Chapter 14
Column: Hazard risk model

School safety and crisis management

To achieve safety, multiple basic safety theories have been developed from the standpoint of accident
prevention. A hazard risk model, one of these theories, is explained in this chapter.
A hazard risk model is a theory on safety that has recently become common understanding in
the fields of safety engineering as well as occupational safety and health.1 This theory basicallyLearning objectives

divides the concept of danger that can lead to the occurrence of harm (damage actually incurred)

You will be able to gain proper understanding and explain:

into hazard and risk. The methods for estimating risks vary among fields and disciplines, and the- The concept of safety as well as the theory and method of crisis management.

definition below is adopted for the prevention of accidents in the concept of crisis management in- The present situation and characteristics of accidents involving children.

nursery/educational settings.

- The concept of, and measures for, school safety (i.e., daily life safety and traffic safety) that shouldbe pursued in the future.

Risk = Gravity of hazard × Probability of occurrence of damage caused by the hazard
Even when a hazard exists and its seriousness understood, if the probability of the hazard

This chapter explains the basic concept of, and measures for, school safety. First, the outlines of thecausing harm to people is zero or close to zero, then the risk will also be zero or close to zero.

concept of safety, the psychological and physical traits of children, and the characteristic of their

Examples of hazards include bicycles, steps, doors, desks, and raised playground equipment.

accidents are given. Then, explanations are provided about the present situation of traffic safety and theThese are hazards that can cause collisions, stumbles, and falls. For the prevention of accidents, theneed for traffic safety education in Cambodia, and the basic concept of safety management and safety

viewpoint of environmental improvement is important, which includes eliminating hazards andeducation in schools that should be pursued in the future.

taking effective measures to keep children away from hazards (e.g., attaching cushioning material tothe corners of desks).

1. Concepts of safety and danger

2) Disasters and accidents
1

First, an explanation is given about the basic concepts of safety and danger.

A disaster refers to the occurrence of some kind of injury or damage to the lives, bodies, or property of1) Concept of safetypeople, which is caused by a danger resulting from a natural phenomenon or a human factor. Disasters
can be divided into natural disasters (e.g., meteorological disasters and earthquakes) and man-madedisasters (e.g., life disasters, traffic disasters, industrial accidents, criminal damage, and war damage

Safety refers to “a condition in which the lives and property of people are protected without beingthat are caused in daily lives). Most man-made disasters are brought about by accidents. Accidents can

exposed to natural or unnatural harm in daily lives,” while “a factor or condition that can undermine thebe divided into traffic accidents in a broad sense (i.e., car, railway, airplane, and marine accidents) andsafety of people” is called a danger or hazard. A thing that can be evaluated with probability as alife accidents caused in various situations in daily lives in general, including schools, homes, andproduct of the seriousness of the hazard (the magnitude of the hazard and damage) and the probability

communities (unexpected accidents that occur in daily lives, including suffocation, and stumbles/falls).

of occurrence of the hazard is called a risk (see Column: Hazard risk model). A thing that cannot beLife accidents that occur in schools, including falling down stairs and injuries caused by aging playgroundevaluated with probability is an uncertainty, which is distinguished from a risk. A condition in which aequipment, can occur even during a break (see “6. School safety”).

risk has actually caused some kind of damage to the lives or property of people is called an accident,
and damage to the human body caused by an accident is referred to as an injury.
For people who have undergone a certain level of development, it is easy to avoid “visible danger(explicit danger)” but difficult to avoid “invisible danger (latent danger),” which often causes

2. Characteristics of accidents involving children fromthe standpoint of developmental stages

accidents. The basic measure to prevent accidents comes down to the detection and removal of danger
before an accident occurs.

What kinds of accidents and injuries can occur from early childhood to adolescence? This section
explains the characteristics of accidents and injuries that can occur from early childhood to adolescence,as well as the factors behind them.2 Because the growth and development of the mind and body are

262

Chapter 14

School safety and crisis management263

immature in these periods, it is necessary to deepen children’s understanding of safe behavior while

their field of activities, which is markedly different from early childhood, during which they lived underimproving the safety management of their surroundings.

the protection of their parents. Accordingly, the possibility of encountering danger increases, which
requires them to choose safe behavior on their own.

1) Characteristics of the mind and body and behavior in early childhood

In the upper grades in particular, their inability to solve psychological problems can cause unstableconditions, which may then lead to a major accident/disaster; therefore, guidance, management, andconsideration by adults around them are important. In addition, basic lifestyle habits centered around

Early childhood is a period in which both mind and body significantly grow and develop. It is also aeating, exercise, and rest tend to become irregular as the child ages. After returning home on weekdays,

period in which the ability to communicate with others develops. Major physical characteristics in early

elementary school students spend more time watching screens, including TV, games, and smartphones,

childhood are as described below:

except for the time spent on their assignments and chores. This kind of lifestyle pattern is likely to break
the regularity of children’s lifestyle habits and involves the risk of having consequences on their healthi) Early childhood is a period in which relatively stable physical growth is seen.

(see Chapter 5). Although this does not have direct effects on safe life, it may cause distractions in dailyii) It is a period in which visual and auditory functions develop toward completion.

life or lead to dangerous behavior, which is mentioned later; thus, it cannot be ignored from the standpointiii) The nervous system significantly develops, and coordination between multiple functionsof safety education as well (see life accidents mentioned earlier).

develops.
From the standpoint of behaving safely by avoiding danger, there are characteristics of growthand development that need to be taken into consideration. For example, immaturely developed visual

Table 14.1 Psychological, social, and behavioral characteristics of elementary school

students

School age

and auditory senses may cause a delayed perception of danger. Although eyesight significantly develops• Become able to understand theconsequences of their behavior.

in infancy, it is only when children turn five or six years old that it stabilizes to visual acuity of 1.0 or
above. Binocular stereopsis is said to fully develop at around five years of age.
For auditory function, the important ability related to safety is the ability to determine soundPsychological, social

