7f-0002

17th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, 17WCEE
Sendai, Japan - September 13th to 18th 2020

UNDERSTANDING DISORIENTATION THAT OCCURS IMMEDIATELY
AFTER EARTHQUAKE
R. Kimura(1), A. Kadowaki(2)(1) Professor, School of Human Science and Environment, University of Hyogo, Himeji, Japan, rkimura@shse.u-hyogo.ac.jp(2) Ex-student, School of Human Science and Environment, University of Hyogo, Himeji, Japan, a_so1_051430@icloud.com

Abstract
Many people who have experienced an earthquake report impaired cognitive functioning due to the drastic
environmental changes that occur. This impairment can result in losing the ability to make calm judgments due to panic,
losing one or more senses (taste, sight, touch, smell, and sound), or losing a sense of time. Overall, this impairment is
known as disorientation, which is commonly understood as “a condition involving ‘narrowed vision’ and an inability tomake objective judgments about surrounding events due to extreme stress resulting from a disaster.” Disorientationmust be addressed because it may result in fatal behavior due to loss of proper judgment. To address this issue, it is firstnecessary for the public to become broadly aware of the possibility of experiencing disorientation. However, theconcept of disorientation has not been fully clarified to date. This study thus aimed to characterize this experience bycollecting and analyzing past disaster experiences.
Based on interviews with people who experienced severely damaging earthquakes, we identified “unusual actions andcognitive conditions.” We successfully extracted 10 main types of disorientation experiences and 44 subtypes. Then acluster analysis identified three type categories: physiological tension, loss of self-control, and loss of situationalawareness (see Fig. 1). We also performed cross-tabulation (Chi-squared test) to identify how disorientation types wererelated to attributes of the affected person and characteristics of earthquake.
Children under elementary school age showed a high tendency to feel fear, that is, to experience disorientation
characterized by physiological tension. Therefore, when any
physiological signs such as shaking or insomnia are observed,
Thoughts aboutchildren should immediately receive mental health care. For Loss ofdeathsituational
disorientation characterized by the loss of self-control, there were awareness
Loss of one orsome differences between subduction zone earthquakes and inland
more senses
earthquakes. In cases of subduction zone earthquakes, loss of selfAnxiety
control often manifested as being desperate to care for oneself orFeel like as if it
others, and feeling panic that caused them to run out of houses orwould be the end
buildings. In cases of inland earthquakes, many people did notof the world
understand what happened and lost their sense of time. In addition,
Lethargy
children under junior high school age and adults who were not
Inability to
involved in any emergency response activities showed a highexercise calmoftendency to run out of houses or buildings during the shaking caused Loss
judgment
self-control
by the earthquakes. To address this kind of disorientation, people
Desperation
should be required to learn the following decision-making process:“when one feels shaking caused by an earthquake, get under a table
Unable to realize
the situationand protect one’s head.” Disorientation characterized by a loss of
situational awareness was experienced more by males than byFearfemales. During earthquakes, males tended to feel as if it was the end Physiologicof the world or to experience lethargy. Since such mental conditions al tension Abnormal physicalcondition
are only experienced during disasters and not during everyday life, itFig.
1–Clusteranalysis of disorientation
is important for disaster management education to highlight the fact
experiences (Ward clustering, squaredthat everyone may encounter situations in which they must protect
Euclidean distance)themselves while experiencing disorientation. Emergency drills
should be conducted with this possibility in mind.
Keywords: cognitive functioning, concept of disorientation, cluster analysis, disaster management education

17th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, 17WCEE
Sendai, Japan - September 13th to 18th 2020

