USMCA 2014

ICUS Report 2014-05 (serial No. 78)
the 13th International Symposium
on New Technologies
for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia
November 3-5, 2014
atSedona hotel, Yangon, Myanmar&
Yangon Technological University
Edited by
Eiko Yoshimoto
Organized by

Yangon Technological University (YTU)
Yangon, Myanmar&
International Center for Urban Safety Engineering,
Institute of Industrial Science, The University of Tokyo, Japan
Sponsored by

Myanmar Engineering Society (MES), Myanmar

Myanmar Engineering Society (MES), Myanmar
The Foundation for the Promotion of Industrial Science, Japan
Nippon Koei, Co., Ltd.
&
Suntac Technologies Co., Ltd.

Cooperated by
Embassy of Japan in Myanmar
Japan Society of Civil Engineers (JSCE), Japan&
Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA),
Myanmar Office

SYMPOSIUM ORGANISERSCHAIRMAN and Co-CHAIRMAN

Khin Than Yu, Pro-Rector, Yangon Technological University (YTU), Myanmar
Kimiro Meguro, Director of ICUS, IIS, University of Tokyo (UTokyo), JapanSTEERING COMMITTEE

Aye Myint, Rector, YTU, Myanmar
Myint Thein, Pro-Rector, Mandalay Technological University (MTU), Myanmar
Win Khaing, President, Myanmar Engineering Society, Myanmar
Mehedi Ahmed Ansary, Bangladesh University of Engineering Technology (BUET), Bangladesh
Sudhir Misra, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, India
Taketo Uomoto, Chief Executive, Public Works Research Institute, Japan
Yoshiaki Nakano, Director General, IIS, UTokyo, Japan
Tsuneo Katayama, President, Real-time Earthquake Information Consortium, Japan
Wei Cheng Fan, Director, Center for Public Safety Research (CPSR), Tsinghua University, China
Worsak Kanok-Nukulchai, Rector, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand
Yoshifumi Yasuoka, Auditor, Research Organization of Information and System, JapanTECHNICAL COMMITTEE

Khin Than Yu, YTU, Myanmar
Nyan Myint Kyaw, YTU, Myanmar
Win Win Zin, YTU, Myanmar
Toe Toe Win, YTU, Myanmar
Myint Myint Khaing, MTU, Myanmar
Haruo Sawada, ICUS, IIS, UTokyo, Japan
Kiang Hwee Tan, National University of Singapore, Singapore
Pradeep Kumar Ramancharla, International Institute of Information Technology Hyderabad, India
Kimiro Meguro, ICUS, IIS, UTokyo, Japan
Mafizur Rahman, BUET, Bangladesh
Pennung Warnitchai, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand
Somnuk Tangtermsirikul, Thammasat University, Thailand
Srikantha Herath, United Nations University, Japan
Taikan Oki, ICUS, IIS, UTokyo, Japan
Reiko Kuwano, ICUS, IIS, UTokyo, JapanORGANIZING COMMITTEE

Htay Win, Dept. of Civil Engineering, YTU, Myanmar
Cho Thin Kyi, Dept. of Civil Engineering, YTU, Myanmar
Kyaw Htun, Dept. of Engineering Geology, YTU, Myanmar
Nyein Thandar Ko, Dept. of Civil Engineering, YTU, Myanmar
Akiyuki Kawasaki, ICUS, IIS, UTokyo, Japan
Kohei Nagai, ICUS, IIS, UTokyo, JapanSYMPOSIUM OFFICE

Yangon Technological University (YTU) &International Center for Urban Safety Engineering (ICUS), Institute of Industrial Science (IIS),The University of Tokyo (UTokyo)
Email: usmca@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp

Contacts:

Eiko Yoshimoto, ICUS, IIS, the University of Tokyo, Japan
Nyein Thada Ko, Yangon Technological University, Myanmar

