
Figure 5 shows the result of calculated apparent contact angles between water andconcrete by using the method explained in previous chapter. The apparent contact
angles are 60 degree approximately in any specimens though the contact angle
between water and concrete has been considered to be zero in many previous
papers. This result also indicates that the admixture, such as fly ash and blast
furnace slag, affects scarcely the apparent contact angle. In other words, theadmixture affects scarcely the capillary pressure as driving force during water
ingress into concrete. Therefore, if the admixture affects behavior of water inconcrete, the viscous friction as resisting force or the physical property such as thepore structure are considered to be the main influencing factors.

(cm2)Absorption

Water

Ethanol(nm)√time (√sec)

Figure 4: Absorption weightvs. square root of time
3. THE EFFECTPERMEABILITY

OF

Figure 5: Apparent contact angle

PHYSICALPROPERTY

ON

WATER

3.1 Threshold pore radius
So far, many researchers have pointed out that there is a good correlation between
threshold pore radius and water permeability. Powers and Metha studied
relationship between pore structures and water permeability. Powers (1955) has
found correlation between volume of capillary pore and water permeability, andMetha (1980) has reported a good correlation between threshold pore radius andwater permeability. It is considered that threshold pore radius represents theminimum radius of pores which are geometrically continuous throughout all
regions of the hydrated cement paste (Winslow et al., 1970). In this paper, we
conduct water permeability test and mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) toobtain water permeability coefficient and threshold pore radius and study on how
physical property of concrete affects water permeability.

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3.2 Water permeability test
We conduct water permeability test to the specimens shown in Table 2 added toTable 1 which is used in absorption tests. AE water reducing agent and air
entraining agent is added with 0.2% and 0.004% of cement weight, respectively.
L55, M55 and H55 represent low-heat cement, moderate-heat cement and highearly-strength cement, respectively. Specimens are demolded 3 days after the
casting and under-water, sealed, or in-wind curing are given until the age of 28days, and after that, all specimens are cured in a room of 20 degree Celsius. Here,in in-wind curing, specimens are winded by a fun for faster drying. Figure 6
shows the diagram of water permeability test. The cylindrical specimens with
10cm in diameter and 20cm in height are cut into 3.8cm thickness from casting
side. They are saturated with vacuum for 24 hours until the test. 2.5 MPa pressure
is given to the specimens for water penetrating. Figure 7 shows the result of water
permeability coefficient kwl calculated by Equation (6) as follows.
(6)

Where l is the thickness of the specimen, μ is the viscosity of liquid, Q is the flow
rate, A is the cross-section area of the specimen, and ΔP is the pressure gradient.
As the result, it is indicated that higher W/C gives higher kwl and better curingcondition gives lower kwl. Therefore, it is considered that this test can catch theproperty of concrete reasonably.
Table 2: Mix designs of the specimens
Curingcondition
Wind
Water
Wind
Water
Wind
SealedSealedSealed

W
180
172
172
174
174
180
180
180

Figure 6: Permeability test set-up

C
257
345
197
218
124
327
327
327

Permeability coefficient (cm2)(kg/m3)
N70
FB40
FB70
BB40
BB70
L55
M55
H55

FA or
BFS
86
49
218
124
-

S
886
694
873
695
873
807
807
804

G
960
998
985
1001
985
987
987
984

Figure 7: Water Permeability
coefficienton the effects
of chemicaland physicalproperties of concrete on the behavior of
Study on the effectsStudyof chemicaland physicalpropertiesof concreteinternal
water
355
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3.3 New method to evaluate threshold pore radius

N40-1
N55-1
N70-1
N70-3
FB40-1
FB55-1
FC55-1
FB70-3
BB40-1
BA55-1
BB55-1
BB70-3
L55-2
M55-2
H55-2

TR
(normal)(nm)
99.35
152.5551.9
372.05
41.65
41.55
99.2
881.8541.4
488.75871.6
1108.9
41.5
41.5
41.45

TR
(Epoxy-coated)
(nm)
52.50
52.55
52.70
301.25
23.75
15.75
42.25
866.9552.40
126.7599.30
577.45437.5559.25
99.35

R2=0.617

Threshold pore radiusFigure 8: Threshold pore radius
vs. water permeability coefficient
Cumulative pore volume(ml/ml)Table 3: Measured threshold pore radius

Permeability coefficient

We measured threshold pore radius of concrete sample with MIP following theprevious research (Winslow et al., 1970) and in this method, threshold pore radiusis the corresponding pore radius where the MIP curve shows the largest tangent.
The obtained threshold pore radius is shown in Table 3. Figure 8 shows therelationship between the threshold pore radius and water permeability coefficient,however, the correlation is poor. As a possible cause of the poor correlation, in
the first place, threshold pore radius is not extracted correctly. According to thedefinition, when pressure increases enough to push mercury into the thresholdpore of a sample, the intruded volume of mercury must increase rapidly. However,in some samples, the increase is very gentle as shown in dotted line in Figure 9,
and it may be difficult to obtain the threshold pore radius in such results. Then, a
new method to obtain threshold pore radius more correctly is proposed anddiscussed.

NormalEpoxy
coatedPore radius (nm)Figure 9: MIP results of normal
and epoxy-coated samples
Here, threshold pore radius in MIP means the largest pore radius to push mercury
into the core of a sample, and when the pressure corresponds to the threshold poreradius is applied, much mercury is intruded suddenly into the sample. At this time,in normal MIP method, samples are small and mercury is intruded threedimensionally. As a result, the volume not intruded yet is small and the thresholdpore size is not clear, as shown in dotted line in Figure 9. Therefore, special
treatment is given to the cubic samples which usually used in MIP, 5mm in a side.
They are covered with epoxy-resin leaving small area, about 4mm2 as shown in356

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Photo 1, and MIP analysis is conducted on them. As shown in Figure 10, thistreatment will keep larger not-intruded area when the pressure reaches the value
which corresponds to the threshold pore radius. Figure 9 is a comparison between
the measured results of a normal and an epoxy-coated sample. The result of an
epoxy-coated sample shown in solid line is adjusted to coincide with pore volume
corresponding to 1.5nm pore radius in the result of a normal sample. It is obviousthat epoxy-coated sample shows a clear jump and the corresponding pore radiusindicates threshold pore radius. Threshold pore radius measured with the above
method is shown in Table 3, together with the results by normal samples, and therelationship with water permeability coefficient is shown in Figure 11. Thresholdpore radius measured with the proposed method has a more strong correlation
with water permeability in any mix proportions and curing conditions. The above
results show that threshold pore radius is obtained by the proposed method
reasonably, and the threshold pore governs water permeation. In other words, it isindicated that physical property such as pore structure dominates the behavior ofwater in the case of water transport driven by pressure gradient. However, it isreported that there is other phenomena occurred in case of deadly slow water
permeation, such as the existence of static and kinetic yielding hydraulic gradients(Okazaki et al., 2011). Since they cannot be explained by this result, more detailed
consideration is required.
Non-intruded area

Intruded Mercury(a) Normal sample

Permeability coefficient (cm2)

Photo 1: Epoxy-coatedsampleIntruded Mercury(b) Epoxy-coated sample

Figure 10: Conceptual diagram of
mercury intrusion into normal andepoxy-coated samples
R2=0.779

Threshold pore radius (nm)Figure 11: Threshold pore radius vs. water permeability coefficient(Epoxy-coated samples)on the effects
of chemicaland physicalproperties of concrete on the behavior of
Study on the effectsStudyof chemicaland physicalpropertiesof concreteinternal
water
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4. CONCLUSION
In this paper, the effects of chemical and physical properties of concrete on the
behavior of internal liquid water are discussed by using the apparent contact angle
and the threshold pore radius as chemical indicator and physical one, respectively.
As a result, it is indicated that the difference of chemical property by the kind of
admixture affects scarcely the capillary pressure of penetrating water in concrete.
Instead, physical property such as pore structure dominates the behavior of waterin the case of water transport driven by pressure gradient.
REFERENCES
Maekawa, K., Ishida, T., and Kishi, T., 2009. Multi-scale Modeling of Structural
Concrete. Taylor and Francis.
Okazaki, S. and Kishi, T., 2011. A study on the mechanism of dead slow
permeation of water and modelling in saturated concrete. Journal of JSCE,
Vol.67, No.3, 396-410.
Young, T., 1805. An essay on the cohesion of fluids, Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc.
London, Vol.95, 65-87.
Letey, J., Osborn, J., and Pelishek, R., E., 1962. Measurement of liquid-solid
contact angles in soil and sand, Soil Sci., Vol.93, 149-153.
Washburn, E. W., 1921. The dynamics of capillary flow, Physical Review, Vol.17,273-283.
Haneveld, J., Tas, N. R., Brunets, N., Jansen, H. V., and Elwenspoek, M., 2008.
Capillary filling of sub-10nm nanochannels, J. Appl. Phys 104, 014309.
Powers, T. C., Copeland, L. E., Hayes, J. C., and Mann, H. M., 1955.
Permeability of Portland cement paste, Journal of the American concrete institute,
Vol.51, 285-298.
Mehta, P. K. and Manmohan, D., 1980. Pore size distribution and permeability ofhardened cement paste, 7th International Congress Chemistry Cement1 Paris,
Vol.3,7.1-7.5.
Winslow, D. and Diamond S., 1970. A mercury porosimetry study of the evolutionof porosity in Portland cement, Journal of Materials, Vol.5, 564-585.

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The fire resistance issue of reinforced
concrete beam
DuinkherjavYagaanbuyant, Erdenedavaa Bat-Ochir
The School of Civil Engineering and Architecture,
The Mongolian University of Science and Technology,
daamt@must.edu.mn
ABSTRACTThe study of fire resistance limit and the study of load bearing capacity ofstructure after fire exposure have been carried out up to date by researchers. This
paper is devoted to the second part. Why we chose this study topic? Unfortunately,in Mongolia we still have tendency to demolish buildings exposed to the fire. We
aim to study possibility of safe occupation of those buildings through adequate
strengthening of the structures on the basis of thorough diagnosis andinvestigation of the state of the structure.
Keywords: concrete testing, diagnosis, fire-resistance, loading,
INTRODUCTION
By 2004, the capital city of Mongolia had population of 915531 and this number
has increased up to 12000000 by 2008 due to intense movement of populationfrom rural areas. This increase of population is also contributes to the unavoidable
hazards. Fire call ranks in the second after traffic accident among emergency calland its percentage is 12 from the total [1].
In 2004-2009, total of 7402 fire incidents in buildings and 141 fire incidents inforestry are registered that damaged 3900 hectar of forest areas and 476.2 hectar
areas of farming; the total loss of these reached 6.4 billion MNT. If we see theclassification of fire incidents; 422 cases of 2.1 billion MNT belong to state
owned companies, 6980 cases of 4 billion MNT belong to private companies andpeople, 3 million MNT cases belong to joint venture with foreigners or foreigner
owned entities. The death toll is 172 and the number of the injured is 152;
apartments and houses of 2392 households, 472 vehicles and 3400 buildings and
138 farm buildings have been damaged in certain scale [1].
Even though reinforced concrete is considered as a material having relatively
good fire resisting capacity, its improper design and poor operational condition
lower its reliability level and it does not confirm the requirements of the Building
Code. In this year there have been large scale fires in Apartment building No.14
of Darkhan city, silo of wheat grain, commercial building in Ulaanbaatar city,
storage building of furniture market, hotel building and all these building had
reinforced concrete frames.
The fire occurrence in the buildings is frequently observed after strong earthquakeand explosion and this brings enormous financial loss to the economy.
Fire resistance is the relatively new field of the study in Mongolia especiallyrelated with building structure. In this paper some test results of fire resistance of359

October
October 2012,2012, Ulaanbaatar,
Ulaanbaatar, Mongoliasome simple structural elements are discussed and the research significance canbe determined as an improved building design that could bring more safe
environment to citizens.
1. Fire resistance limit of building structures
From many years of practice it is observed that fire exposure on building
structure develops different level of damage. Some of the structures had been
fully damages; some are just heated experiencing small sized deflection and crackdevelopment. In the first case replacement of the structure and in the latter caselimited occupancy are possibly can be suggested.
The degree of structural damage due to fire exposure is determined by fire
resistance limit of structural element in one side and the time length of fire andtemperature created in other side. Therefore it is necessary to estimate the time
length of fire and the limit of fire resistance of the structure first. V.E.Murashev
formula can be used to establish the required value of the limit of fire resistanceas shown in equation (1).
П ≥К0·τ(1)
П – the required value of the limit of fire resistance, hrs;
К0 – fire resistance coefficient;
τ–estimated time length of fire, hrs.
Depending on type, size and complete burn period of material, the time length offire can be determined by equation given in (2).
τ =q/m(2)
τ- estimated time length of fire, hrs;
q – quantity of material combustible, kg/m2;
m – combustion rate kg/m2.
Eq (2) can be looked as a simple but actual time length of fire is not so easily
determinable. What this means? The rate of combustion depends heavily on air
flow condition and location in fire zone. The material can also containnoncombustible mineralsin it. This should be considered in quantity of material
combustible in eq (2). The main drawback of equation (2) is that it doesn’t takeaccount of temperature of fire. For example when rubber and paper burned up in
an hour the former cam create temperature of 1100°С but the latter’s can be
500°С. Depending on this effect of fire exposure into building structure isdifferent. Therefore in the above equation an estimate of fire resistance limit uses
time length of fire in a unit temperature scale.
2. Research methodology
From the experiments carried out in different countries different structuralelements such as beam, slab, column, trust etc. are chosen for fire test. We tested
reinforced concrete beam in our study. Beam section is shown in Fig 2, 3 anddesign scheme of beam as flexural element is considered as statisticallydetermined element. Before fire loading beam was loaded by static load of 2
кН/м2 as work load. Fire load was chosen according to the curve of ‘standard
fire’ as shown in Fig 1.
Physical and mechanical properties of beam is determined before fire test andtemperature and strain are measured during the testing. After testing visual360

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inspection was done and change in actual length, section dimensions and locationof rebars are examined and measured. The depth of cover of rebars is chosen as
15, 25, 35mm respectively in the testing.
3. Experimental part3.1. Temperature of fire and structure
Fire temperature in the test should follow ‘standard fire’ curve as given in Fig 1.
Actual temperature created by fire is measured by thermocouple of alumel andchromel and it was located in a distance of 70 to 100bb from the surface ofelement. Diameter of thermocouple is 3mm and 5mm at the end.
Inside temperature of beam is also measured by the same thermocouple of alumel
and chromel and it was located inside before cast. Diameter of thermocouple is
0.7mm.

Fig 1.Temperature scheme of standard fire and experimental fire
3.2.

Beam strain and stress

The major significance of this paper is the study of the stress and strain state ofloaded beam and load bearing capacity of the beam after fire exposure.
There are two types of the study in this field, one is study of fire resistance limit
and the other is the study of load bearing capacity of structure after fire exposure.
This paper is devoted to the second part. The reason is in the country there is still
strong tendency to demolish buildings after fire exposure. One example is
Revolutionary Party Building, as an expert provided diagnostics of the building
status I can assure that there was still possibility to reinforce the building
structure through strengthening.

of reinforced
concrete beam
The fire resistance The
issuefireof resistancereinforced issue
concretebeam

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October 2012, Ulaanbaatar,

3.3. Tested Beam Details
Reinforced concrete beam was designed by Structural Testing Laboratory of
MUST, the OPC 42.5 from Khutul cement was used, tension rebars of Ф13mm ofGrade SD390 from Darkhan and shear rebar of GradeQ235 from China are used
also. Water cement ratio is 0.45 and 28 day strength of the concrete is 32.5MPa.
The formwork of the beam was carried out using plywood. The section design isshown in Fig 3.

Fig 2. Design scheme of the beam

Fig 2.Rebar location in beam
3.4.

Experimental work

Fire resistant test was carried out in the area of Building No.2 of MUST. The
experiment was designed as stated above that beam had kept in open fire for 1
hrin the temperature of 600°С. The crack with width of 0.08mm was developed intension zone of the beam. Beam deflection was measured by displacement
measure made in Japan. After cooling of the beam it was tested under loading totest its load bearing capacity as shown in Fig 4 and 5.

Fig 4.Testing design scheme of the beam

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ICUS Report 65of the beamof the beam
Fig 5.TestingFig 5.Testing
3.5.

Results
3.5. discussion
Results discussion

Crack development
Crack development
and deflection
and deflection
relationshiprelationshipof the beamof theduringbeamloading
during after
loading after
fire exposure
fire exposureis shownisinshown
Fig 6. in
There
Fig 6.
have
There
been
have
developed
been developed
cracks withcrackswidth
withof width of
0.08mm 0.08mm
and 0.04mm
and 0.04mm
respectively
respectively
in two beams
in twothat
beams
had that
beenhadtestedbeenintested
fire. in fire.
During loading
During ofloading
the beamsof theit beams
was observed
it was observedthat 0.3mm
that cracks
0.3mmarecracksdeveloped
are developed
under 60kN
under
load
60kN
in theloadbeamin thenotbeamexposednot exposed
to fire andto fireunder
andloadunderof 50kNload ofand
50kN and
45kN for45kN
the beams
for theexposed
beams toexposedfire. to fire.
Table1. Width
Table1.
ofWidthcracksofdeveloped
cracks developedin beamsinandbeams
load andtestedload tested
Load, кНLoad, кН
Crack width,
Crackmm
width, mm
Not toexposedNot exposed
fire to fire
Exposed Exposed
to fire to fire
1
2
1
2
0
0
0,08
0,05
0
0
0,08
0,05
10
0
0,08
0,05
10
0
0,08
0,05
20
0
0,1
20
0
0,1
0,075 0,075
30
0,01
0,15
30
0,01
0,15
0,125 0,125
40
40
0,1
0,1
0,2
0,2
0,2
0,2
50
00,2
0,3
50
00,2
0,3
0,325 0,325
60
0,3
0,4
0,45
60
0,3
0,4
0,45
70
0,4
0,45
0,5
70
0,4
0,45
0,5

Table 2. Deflection
beams
load tested
Table 2. Deflectionof beamsofandload andtestedBeam deflection,mm
Load, кНLoad, кНBeam deflection,mm
Not toexposedNot exposed
fire to fire
Exposed Exposed
to fire to fire
1
2
1
2
0
0
0,2
0,15
0
0
0,2
0,15
10
10
0
0
0,2
0,2
0,15
0,15
20
20
0,2
0,2
0,8
0,8
0,3
0,3
The fire resistanceissuefireof reinforced
concretebeam
The fire resistanceThe
resistanceissue of reinforced
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October 2012, Ulaanbaatar,
Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
Mongolia

30
40
50
60
70

0,8
1,2
2
3,6
5,0

1,2
2,2
3,5
5,1
7,5

1,3
2,5
3,8
6,0
8,0

Fig 6. Width of cracks developed in beams and load tested

Fig 7. Deflection of beams and load tested
Conclusion
Test results are very consistent for 16 beams tested. Therefore, in this paper
results of two beams are discussed. Beam deflection and crack width results showthat load bearing capacity of beams are within acceptable limit after testing in fire.
In other words beams can be re-used. These beams can be reinforced using
strengthening methods to improve its load bearing capacity.

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Reference
1. Hazard Report: Hazard faced in the city in 2004-2008, causes of technicalincidents and prevention measurements, UB, 2009,
2. Butcher E. G, Parnell A. C., Smoke control in fire safety desgn. London
E.& F.N. Spon. 1980
3. А.П.Кричевский. “Расчет железобетонных инженерных сооруженийна температурные воздействия”. 1984. M /in Russian/
4. Ройтман М. Я.: Противопожарное нормирование в строительстве. –М.: Стройиздат, 1985: -590с., ил. /in Russian/
5. Ройтман В. М. Инженерные решения по оценке огнестойкости
проектируемых и реконструируемых зданий. Издат. АВС. М. 2008/in
Russian/
6. Ройтман В. М,ТеличенкоВ. И.: Стойкость объетов строительного
комплекса при комбинированных особых воздействиях с участием
пожара – важный элемент их комплексной безопасности. В
кн.Безопасность эксплуатируемых зданий и сооружений. Под ред. В.
И. Теличенко и К. И.. Ерёмина. М.: Магнитгорский дом печати. с.5886./in Russian/
7. А.Ф.Милованов. “Стойкость железобетонных конструкций припожаре”. 1999. M/in Russian/
8. BS 8110 Structural use of concrete. Part 1, part 2, part 3.
9. СНиП 21-01-97. Пожарная безопасность зданий и сооружений. /in
Russian/

The fire resistance The
issuefireof reinforced
concretebeam
resistance issueof reinforced
concrete beam

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Modeling of diffusive and advective transportof ionic species in cemented soil

3

Hayato IKOMA1, Taiju YONEDA2, Tetsuya ISHIDA3
1
Master Course Student, IIS, The University of Tokyo, Japanikoma@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
2
Researcher, Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Japan

Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Japan

ABSTRACT
Stabilization of the contaminated soil with cementitious materials is regarded as
an effective and economical method. Since this method has possibility of elution ofpollutant ions, it is necessary to simulate and evaluate the process quantitatively.
Authors’ research group has developed a computational model under hydrostatic
condition considering the equilibrium of ions in solid and liquid phase. In thisresearch, Authors improve this model which can evaluate elution under advective
environment, on the basis of elution experiment with rapid water flow. In theexperiment, Cl- is used as tracer in cemented soil, and one-dimensional flow isapplied with changed velocities. The result indicates that the equilibrium is lost,and Cl- is eluted more slowly than predicted. The authors proposed an improved
model. In the improved model, the equilibrium is not achieved instantly, and theelution rate depends on the amount of fixed Cl-. Since fixed Cl- consists of two
types, their elution speeds are dealt with respectively. The simulation of elution
process with the improved model shows consistent result with the test. Hence, it isconcluded that ion elution under advection environment can be properly
simulated by considering the elution rates of fixed ions. The proposed approach ispromising for the future application to other pollutant ions such as Cr(VI).
Keywords: soil pollution, advective transport, cemented soil, chloride diffusion,
Cr(VI)
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Solidification of the contaminated soil with cementitious materials is regarded as
an effective and economical method to stabilize the pollutants in the soil. In the
cement hydrates, the bounded amount of the pollutants may vary depending on
the amount of free ions in pore water. And, when ground water flows through thesolidified soil, the concentration of ions in pore water changes and the elution ofions may occur. Therefore, it is necessary to simulate and evaluate the elution
process quantitatively.
In order to predict time-dependent behaviors of cement hydrates and ions, a multiscale constitutive model, DuCOM, has been developed in Concrete Lab, theUniversity of Tokyo. In this model, based on the equilibrium of ions in solid and367

October 2012, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
October 2012, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolialiquid phases, the amount of fixed ions in cement hydrates can be calculated.
Recently, this model has been expanded to deal with the phenomena in soil field,
such as soil pollution with Cr(VI). However, Sakimura et al. suggests that thecurrent model cannot be attained to the situation under advection dominantcondition. In hardened cement paste, which are the main target of the model, pore
structure is dense and water flow is slow enough to be treated the as thecompletely equilibrium state. However, as to cemented soil the pore structure isquite coarse and the water flow is relatively fast. In cemented soil, underadvective situation, the amounts of ions in pore water change too rapidly before
achieving the equilibrium state. In this study, for the purpose of evaluating elution
process with rapid water flow, the authors carried out experiments and improved
the existing model under Semi- equilibrium states.
1.2 Stabilization model
Equation (1) shows the governing equation for ion equilibrium and transportationin current DuCOM model.
���(� ∙ � ∙ ���� ) − � − ������� = 0 

Where, � is porosity [m3⁄m3] and � is degree of saturation. ���� represents theamount of ions in pore water [mmol/l]. � represents the amount of boundedamount of ions and ���� represents flux vector of ions [mmol/(m2·s)]. � isdecided by the amount of fixed ions and the equilibrium of ions in solid and liquid
phases as follows.
� = ������ − ������_��(2)

Where, ������ is the current amount of bounded ions at specific time and������_�� is the amount of bounded ions after bounded amount will be balancedwith Cion in the equilibrium [mmol/l]. Since in current model, ions are assumed toachieve equilibrium state instantly, Q is independent from time. And, theequilibrium state of ions in solid and liquid phases can be decided experimentally.
In this research, Cl- is used as tracer in cemented soil. For Cl-, the equilibrium has
been studied by Portland cement pastes with various w/c ratios and mineraladmixtures such as fly ash cement and slag cement. In cement materials, Cl- ionsare fixed in two different forms; Friedel salt (Ca2Al(OH)6(Cl, OH) · 2 H2O) andadsorbed Cl-. With ordinary Portland cement (OPC), the equilibrium state wasdefined as equation (3) considering the different fixed forms (Ishida and Lan Anh,2005).
�� =�×�����.���

(3)

α = 11.3 (OPC)

Where, �� is the amount of Cl- in solid phase and �� is the amount of Cl- in liquid
phase. α changes with the type of cement materials.

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2. EXPERIMENTAL
2.1 Material properties
To confirm the reliability of current model under advection dominant conditions,
elution experiments with Cl- were conducted.
Table 1: Mix proportion
Description W/C
C(%)(kg/m3)
C100
100
100
C200
100
200
 
  Table 2: Specimen condition

C100
C200

Void
(%)
39%
21%

Permeability(cm/s)
0.068
0.062

W
(kg/m3)
100
200

S(kg/m3)
1493
1493

NaCl
(kg/m3)20
20

Cl- ion
(g)
3.58
3.89

The mix proportion is shown in Table 1.
Two groups of mortar specimens (C100 andC200) are cast with varied cement volume
and much higher w/c ratio than normal case.
OPC and natural sand are used. The
specimens contain NaCl in advance. In thisexperiment, the Cl- is used as a tracer ion
 Figure 1: Equipment
considering the experimental safety, ease oftreatment and the numbers of past research,
although the final goal of this research is thesoil pollution phenomena with Cr(VI).
The specimen data which is important on the elution phenomena are given in
Table 2. To unify the compaction degree of the specimens, Specimens arecompacted with specific methods, such as dropping a steel stick from an altitudeof 15cm in 25 times.
2.2 Equipment and test program
The equipment and test program is shown in Figure 1. The length of the specimen
is 200mm and the diameter is 50mm. But the available maximum length of moldis 100mm considering the size of the vacuum saturation equipment, so, two
100mm specimens are connected after curing and vacuum saturation treatment.
The actual degree of saturation is 75-85%. Water head difference is applied toprovide one-dimensional flow into specimens at a uniform speed. Water flowing
out of the specimens is collected and the density of Cl- in the collected water ismeasured by the potentiometric titration machine.
The water head is changed to provide different flow speeds. For C100 the flow
speed is 0.020 and 0.010 (cm/s), and for C200, the speed is 0.012 and 0.004
Modelingof diffusive
and advective
transportionic species
Modeling of diffusive
and advective
transportof ionic species
in ofcementedsoil in cemented soil

369

October 2012, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
October 2012, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia(cm/s). A part of tubes is broken during the experiment so the data of C200, 0.004(cm/s) flow speed is lost.
2.3 Elution experiment (a): C100(b): C200

 Figure 2: Result of elution experiment
The experimental results are shown in Figure 2. In the figures, analytical resultswith DuCOM are also plotted with line. The vertical axis is the amount of eluting
Cl- (g), and the horizontal axis represents the ejected water (L). The data wasmeasured every five minutes at the first one hour, and then measurement interval
becomes longer with 10 minutes, 30 minutes, and 1 hour. And it took around 2
hours to run 1 L of water through the specimens.
In this calculation, the current model assume the complete equilibrium state ateach time steps, so cannot consider the effect of water flow on the equilibrium, theresult is the same in different water flow speed.
Fig. 2-(a) shows the result of C100. It can be seen that there is only little
difference between different water flow speeds. This difference cannot prove theinfluence of advection if considering the error generated by the equipment. It is
supposed that the difference of the water flow speeds and the amount of fixed Cl are not large enough to observe the influence of advection. According to thisfigure, the existing model seems to simulate the elution process well.
Fig. 2-(b) shows the result of C200. In this case, Cl- is eluted slower than thecalculation. In the elution of hydrostatic condition, the existing model, which
considering the equilibrium of ions between solid and liquid phase, can simulates
the elution process properly. However, In Fig. 2-(b), this is the advection
dominant condition, Cl- ions do not dissolve enough to achieve the solid-liquid
equilibrium. Some part of Cl- ions remains in the specimen because water flow is
too fast. In this experiment, it took about 15 minutes for flowing water to go
through the specimen, which may be too short for chloride in solid and liquid
phases to become the equilibrium state. Here, we can find the advection influence
on elution phenomena.
3 IMPROVED ANALYSIS MODEL
3.1 Current model370

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In the calculation, and the amount of eluting Cl- increases at a constant speed in
the early stage and then elution becomes slower. In the existing model, it ispremised that ions move with only advection and diffusion, so, the blending ofpore water and flowing water in the specimen is ignored. In the early stage,according to this premise, the ejected water is pore water which exists before
water flowing. After all the original pore water is ejected, chlorides start to elutein the flowing water which is ejected afterwards.

 Figure 3: Equilibrium of ions in solidand liquid phase Figure 4: Analysis of the modelwith single coefficient

Following Equation (3), the equilibrium between ions in solid and liquid phases incement paste is plotted in figure 3. The vertical axis represents fixed Cl- in solid
hydrates, and the horizontal axis represents Cl- in pore water. In the existingmodel, the relationship between fixed Cl- and free Cl- is always on thisequilibrium line. When the amount of Cl- in pore water decreases, the amount of
fixed Cl- also decreases along the curve in Figure 3 to keep the equilibrium.
Accordingly, when pure water flows into the upper stream part of specimen, first,
in upper stream part, the concentration of Cl- in the pore water decreases andchlorides in the solid elute out to pore water. This elution is completed instantly
and the state of new equilibrium state is achieved immediately. Next, downerstream part begins to elute, and finally, final part begins.
However, in existing model, that Cl- elution from cement matrix part to porewater finishes instantly. However, as mentioned beforewards, this assumption
seems not work well in advective situation.
3.2 Modified model with single coefficient
In order to simulate elution in advective situation properly, it is necessary toconsider the speed of elution from solid to liquid phase. For advective condition,
the Cl- concentration in pore water at specific control area is changed instantly by
advection flow. Accordingly, elution of ions from cement hydrates to pore water
starts, and it would take some time until the equilibrium state. This implies theelution speed should be considered. Especially if the flow speed is fast enough,elution speed becomes the principal factor of affecting the concentration ofchlorides. Here, equation (2) was modified as equation (4).
Modeling of diffusive and advective transport of ionic species in cemented soil
Modeling of diffusive and advective transport of ionic species in cemented soil

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Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
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October 2012, Ulaanbaatar,�=�������
��(4)�������
= �������� − ������_�� ���Herein, fluctuation term Q is dominated by the coefficient k. k represents theinfluential factor of elution which is related to water flow speed. If ions in solid
phase are assumed to elute instantly, k becomes enormous. k depends on several
factors such as the type of ions, solid materials temperature, or other parameters.
In this study the value of the coefficient k was derived from the test result of C200.
First, different value of k is given to the modified model and the results arecompared in figure 4. It shows that smaller k value provides smaller analyticalresult. For advective situation, the modified model with coefficient k implies that
Cl- ions in solid phase dissolve gradually as time passes, which is different fromthe original model.
However, none of the modified models can reproduce the whole elution processwith enough accuracy. In the analysis of the model with smaller k such as
1.0 × 10�� , the elution speed becomes much slower after all the original porewater is flushed out by the water flowing, so the final value is greatly
underestimated. However, in reality some chlorides in solid phase may continue
to dissolve and the volume of eluting ions still increases. It this study the authors
assume that different elution process exist depending on the bounding forms ofchlorides. Hence it is necessary to improve model additionally considering thebounding forms of chlorides.
3.3 Improved model with multiple coefficient Figure 5: Analysis of the model with multiple coefficients
Chlorides bounded to cement hydrates principally have two bounding forms, one
is crystallized chlorides, which is represented by Friedel salt
(Ca2Al(OH)6(Cl, OH) · 2 H2O) and the other is adsorbed Cl-. Since the elution
process of these two bounding forms may be different, it is necessary to describe372

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them separately. Therefore equation (5) and (6) are given to describe the amountsof adsorbed Cl- and crystallized chlorides per unit time respectively.
�������_������������_�����= ���� �������_��� − �������_�� �= ���� �������_��� − (1 − �)������_�� ��������
��=�������_�����+�������_���
��

(5)
(6)
(7)

Where, ���� and ���� represents the influential factor of elution related toadsorbed Cl- and crystallized chlorides respectively. Since crystallization isrelatively stable form of solidification, it can be assumed that the elution is slowerand ���� is given smaller value than ���� . And � is the rate of each bounding
forms of Cl-. In this research, � is assumed 0.5, and it means that half of the totalbounded Cl is crystallized form and the other half is adsorbed form. The amountof total bounded Cl- is the summation of those equations (Equation (7)).
Coefficients ���� and ���� are assumed with the experimental results.
With the trial and error analyses, from the experimental result, model with���� = 1.0 × 10�� and ���� = 1.0 × 10�� can estimate the elution process
most realistically. Analysis with current model and improved model are comparedin Figure 5. It shows that improved model can estimate the elution underadvective situation more properly than the existing model. Furthermore, the point
where elution speed changes can be well reproduced by the improved model.

 Figure 6: Sensitivity analysis of the improved model
In Figure 6, the results of sensitivity analysis with different hydraulic gradient are
shown. In the figure the parameter i represents the hydraulic gradient, and withdifferent i value, we can get the different elution behaviors. The value 1.5 is theactual hydraulic gradient value in the experiment of C200. In order to distinguishthe influence of water speed, much smaller values of hydraulic gradient such as
0.5 and 0.15 are also given in the sensitivity analysis.
The results show that only when the water speed difference is as large as around10 times, can obvious difference of eluting process be observed. On the other
Modeling of diffusive
and advective
transportof ionic species
in ofcementedsoil in cemented soil
Modelingof diffusive
and advective
transportionic species

373

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October 2012, Ulaanbaatar,hand, in the test of C100 in this study, no obvious difference of eluting processwith varied flowing speed exists as mentioned before. One of the reasons may bethat the equipment in this research can only produce water head difference in 2-3
times. Therefore in the future research the influence of water speed on the elution
should be verified experimentally. Furthermore, it is important to apply the
improved model which considering elution speed and different forms of fixed ion,to other species of ions. Although this research used Cl- as tracer, this model wasinvestigated in the scope of estimating the behaviors of heavy metal ions whichcause soil pollution, such as Cr(VI). It is supposed that Cr(VI) are also fixed in
two form like Cl-; adsorbed ion and crystallized ion. The improved model in thisresearch can be applied also for the Cr(VI). But the values of coefficient must be
different from the species of ions, so in future research, the coefficients of elution
speed need to be estimated with the experiments using Cr(VI).
4 CONCLUSIONS
Based on the results of elution experiments under advective condition andsimulations considering elution speed and forms of fixed ions, the following
conclusions are obtained:(1) Based on the elution experiment under advective condition, the characteristic
elution process with water flow is clarified experimentally. The existingmodel which is established for hydrostatistic cannot simulate the elution
process under advective condition.
(2) The improved model considering elution speed can simulate the experimental
elution process properly under advective situation, by considering elution
speeds for two fixed forms of Cl- separately. Sensitivity analysis suggests that
only by changing the flow speed largely can the process of elution be
obviously influenced.
(3) The model considering elution speed and fixed form can apply to otherpollution ions. Especially, since behaviors of Cr(VI) is not so different from
Cl- ion in the fixed forms, the value of coefficient can be decided with similar
experiments using Cr(VI).
5 REFFERENCES
Maekawa, K., Ishida, T., Kishi, T., 2008. MULTI-SCALE MODELLING OF
STRUCTURAL CONCRETE, Taylor and Francis.
Sakimura, T., Ishida, T., Nakarai, K., Usui, T., 2005. Analysis of calcium ion
based on muti-scale pore model, Annual meeting of JCA, Japan (in Japanese).
Ho Thi Lan Anh,, 2005. Modeling of chloride transport under arbitrary
temperature, Master Thesis, University of Tokyo.
Takahashi, Y., Ishida, T., 2011. Leaching analyses of cement-solidified soil
contaminated with Cr(VI) using multi-scale thermodynamic analytical system.
Japan National Conference on Geotechnical Engineering, (in Japanese).