1. Background and objective of this study
Many victims of disasters have reported experiencing psychological states and/or behaviors that differ fromnormal due to drastic environmental changes. Such psychological states and behaviors are called "panic" or"disorientation." According to Nakajima et al. (2005), the term "panic" is defined as a "hysterical collective
escape and confusion of people in fear and anxiety. It also means an urgent psychological state that has notbeen expressed as a behavior." [1] According to Kitahara et al. (2012), panic states are classified into two
types: psychological and collective panic. The former is panic at the individual level, while the latter is at thegroup level. Psychological panic is a state in which a person feels powerless that he/she cannot do anything
about the situation, even if the situation is not good for him/her. (...) On the other hand, the collective panic
is commonly imagined with the term "panic." That is, it is a situation where many people who are present at
a particular site take the same action at once without thinking about others. Consequently, the surrounding
environment cannot respond to the collective behavior. [2]A psychological state of panic at the individual level is defined with the term "disorientation.”
Originally, this was a psychiatric term that meant "a person's mental state in which he or she may not know
the time, location, surrounding people, or current situation properly." [3] It is also used to describe a
psychological condition of a person who encounters a natural disaster as "a condition involving narrowed
vision and an inability to make objective judgments about surrounding events due to extreme stress resulting
from a disaster.” [4]This study focuses on disorientation, which is an individual's psychological condition, immediately
after an earthquake. Many people who have experienced an earthquake have reported impaired cognitive
function due to drastic environmental changes. This impairment can result in losing the ability to make calm
judgments due to panic, losing one or more senses (sight, sound, smell, touch, or taste), or losing the sense oftime. These are reported anecdotally in many stories told by earthquake victims. Disorientation must be
addressed because it may result in fatal behaviors due to impaired judgment. To address this issue, the originof disorientation must be understood. Because disorientation is not fully understood, this study aims to
elucidate the entire picture of disorientation by collecting and analyzing past disaster experiences.

2. Method
This study collected the experiences of victims in four major earthquakes with a maximum seismic intensityof 7, which is the highest intensity level in Japan. These are the 1995 Southern Hyogo Prefecture Earthquake(also known as the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake, hereinafter referred to as the "1995 Hyogo
Earthquake"), the 2004 Niigata Prefecture Chuetsu Earthquake (hereinafter referred to as the "2004 Niigata
Earthquake"), the 2011 Pacific Coast of Tohoku Earthquake (also known as the Great East Japan Earthquake,
hereinafter referred to as the "2011 Tohoku Earthquake"), and the 2016 Kumamoto Earthquake. In addition,
to understand the disorientation occurrence in unusual situations such as wartime, we collected victims’
experiences of three major earthquakes that occurred during the Asia-Pacific War or the time of confusion
immediately after the War and are considered to have seismic intensities equivalent to the current level 7: the1944 Showa Tonankai Earthquake, the 1945 Mikawa Earthquake, and the 1946 Showa Nankai Earthquake.
Although these earthquakes occurred before 1949, which is when the current seismic intensity classification
was established, previous studies have shown that these earthquakes had shaking with intensities equivalent
to the current level 7. Of these seven earthquakes, the 1944 Showa Tonankai Earthquake, 1946 Showa
Nankai Earthquake, and 2011 Tohoku Earthquake were subduction zone earthquakes. The remaining wereinland earthquakes.
Victims’ stories were collected by examining 33 reference materials to extract 250 cases thatprovided detailed accounts of individual psychological states and behaviors immediately after an earthquake[5]-[37]. We extracted a series of sentences describing one victim's experiences as one case. We
subsequently highlighted keywords in the collected stories using Microsoft Word's highlight function andassigned each story a short title to represent the experiences. We found many similar psychologicalconditions and behaviors. We then categorized the cases using the short titles.

2© The 17th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering - 7f-0002 -17th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, 17WCEE
Sendai, Japan - September 13th to 18th 2020

3. Results
3.1 Disorientation extracted from the collected cases
Of the 250 collected cases, victims' psychological states and behaviors immediately after an earthquake werecategorized into 3 general clusters, 10 categories, and 44 subcategories (Fig. 2). The 10 categories are:"unable to realize the situation" (could not understand what happened), "inability to exercise calm judgment"(panicked or blacked out), "desperation" (became desperate to care for oneself or others), "abnormal physicalcondition" (felt dizziness, palpitations, or body shaking), "loss of one or more senses" (did not feel any painor hunger), "anxiety" (felt anxious or helpless), "feel like it is the end of the world" (lost the sense of reality
and that the world was ending), "thinking about death" (felt as if he/she was close to death), "lethargy" (feltlethargic), and "fear" (afraid of an earthquake and/or aftershock). The most frequently observed
disorientation type in all cases is "fear" (55.6%) (Fig. 3). This is followed by "unable to realize the situation"(42.8%), "inability to exercise calm judgment" (42.4%), "abnormal physical condition" (37.2%), and"desperation" (34.4%).
Unable to realize the situation

Abnormal physical condition

Feel like it is the end of the world・Did not understand what happened
・Did not understand that an
earthquake occurred・Distracted by my own prediction
about the disaster
・The sense of time was different fromusual