Lower grades• Come to have their own opinion andsometimes rebel against their parents.

localization (the position of a sound source), which also develops throughout early childhood. To avoid

Behavioral• Impulsive behavior decreases.
• Activities in a group consisting only ofchildren increase.
• Become able to show appropriate
behavior by understanding theconsequences of their behavior.

danger by quickly detecting the position of a car, it is essential to precisely determine the position of the• Psychological problems increase, suchas feeling stress and being unable tocontrol their emotions.

sound source. However, even if visual and auditory functions have developed, the detection of danger
may be delayed in cases where children are short in stature and have difficulty detecting things aroundthem or in cases where children have little experience of danger. Because the adults’ perspective alone• The inability to appropriately cope withproblems may cause a psychologicallyunstable state and result in violenceagainst people or destruction of things.

is likely to overlook danger, sufficient attention is needed from the children’s perspective.
The development of exercise capacity is another important factor to avoid danger. In exercise,coordination between the visual observation of the target and body movements is important. The rapid
development of this coordination is a characteristic of early childhood.

2)	Characteristics of the mind and body and behavior of elementary
school students• Tend to attach greater importance torelationships with friends than to thosewith adults (teachers, parents).

Upper grades• Come to show the behavior of losing
control.
• Come to exhibit a breakdown in basic
lifestyle habits.
• Spend more time on screens (TV,
games, and smartphones) after
returning home.
2

During the six years of elementary school, major changes are seen in growth and development. In
particular, children from 10 to 12 years of age are in the secondary rapid growth period and show a spurtof growth, which is represented by height growth. In this period, exercise capacity also develops,
establishing the physical foundation needed to behave safely.

Source: Adapted from Reference(1) Challenges in the safety education of elementary school students
Psychological development associated with the cause of behavior and the prediction of its consequences

However, from the standpoint of safety, psychological/social or behavioral changes are characteristics

is an important factor from the standpoint of predicting and avoiding danger. Elementary school childrenthat are more important than physical growth (Table 14.1). Elementary school students greatly expand

come to easily understand this kind of causal relationship from the lower grades, allowing for effective

264

Chapter 14

School safety and crisis management265safety education in elementary schools. In elementary schools, students are required to start with thefor behaving safely.

creation of an awareness of dangers around them through experiences and then gradually increase their

In addition, students need to learn in safety education not only the risk of becoming a victim of an

knowledge of dangers and disasters. Particularly in the upper grades, it is effective to use information

incident/accident but also the potential risk of causing damage to others. For example, riding a bicyclefrom mass media (TV, radio, and newspapers/magazines) and the internet to help students understandrecklessly or without a light can cause a collision with a pedestrian and may even take a person’s life inand consider safety in safety education.

the worst case. Even junior high school students need to be fully aware of their responsibility for traffic

Elementary school students are in a period in which they have a high normative consciousness andsafety as citizens.

are willing to accept the guidance of adults; this period is considered suitable for safety education.
However, in addition to providing safety education, it is also important for adults to serve as models ofsafety behavior. It is the basis of safety education for adults to set an example first, such as complying

3. Causes of injuries in accidents involving minors

4with regulations. Moreover, it is also important to gradually add consideration for the safety of others,
particularly the safety of their family members, juniors, and elderly people, to the contents of teaching.

Traffic accidents in Cambodia account for the largest percentage of injuries due to accidents, with
71.8% of those who were injured in the past 12 months being related to road accidents (Table 14.2). Of

3)	Characteristics of the mind and body and behavior of junior high school
students

the injuries, falls and stumbles accounted for 9.7%, followed by snake or animal bites at 5.1%, violence
at 2.4%, severe burns at 1.2%, and guns, drowning, and poisoning at less than 1% each. Others or
unknown causes accounted for 9.2% of the injuries.
For the injuries in those aged 0–9 years, the leading cause was traffic accidents at 48.7%, followed

Reaching puberty in this period, students move toward being mentally independent from their parents,

by falls and stumbles at 22.5%, snake or animal bites at 13.5%, severe burning at 2.0%, violence ator they rebel against their parents and school more often than before. In junior high schools, the number

1.5%, and other or unknown causes at 11.7%.

of incidents of bullying and violence is larger than that in elementary and senior high schools, indicating

Among injuries of those aged 10–19 years, the leading cause was traffic accidents at 67.8%,

that it is also a period in which the possibility of dangerous behavior, including problem behavior,followed by falls and stumbles at 9.2%, snake or animal bites at 5.1%, violence at 3.7%, severe burns atincreases (see Chapter 11).

2.0%, and others or unknown causes at 12.1%.

The decline in normative consciousness is cited as a factor for dangerous behavior. Junior highschool students tend to be more permissive about acts against social rules. Such examples include
crossing a road by ignoring the traffic light and using a mobile phone/smartphone while walking. The

Table 14.2 Causes of injuries by age

decline in compliance with social norms does not directly lead to problem behavior, but as its relationshipType of accident

to drug abuse, for example, has been pointed out,3 it constitutes one of the important background factors.
Susceptibility to peer pressure is also a characteristic of this period. Students begin to show aAgetendency to be afraid of being left out of the group and thus dare to do something dangerous in order toattract attention from peers and enhance a sense of belonging to the peer group.