PREFACE
On behalf of the Organizing Institutes of the 13th International Symposium on
New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cites in Asia (USMCA2014), I express our
sincere welcome to all symposium participants and distinguished keynote and plenary
speakers.
In the Asia and Pacific-Rim regions, rapid economic development andpopulation growth and concentration is fast accelerating the pace of urbanization.
Unfortunately, the rapid expansion of infrastructure for urbanization is not adequatelybalanced with appropriate measures for their maintenance and management; thus,
urban disasters have resulted. During the last few years, there were many big disasters
in Asia and the Pacific-Rim regions, such as killer cyclones Sidr in Bangladesh (2007),
Nargis in Myanmar (2008), and Aila in Bangladesh and India (2009), and Typhoon
Ketsna (2009) and Yolanda (2013) in Philippines, flooding in Mongolia (2009),
Pakistan (2010), Myanmar (2011) and Thailand (2011), the devastating earthquakes in
Sichuan, China (2008), Sumatra (2009), Samoa (2009) and Tohoku, Japan (2011), andheat waves in Russia and Japan (2010). The number of fatalities and missing reported
due to these disasters was well over 200,000. These unprecedented events show us theimportance of urban safety.
The International Center for Urban Safety Engineering (ICUS) was establishedin 2001 at the Institute of Industrial Science (IIS), the University of Tokyo (UTokyo),with the objectives of carrying out advanced research on urban safety and implementing
them towards the realization of safer cities, especially in Asia and the Pacific-Rim
region, in the 21st century. For over a decade, ICUS has been actively tackling
advanced researches, as well as the enhancement of networking, information collection
and dissemination in order to fully realize ICUS’s vision. As a part of ICUS activities,
ICUS has been annually co-organizing USMCA since 2002 with its partners in the
Asian region. In 2014, ICUS jointly organized the 13th USMCA in Yangon, Myanmar,with Yangon Technological University (YTU) to share their expertise, knowledge andexperience in tackling the critical issues for safer cities in Asia and the Pacific-Rim
region. It also provided an environment to create and reinforce collaborative networks
among experts in the fields relevant to urban safety.
The symposium focused on disaster reduction, response and recovery; risk
assessment; prediction and early-warning; decision-make support technologies;
planning and development of urban infrastructure systems; life-cycle management of
infrastructure systems; climate change mitigation and adaptation; and the applicationof geospatial technologies.
During the two-day symposium, 91 papers in eight parallel sessions were
presented with seven keynote speeches and five plenary speeches. We also had research
exhibitions in 13 booths by 11 organizations on the first day. The total number ofparticipants was 190 from 10 countries, such as Myanmar, Japan, India, Vietnam,
China, Mongolia, Sri Lanka, Singapore, Nepal, and Switzerland.
I would like to thank all the members of the Steering, Technical and Organizing
Committees as well as the Symposium Secretariat for their hard work, time and effort inputting this symposium together. I would also like to thank all our sponsors for theirgenerous support and contribution. Thanks are also due to those who have contributed
towards making this symposium successful.
Kimiro MEGURO
Director of ICUS, IIS, UTokyo(Co-Chairman of Organizing Committee, USMCA2014)

Copyright and Reprint Permission:
Photocopy of an article is permitted for authors and other researchers for their own reading
and research. Abstracting and indexing of the papers are permitted but acknowledgement
should be given to “The 13th International Symposium on New Technologies for Urban Safety ofMega Cities in Asia (USMCA2014)” and the authors of each specific paper. Written permission
should be obtained from the publishers prior to any other type of reproduction.
Please contact:

International Center for Urban Safety Engineering (ICUS),
Institute of Industrial Science (IIS),The University of Tokyo (UTokyo), Japan
Tel: +81-3-5452-6472
Fax: +81-3-5452-6476

2014 Program Overview
Time
17:30-19:30
21:00-22:00

Sunday, 2 November
Welcome dinner at Sky Bistro
Registration at Sedona HotelTime
07:45-08:30

Monday, 3 November
Registration (Sedona Hotel)
Opening address (Mindon Room)

08:30-09:05

09:05-09:35

WELCOME Speech (H.E. KoKo Oo, Ministry of Science and Technology)
WELCOME Speech (Prof. Kimiro Meguro - Director of ICUS, The University of Tokyo)
Opening Remark (H.E. Mr. Tateshi Higuchi, Ambassador of Japan to Myanmar)
Opening Remarks (Rector of Yangon Technological University))
Moderators: Mr. Akira Kodaka / Dr. Kaung Kyaw