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Shear performance of PVA-coarse aggregateECC beams under a rotating stress fieldYoshiyuki TAKANO1, Benny SURYANTO2 and Kohei NAGAI 3
1

Graduate Student School of Eng., The University of Tokyo, Japany-takano@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
2
Researcher, The University of Tokyo, Japan
3
Associate Professor, IIS, The University of Tokyo, Japan

ABSTRACTThis paper reports the results of two series of experiments on PVA-ECC and PVACoarse Aggregate-ECC beams under static and fatigue loading conditions. The
primary objective was to study the beneficial effects of aggregate interlock at astructural member level. The first experiment series involved the testing of shearcritical beams under center-point fatigue loading. Despite lowering tensile
capacity and ductility, coarse aggregate was found to preserve the shear fatigue
performance of the beam, indicating a trade-off between tensile and shear
mechanical properties. The second experiment series involved the testing ofshear-critical beams subjected to anti-symmetric four-point static and fatigue
loading. The effects of precracks were investigated to represent the possible
rotation of stress field. While the advantage of aggregate interlock under static
loading was not quantified, it was observed that it is effective to influence thestress state in the ECC, to lengthen fatigue life, to control crack angle, and tolimit the magnitude of shear slip under repeated cycles. Instead of these potential
advantages, detailed crack observation along the failure crack surface indicatesthat the aggregate was not able to protect the rupturing of fibers in shear.
Keywords: PVA-ECC, aggregate, shear fatigue, rotating stress

Table 1: Series of experiments
Series of experiments

Name ofspecimen

Bending
Compression
Simple beamAnti-symmetricfour point shear test

Fatigue

StaticFatigue

Precracked
Nonprecracked
Precracked

ECC-F-S
CA-F-S
ECC-S-P
CA-S-P
ECC-S-N
CA-S-N
ECC-F-P
CA-F-P

Material
Normal ECC
ECC + Aggregates
Normal ECC
ECC + Aggregates
Normal ECC
ECC + Aggregates
Normal ECC
ECC + Aggregates
Normal ECC
ECC + Aggregates
Normal ECC
ECC + Aggregates

Size ofspecimen(mm)Longitudinal
reinforcement (%)

a/dReinforcement

150×300×1800

3.80

3.10

3D25
USD685100×200×1200

4.59

2.29

4D16
USD685100×100×400
φ100×200375

October 2012, Ulaanbaatar,
Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
Mongolia

1. INTRODUCTION
Polyvinyl Alcohol Engineered Cementitious Composite (PVA-ECC) is a uniqueexample of Strain Hardening Cementitious Composites (SHCCs). In this material,
the strain hardening property is realized through the formation of fine, multiple
cracks. Across each of these cracks, tensile stresses exist and are transmitted by
the PVA fibers (typically 2% by volume) bridging each of the two crack surfaces.
Not only may tensile stress, but also shear stress may develop across the cracks.
Nevertheless, the later has not been investigated in-depth. Recently, the authors
found that coarse aggregate, when added to the ECC, improves the material
behavior in terms of cracking and load-carrying resistance, particularly whensubjected to a complex stress field.
In response to this material-level behavior finding, experiments were conducted
on PVA-ECC and PVA-coarse aggregate-ECC beams, in order to investigate thebeneficial effects of aggregate interlock at structure-level behavior. Two different
test configurations were considered: beams subjected to center-point fatigue
loading, to provide a preliminary insight into the benefit of aggregate interlock,and beams subjected to anti-symmetric four-point static and fatigue loading, toinvestigate the problem on a better shear state. In the second test configuration,some beams were also preloaded prior to testing, in order to simulate a complex
stress situation such as under the continuous rotation of stress field as generally
experienced by a bridge deck under traffic loading. Interests were on the ultimate
load capacity, fatigue life, crack pattern, and average strains across cracks.

2. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
2.1 Material
Two materials were tested: PVA-ECC (hereafter abbreviated “ECC”) and PVAECC mixed coarse aggregates (hereafter abbreviated “ECC+CA”). For the later,coarse aggregate was added at about 10% by volume, which was found to be theoptimum amount (Suryanto et al 2009). The maximum size of the coarse
aggregate was 9.5 mm. A summary of the experimental program is shown in
Table.1.

100
100

100

300
400

Figure 1: Bending test

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D25

D25 300
42
150

100

1600 1600

100

100

300
42

150

100

Figure 2:
FigureBeam2:test
Beam
under
testcenter-point
under center-point
loading loading(a)Initial(a)Initial
crack crack(b)Second(b)Secondloading loading
D16

D16

200

200

27

100

400
100

400
200

200
400

400
100

100 100 300 100 300
400

100400300 100 300 100

Figure 3:
FigureAnti-symmetric
3: Anti-symmetricfour-point-shear
four-point-shear
test
test

Y

εy
εyx

Y
Y’
εy
Crack
Crack

25

27

25

100

All
All
dimensions
dimensions
are in mm
are in mm

Y
Y
Y’
εy’
εy’
X’

X’
εy’x’ εy’x’
εx’y’ εx’y’
εx’
εx’εxyshearεxy
Figure3:Figure3:
Anti-symmetricAnti-symmetricfour-pointfour-pointshearθX testX test
Xθ
X
εx
εx
εyx

Figure 4:
FigureInstrumentation:
4: Instrumentation:(a) Strain(a)measurement
Strain measurement
at the centerat thespancenter span(b) Strain(b)transformation
Strain transformation
into the into
crack
thecoordinate
crack coordinate

2.2 Material
2.2 Material
tests tests
The material
The material
properties
propertiesof the ECCof thewere
ECCobtained
were obtained
from 4-pointfrom 4-point
bendingbendingandanduniaxialuniaxial
compression
compression
tests. Bending
tests. Bending
tests weretestscarried
were carriedout to obtainout to ECC
obtaintensile
ECC tensile
properties.
properties.
A total Aof total
four of
ECC
fourspecimens
ECC specimens
and fiveand
ECC+CA
five ECC+CA
specimens
specimens
were were
tested.
testandsetup
and typical
specimengeometry
are shownin Figure1.
tested. The
testThesetup
typicalspecimengeometry
are shownin Figure1.
Compression
Compression
tests weretestsperformed
were performedon threeon100×200-mm
three 100×200-mm
cylinderscylinders
to determine
to determine
thecompressive
mean compressive
the meanstrength.strength.

Shear performanceof PVA-coarse
aggregate-ECC
beams
under
a rotating
field
Shear performance
Shear
performanceof PVA-coarseof PVA-coarse
aggregate-ECC
aggregate-ECC
beams
under
beams
astress
rotating
under
a rotatingstress field
stress field377

October 2012, Ulaanbaatar,
Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
Mongolia

2.3 Beam test: Center-point fatigue loading
Two beams were tested under fatigue loading. The details of the beams are shownin Figure 2. Three high-strength D25 reinforcements (USD685) were used for thetension reinforcement, with the end being extended past the both ends of the beamand then being secured with steel nuts. The maximum and minimum load was
kept constant at 60% and 10% of the ultimate shear capacity, obtained from thecorresponding control beam (ECC: 284 kN, ECC+CA: 276 kN).
2.4 Beam test: Anti-symmetric four-point static loading
The anti-symmetric four-point loading was considered to achieve a pure shear
state at the midspan. Four beams were tested: two beams of different materials(ECC, ECC+CA; served as control specimens), were loaded to failure and twoother similar beams were preloaded and then tested to failure. The objective of the
preloading stage was to investigate the shear performance under a rotating stressfield.
Details of the test setup are shown in Figure 3. In all beams, four 16-mm highstrength reinforcements (USD685) were used, two for the compression bars andthe other two for the tension bars. All beams had no web reinforcement. Two test
configurations were considered. In the first configuration [see Fig. 3(a)], the load
was applied to the beam at the four points; the shear span was 200 mm, while thetwo side spans were 400 mm. When the load reached about 55% the static
capacity, a number of diagonal cracks had established and the beam was then fully
unloaded. Following this preloading stage, the inner loading points were thenmoved apart by 200 mm, leaving a 300 mm span at each side (see Fig. 3(b); thesecond test configuration). The beam was then reloaded to failure.
2.5 Beam test: Anti-symmetric four-point fatigue loading
In this test series, only precracked beams were tested. The same loading protocol
as used in the previous section was considered. The static strength was assumed tobe the same as the shear strength of the control beams that were 267 kN and 210
kN, for ECC and ECC+CA, respectively.
In addition to the measurement of displacement and load level, it was of interest
to measure the strain field across the precracks during the course of the fatigue
loading. For this purpose, potentiometers and strain gauges were glued on the
beam surface at the center span’s height (see Figure 4), but only the recorded datafrom the potentiometers will be discussed. These strain data were firstly
transformed into the precrack coordinate to determine the average behaviors along
and across the pre-cracks’s planes. Optical microscope was also used to check thecondition of the PVA fibers on the failure crack surface after being subjected tofatigue.

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3. MATERIAL TEST RESULTS

Applied Load (kN)

Figure 5 shows the result of bending test for each material. As can be seen, coarse
aggregate appears to lower tensile strength and ductility (there was also lessnumbers of multiple cracks). It appears that this happened as there was lessnumbers of PVA fibers bridging the cracks (as a result of the presence of theaggregate) and due to the fact that the aggregate increased the matrix toughness.
The compressive strength was 37.8 and 31.6 MPa, for ECC and ECC+CA,
respectively. The reduction of compressive strength in ECC+CA was likely
caused by the variation in
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

ECC
+CA
0

1

2

3

Midspan displacement (mm)Figure 5: Result of bending test

air content, and/or the more heterogeneous stress field in the matrix.
4. TEST RESULTS
4.1 Beams under center-point fatigue loading
Figure 6 shows the results of fatigue tests on Beams ECC and ECC+CA. Note that
Beam ECC was accidentally loaded to about 85% of its static capacity at around7,500 cycles. It appears that the beam would survive longer if this accident did not
happen. By looking at the rate of the deflection increase before the accident, it
appears that the fatigue life of the two beams might be at approximately the sameorder of lifetime.
Interestingly, the coarse aggregate in Beam ECC+CA appears to bring a trade off
to the fatigue life performance of the beam, since the tensile property and thecompressive strength of the ECC+CA were in fact lower.

Shear performanceShearof PVA-coarse
aggregate-ECC
beams
under a rotatingstressfield
performanceof PVA-coarse
aggregate-ECC
beams
under
a rotating stress field379

October 2012, Ulaanbaatar,
Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
Mongolia

Figure 6: Result of fatigue test in simple beam test
4.2 Beams under anti-symmetric four-point static loading
Figure 7 shows the result of static load test in anti-symmetric four-point-shear
beam. For the ECC beam series, the shear capacity of Beam ECC-S-P is lower ascompared with Beam ECC-S-N, with no precracks. The failure of Beam ECC-S-P
is also more brittle. These two findings indicate that PVA-ECC is moresuspectible to shear.
The shear capacity of Beam CA-S-N appears to be much higher than Beam ECCS-N, suggesting that the contribution of the aggregate interlock. The repeatabilityof this trend is still being investigated as the variation in shear capacity is
generally large.
300

ECC

250
200
150
100

non-precracked (ECC-S-N)
precracked (ECC-S-P)

50

+CA

250
Applied Load (kN)

Applied Load (kN)

300

0

200
150
100

non-precracked (CA-S-N)
precracked (CA-S-P)

50
0

0

1
2
Midspan displacement (mm)

3

0

1
2
3
Midspan displacement (mm)Figure 7: Result of static load test in anti-symmetric shear beam

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ECC-S-N

ECC-S-P

30°

54°
45°

CA-S-N

CA-S-P

30°

54°

Failure crack
Angle of failure crack

Figure 8: Crack observation after the failure
When the results of the precracked beams are compared, it appears that the effects
of aggregate interlock is only minor, being the shear capacity of Beams ECC-S-P
and CA-S-P are nearly the same. In fact, the effects of precracking tend to be
more significant inbeams with coarse aggregate. It is likely that this happened as the aggregate might
not well distributed; further tests are clearly necessary to confirm thisphenomenon.
Figure 8 shows the crack pattern of each beam after failure. For the control beams,
it appears that failure occurred once the diagonal shear crack propagated toward
the top and bottom loading plates. For the precracked beams, it is apparent that theeffects of the precrack were significant. In both cases, a Z shape crack is observed,
involving the precrack and the secondary crack that was formed during the second
loading stage. It isinteresting to note that, there are, however, more cracks connecting the top andbottom loading plates in Beam ECC+CA-S-P than in Beam ECC-S-P. Thisimplies that there must be a stress field acting perpendicular to these diagonal
cracks as a result of better shear being transmitted across the precrak planes.
4.3 Beams under anti-symmetric four-point fatigue loading
Figure 9 shows the result of fatigue load tests for beams loaded under antisymmetric four-point fatigue. As compared to the static capacity, it appears thatthe contribution of aggregate interlock is more remarkable in fatigue than in static
loading conditions. Fatigue life of Beam ECC+CA appears to be longer thanBeam ECC, which is likely to be attributed to the added contribution of aggregateinterlock under fatigue loading.
To investigate this macroscopic behavior more details, the strain measurement
spanning

Shear performanceShearof PVA-coarse
aggregate-ECC
beams
under a rotating
performanceof PVA-coarse
aggregate-ECC
beamsstressunderfielda rotating stress field381

October
October 2012,2012, Ulaanbaatar,
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Figure 9: Result of fatigue load test in anti-symmetric shear beam
35000

(μ)

slip - εx'y'

30000
25000
20000
15000
10000

ECC (ECC-F-P)+CA (CA-F-P)

5000
0
0

(μ)

5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000

opening and closing - εy'Figure 10: “opening-closing” and “shear-slip” relation on crack

Failure crack

Aggregate

Figure 11: Observation of crack surface by microscopeover of about 10 cm at the center span’s height of the beams are discussed. Figure
10 shows the relation between the opening-closing behavior and the shear friction
behavior of the cracks.
At the beginning stage of fatigue loading, it appears from the two beams that bothcrack opening and slip increase with increasing load cycles. After a number ofcycles, a different tendency can be observed. From Beam ECC, the shear slip

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component increases dramatically after about 3000 cycles, with little increase in
the crack opening component, possibly due to the breakdown of shear transfer
mechanism. The slip eventually gets stabilized, and the two components increase
together. On the other hand, a more stable behavior of crack-opening and -slip
components can be observed, suggesting the beneficial effects of aggregateinterlock. The measurement was, however, very tedious, as the instruments could
only capture the average phenomenon inside a 10 cm square. Further
measurements using image data analysis is currently being performed to obtainbetter insight into the local and global behavior of multiple cracks under fatigue.
Finally, the failure surface of the diagonal crack was observed by microscope andthe results are shown in Figure 11. As can be seen, there is almost no PVA fibers
remain on the surface in both materials, suggesting that the fibers were rubbed by
the opposing two crack surfaces during the fatigue cycles. The aggregate interlock
is seen not adequate to protect the PVA fibers from rupturing due to shear.
5. CONCLUSIONS
1) Coarse aggregate decreases the flexural capacity and ductility of ECC.
2) From the beams subjected to center-point fatigue, it was found that coarse
aggregate, despite lowering the tensile property, appears to be beneficial to
the shear fatigue performance of the beam.
3) From the precracked beams subjected to anti-symmetric four-point static
loading, it was found that the precracks dictated the ultimate shear capacity
significantly. The formation of a Z-shape crack indicates that the failure wasinitiated from the tip of the precracks, given that the shear demand was higher
on this crack plane.
4) The beneficial effects of coarse aggregate tend to be more significant under
fatigue than under static loading conditions. It was found that aggregateinterlock is useful to limit crack slip under fatigue.
5) Coarse aggregate is not adequate to protect the PVA fibers under repeatedshear.
REFERENCES
Victor C. Li., 2003. On Engineered Cementitious Composites (ECC), A Review ofthe Material and its Applications, Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology, Vol.
1, No.3, pp.215-230.
Suryanto, B. Nagai, K. and Maekawa, K., 2010. Modeling and Analysis of Shear
critical ECC Members with Anisotropic Stress and Strain Fields, Journal ofAdvanced Concrete Technology Vol. 8, No. 2, pp.239-258.
Suryanto, B. Nagai, K. and Maekawa, K., Role of Coarse Aggregate in High
Performance Fiber Reinforced Cementitious Composite, Proceedings of JCI,
Vol.31, No.1, pp.385-390, 2009
Shimizu, K. Kanakubo, T. Kanda, T. and Nagai, S., 2006. Evaluation of Tensile
Properties of PVA-ECC Using Bending Test, J. Struct. Constr. Eng., AIJ., No.604,
pp.31-36.
Suryanto, B. Dalimunthe, M. Nagai, K. and Maekawa, K., 2011. Shear Fatigue
Performance and Crack Surface Observations in PVA-ECC Beams without Web
Reinforcement, Proceedings of JCI, Vol.33, No.2, pp.1279-128.

performanceof PVA-coarse
aggregate-ECC
beams
under
a rotating stress field383
Shear performanceShearof PVA-coarse
aggregate-ECC
beams
under a rotatingstressfield

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Pushover analysis of RC bare frame:
Performance comparison between
ductile and non-ductile detailing
B. Narender1 and Ramancharla Pradeep Kumar2
1
P.hD Student, Computer Aided Structural Engineering, IIIT Hyderabad,
Hyderabad, India.
Narender.b@research.iiit.ac.in
2
Associate Professor, Earthquake Engineering Research Centre,
IIIT Hyderabad, Hyderabad, India.
ABSTRACT

ramancharla@iiit.ac.in

The objective of this paper is to compare pushover response of ductile andnon-ductile frames using AEM (Applied Element Method). Pushover analysis is
non linear static analysis, a tool for seismic evaluation of existing structures.
Unlike FEM, AEM is a discrete method in which the elements are connected bypair of normal and shear springs which are distributed around the elements edges
and each pair of springs totally represents stresses and deformation and plastic
hinges location are formed automatically. In the present case study a 1 x 1 bay
four storied building is modeled using AEM. Gravity loads and laterals loads as
per IS 1893-2002 are applied on the structure and designed using IS 456 and IS
13920. Displacement control pushover analysis is carried out. The effect ofductile detailing, change in grade of concrete and bar sizes in columns is also
compared.
Keywords: Pushover analysis, AEM, ductile detailing.
1. INTRODUCTION
There is an urgent need to assess the seismic vulnerability of buildings in urban
areas of India as an essential component of a comprehensive earthquake disasterrisk management policy. Detailed seismic vulnerability evaluation is a technicallycomplex and expensive procedure and can only be performed on a limited
number of buildings. It is therefore very important to use simpler proceduresthat can help to rapidly evaluate the vulnerability profile of different types ofbuildings, so that the more complex evaluation procedures can be limited to themost critical buildings.
Nonlinear static (pushover) analysis is used to quantify the resistance of thestructure to lateral deformation and to gauge the mode of deformation andintensity of local demands. The static pushover analysis is becoming a popular
tool for seismic performance evaluation of existing and new structures. The
expectation is that the pushover analysis will provide adequate information onseismic demands imposed by the design ground motion on the structural system
and its components. The existing building can become seismically deficient since385

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seismic design code requirements are constantly upgraded and advancement inengineering knowledge. Further, Indian buildings built over past two decades areseismically deficient because of lack of awareness regarding seismic behavior ofstructures. The widespread damage especially to RC buildings during earthquakes
exposed the construction practices being adopted around the world, and generated
a great demand for seismic evaluation and retrofitting of existing building stocks.
The objective of this paper is to study the performance of building designed
without considering earthquake forces and by considering the earthquake forces.
A newly developed method called AEM is used for this study. In the present casestudy a 1 x 1 bay four storied building is modeled. Gravity loads and laterals
loads as per IS 1893-2002 are applied on the structure and designed it using IS
456 and IS 13920. Displacement control pushover analysis is carried out in bothcases and the pushover curves are compared. The effect of ductile detailing,change in grade of concrete and bar sizes in columns is also compared.

2. Applied Element Method
Numerically, it is important to know the damage of the structure till collapse.
Applied element method (AEM) is an efficient technique to deal this kind ofproblems accurately. In this method, the elements are connected by pair of

Figure 1: Element shape and degrees of the freedom

normal and shear springs which are distributed around the element edges. These
springs represents the stresses and deformations of the studied element. The
elements motion is rigid body motion and the internal deformations are taken bysprings only. It is advisable to increase the number of elements than connecting
springs for improving the accuracy. The general stiffness matrix components
corresponding to each degree of freedom are determined by assuming unit
displacement and the forces are at the centroid of each element. The element
stiffness matrix size is 6x6. The rst quarter portion of the stiffness matrix is
given by equation (1). The stiffness matrix components diagram is shown in
Figure.1. However the global stiffness matrix is generated by summing up all the
local stiffness matrices for each element.
Case study
Description of structure
A ground plus three storey RC building of plan dimensions 3.3 m x 3.3 m andheight of building is 12 m located in seismic zone II and on hard soil is considered.

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It is assumed that there is no parking floor for this building. Seismic analysis isperformed using the IS 1893-2002 seismic coefficient method. Since the structure
is a regular building with a height less than 12 m, as per Clause 7.8.1 of IS 1893
(Part 1): 2002, a dynamic analysis need not be carried out. Detailed design of thebeams along longitudinal and transverse as per recommendations of IS
13920:1993 has been carried out.
Plan of the building and sectional elevations of four story RC frames are shown in
Figures 2. The sizes of the beams and columns are given in Table 1.
Material property
For this study material property has been used as follows
Grade of concrete: M20, M25 and M30
Grade of steel = Fe 415 and Fe250
Live load on floors = 2 kN/m2
Floor finish = 1 kN/m2
Brick wall on peripheral beams = 230 mm thickDensity of concrete = 25 kN/m3
Density of brick wall including plaster = 20 kN/m3

Figure 2 Plan of building (All dimension are in meters)
Load Combinations
Load combinations are considered as per IS 456: 2000 and are given
in Table 2. EQX implies earthquake loading in X direction and EQY stands forearthquake loading in Y direction. The emphasis here is on showing
typical calculations for ductile design and detailing of building elements subjectedto earthquakes. In practice, wind load should also be considered in lieu ofearthquake load and the critical of the two load cases should be used for design.
This analysis only three combination were used.
Beams parallel to the Y direction are not significantly affected byearthquake force in the X direction (except in case of highly unsymmetricalbuildings), and vice versa. Beams parallel to Y direction are designed forearthquake loading in Y direction only. Torsion effect is not considered in thisexample. The dead load of slab, beam and wall and live load and floor finishing
Pushoverof RC bare frame:
Performancecomparison
Pushover analysis of
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frame: Performancecomparison
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load on slab were calculated and total load of dead load and live load on beam
have been used 22.7 kN/m and 9.9 kN/m respectively. Due to symmetry plan all
floor beams had same load.
The seismic weights are calculated in a manner similar to gravity loads. The
weight of columns and walls in any storey shall be equally distributed to the floors
above and below the storey. Seismic analyses were evaluated and base shear was
calculated and it is distributed according to IS: 1893 which were from first floor to
top floor distribution like inverted triangle. The base shears of structure wereobtained 26.73KN. Due to symmetry similar frame can be used for further
analysis
Design and Detailing
The design of all beams and columns are based on IS: 456 and IS 13920. The
longitudinal, transverse reinforcement and spacing of both beam and column asshown in Figures 3 (a)-(b) respectively.

Figure 3 (a) IS: 456 design details

Figure 3 (b) IS: 13920 ductile design details
Pushover Analysis
Pushover Analysis is performed using applied element method on a 2D
frame to obtain the capacity curve for three frames, viz., design only for gravity
loads, designed earthquake loads without ductile detailing and designed forearthquake loads and also with ductile detailing.
Case I: Gravity Design Pushover Curve
Lateral displacement is applied according to force distribution given in IS 1893. A
total of 0.2 m is applied in 100 load steps. Base shear at every displacement step is
captured. Maximum base shear obtained 32 kN at 10mm of displacement
pushover (See Figure 4). After reaching maximum load, frames lost its capacity
significantly, which can be seen as a steep fall in load carrying capacity. It is
obvious that without considering the earthquake forces, frame’s capacity to resist
lateral displacement is very low.

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Figure 4: Load vs displacement curve
Case II: Non Ductile Detailing Pushover Curve
Second case study was for non-ductile detailing structure. The members were
design according IS: 456 and reinforcement details were shown in Figure 3(a).
Ductile detailing is not considered in this frame. Pushover analysis is performedon this frame using displacement pushover approach. Maximum displacement
applied at top of roof element as 2.4m and its collapse behavior as shown in
Figure 5. Maximum base shear occurred at 118KN and drift ratio of 0.019 %.
After reaching the drift ratio, the first failure occurred at top roof beam joint
members in, hinges forming at top floor elements. The sequence of failure shownin Figure 5 as top beam joint element to bottom beams joint and it followed by left
column joint. In figure vertical drops indicate the steel failure and incline lines
indicate the elements behavior.

Figure 5: Non ductile detailing Load vs displacement curve
Case III: Ductile detailing Pushover Curve
Members were design according IS: 13920 and reinforcement details were shownin Figure 3(b). Pushover analysis has been performed and the results were shownin Figure 6. It can be clearly seen from the results that ductile detailing isincreasing the capacity of the frame significantly. Up to significant deformation,
structure is not loosing is load carrying capacity. The maximum base shear was
obtained as 125KN but this base shear is maintained same up 1.3m after thatsudden drop took place. This sudden vertical drop indicate that joint member
failed at time and the sequence of failure like beam-column joint at top to bottom
beam but column joint still stand. The resistance capacity more compare to non
ductile design.
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Case IV: Effect of concrete grade
As a case study affect of concrete grade on load deformation capacity of the frame
is studied. Three cases were considered i.e., M20, M25 and M30 grade. Figure 6,
it can be clearly seen that the yield strength of the structure is higher for higher
grades of concrete however; the capacity to deform is lower when the grade of theconcrete is higher. It was found that M 25 grade of concrete slight to high baseshear and smooth decreasing curve compare to other grade of concrete. Fromobservation of all combination, M25 grade of concrete has slight high resistancecapacity compared M20 and M30. It can be concluded that grade of the concrete
has less affect on the capacity of building under lateral loads.

Figure 6: Effect of grade of concrete
Case V: Effect of change in diameter of column bars
As a second case study affect of steel grade on load deformation capacity of theframe is studied. Two cases were considered i.e., Fe 250 and Fe 415 grade.
Results are illustrated in Figure 7. It indicates that load deformation curve is samefor both the cases upto 115 kN, there after as the deformation is increasing, theload carrying capacity of Fe 250 is lower than Fe 415, however ductility is higher.
Along with this another study has also been conducted to understand the affect ofnumber of reinforcing bars. It can be concluded from the analysis that if thenumber of bars are increasing, capacity is also increasing slightly, however, caremust be taken because large number of reinforcing bars increase congestion in
concreting.

Figure 7: Effect of Steel Grade

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Conclusion
In the present case study a 1 x 1 bay 2D four storied building is modeled using
AEM (applied element method). Gravity loads and laterals loads as per IS 18932002 are applied on the structure and designed it using IS 456 and IS 13920.
Displacement control pushover analysis is carried out in both cases and the
pushover curves are compared. As an observation it is found that AEM give good
representation capacity curve. From the case studies it is found that capacity of thebuilding significantly increases when ductile detailing is adopted. Also, it is foundthat affect on concrete grade and also steel are not that significant.
REFERENCES
1. Hatem Tagel-Din and Kimiro Meguro: Applied Element Method forSimulation of Nonlinear Materials: Theory and Application for RC
Structures, Structural Eng./Earthquake Eng., International Journal of theJapan Society of Civil Engineers (JSCE) Vol. 17, No. 2, 137s-148s, July
2000.
2. _____ IS 456: 2000; Criteria for Plain and Reinforced Concrete Design ofStructures, BIS, India.
3. _____ IS 1893: 2002; Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of
Buildings, BIS, India.
4. _____ IS 13920:

1993; Code of Practice for Ductile Detailing of

Buildings, BIS, India.

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How remote sensing data were used
for the Tohoku Earthquake
Haruo SAWADA
Professor, ICUS, IIS, The University of Tokyo, Japan
sawada@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
ABSTRACT
Thousands of digital aerial photos were taken by private survey companies for the
Tohoku Earthquake under the special agreement in case of disaster between GSI(Geospatial Information Authority of Japan) and the air-survey group of Japan.
Although they were very useful to identify the damage level by visualinterpretation, it took time and needed many technicians to interpret the wholedamaged area. As for satellite remote sensing data, the International Disaster
Charter (IDC) as well as the Sentinel Asia also made contributions for this eventand offered more than a few thousands of satellite images. The JAXA kept
producing the PALSAR images of inundated area which was caused by the
Tsunami until the satellite stopped its regular operation in April 2011. High
resolution satellite images were well used for identifying the damages. The
combination of images of pre- and post- earthquake makes us easy to identify thedamage situations. Remote sensing data have much potential for the large
earthquake disaster management and the Tohoku Earthquake event clearly
showed us the importance of appropriate preparation for remote sensing.
Keywords: Tsunami, review, remote sensing, large disaster
1. INTRODUCTION
The Tohoku Earthquake of M9.0 which occurred on 11 March 2011, was thebiggest earthquake known ever to have hit Japan. It directly damaged buildings,
houses, dams, railways, road and other infrastructures and also became the triggerof huge Tsunami that reached heights of up to 40 meters. This event directly
damaged eleven prefectural governments. The National Police Agency(http://www.npa.go.jp/archive/keibi/biki/index.htm) reported (on 5th Sep., 2012)that the total number of dead, missing and injured person were 15,870, 2,846 and
6,110 persons, respectively. The number of missing person indicates the severTsunami. The number of fully, half and partially collapsed residential houses were
129,291, 264,004 and 725,918, respectively. 63,574 non-residential houses werealso damaged. Heavy destructions at roads, bridges, railways and levees werereported 4,200, 116, 29 and 45 places, respectively. About 190 km of the coastal
levees out of 300 km were damaged. Various remote sensing data have been
introduced to collect information for damage assessment and for new
rehabilitation plans. This report summarizes the use of remote sensing data forthis huge disaster.

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2. AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY
2.1 Taking aerial photos
GSI (Geospatial Information Authority of Japan) and APSAT (Association ofPrecise Survey and Applied Technology) made a contract on taking emergency
aerial photograph in 2005. Then GSI called APSAT to request stand ready 44
minutes after the earthquake and 10 minutes later officially requested emergency
aerial photograph (Tanioka, 2011). According to this call the APSAT madecontact with contracting 22 survey companies if they could fly over Tohoku.
However, the telephone line between GSI and APSAT was not stable and only
one way communication from GSI to APSAT was established because both GSI
and APSAT offices were also located in the damaged area by the earthquake. The
survey airplane had to fly for a long distance because Sendai airport, the main
airport in Tohoku area, was also damaged by Tsunami. Next day six survey
companies started to take aerial photos according to the agreement with GSI andcovered almost all the area within 2 days, about 4,820km2. However we had to
wait until on 19 March to cover 100% of the Tsunami damaged area because of
the weather condition.
2.2 Distribution of aerial photos
GSI has an airplane KUNIKAZE for aerial photography but the airplane wasunder the periodic inspection until the end of March 2011 and GSI could start
flying the KUNIKAZE on 1st April. The aerial photos were taken by digital
camera and normal camera depending on their availability suitable for 1/10,000
scale images. Their geo-coded photos (with Japanese coordinate system) were
distributed through the website of GSI. These aerial photos were also converted toorthophotos and open to public in digital format through web site with 50 cm
resolution one day after as well as printed images to governmental uses. Higher
resolution digital images were also available by request.
2.3 Products and other activities by GSI
GSI published the Tsunami affected area map with the scale of 1/25,000 a few
weeks later. We interpreted the Tsunami lines on the orthophotos just after GSI
opened them on the web site and started offering the Tsunami Aerial photo Map
with the scale of 1/10,000. The main interpretation key was the debris.
The ground level is important information for rehabilitation of the area and somesurvey companies used LiDAR and created DEM with 5m spatial resolution. The
ground sinks caused by the earthquake were found in many coastal areas and thatmade worse the impact of Tsunami.
Mukouyama (2011) mentioned that a tsunami simulation was useful to identify
the damaged area on remote sensing images quickly and accurately. However,lack of machines and electric power made their works difficult because theiroffice was also damaged by the earthquake and the electric power was under the394

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governmental control. We need to think about our business continuity under thesesituations especially at rescue stage.
The aerial photo survey was conducted again through May to November 2011.
These aerial photos are commonly used as the important source of information fordamage assessment and rehabilitation plans for local government and residents.
GSI provided base map with the scale of 1/25,000, 1/50,000 and 1/200,000. The
digital web mapping system was also introduced for further uses.
GSI dispatched the emergency mapping team for one and a half months to theemergency mapping center in a special meeting room at the Cabinet Office andanother team (TEC-FORCE) with big printing systems to Sendai, Tohoku, forhelping the disaster management center and distributing the aerial photos and theirproducts (Furuya, 2012).
3. SATELLITE DATA
3.1 Capability of satellite data
Satellite images were suitable to overview the whole damage situations along thecoastal lines of 600km caused by the Tsunami. Because broad agricultural lands
including paddy fields kept Tsunami water for a long time, many satellite images
enhanced the inundated areas. Even MODIS was useful to detect debris causedby the Tsunami (Aoyama, 2012).
High resolution satellite images were well used for identifying the damages. The
GeoEye image with 50cm resolution identifies the debris along the coastline. Its
object-type classification combined with elevation data enabled us automaticallydelineate the Tsunami affected area. Because the combination of images of preand post- earthquake makes us easy to identify the damage situations, image
dataset of normal days must be created for the whole country as a base data.
Although remote sensing data have much potential for the large earthquake
disaster management, the Tohoku Earthquake event clearly showed us theimportance of appropriate preparation for remote sensing data.
3.2 Private survey companies
The Asia Survey Ltd. reported that the pan-sharpen AVNIR-2 image was useful toidentify large buildings washed away by the Tsunami but it was difficult to
identify the damage levels of remaining buildings. The Hitachi Solutions Ltd.
provided GeoPDF files to the Cabinet Office and local government which were
mapped from QuickBird and WorldView1 and 2. The Image One Ltd. used
Radarsat-2 to show the land cover changes and damages of fisheries caused by the
Tsunami. The Japan Space Imaging Ltd. started the formulation of the emergency
structure and successfully obtained the satellite images, such as COSMO SkyMedon 12 March, GeoEye-1 on 13 March and IKONOS on 12 March (Li, 2011). The
emergency condition continued until the end of April 2011. The KKG (Kokusai
Kogyo Group) showed the aerial images, satellite images, other data and Tsunami
simulation CG videos. The PASCO Ltd. showed panoramic photos, inundation

sensing
were used
for the Tohoku Earthquake
How remote sensingHow
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for data
the Tohoku
Earthquake

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map derived from TanDEM-X, TerraSAR-X, EROS-B images, topographic
change maps and other information related to nuclear power plant problems.
4. INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITIES
4.1 IDC: INTERNATIONAL DISASTER CHARTER
The IDC stands for the Charter on Cooperation to Achieve the Coordinated Use ofSpace Facilities in the Event of Natural or Technological Disaster. The IDC aims
at providing a unified system of space data acquisition and delivery to thoseaffected by natural or man-made disasters through Authorized Users. Eachmember agency has committed resources to support the provisions of the Charterand thus is helping to mitigate the effects of disasters on human life and property(http://www.disasterscharter.org/home). The IDC was established in 1999 andstarted their activities in 2000. JAXA as the representative of Japan participated in2005 and the number of participating institution is 21 organizations in 2012.
There are tens of requests every year from various regions and there were 31
actions in 2011 including the Tohoku Earthquake.
4.2 Activation of IDC for the Tohoku Earthquake
JAXA requested IDC to activate the emergency observation on March 11, 2011.
A few day later IDC products came out on the web site, ex. WorldView (33products), RapidEye (32 products), SPOT (17 products), Landsat (9 products),
TerraSAR-X (9 products), GeoEye (8 products), IKONOS (7 products),
QuickBird (4 products), Radarsat (4 products), Formosat (1 product).
The images were observed during March 12 to April 14, 2011. In total, 94 satellite
image maps were uploaded on the web site and high resolution images werecommonly used. The actual observation dates were depended on satellite systems;
WorldView: 6days, SPOT: 3 days (12 to14 March), RapidEye: 2 days (12 and 13
March), IKONOS: 2 days (12 and 14 March), GeoEye: 2 days (13 and 19 March).
More than 5,000 satellite images were also sent directly to JAXA although they
were not shown on the web site. It was one of the successes of IDC program. As
for the timing, for example, the SPOT image on 12 March was uploaded on the
web site next day as a processed image showing the Tsunami damage with thescale of 1/100,000 (Charter call ID359, Product No. 05). It was a very rapid action
comparing with the previous 10 years average (7.8 days) in IDC.
4.3 Use of IDC products
Although there were a lot of requirements to the maps which indicated damaged
area, very few maps were available and hand drown maps were commonly used
for showing various places at the damaged sites. We could not hear that local
government staffs or volunteers used the IDC products at the sites. There wereseveral reasons as follows:
the IDC was not well known; no local government staff knew about the ID

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no print was available; printed images were required under no electric
power supply
the maps were explained in English; Japanese characters are necessary on
the map
all the data were not easily accessible although thousands of GSI aerial
photos were available through a web site
We felt a lot of difficulties in introducing the IDC products directly to the local
government sites. Volunteers who interpret English and revised maps in Japaneseare necessary to make the IDC product useful for disaster management. Otherwise
these products are useful only for foreign persons who are far from the disasterwith no restriction of internet condition and electric power supply. In addition, we
felt that the duration of the IDC activation was too short because most of theemergency observation activities were stopped within a few weeks. Especially wefelt so after the ALOS stopped its operation in April 2011. Government shouldhave some agreement with foreign institutions to continue satellite observation fora certain period of time in case of these huge disasters. And the agreement mustbe signed before the disaster.
5. ACTIONS OF JAXA
5.1 Satellite observation
JAXA played important role in supporting the disaster management center in the
Cabinet Office and provided not only various satellite data but also satellite
communication system to both Cabinet and local government.
JAXA changed the ALOS operation soon after the Earthquake and provided about
450 scenes during 72 paths. On March 12, JAXA brought into the Cabinet Office
70 satellite geographic maps which were created by overlaying digital maps on
existing ALOS images. The emergency observations by ALOS were conducted
and satellite images and products (ex. Statistical information about Tsunami
inundation areas) were uploaded on their web site 33 times. Two days after the
Earthquake, the inundation map created from the AVNIR-2 on 12 March and preevent PRISM image and the inundation map derived from FORMOSAT-2 werereleased.
5.2 Damage assessment
The PRISM, AVNIR-2, PALSAR, TerraSAR-X and RapidEye images were used
3 times, 17 times, 17 times, 2 times and once, respectively in the 33 times of
upload. JAXA provided pre-event satellite images as well. The combination ofimages of pre- and post-event clearly showed the Tsunami damages. These
products were related to the Tsunami damages and the liquefaction, for example,
was reported ten days after the event.
Because the AVNIR-2 is an optical sensor and cloud and atmospheric conditions
influenced the images. However, the images in fine weather clearly showed the

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Tsunami damages. The characteristic of cyclic satellite observation with highresolution optical sensors was quite useful for monitoring the influences of the
Tsunami event. PALSAR is little influenced by cloud and hazes and showed
inundation areas. These inundation data were sent to the Ministry of Agriculture,
Forestry and Fisheries every week.
5.3 Further study is needed
PALSAR, however, has difficulty in clear delineation of Tsunami damaged areas.
It was early March and no agricultural activities were performed at paddy field.
Therefore, the inundated agricultural fields were reasonably considered asdamaged area by the Tsunami. Then how we can delineate the Tsunami damages
in growing season of paddy field by PALSAR? The inundated areas weresummarized by JAXA and the figures showed that the inundation area was about
a half of damaged area. It must be studied to automatically delineate the Tsunami
damaged area so that the information becomes useful for rescue purposes as well
as monitoring damages in agriculture fields.
The Tsunami produced a huge amount of floating objects and JAXA explained on
March 23 that the PALSAR was useful to detect floating material with exact
coordinates using the data of March 13. They explained that the image was usefulfor ships to take care their routs to navigate. As we mentioned before, one of thecharacteristics of the Tsunami disaster is the large number of missing people. One
dog was found survive after three weeks on a floating object. How were people? It
is not only we who wondered if the PALSAR or other remote sensing data wereused to detect floating objects for rescue purposes. Even for ships, theinformation derived from an image of ten days before is not appropriate forfinding safe routes. It is no meaning to show the capability of remote sensing data
in a particular disaster stage. To the contrary, it is necessary to give useful andpractical information. We strongly recommend that disaster management groups
think about the operational systems to process and deliver remote sensing data forlarge disasters.
5. ACADEMIC SOCIETY
Academic societies, such as AJG (The Association of Japanese Geographers),
GISAJ (GIS Association of Japan), JASDIS (Japan Society for Disaster
Information Studies), JSCE (Japan Society of Civil Engineering), JSPRS (Japan
Society of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing), RSSJ (The Remote Sensing
Society of Japan) have made various projects on this event and opened web sites
to show their activities. The JSPRS published a special edition journal tosummarize the list of remote sensing data (Tsuru, 2012), which shows a list ofvertical air photograph, oblique photograph, elevation data derived from aerial
laser, vehicle installation field measurement data, optical satellite data, SAR data.
Activities of private companies were also summarized in a special edition (Vol.
50, No.4, 2011). The RSSJ (2011) also published a special edition journal andsummarized the usage of high resolution satellite images.