Fall
from
Road
accident tree/building

Snake/
animalbite

Violence

Severeburns

Gunshot

Poisoning
Drowning Others(chemical)

Don’t
know/
missing

Injured

0-9

48.7

22.5

13.5

1.5

2.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

6.6

5.1

The tendency to try to engage in dangerous behavior is not limited to particular children. Instead, it is

10-19

67.8

9.2

5.1

3.7

2.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

12.1

0.0

generally seen in young people’s normal process of development and plays an important role, good or

20-39

79.4

6.1

3.3

2.7

1.1

0.7

0.4

0.0

6.3

0.0

40-59

73.1

11.1

4.5

1.6

0.9

0.1

0.6

0.0

8.2

0.0

represented by school rules. This triggers various dangerous behaviors. It is thought that most dangerous

60+

60.3

13.1

6.4

1.1

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

17.6

1.4

behavior in this period is exploratory behavior (attempts), with only some leading to significant deviations

Total

71.8

9.7

5.1

2.4

1.2

0.3

0.3

0.0

8.6

0.6

(1) Challenges of the safety education of junior high school students

bad, for their growth into adulthood. Dangerous behavior is a means of become independent fromparents and get peers. Conversely, it may lead to a decline in the sense of compliance with social norms

and continuous dangerous behavior.
However, if it is a behavior that may lead children to damage themselves or others and possibly

Percentage of the population injured in an accident in the past 12 months by type of accident according to age, Cambodia 2014
4
Source: Adapted from Reference

cause them to die, teachers are required to correctly tell their students the importance of respecting theirown lives and those of others as well as the consequences of reckless behavior, and to provide justification
266

Chapter 14

School safety and crisis management267

4. Traffic safety and the prevention of traffic accidents

Table 14.3 Contents of traffic safety education

Traffic accidents are problems that we all face. In Cambodia, the mortality rate associated with traffici) Understanding dangers associated with walking on a road and crossing a road, and how to behavesafelyaccidents is increasing every year (Figure 14.1).5 It is characterized by a large number of deaths associatedii) Inspection/maintenance of bicycles and proper ways of riding themwith motorcycles and tricycles. The prevention of traffic accidents requires the establishment ofiii) Understanding the characteristics of motorcycles and tricycles, and their safe use

relevant laws and regulations, the creation of a safe traffic environment (i.e., building road networks andiv) Understanding the characteristics of cars and how to behave safely in a driving car

improving the quality of existing roads), the inspection and maintenance of vehicles, and activities tov) Correctly understanding and complying with traffic regulations

educate people through traffic safety education.

vi) Understanding drivers’ obligations and responsibilities, including cases where a bicycle is used

The challenges in Cambodia include drivers’ low awareness of the safety of vulnerable road users(i.e., children, elderly people, and pedestrians) and low awareness of compliance with laws (e.g.,vii) Understanding and considering the traffic safety of children, elderly people, disabled people, the sickand wounded, and pedestrians

compliance with traffic regulations, helmet use, and particularly, not committing speed violations orviii) Understanding the importance of creating a safe traffic society through active participation/
cooperation

driving under the influence of alcohol).

ix) Functions of related organizations such as police and firefighters

The contents of traffic safety education (Table 14.3) in schools include understanding dangers in

6

Source: Created using Reference

various traffic situations as well as learning safe walking practice and the safe use of bicycles,
motorcycles, and tricycles. In addition, it is important to be able to practice safe behavior by learning topredict and avoid danger. The major goals of traffic safety education are for children to behave inaccordance with traffic rules and to take proper actions to protect themselves on their own, that is,

Column: School commuters’ situations and the challenge of helmet use in Cambodia7“stop,” “watch,” and “check.”6 At the same time, these goals serve as the basis for the creation of a

In Cambodia, the most common means of transportation is motorcycles. They account for more

safe traffic society.

than 80% of the officially registered motor vehicles, with deaths caused by motorcycle accidents
making up 67% of annual traffic fatalities. On top of that, the death toll is rising. Cambodia’s law
requires drivers to wear helmets but does not require passengers to do so. When both the driver and

(%)

20.0

the passenger use a helmet, deaths can be avoided. The prevention of motorcycle accidents is an
important challenge in Cambodia’s traffic safety education.

19.5

Moreover, although the law allows people aged 16 years and older to drive motorcycles, this19.0

regulation is not strictly enforced. For example, we see students who live in areas far from their

18.5

to school every day. There are often two or three students, sometimes even more, on a motorcycle,

schools and who have difficulty commuting on foot or by bicycle, driving motorcycles to commuteand they rarely wear helmets. This is a challenge for school attendance and safe commutes.

18.0
17.5

5. Prevention of criminal damage

17.0

With rapid urbanization and computerization, protecting against criminal damage, such as abduction

16.5

and injury, has become an important challenge in school safety. The number of criminal damage cases
through the use of the internet, which is related to the spread of smartphones and SNSs (social networking

20
00
20
01
20
02
20
03
20
04
20
05
20
06
20
07
20
08
20
09
20
10
20
11
20
12
20
13
20
14
20
15
20
16
20
17
20
18
20
19

16.0

Source: Adapted from Reference5

Figure 14.1 Mortality rate caused by road traffic injury (per 100,000 population)

services), has increased, and the prevention of criminal damage involving schoolchildren has become an
extremely important global challenge (see “Column: Children living in the digital age”). However, thischallenge cannot be solved only through measures taken by schools; it should be addressed by the wholesociety.
This section explains how to respond to the presence of suspicious persons, which schools in
Cambodia will also need to address in the future.2

268

Chapter 14

School safety and crisis management2691) Hardware aspect of crime prevention measures (facilities/installations)persons into the school are shown in chronological order (Table 14.4). It is important to give the highest
priority to the lives of people in all items.

As a crime prevention measure from the aspect of facilities/installations, the principles of “Securingvisibility and territorial reinforcement/maintenance” and “Controlling access and entry” areimportant. These mean eliminating blind spots by improving visibility (Securing visibility and territorial
reinforcement/maintenance) and preventing those attempting to commit crimes from accessing/entering
the school premises and school building (Controlling access and entry). To this end, what can be done
first in Cambodia is to place a fence around the premises and post a security guard. With a fence, it will

Table 14.4 Crisis management flow in case of entry by a suspicious person

Item

Response

Early detection andchecking of a suspicious
person• As a rule, ask the purpose of the visit before allowing a person into the school
premises.

also be possible to prevent entry by stray dogs and domestic animals, such as goats, and to prevent• Ask a person without a proper reason to exit.

damage to the premises caused by unsanitary excretions as well as damage caused by wild dog bites.
Moreover, as the national and local economies develop, it may become possible to introduce security
installations one by one, including security cameras and interphones, automatic lock systems at gates,

Prevention of humandamageThese installations are not expected to be highly effective without the software aspect of crisis• If someone is injured, give first-aid to the person and promptly check thesafety of all people.

management, which is mentioned later. Even with security cameras, if the system for intentionally
easily gain entrance. It must be noted that hardware will be effective only when there is software• When school personnel sense danger or suspicion, promptly contact other staffof the school as well as police and related organizations.
• If the person tries to use violence, take appropriate protective measures while
promptly evacuating and guiding schoolchildren.

and emergency alarm systems.

monitoring them is inadequate, or the notification system has been cancelled, suspicious persons may• When there is a suspicious person in the school premises, say something to theperson.