Prof. Kimiro Meguro
Prof. Khin Than Yu

INTRODUCTION OF SATREPS

Development of a comprehensive disaster resilience and collaboration platform in Myanmar as a
SATREPS (Science and Technology Research Partnership for Sustainable Development) Project
Moderators: Mr. Akira Kodaka / Dr. Kaung Kyaw

09:35-10:15

Group photo – Coffee break & Exhibitions
Keynote and Plenary Speech (Mindon room)

10:15-10:45
10:45-11:15

Dr. Kyaw Latt Development Concepts of Yangon City and Major Challenges
Prof. Hironori Kato What are critical issues of urban transportation in Yangon,

11:15-11:45

Mr. Koji Yamada From the British Rangoon to a Yangon Today and a flourishing city

11:45-12:00
12:00-12:15
12:15-12:30
12:30-12:45

Myanmar?

of Yangon in 21st Century
Mr. MasahikoTanaka Myanmar and JICA
Mr. Suguru Ishiguro Introduction of an international cooperation program of Japanand developing countries
Prof. Taikan Oki Lessons learnt from IMPAC-T, the First Flagship Project of
SATREPS
Prof. Haruo Sawada "Carbon Dynamics of Amazon Forest": Changes of approachbrought the outcomes
Moderators: Mr. Akira Kodaka / Dr. Kaung Kyaw

12:45-13:45

Lunch at Sedona

Room A
13:45-15:35

15:35-16:00

16:00-17:30

18:30-20:00

Session 1：
Infrastructure Management 1
Session Chairs:
Dr. Nagai
Dr. Nyan Myint Kyaw

Room B
Session 2 :Environmental Informatics & Urban flood:
Addressing Emerging Risks

Session Chairs: `Prof. Oki Daw Cho Cho Thin Kyi

Tea-break at Exhibition zone
Session 3：
Session 4：
Infrastructure Management 2
Urban Safety & Disaster Mitigation 1
Session Chairs:
Prof. Kuwano
Dr.Toe Toe Win

Session Chairs:
Dr. Numada
Dr. Theingi Shwe

Symposium dinner at Sedona HotelTuesday, 4 NovemberTime

09:20-11:00

Conference Room

1/2-5

Session 5：
Urban Safety & Disaster Mitigation 2
Session Chairs:
Dr. Kato (T)Dr.Toe Toe Win

Session 6
Infrastructure Management 3

Session Chairs:
Dr. Kawasaki
U Htay Win

Tea-break at session area

11:00-11:30
1/2-5

11:30-13:10

Conference Room

Session 7 :Urban safety & Disaster Mitigation &Environmental Informatics

Session Chairs:
Prof. Tan
Dr. Win WinZin

Session 8：
Infrastructure Management 4
Session Chairs:
Dr. Nagai
Dr. Nyan Myint Kyaw

Lunch at YTU

13:10-14:30

YTU Assembly hall
Keynote Speech (***)

14:30-15:00
15:00-15:30

Prof. Khin Ni Ni Thein Green Infrastructures: The Need of urban safety
Mr. Tetsuro Ito A report of evaluation on improvement of Japanese government

15:30-16:00

U Tin Myint Experience of Building Yangon City Fire Management System with GIS

16:00-16:30

Prof. Taketo Uomoto Lessons we learn from unexpected natural hazards

crisis management system on the Great East Japan Earthquake
and GPS technologies"

Moderator: Mr. Akira Kodaka

Closing ceremony (Assembly Hall)
Young award ceremony
Announcement of USMCA2015
YTU’s closing speech
ICUS’s closing speech

16:30-17:00

Moderator: Mr. Akira Kodaka / Dr. Kaung Kwaw

18:00-

Time
08:00-18:00

Farewell Party at Western Park by bus

Excursion by bus

Wednesday, 5 November

Contents
Keynote & Plenary Session

page

What are critical issues of urban transportation in Yangon, Myanmar?
Hironori KATO

1

The evaluation on improvement of Japanese government crisis management systemon the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake disaster
Tetsuro ITO

9Lessons we learn from unexpected hazards
Taketo UOMOTOIntroduction of an international cooperation program of Japanand Developing Countries
Suguru ISHIGURO