・Had an earthquake sickness
・Felt dizzy or fainted
・Felt lightheaded
・Could not sleep
・Could not make a sound・Could not move・My body shook
・Felt palpitations or choking

・Felt like it was the end of this world・Thought I was in hell

Inability to exercise calm judgment
・Being confused・Panicked
・Flustered
・Could not make a calm judgment
・Blacked out
・Could not do anything
・Do not remember anything
Desperation
・Became desperate for myself
・Became desperate for others
・Ran out of the building during or
immediately after earthquake shaking

Loss of one or more senses
・Could not feel thirst・Could not feel hunger
・Could not hear・Could not smell
・Could not feel cold
・Could not feel pain
・Could not feel fatigue
・Could not feel body shaking
AnxietyThoughts about death・Prepared for death・Had a strong will not to die
・Prayed to God
Lethargy
・Felt helpless・Surprised at translucency of human lives
・Did not want to take it as reality
Fear・Felt fear
・Felt fear against aftershocks
・Felt an unusual atmosphere・Felt anxious
・Wanted to move to a safe place
・Felt nervous because I was left behindFig. 2 – Disorientation extracted from the victims’ experiences (10 categories and 44 subcategories)3© The 17th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering - 7f-0002 -17th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, 17WCEE
Sendai, Japan - September 13th to 18th 2020

Fear
Unable to realize the situation
Inability to exercise calm judgment
Abnormal physical condition
Desperation
Feel like as if it would be the end of the world
Lethargy
AnxietyThoughts about death
Loss of one or more senses

55.6
42.8
42.4
37.2
34.4
25.2
24.8
18.8
14.4

N=250

9.6
0

10

20

30

40

50

%
60

Fig. 3 – Proportion of occurrence of the different types of disorientation (10 subcategories) in thecollected cases (n=250)
Cluster analysis with the Ward's method and the squared Euclidean distance was performed on thesecategories. Three clusters were identified (Fig. 1). The first cluster is "loss of situational awareness," which
includes the categories of "loss of one or more senses," "thinking about death," "anxiety," "feel like it is theend of the world," and "lethargy." The second one is "loss of self-control," which includes the categories of"inability to exercise calm judgment," "desperation," and "unable to realize the situation." The third is"physiological tension," which includes categories of "fear" and "abnormal physical condition."
Loss ofsituationalawarenessThoughts about
death
Loss of one ormore senses
Anxiety
Feel like as if itwould be the endof the world
Lethargy

Loss ofself-control

Inability to
exercise calm
judgment
Desperation
Unable to realize
the situation
Fear

PhysiologicaltensionAbnormal physicalcondition

Fig. 1 – Cluster analysis of disorientation experiences (Ward clustering, squared Euclidean
distance) (re-post)

4© The 17th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering - 7f-0002 -17th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, 17WCEE
Sendai, Japan - September 13th to 18th 2020

These three clusters are also found in a 1999 questionnaire survey of victims of the 1995 Southern
Hyogo Prefecture Earthquake. This questionnaire survey randomly sampled victims from the official resident
register [38] and included a total of 18 psychological states and behaviors, which are commonly observed inearthquake victims. The participants were asked to check items that they experienced on the day of theearthquake.
Cluster analysis on the questionnaire responses identified three clusters: "physiological tension" (didnot feel a sense of hunger or sleepiness), "loss of self-control" (felt strong fear so that they did not know
which was safer inside or outside), and "loss of situational awareness" (just wanted to escape from the sitewhile recognizing the possibility of death). The fact that there are many results observed in both thequantitative questionnaire survey and the qualitative analysis conducted in this study shows that the three
types of disorientation that occur on the day of a major earthquake can be generalized to a certain extent.