Appropriate subsequent
response• Promptly build an organization for post-incident response.
• Grasp the situation of the incident and organize information.
• Contact guardians.

enhancement.

• Take measures to prevent recurrence.

2) Software aspect of crime prevention measures
It is important to establish a crisis management system in schools, and to devise and apply effective
measures based on the system, and to devise and apply a crisis management manual. The points to• Create a system for providing post-incident mental health care toschoolchildren, school personnel, and guardians.
Common matters• Gather information at one place (e.g., the principal) and record it accurately.
• Check one by one whether the critical situation was appropriately addressed
and that nothing has been overlooked.

achieve this are described below.
i) Create a crisis management system by clarifying the roles of managers and the persons incharge of safety.
ii) Collect information on suspicious persons around the school while collaborating with families
and related organizations in the community.

Column: Children living in the digital age

8

The United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) states in its report “Children
in a digital world (2017)”8 that digital technology has already significantly changed the lives and lifeiii) Take feasible and effective measures depending on the various situations.

chances of children. It points out the advantage of this technology by saying that if the technologyiv) Collaborate with related organizations/institutions in the community, and seek cooperation

becomes equally accessible all over the world in the right way, children will be able to connect to life

from guardians and community residents.
v) Create a crisis management manual suited to the situations of the school and the community.
In this process, clarify the priority of responses in case of an incident/accident.

chances around the world and gain skills and knowledge from a variety of learning resources by
overcoming disadvantages due to poverty, race, ethnicity, gender, and geographical conditions.
Meanwhile, digital technology has negative aspects as well as positive prospects. One examplevi) Conduct training to effectively apply the crisis management manual.

is the digital divide, by which poorer countries and remote areas within those countries are leftvii) On the basis of challenges obtained through training, improve the crisis management manual

behind in terms of “global” information because of their underdeveloped internet infrastructure. In

to make it more functional.
viii) Actively provide crisis management training for school personnel to enhance and maintaintheir awareness of crisis management.

addition, there is harm that can be caused to children’s online lives, such as the amplification ofexisting harm like cyber bullying, the occurrence of new forms of sexual abuse and exploitation, andwebsites containing information that could induce children to commit suicide and crimes. There has
been damage that is serious and less visible from people who are around children. UNICEF cautions

Items that should be included in the crisis management manual for coping with the entry of suspicious
270

that particularly in areas in which the internet has recently spread, such as Africa and Southeast
Chapter 14

School safety and crisis management

271

Asia, inadequate safeguards are exposing children to major risks on the internet.
As a matter of course, guardians are concerned about children’s health issues, including effects
on eye health, internet addiction disorder, depression, and obesity.

≥5 m
≤30 m

Column: Natural disasters that frequently occur around the world2

Natural disasters frequently occur and cause heavy damage around the world. Flooding alone
accounted for 47% of all weather-related disasters (1995-2015), affecting 2.3 billion people, themajority of whom (95%) live in Asia. It has been reported that about 90% of the people who lost theirlives lived in low-income countries.9

45˚

45˚

4m

In the international community, the 1990s was designated as the “International Decade for
Natural Disaster Reduction,” and since then, the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction

Figure 14.2 Response to lightning10(UNDRR) has taken the initiative to promote international cooperation aimed at reducing damage
caused by natural disasters.
It is necessary to provide disaster prevention education in schools and communities, andconsider what schools can do to protect the lives of children and community residents in case of a

6. School safety

natural disaster.

This section explains the concept of safety at school.6 School safety should be addressed with school
Column: Response to lightning10

health in an integrated manner in order to ensure the health and safety of schoolchildren, and to develop
the basic knowledge that enables them to nurture mental and physical health and remain safe throughout

Lightning occurs as follows: Static electricity is generated when light air warmed by sunlight during

their lives. School safety is aimed at developing schoolchildren’s qualifications/skills to behave safely

the day ascends while the upper cool air descends. This static electricity is built up in clouds, andon their own and contribute to the safety of others and society on the basis of respect for their own lives

electricity that the clouds cannot hold any longer is discharged as lightning. The effects of lightningand those of others, as well as at creating an environment to ensure the safety of schoolchildren.

on the human body are the direct lightning stroke and the side flash. The direct lightning stroke islightning that strikes the human body directly from the cloud. In this case, 80% of victims lose their

School safety has three fields: Daily Life Safety, Traffic Safety, and Disaster Safety (disasterprevention) (Table 14.5).

lives. Areas surrounded by open space, such as flat areas and mountaintops, are dangerous. The

Accidents that can occur during school time include accidental falls from stairs, a landing, a veranda,side flash is lightning that rebounds off a tree or other tall object struck by the lightning to a person

or a balcony, which require sufficient attention in safety management in schools. In addition, accidents

staying near the tree; or receiving an electric shock through the ground from a tree struck by lightning.

caused by the deterioration or lack of proper maintenance of building structures and facilities/installations

Evacuating to a safe place before lightning is generated is important. When you notice signs ofin schools cannot be overlooked.

lightning, such as black clouds approaching or the sound of thunder, shelter in a house, building, or