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Workshops and seminar were held in all over the country as well as Tohoku. The
Forest Conservation and Management Group checked all the coastal forest using
satellite remote sensing data and proposed rehabilitation plans according to thesite condition (http://www.hozen-ken.jp/index.html). They used Landsat and
SPOT-5 for comparison between pre- and post- disaster situation.
The GeoGrid had a web site from on April 1 to July 16, 2011, to offer ASTER
image data and information about damages derived from ALOS data. ASTER
images are often used in Japan now because no other Japanese satellite has highresolution sensors to observe the land covers.
5. DISCUSSION
Hundreds of digital aerial photos were taken by private survey companies under
the special agreement in case of disaster. Their geo-coded photos (with Japanese
coordinate system) were distributed through the website of GSI. Although they
were very useful to identify the damage level by visual interpretation, it took timeand needed many technicians to interpret the whole damaged area. Many survey
companies also contributed to the event using satellite images.
The International Disaster Charter as well as the Sentinel Asia also madecontributions for this event and offered more than a few thousands of satellite
images. However, because the products were written in English and the
supporting actions were stopped after a few weeks, there was little significant
contribution to the suffering sites. Although International collaboration like IDC
is still important and useful, we would like to recommend to strengthening its
activity.
We would like to add two more recommendations. One is the collaboration innormal situation and the other is the standardization of products. We are verymuch encouraged by many web sites because there were many volunteers whoanalyze remote sensing images. Therefore, remote sensing data must be open to
public as soon as obtained so that any person contributes at each stage of disastermitigation activities. The “satellite observation calendar” which shows theobservation possibilities of all the orbital satellites at a site is also expectant. I
would like to recommend establishing networks or agreements on collaboration
among related institution before a big disaster because we do not have time to
duplicate the same activity at the emergency stage.
As for the standard products, it is necessary to prepare a list of request at eachdisaster stage and location. The standard products may depend on disaster types
and management stage (before a disaster, during a disaster (rescue stage), after adisaster (evacuation), and rehabilitation stage). The standard products must be
mentioned related to the request list so that both producers and users can expect
what products will be come out in geocoding type, scale, color, language, etc.
These products should be used in disaster mitigation drill so that people become
familiar with the remote sensing products.

sensing
were used
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REFERENCES
Aoyama, Takashi, 2012, Monitoring of debris flowing to the ocean by megatsunami caused by the 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku Earthquake,
Proceeding of the 52nd Conference of the Remote Sensing Society of Japan, 269 270
Furuya Takashi, Reo Kimura, Munerari Inoguchi, Keiko Tamura and Haruo
Hayashi, 2012, Visualization skill for common operational picture aimed for theeffective disaster response - Via practical activities in Tohoku district Pacific
Ocean earthquake emergency mapping team in cabinet office, Journal of Disaster
Information Studies, No. 10, 68 -76
Li Yunqing, Mamoru Sugawara and Jun Shibata, 2011, Disaster monitoring of thegreat east Japan earthquake using high resolution satellite, Journal of the Japan
Society of Photogrammetry and remote sensing, 50(4), 210- 215
Mukouyama, Sakae, Yoichi Murashima, Noritoshi Kamagata, Yukio Akamatsu
and Yasuteru Imai, 2011, Rapid extent grasp of the disaster area by The 2011 Off
the Pacific Coast of Tohoku Earthquake through tsunami simulations and multiple
satellite image analyses,? Journal of the Japan Society of Photogrammetry andRemote Sensing, 50(4), 192-197
Ochi, Shiro, Haruo Sawada, Naoki Mitsuzuka, Yoshinobu Nonoguchi, 2012,
Remote Sensing application to damage assessment of coastal forest damaged by
the Tsunami in 2011, Proceeding of 21st Forum on Global Environment andDisaster Risk Information, 33-36
Sawada, Haruo, 2012, Contribution of remote sensing data for the Tohoku
Earthquake, Proceeding of 21st Forum on Global Environment and Disaster Risk
Information, 29-32
RSSJ, 2011, High resolution satellite remote sensing concerning the 2011 off the
Pacific Coast of Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami Disaster, Journal of the Remote
Sensing Society of Japan, 31(3), 344-367
Takenaka, Hideaki, Takashi Y. Nakajima, Hiroaki Kuze, Tamio Takamura,
Teruyuki Nakajima, 2011, The Japan Earthquake Disaster Observed by
Geostationary Satellite “HIMAWARI”, Journal of the Remote Sensing Society ofJapan, 31(3), 338-343
Tanioka, Seiichi, 2011, An urgent air photographing for the 2011 off the Pacificcoast of Tohoku Earthquake, Journal of the Japan Society of Photogrammetry andRemote Sensing, 50(1), 185 -191
Tonooka, Hideyuki, 2011, Great east Japan earthquake seen in ASTER nighttime
thermal infrared imagery, Journal of the Remote Sensing Society of Japan, 31(3),334-337
REFERENCED WEB SITES
AA: Aero Asahi Corporation (in Japanese)
http://ec2-175-41-208-71.ap-northeast-1.compute.amazonaws.com/
AAS: Asia Air Survey Corporation
http://www.ajiko.co.jp/bousai/touhoku2011/touhoku_eng.htm
AIST: The National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology(AIST): Global Earth Observation Grid

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ASTER data distribution through WMS, ASTER time series data, PALSARInSAR for crustal deformation
http://disaster.geogrid.org/
ATR-Promotions Inc.
Software and data set distribution for iPad
http://eq.stroly.com/maps/support
AJG: The Association of Japanese Geographers
http://www.ajg.or.jp/disaster/201103_Tohoku-eq.html
DCRC: Disaster Control Research Center, Tohoku University
Building damage map derived from the interpretation of post- and pre-event aerial
photoshttp://www.tsunami.civil.tohoku.ac.jp/tohoku2011/mapping_damage.html
Center for Satellite Based Crisis Information, DFD, Germany
TerraSAR-X Change Analysis of Sendai Area, Japan
http://www.zki.dlr.de/article/1893
Interactive view of RapidEye satellite images on ZKI GIS-Viewer
http://www.zki.dlr.de/flexviewer2.5/index.html?config=config_japan201103.xml
KKG: Kokusai Kogyo Group (in Japanese)
http://www.kk-grp.jp/english/csr/disaster/201103_touhoku/index.html
GISAJ: GIS Association of Japan
Aerial photographs, tectonic activity, geographic base maps, DEM, Tsunami
affected area map, traffic information
http://rarmis.jp/dpgissig/
GSI: Geospatial Information Authority of Japan, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure,
Transport and Tourism (in Japanese)
http://www.gsi.go.jp/BOUSAI/h23_tohoku.html
HU: Harvard University
Japan Sendai Earthquake Data Portal
http://cegrp.cga.harvard.edu/japan/?q=content/home
Digital archive of 2011 Tohoku Earthquake
http://worldmap.harvard.edu/japanmap/
IDC: International Disaster Charter
http://www.disasterscharter.org/web/charter/activation_details?p_r_p_14154742
52_assetId=ACT-359
IIS: Institute of Industrial Science, The University of TokyoPNG and KML files of GSI aerial photo, KML and SHP files of the Tsunami line
interpreted by the laboratory
http://stlab.iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp/eq_data/index_e.html
JASDIS: Japan Society for Disaster Information Studies
http://www.jasdis.gr.jp/11link/index.html
JAXA: Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency
ALOS and other satellite images /emergency
http://www.eorc.jaxa.jp/imgdata/practical/natural/earthquake/east-japan20110311.php
Image gallery 3) Disaster
http://www.eorc.jaxa.jp/ALOS/gallery/lib_data/j3disaster.htm
Summary of the activities for the Tohoku Earthquake
http://www.jaxa.jp/info_support_j.html
JFA: Forest Conservation and Management Research Group
http://www.hozen-ken.jp/menu/2012-01siryou4.pdf
JSCE: Japan Society of Civil Engineering
http://committees.jsce.or.jp/2011quake/
JSI: Japan Space Imaging Corporation
http://www.spaceimaging.co.jp/EastJapanEarthquake/tabid/576/Default.aspx
How remote sensingHow
dataremotewere used
for data
the Tohoku
Earthquake
sensing
were used
for the Tohoku Earthquake

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JSPRS: Japan Society of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing
http://www.jsprs.jp/action.html
MapionAerial Photo and Information on Land marks
http://www.mapion.co.jp/feature/eq2011/hisaichi.html
NICT: National Institute of Information and Communications Technology
airborne Pi-SAR2 images on 2011/03/12 and 2011/03/18
http://www2.nict.go.jp/pub/whatsnew/press/h22/announce110312/index.html
NARO: National Agriculture and Food Research Organization
GSI aerial photo distribution through WMS
http://www.finds.jp/independent/tohoku/index.html
NIED: National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention
Aerial photos and ALOS data distribution through WMS (tentative)
http://bosai-drip.jp/alos/wms.htm
Satellite images, aerial photography, traffic information, map of evacuation center,other geographic maps, list of related sites
http://all311.ecom-plat.jp/
NTNU: National Taiwan Normal University
Web Map Service
http://140.122.82.87/2011_Japan_Earthquake/index.htm
PASCO Corporation (in Japanese)
http://www.pasco.co.jp/disaster_info/110311/
RSSJ: Remote Sensing Society of Japan
http://www.rssj.or.jp/sinsaihenotorikumi/sinsaihenotorikumi.htm
Tokyo University of Information Science
MODIS support of SAR and Nuclear pollution for 3.11 quake disaster
http://e-asia2.tuis.ac.jp/browse/Sanriku/indexSanriku.html

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The investigation on a potential chemical incident
risk in the area of Ulaanbaatar
Ganzorig TSOGTBAATAR1, Chimedtseren PUREVJAV1, Sodnomragchaa DAGVA2 andAlgirmaa ERDENE-OCHIR3
1
Researcher-chemist, Doctor (Ph.D), The Disaster Research Institute under the National
Emergency Management Agency (DRI under NEMA) of Mongolia
1
Researcher-chemist, Master (M.Sc), DRI under NEMA
2
Specialist of Geo-Hazard Sodnomragchaa Dagva, Master (M.Sc), DRI under NEMA
3
Laboratory assistant, Master (M.Sc), DRI under NEMA
ts_ganzorigmn@yahoo.com , pchimdee@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
Mongolia has become a large importer and user of chemical substance. About 500 typesof chemical, amounting to hundred-thousand tones in total were imported in 2010-2011. The
majority of them are still being stored, traded and used within Ulaanbaatar city, in whichapproximately 40 percent of the total population of Mongolia lives. For these reasons, asignificant portion of Mongolian population is at chemical incident risk of exposure to toxic
and dangerous chemicals.
This study shows the locations of 34 industries and companies that have permission to
store, trade and use extreme toxic and dangerous chemical substances, using GPS, andillustrates them on a map of Ulaanbaatar city. The chemical risk levels in Bayangol and
Khan-Uul districts were higher than of other seven districts, but in within the “acceptablerisk level” according to definition system of the international risk definition. With regard to
the other 6 districts (excepting Songinokhairkhan) chemical incident risks were at “anextreme low level”.
Keywords: chemical incident, hazard, vulnerability, assessment of chemical risk, chemical
toxic and dangerous chemicals (TDCs)
1. INTRODUCTION
Due to the intensive development of the mining, metal refining and other heavy industries
in Mongolia, in the last decade the import, use and variety of toxic and dangerous chemicals
has increased rapidly. Recently, technological or man-made incidents involving thesechemicals have been occurring routinely due to the rapid development of science, techniques
and technology. From 2006 to 2011 approximately 69 chemical incidents were reported in
Mongolia, of which 65% occurred in the metropolitan area of Ulaanbaatar, the capital. In thelast few years, the most highly developed countries have been reducing the improper usage of
toxic and dangerous chemicals (TDCs), through new technology or substitution by non-toxic,
safer substances. In developing countries, however, TDCs are still utilized in mining, heavy

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and light industries, and daily life. In Mongolia, heavy and light industries and mining had
been extensively developed, and subsequently the country has become a large user ofchemicals. Therefore, the assessment of the chemical incident risk and hazard created by
TDCs must be carried out in the country.
The aims of this study were to find the location of those industries and other entities thathave permission to store, trade and use TDCs in the 9 districts of Ulaanbaatar city, to classify
the relevant chemicals according to their hazard and toxicity effects, to determine the amountused, stored and traded, to assess potential hazards, vulnerabilities and risks, and to map theseon Ulaanbaatar city.
Basic concepts concerning chemical incident risk
Directly or indirectly, chemical incidents affect the health and life-expectancy of humans
and animals, and can contaminate the environment. The effects can last from a few minutes tomany decades. In this they are very different to other man-made or natural disasters. Chemical
incidents can be caused by people, or by the impact of flood, fire, earthquake, lightning orother natural phenomenon [1]. If air and water are contaminated by chemicals, the effects ofchemical incidents can be wide-ranging, being felt well beyond the actual location of theincident. These contaminated environments negatively affect the routine of daily human life,and completely destroy the ecological balance and natural stability [2].
Chemical incidents are generated mostly by disasters or natural hazardous phenomenon,
human fault and accidently activity, errors in industrial processes and through the wear andtear of equipment and devices. TDCs released for the above reasons have a hazardous effecton humans and the environments. There are several pathways for human exposure to TDCs,
including dermal, inhalation and ingestion.
Generally, in the event of an incident the hazard zone is defined by the exposed area andsite. In contrast, a chemical hazard is classified by permissible human exposure limits to
TDCs. Chemical substances show the following effects on humans, animals, the environment
and property:
1. Exposure hazard
2. Fire hazard and exposure hazard to a toxic substance generated by the fire
3. Explosion and exposure hazard to a toxic substance generated by the explosion.
Chemical incident risk is defined commonly by the probability of human death (bynumber per year) as a result of exposure to the chemical substance in the incident zones.
Sometimes, however, this number cannot be estimated for each risk [3,4]. In order to calculate
the chemical incident risk, the following factors must be determined:-

Hazard of TDCs
Vulnerability of human and environments exposed to TDCs
Probability of chemical incidents occurring
Capacity to fight and respond to a chemical incident and its consequences.

Further, an assessment of chemical incident hazard (ACIH) can determine the source ofpotential hazards. In particular, environmental conditions, geo-location, geographicalinformation, human settlement patterns, population density, information about chemicalstorage, manufacture, utilization and sales, pathways of exposure to the chemicals, probabilityof exposure, information concerning dangerous chemical industry and enterprise, reports on
previous assessments of chemical incident hazards and risks, and information of damage etc,

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are used in ACIH. As well, factors that can increase the strength of the hazard must be
revealed. For ACIH it is necessary to create a methodology for reducing possible hazards, tomap hazard zones, to study hazard frequency, to compare primary and secondary negative
effects of hazards with relevant standards and norms.
As defined by the Law on Disaster Protection of Mongolia, disaster vulnerability meansthat humans, animals, property and the environment are exposed to possible hazards. The
vulnerability of exposure to chemicals is determined by numerous factors, such as the hazard
type and characteristics of exposure, the capacity to combat and recover from chemical
incidents, and human population within the relevant area [5]. Commonly, the assessment ofchemical incident vulnerability (ACIV) is done using the measurement of a statisticalprobability. Some Chinese scientists have created a two-fold classification of generalvulnerability, by the following [6,7]:
1. Physical2. Social
These vulnerabilities do not only depend on the chemical and physical nature of the incident,
but also on the social and economic characteristics of those exposed to the chemicals. In orderto have the capacity to mitigate a chemical event, it is necessary to not only co-ordinate thevarious responses, but also to adequately assess the character of the incident. The capacity to
mitigate a chemical incident is affected by the assessment of the incident scenario, theutilization of response forces, the adequacy of relevant rules, laws and guidelines, and theeffectiveness of integrated training, public announcements and the skills of responsible
agencies.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Materials and objects
In this study, the following materials and objects were selected and used carefully:
1. Industries, companies and enterprises that have permission to store, trade and use toxic
and dangerous chemicals in the territory of Ulaanbaatar city (excepting import, export,
and transit of explosive substances).
2. Dangerous chemical facilities
3. All information, reports and statistical data about the population of Ulaanbaatar city,
its districts and sub-district (khoroo), its territory and location, and other crucial
factors
4. All information, reports and MSDS about chemical substances
Methods
Basic research methods such as statistical analysis, comparison and deduction were used inthis study. The assessment of the chemical incident risk in the territory of Ulaanbaatar citywere carried out using the below-mentioned 6 methods used by Russia, Canada, India andsome European countries that could be applied to Mongolian social, environmental andeconomic conditions.

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1. The methodology for previous estimations of the area of exposure to TDCs and hazard
zones when incidents have happened involving dangerous chemical objects andfacilities [8, 9].
2. The methodology to assess the quantitative risk to human health preliminary bychemicals [10].
3. The methodology to assess chemical incident vulnerability [7].
4. The methodology for chemical incident risk assessment. Chemical incident risk
consists of chemical hazard, vulnerability and probability of death by exposure tochemicals. It is estimated 2 ways.

Where:
CR – Chemical incident risk
H – Number of people exposed to chemicals (exposed people/total people)
V- Vulnerability (as from 1 to 4 points)
Р- Quantitative probability of death from incident
F- Incident probability (number of incidents per person)

(1.1)
(1.2)

Quantitative probability of death by incident was estimated by the following formula:(1.3)
Where:
К- number of deaths
Ya- number of total years that incident happened
ТР- total population
Incident probability (number of incidents per person) was estimated by the following
formula::(1.4)
Where:
А- number of chemical incidents
Ya- number of total years that incident happened
ТР- total population
5. Risk ranking matrix. TDCs released by chemical incidents badly affect human healthand cause environmental contamination. Therefore, the assessment of acute exposureof humans is the most important for assessing impacts of chronic exposure to CTDSs.
Based on the following 2 factors, the matrix reveals whether the location of dangerous
chemical industries, companies and enterprises would be suitable or not [11,12].
IRF (individual risk factor)= [as risk potential per year]
GSRF (geo-social risk factors) = [км-2/year]
6. Disaster risk levels. The risk level based on disaster risk quantitative assessment isused to design a risk management strategy [3].

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3. RESULTS•

The research on CTDSs used in the range of 9 districts of Ulaanbaatar city

In the last few years, the usage of TDCs and the number of chemical incidents that haveoccurred in Mongolia have increased significantly. Between 2004 and 2007, there were 20
reported chemical incidents, and between 2008 and 2010 this number increased to 48 [13,14].
According to data given by the Ministry of Nature, Environment and Tourism, approximately
360 enterprises and individuals had permission to use, sell and store TDCs, excepting
explosive substances, in 2010. 15% of these were located in the provinces, while 85%(approximately 260 companies or individuals) were in the Ulaanbaatar area. About 30% of thelatter have immediately transported chemical substances to the provinces, but 182 store thechemicals in the Ulaanbaatar area. As this study found, about 80% of those relevant
companies registered in the territory of Ulaanbaatar city are located in Bayangol, Khan-Uul
and Songinokhairkhan districts (figure 1).

Figure 1: Distribution of industries, companies, enterprise and individuals had permission
for use, sell and store CTDSs located in Ulaanbaatar city
In order to map chemical hazard, vulnerability and risk, firstly the toxicological data andamount of CTDS used and stored in a certain area have to be characterized and determined.
Therefore, 34 industries and entities that have permission to store, trade and use chemical
extreme toxic and dangerous chemicals in Ulaanbaatar city were placed using GPS, andresearch on the hazard, vulnerability and risk of 18 companies was carried out.
Ammonium, sodium cyanide, organic and non-organic acid and alkali, and organic
solvents for cooling and freezing systems, the leather, fur and wool factories, mining,laboratories and cleaning have been used and stored commonly in the area of Ulaanbaatar city.
In the area of the 9 districts, 17 individuals that use ammonium, classified as a toxic andflammable substance, 5 individuals that use cyanide, classified as extremely toxic, 65
individuals that use acid and alkali, classified as toxic, corrosive and oxidative, and 17

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individuals that use organic solvents classified as extremely toxic and flammable have been
mapped in this study (table 1) [15,16].
Table 1: The number of companies that use and store some widespreadhigh-toxic and dangerous substances

District

Ammonium Sodium
cyanideBayangol
4
1
Chingeltei
1
Sukhbaatar
Khan-Uul
4
1
Songinokhairkhan 6
2Bayanzurkh
1
Total
15
5

Acid

Alkali

8
3
11
10
8
4
44

4
1
3
9
3
1
21

Organic
solution
4
1
4
2
4
2
17

Total
21
6
18
26
23
8
102

Generally, extreme toxic and hazardous substances have been used and stored in highlypopulated districts of Ulaanbaatar city such as Khan-Uul, Songinokhairkhan, Bayangol andBayanzurkh. Therefore, it is necessary to organize government and private enterprise toensure the safe use and storage of hazardous chemicals and eliminate weak points.
•

Potential exposure and hazard areas from the direct release of toxic or dangerous
chemical liquids and volatile substances from dangerous chemical objects in
Ulaanbaatar

The exposure and hazard areas from an incident involving liquid and volatile chemical
substances were estimated by methodology 1 above. A mapping of exposure and hazard areasfrom the direct release of toxic or dangerous liquids and volatile substances from dangerous
chemical objects located in Ulaanbaatar city was made based on this estimation, as is shownin figure 2.

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Figure 2: Exposure and hazard area by the direct release of toxic and dangerous liquids andvolatile substances from dangerous chemical objects in Ulaanbaatar

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410

A mapping and assessment of chemical hazard, vulnerability and risk in Ulaanbaatar city

7
8
9

18
19
6

32

16
4
24
20
2

Sub-district
number1,2

7x10-2
3x10-49x10-4
1x10-10
2.5x10-2
4x10-34x10-2
3x10-430 км21 км2
3.5 км2
0.2 км2

GSRF

34.6 км2
0.2 км2
1.2 км2
29,5 км20Territory size
exposed to hazard(км2)3

3 х10-2
1 х10-2
1 х 10-3

6 х 10-1

6 х 10-1
1 х10-3
1 х 10-4
10 х10-1
4 х10-4

Human number of
exposure/hazard rate
(person exposed/total
people)4

1
2
1

3

3
1
1
3
1

Vulnerability (0-3points)51.5х10-6
1.5х10-6
1.4x10-5

3.6х10-6

2.1х10-5
5.4х10-5
4.5х10-6
4.8х10-6
2х10-4

Incident probability perperson (F) (person-1*incident number)

0.45х10-7
0.3х10-7
0.14x10-7

0.65х10-50.37х10-4
0.5х10-80.45х10-90.14х10-4
0.8х10-7

Potential risk
( person exposed/total
people/year) (IRF and CR)

2-The report on Ulaanbaatar city by 2011
- Enhancing Policies and Practices for Ger Area Development in Ulaanbaatar (2010)3- The results of estimation of the area of exposure to CTHSs and hazard zones if a chemical incident happened at a dangerous chemical object facility that use
massive liquid and volatile substances
4- Human number in possible hazard zone and exposure area (person exposed/total people)
5- Human vulnerability based on human situation in the area of exposure to CTHSs and hazard zones (as points)
6- Incident probability based on chemical incident occurring between 2006-2011 (person/year)

1

Khan-Uul
Baganuur
Bayanzurkh
Bayangol
Bagakhangai
SonginokhairkhanSukhbaatar
Chingeltei
Nalaikh

1
2
3
4
5

6

District№

Table 2: Chemical incident risk level (by districts)

The chemical incident risk was carried out with methodology 4, and illustrated in Table 2. Based on results shown in this table, it wasdetermined by methodology 5 whether the location of chemical manufactures and users, as well as market and storage facilities in a certain area
were suitable or unsuitable for that area (shown in Table 3). The chemical risk level of 9 districts, determined, based on this chemical incident
quantitative risk, according to methodology 6, is presented in table 4. The mappings of possible chemical incident hazard, vulnerability and riskin Ulaanbaatar city are shown in figures 3, 4 and 5, respectively.

•

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Table 3: Chemical risk rank of 9 districts
IRF
GSRF

Low risk zone
(GSRF < 10-3)

High risk(IRF > 10-4)

Medium risk
(10-4>IRF>10-5)

CSS

Medium risk zone
U
CS: Khan-Uul(10-3 ≤ GSRF <10-2)
High risk zone
U
U: Bayangol(10-2 ≤ GSRF <10-1)
Extreme high risk
UUzone (GSRF > 10-3)
U- unsuitable, CS-conditionally, S-suitable

Low risk(10-5>IRF>10-6)

Very low risk
(IRF <10-6)

S

S: Bayanzurkh,
Baganuur,
Nalaikh,
Bagakhangai

S

S: Sukhbaatar

CS:
Songinokhairkhan

S: Chingeltei

U

CS

Table 4: Chemical risk of districts by a disaster risk level
Risk classification

Risk level as color

Risk level

Quantitative meaning

Remote10-8-10-7

1

Other 6 districts

Low

10-7-10-62Songinokhairkhan

Permissible

10-6-10-4

3

Khan-Uul, Bayangol

Dangerous

10-4-10-3

4Emergency

10-3-10-2

5

Figure 3: A mapping of chemical incident hazard
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Mongolia

Figure 4: A mapping of chemical incident vulnerability

Figure 5: A mapping of chemical incident risk

CONCLUSION
The aims of this study were to find the location of industries and entities thathave permission to store, trade and use TDCs in the 9 districts of Ulaanbaatar city,

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to classify them according to the hazard and toxicity effects of the chemicals
utilized by them, to determine the amount of usage, storage and trade, and also toassess the potential chemical incident hazard, vulnerability and risk, by mappingthem in the territory of the 9 districts of Ulaanbaatar city. The following results
were revealed as this study.
1. Large amounts of chemical substances with high hazard rate were usedand stored in Bayangol, Khan-Uul, Songinokhairkhan, Bayanzurkh
districts.
2. The estimation of the human population who live in areas of highchemical exposure and hazard was done for each district. Human numbers
exposed to potential chemical incident hazards in Bayangol district was
the highest or 10х10-1, and Songinokhairkhan and Khan-Uul were 6x10-1,
respectively. In contrast, human numbers exposed to potential chemical
incident hazards in Sukhbaatar, Chingeltei, Baganuur and Nalaikh districts
was much lower than these, at 10-2-10-3. With regard to Bayanzurkh andBagakhangai districts, they were the lowest at 10-4.
3. The vulnerability of the population of Bayangol and Songinokhairkhan to
TDCs was the highest, with Khan-Uul and Chingeltei districts lower andother five districts the lowest.
4. Comparing the results of this study to the international risk level, thechemical risk levels of Bayangol and Khan-Uul districts were higher thanof other seven districts, but within acceptable risk levels according to thedefinition system of the international risk level. With regard to other 6
district, except Songinokhairkhan, chemical incident risks were in extreme
low level.
SUGGESTIONS
Based on above-mentioned results, the following suggestions could be presented
officially:- To develop a policy on potential chemical incident hazards and risk
prevention, and preparedness and capacity to fight such incidents by the
National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA);- To control chemical substance seller and buyer, as well as to improve
control on the usage, utilization and storage of toxic and dangerous
chemical substances by NEMA
- To improve cooperation and relation between governmental organizations
such as NEMA, the Police Department, State Professional Inspection
Agency and others;- To exchange practice and information and to organize training andseminar periodically within governmental organizations in order toimprove knowledge and skill of related inspectors and staffs concerning
the inspection and control on the usage, utilization and storage of toxic anddangerous chemical substances;- Scientific institutes and governmental organizations should co-operate indeciding zoning for companies and industries that use, store and sell

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chemical substances in order to provide for the safety and security ofsociety and the population;- To enhance activities of training and education of the public aboutchemical hazards.
- To tighten regulations concerning the usage, storage and transportation ofchemical substances;- To do assessments of chemical incident risk by related organizations;
These suggestions could support the reduction of chemical hazard and risk in
Ulaanbaatar city.
REFERENCE
1. Battogtokh, P., Bayarjargal, B., 2006. Guide on Disaster and accident
protection. Reserarch Institute under the National Emergency Management
Agency, Ulaanbaatar
2. Anand S Arya., Anup Karanth., Ankush Agarwal., 2008. Hazards, Disasters
and Your Community. Gol-UNDP Disaster Risk Management Programme.
New Delhi, India.
3. Bayarjargal, B., Khurelsukh, S., Serjmaydag, D., 2010. Disaster Management.
The Disaster Research Institute, Ulaanbaatar.
4. Renjith, V, R., Madhuh, G., 2010. Individual and societal risk analesis andmapping of human vulnerability to chemical accidents in the vicinity of anindustrial area. International Journal Of Applied Engineering Research,
Dindigul, Vol 1, №1, ISSN-0976-4259.
5. Cutter, S, L., 1996. Vulnerability to environmental hazards. Progress in
Human Geography, Vol. 20.
6. Cutter, S, L., Mitchell, J, T., Scott, M, S., 2000. Revealing the vulnerability ofpeople and places: a case study of Georgetown County, South Carolina.
Association of American Geographers, Vol. 90.
7. Fengying Li., Jun Bi., Lei Huang., Changsheng Qu., Jei Yang., Quanmin Bu.,2010. Mapping human Vulnerability to chemical accidents in the vicinity ofchemical industry parks. Journal of Hazardous Materials, Vol.179.
8. Law of Mongolia on chemical toxic and hazardous substances, 2006.
Ulaanbaatar
9. “Методика
прогнозирования
масштабов
заражения
сильнодействующими
ядовитыми
веществами
приавариях
(разрушениях) на химически опасных объектах и транспорте”. (1991).
РД52.04.253-90.
10. Part I: Guidance on Human Health Preliminary Quantitative Risk Assessment,
2004. Environmental Health Assessment Services Safe Environments
Programme, Canada.
11. Gurjar, B, R., 1999. Environment Risk Analysis for Industrial Sitting,
Planning Management. PhD Thesis, Centre For Atmospheric Sciences, Indian
Institute of Technology, New Delhi.
12. Gurjar, B, R., Manju Mohan., 2003. Integrated risk analysis for acute andchronic exposure to toxic chemicals. Journal of Hazardous Materials, Vol.
A103.

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13. The report on hazardous phenomena and incident happened in Mongolia in
between 2000-2009
14. “The report on disaster situation of Mongolia in between 2004-2011
15. Guideline on chemical toxic and hazardous substance, 2010. Ulaanbaatar
16. List of companies and industries that have permission to use chemicals by
Ministry of Nature, Environment and Tourism, 2011

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Ulaanbaatar
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The application of geoinformation for emergency
management and hazard
CPT. D.Sodnomragchaa1
CPT. Doc.V.Batsaikhan2, Ts.Naranbolor3, CPT. Ts.Ganzorig3, Justin D Pummil4
Disaster Research Institute under NEMA of Mongolia1,2
US Army corps of Engineers4
E-mail: Sodnomragchaa@msn.com
vbatsaikhan@yahoo.com
Tel: +976-98888148

ABSTRACT
Mongolia is an ancient nation with nomadic origin. It has an area of 1.565 million square km, andis located between Russia and China. Mongolian total population is approximately 3 million. The
main administrative divisions are in Ulaanbaatar city region, the 21 provinces. The Provinces are
subdivided into Soums and Bags. Ulaanbaatar city is divided by Districts and Sub-Districts.
Ulaanbaatar is the capital city of Mongolia and has close to 1.5 million registered population in2015 and 470 thousand hectares of territory. The city administrative units include 9 districts, which
are subdivided into sub-district. Two districts are located outside of the city boundary. Ulaanbaatar
have more than 40 percent of the country’s population. In Mongolia, which has a total population of
3 million, this implies that floods are not only natural hazards, but also an issue of national security.
Changes of local and statistics say 60% of populations are community on human made disaster,natural disaster mostly flood and earthquake risk area of Ulaanbaatar. Therefore, human madedisaster chemical accident and radical’s accident. The climate warming in Ulaanbaatar over thelast 65 years has been 2.4oC, which is 30% higher than national average. Faster the climate change,
greater the risk of disasters. Forest area around the city decreased significantly since early 1990s,
due to forest fires and particularly due to the consumption of “free of charge” natural resources(including aggressive woodcutting for housing, furniture and firewood). Ground water levels
increased while permafrost thickness decreased by 20-30 cm in the last 8 years. Heavily degradedsoil leads to increase in floods and related damages. There is an increasing tendency of runoff
coefficient that indicates increased degradation of vegetation cover in the river basins of the city.
The aim of work is to make emergency hazard zone maps of Ulaanbaatar city by using time series data
derived from SAR data and GIS layers (LULC, Canal, Road, Bridge) derived from high resolution
Worldview image, ALOS PALSAR, disaster information data. Software are used the ERDAS, ArcGIS,
Google hybrid map downloader. Most important is to detect how much people and area will be affect by
disaster. therefore I m trying to detect emergency zone of Ulaanbaatar city for example to detect hazard
zone using result of object fire, chemical and radical accident, earthquake and geographic information
system.
Keywords: remote sensing, geographic information system, erdas, arcgis, alos palsar, lulc-land use
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1. INTRODUCTION
Urbanization is a worldwide phenomenon. While urbanization pattern has not been determined
academically across different areas, it is essential to understand urban development to avoid
environmental problems due to urban sprawl. Urban sprawl, excessive spatial growth of cities, is causedby complex driving forces (social, economical, political, and physical ones), their interactions, andassociated processesi. The pattern of urban sprawl should therefore be considered in each area in orderto realize desirable landscape and manage the natural environment.
Although Mongolia has abundant natural lands and a traditional nomadic culture, its population
is mainly concentrated in Ulaanbaatar, the capital of Mongolia, where it increased rapidly from 0.58
million in 1992 to over 1.3 million in 2012 due to migration (National Statistical Office of Mongolia).
Some parts of the privatized areas are called “ger-areas” because most of the immigrants build
gers (traditional and portable Mongolian residences) or block houses enclosed by fences, shown in Fig.1,
and these areas account for about 60% of Ulaanbaatar city’s population (UN-Habitat 2010). Some ofthem live dangerous area. Although it is easy for people to build fence on a land and acquire it, modern
infrastructures, such as piped water, sanitation, proper roads, public transportation, and heating systems,
have not been improved. Ger-areas also have negative impacts on the human and natural environment
due to unplanned and haphazard expansion. One of matter is discompose which inadequate new higher
building area in center of Ulaanbaatar city.
Accordingly, to use new space technology for to monitor dangerous area, to detect emergency
zone for emergency situation this will be affect. The aim is how Geo-information application is usefulfor emergency management. Likewise to make emergency hazard zone maps of Ulaanbaatar city byusing time series data derived from SAR data and GIS layers (LULC, Canal, Road, and Bridge) derived
from high resolution Worldview image, ALOS PALSAR, disaster information data. Software are used
the ERDAS, ArcGIS, Google hybrid map downloader. Most important is to detect how much people
and area will be affect by disaster. Therefore I’ m trying to detect emergency zone of Ulaanbaatar city
for example to detect hazard zone using result of object fire, chemical and radical accident, earthquake
and geographic information system.
Rationale
9 Planning and management of disaster process requires data as a support to take decision.
9 If the data is on paper or even in computers in tabular format, it can’t be as useful as data
represented on maps because this can’t enable us to create various thematic analyses ad hoc.
It is said that –A Picture is worth a Thousand Words…
Objective
9 To create emergency zone maps using conventional and remote sensing data
9 To create the emergency maps based on multi-temporal emergency maps integrated with other
GIS thematic layers
9 To create an emergency database for disaster situation and disaster research work.

