1st International Conference on Urban Disaster Reduction
Kobe, 2005.1

CLARIFYING THE LIFE RECONSTRUCTION PROCESSESOF VICTIMS OF THE 1995 HANSHIN-AWAJI EARTHQUAKEON THE PSYCHOLOGICAL TIMELINE
Reo KIMURA1, Haruo HAYASHI2, Shigeo TATSUKI3 and Keiko TAMURA4
1

Assistant Professor, Disaster Management Office, Nagoya University, Japan.
Email: reo@seis.nagoya-u.ac.jp
2
Professor, Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto University, Japan.
3
Professor, Department of Sociology, Doshisya University, Japan.
4
Researcher, Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto University, Japan.
SUMMARY

In this study, we have clarified the life reconstruction processes of disaster victims fromthe viewpoint of psychological time. The questionnaire items have been superimposed onsocial statistics data that substantiate the feelings and behavior of disaster victims tomeasure psychological time. Through the analysis of the data from the social random
surveys, the patterns of victims’ behaviors are found, which were changed at the points of
10, 100, and 1000 hours after the event occurred. 50% of the victims were sure that “I was
prepared to have an uncomfortable life for quite some time” and” I understood the entiretyof the damage” 10 hours after the event. 50% of the victims were sure that “I felt it was
safe, ” “Office/school has resumed”, and “We have completely dealt with housing issues”
100 hours after. 50% of the victims thought, “I no longer feel that I am a victim of thedisaster” after 1000 hours.
INTRODUCTION
Clarification of Life Reconstruction Processes
The 1995 Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake was a gigantic urban disaster that not only caused
physical damage to cities’ development, but also had significant psychological and social
impacts upon the bodies, minds, and lives of disaster victims, local community
relationships, organizations, groups, and social systems. The experience of the earthquake
has made it clear that reconstruction following such damage is comprised of three elements:
urban reconstruction, economic reconstruction, and life reconstruction.1)
In particular, life reconstruction by disaster victims had rarely been studied in Japan prior to
the Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake. Clarification of life reconstruction processes will facilitate
the fashioning of disaster management plans and the preparation of basic materials forenhancing people’s awareness of disaster prevention and preparedness for disaster
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10 h