In recent years, there has been concern about critical events that take advantage of changes in thecar. Removing metals from the body or wearing an insulator like rubber boots will not protect aenvironment surrounding schoolchildren, such as the spread of smartphones and SNSs, and which target

person from a lightning strike.

schools (see Column: Children living in the digital age). Since critical events surrounding schools change

If there is no building that can serve as a shelter, shelter under a tall object that is at least fivemeters high (i.e., a utility pole, chimney, or steel tower). In doing so, keep a distance of four meters

as the times and society change, the way school safety operates needs to be flexibly reviewed to respondto the emergence of new critical events that were not considered in the past.

or more from the object while staying within a zone that allows you to look up at the top of the object

Activities for school safety consist of three major activities, namely, safety education, which is

at an angle of 45 degrees or greater. Staying close to the object will increase the risk of receiving a

aimed at developing schoolchildren’s abilities to safely behave on their own and contribute to the safety

side flash. Facing down or lying on the ground will also increase the risk of receiving a side flash. Itof others and society by predicting various dangers latent in their own behavior and environment, safety

is advisable to crouch and keep your head as low as possible (Figure 14.2).

management, which is aimed at making the environment surrounding schoolchildren safe, andorganizational activities, which facilitate both activities.

272

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School safety and crisis management273

Table 14.5 Major contents of school safety

Field

be correlated. The document that specifically provides necessary matters and procedures to properly
respond to the process from the occurrence of the accident to emerging from the crisis and restoring

Contents• Injuries and accidents while studying or during school time

Daily Life Safety• Incidents and accidents in family life

own crisis management manuals and share a common understanding among all school personnel so that

• Prevention of crime damage (e.g., abduction, bodily harm,
theft, and abuse of the network)

they can properly respond every day as well as in emergencies. In addition, it requires continuous• Dangers in school routes, safe way to commute to school• Safety of the school environment (facilities/installations),
creation of a safe environment• Danger, safety, and the prevention of accidents in various
traffic situations

Traffic Safety• Inspection/maintenance of bicycles, understanding thecharacters of motorcycles, tricycles, and cars, and safety whileriding them
• Correct understanding of , and compliance with, traffic
regulations

verification and improvement.

2) Actual practice of crisis management in schools10
Crisis management in schools is divided into preventing incidents/accidents through early detection ofdanger (risk prevention), ensuring the safety of children and school personnel (risk management), andpreventing the spread of damage through a prompt and proper response to incidents/accidents as well as
subsequent measures (crisis management). Crisis management in schools is chronologically classified
into the four phases below (Table 14.6). The content and flow of these phases are specifically explained• Creation of a safe traffic society based on new scientifictechnology

Disaster Safety(Disaster prevention)

safety is called a crisis management manual. On the basis of these matters, schools need to create their

below.

• Understanding the dangers of natural disasters (i.e., wind andflood damage, drought and famine, lightning, earthquakes,
tsunamis, forest fire, and volcanos)• Understanding dangers in case of a fire or disaster, and how tobehave safely• Use of information on disasters and preparedness for disasters

Table 14.6 Crisis management in school

Phase

Crisis management item

1 Prevention

Prevent incidents/
accidents from occurring

2 Preparation

Creation of a crisis management system,
collaboration with related organizations/Prepare for the occurrence
institutions, support from guardians andof incidents/accidents
community residents, creation of the crisis
management manual, carrying out training

3 Response

Promptly respond toincidents/accidents

Security of children and school personnel,
grasping the situation, emergency medicalcare, prevention/mitigation of the spread ofdamageSubsequent response toincidents/accidents andrestoration

Communication/explanation to guardians
and related people, preparation to resume
education, measures for preventing therecurrence of incidents/accidents, mental
health care, review of the crisis
management system• Mental health care during and after a disaster
1,2,11,12

Source: Created using references

7. Crisis management in schools
1) Concept of crisis management in schools6
Crisis management in schools must reflect the realities of schools, families, communities, and relatedorganizations. In addition, it needs to assume various situations, including learning time both in and outof school, during commutes, breaks, lunch time, school events, and during the absence of a principal,
vice-principal, or person in charge of safety, and requires drawing up a plan that can cope adequately
with a variety of incidents/accidents. The most important aspect is to give the highest priority to the

4 Restoration

Specific activity

Safety inspection, development ofchildren’s ability to predict and avoid
danger

Source: Created using rerence10

security of schoolchildren. The document that states these matters for the purpose of their implementation
is called a school safety plan.
To conduct proper crisis management, it is necessary to prepare a detailed school safety plan inadvance. In considering a school safety plan, the three activities, that is, activities related to safety
education, activities related to safety management, and organizational activities related to safety, need to274

Chapter 14

School safety and crisis management275

(1) Prevent incidents/accidents from occurring [Prevention]

occurrence.
ii) Analysis of schoolchildren’s behavior

Inspecting facilities/installations and apparatuses in school as well as the safety of school routes is one		The occurrence of multiple accidents is linked to schoolchildren’s behavioral characteristics.

of the important aspects of crisis management to prevent schoolchildren from getting involved in

Observe how schoolchildren behave in dangerous spots in school and on school routes, andincidents/accidents. Efforts to “isolate,” “analyze,” and “manage” dangerous spots in the environment

obtain concrete images of possible accidents. After that, determine the environmental conditionsof school life, including going to and from school, need to be systematically made based on the Plan-

and challenges in guidance that should be improved.