3.2 Basic attributes used in this study
Of the collected cases (n=250), the number of cases that occurred in subduction zone earthquakes were 1944
Showa Tonankai Earthquake, 35 cases (14.0%); 1946 Showa Nankai Earthquake, 41 cases (16.4%); and2011 Tohoku Earthquake, 45 cases (18.0%); while the numbers for the inland earthquakes were 1959
Mikawa Earthquake, 25 cases (10.0%); 1995 Hyogo Earthquake, 56 cases (22.4%); 2004 Niigata Earthquake,28 cases (11.2%); and 2016 Kumamoto Earthquake, 20 cases (8.0%). While collecting these cases, weensured equal representation from earthquakes other than the 1995 Hyogo Earthquake and the 2011 Tohoku
Earthquake, which occurred in relatively recent years and caused huge human and material damage.
Regarding gender, 125 victims were male (50%), 88 were female (35.2%), and 37 were unknown(14.8%). We estimated the participants’ gender based on their names. Unisex names were classified as"unknown." Regarding age, for the majority of the cases (148 cases, 59.2%) the victims’ ages were unknown,
while 15 victims (6.0%) were ≤9, 58 (23.2%) were 10–19, 8 (3.2%) were 20–29, 3 (1.2%) were 30–39, 4(1.6%) were 40–49, 2 (0.8%) were 50–59, and 12 (4.8%) were 60 or older. When the victims wereelementary, junior high, or high school students, their grades and ages are specified because their stories
were provided with information about their schools. Because adults tend not to specify their age, mostvictims with an "unknown" age are considered to be adults. The cases include 34 professional firefighters(13.6%) and 10 community fire unit personnel (4.0%). These victims are collectively referred to as "disaster
responders (44 cases, 17.6%)."

3.3 Trends in disorientation by attribute
To characterize the disorientation occurrence, trends in disorientation were identified by basic personal
attributes (gender, age, and whether they are a disaster responder) and the characteristics of earthquakes(inland or subduction-zone earthquake, and whether the earthquake occurred in wartime or peacetime). Table
1 shows the results for attributes with higher tendencies toward a certain type of disorientation. The
statistical significances were determined by the chi-square test based on cross-tabulation of the basic
attributes and types of disorientation.

5© The 17th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering - 7f-0002 -17th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, 17WCEE
Sendai, Japan - September 13th to 18th 2020

Table 1 – Attributes that shows a higher tendency to experience each type of disorientation
Sex

Age

Disaster
responder
or notPeacetime or
wartimesubduction

Loss ofself-control

Loss ofsituational awarenessThoughts about deathPhysiologic
al tension

Earthquake
type
zone

*

Loss of one or more
sensespeacetime*

peacetime**

Inability to exercise calm
judgment

peacetime*

Desperation

wartimeAnxiety
Feel like as if it would be
the end of the world

male

**

Lethargy

male**Unable to realize thesituation
Fear

male

disaster**

responder
disaster**
responder

disaster*
responder**

12 or younger*

otherssubduction*

peacetime

*

zone

*

inland***Abnormal physicalcondition*: p<.05, **: p<.01, blank: n.s.

3.3.1 Gender and whether the victim is a disaster responder
Males are more likely to experience three types of disorientation than females: "feel like it is the end of theworld" (male, 35.2% vs female 17.0%, X2(1)=8.5, p<.01), "lethargy" (male, 34.4% vs female 15.9%,
X2(1)=9.0, p<.01), and "unable to realize the situation" (male, 52.8% vs female 34.1%, X2(1)=7.3, p<.01).
Similarly, disaster responders are more likely to experience the following types of disorientation: "feel like itis the end of the world" (disaster responders, 43.2% vs others, 21.4%, X2(1)=9.2, p<.01), "lethargy" (disaster
responders, 52.3% vs others, 18.9%, X2(1)=21.6, p<.01), and "unable to realize the situation" (disaster
responders, 56.8% vs others, 39.8%, X2(1)=4.3, p<.05). On the other hand, non-disaster responders are more
likely to experience "fear" (disaster responders 36.4% vs others 59.7%, X2(1)=8.0, p<.01). The fact thatmales and disaster responders exhibit the same disorientation types may be partly because all disaster
responders were male in this study.
Males and disaster responders often perform work directly related to human lives such as rescue
activities in a community that drastically changed due to an earthquake. Such rescue activities often result inshock and stress and may be the origin of disorientation. A firefighter who performed rescue activities in the
1995 Hyogo Earthquake said, "after the earthquake, it took time to understand the hell in front of me. I
thought ‘I must be having a bad dream now’ many times. Before then, no matter what disaster I encountered,
I was proud of my job, rescuing, helping, and extinguishing fires with my colleagues. However, theearthquake completely changed my perspective. I lamented at my inability to respond to those who came to
me for help and felt fear against the menace of nature." [29] This interview indicates that the firefighter
experienced the disorientation of "unable to realize the situation" (cannot understand the tragic situation of
their community that drastically changed due to earthquake), "lethargy" (feeling that they cannot help thesituation with their abilities), and "feel like it is the end of the world" (feels like living in a horrible dream). It

6© The 17th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering - 7f-0002 -17th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, 17WCEE
Sendai, Japan - September 13th to 18th 2020should be noted that even in peacetime, disaster responders, who are regularly trained on disaster responses,
are likely to experience some type of disorientation, demonstrating that disaster responders should receive
enhanced stress management training.