100 h

1000 htime

disaster
Ⅰ

Ⅱ

Ⅲ

Ⅳ

Disorientation

Cognition of
the new realities

Disaster Utopia

Reentry toeveryday life

Figure 1: Four Time Phases after the Earthquake
prevention. These plans and materials will significantly contribute to a decrease in social
vulnerability, which is the objective of disaster reduction. Therefore, clarification of the life
reconstruction process is an important area of study in disaster prevention.
Four time phases following the occurrence of the disasterWe have been studying the life reconstruction processes of victims of the Hanshin-Awaji
Earthquake, and, in particular, how the disaster victims established new daily lives in the
post-disaster environment. We conducted random mail surveys of the Hanshin-Awaji
Earthquake disaster area in 1999, 2001, and 2003. 2)-4) In these surveys, we verified the
hypothesis that the feelings and behaviors of disaster victims change during four periods oftime that are separated by three time axes: the day of the disaster (10 hours), two to fourdays (100 hours) after the disaster, and two months (1,000 hours) after the disaster.
The four time phases are: I. Disorientation phase: a period in which the victims sufferfrom severe stress due to the impact of the disaster, and have difficulty objectively
understanding what is happening around them, II. Cognition of new realities phase: aperiod in which the victims rationally accept the damage caused by the disaster andunderstand that a new reality of a disaster-stricken society has begun, III. Disaster Utopia
Phase: a period in which a primitive communal life is formed based on values different
from those of ordinary times due to the paralysis of conventional social functions, IV.
Reentry to Everyday Life phase: a period in which social flow systems are restored andpeople begin to reconstruct their lives (Fig. 1).
Psychological time-lines of disaster victims
We set time bases of 10 hours, 100 hours, and 1,000 hours, which are the powers of 10
based on the theory of psychology known as Weber-Fechner’s Law. This law states that thehuman sense is governed by the law of logarithm, and that the magnitude of the human
psychological sense is proportional to the logarithmic scale of the magnitude of the
2/10physical stimulus. 5)
A disaster causes abrupt and significant changes to people’s living environments andpresents an enormous stimulus that is incomparable in magnitude to that of ordinary life.
When the magnitude of the stimulus or disaster experience changes arithmetically, thevictim’s response based on the psychological time sense of disaster victims changes
logarithmically. Very few, if any, objective scales for psychological time exist; thus
psychological time is rarely reflected in social systems. However, as human beings
behave on the basis of psychological time, the psychological time of victims following adisaster cannot be neglected. To undertake measures in line with the behavior of disastervictims, it is essential to clarify the behavior patterns of disaster victims based on
psychological time.
Objective of our research
In this study, we have clarified the life reconstruction processes of disaster victims from theviewpoint of psychological time. The questionnaire items have been superimposed onsocial statistics data that substantiate the feelings and behavior of disaster victims tomeasure psychological time.
METHOD
Outline of survey
The data reported herein was obtained from random mail surveys that were conducted in
1999, 2001, and 2003 to learn about the life reconstruction processes of disaster victims inthe Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake disaster area. The subjects of the surveys and the survey
methods are shown in Table 1.
Items examined in this study
From among the questions asked in social surveys, we selected the following five: 1)
Damage to the house, 2) Duration of repair or demolition of the house, 3) Length of time
until the place of work resumed operation, the disaster victim left or changed jobs, orchanged or closed their business, 4) Utilities and infrastructures’ (electricity, telephonesystem, sewage line, water line, transportation system, gas) restoration period, and 5)
Reconstruction calendar. From among the social statistics data that substantiated disastervictims’ feelings and behavior, we selected three items: 1) Rate of identification of bodies,2) Rate at which shelters were dissolved, and 3) Strength of ground motion.
The reconstruction calendar features the following brief introduction: “Very little
information exists regarding how people in disaster-stricken areas restore and reconstructtheir lives. Would you please try to recall how your feelings and behavior changed astime passed after the disaster. Please mark the number of the period on the calendar thatyou think applies.” Following this introduction, six items, which are milestones in the life
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Table 1: Survey Overview
1999 survey

2001 survey

2003 survey

Surveyed
Points

250 points (JMA 7
and/or City Gas
Stopped)The Same 250 points
plus 80 additional
points within Kobe

The Same 330 points

Subjects

Head of Household
over the age of 20

Men & Woman
over the age of 20

Men & Woman
over the age of 20

Sampling
Method2-step Stratified
Random Sampling
Method2-step Stratified
Random Sampling
Method2-step Stratified
Random Sampling
MethodNo. of
2,500sent &3,300 sent &3,300 sent &Questionnaires
683 returned (27.3%) 1389 returned (42.1%) 1356 returned (41.1%)
Sent Returned(%)

No. of Valid
623 (24.9%)
Responses (%)

1,203 (36.5%)

1,203 (36.5%)

Survey Method Mail Survey

Mail Survey

Mail Survey

reconstruction process, are presented. For example, “I understood the entirety of thedamage,” “I felt it was safe,” “I was prepared to have an uncomfortable life for quite sometime,” “Office/school has resumed,” “We have completely dealt with housing issues,” “I nolonger feel that I am a victim of the disaster.” Respondents were asked to mark the date on
the calendar (from Jan. 17, 1995 to date) that they thought applicable to each event.
Analysis
For each item, the horizontal axis represents the time elapsed after the disaster on alogarithmic scale (power of 10), and the vertical axis represents the cumulative percentage
of positive respondents for each item. We believe that it is worthwhile to deal with theeffects of emergencies such as disasters when greater than half of the disaster victims feeland behave in a given way. Accordingly, in this study, we have set the threshold as thepoint of time at which 50% (cumulative) of the respondents felt and behaved as describedin the item.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION (1)Figure 2 shows the reconstruction calendars of utilities and infrastructures (electricity,
telephone system, sewage line, water line, transportation system, gas), housing, and work.
Restoration of utilities: Our analysis shows that greater than 50% of the respondents
replied that electricity and telephone service were restored in 10 hours, that sewage service
was restored in 100 hours, and that water and gas supply, and transportation were restored
between 100 and 1,000 hours.
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100 ％

tion system
Transporta

0

10

am

pm

/18
night

10

‑/29 ‑2/5

2

shed

ov
ed

Hous
e rec
onstr
ucted

re
pa
ire
d

Feb. Mar. ‑Jun. ‑Sep.‑Dec. 1996 ‑1998
‑2003
‑2000

103

10

Re
m

s
Hou
se

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oli

helt
ers
Evacu
ee

in s
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epin
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y