Do-Check-Act/Action (PDCA) cycle.

a) Isolating dangerous spotsiii) Survey by schoolchildren		
The analysis of dangerous spots conducted by schoolchildren is useful because it can lead tothe identification of problems from the perspective of schoolchildren as well as the safety

Use the three types of information below for reference to isolate spots where accidents are likely to

education of schoolchildren themselves. It is also effective to collect information fromoccur.

schoolchildren about their dangerous experiences and create a local safety map, then exchange
opinions with guardians and community stakeholders.
i) Information provided by school personnel, schoolchildren, guardians, and communities
Collect information from all the stakeholders, including school personnel, schoolchildren,c) Managing dangerous spots and the organizational structure

guardians, and communities, about places where they were injured at school or where they

Through the isolation and analysis of dangerous spots, consider concrete improvement plans to takeexperienced a danger on their way to or from school, and mark them on a local map. Identify

measures. It is desirable that schools, families, and communities come together as one to systematicallyplaces where many schoolchildren were injured and where a danger could have led to a major

promote discussions on activities including regular inspections.

accident, and narrow down the spots to which priority should be given in taking measures.
ii) Information about the occurrence of past accidents
		 For example, places where abductions or a suspicious approach incident occurred in the past,(2) Prepare for the occurrence of incidents/accidents [Preparation]a) Evacuation drills

places where schoolchildren were injured, and spots where a waterway overflowed should be

Evacuation drills are held in order to confirm the roles of school personnel stipulated in the crisis

recorded as objective facts and included in priority dangerous spots.

management manual and to nurture schoolchildren’s practical attitudes and ability to evacuate safely iniii) Information about accident occurrence conditions

case of an emergency.

		 The occurrence of accidents involves typical environmental conditions. Use the viewpoints of

Evacuation activities are “activities to protect life” from dangers that may occur in the next several

a hazard map and an inspection list for reference to find the environmental conditions that canseconds, minutes, and hours. The matters below need to be clarified before an evacuation drill wherever

be linked to accidents in school or in the commuting environment, and inspect them on a

possible, by considering what kinds of dangers can threaten schoolchildren’s lives and physical healthregular/irregular/daily basis. Conducting daily inspections for suspicious objects is also

from the standpoint of protecting them.

important.
			For your information, a hazard map is a map that indicates potentially dangerous placesi) What kinds of dangers can be posed? Evacuation from what?

and evacuation sites in case of a certain disaster. The map may differ depending on the type ofii) What kinds of evacuation activities should be taken for each danger?

disaster.

iii) When should evacuation activities be initiated?

b) Analyzing dangerous spotsb) Evacuation plans in case of danger

Analyze isolated dangerous spots to obtain concrete images of possible accidents and identify

Evacuation activities in case of danger vary depending on the type and scale of the danger as well as

environmental conditions that can cause a problem.

each individual’s characteristics and situation. Assuming that evacuation activities are “security activities
to escape danger,” they can be classified into “Wait (stay at the site),” “Move vertically (e.g., move to ai) Objective analysis through the eyes of multiple persons

276

secure place on the 2nd or higher floor),” and “Move horizontally (e.g., move to an evacuation site

Carry out joint inspections with stakeholders, and observe and analyze dangerous spots throughtemporarily or for a longer time)” in terms of space. Therefore, it is important to take this into accountthe eyes of multiple persons. As needed, seek cooperation from experts to conduct a moreand consider in advance what activities should be carried out in case of danger. In addition, evacuation

detailed, objective analysis. In regard to the situation of damage when an accident occurred

activities assuming secondary disasters (i.e., a series of disasters triggered by the primary disaster) also

and the place of occurrence, identify the environmental conditions that served as factors ofneed to be considered in advance.
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In case of danger, the school must protect the lives and physical health of schoolchildren by
establishing a countermeasures headquarters to help all school personnel fulfill their roles, such as
information gathering, evacuation guidance, and relief activities. To ensure the fulfillment of these roles,

Accident
occursit is necessary to create a crisis management manual in advance and to share a common understanding
among all school personnel.
It is necessary to prepare evacuation plans and include them in the crisis management manual bydesignating evacuations sites and evacuation routes individually and specifically on the basis of the

Discoverer

topographical and geological characteristics of the school environment and its surrounding areas, as wellas hazard maps created by local governments and organizations.

Grasp the situation(3) Promptly respond to incidents/accidents [Response]OK?

In the case of an accident in school, it is essential for the body that established the school (principal) to

Check the symptoms of
the sick (wounded) schoolchild

Ar
ey
ou

take prompt and proper action by giving the highest priority to the lives and health of schoolchildren(Figure 14.3). To achieve this, it is important for the school to have a flexible system in place as anorganization, and for all school personnel to always understand and master procedures for treating sick(wounded) persons promptly and properly without hesitation (see Chapter 15).
When a sick (wounded) schoolchild is found, it is important for the first person on the scene to check

Ask for help, instructionsFirst aid

the injured or ill schoolchild’s symptoms and ask nearby staff and schoolchildren to help while preventing
the symptoms from becoming serious by providing first aid, such as immediately stopping bleeding andproviding cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), depending on the condition of the schoolchild. In caseof an accident, it is required to simultaneously perform many tasks, including contacting the guardian of
the affected schoolchildren and caring for other schoolchildren, in addition to providing first aid. All
school personnel must have a common understanding of what should be done promptly so that they can
respond systematically. In contacting the guardian of the affected schoolchild, make contact as early as
possible after organizing minimum information required about the general situation of the accident andthe degree of injury (i.e., minor, moderate, and severe).
In cases requiring emergency response, such as those in which the life of the affected schoolchild isManager(e.g., principal)

School staff

PoliceMedical institution

Guardianbeing threatened, take prompt action by giving a higher priority to lifesaving treatment than to reportingto the manager. School personnel need to work to reduce other schoolchildren’s anxieties without being
emotionally disturbed by the situation of the accident or the condition of the affected schoolchild. Try toleave notes as needed regarding the occurrence of the accident, measures taken after occurrence, and theresults of those measures while giving priority to first aid, and organize the contents of records once thesituation settles down temporarily.

(4) Subsequent response to incidents/accidents and restoration [Restoration]
Concerning accidents in school, the body that established the school (principal) is required to devise andimplement recurrence prevention measures by investigating the cause and verifying the previous safetymeasures, and to provide a sufficient explanation and continued support to the guardian of the affected

Treatment

schoolchild.
Specifically, organize background information about the occurrence of the accident once the responsethat was needed immediately after the accident is completed. Collect a broad range of information on
278

Figure 14.3 Example of response in case of an incident/accident in school(first aid/emergency contact system)

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School safety and crisis management279

Table 14.7 Framework of PFA-S

possible causes of the accident, conduct research/verification aimed at preventing accidents in the future,and make use of the results of research to prevent recurrence.