17

29

Oral Sessions
TECHNICAL PROGRAMME –DAY1
PARALLEL SESSION 1: Infrastructure Management
Initiative on quality management system (QMS) for Myanmar construction company
Aye Mya CHO

31

Actual condition and trend of cavity occurrence under Japanese roads in recent years
Ryoko SERA, Yutaka KOIKE, Yasushi HIRONAKA Haruto NAKAMURA
and Reiko KUWANO

39

Subsurface cavity beneath a buried sewer pipe supported by piles
Reiko KUWANO, Jiro KUWANO and Yikiko SAITO

49

Prevention of lateral movement and reinforcement of substructures on soft ground
Yukitake SHIOI

59

Optimal maintenance strategies based on BMS of a large urban expressway network
in JapanYasuhito SAKAI

69

Case examples of surveys over architectural buildings and civil engineering structuresby infrared thermography method
Noboru SATO

79

The current repair, reinforcement and seismic retrofit works of bridge for effective
utilization of urban infrastructure
Hiroshi DOBASHI

87

PARALLEL SESSION 2: Environmental Informatics
A mathematical model for electric vehicle movement with respect to multiple
charging-stops
Yudai HONMA

97

Travel demand forecasting for sustainable transport planning of Mandalay City
Khaing Zar THWIN and Kay Thwe TUN

103

Monitoring of land use/land cover changes in Mandalay City
Zin Mar LWIN, Myint Myint KHAING and Kyaw Zaya HTUN

105

Assessment of sedimentation and soil erosion effect on Inle Lakein mountainous region
Kyaw Zaya HTUN and Myint Myint KHAING

107

Mapping flood inundation in the Bago River Basin, Myanmar
Aung Myo KHAING, Akiyuki KAWASAKI and Win Win ZIN

109

Flood damage estimation sensitivity to spatial scale
Srikantha HERATH and Akinola KOMOLAFE

111

Numerical simulation of environmental disasters in the waterfront area
under the impact of extreme events
Bin HE, Kyoji SASSA, Yi WANG and Srikantha HERATH

127

Development of flood inundation map for the Bago River Basin
Shelly WIN, Win Win ZIN, Akiyuki KAWASAKI and Tin MAUNG

129

Flood process and situation analysis in Myanmar for flood disaster preparation
Wang YI, Bin HE, and Srikantha HERATH

137

PARALLEL SESSION 3: Infrastructure Management 2
Influence of member shape on the relationship between surface defects and chloride
permeability of surface concrete
Katsuya MITA and Yoshitaka KATO
Application of steel fiber reinforced concrete to reduce crack width of structures
Hoang Giang NGUYEN and Trung Hieu NGUYEN
Two-dimensional investigation on chloride ion penetration into cementitious material
under freeze-thaw environment
Katsufumi HASHIMOTO, Hiroshi YOKOTA and Tomoyuki TANIGUCHI

139
149

159

Station design guidelines of Tokyo Metro for renovation
Masaru KUWANA, Kazuhisa KIDO, Naotsugu KOGA, Yoshihiko MUTOU,
Keiji OOISHI and Shinji KONISHI

165

Development of asset management system -A case study tube wells of IIT Kanpur
Khushboo GUPTA, Onkar DIKSHIT and Sudhir MISRA

177

Shear failure behavior of high strength concrete beams with different shrinkage
and strength development histories
Koji MATSUMOTO, Keisuke OSAKABE and Junichiro NIWA

185

Exposure test results for underground structures damaged by ASR
Tetsuya KOHNO, Toshiaki NAKAZAWA and Shoichi NAKATANI

193

Punching shear of RC elements with recycled glass as fine aggregates
Kiang Hwee TAN

199

PARALLEL SESSION 4: Urban Safety & Disaster Mitigation
History of the network plan and construction of Tokyo Metro
Hiroaki HASHIGUCHI and Shinsuke SHIRAKO
The transportation condition improvement to hospitals in Mandalay
under seismic risks
Myint Myint KHAING, Hla Myo AUNG, Kyaw Zaya HTUN, Zin Mar LWIN
and Takeshi KOIKE
Survey on the reach of flood evacuation information- A case study in Nagoya City, Japan
Miho OHARA and Hisaya SAWANO
People with disabilities (PWD) and their functional needs during
the Great East Japan Earthquake Disasters:
The results from 2013 Sendai grass-root assessment workshop of PWDs
Shigeo TATSUKI
International tourists as a vulnerable population during disaster events in Japan
Michael HENRY and Akiyuki KAWASAKI