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Job chan ed
or closOpre erat
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wa
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e
vic
er
s
e

at
er
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ne
ho
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ma
cas tion
ua of
ltie
s

El

50

m
ste
sy

W

ec
tr

ici
t

y

75

104

hours

Figure 2: Reconstruction calendars ofutilities and infrastructures, housing, and work
Confirmation of the safety of family members: On the day of the disaster, the evening
newspapers began to report the number of identified bodies. The percentage of identified
bodies exceeded 50% by two days after the disaster, and exceeded 90% by 100 hours.
Many people have the impression that confirmation of the safety of family members took
longer, but in reality, greater than 90% of the bodies were identified within 100 hours.
Use of shelters: The percentage of victims sleeping in shelters was little changed over the
first 100 hours following the earthquake. Between 100 and 1,000 hours, the percentage of
people who left the shelter (no longer slept in the shelter) increased sharply and exceeded
50% at 1,000 hours. The percentage of evacuees (those who received lunch boxes at the
shelters) sharply decreased between 100 and 1,000 hours, and at 1,000 hours, thepercentage of evacuees who left the shelter exceeded 50%. During this period, therestoration rate of all utilities and infrastructures (electricity, telephone system, sewage line,
water line, transportation system, gas) exceeded 50%; therefore, it is to be expected that
restoration of utilities and infrastructures allowed cooking and prompted people to return
home.
Rebuilding of houses: Analysis of the times when replies to the items “damage was so
serious that we were forced to move immediately”, “house was demolished,” and “house
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100

％

90

80

70

60

①

50

②

③

⑤ ④

⑥

40

30
① I was prepared to have an uncomfortable life for quite
some time (n=994)

20② I understood the entirety of the damage (n=947)③ I felt it was safe (n=1007)

10④ We have completely dealt with housing issues (n=784)⑤ Office/school has resumed (n=944)⑥ I no longer feel that I am a victim of the disaster (n=865)

0

1/17
10

0

am

pm

10

/18
night

/19 /20/21/22

10‑/29 ‑2/5

2Feb. Mar. ‑Jun. ‑Sep.‑Dec. 1996 ‑1998
‑2003
‑2000

10

3

10

4

hours

Figure 3: Reconstruction calendar
was repaired” exceeded the threshold demonstrated that various decisions related to houses
were made between 1,000 and 10,000 hours. Furthermore, positive responses to the item
“house was rebuilt” exceeded 50% at 10,000 hours. The “rebuilt” period changed inparallel with the “demolished” period, so we can estimate that rebuilding was completed
approximately five months after demolition.
Job changes: The percentage of people who responded, "their office had resumed
operation" exceeded 50% between 100 hours and 1,000 hours. “Leaving or changing jobs,
and changing and closing the business” reached approximately 30% by 1,000 hours, andexceeded the threshold between 1,000 and 10,000 hours.
Reconstruction calendar
Figure 3 shows a reconstruction calendar. By 10 hours (on the day of the disaster), thepercentage of people who replied “I was prepared to have an uncomfortable life for quite
some time.” and “I understood the entirety of the damage” exceeded 50%. By 1,000 hours(about a month after the disaster), the percentage of people who replied, “I felt it was safe”,“I have completely dealt with housing issues” and “Work/school had resumed” exceeded
50%. By 10,000 hours (about one year after the disaster), the percentage of people who
replied, “I no longer feel that I am a disaster victim” exceeded 50%. These results
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100 ％

0
1/17
10

a tio n s ys
am0

entirety of damage

te m

pm

/18
night

10

/ 1 9 / 2 0 / 2 1/ 2 2

10

lishe
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ng

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anged
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Feb. Mar. ‑Jun. ‑Sep.‑Dec. 1996 ‑1998
‑2003
‑2000

10

3

office/school104

h o u rs

seismic
intensity
housing
damagehousing issues
uncomfortable life
safe
I am a victim