3.3.2 Age
Next, we analyzed the cases by dividing into different age groups. Three quarters of children 12 years or
younger experienced "fear" (children 12 years or younger, 75.9% vs. 13 years or older, 52.9%, X2(1)=5.5,
p<.05). Intense fear due to a disaster may lead to traumatic experiences and cause symptoms such as PTSD
(post-traumatic stress disorder) and panic disorder. In particular, it should be noted that unstable
psychological conditions in children can directly lead to changes in behavior (e.g., not eating, sleeping, or
playing). If a child shows physical signs such as tremors and insomnia, prompt action by adults is necessary.
Children's anxiety can be mitigated when surrounding adults remain close to them and listen to their stories.
If the symptoms do not improve, consultation with a doctor or nurse is necessary to receive appropriate
treatment.
An analysis on the subcategories shows that children age 15 or younger are more likely to experience"got out the building during or immediately after earthquake shaking," which is a subcategory of"desperation" (children age of 15 or younger, 33.3% vs age of 16 or older, 15.9%, X2(1)=7.0, p<.05).
Similarly, disaster responders have a significantly lower tendency to experience "ran out of the building
during or immediately after earthquake shaking" (disaster responders, 4.5% vs others, 21.8%, X2(1)=7.1,
p<.01). One third of children under junior high age and one fifth of disaster responders ran out of thebuilding during or immediately after earthquake shaking instead of taking actions to protect their lives suchas getting under a desk or other solid structure. Such inappropriate actions are accompanied by increased
risks of severe injury or death (e.g., hit by collapsed concrete-block wall, roof covering materials, or utility
poles, falling objects due to earthquake shaking, and traffic accidents due to the rushed evacuation). To avoid
these risks, it is important to educate people on a defined decision-making process. Such a decision-making
process means having a preliminary action plan (a personal rule on actions to be taken), like "when XX
occurs, we do YYY," for each envisaged crisis situation. Specifically, a series of information-processing
steps are necessary starting with recognizing certain information, making a decision, and taking an action.
Educating people is important so that they can implement these information-processing steps as quickly as
possible. For an earthquake, learning the following decision-making process, "when one feels shaking causedby an earthquake, get under a table and protect one’s head" may be effective.

3.3.3 Earthquake type
Victims of subduction zone earthquakes are more likely to experience two types of disorientation: "thinking
about death" (subduction zone earthquakes, 19.0% vs inland earthquakes, 10.1%, X2(1)=4.0, p<.05) and"desperation" (subduction zone earthquakes, 42.1% vs inland earthquakes, 27.1%, X2(1)=6.2, p<.05). On theother hand, victims of inland earthquakes are more likely to experience "unable to realize the situation"(subduction zone earthquakes, 34.7%, vs inland earthquakes, 50.4%, X2(1)=6.3, p<.05).
Inland earthquakes have a shallow epicenter and cause strong shaking in a narrow area, resulting inenormous damage to people and property. These sudden and drastic changes in the environment make it
difficult for a person to understand what is happening and to understand that an earthquake occurs in a shorttime period, which may be a reason that many victims experience "unable to realize the situation." In manycases, such a delay in understanding the situation leads to belated actions to protect their lives. Hence, it isimportant to develop a disaster response plan, repeatedly conduct disaster response drills, and prepare abusiness continuity plan during non-disaster times. On the other hand, victims of subduction zone
earthquakes are more likely to experience "thinking about death" (accepting the possibility of death) and"desperation" (getting too desperate to care for themselves and others). Although the collected cases are
inherently "experiences of people who survived the disaster,” such survivors might experience disorientation

7© The 17th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering - 7f-0002 -17th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, 17WCEE
Sendai, Japan - September 13th to 18th 2020of being hit by earthquake shaking for a longer time than that of inland earthquakes as they are desperate toescape from the shaking or damage resulting from disasters such as earthquakes and tsunamis.