3) Experience of an incident/accident and mental health care2,10
Encountering an incident/accident can traumatize schoolchildren because of fear or loss; they may
develop symptoms, such as repeatedly remembering the event or reproducing the event in their play, as
well as emotional instability and sleep disorder, causing serious problems in their daily lives. These
reactions can happen to everyone, and in most cases, subside over time. If this condition persists forthree days to one month after the encounter with the incident/accident, it is called Acute Stress Disorder

Activity

Objectivei) Approach sufferers and start
activities

Reach out to sufferers (schoolchildren and the staff of the school) inan empathic manner without placing a burden on them, and respondto their requests.

ii) Safety and a sense of security

Ensure immediate security so that sufferers can rest their body andmind.

iii) Stabilization

Quell the disorder of sufferers who are overwhelmed by thesituation, and give them a perspective.

iv) Collect information

Collect related information and identify sufferers’ present needs andproblems.

v) Help solve actual problems

Help sufferers address their present needs and problems in arealistic way.

vi) Promote interactions withsurrounding people

Promote sufferers’ interactions with their families/friends/teachers/
other school officials who stay close to them and with supportingorganizations in the community, and provide assistance to makethese relationships last for a long time.

vii) Information helpful to respondto the situation

Provide sufferers with information on stress reaction and a coping
method in order to alleviate their suffering and enhance theiradaptive function.

viii) Introduction and transfer

Introduce services that sufferers presently need or will need in the
future, and transfer support.

(ASD), and if it persists for one month or longer, it is called Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD).
Therefore, it is important to provide support for schoolchildren and their guardians immediately after theincident/accident for the prevention and early detection of PTSD. It should be noted there are cases inwhich schoolchildren develop symptoms of ASD soon after the encounter with the incident/accident,
which then become chronic and lead to PTSD, as well as cases in which symptoms are not noticeable atfirst and cases in which symptoms are reduced once but recur a few months later; thus, it is important toprovide mental health care for as long as possible (see Chapter 12).
In addition, the guardians of affected schoolchildren and school personnel may ignore these signs or
become insensitive to their own physical and mental disorders, and therefore, they may require mental
health care for themselves. For the affected schoolchildren, it is important for their guardians and theschool personnel around them to be mentally stable. This is why it is important for all the people involvedin the incident/accident to understand that they need mental health care, which includes noticing their

2,14

Source: Created using references

own physical and mental disorders as early as possible and take a break or have consultations proactively.

(1) Mental health care provided immediately after the occurrence of a crisis
Like bodily injury, mental trauma requires first aid. Psychological First Aid (PFA) is globally accepted

Column: Anniversary reaction2

as a basic method of mental health care provided immediately after the occurrence of a crisis. PFA

People who were traumatized by a disaster or incident/accident may reexperience their trauma,

provides the specific contents and overall procedures of mental health care that is necessary immediately

though since healed, on the date when they experienced it first. This is called an anniversary

after the occurrence of a crisis.

reaction.

The framework of the Psychological First Aid School Edition (PFA-S)13 consists of eight major

One method to cope with this is to inform guardians and children beforehand that the previous

activities (Table 14.7). The PFA-S considers it natural that schoolchildren and school personnel show

reaction may recur as the date of the disaster or incident/accident approaches, but they don’t havevarious early responses (i.e., physical, cognitive, behavioral, and spiritual problems) after an emergency

to worry even if it recurs because this reaction can happen to everyone. By doing this, it will besituation. Care provided by experts in disaster relief assistance and mental health can help schoolchildren

possible to prevent children’s anxiety from increasing as well as enable guardians to respond calmly.

and school personnel recover from these early responses, and leading such care to assistance tailored toeach person’s needs will be able to prevent symptoms from becoming severe or persisting for a long
time.

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8. Roles of school personnel in creating safe schools

1) Development of the ability to predict and avoid danger

This section explains the roles of school personnel required to make schools a safe and secure place/

Schoolchildren may encounter danger in a situation in which there are only schoolchildren, such as on

8,15

environment.

School personnel are required to appropriately make decisions and take action according

their way to or from school or on holiday. In such a situation, schoolchildren need to predict and avoid

to circumstances to protect the safety of schoolchildren’s lives and physical health from danger. They are

danger for themselves by noticing potential dangers they may face, predicting what kinds of accidents

also required to fully understand the organizational structure in school as well as the importance andcan be caused by those dangers, and deciding what to do to avoid the dangers. Safety education must be

urgency of school safety, and to further enhance their safety awareness and safety response skills as wellprovided so that schoolchildren can develop their ability to think and decide on their own in allas their safety education skills. To achieve this, it is necessary to provide school personnel with practicalcircumstances.
For example, it is important to nurture schoolchildren’s ability to predict and avoid danger intraining that meets the needs of the school and the community.
Making full use of the latest safety information provided by, for example, the government,

natural disasters specific to the region, such as typhoons, tropical storms, floods, and drought, whileinternational organizations, and international aid organizations, all school personnel must be firmly

making use of materials prepared in each region and involving activities to make schoolchildren think

determined to ensure the safety of schoolchildren, understand matters necessary to protect the health andin light of specific situations as well as experimental activities.

safety of schoolchildren, and have the basic knowledge and skills on the contents and methods ofteaching. This requires the improvement of school safety training provided for school personnel. In
doing this, structures within schools also need to be improved to enable all school personnel to share the2) Use of human resources/resources in communities

latest information.
Examples of training include the items below. Concerning forms of training, simulation exercises, inIn order to ensure more effective practice in the safety education of schoolchildren, it is necessary towhich discussion is held as to what kind of action should be taken by assuming a case that can occur in

obtain cooperation from lecturers of external organizations, including NGOs, and to actively request that

school, and training by external personnel with expertise are effective, in addition to lectures/classes.