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Fig. 1: Ger-areas in the sprawling areas of Ulaanbaatar
2. METHODOLOGY
1. Google maps 2012
2. World view 2 image
3. Toposheet

ALOS PALSARSRTM DEM
Pre-Processing

GIS Layers‐ Buildings‐ Drainage‐ River‐ Fence(LULC data)

High Resolution DEM

Disaster information
data
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

ChemicalFire
Radiation
Flood
Earthquake

Process in HEC-RAS, ERDAS, ArcGIS software
Disaster emergency zone maps

Fig: 2. Methodology to identify the areas subject to Emergency zone creation
3. Geo-Information for disaster3.1. Remote Sensing is a technology that detects and monitors the movement of natural hazards
and their parameters and disaster situation by measuring the electromagnetic waves reflected or emitted
from the related natural object. Space information derived through remote sensing methods is divided
into two types: active-radar and inactive-optic.
Remote sensing is now widely used in all sectors of Mongolia. NEMA cooperates with many
foreign and domestic organizations, which are engaged in geo-information.
Currently, NEMA receives information from NOAA AVHRR and TERRA MODIS satellites
whose precision is 250-1000 meters to monitor forest and steppe fires, droughts, dzud (heavy snow) andstrong snow and dust storms, and evaluate disaster situations. Those data are very useful for monitoring
natural disaster supported from Environment information center. Also NEMA is using WINDS satellite
ground antenna for disaster situation supported from JAXA. Fig.3

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Fig.3. Forest fire detected from MODIS Vegetation index from MODIS satellite
satellite image
Forest fire risk. The risk of forest fires is high in Mongolia during the dryer seasons of the year. Firerisk in the Bogd Mountain forests has been analyzed using high precision 3-dimensional 5RTM satellite
imaging. (Figure 4 and 5)

Fig.4. Vegetation index of Bogd khan mountain, Ulaanbaatar (the result is classification of ASTER andLandsat DATA)

Through spatial analysis by GIS and coding certain attributes of GIS images by
their contribution to the risk of catching fire, we have sorted the total forest areas of Bogd
Mountain into smaller segments by their risk of catching fire. The following
mathematical and statistical formula has been used in the process:
Risk of catching fire = 1 +100Vegetation+50Slope+40Winddirection+30Altitute+20 Distance from a road+10Distance from thenearest settlement
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The above formula and its risk coefficients of 100, 507 40, 30, 20 and 10 weredevised based on experiments conducted in the cold and dry territories of Canada. Basedon this formula, Bogd Mountain does not have a forest segment that has no or very little
risk of forest fires. The Mountain is under high risk of forest fires because it issurrounded by human settlements and is under the constant influence of human activities.
Therefore, forest fires in the Bogd Mountain area tends to increase, which is related tothe socio-economic development, poverty, and density of human settlements around themountain. The table below shows the sizes of areas that are under different levels of riskof forest fires.

Level of risk of forest fires
High
MediumLow
Very low
Total

Area size(ha)16 760. 6 ha
18 765. 69 ha
23 971. 77 ha
0.00 ha59 498. 06 ha

Percentage of the area on the satellite image
28. 17%31.54%
40. 29 %0%
100.00%NDVI

Slope map
Fig.5. Areas of Bogd Mountain with high risk of forest fires (areas depicted in red have high-risk.)
The table divides the territory of the Bogd Mountain into segments by the level of risk of forest
fires based on satellite information, and shows the area size of each category. High precision data fromsatellites is essential in forecasting and monitoring possible disasters through remote sensing technology.
In order to take full advantage of remote sensing technologies, the emergency management institution ofMongolia needs to introduce the modern LIDAR system. LIDAR is a system that monitors earthquake
and flood disasters that has occurred in densely populated settlements, by monitoring the area throughlaser camera, installed in hand-manipulated helicopter, which has the precision to a centimeter.

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2.1. Geographic information system
Geographic information system produces both spatial and characteristically data and information,
which are used for various planning, research and analysis purposes. In the disaster management field,
geographic information systems can play an important role in correcting and preventing from repeatingof any previous mistakes and mishandlings, strengthening disaster protection capacities, and reducing
vulnerabilities and risks.
In my work I have done emergency zone by using RS and GIS data and software, it is possible topinpoint areas with high disaster risk, assess risks and vulnerabilities, promptly plan search and rescue
measures during disasters, manage communication and information during disasters, and provide timely
information to the decision makers and end users during disasters. GIS can be used not only forexchanging information on natural hazards, but also on economic phenomena and environmental
situation. Displaying and analyzing disaster hit areas in 3-dimension through computer programs makes
information easy to understand and utilize.
Moreover, GIS is useful in predicting natural and man-made disasters, and facilitates a certain
level of preparedness by making prompt planning of prevention, response and recovery measurespossible. (Figures 7, 8, 9 and 10)

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Fig. 8 Earthquake risk zone in Ulaanbaatar city

Fig.6. Flood risk zone in Ulaanbaatar city

Fig.9. Radiation risk zone of hospital ontologicalFig.7. Chemical risk zone in Ulaanbaatar city

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Mongolia have 13 type of disaster like Drought, Dzud, Wind storm, Forest
fire, Earthquake etc.. mostly happen forest fire in Mongolian east north. Mongolia
vegetation is divided by 4 types Forest region, orkhon-selenge region,
touchwood region and field region. Fig.10.

Fig.10. Forest fire zoning

Forest fire 1999-2011

climatic hardship 1999-2011

Deseace 1999-2011

Human recue 1999-2011

Fig.11. Natural hazards that have occurred nationwide in 1999-2011
Precision of geographic information is vital in preventing and planning for
preparedness against small-scale disasters, hazards, and accidents that usually
happen at a single structure or construction. Therefore, it is important to create an424

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integrated geographic information database with scales from 1:5000 to 1:100,000
at the national level.
Conclusion
Geographic Information Systems and Remote Sensing systems need to be
introduced to and expanded at the emergency management institutions ofMongolia to improve prevention from possible disasters, supply decision makers
with accurate information during disasters, strengthen the national disasterprotection capacities, and to organize appropriate response and recovery measures.
Although Geographic Information System and Remote Sensing are still
new acquaintances to the emergency management system of Mongolia, the needfor more and better of them is constantly increasing. Therefore, it is necessary to
train the provincial and city level officers of the emergency management
organizations in using the GIS and remote sensing technologies, increase thenumber of GIS and remote sensing specialists, expand partnership andcooperation with organizations in the field of geo-informatics, and promote
projects and programs in this field. Most important one is we need nighresolution satellite image, small scale vector file for analyzing and preparing maps
(disaster management) for who decide during the disaster and planning fordisaster. Particularly It will help to save time, money and workforce.
Also NEMA should have to establish a disaster geo-database and a
Disaster Geo-Database Center in this era of information and communication
technologies would be a huge stride forward in promoting the usage of the GIS
and remote sensing technologies in disaster reduction endeavors.
REFERENCES[1]
Amarsaikhan D., Blotevogel H.H., Chinbat B. Study on Land Use in
Industrial and Green Production Zones of Ulaanbaatar City Using Quickbird
Image. Map Asia 2008. 2008.
[2]
Bruun O.,OdgaardO. Mongolia in transition. RoutledgeCurzon, 1996.
[3]
Amarsaikhan, D., Ganzorig, M. and Moon, T.H., 2005. Application ofmultitemporal RS and GIS data for urban change
studies. Proceedings of the Korean GIS Conference, Busan, Korea, pp. 190-215.
[4]
Bumerdene, Ch. and Chinbat, B, 2003. Some problems in functional
zoning and land use of Ulaanbaatar city, Free press. Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia.
[5]
Chinbat, B., 2005. On a new land use classification and zoning scheme of
Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. Proceedings of Mongolia- Korea Conference in Urban
Planning, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia.
[6]
ERDAS, 1999. Field guide. 5th Ed. ERDAS, Inc. Atlanta,Georgia, USA.
Gonzalez, R. C. and Woods, R. E., 2002. Digital Image Processing. 2nd ed.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
[7].
Herro, M, Onon, N, et al., 2003. Ulaanbaatar rapid needs assessment.
USAID report, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia.
[8].
Hofstee, F., Radnaabazar, G. and Kuffer, M., 2004. Monitoring thedevelopment of informal settlements in Ulaanbaatar,
Mongolia. Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia.

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and hazard
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October 2012, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia[9].
Pohl, C., and Van Genderen, J.L., 1998. Multisensor image fusion inremote sensing: concepts, methods and applications. International Journal of
Remote Sensing, 19, pp. 823-854.
iFang et al. 2005; Gimblett et al. 2001; Weber 2003

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and hazard

Successful solution of water ecology andeconomy in consumption of apartment
Enkhtungalag SH., Batbileg Enkhbat and Bulgan Zorig
Department of Architecture and cartography
The School of Construction Engineer and Architecture,
The Mongolian University of Science and Technology,

REVIEW
Urgent issues
Water shortage problem is facing to the world and especially the urgent problem
in Mongolia. Because of the water shortage, 1.1 billion people are using poor
quality water all over the world and 1.8 million children pass away per year 4900
per day.
According to the Ikh Zasag Law of Chinggis Khan, a person who damages thewater along the mountain, trees along the water and entail shall sentence to death.
If use the water only for the pureness, you won’t know the benefits of water. Our
body consist of water. All cells are covered of water and 70% of our body consistsof water.
Trees and water are connected. The tree is the important thing to save the water.
According to the study: By 2011 the forest decreased by 30%. If consider thisdegeneration continues as upon speed, there are no forest after 20 years and small
rivers will dry.
The Purest Tuul River which is too deep to be crossed by a horseman, is dried tothe soil of the ground because of insufficient water to feed its fish. The River
treated the black shadows of this city. Supplying bushes were cut and waste waterwith chemical toxic from industries of machine techniques and fur and leather
production are flowing to Tuul River. There are many species of animals arebeing destroyed along the river. This sorrowful event are facing to the all rivers ofMongolia.
The water resources are non-renewable and we are going to buy the water.
Because of the inappropriate utilization of Tuul’s water, the fish and other species
are completely extinct, but Mongolians are still singing “The Stream of River
Tuul is beautiful during the night”.
STUDY
Resources of surface ground water of Mongolia are 500 m3 and 85% of these arepure water. According to the study of 2011, there are 4276 rivers, 6857 fountains,
3800 lakes and 225 ice-rivers in Mongolia, but 1662 dried only for year.
12,5% for agriculture, 8,25% for industry, 22,1% for mining, 15,3% for
population and 24% used for the electrical power from the total water
consumption.

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Mongolia

Total water supply of our country is from the underground water resources. Thereis no other country like Mongolia. We should economically use our water
resources, but:
• Thousand of cars washed by drinking water•

Sauna and swimming pools limitlessly using the drinking water•

Agriculture is being watered by drinking water•

And washing our toilet by drinking water

We should stop to clean the toilet by drinking water!!!
But other countries use recycled water named “grey water” for the toilet. Our
country were talking about it for many years. The government made theamendments to the law of water supply and sewage. In this law, stated that thewastewater from home water consumption shall be named the “Grey water”.
Home wastewater is the wastewater from sink, shower, bath, water closet andother pipes of apartments and industries. The grey water is possible to be used in
newly constructed apartments. But the Water Administration Office noticed thatthe grey water is not possible to be used in apartments in further 10 years.
The apartment resident uses 204 liters of water per day and “Ger” district
resident uses 7 liters per day. /Water Administration Office/
10 liters of water need for one toilet flush. And we use one person water usage for
one toilet flush.
Averagely 4 people live in 1 family. /According to study of 2010/.
1 person goes to toilet 3 times per year and 1 family uses 120 liters of water per
day for toilet flushes.
100, 000 families live in apartments in Ulaanbaatar, and they use 12,000,000
drinking water for toilet flushes, it is 1,500,000 people’s drinking water
consumption.
PURPOSEWe invented the technology and equipment to use the grey water for toilet flushes
in order to protect our nature and economy, to keep the ecological stabilization ofdrinking water and to reach the international standard.
APPROACH TO EXECUTE

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We areWegoing
are going
to install
to install
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after takeafter atake
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up. Andup. completely
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and it andwill itautomaticallywill automaticallypumpspumps
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vacuumvacuumpump pumprequiresrequires
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and
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10 ofliterswaterof waterin 10 seconds.
in 10 seconds.
The Thewater waterof toiletof flusher
toilet flusher
is fromis thefrom
middlethe middleof greyofwater
grey water
becausebecausethe purest
the purest
water water
will bewill
in middle
be in middleof the oftank.
the Because
tank. Because
the bubbles
the bubbles
and soap
andfloatssoap floats
in abovein aboveand andheavy heavy
cells sinks
cells tosinks
the tobelow
the belowof the oftank.
the Watertank. Water
tank capacity
tank capacity
is 45 liters.
is 45 liters.
Water Water
resources
resourcesof the oftanktheistankrenewable
is renewablebecausebecausepeoplepeople
wash theirwash handtheir after
hand goafter
to go totoilet. toilet.
And vacuum
And vacuum
pump pump
has thehassensorthe sensor
and works
and works
automatically.
automatically.
FiltersFilters
will bewill belocatedlocatedin startinofstart
sinkofand
sink
bath.
andThesebath. Thesefilters filters
consists
consistsof 2 layersof 2 layers
and topand
filtertophasfilter has
small holes
small andholes
bottomand bottom
one hasone
bighasholes,
big holes,
they filter
theythefilterwastesthe wastes
of tankofandtankprotect
and protect

Successful solutionof waterecologyandeconomyin economy
consumptionof inapartment
Successful
Successful
solutionsolutionof waterofecology
waterecologyandand economy
in consumption
consumptionof apartmentof apartment429

October 2012, Ulaanbaatar,
Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
Mongolia

from block.. The filters are possible to be replaced and cleaned. The grey waters
can meet to the standard requirements by adding the chemical compounds to toilet.
And add the anti-bacterial fluid to the flange of bath in order to protect frombacteria.

Total apartment use 12,000,000 liters of water for the toilet flush per day.
1 liter water=1 tugrugs and we use 12, 000,000 tugrugs for the toilet flush per day.
If this project will successfully run we will save:
360, 000, 000 tugrugs per month
And 4.3 billion per year.
SUMMARY
We can save the daily wasting drinking water by executing this project. And we
can save the total drinking water of Ulaanbaatar by executing this project. Water
shortage problem is not only faced to Mongolia, this is the global issue, theproject can extend the period of water resources of Mongolia by 2 times. If cannot
execute this project, we are still wasting 1,500,000 people’s drinking water perday. But we can save 12,000,000 tugrugs which only for the toilet flush and.
Ulaanbaatar’s people can share the huge investment to water resources and thefuture generation. We can build-up the appropriate use of water which meet to theinternational standard.

430

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Mega
Citiesin AsiaSpatial distribution of heavy metal
contamination in urban soil of Ulaanbaatar
Byambasuren Ts1, Otgontuul Ts1, Shabanova.L.B2,
O.A Proydakova2, I.E Vasileva 2 , Khuukhenkhuu1, Tsedenbaljir D1
1

Institute of Physics and Technology, MAS, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
2
Vinogradov Institute of Geochemistry, SB RAS, Russia
tttuuulll@yahoo.com

ABSTRACTOver than last ten years technogenic environmental pollution of Ulaanbaatar has
become a critical issue due to its rapid growth of population. The surface soil of
Ulaanbaatar is heavily contaminated through air deposition. Therefore, surface
soil contamination with heavy metals could be a good indicator for environmental
pollution. The spatial distributions of heavy metals in Ulaanbaatar soil were
performed in order to evaluate pollution and rick control. In the present work has
been studied the heavy metal contamination of soil samples of Ulaanbaatar
collected in 2003 and 2010 years. The pseudo total concentrations of Pb, Zn, Cu,
Cr, Mn, Ni and Co were determined by FAAS. The pollution index of heavy metals
was calculated on basis of World Clark value and the inverse distance weighting
method of pollution index applied as spatial interpolation technique was
performed by ArcGIS program.
The pollution index was analyzed by number of soil samples and sampled area.
According to the histogram obtained by the number of samples, the pollution
index of soil samples from 2003 and 2010 years showed an ascending order as Ni< Mn < Co< Cu <Cr<Zn < Pb and Mn < Cr< Ni< Co <Cu < Zn< Pb,
respectively, indicating the similar tendency as function of heavy metals. The
results of the spatial distributions of heavy metals in soil samples of 2003 showthat Ulaanbaatar soils are attributed to low level of pollution with Ni < Co < Mn,moderate level of pollution with Cr < Cu, high and extremely high levels ofpollution with Zn and Pb elements, respectively.
Keyword: spatial distribution, Ulaanbaatar, heavy metal
1. INTRODUCTION
According to numerous studies[1-4], soil pollution with heavy metals is mainly
due to the anthropogenic sources caused by industrial and energy production,
construction, vehicular traffic and road infrastructures, waste disposal, as well as
coal and fuel-oil combustion. Heavy metals are particularly dangerous pollutant,because they do not neutralize and decompose like organic and other toxicants, sothey tend to accumulate and persist in urban soils for a long time. On the other
hand, from an environmental point of view, the heavy metals in urban soil can beused as an indicator for air pollution due to their existence for long time. Heavy
metals play a significant role in ecosystem. The soil highly polluted with heavy
metals loses its ecological function to buffer and neutralize toxic substances, andbecomes a secondary source of air and water pollution itself. [4-5]The surface soil contamination of Ulaanbaatar with heavy metal has attracted
serious attention in recent years due to massive migration of rural residents to city431

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Mongolia

resulting in the high-density of urbanization. The urbanization causes the increasein fuel and energy industry such as power plants and low-pressure heating stoves,moreover, the vehicular traffic and road infrastructure. The largest power plant-3,
consumes about 3.5 million tons of coal per year. In Ulaanbaatar, there are morethan 400 low-pressure heating stoves, which use about 1. million tons of lowgrade fuel per year, delivering waste to the atmosphere without any treatment [6 ].
In addition, the about 60% of Ulaanbaatar territory is referred to Ger region,
which burns 572 thousand ton of low-quality coal and 700 cubic meters of woodfor heating. These all energy and heating sources consume about 5.2 million tonsof coal and emit about 200 different types of substances such as ash and slag foreach year. According to the survey of World Bank [7], 47% of air pollution in the
Ger region is due to smoke of coal combustion, while 48% of that is due to soil
pollution. In addition, environmental pollution causes an increase of allergy andcancer among the people, especially children. For example, it has been reported
that 93.77% of respiratory disease and 90.91% of bronchitis among the children
are caused by air pollution. However, there are not enough fundamental
researches on the soil pollution of Ulaanbaatar for the pollution risk control
management. The soil contamination with heavy metals has been only studied fora particular [8-12] and limited [13-16] area of Ulaanbaatar.
The main objective of the present study was to analyze sufficient number of soil
samples collected and measured under the same standards, methods and lab
conditions. The spatial distribution of soil pollution of Ulaanbaatar for Ni, Co, Mn,
Cu, Cr, Zn and Pb elements was obtained by interpolation method using ArcGIS
program. The surface soil of Ulaanbaatar is considerably polluted by Co, Cu, Cr
and heavily polluted by Zn and Pb.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 Study site and sample collection

Figure 1: Soil sampling sites in 2003 (660 sites) and 2010 (330 sites).

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Ulaanbaatar, the capital city of Mongolia stretches about 20 kilometers along theTuul River, and located at an altitude of 1350 m above sea level and in northern
Mongolia. In the Figure 1 is shown the major central part of Ulaanbaatar. Gerregion localized in northern part of city uses untreated coals for heating. In the last
10 years the population of Ulaanbaatar increased rapidly due to migration of rural
populations to the city (the population of city was 600.000 in 1989, while it has
increased to 1,204,000 in 2010 [17]), resulting in uncontrolled expansion of Ger
area (especially in northern part of city) and in increase the number of
constructions, industries and traffic infrastructure.
About 600 samples in 2002-2003 and 70 samples in 2010 were collected, whichsampling points are marked in the Figure 1 with “filled” and “open circles”,
respectively. The samples were collected from the different areas: near power
plants, highways and residential area. The all samples were collected by“envelope” method from the 0-10 cm upper layer according to the MNS 3298-90
standard [18]. Soil samples were dried at room temperature in air-dry condition
and the large inclusions such as manually stones, glass, and plant roots were
removed then sieved and grounded on the instrument Fritsch.
2.2 Chemical analysis
The soil samples are decomposed in various acids solution before determinationof the pseudo-total concentration of elements by AAS. Concentrated chemicallypure acids (HNO3 and H2O2) and deionised water were used for thedecomposition of soil samples and for standard solutions; The calibration standard
solutions for all elements were prepared by diluting the “Ventron” standard
solutions (998-1000 mg/l). The samples treated with a mixture of HNO3 + H2O2acid. The contents of the beaker were heated on a hot plate for 3 hours at atemperature of about 100°C [19-20].
2.3 Determination of the elements concentration by AAS
All measurements were performed on Perkin-ELMER Model 5000 atomic
absorption spectrophotometer with flame atomization (FAAS). For atomizationand determination of heavy metals were used air-acetylene flame and thestandards calibration methods, respectively. The detailed experimental conditions
are given in Table 1.
Table1. Experimental parameters used for FAAS measurements of heavy metals
Lamp
HCl system
Carrier gas
Air
40 dm3 min-1
Flow rate
Fuel gas
Acytelene (H2C2)
Flow rate
20 dm3 min-1
Element
Cu
Pb
Zn
Co
Ni
Cr
Mn
Wavelength, [λ / nm]
324.8 217.0 213.9 240.7 232.0 357.9 279.5
Spectral bandwidth, [nm]
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.2
0.2
0.7
0.2
Lamp intensity, [I / mA]
15
15
15
20
20
15
20
2.4 Interpolation method
The accuracy of heavy metal spatial distribution maps is critical for risk control.
Contaminants always vary greatly over the land surface, so it is very difficult to
Spatial distributionSpatialof heavy
metal contaminationin urbansoil of Ulaanbaatar
distributionof heavy metal
contaminationin urban soil of Ulaanbaatar

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acquire an accurate spatial distribution of heavy metals. The mapping of special
distribution requires the spatial interpolation methods. In the present work, theinverse distance weighting was used as interpolation method and the interpolation
was acquired by ArcGIS program [21-23]. The inverse distance method based on
the premise that the prediction is a linear combination of available data.

where Z(x) is the predicted value at an interpolated point, Zi is value at a known
point, n-total number of known points used in interpolation, d(x,xi) is the distance
between point i and predicted point and p is positive real number.
2.5 The pollution index of heavy metals in surface soil
The pollution index (PI) of heavy metals is defined as the ratio of the metal
concentration in the urban surface soil and the background concentration of thecorresponding metal /ref/:where,
andare the element concentration and natural background value,
respectively. We used the World Clark content of microelements [24] as natural
background value, since approved standard specification of background soil for
Ulaanbaatar region does not yet exist. The pollution index (PI) classified into four
categories [25-27] as shown in Table 3.
5

Table2: Classification of the Pollution Index of heavy metalsPI≤1
low level of pollution
1<PI≤2moderate level of pollution
2<PI≤5high level of pollution
PI>5
extreme high level of pollution

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 The pollution index
The pollution index calculated by equation (1) for all samples collected in 2003
and 2010 are classified according to the pollution levels given in Table 2. The
obtained results (2003) summarized in Table3 show that the heavy metal pollution
level in Ulaanbaatar surface soils increase as Ni < Mn < Co < Cu < Cr < Zn < Pb.
96.8% and 91 % of samples found to be unpolluted and the only 2.8% and 8.7%
are moderately polluted by Ni and Mn, respectively. 50.2% and 37.1% of samples
are unpolluted, 45.1% and 42.7% are moderately polluted by Co and Cu. For Cu,
the amount of samples are associated to highly and extreme highly pollution levelsignificantly increased to 16.4% and 3.7%, respectively. The most of samples
were moderately (47.9%) and highly (43.6%) polluted by Cr, while for Zn andPb the extreme highly polluted samples are considerably increased to 23.2% and43.3%, respectively.
The all samples collected in 2010 found to be low level of soil pollution with Mn< Cr < Ni elements. For Co and Cu, 59% and 70.5% of the soil samples found434

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unpolluted andunpolluted
41% and 16.4%
and 41%of andthe samples
16.4% ofare
theassociatedsamples are
to moderateassociatedlevelto moderateoflevel ofpollution, respectively.
pollution, 9.8%
respectively.
and 11.5%
9.8%or andconsiderable
11.5% or amountconsiderableof theamountsamplesof the samples
are highly polluted
are highly
by Cu
polluted
and Zn,byrespectively,
Cu and Zn, while
respectively,
the largewhileamountthe largeof theamount of thesamples (44.5%)
samplesand (14.7%)(44.5%) are
and highly(14.7%)andareextreme
highly highlyand extreme
pollutedhighlyby Pb,
polluted by Pb,
respectively. respectively.
The pollution The
levelpollutionof samples
level
collecten
of samples
in 2003collecten
and 2010
in 2003are andcompared2010 areIn thecompared In the
Figure 2. TheFigure
obtained
2. Theresults
obtainedshow that
results
the showoverallthatpollution
the overall
index
pollutionof samples
index of samples
collected in 2010
collected
were infound
2010towere
be lowerfoundthanto bethatlower
in 2003than (speciallythat in 2003
for (speciallyCr),
for Cr),which may bewhich
due tomay
factbethatduerelatively
to fact that
low relatively
amount oflow
samplesamountbeing
of samples
analyzed.
being analyzed.
However, the However,trend of thethesoiltrend
pollutionof the soil
levelspollutionaccordinglevelsto elements
accordingwas
to elements
found was foundsimilar, particularly
similar,forparticularly
Zn and Pb for
associatedZn and to
Pbhighassociatedand extremely
to high andhighextremelylevels. high levels.
Table 3: The Table
pollution
3: Theindexpollution
calculatedindex
by calculated
number of bysamplesnumbercollected
of samples
in 2003collected in 2003
and 2010
and 2010(n- number of (nsamples
numberbeing
of samples
analyzed)
being analyzed)

Elements The
Elements
amountTheof sample
amountclassifiedof sample The
classified
amountTheof sample
amount classifiedof sample classified
by pollutionby level
pollution%, (2003),
level %,by (2003),
pollutionby levelpollution%, (2010),
level %, (2010),
n=70
n=600
n=600
n=70
Low Moderate
Low High
Moderate
ExtremeHigh Low
ExtremeModerate
Low High
Moderate
ExtremeHigh Extreme
high
high
high
high
Ni
96.8
Ni
2.8 96.8 0.2
2.8 0.2 0.2 1000.2 100 -Mn
91.0
Mn 8.7 91.0 0.3
8.7 0.3 100- 100 -Co
50.2
Co 45.1 50.2 45.1
4.2
0.5 4.2 59.0
0.5 41.0 59.0 -41.0 Cu
37.1
Cu 42.7 37.1 16.4
42.7 3.7 16.4 70.5
3.7 16.4 70.5 9.8
16.4 3.3 9.8
3.3
Cr
Cr
4.6 47.9 4.6 43.6
47.9 3.9 43.6 1003.9 100 -Zn
Zn 24.5
45.7
24.5 23.2 45.7 39.3
23.2 42.6 39.3 11.5
42.6 6.6 11.5
6.6
6.6
6.6
Pb
Pb
5.5 15.1 5.5 36.1
15.1 43.3 36.1 43.3
8.2 32.8 8.2 44.3
32.8 14.7 44.3 14.7

Figure 2: The
pollutionlevelpollutionof samples
in 2003(1-st incolumn)and column) and
Figure2: Thelevelcollectedof samples
collected
2003 (1-st2010 (2-nd column)
2010 (2-nd column)

Spatialdistributionof heavy
metalcontaminationin urbansoilsoilof Ulaanbaatar
Spatialdistribution
Spatialof heavy
distribution
metalcontaminationof heavy metalincontamination
urban
of in
Ulaanbaatar
urban soil of Ulaanbaatar

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3.2 Spatial distribution of soil pollution
The contour maps of the spatial distribution of heavy metals pollution of
Ulaanbaatar was obtained by interpolation methods (based on inverse distanceweighting) using ArcGIS program for above mentioned elements. The distributionof the pollution levels for these heavy metals was classified according to pollution
level given in Table 2. The derived results are summarized in the Table 4 and inhistogram (Figure 2), while the obtained distribution maps are presented in Figure
3.
Table 4: Pollution level accotiated with Spatial distribution map

Pollution
level
Ni
Co
Mn
Cu
Cr
Zn
Pb

The surface soil area classified by pollution
level %, (2003)
Low
Moderate High
Extreme
high
94.5
4.2
0.7
0.6
47.8
49.1
3.1
0.0
96.2
3.6
0.2
0.0
29.4
31.6
15.7
3.2
1.9
52.1
42.0
3.8
6.0
18.4
60.9
14.7
3.8
9.1
37.7
49.4

Figure 3. Spatial distribution map for pollution level of heavy metals in
Ulaanbaatar soil (2003).

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Figure 4: Pollution index accotiated with Spatial distribution map
From Figure 3 it can be seen that the pollution index of surface soil increases in
the following order: Ni <Co <Mn <Cu <Co <Zn <Pb. The according to thepresent study, the territory of Ulaanbaatar are unpolluted by Ni as the 96.2% ofstudied area associated to low level of soil pollution. The only certain points in the
Ger region are moderately (3.3%), highly (0.4%) and extremely high (0.5%)
polluted by Ni. In case of Co, the amount of low and moderate levels foundalmost the same and equal to about half of studied area and the only small part(3.3%) of area refers to high pollution level. The distribution of the moderate
polluted level is found more densely in the central east region of city associated to
the Ger region. The pollution distribution of Mn as compared with the Co, the lowlevel decreased to 37.8%, moderate level increased to 58.5% and high level(3.5%) has changed slightly. The moderately polluted area is found more dense inall studied region expect of southern part of the centre of city. The pollution
distribution of Cu as compared with the Mn, the highly polluted area increased
significantly to 16.6% due to decrease of the low and moderate polluted area to
31.8% and 48.6%, respectively. The most central and central east region of thecity is moderately polluted by Cu and the highly and extreme highly polluted area
mainly associated to heavy traffic and crossword, industrial and Ger regions. The
present study shows that the territory of Ulaanbaatar is heavily polluted by Cr, Zn
and particularly by Pb. The almost all studied area to be found moderately, highlyand extremely high polluted by these elements. The 53.3% and 43.3% of studied
area are associated to the moderate and high pollution levels. The high pollution
level is more frequently distributed for the central east and particularly central
region.
The distribution of soil pollution level of Zn as compared with the Cr, extremely
highly polluted area are increased from 3.6% to 15.7% as moderately polluted
area decreased from 53.3% to 20.8%. The central and central east regions arehighly polluted, while the central north region is highly and extreme highly
polluted by Zn. For capital of Mongolia, Pb should considered as extremely
dangerous pollutant, because about 86.4% of the studied area found to be highlyand extreme highly polluted by Pb. Furthermore the most part of the central
region of the city is extreme highly polluted by Pb.

Spatial distributionSpatialof heavy
metal contaminationin urbansoil of Ulaanbaatar
distributionof heavy metal
contaminationin urban soil of Ulaanbaatar

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October 2012, Ulaanbaatar,
Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
Mongolia

4 CONCLUSION
The large number of soil samples collected in 2002-2003 and measured under thesame experimental conditions was analyzed for the counter mapping to evaluate
the statement of pollution risk. The spatial distribution of soil pollution of
Ulaanbaatar was evaluated by interpolation method using ArcGIS program for Ni,
Co, Mn, Cu, Cr, Zn and Pb elements. The surface soil of Ulaanbaatar is
considerable polluted by Co, Cu, Cr and heavily polluted by Zn and Pb. In
addition, the obtained results of the present work could be used as fundamental
materials to control the pollution risk and remediate the highly contaminated soils.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support provided by the
Department of Environmental Pollution and Trash Management of the
Ulaanbaatar service affair for soil sampling and measurements.

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Reinforced soil walls damaged by tsunami
impact in the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake
1

Jiro KUWANO 1 and Junichi KOSEKI2
Professor, Geosphere Research Institute, Saitama University, Japan
jkuwano@mail.saitama-u.ac.jp
2
Professor, IIS, The University of Tokyo, Japan

ABSTRACTThe 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku Earthquake of Mw=9.0 with a hugesource region of about 450km by 200km caused extensive damage of various
structures. Damage caused by tsunami was tremendous and a lot of lives were lost.
Besides the damage of concrete structures, seawalls were seriously damaged
probably due to scouring. On the other hand some reinforced soil walls were
found to be damaged little, though they were inundated with tsunami. Suchreinforced soil walls are introduced in this paper together with the reinforced soil
which was seriously damaged by the tsunami. Some reinforced soil walls haveconcrete facing panels, but some have metal mesh facing panels. The walls withthe mesh facing were not seriously damaged with limited sucking out of backfill
owing to vegetation and protection sheet. However, some damage was found at
the backfill and facing panels where the soil was not properly covered andprotected against erosion.
Keywords: reinforced soil wall, tsunami, erosion, backfill, facing
1. INTRODUCTION
The 2011 off the Pacific coast of
Tohoku Earthquake (The 2011
Tohoku Earthquake) of Mw=9.0
with a huge source region of
about 450 km by 200 km
occurred on March 11, 2011 asshown in Figure 1 (USGS, 2012a).
It is the largest earthquake everrecorded in Japan and the fourthlargest in the world after 1900
(USGS, 2012b). Almost 20,000
people are dead or missing by thisearthquake. Tsunami was themost serious impact of theearthquake. Figure 2 is a tsunami
heightsurveyresultmap(Tsunami Joint Survey Group,2012) showing that inundation Figure 1: Source region and seismic intensity449

October 2012, Ulaanbaatar,
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Rikuzentakata

Figure 2: Modified map of tsunami height survey results

height and run-up height were as high as about 40 m. It killed thousands of lives
and caused extensive damage of various structures such as seawalls and bridges.
Many seawalls and river dikes were washed out by the tsunami. However, many
reinforced soil walls survived the tsunami impact, though they were partly or fully
submerged.
Reinforced soil walls are usually constructed with soils of high permeability andsufficient drainage. Therefore, effects of ground water are not taken into accountin most of the reinforced soil wall design. However, a few trials were made toapply reinforced soil walls to the structures in water environment, such as a riverdike (Moriguchi et al., 2002), a seawall (Recio-Minila et al., 2001; Yasuhara et al.,2002) and a temporary structure at a reservoir (Ito and Saito, 2004) and they
showed high resistance to water. For example, Moriguchi et al. (2002) reported
that the river dike remained stable as a structure after the flood of the 2000 Tokai
heavy rain, though a part of the dike was slightly damaged by scouring andoutflow of soil at the facing.
There are numbers of reinforced soil walls in Tohoku region. Miyata (2012)
reported the damage of the walls by the direct impact of the earthquake (shaking)and summarized that just less than 1% of the walls were seriously damaged but
more than 90% of the walls did not show any damage. As mentioned before, mostof the reinforced walls were constructed without considering effects of water.
However, some of them were exposed to the direct impact of tsunami, as theheight of the tsunami by the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake was extraordinarily high.

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Rikuzentakata City

Ofunato City

RSW3

RSW1

RSW2

1 km
Modified ©2012 Yahoo map, Japan

Figure 3: Reinforced soil walls in Rikuzentakata City

Although some of them were seriously damaged by the tsunami, many of themsurvived with a little damage.
Rikuzentakata City is located at the south end of Iwate Prefecture as shown in
Figure 2. The main part of the city was washed out by the tsunami with theinundation height of about 15 m, which is almost the height of four to five stories
building. About 2,000 people are dead or missing in the city. Damage of threereinforced soil walls, RSW1~3, in Rikuzentakata City indicated in Figure 3 isreported in this paper.

Tsunami height

Figure 4: Front view of damaged RSW1

2. REINFORCED SOIL WALL, RSW1, AT HIROTA RECLAMATION
DIKE
Terre Armee wall, indicated as RSW1 in Figure 3, with the maximum wall heightof 6 m was constructed at the junction of Hirota reclamation dike and the road
Reinforced soil walls
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impact byin the2011 impact
TohokuinEarthquake
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Figure 5: Close-up view of damaged RSW1

Run-up height of about 17 m

Figure 6: Cross section of RSW1 (by courtesy of Dr. Otani, Hirose Corp.)

embankment on the slope. The area was hit and fully submerged by the tsunami
with the estimated run-up height of 17 m. Most of the about 500 m longreclamation dike was washed out by the tsunami except the small part which isnear the RSW1 side end where the floodgate was located. Figure 4 is the front
view of the damaged RSW1. It is seen that the only a part of the wall near the dikeis seriously damaged. Figure 5 is a close-up view of the wall. The upper part of
the wall collapsed. Many facing panels fell down and the backfill of the wall was
lost. Though not clearly seen in this figure, the lower part of wall was also
damaged due to the scouring at the footing. Some of the footing members werebrought out and part of soil was lost. Figure 6 is a typical cross section of the wall.
Although the cross section is ordinary, the depth of embedment was probably
about 40 to 50 cm and a bit too small as a coastal structure. It resulted in thedamage of the lower part of the wall as mentioned above. However, it is to be
pointed out that the most of the damaged part of the RSW1 was covered with the452Technologies
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Figure 7: Erosion of the backfill of damaged RSW1
(by courtesy of Dr. Otani, Hirose Corp.)

soil of reclamation dike before the earthquake, and probably therefore the footing
depth was thought to be enough when designed. Another and more serious
problem with the RSW1 was that the wall was not constructed continuously fromthe sea side to the land side. It was interrupted at the junction of the wall and thedike. The soil of the dike was probably washed out by the tsunami first. Then the
backfill of the wall was eroded from the interruption of the wall toward the backof facing panels of the reinforced soil wall as seen in Figure 7. Once the backfill
was lost, the facing panels and reinforcing members, which used to support the
backfill, were not supported by the backfill and the panels fell down. If the wall
was constructed continuously without any interruption, damage of the wall isthought to have been much less.
RSW2

Figure 8: Location of RSW2 (by courtesy of Dr. Otani, Hirose Corp.)
Reinforced soil walls
damagedsoil
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impact byin the2011 impact
TohokuinEarthquake
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Tsunami height

Figure 9: Close-up view of RSW2 (by courtesy of Dr. Otani, Hirose Corp.)