3.3.4 Whether the earthquake occurs in peacetime or unusual time such as wartime or immediately
after war
Next, we analyzed the cases by whether the earthquake occurred during (1) peacetime or (2) wartime or timeof confusion immediately after a war (hereinafter referred to as "wartime"). For earthquakes during
peacetime, the following four types of disorientation were more likely to occur: "anxiety" (peacetime, 23.5%
vs wartime, 11.9%; X2(1)=5.3, p<.05), "lethargy" (peacetime, 35.6% vs wartime, 8.9%; X2(1)=22.9, p<.01),"inability to exercise calm judgment" (peacetime, 49.0% vs wartime, 32.7%; X2(1)=6.6, p<.05) and "unable
to realize the situation" (peacetime, 48.3% vs wartime, 34.7%; X2(1)=5.0, p<.05). On the other hand, during
wartime, victims were more likely to experience "desperation” (peacetime, 28.2% vs wartime, 43.6%;
X2(1)=6.3, p<.05).
This difference may be due to the fact that victims during wartime have a sense of crisis due tocontinuous attack by an enemy country and the resulting unusual everyday life. A victim of the 1944
Tonankai Earthquake said, "in those days, air raid alerts were issued every day in the daytime and weevacuated from classrooms during a class daily. (...) Every time an air raid alert was issued, we evacuated. I
think those daily evacuation experiences were a great help for our disaster response in an earthquake.
Although I was a young child, I had a sense of crisis and was able to respond to an earthquake.” [24] The
report shows that a continuous sense of crisis and daily evacuation due to air raids help people develop thecapabilities to respond to earthquakes. For example, it may be beneficial to apply existing crisis management
schemes for more frequent hazards such as crimes, traffic accidents, and health management that occur at anindividual or society level, to disaster prevention and management.

4. Conclusion
This study analyzed cases of disorientation collected from past earthquake victims' stories to understand thegeneral characteristics of disorientation that occurs immediately after an earthquake. Disorientation cases areclassified into 3 clusters, 10 categories, and 44 subcategories. The three clusters ("loss of situationalawareness," "loss of self-control," and "physiological tension") are also observed in a randomly sampled
questionnaire survey of the 1995 Hyogo Earthquake victims.
We also analyzed the relationships between the categories and subcategories as well as the attributes
for each cluster. Males and disaster responders are more likely to experience three types of disorientation:"feel like it is the end of the world," "lethargy," and "unable to realize the situation" due to the rescue
activities in an unusual environment immediately after an earthquake. Elementary school aged or younger
children are likely to feel "fear," while junior high school aged or younger children are likely to "run out thebuilding during or immediately after earthquake shaking." Moreover, victims of inland earthquakes, whichcause intense shaking in a narrow area, are more likely to be "unable to realize the situation." On the other
hand, victims of subduction zone earthquakes, which cause prolonged shaking that requires countermeasuresagainst a tsunami, are more likely to "think about death" and experience "desperation." Victims during
peacetime are more likely to experience "anxiety," "lethargy," "inability to exercise calm judgment," and"unable to realize the situation" in contrast to victims during wartime, who have a continual sense of crisisand perform evacuations due to air raids on a daily basis.
Clarifying the entire picture of disorientation can not only help understand the characteristics ofpeople's psychological states and behaviors immediately after a disaster, which differ from those in nondisaster times, but also help determine countermeasures against such disorientation. To prepare for futuredisasters, it is important for people to understand that disorientation can occur easily. To overcome
disorientation, people should devise a disaster action plan by defining decision–making processes

8© The 17th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering - 7f-0002 -17th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, 17WCEE
Sendai, Japan - September 13th to 18th 2020

(recognizing, making decisions, and acting) for envisaged dangerous situations. Future efforts will include
developing education and training about disasters and devising disaster action plans.

5. Acknowledgements
This research is based on a funded research project "Establishment of a Disaster Prevention and Management
Educational Hub for Improving Disaster Prevention Literacy among a Wide Ranging Stakeholders”(Representative: Reo Kimura, University of Hyogo), which is supported by the SECOM Foundation for
Promotion of Science and Technology, and a consigned research project "Project on Comprehensive
Resilience Improvement in Tokyo Metropolitan Area: Building a Collaborative System for Data Utilizationthat Contributes to Improvement of Comprehensive Resilience Centering on the Tokyo Metropolitan Area"(Area Representative: Keiko Tamura, Niigata University) by the National Research Institute for Earth
Science and Disaster Resilience.