Figure 4: Collection of the results
demonstrate that the inflection points of the feelings and behaviors of disaster victims canbe sorted on a logarithmic time axis.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION (2)Figure 4 shows a collection of the results of the preceding section. The items on thereconstruction calendar are shown in the lower horizontal bar chart. This represents therange of time between the earliest and latest threshold crossings in our analysis of thereconstruction calendar items by the levels of seismic intensity and damage to housing
structures. We regard this range as the period in which each item of the reconstruction
calendar exceeded the threshold, and analyzed the relationships with the social situations
shown in the upper part of the graph.
I was prepared to have an uncomfortable life for quite some time
The time when people responded, “I was prepared to have an uncomfortable life for quite
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some time” almost coincided with the time when “electricity was restored”. This was 10hours after the outbreak of the disaster, about the time when the Disorientation Phase
ended.
I understood the entirety of the disaster
The time when people responded, “I understood the entirety of the disaster” coincided withthe time when “telephone service was restored” and “the safety of family members was
confirmed.” This was 10 to 100 hours after the occurrence of the disaster, corresponding to
the disaster-stricken society formation phase.
We are safe by now
The period in which people responded, “we are safe by now” corresponded to the period
between the time when “telephone service was restored and the safety of family members
was confirmed” and the time when “utilities began to be gradually restored” and “thepercentage of people who left the shelters exceeded 50%”. This item shows variations
according to the seismic intensity of the earthquake and the level of damage to houses, andranged from the time when the disaster stricken society was formed to the period ofDisaster Utopia.
People settled housing problems
The period in which “people settled housing problems” corresponded to the period
mentioned above and continued until the time when ”demolition or repair of houses wascompleted.” Depending on the seismic intensity and the level of damage to houses, it
ranged from the time when the disaster stricken society was formed to the time whenpeople returned to reality.
Work/school resumed
The period in which “work/school resumed” corresponded to the period in which “offices
resumed business operations” exceeded 50% and “when most people left the shelters”; thiswas 1,000 hours after the occurrence of the disaster.
No longer feel they were disaster victims
The period in which people “no longer feel they were disaster victims” began at 1,000
hours after the occurrence of the disaster when utilities were restored, and still continued at
the survey point at 100,000 hours after the disaster (eight years after the disaster: January2003). When we examined this result relative to the level of damage to the house (Fig. 5),
we found that greater than 50% of the people whose houses totally collapsed replied, “I still
feel I am a victim of the disaster” at the survey point eight years after the disaster.
CONCLUSION
In this paper, we have analyzed how the feelings and behavior of disaster victims, which
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100 ％① Major damage without survival space (n=40)② Major damage with survival space (n=135)③ Moderate damage (n=42)④ Minor damage (n=492)⑤ No damage (n=138)

75

50

25

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2Feb. Mar. ‑Jun. ‑Sep.‑Dec. 1996 ‑1998
‑2003
‑2000

10

3

10

4

hours

Figure 5: I no longer feel that I am a victim of the disasterare considered milestones in the life reconstruction process, changed by elapsing
psychological time. The results confirmed the hypothesis that the “time sense of disastervictims changes not according to physical time but according to psychological time on alogarithmic axis”. In this analysis, we also considered the relationship with the social
situation of the time. We believe that the results of this study will contribute to generating
more effective disaster measures and disaster prevention measures in which the feelings
and behaviors of the victims are reflected.
In the future, we would like to analyze the psychological and behavioral patterns of disastervictims of disasters other than the Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake to verify the generalapplicability of these results to other disasters.
REFERENCES
1. Kobe City. “Kobe City Disaster Restoration General Verification Report.” Kobe City
Report, 1995.(Japanese)
2. Hayashi, H. (ed) “Determinants of the changes of residence and life reconstruction
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among the 1995 Kobe earthquake victims”. Technical Report DRS-1999-01, ResearchCenter for Disaster Reduction System, Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto
University, 1999. (Japanese)
3. Hayashi, H. (ed) “Socio-economic Recovery from the 1995 Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake
Disaster –Report of Panel Survey 2001-”. Technical Report DRS-2001-01, ResearchCenter for Disaster Reduction System, Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto
University, 2001. (Japanese)
4. Hayashi, H. (ed) “Socio-economic Recovery from the 1995 Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake
Disaster –Report of Panel Survey 2003-”. Technical Report DRS-2003, Research Center
for Disaster Reduction System, Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto University,
2003.(in press) (Japanese)
5. Oyama, T., Imai, S., Wake, K. (ed) “Handbook of Sensory and Perception Psychology”.
Seishin-syobou Press, 1994. (Japanese)

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