homes and communities provide teaching materials and learning opportunities. It is important to choose
and consider the contents and methods according to the actual situation of the school and the community.

i) Evacuation drills for disaster/crime prevention based on the crisis management manual

Particularly in school, where learning is pursued according to the curriculum of each subject, it isii) Drills to respond to disasters/incidents (including responses to affected or injured schoolchildren

important to effectively use external human resources by linking curriculums across different subjects

and guardians)

instead of providing an isolated, independent learning opportunity. This is one method of curriculumiii) Cardiopulmonary resuscitation including AED, and first aidiv) Matters related to the creation of a safe environment using statistics of disasters and accidents
that occurred in school as well as information on specific casesv) Matters related to the safety education of schoolchildren

management.
Examples of collaboration with communities include the items below.
i) Utilize guidance from police and disaster prevention/safety experts in safety training provided
at school.

(e.g.) Qualifications/skills related to safety that need to be developed, positioning of safety
education, common understanding of teaching contents/materialsvi) Mental health care of schoolchildren, school personnel, and guardiansii) Use community facilities and organizations related to safety (e.g., the Commune Committee
for Disaster Management, the Village Disaster Management Group16) as teaching materials.
iii) Use the region’s topography, geology, environment, and past disasters16 as teaching materials.
iv) Study and experience the contents of work of people who protect safety in communities.

9. Safety education of schoolchildren

10

To ensure the safety of schoolchildren, it is very important to provide safety education that enables
schoolchildren to predict and avoid danger for themselves, in addition to conducting thorough safetyv) Participate in safety events in communities to develop skills to ensure one’s own safety (selfhelp) and the spirit of cooperation (mutual assistance).
Column: Measures related to land mines in Cambodia

management of facilities/installations such as safety inspections. Thus, safety education throughout all

In Cambodia, as the result of its long civil war, several million land mines and unexploded ordances

educational activities (all subjects and school events) is required.

(UXO) still remain uncleared, and thus the country is called a major land mine- and unexploded
ordance-contaminated country. These land mines and UXO have caused death and injury to a large
number of civilians, most of whom were children, posing very serious humanitarian issues. In rural
areas, they threaten safety in daily life and hinder regional development and economic recovery.

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Anti-land mine measures in Cambodia are led by the Cambodia Mine Action Center (CMAC). The
CMAC reports that the number of land mines it removed during the period from 1992 to January
2020 exceeded 540,000.17 It carries out activities by developing long-term plans and goals forvarious issues, including land mine removal plans, compensation for land mine victims, and risk
education on land mines and UXO, while receiving support from United Nations agencies, othercountries, and NGOs. The issues of land mines and UXO still have a great impact on the health andsafety of children and Cambodia’s economic development (see Chapter 13).

Exercises for further thought and research[14-1] What can you cite as characteristics of incidents/accidents involving children? Pick one example
of an incident/accident in Cambodia, and discuss factors and the background of its occurrence aswell as prevention measures.
[14-2] Are there any dangerous places in and around school? Pick one elementary school nearby, andcreate danger prediction maps and safety check lists for (1) School premises and (2) Area aroundthe school.
[14-3] Investigate and report the actual situations at nearby elementary, junior high, and senior highschools, including whether a crisis management system is in place, whether safety education isprovided, and whether evacuation drills and training of teaching staff are provided.

References
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Takizawa T (author and editor): [New Edition] Learning School Health from Basics [2nd edition]. Kenpakusha, Tokyo. 2018.

2

Watanabe M (author and editor): School Safety and Crisis Management Revised 3rd Edition. TAISHUKAN Publishing, Tokyo.

3

Ichimura K, Shimomura Y, Watanabe M: Drug Abuse, Smoking, and Alcohol Consumption Behavior and Normative Consciousness

4

National Institute of Statistics, Ministry of Planning, Cambodia: Cambodia Demographic and Health Survey 2014. https://

5

The World Bank. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.TRAF.P5?end=2019&locations=KH& start=2000&view=chart

6

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology: Safety Education in Schools to Nurture “Zest for Living.” 2019.

2020.
Among Junior and Senior High School Students. Japanese Journal of School Health 43: 39-49. 2001.
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https://www.mext.go.jp/component/a_menu/education/detail/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2019/04/03/1289314_02.pdf
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Ederer DJ, Bui TV, Parker EM, Roehler DR, Sidik M, et al. Helmets for Kids: evaluation of a school-based helmet intervention in

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UNICEF: [Summary] THE STATE OF THE WORLD’S CHILDREN 2017 Children in a digital world. https://www.unicef.org/

9

UNDRR: The human cost of weather-related disasters 1995-2015. https://www.preventionweb.net/files/46796_

Cambodia. Injury Prevention. 22:52-58, 2016. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6883409/
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afieldfile/2019/05/07/1401870_01.pdf
11 Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology: School Safety for School Personnel e-learning Basic Training
Text material. https://anzenkyouiku.mext.go.jp/learning/course1-1/pdf/Basic_1.pdf.
12 Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology: School Safety for School Personnel e-learning Basic Training
Text material. https://anzenkyouiku.mext.go.jp/learning/course1-2/pdf/Basic_2.pdf
13 Brymer M, Taylor M, Escudero P, Jacobs A, Kronenberg M, et al. Psychological first aid for schools: Field operations guide, 2nd
Edition. (2012). Los Angeles: National Child Traumatic Stress Network.
14 Tanaka E: How to implement Psychological First Aid for Schools in Japan. Japanese Bulletin of Traumatic Stress Studies. 14:41-58,
2019.
15 Tajima Y, Shizuoka Prefecture Yogo Teachers’ Association. “Crisis Management” addressed by school organizations, Higashiyama
Shobo, Tokyo. 2020.
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asia/nationinformation.php?NationCode=116&Lang=en&NationNum=06
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