6. References[1] Y. Nakajima et al, editors. Psychology Dictionary. Yuhikaku Publishing, 1999. (in Japanese)[2] I. Kitahara, R. Matsuura, and R. Kimura, editors. Dictionary of Disaster History in Japan. Yoshikawakōbunkan
Publishing, 2012. (in Japanese)[3] M. Kato. Psychiatric Dictionary. Kobun Do Publishing, 2011. (in Japanese)[4] R.Kimura. Psychology for Disaster and Disaster Management: the Forefront of Disaster Management Education
Apply the Lessons Learned to the Future. Kitaki Shuppan Publishing, 2015. (in Japanese)[5] Kobe City Fire Bureau. Record of Firefighting Activities During the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake. Tokyo Horei
Publishing, 1995. (in Japanese)[6] Kansai Electric Power. Record of Restoration after Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake. Kyoei Shogyo, 1995. (inJapanese)[7] Nishinomiya City Fire Bureau and Nishimiya City Voluntary Fire Unit. Records of Nishinomiya City Fire
Department's Activities. 1996. (in Japanese)[8] Fire and Disaster Prevention Unit, General Affairs Department of Aichi Prefecture. Collection of Earthquake
Experiences - Great Kanto Earthquake, Tonankai Earthquake, and Mikawa Earthquake. Tokai Print, 1978. (inJapanese)[9] Earthquake Unit, Management Section, General Affairs Department of Nishio City. Collection of Experiences ofTonankai Earthquake and Mikawa Earthquake. Isshinsha Printing, 1975. (in Japanese)[10] "Fire and Disaster Management Online Museum: Disaster Stories told by Narrators.”Museum of Fire and Disaster.
http://www.bousaihaku.com/cgi-bin/hp/index6.cgi?ac1=T612&Page=hpd6_tmp. January 30, 2018. (in Japanese)[11] “Takizawa Family's Experience of the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake.” Takizawa-ke no Bosai-kan,
http://takizawa.gr.jp/bosai/hanshin.html. January 30,2018. (in Japanese)[12] “ Handing Down the Lessons: Rikuzentakata's High School Girl's Earthquake Experience Story." Boyali-kukkiri
Jijineta to Bangumi Kakiokoshi,
http://kukkuri.jpn.org/boyakikukkuri2/log/eid1066.html. January 30, 2018. (in Japanese)[13] "About the Great East Japan Earthquake - Experiences of Staff Members Working at a Branch of Nijinoko Nursery
School Staff." A Letter from Principal on Daily Activities of Children in Nijinoko Nursery School & After-SchoolCare,
http://nijinoko.com/maita/01/20150707.html. January 30,2018. (in Japanese)[14] "Experiences of 3.11.” Minami-Sanriku Town Reconstruction Support Project.
https://united-earth.jp/minamisanriku/311_1/. January 30, 2018.