3. REINFORCED SOIL WALL, RSW2, ON THE EAST SIDE OF THE
PENINSULA OPPOSITE TO RSW1
Although the Terre Armee wall, RSW1, was seriously damaged by the tsunami as
mentioned above, it is probably not fair to conclude that Terre Armee does notresist tsunami impact. Another Terre Armee wall, RSW2, was located on the eastside of the peninsula opposite to RSW1 as shown in Figure 3. The tsunami hit thepeninsula from both east and west sides. The RSW2 was constructed on the beachto support the road as shown in Figure 8. The maximum wall height of RSW2 is10.5 m. The wall was submerged in the tsunami with the estimated run-up heightof 14.9 m. However, in contrast to the RSW1, the damage of the RSW2 wasnegligibly small as seen in Figure 9. There could be two possible primary factorsof the small damage. The first one is that the depth of embedment is more than 1.5
m, much bigger than that of the RSW1. Therefore, the backfill of the RSW2 was
not lost from the bottom of the wall. The second factor is that the backfill of thereinforced soil wall was fully covered with rigid concrete panels without
interruption seen in the RSW1 which was seriously damaged by the tsunami.
4. REINFORCED SOIL WALL, RSW3, AT THE ABUTMENT OFNANAKIRI OVERPASS OF ROUTE 340 ACROSS THE OFUNATO LINEThe downtown of Rikuzentakata City spread over the lowland around the mouthof the Kesen River at the innermost portion of the Hirota Bay. The main part ofthe city was washed out by the tsunami with the inundation height of about 15 m,
which is almost the height of four to five stories building as mentioned before.
Takata-matsubara, the famous beautiful forest of 70,000 pines along the beach
was completely washed out by the tsunami as shown in Figure 10 and the seawalls
were seriously damaged as seen in Figure 11. According to the aerial video taken
by Iwate Prefectural Police, the tsunami went upstream along the Kesen River
besides the invasion from the coastline. Nanakura overpass of Route 340 across454

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RSW3
Fig.12

Kesen River
Fig.11
Hirota Bay

500m

Modified ©2011 Google map, Japan, ©2011ZENRIN

Figure 10: Main part of Rikuzentakata City after the earthquake

Sea sideFigure 11: Destroyed seawall at Takata-mastubara

the Ofunato Railway Line. The overpass was located near the Kesen River asshown in Figure 10. As the handrails of the bridge were bent down toward theriver, the overpass was fully submerged and the power of tsunami was more fromthe sea side than the river side. Four reinforced soil walls were constructed at theabutments of the bridge as seen in Figure 12. Figure 13 is a cross section of thewall at the maximum height of 7.7 m. It has wire mesh facing units with layers ofgeogrids for reinforcement and geotextiles for horizontal drain. Scouring was
found at the foundation of the abutment as shown in Figure 14. This scouring andthe damage of handrails indicate huge impact of the tsunami on the bridge.
However damage of the walls was very limited, e.g. a small scoop of backfill as
seen in Figure 15. Thin vegetation sheets behind the wire mesh facing panels
probably protected backfill from erosion by the tsunami.

Reinforced soil walls
damagedsoil
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impact byin the2011 impact
TohokuinEarthquake
Reinforced
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tsunamithe 2011 Tohoku Earthquake

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RSW
Kesen River

RSW

Fig. 14

Fig. 15

Figure 12: RSW3 at the abutments of the Nanakura overpass
補助補強材
層厚管理材
のり面ユニット

水平排水材 drainage
Geotextile

7700

1:0
.5

Wire meshfacing unit

ジオグリッド(G-80 T=48kN/m)

Geogrid (G-80, T=48kN/m)

1500

固定ピン(D10X300L)
5400

Figure 13: Cross section of RSW3 at the maximum height

5. SUMMARY
The 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku Earthquake caused extensive damage ofvarious structures. Damage caused by tsunami was tremendous and a lot of lives
were lost. Besides the damage of concrete structures, seawalls were seriously
damaged probably due to scouring. On the other hand some reinforced soil walls
were found to be damaged little, though they were inundated with tsunami. Suchreinforced soil walls are reported in this paper together with the reinforced soil
which was seriously damaged by the tsunami.

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Figure 14: Scouring at the abutment of the Nanakiri overpass

Figure 15: Slight damage at the wire mesh facing of RSW3

The facing panels, though concrete, of the seriously damaged soil wall, RSW1,
were interrupted and the backfill of the wall was eroded from the interruption.
Once the backfill was lost, the facing panels and reinforcing members, which used
to support the backfill, were not supported by the backfill and the panels fell down.
On the other hand, the reinforced soil wall with simple wire mesh facing units,
RSW3, showed little damage. Although the wire mesh has a lot of openings, thinvegetation sheets protected backfill from erosion by the tsunami.
Stability of a structure is usually estimated by mechanics such as equilibrium offorce, FEM, etc. However, the damage of reinforced soil walls reported in thispaper indicates the details of structure sometimes govern its overall stability.

Reinforced soil walls
damagedsoil
by tsunami
impact byin the2011 impact
TohokuinEarthquake
Reinforced
walls damaged
tsunamithe 2011 Tohoku Earthquake

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REFERENCES
Ito, H. and Saito, T., 2004. In situ construction and measurements of new type ofgeogrid-reinforced retaining wall combined with soil cement and fiber,
Geosynthetics Engineering Journal, JC-IGS, 19, 161-166 (in Japanese).
Miyata, Y., 2012. Reinforced soil walls during recent earthquakes in Japan andgeo-risk-based design. Keynote Lecture, Second International Conference on
Performance-Based Design in Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering, May 28-30,
2012, Taormina, Italy, draft.
Moriguchi, S., Yashima, A., Sawada, K., Yumira, T., Maeda, H., Matsumoto, N.
and Hazama, A., 2002. Full-scale destruction experiments and reconstruction ofreinforced river dike, Geosynthetics Engineering Journal, JC-IGS, 17, 195-200(in Japanese).
Recio-Molina, J.A., Yasuhara, K. and Murakami, S., 2001. Model tests on ageosynthetic reinforced sand revetment subjected to assailing waves,
Geosynthetics Engineering Journal, JC-IGS, 16, 239-246.
Tsunami Joint Survey Group, 2012. Tohoku Earthquake Tsunami Information,
http://www.coastal.jp/ttjt/, viewed on September 11, 2012.
US Geological Survey, 2012a. Magnitude 9.0 - Near the east coast of Honshu,
Japan,
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eqinthenews/2011/usc0001xgp/,
viewed on September 11, 2012.
US Geological Survey, 2012b. Magnitude 8 and Greater Earthquakes Since 1900,
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eqarchives/year/mag8/magnitude8_1900_
mag.php, viewed on September 11, 2012.
Yasuhara, K., Recio-Molina, J.A., Murakami, S. and Komine, H., 2002. A design
procedure for geosynthetic-reinforced soil walls as revetments protecting coastal
area, Geosynthetics Engineering Journal, JC-IGS, 17, 201-206 (in Japanese).

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Evaluation of internal erosion
by turbidity of drained water
Mari SATO1, Reiko KUWANO2
1

Ph.D Student, Dept. of Civil Engineering,
Faculty of Engineering, the University of Tokyo, Japanmsato@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
2
Associate Professor, ICUS, IIS, the University of Tokyo, Japan

ABSTRACTInternal erosion causes various ground disaster such as cave-in accidents andlandslides,1,2), which are supposed to happen due to water penetration under the
ground with rainfalls. Underground water penetration is sometimes concentrated
at a certain area such as a boundary of soil layers, and surroundings of anunderground structure. Therefore internal erosion may happen at peculiar areas
repeatedly with rainfalls. In this research, turbidity of drained water is supposed
to be a good index for evaluation of internal erosion, because finer particles flowout first and it makes drained water from the ground turbid, which has been
considered as a warning of the ground disaster. To find clear relationships
between turbidity of drained water and degree of internal erosion, simple column
test simulating concentrated water flow through the ground was conducted. This
column was possible to put high hydraulic gradient and soil and water drainage
from the bottom plate was allowed. After finishing the test, cone penetration test
was conducted to measure the soil stiffness. As a result, it was shown that weightof drained soil is relative to turbidity of drained water, which was suggested thatmeasuring turbidity of the ground was effective to evaluate the degree of internal
erosion. Moreover, internal erosion caused decreasing of penetration resistance.
Keywords: internal erosion, landslides, cave-in accident, turbidity, soil drainage
1. INTRODUCTION
Many ground disasters are caused by underground water flow. Water flow
sometimes concentrates at the gaps between original fills and buried fills, whereinternal erosion happens. In Great Tohoku Earthquake, many landslides occurredat these gaps (see Figure 1.) and it was supposed that these gaps became weak by
repetition of internal erosion. This process was schematically shown in Figure 2.
Therefore, quantitative evaluation of internal erosion is necessary and thisresearch aimed at turbidity of drained water which is one of the famous threats ofground disaster.
Relationships between turbidity of drained water and degree of internal erosion
were investigated due to simple column tests. In addition, decreasing of thestiffness of the ground after internal erosion was measured by cone penetration
tests.

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October 2012, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia

Figure 1. Landslide in
Yamamotocho, Miyagi-ken

Figure 2. Internal erosion at the boundaryof a buried fill and an original fill

2. TEST APPRATUS AND PROCEDURE
2.1 Test apparatus
Test apparatus was shown in Figure 3. The apparatus was composed of a upper
plate, a bottom plate and an acrylic cylinder. Diameter of the acrylic cylinder is
8cm and height of that is around 31cm. The apparatus is connected from the upper
plate to the outer water tank, which is possible to put high water pressure from thesurface. Water in the outer tank is degassed condition. The bottom plate has many
5mm diameter’s holes. 1mm mesh cloth was put on the bottom plate.
Turbidimeter was 2100P, made by ⒸHach, which applied nupherometory method.
(Referring to Figure 4) Turbidity was automatically measured by putting a 15ml
sample cell to the turbidimeter.

Figure 3. Test apparatus(Left: Schematically figure, Right: picture)460

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ICUS Report 65<5NTU><50NTU><500NTU>
Figure 4. Turbidimeter and sample cells
2.2 Test procedure
Test material was compacted at every 5cm layer, 6 times (30cm height). Hime
gravel was put on the surface of the specimen at 1cm thickness for the uniform
water penetration. Then the apparatus was submerged in a bucket for 1 day. Afterthe submergence, the apparatus was taken out from the bucket and water flowfrom the tank was started. Drained water and soil from the bottom plate weregathered in a bowl which was changed at certain period (represented as “time” inTable 1) and turbidity was measured.
3. TEST CONDITIONSAll experimental conditions are shown in Table 1. Test material was Edosaki sand(ρdmax=1.76g/cm3 , Wopt=14.2%, ρs=2.705g/cm3, emin= 0.868, emax = 1.383)
and particle size distribution of that was shown in Figure . From Figure , Edosaki
sand was “unstable material” which was suggested by Kenny et al. (1985). Eachtest conditions: Hydraulic gradient, Dc, time and cycle were explained with test
results of next chapter.
Case
Step-Dc90
Step-Dc80
Const-180kpa
Const-90kpa

Table 1. Test conditions
Hydraulic
Dc(%) time (min.)gradient
Step
88.1
20
Step
79.1
10
Constant
89.3
10
Constant
89.4
10

Evaluation
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Evaluation of internal
erosion of
byinternalturbidityerosionof drainedwater of drained water

cycle(times)
6
9
6
10

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October 2012, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia

Figure 5. Particle size distribution of Edosaki sand
4. TEST RESULT
4.1 Step increasing of hydraulic gradientIn case “Step-Dc90” & “Step-Dc80”, hydraulic gradient (pressure putting on thewater tank) was increased step by step. “Time” represents the continuous time tokeep the constant hydraulic gradient. Then increase the hydraulic gradient andrepeat certain cycles. (Represented as “Cycle”)
4.1.2 Results of Step-Dc90
Figure 6 is shown that the relationships between weight of drained water andhydraulic gradient (same as “water pressure” putting on the outer tank). Figure 7
is shown the result of weight of drained soil and turbidity. Figure 8 represented
photos of sample cells. Figure 6 suggested that weight of drained water increased
acceleratory due to rise of hydraulic gradient. On the other hand, weight ofdrained soil increased suddenly over 120kPa. Turbidity is relative to weight ofdrained soil. (See Figure 7) Sample cells over 120kpa also got muddy over
120kPa in Figure 8, which is corresponding to the amount of turbidity.

Water
Soil
120kPaFigure 6. Weight of draind water and soilin Step Dc-90

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Figure 8. Pictures of sample cells(Right is higher water pressure)

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Soil

Turbidity

Figure 7. Weight of draind soil and turbidity in step Dc-90
4.1.2 Results of Step-Dc80
Figure 9 is shown that the relationships between weight of drained water andhydraulic gradient (same as “water pressure” putting on the outer tank). Figure 10
is shown the result of weight of drained soil and turbidity. In this case,consolidation which Dc increased around 5% occurred while increasing hydraulicgradient.
Weight of drained soil increased over 45kpa, which is much lower than the
result of Step-Dc90. Repetition of increasing and decreasing of weight of drained
soil was happened over 45kPa. On the other hand, weight of drained water wasconstant over 45kPa. Figure 10 proposed that turbidity is relative to weight ofdrained soil, which is similar tendency as Step-Dc90.

Soil

Water

Figure 9. Weight of draind water and soil in Step Dc-80

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Turbidity

Soil

Figure 10. Weight of draind soil and turbidity in Step Dc-80
4.2 Constant hydraulic gradient
In Const-180kPa and Const-90kPa, hydraulic gradient kept constant during thetest and indices: weight of drained soil, weight of drained water and turbidity were
measured at the certain interval. (Represented as “time”) Then this “Cycle” wasrepeated.
4.2.1 Results of Const-180kPa
Results of weight of drained water and weight of drained soil with time progress
was shown in Figure 11. That of turbidity and weight of drained soil was shown in
Figure 12. Figure 11 suggested that weight of drained soil increased slightly after
time progressing and weight of drained water decreased once and then recovered.
Turbidity was corresponding to the weight of drained soil (Referring to Figure 12)

Water

Soil

Figure 11. Weight of draind water and soil in Const-180kPa

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Turbidity

Soil

Figure 12. Weight of draind soil and turbidity in Const-180kPa
4.2.1 Results of Const-90kPa
Results of weight of drained water and weight of drained soil with time progress
was shown in Figure 13. That of turbidity and weight of drained soil was shown in
Figure 14..
Figure 13 suggested that weight of drained soil increased and decreased
repeatedly, and weight of drained water was constant. Turbidity wascorresponding to the weight of drained soil and gradually increased by continuous
water flow (See Figure 14 )

Water

Soil

Figure 13. weight of draind water and soil in Const-90kPa

Evaluation of internal erosion by turbidity of drained water
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Turbidity

Soil

Figure 14. weight of draind water and soil in Const-90kPa
4.3 Permeability Coefficient k
Permeability coefficient k was calculated by water temperature, weight of drainedwater, length of specimen and hydraulic gradient. Permeability coefficient kduring water penetration was shown in Figure 15. Figure 15 suggested k waschanged in gradually increasing of hydraulic gradient cases (Step-Dc80 and StepDc90). Especially in Step-Dc80, k was decreased because consolidation happened.
On the other hand, in constant hydraulic gradient cases (Const-180kPa and Const90kPa), k was kept constant during water penetration.

Step Dc-80
Const-180kPa
Const-90kPa
Step Dc-90

Figure 15. Permeability coefficient
5. CONE PENETRATION TEST
Small scale cone penetration test was conducted to evaluate the influence ofinternal erosion on soil stiffness. Test apparatus was shown in Figure 16. 3mm
diameter’s metal stick on which load cell was put, was penetrated at certain speed
and penetration resistance was measured by load cell after finishing water
penetration test.
Cone penetration test was done in 4 test cases represented in Table 2. Const180kPa case was explained chapter4 but other 3 were additional test cases:Const180kpa20m, Const-180kpalim, No_outflow.

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Figure 17 suggested Step-Dc90 had large penetration resistance. On the other
hand, Step-Dc80’s penetration resistance was small. Table 2 suggested ratio of
weight of drained soil in whole specimen is relative to degree of decreasing ofpenetration resistance. In addition, decreasing of resistance in bottom part was
clearer than that in upper part, which declared bottom part caused internal erosion
at first and loss of resistance.

Load cell

Metal stick

Figure 16. Test apparatus ofcone penetration test

Case
Const180kpa
Const180kpa20m
Const180kpalim
Const90kpa
No_outflow

Figure 17. Result of penetration resistance

Table 2. Test conditions of cone penetration test
HydraulicDc (%)
time
Cycle
gradient(min.)(times)Constant

89.3

10

6

Ratio ofsoil loss(%)
0.5

Constant

89.6

10

2

0.75

Constant

89.6

10

6

0.09

Constant

89.4

10

10

0.05

non

88.3

0

0

0

6. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION¾ Turbidity was corresponding with weight of drained soil, therefore turbidity
can become valid index of evaluation of internal erosion.
¾ Weight of drained soil was most affected by hydraulic gradient. There was aboundary of hydraulic gradient which made drained water turbid suddenly.
This boundary was much smaller in loose ground than that in dense ground.

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Mongolia¾ Weight of drained soil gradually increased during water penetration inconstant hydraulic gradient.
¾ Maeda et al.(2012) suggested clogging and drainage were repeated during soil
outflow, and simulated decreasing of soil stiffness by DEM analysis.3)
Increasing and decreasing of weight of drained water and soil happened dueto this clogging and drainage in the specimen.
¾ Cone penetration resistance decreased even by 1% soil loss in the specimen.
Samanthi et al.(2011) suggested that penetration resistance decreased in large
area due to collapse of small cavity in the ground4). Internal erosion changedsoil particles Skelton and might have caused similar phenomena.
REFERENCES
1) Sato, M. & Kuwano, R. Model Tests for the Evaluation of Formation andExpansion of a Cavity in the ground. Proc. of the 7th International Conference on
Physical Modelling in Geotechnics 2010. Zurich, June 2010, pp.581-586
2) Kuwano, R, Yamauchi, K., Horii, T. and Kohashi, H. 2006. Defects of sewer
pipes causing cave-in’s in the road. Proc. of 6th International Symposium on New
Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia. Phuket: No.H63.
3) Maeda.K, Wood.D.M, and Kondo, A. Micro and macro modelling of internal
erosion and scoring wih fine particle dynamics, Proc. of 6th International
Conference on Scour and Erosion. 2012, Paris, France: ISCE-000197
4) Renuka,S. & Kuwano,R. Formation and evaluation of loosened ground above acavity by laboratory model test with uniform sand, Proc. of 13th International
Summer Symposium, 2011,Uji, Japan: pp211- 214

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Application of microbial calcite to hemp
fiber reinforced soils to combat
desertification
Sookie S. BANG
Professor, Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering
South Dakota School of Mines and Technology, USA
sookie.bang@sdsmt.edu
Sangchul BANG
Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
South Dakota School of Mines and Technology, USA
Josh ANDERSON
Graduate Student, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
South Dakota School of Mines and Technology, USA
Seok J. LEE, Nam Y. DHO, and Seong R. CHOIManagers, Lotte Engineering & Construction, Korea
Sung-Hwan KO
President, EcoPhile, Korea
ABSTRACTAirborne dust and sand particles caused by wind erosion have been associatedwith serious problems in human health as well as natural environment. In
particular, sand particles originated from Mongolia and northern China due toincreasing desertification have been the main cause of frequent such problems. In
the past, the majority of control methods have been either chemical or mechanical,
resulting in certain degrees of health hazard or frequent applications. An
alternative method, surface vegetation, becomes increasingly popular but it isvery slow and costly. Recently, a biological technique utilizing a naturally
occurring microorganism, Sporosarcina pasteurii, has been introduced. This soil
microorganism is ureolytic, expressing the urease enzyme that hydrolyzes urea toammonium and carbonate ions. The ammonium ions raise the surrounding pH, inturn promoting calcium carbonate (calcite) precipitation in the presence of
calcium ions. This precipitate has shown great dust suppression potential. The
main objective of this study is to examine the application of microbial calcite with
bio-degradable fibers to reduce the wind erosion potential, using S. pasteurii
mixed with medium containing urea and calcium chloride in order to develop an
environmentally safe and economically feasible technique to minimize the spreadof desertification.
Keywords: Microbially induced calcite precipitation, bacteria, hemp fibers, winderosion, mass loss469

October 2012, Ulaanbaatar,
Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
Mongolia

1. INTRODUCTION
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) precipitation induced by Sporosarcina pasteurii is apotentially long-lasting, environmentally innocuous process that can be used tosuppress dust particles from becoming airborne. S. pasteurii produces the urease
enzyme (Benini et al., 1996; Braissant et al., 2003), which hydrolyzes urea toproduce both ammonium and carbonate ions (Reaction 1 below). This reaction
raises the pH of the surrounding environment (Stocks-Fischer et al., 1999; Warren
et al., 2001), ultimately precipitating calcite from carbonate and calcium ions
(Reaction 2 below). The reactions are summarized as follows.
+
2H2NCONH2 (urea) + 2H2O ⎯urease⎯⎯→ 2NH4 + CO3(1)

Ca2+ + CO32- ⎯→ CaCO3(2)

Microbial calcite induced by S. pasteurii has been well-documented as an agent
used for mineral plugging (Gollapudi et al., 1995), concrete crack remediation(Bang et al., 2001), and improved cement mortar strength and longevity (Ghosh etal., 2005; DeMuyck et al., 2008). Furthermore, a genetically engineered
microorganism that can produce organic polymer as well as induce calcite
precipitation has been developed in our laboratories as a bio-sealant (Bergdale etal. 2012). This microbially induced cementation process also slows contaminantleaching in soils (Fujita et al., 2000; Mitchell and Ferris 2006) and has beenshown to stabilize loose sand structures (DeJong et al., 2006). In particular, S.
pasteurii has recently been explored as a potential dust palliative when applied tothe surfaces of different soils including poorly graded commercial sandblasting
sand, silt, and clay soils (Bang et al., 2008; Bang et al., 2009; Meyer et al., 2011).
This study utilized poorly graded sand with bio-degradable fibers that weretreated with medium containing bacteria. After 96 hours of incubation at 40°C ,the soil samples were weighed before and after wind erosion tests at threedifferent wind speeds of 32, 48, and 64 km/hr for 2 minutes to determine thepercent mass loss. Untreated soil and soil mixed with fibers only were used ascontrols. In order to optimize the resistance against the wind erosion, thefollowing conditions and treatments were examined: a) application volume of themedium and b) soil preparation method (treated with medium containing bacteria
and fibers).
The main objective of this study is to examine the application of microbial calcitewith bio-degradable fibers to reduce the wind erosion potential, using S. pasteurii
mixed with medium containing urea and calcium chloride in order to develop an
environmentally safe and economically feasible technique to minimize the spreadof desertification.
2. PREPARATION AND TREATMENT OF BACTERIAThe following briefly describes how the medium and bacteria were prepared.
Complete details of the preparation of medium and bacteria are well described
elsewhere (Bang et al., 2001).

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2.1 Procedures
Urea-NB medium (20 g urea and 3 g nutrient broth per 1 L of distilled water) was
prepared by autoclaving, to which filter-sterilized CaCl2 was added to a final
concentration of 100 mM CaCl2. Then, S. pasteurii was aseptically suspended tothe urea-NB-CaCl2 medium to obtain a concentration of 1× 108 cells/ml. The
medium added with all necessary ingredients was then mixed with sandthoroughly to ensure an even distribution of medium and sand. Fibers were addedat this point. The sand mixture was added to a specimen cup and placed in anoven at 40°C for four days before being tested. All samples were prepared intriplicate.
2.2 Wind erosion tests
Two different mixtures of sand were tested. The first mixture consisted of only
sand and the second was a mixture of sand, medium containing bacteria, andfibers. The sand used in these tests was HM 106 Gilson sand, commerciallyavailable from Gilson Co., Inc., Lewis center, OH. It has a specific gravity of
2.65, uniformity coefficient less than 2.0, and few particles passing US standard
sieve #200 or retained on #10.
The fibers used in these tests were hemp fibers. The nominal dimensions of thefibers are 60.1 mm in length and 0.09 mm in diameter. The fibers were obtainedby de-stranding a Sisal Manila rope (stock number 74389, Knechts Hardware,
Rapid City, SD). The first mixtures were used as controls, i.e., the experimental
results of the second mixtures were compared against those of the controls.
The wind erosion specimen preparation began with mixing cultured bacteria at
108 cells per ml concentration with the medium. Medium amounts were set at0.025, 0.05, 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2, and 3 ml per 100 grams of sand. Concentration offibers was set at 0.25% by the weight. The mixes were hand-stirred with gloves
attempting for even distribution of fibers, medium, and bacteria (Fig. – 1).
The containers had dimensions of 75 mm in height and 65 mm in diameter with a
total surface area of 3,320 mm2. The mix was then compacted into containers
while aiming for a density close to 16.34 kN/m3. After striking off excess
protrusion from the containers, they were placed in an oven (Fischer Scientific,
Hampton, NH) at 40°C for four days. Afterward, the specimens were removed
from the oven. Fig. – 2 shows specimens ready for wind erosion tests.
The specimens were then placed in front of a wind tunnel (Aerolab, Laurel, MD,
USA, Fig. - 3) that had been set to the appropriate velocity for the test by a digital
Turbometer wind speed indicator (Davis Instruments, Inc., Hayward, CA, USA,
right photo of Fig. – 4) and a wind meter (Dwyer Instruments, Inc., Michigan City,
IN, USA, left photo of Fig. – 4). The specimen was exposed to wind erosion for
two minutes and then weighed afterward.
3. RESULTS
Fig. – 5 shows photos of specimens after the wind erosion tests that were treatedwith medium containing bacteria and fibers. As can be seen, surface crusts wereformed that are clearly visible. Please note that the holes on the surface of the

Application of microbial
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Fig. – 1 Sand mixed with fibers and medium containing bacteria

Fig. – 2 Various sand specimens for wind erosion tests

Fig. – 3 Aerolab wind tunnel

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Fig. – 4 Digital Turbometer wind speed indicator and Dwyer wind meter

Fig. – 5 Specimens after wind erosion tests
specimens were created by a surface penetrometer to determine the approximate
soil surface shear strength, not by the wind erosion.
Results of mass loss from the wind erosion tests were averaged among triplicate
specimens. From the data, the mass loss due to wind erosion was represented by
the loss of material in grams per square centimeters of the surface area. Table – 1
and Fig. – 6 show the summary of entire test results. Under 32 km/hr wind for 2
minutes, sand-only samples experienced the highest weight loss of 0.828 g/cm2.
In general, sand treated with medium containing bacteria and fibers experienced
much smaller amounts of mass loss. Although there are minor scatter in data, it isclearly obvious that as the amount of medium containing bacteria increases, themass loss due to wind erosion becomes noticeably less. As the wind velocity
increased, the corresponding mass loss increased substantially.
Under 32 km/hr wind for 2 minutes, when the sand treated with 0.05 ml of
medium containing bacteria and fibers were tested, the weight loss was reduced to

Application of microbial
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hemp fiber
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soils
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Table – 1 Summary of mass loss (in g/cm2) from wind erosion tests
Windvelocity(km/hr)sand

sand +
fibers +bacteria

32
48
64
32
48
64

Medium (ml) added to 100 g of sand
0.0
0.828
1.034
1.718

0.025

0.05

0.1

0.5

1.0

2.0

3.0

1.047
1.091
1.459

0.692
1.034
1.035

0.165
0.710
0.958

0.029
0.169
0.933

0.028
0.082
0.812

0.015
0.035
0.163

0.008
0.019
0.028

Fig. – 6 Mass loss vs. medium amount relationship of sand with fibers andBacteria
16.4% of that of sand-only. With 0.1 ml and 0.5 ml of medium, this reduction
becomes more pronounced, i.e., 80.1% and 96.5%, respectively.
Under 48 km/hr wind for 2 minutes, when sands treated with 0.1 ml and 0.5 ml of
medium containing bacteria and fibers were tested, the weight losses werereduced to 31.3% and 83.7%, respectively, of that of sand-only.
Under 64 km/hr wind for 2 minutes, when the sand treated with 0.05 ml of
medium containing bacteria and fibers were tested, the weight loss was reduced to39.8% of that of sand-only. With 0.1 ml and 0.5 ml of medium, this reduction
becomes more pronounced, i.e., 44.2% and 45.7%, respectively.
When the sand was treated with 1.0 ml or more of medium containing bacteria
and fibers, the mass loss due to wind velocity of up to 48 km/hr is virtually zero.
As expected, when the wind velocity was 64 km/hr, more amount of medium was
required to obtain similar mass losses to those at lower wind velocities.

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4. CONCLUSIONS
A potentially innovative biological approach in solving one of the most difficultand persistent geotechnical problems, resistance against the wind erosion, hasbeen developed. This technique utilizes microbially induced calcite precipitation
with bio-degradable fibers to bond soil particles together so that they are moreresistant to becoming airborne. Results indicate that the soil samples treated with
S. pasteurii form a crust-like layer on the soil surface and that the addition offibers further enhances the effectiveness significantly. This calcite-rich layer
resulted in significant reduction in mass loss as compared to that of untreated soil,
indicating that this microbially induced calcite together with fibers can indeed beused as a means of reducing the wind erosion, thus potentially be used tominimize the desertification.
In the future, additional different types of bio-degradable fibers will be tried andtested to identify their respective effectiveness in reducing the wind erosion
potential.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful for the technical contributions of Emily Squillace and Ian
Prichard, undergraduate research assistants, at the South Dakota School of Mines
and Technology and for the financial support provided by Lotte E&C, Korea.
REFERENCES
Bang, S. S., Galinat, J. K., and Ramakrishnan, V., 2001. Calcite precipitationinduced by polyurethane-immobilized Bacillus pasteurii. Enzyme and Microbial
Technology 28, 404–409.
Bang, S. S., Bang, S., Frutiger, S., Nehl, L. M., and Comes, B. L., 2008.
Application of novel biological technique in dust suppression. Proc. Annual
Meeting of Transportation Research Board (CD-ROM), Washington D.C.
Bang, S. S., Leibrock, C., Smith, B., Pinkelman, R. J., Frutiger, S., Nehl, L. M.,
Comes, B. L., Coleman, D., and Bang, S., 2009. Geotechnical values of microbial
calcite in dust suppression. Proc. of NSF Engineering Research and Innovation
Conference (CD-ROM), Honolulu, HI.
Benini, S., Gessa, C., and Ciurli, S., 1996. Bacillus pasteurii urease: A
heteropolymeric enzyme with a binuclear nickel active site. Soil Biol. Biochem. 28,
819–821.
Bergdale, T. E., Pinkelman, R. J., Hughes, S. R., Zambelli, B., Ciurli, S., andBang, S. S., 2012. Engineered biosealant strains producing inorganic and organic
biopolymers, Journal of Biotechnology 161, 181–189.
Braissant, O., Cailleau, G., Dupraz, C., and Verrecchia, A. P., 2003. Bacteriallyinduced mineralization of calcium carbonate in terrestrial environments: the roleof exopolysaccharides and amino acids. J. Sediment Res. 73, 485–490.

Application of microbial
calciteoftomicrobial
hemp fiber
reinforced
soils
to reinforced
combat desertification
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Application
calciteto hempfiber
soils to combat desertification

October 2012, Ulaanbaatar,
Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
Mongolia

DeJong, J. T., Fritzges, M. B., and Nusslein, K., 2006. Microbially induced
cementation to control sand response to undrained shear. J. Geotechnical andGeoenvironmental Engineering 132, 1381–1392.
DeMuyck, W., Debrouwer, D., De Belie, N., and Verstraete, W., 2008. Bacterial
carbonate precipitation improves the durability of cementitious materials. Cement
and Concrete Research 38, 1005–1014.
Fujita, Y., Ferris, F. G., Lawson, R. D., Colwell, F. S., and Smith, R. W., 2000.
Calcium carbonate precipitation by ureolytic subsurface bacteria. J.
Geomicrobiology 17, 305–318.
Ghosh, P., Mandal, S., Chattopadhyay, B. D., and Pal, S., 2005. Use of
microorganisms to improve the strength of cement mortar. Cement and Concrete
Research 35, 1980–1983.
Gollapudi, U. K., Knutson, C. L., Bang, S. S., and Islam, M. R., 1995. A new
method for controlling leaching through permeable channels. Chemosphere 30,
695–705.
Meyer, F. D., Bang, S., Min, S., Stetler, L. D., and Bang, S. S., 2011.
Microbiologically-Induced Soil Stabilization: Application of Sporosarcina
pasteurii for Fugitive Dust Control. Proceedings of the American Society of Civil
Engineers’ Geo-Frontiers Meeting, Paper No. 1189, Dallas, TX, March.
Mitchell, A. C. and Ferris, F. G., 2006. The influence of Bacillus pasteurii on the
nucleation and growth of calcium carbonate. J. Geomicrobiology 23, 213-226.
Stocks-Fischer, S., Galinat, J. K., and Bang, S. S., 1999. Microbiologicalprecipitation of CaCO3., Soil Biol. Biochem. 31, 1563–1571.
Warren, L. A., Maurice, P. A., Parmar, N., and Ferris, F. G., 2001. Microbiallymediated calcium carbonate precipitation: implications for interpreting calcite
precipitation and for solid-phase capture of inorganic contaminants. J.
Geomicrobiology 18, 93–115.

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Mega
Citiesin AsiaSliding disaster in Vietnam anda new proposed design methodof reinforced soil wall
Nguyen Hoang Giang1, Jiro Kuwano2
1

Ph.D, Deputy Director, International Cooperation Department,
National University of Civil Engineering, Vietnam
giangnh@nuce.edu.vn
2
Professor, GRIS, Saitama University, Japan
jkuwano@mail.saitama-u.ac.jp

ABSTRACT
Vietnam has a relatively complicated territory: Countless mountains, numerous
rivers, long and meandering coastline. It has faced a great deal of difficulties toovercome the landslide disaster which has taken many lives of civilians anddamaged properties. Lack of proper design and reinforced structures has caused
some severe landslide disasters. Some retaining walls are in bad conditions suchas: large displacement, deformation, crack, and some were not proper designed.
The repairing work for these structures thus has become very important. This
paper will give data of current condition of retaining structures then will
introduce a new method for design to improve the quality of these structures. The
residual stage of pullout resistance of reinforced soil wall will be introduced in
the redesign of damaged soil wall to improve stability number as well as savecosts.
Keywords: landslide disaster, reinforced soil wall, geogrid
1. INTRODUCTION
Vietnam has a relatively complicated territory: Countless mountains, numerous
rivers, long and meandering coastline. The terrain is different among regions.
Moreover, Vietnam lies in the tropical region which is the meeting place of many
atmosphere blocks therefore Vietnam is greatly suffered from Asian monsoon
regime. Each year Vietnam experiences about 6-10 typhoons and tropicaldepressions causing heavy rain, whirlwinds and landslides...etc with its
complicated and diversified terrain as well as severe storms, Vietnam has faced agreat deal of difficulties to overcome the landslide disaster which has taken many
lives of civilians and damaged properties. Landslide protection like retaining
walls is very important method to against sliding. However, many among them
have been severely damaged due to over life operation as well as natural impacts
such as typhoons, heavy rain and so on. As Vietnam is in bad economic
conditions thus investments to rebuild all of those constructions will become agreat challenge. Thus, repair work for these damaged retaining walls has become477

October 2012, Ulaanbaatar,
Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
Mongolia

very important task not only to improve the stability of construction but also tosave cost.
The damaged reinforced soil wall (RSW) must be evaluated by a simple index
such as the wall displacement, the crest settlement, and soil-geogrid interaction
conditions. To evaluate the condition of RSW which was suffered from a certain
damage caused by temporary external load such as earthquake and heavy rain, theunloading-reloading process on the pullout resistance were applied then used toinvestigate its effects on the safety of RSW. Thank to the results of unloadingreloading effects on the pullout resistance, it was possible to evaluate the factor ofsafety for RSW at peak, at peak in reloading after the unloading-reloading and at
the residual parts. There are many types of centrifuges and geotechnical centrifuge
is one of them and it was used in this research. The special geotechnical modelingis to produce the soil behavior in terms of strength and stiffness. In theexperimental container soil has free unstressed upper surface and the strength
magnitude increases with depth and a rate related to soil density and the strengthof the acceleration field.
Centrifuge was used for the shaking table tests and tilting table tests. The special
equipment was attached to model to prevent it from total collapse when it was
subjected to dynamic loading by using the centrifuge shaking table tests. After thesliding was observed the model was moved to the centrifuge tilting table tests toapply unloading-reloading process and evaluate effects of the peak and residual
pullout tests on damaged RSW. There were two test series: Shaking – tilting table
test series to investigate the damaged RSW before peak value and tilting - tilingtable test series to investigate the residual value of pullout resistance on thestability of damaged RSW.
Vietnam risk
Vietnam is located in the tropical monsoon area in South East Asia (figure 1).
Vietnam is one of the most hazard-prone areas in the Asia Pacific Region.
Because of its topography, Vietnam is susceptible to typhoons, floods, droughts,
sea water intrusion, landslides, forest fires and occasional earthquakes. The storm
season lasts from May to December with storms hitting the northern part of thecountry in May through June and moving gradually south from July to December.
Every year, Vietnam suffers directly from 6-10 storms and tropical depressions
which causing heavy rain and flood after that.