209

217

227

235
243

Overview of recovery and impact of the fire accident
on the metropolitan expressway
Shuichi YAMAGUCHI253

Ten-year post-tsunami living conditions in southwestern coastal area
resettlements of Sri Lanka after 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami
Osamu MURAO

263

Expended energy based damage assessment of RC bare frame using nonlinear
pushover analysis
Anthugari VIMALA and Ramancharla Pradeep Kumar

269

Analysis on disaster information dissemination process in a rural mountainous area,
northeast Thailand -Comparison with heavy rain disaster in a rural mountainous area,
Japan281
Shinya KONDO Akiyuki KAWASAKI, Miho OHARA, Akira KODAKA,
Adisorn SANTHARARUK, and Kazuyoshi OTATECHNICAL PROGRAMME – DAY 2
PARALLEL SESSION 5: Urban Safety & Disaster Mitigation
Time delays causes in construction projects in Hanoi, Vietnam:
Contractors' perspectives
Quoc Toan NGUYEN, Thi Hoai An LE and Bao Ngoc NGUYEN

291

Investigation on tendering and contracting practices of Myanmar
building construction
Khin Su Su WAI and Aye Mya CHO

301

Development of mobile education system for supporting building damage
assessment during large-scale earthquake disaster
Makoto FUJIU, Miho OHARA, Shoichiro NAKAMURA and Jyunichi TAKAYAMA

311

Strengthening and repairing of 5-storey RC ductile detailed structurewith open ground storey
Swajit Singh GOUD and Pradeep Kumar RAMANCHARLA

319

Effect of soft storey in a structure present in higher seismic zone areas
Neelima V.S. PATNALA and Pradeep Kumar RAMANCHARLA
Experimental study on seismic retrofitting of masonry wall with special fiber
reinforced paintKenjiro YAMAMOTO, Muneyoshi NUMADA and Kimiro MEGURO

327

337

Analysis of evacuation behavior from complex disaster based on stated preference data
- Case study on Adachi-ku Senju district in Tokyo
345
Kazuyuki TAKADA, Makoto FUJIU and Takahiro KONNO
Issues and analysis of the Post-Yolanda shelter recovery process
and role of international agencies
Tomoko MATSUSHITA
Performance evaluation of truss bridge under seismic loads
Nandar LWIN

351
361

Comparison of estimators of Gumbel Distribution for modelling maximum
wind speed data
May Ei Nandar SOE and Daw Aye Aye THANT

363

PARALLEL SESSION 6: Infrastructure Management
Seismic behavior of traditional timber frames with through columnsof townhouses in Japan
Hiromi SATO, Mikio KOSHIHARA and Tatsuya MIYAKEWind effect on structural responses of long-span suspension bridge
Ni Ni Moe KYAW and Kyaw Lin HTAT
Investigation on the wind effects of long-span cable - stayed bridgewith H-shaped tower
Aye Nyein THU and San Yu KHAING

373
383

395

A statistical study for bi-directional seismic interaction effect in isolated bridges
Ji DANG, Yuki EBISAWA and Akira IGARASHI

407

A solution for stakeholder management in Vietnamese construction projects
Quan Ahn PHUNG

417

Evaluation of resistance of GRS coastal dikes against over-flowing tsunami current
by model tests
Yudai AOYAGI, Kimihiro FUJII, Shouhei KAWABE, Yoshiaki KIKUCHI,
Kenji WATANABE, Masatoshi IIJIMA and Fumio TATSUOKA
A study on applicability of dewatering method as a countermeasure for liquefaction
Yuki HORIUCHI, Toru SEKIGUCHI and Shoichi NAKAI
Evaluation of seismic performance for typical reinforced concrete buildings
in downtown area of Yangon City
Nwe Ni MYINT
Study of atmospheric corrosion of steels in Yangon, urban location
Yu Yu Kyi WIN