9© The 17th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering - 7f-0002 -17th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, 17WCEE
Sendai, Japan - September 13th to 18th 2020[15] T. Kikuta. Recollection: Collection of Experiences of the Great East Japan Earthquake.
http://ykkikaku.com/post-8/. January 30,2018. (in Japanese)[16] "Experience of the Great East Japan Earthquake." Joyclear Rakkun-Tsushin.
http://mayutei.cocolog-nifty.com/jinann/2011/03/post-a980.html. January 30,2018. (in Japanese)[17] “Experiences of the Great East Japan Earthquake.” Ishinomaki Rent-A-Car.
http://blog.livedoor.jp/turbo830/archives/17127840.html. January 30,2018. (in Japanese)[18] Yuichiro Iwashita. “Experiences of Kumamoto Earthquake.” Yuichi-log.
https://yuichirog.com/kumamotojishin-experiences/. January 30, 2018 (in Japanese).
[19] “Experiences of Showa Nankai Earthquake." Tokushima Regional Meteorological Observatory. http://www.jmanet.go.jp/tokushima/nankai/taiken.htm, January 30, 2018.
[20] "Our Experiences." Mothers' Experiences of Kumamoto Earthquake.
https://www.mamakuma.jp/stories/. January 30,2018. (in Japanese)[21] "Experience of the Great East Japan Earthquake Tsunami Your Own Experiences." Survey on Tsunami occurredby the Great East Japan Earthquake.
https://weathernews.jp/ip/info/tsunami2011_research/summary_04.html. January 30, 2018. (in Japanese)[22] "Experience of the Kumamoto earthquake: Main Shock Following Foreshock." Fukumayotube.
http://ramendaisukida.blogspot.jp/2016/05/blog-post.html. January 30, 2018.
[23]"Experience of Kumamoto Earthquake." Kyoto University Alumni Associations (Faculty of Economics).
http://www.econ.kyoto-u.ac.jp/~dosokai/jishintaikenki.html#hpb-container. January 30, 2018.
[24] "Victims' Notes on the Showa Tonankai Earthquake." Mie Prefectural Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Archives.
http://midori.midimic.jp/category/saigaisyuki/tounakai-doc. January 30, 2018. (in Japanese)[25] "Experiences of the Showa Nankai Earthquake." Tokushima City.
https://www.city.tokushima.tokushima.jp/anzen/shoubo_bousai/saigai/nankai_jishin/index.html. January 30, 2018.
(in Japanese)[26] "Experience of a Huge Earthquake." Fire Insurance Comparison Ranking.
https://火災保険比較ランキング.net/jishin/pre/. January 30, 2018. (in Japanese)[27] M. Nishioka. "Reports of Experiences of Earthquakes (<Special Feature 1> Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake Part
2 Victims' Stories)."
http://www.lib.kobe-u.ac.jp/repository/81007402.pdf. January 30, 2018.
[28] "Detailed records of the Mikawa Earthquake that occurred during wartime: Remember Mikawa Earthquake."
Gamagori City Board of Education's Audiovisual. Library,
http://trpla.nrc.gamagori.aichi.jp/kyoiku/mikawajisin/wasureji-htm/index.htm. January 30, 2018. (in Japanese)[29] "Notes of Firefighters: the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake - 5:46 am on January 17, 1995. What came to a
firefighter's mind?" Kobe City.
http://www.city.kobe.lg.jp/safety/fire/hanshinawaji/syuki.html. January 30, 2018. (in Japanese)[30] Nagaoka National College of Technology. Experiences of Niigata Prefecture Chuetsu Earthquake.
http://www.nagaoka-ct.ac.jp/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/e696b0e6bd9fe79c8ce4b8ade8b68ae59cb0e99c87e4e9
a893e8a898e38080e995b7e5b2a1e9ab98e5b082.pdf. January 30, 2018. (in Japanese)[31] "Looking at the Niigata Prefecture Chuetsu Earthquake." Niigata Chapter of Japanese Red Cross Society.
http://niigata.jrc.or.jp/?page_id=782. January 30, 2018. (in Japanese)

10© The 17th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering - 7f-0002 -17th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, 17WCEE
Sendai, Japan - September 13th to 18th 2020[32] "October 23, 2004 Niigata Prefecture Chuetsu Earthquake - Our Experiences - That Day, That Time." Ojiya City
Volunteer Center. http://kataritsugumono.jp/pdfbooks/43.pdf. January 30, 2018. (in Japanese)[33] “The Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake - Records of Chuo Ward.” Chuo Ward Office, Kobe City.
http://www.lib.kobe-u.ac.jp/directory/eqb/book/4-309/index.html. January 30, 2018.
[34] Amagasaki City Fire Bureau and Amagasaki Voluntary City Fire Fighting Unit. “Activities of Amagasaki Fire
Service (dial 119) in the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake.”
http://www.lib.kobe-u.ac.jp/directory/eqb/book/5-204/index.html. January 30, 2018.
[35] Takaraduka Fire Prevention Association. “Record of Firefighting Activities in the Great Hanshin-Awaji
Earthquake”
http://www.lib.kobe-u.ac.jp/directory/eqb/book/5-264/index.html. January 30, 2018.
[36] "Handing Down the Culture of Disaster Preparedness (Experiences of Tonankai and Nankai Earthquake)." Bosai
Wakayama.
http://www.pref.wakayama.lg.jp/prefg/011400/bousai/taikendan/index.html. January 30, 2018[37] Narrators: Chuetsu Earthquake Database
http://kataritsugumono.jp/index.php?app=article&mode=list&list_id=142597&act_type=page_change&page=2.
January 30, 2018. (in Japanese)[38] H. Hayashi, editor. Determinants of the changes of residence and life reconstruction among the 1995 Kobe
earthquake victims. Disaster Prevention Research Institute of Kyoto University, 2000. (in Japanese)

11© The 17th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering - 7f-0002 -