Figure 1. Map of Vietnam

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According to Vietnam report, every year, natural disasters cause an average of
750 deaths, and result in annual economic losses equivalent to 1.5 percent of GDP.
However, damage and loss data is chronically underreported, so real totals may bemuch higher. As most of the population is living in low-lying river basins andcoastal areas, more than 70 percent of the population is estimated to be exposed torisks from multiple natural hazards. The frequency of disaster is listed in table 1.
Table 1. Relative disaster frequency. (Source: EM-DAT : The OFDA /CREDInternational Disaster Database.)Among them landslide has become more and more serious causing lives andeconomic losses due to poor retaining wall system and earth reinforced soil walls.
Disaster Severity in Different Geographic Areas and in the Coastal Economic
Zone of Vietnam is listed in table 2.
Table 2. Assessment of Disaster Severity in Different Geographic Areas and in
the Coastal Economic Zone of Vietnam.

Very severe (++++); Severe (+++); Medium (++); Light (+); None (-)
One of reasons making this sliding disaster become huge problem is due to low
quality RSW. Many among them were designed with conventional gravity wallmodel. Under heavy rain, these types of RSW were seriously damaged (figure 2).
The new design of reinforced soil wall with geosynthetics has been introduced
and become more popular. However, under huge natural disasters, thesereinforced soil wall types were affected and showed partial damage. To save cost,these types of damaged structures should be repaired with simple and reasonable
expense. The experiment for stability of damaged reinforced soil wall was carriedout at Saitama University and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan.

Sliding disaster in Vietnam
and a newproposedand
designof reinforced
soil wall
Sliding disasterin Vietnam
a newmethod
proposeddesign methodof reinforced soil wall479

October 2012, Ulaanbaatar,
Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
Mongolia

Figure 2. Slope sliding in Quang Ngai province, 2010.
2. TWO-WEDGE ANALYSISThe pseudo-static two-wedge method (Ismeik and Güler 1998) to evaluate thefactor of safety of GRSW against sliding and overturning was used to evaluate thestatic and seismic stability of the GRSW considering effects of unloadingreloading on pullout resistance of geogrid at peak and residual stage. This method
has been studied by several researchers such as Jewell et al. (1984). Parameters
obtained from pullout tests that presented by Giang et al. (2010) at peak andresidual stages were used for Two-Wedge analysis of GRSW with 7.5 m height,
five layers of 4.5 m length geogrids and 1.5 m interval. The backfill material was
Toyoura sand. Figure 3 shows the relationship between the factor of safety against
the sliding and the horizontal seismic coefficient at failure. It can be observed in
Figure 3 that when φpeak reduces to φresidual the factor of safety is also decreased for
all the cases. For example, the SG case with φpeak = 33.8o, the critical horizontal
coefficient kh is 0.62. At the residual value when φpeak decreased to φresidual =27.6o, the critical horizontal coefficient kh is 0.54. This suggests that in a large
earthquake, if the GRSW could resist the seismic activities and show somedeformation and displacement of geogrids, the pullout resistance of geogrids insome deformed part of the damaged GRSW might work in residual condition. The
unloading-reloading process of geogrid reduces the pullout resistance of geogrid
in backfill soil resulting the factor of safety of the damaged GRSW reduces fromfactor of safety at peak to factor of safety at residual. In order to investigate thisbehavior of damaged GRSW, a series GRSW centrifuge shaking and tilting model
tests were carried and the experimental results were compared with the predicted
results of Two-wedge method.

Factor of safety, F s

2

1

CG-Peak

SG - PeakP - PeakCG - Residual

SG - Residual

P - Residual

0
0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

Horizontal seismic coefficient, k h

0.8

Figure 3. Safety factor vs horizontal seismic coefficient at peak and residual
values, against sliding

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3. OUTLINE
3. OUTLINE
OF THEOF THETESTTESTA series
A seriesof centrifuge
of centrifuge
tiltingtilting
and shaking
and shaking
table tests
table wastestscarried
was carriedout usingout usingMark Mark3
3
centrifuge
centrifuge
at Tokyoat TokyoInstitute
Instituteof Technology.
of Technology.
ToyouraToyourasand sandwith thewithrelative
the relative
densitydensityof 80 of% 80
was% used
was asusedbackfill
as backfill
material.
material.
ModelModelgeogrids
geogrids
were weremade madeof ofpolycarbonate
polycarbonate
platesplateswith 0.5
withmm
0.5thickness.
mm thickness.
The shape
The shapeof theofmodel
the model
geogrid
geogridwas wasthe same
the samein all incases
all cases
as shown
as shown
in Figurein Figure
4. Figure
4. Figure5 shows
5 shows
the schematicthe schematic
diagramdiagramof theofmodel
the model
GRSW
GRSW
used inused
both
in centrifuge
both centrifuge
tiltingtilting
and shaking
and shaking
table tests.
table tests.
Five Fivelayerslayersof 90 ofmm
90longmm geogrids
long geogrids
were laid
wereinlaid
theinbackfill
the backfill
at 30 atmm
30interval.
mm interval.
Five Five
piecespiecesof plasticof plastic
platesplates
were usedwere asuseda modelas a model
wall andwalloneandgeogrid
one geogrid
was attached
was attachedtotoone plate.
one plate.
Some Some
opticalopticaltargetstargets
were set
were
onset
theon
surfacethe surfaceof theoftransparent
the transparent
side wallside wallfor detailed
for detailed
observation
observationof deformation.
of deformation.
Both tilting
Both tilting
and shaking
and shaking
table tests
table weretests wereconducted
conducted
in theincentrifugal
the centrifugal
acceleration
accelerationof 50G.
of 50G.
In theIncentrifuge
the centrifuge
tiltingtilting
table table
tests, tests,
pseudopseudostatic static
horizontal
horizontal
loadingloading
usuallyusually
used inused
thein
designthe design
was achieved
was achieved
by bytiltingtilting
the model.
the model.
On theOnotherthe otherhand, hand,in theincentrifugal
the centrifugal
shakingshaking
table tests,
table tests,
cycliccyclicloadingloadingas in theas inseismic
the seismic
eventseventswith frequency
with frequencyof 100Hz,of 100Hz,
whichwhichcorresponds
corresponds
toto
2Hz in2Hz
prototype,in prototype,were applied
were applied
to thetomodel.
the model.
The parameters
The parametersof geogrid
of geogrid
pullout
pullout
test attest
peak
at andpeakresidual
and residual
stagesstages
in GRSWin GRSWare shownare shownin Tablein Table3.
3.
Supporting
Supporting
systemsystem

DamperDamperOpticalOpticaltargetstargets

30

Laser １ Laser １

60

60

75

75

90
30

90

PM １

PM
PM2
１

PM2

Laser２ Laser２

3

3：Accelerometer：Accelerometer(only for shaking(only fortableshakingtest)table test)：Potentiometer：Potentiometer：Laser displacement：Laser displacementtransducertransducer

Figure Figure
4. Geogrid
4. Geogrid
model formodel
centrifuge
for centrifuge
tests tests Figure Figure
5. Schematic
5. Schematic
view ofview
the modelof the GRSW
model GRSWIn 50G
In centrifuge
50G centrifuge
condition,
condition,
the GRSW
the GRSW
modelmodel
is equal
is equal
to GRSW
to GRSW
with heightwith heightof of
7.5 m.7.5
Using
m. Using
the above
the above
mentioned
mentioned
two-wedge
two-wedge
methodmethodwith parameterswith parameters
obtained
obtainedfrom Table
from Table
3, the 3,
GRSW
the GRSW
has horizontal
has horizontal
coefficient
coefficientat peakat andpeakatandresidualat residual
stages,stages,
khp = 0.47,
khp = 0.47,
khr =0.43,
khr =0.43,
respectively.
respectively.
The reduction
The reductionof theoffactor
the factorof safetyof safetyof GRSWof GRSW
decreases
decreases
when whenfrom φpeakfrom φpeak
to φresidual..
to φresidual..
FactorFactorof safetyof safety
and failureand failuresurfaces
surfacesof ofpredicted
predicted
resultsresults
are shownare shownin Figurein Figure
6.
6.
Table Table
3. Material
3. Material
and pullout
and pullout
resistanceresistanceproperties
properties
at peakat andpeakresidual
and residual
valuesvalues
cpeak (kPa))
cpeak (kPa))

peak peak
0.93 0.93
21.4 21.4

residual
residual-0.75 -0.75
18.2 18.2

tan φ p/tan
tan φφp/tan φ

0.45 0.45

0.38 0.38

φ peakφ (peak(deg))( (deg))Sliding disasterin Vietnam
and
a new
proposeddesignof reinforced
wall
Sliding
Slidingdisasterdisasterin Vietnam
in Vietnam
and a newandaproposed
newmethod
proposeddesigndesignmethodmethod
ofsoilreinforcedof reinforced
soil wallsoil wall481

October 2012, Ulaanbaatar,
Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
Mongolia

SG-2 (Residual)

SG-2 (Peak)kh= 0.43
kv= 0.00
θ= 23.3
ωA= 35.1
ωB= 26.5

kh= 0.47
kv= 0.00
θ= 25.2
ωA= 32.2
ωB= 26.5

Fs= 0.984

Fs= 0.988

unit length(m)Figure 6. Predicted two-wedge analysis failure of GRSW at peak and residual
values.
4. TESTING PROCEDURE
The displacement of wall facing of the GRSW was controlled by the supporting
system as shown in Figure 5. According to Izawa and Kuwano (2008), thedamage of the GRSW would be evaluated from the surface deformation that isobserved from the wall displacement or from the settlement of the crest. The
supporting system in this model will prevent the GRSW from total collapse atpeak and achieve the residual stage basing on the distance between the wall facing
and the system.
There are two types of testing:First type, Centrifuge Shaking-Tilting test: The GRSW was subjected to shaking
in centrifuge test to achieve some deformation. Then the damaged GRSW was
moved to tilting test and the tilting-untilting process was applied.
The centrifuge tilting - tilting test: The GRSW was subjected to tilting to achieve
residual stage. The supporting system prevented the GRSW from total collapse
and the GRSW was then un-tilted. The supporting system was then removed andthe GRSW was tilted in centrifuge test again until the full collapse was obtained.
5. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

This GRSW model test was collapsed at titling angle of 21o as reported by Izawa
and Kuwano (2008). In the first test series, the GRSW showed some deformation
however the pullout resistance of geogrids had not reached residual value. The
GRSW was tilted and un-tilted causing the unloading-reloading process ofgeogrids in GRSW. In the geogrid pullout tests, the unloading-reloading process
did not affect the pullout resistance before the peak value. In the GRSW shakingtilting model tests, the tilting – untilting process also did not affect the stability of
the GRSW. Even the GRSW showed some deformation, the tilting - untilting
process with tilting angles η =5o, 15o, 20o did not cause the failure as shown in
Figure 8. Therefore, this agrees well with the results of the geogrid pullout testwith unloading-reloading process.
In the second type of centrifuge tests, the GRSW showed deformation and thepullout resistance of geogrids had reached residual stage. After the first tilting, the482

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supporting system was removed. The damaged GRSW was tilted again until fullcollapse. The damaged GRSW was then collapsed at tilting angle η =18.3o(shown in Fig 7b). It was about 3o less than the critical tilting angle at peak η =21o
as shown in Figure 8. This agrees well with the results of geogrid pullout tests andthe predicted behaviour by the two-wedge method that when in residual stage, thepullout resistance of geogrid can not reach peak after the unloading-reloading
process and the factor of safety of GRSW decreases from φpeak to φresidual. The
maximum shear strain and volumetric strain at the backfill of GRSW before
failure are shown in Figure 9a, 9b. The Figure 9a shows that the shear strain
concentrates behind the geogrid reinforcement and the failure surface has a twowedge type.

Figure 7a. Potential sliding surface before the collapse

Fig 7b. Two-wedge sliding surface
Even though both the predicted failure of peal value and residual value givehigher critical horizontal coefficient than the experimental one but the predicted
residual stage has closer critical horizontal value as well as failure surface withthe experiment results in compare with the predicted peak value does. This could
be explained that during the first tilting, some part of the GRSW had reached peakvalue of pullout resistance due to displacement and reduced to residual values
while other parts were still working in peak value of the pullout resistance. The
deformed plane was formed when the other part of potential failure was mobilized
to a new failure plane. Thus, after the event, factor of safety and failure plane of
GRSW could not reach to peak value. Therefore the residual value of pullout
resistance is more suitable to use for re-evaluating the factor of safety of damaged
GRSW when some part of GRSW has reached residual stage.

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Fig 8. Horizontal seismic coefficient (kh) where GRSW was subjected tounloading-reloading process.
Predicted residual stage failure, kh=0.43
Experiment failure, kh=0.32

Predicted peak value failure, kh=0.47

Figure 9a. Maximum shear strain

Figure 9b. Volumetric strain

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6. CONCLUSIONS

Series of centrifuge GRSW shaking and tilting table tests were carried out tostudy the effect of unloading-reloading processes on factor of safety and failuresurface of damaged GRSW. The two-wedge method analysis was used to predictstability of GRSW at peak and residual stage. The results were then comparedwith the experimental result. The following conclusions are achieved:- The unloading-reloading process does not affect the stability of GRSW when the
pullout resistance of geogrid is still before the peak.
- The GRSW was collapsed in two-wedge form suitable with the proposal twowedge analysis.
- The residual value of pullout resistance should be used to re-evaluate thestability of damaged GRSW when part of it has reached residual stage.
- This design and repair method should be used to evaluate stability of reinforced
soil wall in Vietnam and propose a repair procedure.
7. REFERENCES

Giang, N. H., Kuwano, J., Izawa, J. & Tachibana, S. (2010). Influence of
unloading–reloading processes on the pullout resistance of geogrid. Geosynthetics
International, 17, No. 4, 1–8.
Ismeik, M. and Güler, E. 1998. Effect of wall facing on the seismic stability ofgeosynthetic-reinforced retaining walls, Geosynthetics International, 5(1&2),
41-53.
Izawa, J. and Kuwano, J., 2008, "Evaluation of damage of geogrid reinforced soil
wall based on wall displacement," Proceedings of 4th European Geosynthetics
Conference, September 7-10, Edinburgh, UK, CD-ROM No.117.
Jewell, R. A., Paine, N. and Woods, R. I. 1984. Design method for steep
reinforced embankments, Polymer Grid Reinforcement, Thomas Telford, pp. 7081.

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486

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Estimation of stress distribution
in a model ground using bender elements
Reiko KUWANO1, Sho OH2
1

Associate Professor, ICUS, IIS, the University of Tokyo, Japankuwano@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
2
Ph.D Student, Dept. of Civil Engineering,
Faculty of Engineering, the University of Tokyo, Japan

ABSTRACT
Elastic wave tomography using bender elements was conducted to evaluate stress
distribution in a model ground. Bender element, BE, method has been widely
applied in laboratory soil element testing such as triaxial test, oedmeter test, or
direct shear test. When BEs are used in a model test, it was found that the signal
processing was essential to obtain clearer waveforms as the amplitude of received
signal was not large enough due to generally lower level of confining stress. The
effects of chamber side wall should be also taken into account in the arrangementof the elements location.
In a densely compacted model ground in a trapdoor testing soil chamber, thedistribution of stress in the ground was estimated using tomography techniqueand it agreed well with the results of physically measured stresses at the base.
Shear planes observed during the trapdoor test also coincided well with theboundary of the ground between fast and slow wave paths. On the other hand, fora loosely compacted ground, the estimation of stress distribution was not
successfully conducted, probably due to moderate change of the stress, i.e. thechange of wave velocity.
Keywords: shear wave, tomography, bender element, trapdoor test, stress
distribution
1. INTORODUCTION
It is difficult to measure actual stress distribution in the ground for both in thelaboratory and in the field, due to the fact that an interaction between an earthpressure cell and soil grains easily changes the contact situation. In this study, thestress distribution in the model ground was roughly estimated using elastic wave
tomography technique. The shear wave velocities propagating through soil
generally reflect the soil’s density and effective stress states, as empiricallyobtained relationship of equation (1).
�� ����(�) �(1)487

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Where Vs is shhear wave velocity,vf(ee) is void raatio function for norm
malizing theeffeccts of void ratio, i is th
he directionn of wave propagationpn, j is the direction
dofparticcle motion,, m and n is constants. Assuming
g that the deensity of sooil remains
consttant, the diistributions of shear w
wave velociities indicaate the distrribution ofcurreent stress staate.
For tthe measureement of Vs, bender ellement, BE, method w
was used. BE
E is piezoceram
mic bimorpph elements, which cann convert electric signnal to physiccal motion
and vvice versa. B
BE has beenn widely ussed for the Vs
V measurem
ment in the laboratory
soil sspecimen, bbut the appliication to mmodel tests has
h not beenn well reporrted.

2. A
APPLICATTION OF BE
B METHOOD TO THHE MODELL GROUNDD
The magnitude of received
d wave signal of BE depends onn the confin
ning stresslevell of soil. Geenerally, sig
gnal of greater than 100mV can be obtained in the soil
elemment test witth applied confiningc
sstress of at least 10kPaa. On the other
o
hand,
confi
fining stress of model teest is usuallly less than 10kPa andd the receiveed signal isas smmall as 10-22mV. Thereefore the siggnals are su
ubjected to the effect of electric
noisee, as shownn in Figuree 1a. In thiis study, frequency off received signalswasfoundd to be less than 10kH
Hz in mostt cases. Rem
moving higgh frequency
y noise by
FFT filter gives clearer wav
ve signal as shown in Figure
F
1b.
a)

b)

F
Figure 1: E
Example of receivedrsiggnal a) befo
ore and b) affter applyinng FFTfi
filtering

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Arrival off the shear wavew
was innterpreted byy the first riise of the main
m wave, i..e.
the wave w
with maxim
mum amplituude, in the receivedrsiggnal. Howev
ver, it was oftenodifficult too identify th
he main wavve.
When thee transmitteer and receeiver elements are loccated near thet wall off soilchamber, the wave trransmitting near the chhamber walll may arriv
ve faster thaan the
wave trannsmitting th
he minimum
m distance of the elemments, and the shear wave
velocity m
may be overrestimated. In order to evaluate suuch phenom
menon, Shv wave
measuremments (Fig.2
2) were coonducted withw
pairs oof BE locaated at diffferent
distances from the chambercwaall in the dry
d Toyouraa sand mod
del ground. The
location of the BE in the soil chaamber is shhown in Figuure 3. The relativer
dennsitiesof the moddel ground were 60 to 75 %. Distances betweeen transmiitter and recceiver
were 10 too 20cm. Thee depth of soil cover was
w 16cm.
a) Shvb) ShhFigure 2: Shv waave and Shh wave generrated by BE
E

Unit (mm)Figure 3: BEs
B locationn in the moddel ground in a soil chaamber
An exampple of the reesult is show
wn in Figure 4. Appareent shear waave velocityy wascalculatedd by equatioon (2), assum
ming that th
he wave passs through thet area neaar thechamber w
wall where the wave ppropagates fasterf
due to the effectt of confineementby the walll, as indicated by the aarrow in Fig
gure 3.
   

Estimation of stressEstimation
distribution
a modelground inusing
benderelements
of instressdisstribution
a modelgrou
und using beender elemen
nts

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Vb, wave velocity near the wall, and Vs, wave velocity in soil, were assumed to
be 320m/s and 120m/s, respectively. Vc is an apparent velocity, d is a distance
between transmitter and receiver, l is a distance from the wall. Figure 4 indicatedthat conventional way of interpretation, i.e. the first rise of the received signal,
agreed to the apparent wave velocity, while the interpretation adapted in this study
was not affected by the chamber wall.
400

Conventional Method 12kHz
Conventional Method 15kHz
Conventional Method 20kHz
New Method 12kHz
Calculation

Wave Velocity (m/s)

350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0

5

10

15

20

Distance from Chamber Wall (cm)Figure 4: The effect of chamber wall in the BE measurement

3. DISTRIBUTION OF SHEAR WAVE VELOCITIES
3.1 Trap door apparatus
BE measurements were conducted in the trap door test. A trap door apparatus
used in this study was developed by Ebizuka et al. (2010). A soil chamber for trap
door testing is shown in Figure 5. It can accommodate model ground of 700mm
wide, 294mm long and 555mm high. The base of the chamber consists of five
separated movable blocks whose size is 100 mm wide, 294mm long and 105mm
high, and fixed parts in both sides, in order to create uneven settlement in themodel ground. Each base block is equipped with five two-way load cells tomeasure the load distribution on the base. When some of the base blocks are
moved, the stress distribution in the ground should change. Tomography of shear
wave velocity measurement was attempted in this soil chamber. Magnitude ofshear wave velocity in soil generally reflects its small strain stiffness, which ismainly dependent on current state of density and stress. Technically speaking,then, the distribution of shear wave velocity may give some important informationon the stress condition in the ground.

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Figurre 5: Soil chhamber for trapt
door test apparatuss
3.2 Requiired resoluttion in tom
mography annalysisA softwarre called “E
E-tomo” devveloped by Dia Consulltants Co. Ltd
L was useed for
tomographhy inversion
n analysis. IIn order to determine tthe number of BEs reqquired
for the esstimation ofo shear waave velocitties distribuution, trial calculationn was
conductedd assuming the model ground shownsin F
Figure 6a. The numbber ofmeasuremment poinsts was set to be 24, 39 anda 59, andd travel time was calcuulated
for each case. Then, basedbon the calculatedd travel timee, using E-ttomo, the grroundmodel waas back calculated. Rooot mean square errorrs between original grroundmodel andd estimated model weree plotted in Figure 6b, showing thaat increase in
i thenumber off measurem
ments resulteed in higherr resolutionn of the model. Considderingthat measuurement of 39 and 59 ppoints did notn show siggnificant diffference in RMS
error, 39 ppoints of meeasurement were selectted in this sttudy.

a) Wave vvelocities in assumed mmodel grounndb) E
Errors in esttimated resuults

Figure 6: Preliminarry calculatioon for deteermining thhe number of measureement
pointsEstimation of stressEstimation
distribution
a modelground inusing
benderelements
of instressdisstribution
a modelgrou
und using beender elemen
nts

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4. SH
HEAR WAAVE TOMOOGRPHY IIN THE TR
RAP DOORR TEST
A unniform moddel sand groound was prrepared in thet trap dooor soil chammber using
Toyooura sand. A set of shhear wave mmeasuremen
nts was carrried out in the initialconddition. Thenn two base blocksbin booth sides inn the chambber was desscended by
1mmm, while onlyy the centerr base blockk was remaiined. A set of measureements wascondducted againn to estimaate the diffference of wave veloccity distribu
ution. The
arranngement of B
BEs in the soil
s chambeer is shown in Figure 7.

Figgure 7: BEs arrangemennt in the traap door test chamber
4.1 D
Dense grounnd (Dr=70%%)
Figurre 8 shows result of toomography analysis fo
or a dense gground. Fig
gure 8a, 8b
and 88c present bbefore and afterathe baase blocks movementmaand wave travel paths,
respeectively. Shhear wave velocitiesv
inn the initiall state weree slower in upper partand ffaster in low
wer part, whhich agreed well to the feature of sstress distrib
bution in a
unifoorm groundd. Figure 8b shows thatt wave velo
ocities are faaster in the center andslow
wer in sides. Differencee of wave vvelocities off before andd after the baseb
block
moveement are sshown in FigureF
9 toggether with the shear pplane appeaared in themodeel ground w
when the basse blocks w
was further descendeddtoo 10mm.

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a)

c)

b)

a) Wave
veelocities before
beffore the basebasse
ave velocities
movement
movement
aftter the baseveelocities afterb) Wave velocities
movem
ent
movement
trravel pathsc) Wave travel

Figure 8:: results of ttomography
y analysis forfoor dense ground
gro
ound

Compariison of tomography
tomoography result
ressult and shear
shear planess observedobbserved in thet
Figure 9: Comparison
omparison
trapdoor test

Estimation of stressEstimation
distribution
a modelground inusing
benderelements
disstribution
grou
und using bender
beender elements
elemennts
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a modelground493

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Estim
mated wave velocities ata the base aare compareed to the meeasured streesses in thetrap door test. U
Using equattions 3 to 5,, estimated wave veloccities are coonverted tohere equatioon 4 is empiirical relatioon for Toyou
ura sand.
meann principal sstresses, wh
�

�

(3)

(�.���
��)�
���

�.��

(4
4)

(5)

Com
mparisons off estimated and measurred stressess at the basee before annd after thebase block moveement are showns
in Figgure 10a an
nd 10b respeectively. Allthough theestimmated valuees did not agreeacomppletely in Figure 10, thhe tendency
y of stressincreement and ddecrement area well capptured and stresss
re-distribution by
y the block
moveement can bbe detected to some exttent.

a)a before thhe base movvementb) after thee base moveement
Figure 100: Comparison of estim
mated and meeasured streesses at the baseb494Technologies
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4.2 Loose ground (DDr=40%)For the looose ground,, shear wavee tomographhy did not ggive appropriate resultss asshown in F
Figure 11. PossibleP
reaason is that receivedrsiggnals of BE measuremeentsin the loosse ground werew very weeak and erro
ors in the shhear wave measuremenmnt
may be siggnificant.

a) before the base
b
movem
ment
b)
b after the base movem
ment
Figure 11
1: results off tomographhy analysis ffor loose groound

5. SUMM
MARY
ments was coonducted too evaluate sttress
Elastic waave tomograaphy using bbender elem
distributioon in a modeel ground annd followinng conclusioons were obtained.






Whenn BEs are ussed in a moddel test, it was
w found thhat the signaal processinng
was essential to obtainoclearrer waveform
ms as the am
mplitude off received signal
ough due too generally lowerllevel of confining
g stress.
was nnot large eno
The effects of chhamber side wall shouldd be taken innto accountt in thearranggement of th
he elementss location.
In a ddensely com
mpacted moddel ground in
i a trapdooor testing soil chamber, thedistribbution of strress in the gground was estimated uusing tomog
graphy technniqueand itt agreed welll with the rresults of phhysically meeasured streesses at the base.
b
Shearr planes observed durinng the trapdo
oor test alsoo coincided well with thhebounddary of the groundg
betw
ween fast an
nd slow wavve paths.
For a loosely com
mpacted groound, the estimation off stress distriibution wass not
successfully cond
ducted, probbably due too moderate change of thet stress, i.e. thechangge of wave velocity.
v

Estimation of stressEstimation
distribution
a modelground inusing
benderelements
of instressdisstribution
a modelgrou
und using beender elemen
nts

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496

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Regulatory framework formodern urban housing
Sudhir MISRA
Professor, Dept of CE, IIT Kanpur, India 208016
sud@iitk.ac.in

ABSTRACTEmergence of multi-storeyed flats as perhaps the only alternative in urban
housing in view of the acute shortage of available land and concentration of
infrastructural facilities in urban areas, has opened an entirely new paradigm
from the point of view of regulatory mechanisms. It has also thrown a challenge
to redefine concepts of ownership, property and insurance, to name only a few.
The issues raised are equally relevant whether the discussion is on one roomstudios or luxury apartments. In the different phases of these projects – design,
construction and maintenance – various agencies such as real-estate developers,
architects, structural designers and contractors are involved, other than theowner of the flats. Government agencies or departments are expected to play alargely regulatory role in ensuring quality in design and construction andcompliance with existing provisions. Further, with different flats in a building (orcomplex) being owned by different persons, the concept of ‘joint ownership’ of thecomplex and the ensuing ‘community living’ has become a reality, which also
raises several questions relating to mutual understanding and responsibilities.
Given the service life of apartment buildings and the need to maintain common
systems such as electrical, plumbing, sanitation, etc. accurate record keeping andarchival and retrieval of information for as-built drawings and construction
records has also become important. The paper discusses common scenarios ofmulti-storeyed flat construction in India and also presents a brief summary of therelevant regulatory framework. Some difficulties in the latter are discussed inlight of common practices and the need to urgently draw codes of regulation anddefining roles and responsibilities of different stake holders is highlighted.
Keywords: multi-storeyed flats, regulation, laws, quality control, owner, builder
developer, government, housing, urban, infrastructure
1. INTRODUCTION
Housing is a key component of infrastructure and developing economies
across the world are struggling to provide affordable housing to their populace,and India is no exception. Several factor and processes that are closely associatedwith development, such as industrialization and urbanization, have led tomigration of populations from rural to urban areas. This has placed infrastructural
facilities such as housing in urban areas under even greater pressure.

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In view of the acute shortage of available land and concentration of
infrastructural facilities in urban areas, several cities around the world have seen
the emergence of multi-storeyed flats as perhaps the only viable alternative inurban housing. This, in turn, has opened an entirely new paradigm from the pointof view of regulatory mechanisms and thrown a challenge to redefine concepts ofownership, property and insurance, to name only a few. The issues raised are as
relevant for one room studios as for luxury apartments. In other words, they
encompass the entire breadth of the urban populace, regardless of their means.
Now, like in any other area of infrastructure development, there areseveral stakeholders – the owners (users), builders and regulators, to name theprincipal ones in a very simplified scheme of things. Further, during the different
phases of these projects – design, construction and maintenance – these agencies
play different roles, as is discussed later in this paper. In the specific case of the
housing sector, the agencies involved could be identified as real-estate developers,
architects, structural designers and contractors, other than the owner and user ofthe flats. Government agencies or departments play a regulatory role in ensuring
quality in design and construction and compliance with existing provisions, etc.
Further, with different flats in a building (or complex) being owned bydifferent persons, the concept of ‘joint ownership’ of the complex and the ensuing‘community living’ has become a reality, which also raises several questions
relating to mutual understanding and responsibilities. The Maharashtra Apartment
Ownership Act, 1970 [Maharashtra is one of the states in Western India with
Mumbai as it’s capital city], and later the Delhi Apartment Ownership Act, 1986,
are two of the early attempts in India to address issues related to citizens living inapartment complexes. They provide a framework for Associations of Apartment
Owners, defined their structure and roles, and laid down model byelaws.
This paper discusses common scenarios of multi-storeyed flat constructionin India and also presents a brief summary of Maharasthra and Delhi apartment
ownership acts. The paper also discusses some concerns of the owners andpossible remedies.
2. STAKEHOLDERS AND PROJECT LIFE CYCLE
2.1 Stakeholders
As mentioned briefly in the paragraphs above, the principal players in the
housing sector in urban areas can be identified as the builder, owner and regulator,
and the following paragraphs put their basic responsibilities in perspective.
Builder: in a generic sense, the term encompasses real-estate developers,
architects, structural engineers and designers and contractors. In other words, anagency that is part of the system that plans, designs, builds, markets and sells the
product (i.e. the apartment) to the user has been identified as a builder for
convenience in this document.
Owner: this is the actual user of the apartment. No distinction is being made at
this stage between a landlord and a tenant.
Regulator: the government or its agencies such as Municipal Corporations, etc.
are responsible for the safety and welfare of the citizens, and are expected to

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fulfill a very important role of ensuring a check on compliance with provisions ofstructural and functional safety, etc. Their role includes approving plans anddesigns in the pre-construction stage, inspection during construction and finallyissuing a ‘good for occupancy’ certificate at the end of construction. In themaintenance phase, the regulator plays an important role through periodic
inspections and approving major modifications.
2.2 Life cycle of an apartment block
Planning, design, construction and operation, are clearly the most common
phases of the life cycle of an apartment block. In the planning phase, the builder
acquires the land and draws up a master plan with the help of an agency making
sure that the plan conforms to the Master Plan, and other requirements of the areaor the city where the apartment is to be located. ‘Design’ phases involve drawing
up of architectural and structural plans for buildings and other related facilities inaccordance with prevailing regulations, codes and specifications. The construction
phase is essentially the part where the facility is physically built by an appropriate
agency. The owner comes into the picture directly only after the completion of
construction, and begins to use the facility, which then enters the operation phase.
3.0 ROLES OF THE STAKEHOLDERS AT DIFFERENT STAGES
A closer examination of the stages in the life cycle above clearly showsthat, in principle, planning, design and construction can all be completed by the‘builder’ with approvals and compliance certificates coming from appropriate
regulatory agencies. Once construction is complete, builders have only a limited
role and the function of maintaining the facility is performed by Association ofApartment Owners, again within the ambit of the prevailing social and regulatory
norms.
It can be said that the builder is the service provider for the owner, whodoes not have the expertise or resources to plan, design and construct theapartment. However, the owners take the responsibility of maintaining the built
facility through the Association of Apartment Owners. It is therefore obvious that
following proper processes during the planning, design and construction, is very
important to facilitate proper maintenance during the operation phase. Given thatthe builder has only a limited role in the maintenance phase, and the owner may
often be ignorant of the finer details of the earlier phases, it is the regulator’s roleto ensure that the interests of the owners are appropriately protected. Of course,
the regulator also needs to ensure that the Owners also abide by the prevailingrules during the operation of the facility.
Clearly that whereas the role of builder is greatest during the initial stages(planning, design and construction) it rapidly diminishes in the maintenance phase,the converse can be stated for the involvement of the Owner. The role ofRegulator is important throughout, though it acquires a different hue during
operation compared to the earlier phases, and largely involves ensuring
compliance with appropriate standards. Though the basic picture has been
discussed above, the following sections briefly mention important steps in someof the common scenarios of flat building in India.

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3.1 Scenario 1
1. Builder acquires land
2. Builder hires architects, designers for concept development of township,
etc. which, in turn, involves the architect completing the concept plan anda structural designer completing the structural design
3. Builder approaches regulatory authorities and obtains required clearances
4. Builder indentifies a contractor and commences the construction – at times
the builder has his own construction division and carries out theconstruction activity in-house.
5. Marketing division of the builder sells flats to prospective owners
6. Builder obtains ‘occupancy certificate’ from regulatory authorities uponcompletion
7. Flat owners occupy the flats
8. Flat owners form an association or society for maintenance of the complex
3.2 Scenario 2
1. Prospective flat owners form a group or association
2. The group registers itself as a society or association, buys a plot of land,
indentifies an architect, structural designer, contractor, and obtains
clearance from regulatory agencies (Steps 2 to 4 in Scenario 1)
3. The group supervises construction (may hire a consultant)
4. The group obtains the ‘occupancy certificate’ from regulatory authorities
5. The members of the society occupy the flats upon completion and jointly‘manage’ or ‘maintain the premises.
3.3 Scenario 3
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Government agencies announce and develop housing colonies.
Clearances become an ‘internal’ matter within the government agencies
Prospective flat owners apply to the government and are allotted flats
The government agency identifies the architect, designer, contactor
The government agency does the construction supervision
An occupancy certificate is obtained upon completion
Flat owners occupy the flats
Flat owners form an association or society for maintenance of the premises

4.0 THE REGULATORY FRAMEWORK
Though the Maharashtra and Delhi apartment ownership acts are only twoof the several documents in the regulatory or government machinery, it isimportant to discuss some of the important clauses therein.
4.1 Association of Apartment Owners
The Acts lay great emphasis on the importance and role of the Associationof Apartment Owners, and the following is a summary of its role.