425

435

443
453

PARALLEL SESSION 7:
Urban safety & Disaster Mitigation & Environmental Informatics
Estimation of runoff potential in Chindwin River basinusing remote sensing and GIS
Kyu Kyu THIN and Win Win ZIN

461

Assessment of environmental flows requirment for the Upper Ayeyawaddy
RiverBasin
Tin Mar LWIN , Khin Ni Ni THEIN, Win Win ZIN and Cho Cho Thin KYI

471

Forecasting flash flood over Daungnay ungagged watershed using GIS techniquesand HEC-HMS model
Yin Yin HTWE and Aye Aye THANT

481

Climate change effects in central dry zone, Myanmar
Aye Myint KHAING and Win Win ZIN

483

Solid waste management in urban construction projects in Vietnam
Quan Toac NGUYEN, Mai Toac NGUYEN and Quan Ahn PHUNG

493

Introduction of Dye-sensitized solar cells and its application
Kazuteru NOMURA and Anders HAGFELDT501

The integrated modelling approach for land-use change projection,
Case-study in Dak Lak, Vietnam
Anh Nguyet DANG and Akiyuki KAWASAKI503

New mathematical model for maximizing profit of new low-cost carrier
considering hub-spoke system
Ryosuke YABE and Yudai HONMA

517

Investigating socio-economic impacts of flood on the people affected by poverty:
Case study in Bago, Myanmar
Htoo Htoo SHWE and Akiyuki KAWASAKI

525

Role of news media from experiences of the 2011 Great East Japan earthquake
Muneyoshi NUMADA and Kimiro MEGURO
Effect of text message of mobile phone for disaster information dissemination
to rural moutainous area in Thailand
Akira KODAKA, Akiyuki KAWASAKI, Miho OHARA and Shinya KONDO

535

545

PARALLEL SESSION 8: Infrastructure Management
Repair prioritization of reinforced concrete superstructures in mooring facilities
Takuho TANI, Hiroshi YOKOTA, Katsufumi HASHIMOTO and Kohichi FURUYA
An investigation on the influence of some parameters in simulation of chloride ion
penetration in concrete based on truss network model
Punyawut JIRADILOK and Kohei NAGAI

553

563

The current practice of construction material reuse in Vietnam
Quan Toac NGUYEN and Ngoc B. NGUYEN

573

Effect of initial water content in mortar on water and moisture absorption of mortar
Toshiya CHIBA and Yoshitaka KATO

581

Influence of each seismic element on the dynamic behavior of traditionaltimber frames
Iuko TSUWA and Mikio KOSHIHARA

591

Effect of heterogeneity on the corrosion of rebar embedded in concrete
Nozomu SOMEYA and Yoshitaka KATO

601

Influence of magnesium ion and sulfate ion on Chloride Permeability of Concrete
Keigo HORI and Yoshitaka KATO

609

Progressive collapse analysis of reinforced concrete frame buildings
Su Wint YEE

619

Experimental study on ordinary portland cement concrete replacement
by using pozzolanic materials
Zar Phyu TUN

629

Photograph

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ICUS
ReportSymposium Banner

Reception desk at Sedona hotel

At Sedona hotel on 3rd November

Booths at Sedona Hotel

Public Works Research Institute, Japan

Japan Expressway International Company LTD., Japan

Eight Japan Engineering Consultants Inc., Japan

Metropolitan Expressway Company LTD., JapanThe Society for Thermographic Inspection of Structures, Japan

RC77 Research Committee for creation and promotion of new business for disaster reduction, Japan

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asiai i

November
November2014,
2014,Yangon,
Yangon,Myanmar
MyanmarJapan Society of Civil Engineering, Jaspan

Tokyo Metro Co., Ltd., Japan

Yangon Technological University, Maynmar

Inauguration Ceremony

Exhibition area

International Center for Urban Safety Engineering,
IIS, UTokyo, Japan

Welcome speech from the Ministry of Science and Technology, Mr. H.E. Dr. Ko Ko Oo

Mr. H.E. Dr. Ko Ko Oo
Ministry of Science and Technology, Myanmar

iiii

Participants of opening address

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Prof. Khin Than Yu,
Pro-Rector, YTU, Myanmar