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purposesd) Function as ‘Employer’ of workers, who may be employed for the purposeof maintenance of the property
4.2 Apartment Owners
The Delhi Act also seeks to define the role of the individual owners in theprocess of the community and shared living in apartment buildings. Some of theimportant points are mentioned below.
a) Pay regularly towards maintenance of common facilitiesb) Perform maintenance and repair work within the apartment, including
those for air-conditioning, etc.
c) Facility to be used only for residential purposesd) Not carry out any structural modification without informing theassociation in writing.
e) Not place any furniture, package, etc in the common areaf) Rules of conduct such as playing the music, hanging garments, etc.
g) Cannot have a line for telephone, etc. on the exterior of the building
5.0 INTERESTS OF OWNERS AND THEIR CONCERNS
Since the Owners are the long term users of the facility, it is important that
their interests are accorded the top priority in all processes, and in fact theregulatory framework should ensure that. In other words it needs to be ensured
that owners get a safe and good quality place to stay, and there are safeguards toinsist that they maintain it in that manner. In this discussion it should be important
to note that the issues related to quality of design, materials used in construction,
workmanship, etc. are all very important and affect the overall durability of the
facility. Some of the concerns that owners may have are given as examples in thefollowing paragraphs.
Flow of information and proper checks: From the sequence of events given
above (Section 3), it is obvious that only in Scenario 2 the Owners are involved inall steps and have complete knowledge about the details. In the other scenarios theowners only get to see the finished product and have very little real understandingof details of the material used, the specifications actually followed, the quality ofworkmanship, etc. In fact the final ‘as built’ drawings are only rarely available
and properly archived. This is very important considering that: (1) the expected
life of the facility is long and the need for serious repair action may arise several
years later, when it may be difficult to trace the persons actually involved with the
project, and, (2) having handed over the facility to the owners, the builder may not
be inclined to get involved.
In Scenario 3, the regulatory authorities have a serious ‘conflict of interest’in that the plans are being drawn up either by them (or directly on their behalf)

Regulatory framework
for modern
urban housing
Regulatory
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and being approved by another wing also under their direct or indirect control.
Their continued role in the maintenance phase only compounds the difficulty.
Role of the Association of Apartment Owners: it should be remembered that theassociation need not have too many members who can understand the technicaldetails of construction, maintenance and repair, and to vest the association withpowers to take (technical) decisions may not be very wise, though very
democratic. Two examples of this lacuna are given below.
Example 1: Though a provision that an owner can only carry out structuralmodification after informing the association in writing, is laudable, making it
mandatory for the latter to respond within a stipulated period (failing which theowner can proceed with his plans) places the association under avoidable pressure.
Example 2: Granting the association a right to allow commercial activity incommon areas can be understood in terms of resource generation for the facility,
but there is no safeguard on evaluation of how an activity could affect the longterm performance of the structure, and the association could make a genuine error,
even if the activity has the ‘support’ of all the owners. Installation of small
communication towers or hoardings on roofs or balconies, etc. could be relevant
examples in this regard.
Rights to common areas and future expansion: common areas such as those left
around building blocks or the roofs of buildings are prime examples where future‘expansion’ may take place. This could be on account of changes in laws
governing ground area coverage or the floor-area-ratio, over time. A greater
protection than afforded at present is needed to ensure that the interests of theowners are adequately taken care of in this regard.
6. CONCLUDING REMARKS
It is clear that the provisions of the apartment ownership acts basicallyaddress the post construction regime and, are not adequately integrated with theprovisions applicable at the time of planning, design and construction. The ownerassociations are thus handicapped in the discharge of their function of maintaining
the apartment complexes for want of required drawings, details of construction,lack of technical expertise, etc. There is an urgent need to integrate and strengthen
all provisions related to different aspects of apartment complexes. Given the
scarcity of manpower in regulatory bodies, the possibility of involving andempowering professional organizations also needs to be actively explored.
Acknowledgement: Support from HUDCO for the study initiated in the area of regulatory
framework for mutlistoreyed flat-type housing in urban areas is gratefully acknowledged

REFERENCES
Delhi apartment ownership act (1986): http://www.dda.org.in/tendernotices_docs/
july09/THEDELHIAPARTMENTOWNERSHIPACT1986.pdf(Accessed
September 25, 2012)
Maharashtra apartment ownership act (1970): http://www.bricksandbonds.com/
downloads/pdf/MAO_1970.pdf, (Accessed September 25, 2012)

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Conducting advanced technology of public
transportation in Ulaanbaatar City
Mr V. Munkhjargal, Specialist of Construction, Urban
Development and Planning Agency of Ulaanbaatar
munjigai@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
It is an important matter that to discover based on research whether it ispossible to conduct an advanced technology of public transportation named
monorail in Ulaanbaatar ,which is attracted world countries in recent times andcan be manner for the modern metropolis, while General Development Plan for
Ulaanbaatar city until 2030 will be legalized and proved.
Conducting monorail research drafted in order to coordinate researches,
projects and plans in public transportation for International Organizations,
government and private sectors, further contribute to provide conditions oftransport easily for citizens and solve urgent issues by applying complex systemof public transportation.
GLOSSARY:
Light Rail Transit /LRT/:
Metro /MRT/:Bus Rapid Transit /BRT/:
Monorail:Type of metro, high capacity, small size /2 railtracks/Type of metro, high capacity, large size /2 railtracks/
A bus which has a high capacity and transit only
insulated way
Type of metro, normal capacity, small size /1
rail-track/

INTRODUCTION
We have resulted to research issues of developing public transportation by
conducting advanced technologies in order to solve urgent issues in road traffic
and public transportation of Ulaanbaatar city since recent years, especially 2008.
Experts, scientists, some well experienced international organizations such
as Japanese JICA, The Asian Development Bank, government and privateorganizations have been studying the matter and introducing its results.

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We have studied to choose this argument because, conducting advanced
technologies such as monorail has main importance of solving urgent issues,
making our city as one of world cities, on the other hand monorail provides
people compatibility and safety of public transportation.
By conducting monorail in UB, has significant that to become free fromtraffic jam in order to reach from one place to another, save your time and use it
for doing a kindness to others. In this research observation and comparative
method were usually used.
MAIN PART
1. Planning monorail in UB which is advanced technology of public
transportation
Monorail line will be planned as a circle; coordinate with subway, which
are main lines are planned from west to east parallel as a Peace avenue, from
north to south. We have already agreed this subway line solution.
Advantages of monorail are no need to free land to build monorailfacilities, low cost, short time implementation. It is possible to build not to break aprotective line which is an engineering line and settled under the main road ofcapital according to urban planning.
Choosing double pillar road for parts, which has seclusion lines in the
middle of the road, is the best choice and it is possible that service points, which
are on 1st floor of buildings beside the road, are settled under the bridge road withdouble pillar lines.
Monorail, which is able to implement for the shortest time, is planned to have
1-2 pillars and double bridge roads.
1.1.

Monorail Line Planning
Monorail lines are planned to start from behind Peace avenue go through 3rd,
4th division’s road, Ikh toiruu, Tsaiz market, then Officer palace’s circle, which isabout 12.3 km, “10 station”, front side of Peace avenue to National park, 19th
division, Gobi factor, through “Triangle bridge” and the Sapporo’s circle parallelwith subway basic line, turn around Moscow micro district.
Figure1. Monorail Line plan

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Monorail- Monoraillines werelinesplanned
were planned
behind behinda Peacea avenue,
Peace avenue,
which iswhich
aboutis about
12.3km,12.3km,
10 stations,
10 stations,in front in
part
front
is about
part is14.1
about
km,14.1
10 stations,
km, 10 stations,
total length
total lengthis aboutis26.4
aboutkm,26.4
20 stationskm, 20 stations
and the andlengththebetween
length between
stationsstations
is 1.32km.
is 1.32km.

1.2.

1.2.
Monorail
Monorail
StationStation
Plan Plan
Monorail
Monorail
stationsstations
are planned
are planned
to cooperate
to cooperatewith featureswith features
and their
andfuturetheir futureplanning.
planning.
See moreSee
inmorefollowed
in followed
table. table.
Table 1 Table 1
FeaturesFeatures
and theirand
futureof Monorail
stationsstations
theirplanning
future planningof Monorail
Length Length
Tendency
Tendency
StationsStations
betweenbetween
StationsStations
name nameFeaturesFeatures
and theirand
futureof station
theirplanning
future planningof station
code code
stationsstations
selectionselection/meter/ /meter/st
Way behind
Way 1behind 1st
Present,Present,
М1
М1
331
331
division-division1
1
It is planned
It is planned
to construct
to construct
ger areas
gerinareas
south,
in south,future future
front sidefrontof sideUnurofdivision
Unur division
Way behind
Way ofbehind ofPresent,Present,
М2М2st1028 1028
1 division
1st division-2-2
future future
rd
th rd
th
End of 3End, 4of 3 , 4
М3М31637 1637
Present Present
divisiondivision
There hasThere
the hasmostthepassengers
most passengers
in this sector
in this insector in
rd
th rd
th
3 , 4 3divisions, 4 divisions
10000 goods
10000 goods
М4
М41300 1300
Present Present
store store
Bayanburd’s
Bayanburd’s
It is planned
It is planned
to construct
to construct
south sidesouth
of sideDenjiinof Denjiin
Present,Present,
М5М51572 1572
circle circle
1000 and1000
front
andsidefront
of side5th divisionof 5th division
future futureth
It is planned
It is planned
to construct
to construct
south sidesouthofside
7 of 7th
Present,Present,
divisiondivision
and apartments
and apartments
in front,invertical
front, verticaltransit transit
М6
М63rd school
3rd school1052 1052
future futurestation of
stationmetroof metro
Passengers
Passengers
of 11thofdivision
11th divisionand 100ail
and 100ail
are
are
М7
М7 100 ail 100 ail 838
838
Present Present
concentrated.
concentrated.
ComputerComputerscience scienceandand
It is planned
It is planned
to construct
to construct
apartment
apartment
divisiondivisionof Presentof Present
,
,
М8
М8
1176 1176
management
management
Sansar in
Sansarfront,inManba
front, datsan
Manbaindatsansouthin south
future futureschool school
It is planned
It is planned
to construct
to construct
ger areas
gerandareas
hasandthe hasPresent,
the Present,М9М9Tsaiz market
Tsaiz market
1867 1867
most passengers
most passengers
in this sector
in this sector
future future
Officer Officer
palace’spalace’s
There hasThere
the hasmost
thepassengers
most passengers
in this in
sector,this sector,
Present,Present,М10 М101456 1456
circle circle
horizontal
horizontaltransit stationtransit ofstationmetroof metro
future futureLine length
Lineoflengthsouthofsidesouth side
12257 12257
It is planned
It is planned
to construct
to construct
14th division
14th division
andandМ11 М1114th division
14th division
1098 1098
future future
Chuluun-Ovoo
Chuluun-Ovoo
Narantuul
NarantuulМ12 М121663 1663
It is the Itmost
is thecrowdedmost crowded
market inmarketthe cityin the city Present Present
market market
It is planned
It is planned
to construct
to construct
apartment
apartment
divisiondivision
andandМ13 М13
NationalNationalpark park
1830 1830
Future Future
NationalNationalpark park
120 thousand’s
120 thousand’s
Present,Present,
There hasThere
the hasmostthepassengers
most passengers
in this sector,
in this issector, isМ14 М141535 1535
circle circle
future futureplannedplanned
to reconstruct,
to reconstruct,vertical verticaltransit stationtransit ofstation ofPresent,Present,
metro metroМ15 М15
White gate
White gate1098 1098
future futureМ16 М16
Gobi factory
Gobi factory
1689 1689
There hasThere
the most
has thepassengers
most passengers
in this sector
in this sector
Present Present

ConductingConducting
advanced
technologyof publictransportationin Ulaanbaatar
City
Conducting
advancedadvanced
technology
technologyof publicoftransportation
publictransportationin Ulaanbaatar
in Ulaanbaatar
City
City

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Ulaanbaatar,
2012, Ulaanbaatar,
Mongolia
Mongolia

М17

LoadingLoading
and in and inloadingloadingbrigadebrigade
М172091
of railwayof railway

There has
Therethehasmostthepassengers
most passengers
in this in
sectorthis sector
2091
Present Present
and large
andmarkets
large markets

There There
has thehasmost
the passengers
most passengers
in Unurin Unurdivisiondivision, It is planned, It is planned
to be minor
to becenter
minorofcenterthe ofPresent,
the Present,М18 М18
Sapporo’s
Sapporo’s
circle circle
901
901
city incity
Generalin GeneralPlan, horizontal
Plan, horizontaltransit stationtransit station
future futureof metroof metro
There Thereis a market
is a market
which which
has thehasmost
the most
Kharkhorin
Kharkhorinpassengers,
passengers,
it is planned
it is planned
to construct
to construct
apartment
apartment
Present,Present,М19 М191002 1002
market market
divisiondivisionin frontinand
frontUnurand division
Unur divisionin south,in south,future future
horizontal
horizontaltransit stationtransit ofstationmetroof metro
MoscowMoscow
Present,Present,М20 М20829
829
Unur division
Unur divisionin east, in
Moscow
east, Moscow
divisiondivision
in west in west
divisiondivision
future future
HillsideHillside
behind behind
It is an Itgeris areaan gerandareatheandmosttheconvenientmost convenient
place place
Depot Depotst
393
393
Present Present
1 division
1st division
to be settled
to be depot
settled depot
Line length
Lineoflengthfrontofside
front side14129 14129
Total length
Total length 26386 26386
It is planned:
It is planned:• For • 7 For
locations
7 locations
based basedon its oncurrent
its current
environment
environment
and passenger
and passenger
concentration:
concentration:end of end
3rd,of4th3rd,
division,
4th division,
10000 10000
goods store,
goods 100
store,ail,100 ail,
Narantuul
Narantuulmarket,market,
Gobi factory,
Gobi factory,
stationsstations
near Railway
near Railway
brigadebrigade
of loadingof loadingstst
and in loading
and in loading
and depot
andsettled
depot hillside
settled hillside
behind ofbehind
1 divisionof 1 division• Planning• Planningof stationof nearstation14th
neardivision
14th division
and Nationaland National
Park is Park
basedison
based
futureon futureplanningplanningaccordingaccordingto municipality,
to municipality,• For •otherFor 12otherstations
12 stations
based onbased
its current
on its current
environment
environment
and prosperity
and prosperity
planningplanning
Figure2.Figure2.
Coordinating
Coordinatingmannermannerof monorailof monorail
stationsstations
and constructions
and constructions

1.3 Planningof monorailroad design,wheel
and number
1.3 Planningof monorailroad design,
wheel andnumberof chainof chain
It is planned
It is planned
to locatetoinlocate
separatedin separatedside in thesidemiddle
in the middleof road of
androadbuild
andbridge
build bridge
besideItroad.
It is planned
4.6 m
from groundto bridge,of basebridge basebeside road.
is planned
to be 4.6tombefrom
groundto bridge,
width ofwidth
bridge
1.5m,ofwidthof double
on isbridgeis and
4.9 m,
andofsightof construction
bridge constructionis 1.5m,iswidth
doubleway on way
bridge
4.9 m,
sight
bridgeand iswagon
small.
it is possible
to useunderspacetheunder
the bridge.
There have
and wagon
small.isAlso
it Alsois possible
to use spacebridge.
There have
2-8 wagons
in a 14
chain.
14 passengers
sit, 18 passengers
caninstandin a wagon.
2-8 wagons
in a chain.
passengers
can sit, can
18 passengers
can standa wagon.
In another
word, maximumof passenger
in a wagon
256. Nowadays,
In another
word, maximum
numbernumberof passenger
in a wagon
is 256. isNowadays,monorail
arefrom
madefrom compressedrubberdamp
the noise.
monorailwheels wheels
are madecompressedrubber todamptothenoise.

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Figure3. Figure3.
Road design,
Roadnumber
design, of
numberchain,ofandchain,
sightandof wheelsight of wheel

№

1
2
3
4
5

Table 2 Table 2
Speed selection
Speed selection
and available
and available
number of
numberchain of chainType№ Typeof Speedof Speed
DurationDuration
DurationDuration
Total Total
Possible Possible
Number Number
Total Total
speed speedKm/hourKm/hour
to northto tonorthsouthto duration
south duration
number numberof turn of number
turnnumberside
sidesideside(min) (min)of chain of chainofof(min) (min)(min) (min)output output
Slower
1
Slower40
40 46.77 46.77
54.39 54.39
101.6 101.6
20
20 8
8 160
160
Slow
2
Slow5050 39.42 39.42
45.91 45.91
85.33 85.33
17
17 10
10170
170
Middle3
Middle6060 34.51 34.51
40.26 40.26
74.77 74.77
14
14 12
12180
180
High
4
High7070 31.01 31.01
36.22 36.22
67.23 67.23
13
13 13
13169
169
Higher5Higher80
80 28.39 28.39
33.19 33.19
61.58 61.58
12
12 14
14168
168
Explanation:
Explanation:-Train stops-Trainat station
stops atfor
station
1-2 minutes
for 1-2 minutes-Train spends-Train5spends
minutes5 between
minutes between
outputs outputs-Train travels-Trainfor
travels
15 hours
for 15
(900
hours
min)
(900
a day
min)
or afromday 7.00
or fromto 22.00.
7.00 to 22.00.
If average
If speedaverageofspeedmonorailof monorailis 60 km/hour,
is 60 km/hour,monorailmonorail
travels northtravelsside
north
for 34.51
side for 34.51
min, andmin,southandside
south
for 40.26
side formin.
40.26(totalmin.
74.77)(total 74.77)
1.4 Location
1.4 Location
planningplanningof monorailof monorail
depot depot
It is planning
It is planningto build monorail
to build monorail
depot at depot
hillsideatbehind
hillsideofbehind
1st divisionof 1st division
which is which
the is themost compatibility
most compatibility
place. But
place.
nowButthere
now
is ger-area
there is ger-areaand it canandbeitsolved
can betosolved
free theto free theland. land.

Conducting
advanced
technologyof publictransportationin Ulaanbaatar
City
Conducting
Conducting
advancedadvanced
technology
technologyof public oftransportation
publictransportationin Ulaanbaatar
in Ulaanbaatar
City
City

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Mongolia

Figure4. Location of monorail, sight of depot design

1.5 Projects implementing in UB and comparative research
In recent years, there are many projects, which is dedicated to develop
public transportation, have been implementing in Ulaanbaatar. Such as:- “Technical assistance credibility to build subway in UB” done by
Su Son group, South Korea- “Urban transport development project” implementing on credit
from Asian Development Bank- ‘Development project of Railway and public transportation near
Ulaanbaatar’ done by Bileg Capital LLC- Report of implementing “Research of implementing public
transportation project in Ulaanbaatar” by JICA which is combined
projects.
1.5.1 ‘‘Technical assistance credibility to build subway in UB’’ or metro-LRT
According to 174th order of mayor, tender was announced for advising
service with ‘Technical assistance credibility to build subway in UB’ on May,
2010. And ‘Geodesy’ company in Su Son group has won the tender andimplemented. The main object of the project “Drafting technical assistancecredibility of subway” is to make required research for planning subway line,
which connects suburbs and across the city center, to decrease automobile growth
in UB and environment pollution. According to planning, it is concluded that lightmetro is compatibility, and it is estimated to build subway in 5 years and yield in
30 years.
Figure5. Sight of LRT metro, station planningLine planning:
It is planned to have 2 main lines: length of horizontal line across Peace
Avenue is 28.38 km and length of vertical line from north to Chinggis Khan
airport is 21.03 km. Also according to prospect, it is possible to build 26.48 km
length line from new international airport which will be built in ‘Hushigtiin

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hundii’hundii’. And .itAnd
is planned
it is planned
to build
to bridge
build bridgein suburbin suburb
and buildand subway
build subway
under under
15m 15m
depth depth
in cityincentre.
city centre.
Figure6.
Line planningofand
LRTBRT
and BRT
Figure6.
Line planningof LRT

StationStation
planning:
planning:
It is planned
It is planned
that averagethat average
lengthlength
betweenbetweenstationstationis 1-1.5
is 1-1.5km, 21km,
stations
21 stations
along along
verticalverticalline, 14line,
stations
14 stations
along alonghorizontal
horizontal
line. Alsoline.there
Also arethere are2 types2 oftypes
stationof station
whichwhich
are besideare besideof lineofandlinemiddle
and middleof line.of line.
In forecast,
In forecast,
it is necessary
it is necessary
to spend
to spend
2 trillion
2 trillion
993 billion
993 billion
tugrugs
tugrugs
to build
to build
horizontal
horizontal
subway.
subway.
It included
It included
costs costsof administration,of administration,
metro metro
structure
structure
work, work,
system,system,and engineeringand engineering
line system.
line system.
4 trillion
4 trillion
917 billion
917 billion
tugrugs
tugrugs
is required
is requiredtotobuild build
2 ways
2 waysof metro.
of metro.
If the Ifproject
the project
starts starts
to implement,
to implement,
construction
construction
will bewill befinished
finished
to build
to in
build
2017
in and2017it andis estimatedit is estimatedto yield
to in
yield
2047.
in 2047.
1.5.2 ‘‘Urban
1.5.2 ‘‘Urbantransport
transport
development
development
project’’project’’or BRTor BRT
In theInframework
the frameworkof technicalof technicalassistanceassistanceof Asianof Asian
Development
Development
Bank, Bank,‘‘Urban‘‘Urbantransport
transport
development
development
project’’,project’’,
whichwhich
drafteddraftedin 2009-2010,
in 2009-2010,
was wascontained
contained
research
research
to conduct
to conduct
BRT inBRT
UBinpublicUB publictransportation.
transportation.
AccordingAccordingto research,
to research,
it is concluded
it is concluded
to conduct
to conduct
BRT and
BRTchange
and change
currentcurrent
bus arrangement.
bus arrangement.
ResearchResearch
team planned
team planned
to build
to subway
build subway
from northfrom tonorthsouth
to southand andfrom rightfrom toright
lefttoorleft
fromor Haniin
from Haniin
material,material,
Electric
Electrictransmission
transmission
to Ikhtotoiruu,
Ikh toiruu,
Baga Toiruu,
Baga Toiruu,
Sharkhad
Sharkhadand Narantuul
and Narantuul
market.
market.

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Figure7. Planning BRT in UB

In most countries BRT is established by 2 types. First one is in the middleof road. Another one is public transport which transit on first line. It is estimatedthere are 22km, 28 stations bus for the first line of seclusion way. AsianDevelopment Bank estimated 19.9 million dollars to build first line of seclusionway.
The project will be implemented 2012-2015. The second level ofconstruction BRT will continue 2015-2018 and require 75 million dollars. And it
is estimated that last level will continue in 2018-2020.
It is estimated that BRT will work by electricity not diesel fuel, length of
BRT is 18 m and it contains 145 passengers.
1.5.3 “Development project of Railway and public transportation near
Ulaanbaatar” or use current railway in public transportation.
“Bilig Capital” LLC drafted itself “Development project of Railway andpublic transportation near Ulaanbaatar”. This project will be helpful for fastening
baggage turnover and widening railway surrounding UB. Also it is planned todecrease traffic jam by using railway in public transportation of UB. This projectis estimated to implement in UB and Mandal, Sergelen and Bayan sum in Tuv
Aimag.
Project makers: capital is surrounded by mountains. So it is inconvenientto pass baggage through the current railway, which constituted to coordinate withnature manners, without any artificial constitution such as bridge and subway.
There’s too much waste to pass baggage through UB or mountainous region. Also
there’s another solution not to transport explosive and poisonous baggage incentre of capital by building a new railway which surrounds UB from Mandal to
Bagakhangai. According to planning ‘To develop project’, it is necessary to build
168 km length new railway.

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Figure8. Planning to build railway in front of “Bogd” mountain

After building this new railway, it is possible to use current railway in
UB’s right region or from Tolgoit to Amgalan by public transportation. There willbe 23 km length way, and 27 stations. This will be a main line that average length
between stations is1.095 km. According to research, there will be a new railway
from north of UB (from Bayankhoshuu, Baruun and Zuunsalaa) to centre of thecity in second level. According to urban planning, there will be a new residence
region in Nisekh and Yarmag. So traffic toward city centre will increase rapidly.
It is possible to build new line by using roads derived from main line with lowcost.
It is estimated to waste totally 756.950 million tugrugs to implement the
project. It includes road, stations, bridge constitution and trains.
1.5.4 Process of ‘Research of implementing public transportation project in
Ulaanbaatar’
The object of the research is to implement and operate project bybecoming research object “first line or horizontal line (right to left line)”, andcomparing with other types of transportation, suggesting the best solution tocooperate between government and private sector and define every term andrequirement to involve with technology and profit from private sector and ODA.
The research has started on Sept, 2011. It will finish on March, 2013. In
another word, studying period is 19 months and the research has 3 goals. By now,
1st and 2nd goals are implemented generally.
Goal 1: To define social, economy and project implementing environment
in Mongolia
Goal 2: To suggest and discuss a plan of implementing project“Cooperation between government and private sector”
Goal 3: To suggest structure and personnel of implementing project
Main concept of constituting subway in Ulaanbaatar
40% of UB residents live near the Peace Avenue and there is constituted
part near Sukhbaatar Square which includes public constitution, trade, service,
and apartments. There’s 3rd power plant located in right and supply apartments byheat and water under the ground.

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Urban activities and transportation concentrate following Peace Avenue
because Ulaanbaatar located from right to left, surrounded by mountains in northand south and the only main road from right to left is Peace Avenue. Researchshows 2 million passengers transport in UB per a day and 700000 passengers (app35%) pass through Peace Avenue. Also there are 58 main bus routes in UB and 21
routes (36%) of them passes Peace Avenue.
So the Peace Avenue is a main axis of city, which contains wide
development opportunity for urban constitution strategy, plays an important rolein urban activity, road transportation, and public enterprises. So as a result ofresearch, MRT or railway is the most convenient transport system.
Figure9. First planning of subway in UB (Suggestion)

Resource: JICA research team
Structure of metro design:
There have 3 main metro structures: bridge, subway and on the ground.
And we select it displacement variation depending on social, economy,
environment influence, possibility of transportation, and flexibility withconstitutions. Result of it, we have chosen the structure “subway in city centre andbridge in suburb”.

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Figure10. Cooperation mechanism between government and private sector of
metro project

It would be the best choice if subway constituted by state property and private
sectors rent trains.
4 main terms to implement project:
1. Policy from Mongolian Government and its participation-The policy about implementing project of “Cooperation between
government and private sectors”
2. Policy about constituting public transportation system- Constituting complex public transportation system that contain next 100
years- The main axis of the city metro infrastructure- Constituting efficient system of metro, bus, technical and order act- Efficient system that government cooperate with private sector- Constituting required legal environment
3. Government financing in infrastructure project- Planning to finance infrastructure related economic growth- Infrastructure frame and financing opportunity
4. Providing participation of private sector- Investment of private sector: Distributing available quantity, costs andinvestment risk
- Implementing project method: Operating construction, activities andservice of metro, trade service around the metro and providing
surroundings efficiently.
- Type of participation: Sort out, Tender, Unsolicited Private Proposal,
Direct Appointment , Strategy Partnership- Choosing well experienced country in this sector for partner

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1.5.5. Comparative research

Table 3Comparison between metro line along horizontal axis and circle line frame
Horizontal axis
Closed circle line
South
South
JICAJICAKoreaKoreaTechnicalTechnical
Content
Technical
Technical
assistanceassistanceassistanceassistancecredibilitycredibilitycredibility credibility
LRT/MRT
LRT/MRT
LRT-LRTLand level
1.62 km018.4 km0Bridge14.64 km12.73 km026.39 km
Structure
Underground12.12 km6.62 km00
Total
28.38 km19.3 km
18.4 km26.39 kmLand level11200
NumberBridge88020ofUnderground12
5
00
stations
Total
21
14
20
20
Cost/million $/km/
Available period of
construction
Method of making a
subway-80-150

67-88

1-15

40

5 years

7 years

7 years

5 years

Digging/open/

Drilling
machineDigging/open/

Digging/open/

It is smaller than MRT, LRT and investment and operation costs are lower
because road is a concrete bridge. It is estimated that closed circle line that
length is 26.39 km will be built for 5 years because there are short time
implementation and lower excavation.

Table 4Comparison between horizontal metro line and closed circle line planning
Horizontal metro line
Closed circle line
JICA- TechnicalSouthassistance credibility
KoreaContent
Project ofOffering
Technical
ADB
variant
assistance
2020
2030
credibility
Total
28.38 km17.64 km18.4 km26.39 km
lengthTo start2017 year
2020 year
2020 year2018 year
operation
20.858312.016486.975
5.000-20.000
7.000-25.000
Demandtravel/hour person/hour person/hour passenger/hour passenger/hour
Maximumof
4.135
10.72917.76720.00025.000passengers
Type
LRT
LRT/MRT
BRT
Monorail

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Lengthbetweenstations

1.32 kmWagon

18 trains/4
wagons in
the train/

Filling120%

Numberofpassengers
in chainRush-hour
outputAverage
speed
Output/per
a day, one
direction/469
Per 6.7min
35km/hour
129

1.36 km

0.4 km1.32 km128

15 trains/2-8
wagons in the
train/-

180%

10 trains/6
wagons in
the train/
180%
/max/

15 trains/6
wagons in
the train/
180%
/max/

1.430

1.430

-

192-256

Per 8.0 min

Per 5.0 min-

Per 5.0 min

39 km/hour
71

40-80 km/hour

109

54

160-180

47.5 min31-50 min27 min /one side//one side//one side/
It is possible to arrange monorail chain depends on passenger flow and it
saves your time and money.

Period-Table5Comparative SWOT analysis between Bus Rapid Transit /BRT/ and Monorail
Indicator

Advantages

Project of ADB – BRT

Offering variant – Monorail- Short-time working, flexible
line selection because of lower
cost- Short term implementation- Low risk due to get
accustomed for passenger’s
consumption- Traffic jam can’t effect and passengers
needn’t wait to transit easily- It is convenient to plan a closed circle
road, because traffic radius minimum is 30
meter- Low vibration, low sound and low exhaust.
- Smaller than MRT, LRT, lower investment
cost and operational cost because road is aconcrete bridge- Excavation is lower, short term
implementation- Constant transit hour because it is fully
automatic and has own road.

- To obstruct because it isdriven on public road.
Disadvantages - Harmful to nature because it
makes a noise and generates
vibration- It is possible to connect bus
Opportunity service.
- It is possible to use the road

- It is impossible to plan acclivity anddeclivity because slope quantity is 6 percent.
-Passengers must transit on bridge stations .
- It is possible to control and arrange
depends on passenger flow.
- It is possible to plan to build stations in

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as a normal road if there is aconstructions.
lower demand.
- It is possible to use space under the bridge.
- Other transports might
Risk- It is stopped when it damages on the way.
follow rule of insulated way.
- It is shown by SWOT analysis that choosing monorail is more effective thanclosed circle line.
- It is necessary to plan stations with best terms for passengers and to prevent
external influence for the design.
Table 6№
1
2
3

Total cost comparison between bus, LRT and monorail
Operation cost
LRT
Monorail
Cost and income per 1 кm/mile$6.95/$11.17$1.55/$2.50
Cost and income per a hour$150.00$38.00Total cost /a year/$12,621,150.*$4,000,000.*Resource: O&M project which implemented abroad- It is estimated that monorail operation cost is less than LRT by 4 times but it
has lower capacity.
Table 7

№
1
2

№
1
2
3
4
5
6

516

Comparison between construction work cost and operation cost
To plan LRT subway, its
Indicator
To plan bridge monorail
depth is 15meter
Construction work cost /per
66 billion tug
40.1 billion tug
1 кm/Operation cost
1 billion tug
700 million tug/per 1 кm/Resource: Technical assistance credibility drafted by “Su Son” group- It is shown that construction work cost of bridge monorail is less by 26 billion
tugrugs per 1 km than LRT subway.
Table 8Investment comparison required public transportation systems
Horizontal axis
Closed circle line
South KoreaJICAIndicator
Technical
Technical
Project ofOffering variant
Assistance
Assistance
ADB
Credibility
Credibility
Type of system
LRT
LRT/MRT
BRT
MonorailLine length /кm/
28.38
17.64
18.3
26.39
Required investment566
3 trillion
1.7 trillion
1.1 trillion/tugrugs/
billionOperation cost / per a800
1 billion
1 billion
700 million
year, per 1 km/
million
6.7 years
Period of yielding
30 years
26 years
21 years/EIRR/
Average sale of tickets
100
200 million
200 million/per a day/millionNew Technologies
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Cost -of Cost
1km oflength1kmoflengthmonorailof monorailline is estimatedline is estimatedand taken
andfromtaken
Koreanfrom KoreanTechnicalTechnical
Assistance
Assistance
Credibility.
Credibility.
- Cost -of unit
CostofofBRT
unitisoftaken
BRT from
is takenresearches
from researchesof ADB. of ADB.
- It is estimated- It is estimatedthat supposedthat supposed
ticket priceticketis 400
pricetugrugs
is 400 andtugrugs
500000and passenger
500000 passenger
transit pertransit
a day.per a day.
- It is estimated- It is estimatedthat therethat
willthere
be 2will
millionbe 2transits
millionintransits
2011, in
4.52011,
million
4.5transits
million transits
in 2012 andin 20126.4 million
and 6.4transits
millionintransits
2030 byin JICA
2030 byresearch.
JICA research.
Table 9 Table 9
Coordinatedmanner ofplannedstations andmetroandstations
Coordinatedmannerof monorailplanned monorail
stations
metroplanningstations planning
Type of Type of
Stations StationstransitDepictionDepiction
Stations name№transit
Stations nameDescription
Description
code
code
stations stations

1

Unequal Unequallevel transit
level transit
station1 ofstation of
metro andmetro andmonorailmonorail

М6
М10
М14
М18

2

Equal level
Equal leveltransit transit
station2 ofstation of
metro andmetro andmonorailmonorail

М15
М19

-

- 3rd school,- 3rd school,-М6
Officer’s- Officer’s
palace’s palace’s
М10 circle, circle,
М14- 120 thousand’s- 120 thousand’s
Transit stations
Transit stations
М18 circle, circle, М6, М14,М6,
М15
М14, М15- Sapporo’s- Sapporo’s
circle, circle,is along is alonghorizontal
horizontal
axis,
axis,
М10, М18,
М10, М18,
М19 is alongМ19 is along- White gate
- White gatevertical axis
vertical axis
М15
- Kharkhorin- Kharkhorin
М19market market

It is possible- It is possiblethat transit
thatstationstransit ofstations
metro ofandmetro
monorailand monorail
are locatedareon
locatedunequalon unequallevel or equallevel levelor equalof line.
level of line.

Coordinated
Coordinatedmanner ofmannerplannedof monorailplanned monorail
stations andstations
road andplanningroad planning- It is necessary- It is necessarythat the bridgethat theroad
bridgecooperated
road cooperated
with М5 withor Bayanburd’sМ5 or Bayanburd’s
circle; circle;
М16 or М16
Gobi orfactory
Gobi station,
factory М18
station,or М18
Sapporo’sor Sapporo’s
circle andcircleit is andpossible
it is possible
totodiscuss unequal
discuss andunequalequaland
level
equal
linelevel
whileline
processing.
while processing.
- М18 -or Sapporo’s
М18 or Sapporo’s
circle is circle
necessaryis necessary
to detail towheredetailsettled
whereroad,settled
metro
road,
and
metro andmonorailmonoraillines. lines.
Figure11.Figure11.
RequiredRequired
location oflocationcooperatedof cooperated
with monorailwith monorail
stations metro
stations
line
metro
and line andbridge roadbridge road

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Figure12. Sight distance comparison between monorail lines and road-

It is possible to plan on seclusion line and beside road.

SUMMARY-

It is important to solve and implement to conduct beneficial, convenient public
transportation system in Ulaanbaatar based on combining the projects.
Public transportation system such as metro, monorail require much primary
investment and it is possible to generate income from ticket moreover, fromservice centers under the bridge and real estate market along the lines.
Public transportation investment, which prefers social benefit into human thanecological benefit, economical benefit and others, is different between otherinvestments as any investment is implemented for economic benefit.
It is absolutely necessary that government consider to be developed withprivate sector because metro and public transportation system is a strategy
development issue of the city.
Finally, If Ulaanbaatar city was an apartment, 12 floors even 30 floors
apartment wouldn’t have an elevator according to general plan of 1950 whichplanned no elevator for 5 floors apartment.

REFERENCES-“Underground city” research, 2011 year.
“Opportunity of conducting monorail in UB” research, 2011 year.
“Building metro in UB - Technical Assistance Credibility”, SU SON group,
South Korea, 2011 year.
“Urban Transport Development Project”, Asian development bank, 2010 year.
“Development project of railway and public transportation near Ulaanbaatar”“Bileg capital” Co., LTD, 2010 year.
“Research of implementing public transportation project in Ulaanbaatar”,
JICA, 2012 year.
http://www.wikipedia.org/ http://www.google.com/

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The relationship between pedestrian
perception and characteristics of sidewalk
environment in case of the central area of
Ulaanbaatar City
Amgalan SUKHBAATAR1, Noboru HARATA2, Nobuaki OHMORI3
Lecturer, SCEA, Mongolian University of Science and Technology, Mongolia
amgalans@gmail.com
2
Dean of the School of Engineering, Professor, Dept. of Urban Eng., School ofEng., The University of Tokyo, Japan
3
Associate Professor, Dept. of Urban Eng., School of Eng., The University ofTokyo, Japan

1

ABSTRACTWalking is basic mode of transportation, recommendable for the city center,
especially for the city center with continuous increase of car traffic and hightraffic congestion, like central Ulaanbaatar. Most of sidewalks in central
Ulaanbaatar have not been designed based on pleasance to pedestrians but
mostly on considerations of completing a construction of footpath anywise due tothe mainly economic constraints. Even in constraint of given budget, pleasantsidewalks would be designed based on the consideration of its user’s preferences.
Addressing this situation, the research aims to identify physical and operational
aspects of sidewalk environment affecting people’s preference of pleasantsidewalks. People’s perception was assessed from the questionnaire survey witharea based sample size of total 200 samples. Physical and operational features ofsidewalk environment were measured during the field measurement at 12
sidewalk segments from 3 city blocks, as well as at the laboratory. Aftersummarizing collected data, applicable statistical method, ordered probit models
were developed to analyze respondent’s rating for sidewalk environment factors
depending on the combination of sidewalk attributes and characteristics of eachindividuals. Based on model results, physical and operational features of sidewalk
environment affecting people’s preference were signified quantitatively.
Keywords: walking, pedestrian perception, sidewalk environment, central district
1. INTRODUCTION
Walking is basic mode of transportation recommendable for the city center,
especially for the city center with continuous increase of car traffic and hightraffic congestion, like central Ulaanbaatar. Within the central district of the city,
walking level of pedestrians can be increased by good quality of pedestrianenvironment. On the other hand, pedestrian’s satisfaction level depends on theirperception of the characteristic of pedestrian environment such as physicalcomponent ratio of sidewalks they use. Therefore, it is important to understand the519

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relationship between pedestrian perception and characteristics of sidewalk
environment in order to increase people’s walking level and to provide goodquality of environment.
According to the Study on City Master Plan and Urban Development Program of
Ulaanbaatar City, over 1 million trips are generated by mode of walking per day.
It is 31 percent out of total trips generated daily. However, walk trip duration anddistance are short. The quality of walk trip is also unsatisfactory due to the poor
quality of environment. Most of sidewalks in the central area of Ulaanbaatar city
have not been designed based on pleasance to pedestrians but mostly on
considerations of completing a construction of footpath anywise due to the mainly
economic constraints. Even in constraint of given budget, pleasant sidewalks
would be designed based on the consideration of its user’s preferences. Another,functional problem in practice is lack of coordination or comprehensive
researches on urban development plans and urban transportation programs of
Ulaanbaatar city for small scale. Urban development plans on street level are notclearly coordinated with any other comprehensive plans, affective engineering
techniques.
1.1 Research Objectives
The main objective of this research is to identify the physical and operational
aspects of the sidewalk environment affecting people’s preference of pleasantsidewalks for walking in the central area of Ulaanbaatar city, by exploring therelationship between pedestrian perception and characteristics of sidewalk
environment. Specific objectives:
1. Assess the physical elements and operational aspects of selected sidewalk
segments from the central area of Ulaanbaatar city in terms of required factors
for the existing sidewalk environment
2. Quantify how well sidewalk elements influence to the pedestrian perception of
sidewalk environment
3. Identify which physical elements and operational aspects tend to generate
more walkable sidewalk environment for all users in the central area of
Ulaanbaatar city
2. METHODOLOGY
2.1 Selection of Sidewalk Segments
Based on the characteristics of city blocks in the central area of Ulaanbaatar, 12
sidewalk segments from 3 blocks were selected to assess the physical andoperational aspects as well as pedestrian perception of sidewalk environment(Figure 1).

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Figure 1: Map of selected sidewalk locations
Block-1 consists from predominant office, public administration, health care andother institutional land-uses. Block-2 consists from mixed use with institutionaland commercial land-uses. Block-3 consists from predominant residential landuses with 5 storey apartment buildings surrounded by retail or commercial land
uses with one storey variety of small shops, cafe, fast foods, and small restaurants.
Sidewalk segments on surrounding streets of the city blocks were selected andclassified into 3 types by similarity of physical components and operational
condition. Original street names were represented as block-letter mark withordered numbers in order to recognize easily for further steps of analysis. Guide
mark for the street names and description of the current condition of sidewalk
environment as follows:
A1 – Segment of Baga Toiruu Street: It is most typical street in central
Ulaanbaatar with variety of small shops, fast foods and small restaurants serving
to the adjacent area. Concrete sidewalk path with narrow effective width causedby entrances of these small service spots becomes crowd mainly during lunch
time or after work hours.
A2 – Segment of Enkhtaivan Avenue: Sidewalk on Enkhtaivan Avenue, thebusiest street of Ulaanbaatar, has relatively high crowd of pedestrians among
selected sidewalk segments in both day and evening time due to its linkcharacteristic of major arterial road and existence of commercial facilities.
A3 – Segment of Tserendorj Street: Along the sidewalk segment of Tserendorj
Street, variety of small commercial facilities exists. Since utilization of the
sidewalk environment from city establishments is inadequate, small enterprises ofthese facilities provide some part of physical improvements only for the front
space of their facility.
A4 – Segment of Seoul Street: Many service and retail facilities exist in this street.
Security concerns are implicated by some types of service facilities such as cafe,
bar and karaoke rooms working till night in this street segment.
B1 – Segment of Khuulichid Street: It is a typical street with predominant office
and institutional land-uses in central Ulaanbaatar. Existence and utilization ofphysical components of this sidewalk environment is relatively well enoughcomparing other selected street segments.
The relationshippedestrian
perception and characteristics of sidewalk
The relationship between
pedestrianbetween
perception
and characteristics
environment
in
case
of
the
centralareaof Ulaanbaatarof sidewalk environment in case of the central area of Ulaanbaatar
City City

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B2 – Segment-1 of Sambuu Street: Mostly office and institutional buildings exist
in this segment. Pedestrian flow rate of this sidewalk segment is relatively highdue to the characteristics of major arterial road as well as physical environment
characteristics including wider sidewalk path.
B3 – Segment of Sukhbaatar Street:This street segment exists adjacent to the mostprimary places of the city. Therefore, presence and utilization of physicalcomponents are relatively adequate among selected street segments.
B4 – Segment of Tumurchin Street: Even though physical environment of
Tumurchin Street is being improved in recent years, general image of the street
among its users is still unpleasant seeing the environment with disordered features.
C1 – Juulchin Street: Among selected street segments, this street has the widest
footpath. Safety concern of pedestrian-vehicle conflict is considered as safeenough due to its car-free street characteristics.
C2 – Segment-2 of Sambuu Street: Physical characteristic of this segment issomewhat similar with the characteristic of B2. However there are some specificdifferences which are the absence of green strip, poor utilization of road lighting,busy vehicle access ways and narrow footpath width than B2’s.
C3 – Segment of Baruun Selbe Street: Due to the surrounding mixed
developments and the existence of one particular commercial center in thissegment, amount of parking space is relatively high. Well utilized street furniture
and wider footpath are the pleasant characteristics of this segment. However, there
are some types of poor operational condition such as unauthorized parking on
vehicle access ways.
C4 – Segment of Khanddorj Street: A sidewalk on this street segment has typicalcharacteristics of collector road sidewalks in central Ulaanbaatar with narrowconcrete footpath, few physical components and relatively less rate of pedestrianflow.
2.2 Survey Design
The questionnaire survey has been designed to ask pedestrian’s subjective
evaluation of 12 different sidewalk segments by 7 factors for each, in 5 point scalewith 1 being low and 5 being high score. Sidewalk environment factors required
to the current situation of the central area of Ulaanbaatar were used for theevaluation. Factors are: (i) Convenience, (ii) Comfort, (iii) Safety of pedestrianvehicle conflict, (iv) Security, (v) Access to the Service, (vi) Visibility and (vii)
Attractiveness of sidewalk environment. As for the identification of sidewalk
segments on the questionnaire sheet, photographs taken at each sidewalk section
were used to identify sidewalk segments. In addition, the survey has been
designed to ask respondent’s socio-economic and walk trip characteristics byquestions with answer options.
2.3 Data Collection
Field survey data collection including questionnaire survey data collection andfield measurement or observation process was continued from August to
September 2010. Previous research papers and relevant studies were reviewed todefine attributes of sidewalk environment. Although numerous variables wereconsidered in during research review, total 18 of physical and operational

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variables have been determined as important characteristics for the study area of
this research.
A paper based questionnaire survey was conducted among sidewalk users
traveling and working in the central area of Ulaanbaatar with area based sample
size of total 200 samples. 103 questionnaire surveys were conducted in theselected city blocks. 97 questionnaire surveys were conducted among the generalpublic of Ulaanbaatar city. Survey sheets were distributed at work places of
respondents then collected back after two days. Questionnaire survey data consistof numerical values from the subjective evaluation on 7 factors of selectedsidewalk segments, qualitative data from the information of respondent’s
individual characteristics and open comments describing urgent issues relatedwith the sidewalk environment of Ulaanbaatar city.
Physical attributes of sidewalk environment were measured during the fieldmeasurement and at the laboratory. The footpath effective width was measured onsite considering a ‘shy distance’ and obstacles on the sidewalk path. A footpath
actual width and the building front space were measured at the laboratory using
sidewalk map. Amount of each footpath surface material was calculated based on
the sidewalk map and photographs. The adjacent land-use type, vehicle accessways, distance from moving vehicle and street furniture were counted from the
map as well. Sky area ratio was calculated at the laboratory using photographs.
Operational condition of each sidewalk was observed during the fieldmeasurement as well as at the laboratory using photographs and video records ofsidewalks. Photographs were taken in both of day and evening times. Video
records were recorded at sidewalk section, for 15 minutes, weekday and weekend
days. Pedestrian flow counting process records how many sidewalk users arewalking on the sidewalk path while the pedestrian counter participants areassessing the selected section of the sidewalk. Volume of pedestrian flow, in both
directions primary flow and counter flow was counted for 15 minutes in day time,
20 minutes in evening time, weekdays and weekend days. Presence of street
vendors and on street parking was counted during the field observation. At thelaboratory using photo elevation of sidewalk segments, open entrances of adjacentbuilding were counted for both of day and evening time.
3. DATA SUMMARY AND ANALYSIS
3.1 Data summary
After the field survey data collection, subjective evaluation scores for eachsidewalk segment were summarized by each factor. Descriptive statistics resultshows that two particular sidewalk segments, B4 and C2, have relatively low
evaluation scores for all factors. Due to the consideration of subjective evaluation
score for the sidewalk segment B4 potentially affected by the limited
identification of photograph used on the questionnaire sheet, data of B4 was
excluded from analyses. As for remaining sidewalk segments, two types ofassumption for how pedestrians perceive the sidewalk environment were assumed
in further analysis:
1. Pedestrians perceive the sidewalk environment as a section - the component
ratio of section or segment of the sidewalk

The relationshippedestrian
perception and characteristics of sidewalk
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pedestrianbetween
perception
and characteristics
environment
in
case
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2. Pedestrians perceive the sidewalk environment as a whole - the component
ratio of whole length of the sidewalk
Meantime, necessary variables of sidewalk attributes were transformed intomodule variables depending on assumptions.
3.2 Factor Analysis
The linear regression analysis was performed in order to determine the correlation
between factors and attributes of the sidewalk environment. Using the sidewalk
section assumption, sum of subjective evaluation scores for each factor ofsidewalk segments and module value of related objective measures were used inregression analysis. In addition, using the sidewalk length assumption, sum of
subjective evaluation scores for each factor and sum (or mean value for some
attributes) value of related objective measures were used in regression analysis.
The results from two types of regression analyses between access to the services
and evening time service entrances show that the coefficient of determinations, R2(s), are relatively high at 0.65 and 0.43 among other correlations. It suggests thatpeople’s perception of access to the service in the sidewalk environment of thecentral area is correlated with mainly evening time service entrances. Next
relatively high values of the coefficient of determination, R2 0.37 and 0.49, were
found in regression analyses between attractiveness of sidewalk environment andpresence of recreational land-use. The result of total 50 regression analyses showsthat coefficient of determinations, R2 (s), range from 0.0005 to 0.65, still low
values. It was presumably caused by summation of different types of pedestriancharacteristics.
3.3 Model Estimation and Comparison
Based on results of factor analyses and the applicability to analyze information ofpeople’s perception and characteristics of sidewalk environment, the quantitative
statistical method, ordered probit model was selected to analyze respondent’s
rating for sidewalk environment factors depending on the combination of
sidewalk attributes and characteristics of each individuals. Using above mentioned
two assumptions, two types of ordered probit model for all factors were developed.
Dependent variable y was identified by the observed score of respondent’s
subjective evaluation for sidewalk environment factor from the questionnaire
survey. As for the model with sidewalk length assumption, explanatory variables
x were identified by the combination of sum (for all attributes except footpath
width) and mean (for average width of all sub-segments) values of sidewalk
attribute measures and respondent’s socio-economic characteristics. As for themodel with sidewalk section assumption, explanatory variables x were identified
by the combination of module (for all attributes except footpath width) and real(for footpath width at the section) values of sidewalk attribute measures andrespondent’s socio-economic characteristics. Total 14 models were tested.
Number of observations varies from 2177 to 2183.
Comparing determination coefficients, the Pseudo R-Squared for the goodness of
fit of models, more fitting model in the set of observed measures for each factor
was selected. The Pseudo R-Squared values of the model using sidewalk length
measures are slightly higher than values from the model using sidewalk section

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measures for Convenience (0.062 > 0.043), Comfort (0.055 > 0.043), Security(0.015 > 0.008) and Access to the Service (0.059 > 0.055). Contrary to theseresults, the Pseudo R-Squared values of the sidewalk section model are slightly
higher than values from the sidewalk length model for Safety (0.057 > 0.056),
Visibility (0.007 > 0.004) and Attractiveness (0.036 > 0.032). However, models
have limited explanatory competence, the Pseudo R-Squared values range from0.007 to 0.062. Based on the comparison of determination coefficients, models
using sidewalk length measures for Convenience, Comfort, and Security; and themodel using sidewalk section measures for Safety were selected. Model results
show that most of physical/operational variables are statistically significant at the
95% level. Additionally, marginal effects on subjective scores were tested.
4. FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
4.1 Findings and recommendations on Physical / Operational variables
Comparing the coefficients of footpath actual width (-0.03) and effective width(0.32) from the length model for convenience (Table 1), it can be seen that not
only fully paved sidewalks, the sidewalk type that has more effective width ismuch convenient for walking in pedestrian’s view point.
Table 1: Summary of Results from the Length Model for Convenience
Variable class

Variable

Constant
Tree
Footpath actual width
PhysicalFootpath effective width
Trash canDay time ped. flow
Operational
Evening time ped. flow
Age
Gender (Male)
Daily walk duration
Socio - economic
Winter effect
Trip purpose (Leisure)Primary mode (Walking)Threshold parameter indexµ1µ2µ3*p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001

Coefficientt statistics

0.74
0.01
-0.03
0.32
0.01
-0.00620.00300.04-0.02
0.0012
-0.12
-0.09
0.02

7.34***
1.33-1.02
9.35***
0.77-13.57***13.29***
2.23*
-0.44
1.47
-3.52***
-1.87
0.25

0.83
1.73
2.70

31.08***
61.98***
71.45***The result of marginal effect shows that the increase of footpath effective width isassociated with the increased choice of higher subjective scores (0.065 y=4, 0.057
y=5) for convenience. In order to improve subjective evaluation for convenience
The relationshippedestrian
perception and characteristics of sidewalk
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by using the estimated model, change for the increase of existing effective widthis applicable, particularly for the street segment A1 and C2.
From observation and subjective evaluation of selected sidewalk segments, it canbe seen that high volume of pedestrian flow does not directly indicate bettersidewalk environment. From the length model for convenience (Table 1),
coefficients of day time pedestrian flow (-0.006) and evening time pedestrian flow
(0.003) indicate that people do not feel convenient with other pedestrians during
day time. Underlying reasons should be explored in more specific studies.
As a result of length model for comfort (Table 2), negative coefficient of theconcrete surface material (-0.0005) indicates that increase of concrete pavement
has negative impact on subjective evaluation.
Table 2: Summary of Results from the Length Model for Comfort
Variable class

Variable

Constant
Tile surface material
PhysicalStone surface material
Concrete surface material
Age
Gender (Male)
Daily walk duration
Socio - economic
Winter effect
Trip purpose (Leisure)Primary mode (Walking)Threshold parameter indexµ1µ2µ3*p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001

Coefficientt statistics

1.26
0.00020.0036-0.0005
0.05-0.02-0.0004
-0.11
-0.12
-0.01

15.52***
11.28***
11.52***-9.64***
2.33*
-0.40
-0.53
-3.20**
-2.59
-0.22

0.80
1.73
2.78

31.30***
60.76***
65.94***In order to improve subjective score of comfort, it is necessary to pay more
attention for the utilization and reconstruction of concrete sidewalks in the central
area including sidewalk segment A1, A3, B1 and C4. Result of marginal effects
on subjective scores for comfort shows that the increase of natural stone surface
material is associated with increased choice of higher subjective score (0.001 y=4,0.001 y=5).
Positive coefficient of the distance from moving vehicles (0.03) shows that people
feel safer in the street with green strips (Table 3). Contrary to this result, negative
coefficient of adjacent parking area (-0.17) indicates that people are more likely tofeel unsafe in the street with large parking space. Result of the marginal effectshows that the increase of distance from moving vehicles is associated withincreased choice of higher subjective scores (0.004 y=4, 0.006 y=5) for safety. In
order to improve subjective evaluation score of safety, plant of the green strip
separation with proper width is applicable for the street segment C2 and C3.

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Table 3: Summary of Results from the Section Model for Safety of pedestrianvehicle conflict
Variable class

Variable

Constant
Adjacent parking area
PhysicalDis. from moving vehicle
Vehicle access ways
Operational
On street parking
Age
Gender (Male)Socio - economic
Daily walk duration
Primary mode (walking)Threshold parameter indexµ1µ2µ3*p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001

Coefficientt statistics

1.78
-0.17
0.03
-8.56
-0.83
-0.00210.05-0.0023
0.17

17.24***-9.99***
2.84**-1.71*-12.92***
-0.11
1.17
-2.81**
2.67**

0.78
1.50
2.33

30.46***
55.34***
65.76***

Negative coefficient of vehicle access way (-8.56) shows that people’s perceptionof safe environment decreases when number of vehicle access ways increase.
During the field observation, day time, it was being seen that most of thesevehicle access ways (in A2, A3, B2, B4 and C3) are occupied by temporary
parking. Therefore, responsible agencies should pay more attention on
unauthorized parking on vehicle access ways.
The comparison of coefficients of road lighting (0.1) and sidewalk lighting (0.03)
shows that road side lighting can be more effective element than sidewalk lighting
to increase pedestrian perception of security in high priority (Table 4).
Table 4: Summary of Results from the Length Model for Security
Variable class

Variable

Constant
Road lighting
PhysicalSidewalk lighting
Operational
Street vendors
Age
Gender (Male)Socio - economic
Daily walk duration
Trip purpose (Leisure)Primary mode (walking)Threshold parameter indexµ1µ2µ3*p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001

Coefficientt statistics

0.42
0.10
0.03
-0.02
0.06
0.12
0.00
-0.17
-0.02

3.12**
5.77***
6.71***-1.74
2.80**
2.54*-1.04-3.73***
-0.24

0.82
1.73
2.72

33.12***
61.27***
63.04***The relationshippedestrian
perception and characteristics of sidewalk
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pedestrianbetween
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and characteristics
environment
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City City

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From the result of section model for attractiveness, positive higher coefficient(266.2) for arts, entertainment, and recreational land-use shows that the sidewalk
type adjacent to the art or recreational facilities is more pleasant for walking inpedestrian perception. However, this affect is related with good utilization ofsurrounding environment and general image of the area.
Negative coefficient of cross direction advertising stands (-2.99) indicates that theincrease of road side advertising stand has negative impact on the visibility ofsidewalk environment. Accordingly, advertising stands that are not necessary to
the function of the street should be reduced.
4.2 Findings and recommendations on Socio – Economic variables / Walk
trip characteristics
Coefficients at significant level for age variable (0.045, 0.047, and 0.06) indicatethat younger people do not feel existing sidewalks are convenient, comfortable,
secure, and attractive. There are no significant influences regarding to the gender.
Only, as it is natural for security concerns, male (0.12) feel existing sidewalk
environment of the central area of Ulaanbaatar as secure. The result shows thatpeople’s consideration of better safety for pedestrian-vehicle conflict and accessto the service decreases due to their walk duration increases. Negative coefficientsof winter affection (-0.12 for convenience, -0.11 for comfort and -0.09 forattractiveness all in significant level) indicate that people highly affected by
winter condition feel existing sidewalks are uncomfortable, inconvenient, and not
attractive. Therefore concerns related with weather condition such as non-slip
footpath surface tiles and availability of public recreational facilities on the
sidewalk environment should be taken into consideration in further design
processes.
5. CONCLUTION
Statistical models used in this research describe the relationship between
pedestrian perception and characteristics of sidewalk environment by using
subjective evaluation and objective measures of existing environment. Results
suggest that both of physical and operational characteristics should be taken into
consideration for street level improvement programs of Ulaanbaatar city. Morestatistically reliable factors to the pedestrian perception might be taken into
consideration for further relative studies. Although most of findings are quite
natural, overall findings of this research might draw attention on the pleasance ofsidewalk environment for street level improvement programs of Ulaanbaatar city.
REFERENCE
Almec Corp., Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), Ministry of Road
Transportation, Construction, and Urban Development of Mongolia(MRTCUDM): The Study on City Master Plan and Urban Development of
Ulaanbaatar City, Final Report, Vol. 2, 4-26, 2009.

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Relation between urbanization and natural
disaster risk in mega cities- Lessons from Tokyo Takaaki KATO
Associate Professor, ICUS, IIS, the University of Tokyo, Japankato-t@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp

ABSTRACTAt present, the Tokyo metropolitan region has two kinds of natural mega hazards:
M.7 class inner-plate earthquakes and large-scale floods. The Central Disaster
Prevention Council, which is the supreme organization of disaster affairs inJapan, has warned about both in published reports. It stated that Tokyo hasenormous exposed risks, and tremendous amounts of damage were estimated in
the disasters. The present natural hazard risk in Tokyo is closely related to theprocess of urbanization in the city. As for earthquake disasters, Tokyo has broadwooden crowded areas that are vulnerable to the spread of post-disaster urban
fires. The risk has accumulated in two periods of rapid urbanization. The reason
primarily lies with urban planning, which does not include the concept of natural
hazard risk management—that is to say, urban planning yields to the highpressure of urbanization. This problem has been the main issue with urban
earthquake disaster planning in Tokyo for the last four decades. On the other
hand, the risk of large-scale floods is not apparent at present. Tokyo has notexperienced a large-scale flood for the last century thanks to river management;
however, the risk will surely grow in response to climate change. Tokyo has what
is called a “below-sea-level city,” which is hugely vulnerable. I can point to two
failures that account for why it has been generated: urban planning and hazard
control. These cases show that urban planning is significant in natural hazard
risk management. In this study, I show the structure of natural hazard risk inmega cities and discuss the role of urban planning in risk management, as well as
present necessary countermeasures to consider in urban planning.
Keywords: urbanization, natural disasters, urban vulnerability
1. MEGA-HAZARD IN TOKYOTokyo has two kinds of mega hazards: earthquakes and large-scale floods
corresponding to climate change. The earthquake probability in the next thirty
years is estimated at 70% by the government. On the other hand, large-scale
floods present only a small risk at present, thanks to flood control by rivermanagement, but the risk will surely increase in response to forthcoming climatechange. A few decades from now, it will be a serious problem.

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1.1. Earthquake Hazard
In Japan, earthquake damage estimation is a common feature of amunicipality’s disaster prevention plan and includes the latest damage estimationby the Tokyo metropolitan government. In this estimation, four earthquakes are
assumed as an earthquake scenario. The damage situation is influenced by time
and weather conditions; for example, they may be assumed as occurring at 18:00
in winter under a wind velocity of 8m/s. Figure 1 shows the results of groundshaking for a Northern Tokyo Bay earthquake scenario, which creates maximum
damage. Maximum intensity will be JMA Seismic Intensity upper 6, which is thelevel at which tremendous damage occurs. The area of intensity upper 6, coloredorange in the figure, covers 70% of the entire ward districts where urban stock isconcentrated. Most of the area covers the eastern region of Tokyo, in which thepossibility of liquefaction is also greater. We understand that the cause for this isthat the ground structure in the east area of Tokyo is relatively weak.
Ground shaking and liquefaction cause buildings to collapse. The spatial
distribution of building damage is shown in figure 2 and is concentrated in east
Tokyo. Two reasons for this are the high seismic intensity and the possibility ofliquefaction. Another reason is the unplanned accumulation of many crowded oldwooden houses in the highly dense area. Vulnerability to building damage is seen
in structures in which the buildings were constructed on weak ground.
Moreover, post-earthquake urban fire spread might occur in a mega-city.
The firefighting power in Tokyo is adequate; however, the number of fires thatbreak out after an earthquake is estimated to be much greater than the available
firefighting power, resulting in an enormous amount of fire damage. Burnt areasin Tokyo are estimated to total approximately 100 square kilometers. For
reference, the 1995 Hanshin-Awaji earthquake disaster resulted in some amountof damage being caused by post-earthquake urban fire spreading; however, it wasapproximately 65 ha, which was much less than the estimated amount of damagein Tokyo. Figure 3 shows pictures of the current situation of the typical vulnerable
districts to post-earthquake urban fire. Large numbers of flammable houses werebuilt and spread with narrow roads across wide-ranging areas. The spatial
distribution of fire damage is different from collapsed buildings. It distributes in adoughnut-shaped pattern, centering on CBD of Tokyo.
The history of urbanization in Tokyo shows that it has had two periods ofrapid urbanization. The first is a recovery period that occurred after the Kanto
earthquake disaster in 1923. Many fires broke out after the earthquake, and due tostrong winds, the fires spread, burning down most of the urbanized areas in Tokyoand Yokohama. A lot of people lost their houses, and an absolute shortage ofhouses occurred. To supply temporary residences for the large number of
evacuees became a priority issue. At the same time, the government had toreconstruct the central district of Tokyo and therefore could not afford to plan andconstruct urban infrastructure. As a result, the fringe of the central district, which
had been farmland, had been urbanized by huge numbers of poor-quality houses.
The second period was a high economic growth period that began in theearly 1960s, after World War II. In the war, Tokyo was burned down again bybomb attacks. The situation was similar to the 1923 Kanto earthquake disaster.
Tokyo had suffered from a lack of housing. Furthermore, Japan entered into ahigh economic growth period after the Korean War in the early 1950’s Tokyo’s
economic growth promoted immigrants from across the country to flock to Tokyo.

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The situattion causedd the housinng shortage to worsen. Tokyo haad to continnue toprovide teemporary hoousing for rresidents fo
or a long tim
me. In the same mannner as
the 1923 Kanto eaarthquake ddisaster, numerous ppoor-quality
y houses beganbaccumulatting in the absenceaof uurban planniing.
Thhe areas fo
ormed in tthese perio
ods are neearly equal to the cuurrent
vulnerablee areas, as showns
in Fiigure 4; therrefore, we ccan say thatt Tokyo failled tocontrol vuulnerability in the periods of rapid urbanizattion. There are two reasonsfor this faiilure. The firstfis that, at the time, urban plannning commmissions hadd little
knowledgee about how
w to controol for disaster risks beccause econo
omic growthh hadtaken prioority.
The seecond is that the speed of urbaniization wass so high th
hat there was notime or abbility to makke urban plaans and con
nstruct urbann infrastructtures. As a result,rurban plaanning for disaster miitigation ad
dopted a styyle that assumed it would
w
always bee able to keep pace with problems as they occurred. Up
p until now
w, as I
mentionedd, the probllems have nnot yet beenn solved. Itt takes a lon
ng time to solve
past urbann problems.
A lesson learned from Tokyoo is that it is importantt to prevent problems beforebthey occurr or to mitig
gate problem
ms when th
hey occur. JJapan shouldd have had longrange planns and shou
uld have inncorporated the conceppt of risk managementmt intourban plannning in a period of rappid urbanizaation.

Figure 1 S
Spatial distrribution of gground shakking and thee possibility
y of liquefacctionin Tookyo in an eearthquake scenario (TTMG, 2012)

Relation between urbanizationand natural
disasterrisk
in megacitiesfrom–Lesso
Tokyo531
Relation beetween
urban
nizationandnaturalhaza
ard in-Lessons
mega cities
ons from Tokkyo-

October
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Mongolia
M

F
Figure 2 Spaatial distribu
ution of colllapsed buildings in Tookyo (TMG,, 2012)

Figgure 2 Spattial distributtion of post--earthquakee urban fire spreading in Tokyo((TMG, 2012) and in urrbanization areas in two rapid urbaanization peeriods.

1.2. Large-Scaale Floods
Tokyo hass below-seaa-level areaas in the easstern area, aas shown inn Figure 4.
The ppink area inn the figure is under seea level. Thee deep pinkk shows the area under
the llow tidal leevel. This area has aan accumulation of loow-rise builldings andapprooximately ttwo million
n people liive in the area. Tokyyo is obvio
ously very
vulneerable to floooding. Fig
gure 5 is a zzoom shot ofo the area. It has man
ny black or
red bbuildings, w
which are estimated to be under waterw
in case of flood
ding. In the
pictuure on the riight, the redd arrows shoow the wateer level in tthe event off a flood. It
can bbe understoood that the waterwlevel will reach veryv
high leevels if a flo
ood occurs.

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Fiigure 4 Gro
ound level inn Tokyo andd a picture oof a typical area in Tokkyo

Figure 5 Inundation ofo below-sea-level city in case of fflood, focussing on buildings
At ppresent, the municipalitty has a leg
gal obligatioon to publissh a hazard map.
A hazard map of Kattsushika citty, which iss located inn the east arrea of the TokyoT
metropolittan area, shhows that thhere is no evacuation space in th
he neighborrhood
because thhe entire city
y area will bbe inundateed in the eveent of a floood.
Approxim
mately 300,0000 people sshould evaccuate to anoother city loocated moree than
10km fromm their ho
ometowns. M
Mass transit such as buses and railways isi theplanned mmeans of trransportatioon. It is nearly impossible for hugehnumbeers ofcitizens too evacuate becausebof tthe capacity
y limitation of transporttation. Moreover,even if evvacuation iss successfull, they will have to rem
main in the evacuationn area
for a longg period of time;testim
mations sugggest they wiill remain inn the evacuuation
area for m
more than 20
0 days afterr the bank iss repaired. T
The currentt situation meansmthat the citty fundamentally has nno acceptablle solution ffor a below--sea-level city.
c
Faailure to con
ntrol large--scale flood
ding is the result of tw
wo past failures
related too industriaalization aand urbanizzation. Onne is grou
und subsiddence
correspondding to ind
dustrializatiion. The grraph in Figgure 6 shows a history ofground suubsidence. SubsidenceS
continued untiluthirty yyears ago, whenw
regulaations
were estabblished to forbid grouund water pumping. R
Regulationss came tooo late,however. The maxim
mum length of subsiden
nce is aboutt 5 meters ono the reporrt, but
it may acttually be lon
nger. The ssecond reaso
on for failuure is urbaniization. Figgure 7

Relation between urbanizationand natural
disasterrisk
in megacitiesfrom–Lesso
Tokyo533
Relation beetween
urban
nizationandnaturalhaza
ard in-Lessons
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ons from Tokkyo-

October
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MongoliaMshow
ws maps froom 100 yearrs ago to thhe present. The
T current urbanized area was arurall zone until only sixty years
yago. IIt is alreadyy a recognizzed ground subsidencesin thiis region. Inn spite of th
his situation, urbanization in the foorm of low-rrise houses
had eexpanded innto the area under sea llevel for theese sixty yeears. If urbaan planningin thhose days hhad included
d the conceept of risk managemeent for flooding, or if
urbann planning had preven
nted urbanizzation in thee areas, or if urban plaanning had
built up the arrea with high-rise buuildings, thee present rrisk would likely be
dram
matically sm
maller. We can say tthat failures of hazarrd control and urban
plannning createdd a “below--sea-level ciity.” The reeasons for a large-scalee flood risk
are bbasically thee same as fo
or an earthquuake.

Figure 6 Historicall record of gground subssidence in T
Tokyo (TMG
G)

Figuure 7 Urbannization in a typical area of Katsushika city ovver the past 100 years
2. S
STRUCTUR
RE OF DISSASTER R
RISK
Itt is understoood that thee current riskk in Tokyo is related too past urban
nization. I
consiider the struucture of dissaster risk inn a mega ciity. Natural disaster risk
k can
prim
marily be expplained by fourffactors,, as shown ini Figure 8: hazard con
ntrol, acity’s location, aaccumulatio
on, and vulnnerability.
H
Hazard existtence is the fundamentaal factor. Jaapan must coonsider eartthquakes
and ffloods as haazards.

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The first risk factor is hazard control, such as construction of a river dike inthe event of flooding, but it obviously has limitations. Hazard control forearthquake hazards is inherently impossible, although control for large-scale
floods has proved valid. In fact, large-scale floods have occurred for over the past
fifty years; however, climate change will wreak limitations. The amount of riskthat hazard control cannot cover is pushed to urbanized areas.
Risk in urbanized areas can be explained by three factors: location,
accumulation, and vulnerability. The second risk factor is the location of theurbanized area. If an urbanized area overlaps the spatial distribution of the hazard,
it produces a risk. The typical cases involve urbanized areas that are located inflood-prone areas and in weak ground that produces earthquake shaking, aspreviously mentioned. Expansion of urbanization should be controlled by urban
planning.
The third risk factor is accumulation of urban stock, such as building facilities
and lifelines. If accumulation is small, the entire amount of damage will
necessarily be small. If the entire amount of damage is small, it is easy to rescue
the afflicted area and support its recovery. However, accumulation is one of thefundamental and unique characteristics of mega cities; therefore, it is appropriate
to consider that it is uncontrollable. In addition, the functions of urban planninginclude density control of urbanized areas; therefore, controlling accumulation
would be possible.
The term, “exposure risk,” which is generally used to explain the process, isconsidered to be equivalent to location multiplied by accumulation.
The forth and most important risk factor is vulnerability—in other words, thequality of the urbanized area from the viewpoint of disaster risk. Vulnerability canbe explained by balancing two factors: physical fragility, such as building fragility
and lifeline fragility; and the resilience and response abilities of society, such as
the firefighting and evacuation abilities of local communities. For example, an old
town is generally fragile, but if young people work and live there, their resilienceand response abilities are high; therefore, we can say that the town may be notvulnerable. In contrast, if old people, who are vulnerable in terms of physicalstrength, live in modern buildings, such as high-rise apartments, they will sufferfrom even slight outages of lifelines. Moreover, the resilience and response
abilities of society are supported by two factors: physical factors, such as
evacuation areas, roads, and firefighting facilities; and social systems, such as
evacuation planning and community-based education. Recent urban planningincludes community-based improvements, management, and activities for the
future, which are called achidukuri in Japanese. It deals with all of theabovementioned sub-factors. Urban planning can control vulnerability.
I consider these four factors basically as explanatory parameters of mega risk
in a mega city. All of the factors, except hazard control, are parameters that can becontrolled by urban planning; therefore, I can say that the present actual disastermega risk is capable of being solved in theory by urban planning. Therefore, weshould consider future urban planning by focusing on this viewpoint over the next
decades. At the same time, we should pay attention to the current balance of thesefactors and the monitoring system of disaster risk that will be needed in planning.

Relation between urbanizationand natural
disasterrisk
in megacitiesin-Lessons
from–Lessons
Tokyo- from Tokyo535
Relation between
urbanization
andnaturalhazardmega cities

October
Octobber 2012, Ulaanbaatar,
Ullaanbaatar, Mongolia
Mongolia
M

Figuree 8 Structurre of Naturaal Disaster R
Risks
3. C
CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSIIONT
The importaant lessons learnedlfromm Tokyo aree that rapid urbanizatio
on without
urbann planning w
would itselff result in diisaster risk, which meaans that disaaster risk iscloseely related to urbanization. More aattention sho
ould be paidd to the rapiid
urbannization perriod. Wheth
her urban planning inclu
udes the concept of risk
manaagement or not at this timetwill deetermine futture disasterr risks. In th
he case ofa cityy having noo concept off risk managgement, the city will haave a huge amountaofrisk. Long-rangee plans are needednto consider thiss fact.
T
The structurre of naturall disaster rissk can be co
onstructed w
with four maain
keyw
words: hazarrd control, a city’s locaation, accum
mulation, annd vulnerabiilities,
incluuding physiccal fragility and the ressilience and response acctivities of local
commmunities. A
All keywordss, except haazard contro
ol, can be coontrolled byy urbanplannning. The roole of urban
n planning iss significan
nt in disasterr risk manag
gement.
D
Developing cities, inclu
uding Ulaannbaatar, are presently faacing rapid
urbannization. Prresent urban
n planning m
may be readj
djusted if baased on the aboveaconteext. However, urban pllanning shouuld inheren
ntly be compprehensive; disasterrisk mmanagemennt is also an important iissue that urrban planninng should consider.
cBetteer direction should be pursued
pin bbalance withh other urbaan planning issues.
REF
FERENCESS
Tokyyo Metropolitan govern
nment. 20122. Report on earthquakke damage estimation.
eTokyyo Metropollitan govern
nment, Japaan.
Cabinet Office. 2005. Repo
ort on Tokyo inner-platte earthquakke damage estimation,eJapann.

536

Technologies
Urban
of Mega Cities in Asia
New Technnologies New
for Urban
Safetyy offor
Mega
CitiesC Safetyin Asia

POSTER SESSION
The study to simplify the assessment of earthquake-proof of construction by comparing the firstplanning of construction to the measurement

Tsend-Ayush Badmaev

Geoinformation application for emergency management ad hazard

Sodnomragchaa Dagva

Water ecology, efficient water usage for households

Batbileg Enkhbat

Conducting advanced technology of public transportation in Ulaanbaatar City

Munhjargal Victor

Introduction of intelligent transport system in vehicle parking management of Ulaanbaatar

Erdenetulga Jargalsaikhan

Ulaanbaatar City flat region acoustic
Barkhas Sukhbaatar
ECO FENCE-The improvement of the Ger district living environment
Ganbat Gantulga
The regulation of soil moisture and watering greenery of Ulaanbaatar City
Nasanbayar Narantsogt

Гал түймэр

Bazarragchaa Sodnom

Roadmap form smoke to the development: Airport city a win-win model for the ecoeconomical context of the capital city development
Davaanym Surenjav
The investigation on a chemical incident to be occurred in territory of Ulaanbaatar City
Ganzorig Tsogtbaatar
Disaster information collection by Thai and foreigners during the 2011 Thai flood
Michael Henry
Vulnerability assessment of snow disaster based on traffic system: A case study ofChenzhou city in Hunan, China
XU Xiaoge
Hanoi environmental planning to build resilience to climate change and natural disaster –A multi-institutional approach
Lan Huong Nguyen
An analytical investigation of applicability of mechanical anchorage system to beamcolumn joint by 3D discrete model
Koichiro Ikuta

537

Study on implementation of remote building damage assessment system during large scale
earthquake disaster
Makoto Fujiu
Reconstruction of Kamaishi City after the 2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami
Sae Shikita
Review on the definitions of vulnerability, resilience, and adaptation
Yuto Shiozaki
Study on the effects of chemical and physical property of concrete on the behavior of water
Chohji Nakamura
Modeling of diffusive and advective transport of ionic species in cemented soil
Hayato Ikoma
Static and fatigue shear performance of PVA-ECC beams with coarse aggregate
in damaged condition
Yoshiyuki Takano
Estimation of global anthropogenic PM2.5 by integrating remote sensing and modeling
Hirothoshi Kishi
Evaluation of internal erosion by turbidity of drained water
Mari Sato
Sliding disaster in Vietnam and a new proposed design method of reinforced soil wall
Nguyen Hoang Giang
Seismic risk assessment of some historical mosques of Dhaka using non-destructive testing
methods
Mehedi Ahmed Ansary
Application of microtremor array for estimating shear wave velocity in Bangladesh
Mehedi Ahmed Ansary
Sea level rise impact on coastal aquifers: A case study in South West region of Bangladesh
Dushmanta Dutta

538