H.E. Mr. Tateshi Higuchi,
Ambassador of Japan to Myanmar

Group photo of VIPs
Prof. Kimiro Meguro,
Director, ICUS, IIS, Utokyo, Japan

Group photo at Sedona hotel on 3rd November

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Myanmar

Key Note and Plenary Speakers

Prof. Hironori Kato,The University of Tokyo, Japan

Mr. Koji Yamada,
Chief Planner,
Nippon Koei Co., LTD., Japan

Mr. Masahiko Tanaka,
Chief Representative,
Japan International Cooperation Agency,
Myanmar Office, Myanmar

Mr. Suguru Ishiguro,
Manager,Japan Science and Technology Agency, Japan

Prof. Taikan Oki,
ICUS, IIS, UTokyo, Japan

Dr. Haruo Sawada,
Visiting research Professor, Geoinformatics Center,
School of Engineering and Technology,
Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand

Prof. Kiang Hwee Tan,
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
National University of Singapore, Singapore

Visiting Prof. Tetsuro Ito,
ICUS, IIS, UTokyo, Japan

Mr. Tin Myint,
M.D., Suntac Technologies, Co., Ltd. Myanmar

Dr. Kyaw Latt,
Advisor,
Yangon City Development Committee, Myanmar

iv
iv

Prof. Khin Ni Ni Thein,
Advisor,National Water Resources Development
Committee, Myanmar

Dr. Taketo Uomoto,Chief Executive,
Public Works Research Institute, Japan

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ICUSReport
ReportSecond day at Yangon Technological University (YTU)

Participants at 1/2-5 room

Symposium venue 2nd day (YTU main building)Participants at Conference room

Closing ceremony

Participants at Assembly Hall

Prof. Aye Myint,
Rector, YTU, Myanmar

Dr. Amod Mani Dxit,
Executive Director,
National Society for Earthquake Technology,
Nepal

Young-Researcher- Award recipients with Prof. Kuwano (left) and Prof. Meguro (right)
Awardees: Ms. Iuko Tsuwa, Mr. Yudai Aoyagi, Mr. Ryosuke Yabe, Ms. Su Wint Yee
and Ms. Tin Mar Lwin (from the second left to right)

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November
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Yangon,Myanmar
MyanmarThank you presentation to YTU students

Group photo at YTU Assembly hall on 4th November

Press coverage byInterviews with Myanmar International TV channel

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Lunch, break, banquet and farewell party

Lunch time at Sedona Hotel

Break time at Sedona Hotel

Lunch time at YTU

Banquet party at Sedona hotel on 3rd November

Farewell party at Western Park on 4th November

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November
November2014,
2014,Yangon,
Yangon,Myanmar
MyanmarWhole day tour Visit to Thilawa Port, Bogyoke Market, Yangon Heritage and Shwedagon Pagoda

Around Thilawa Port
Lecture from Mr. Takashi Yanai,
President and CEO of Myanmar Japan Thilawa Development Ltd.

Around Thilawa Port

Lecture from Myanmar International Terminal Thilawa staff

Group photo at Myanmar International Terminal Thilawa (MITT)

Sightseeing in Yangon City

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Old port at Yangon City

Shwedagon Pagoda

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OthersMyanmar UT Alumni and USMCA2014 Welcome party at Sky Bistro on 2nd November

ICUS staff members

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Keynote& Plenary Session

What are critical issues of urban transportationin Yangon, Myanmar?
Hironori KATO1
Dr. Eng, Department of Civil Engineering,
Graduate School of Engineering The University of Tokyo,
Japankato@civil.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp
1

ABSTRACTThis paper reported the latest traffic conditions and current problems in urban
transportation of Yangon, Myanmar. The problems identified from the large-scale
surveys including the Person Trip Survey are traffic congestion, long travel time, poor
public transportation service, and mobility gap between high and low income
individuals. The major reasons for those problems were also discussed. Although theunique transportation policies of motorcycle/bicycle ban and regulation of vehicle
imports have contributed to a reduction in car usage in Yangon, their effective may bequestionable in the future. An introduction of new BRT/MRT and urban growth
management are strongly required for solving the transportation problems. Additionallynew finance schemes such as land value capture should be also investigated forsustainable transportation investment in Yangon.
Keywords: urban transportation, large-scale survey, transportation policy, financescheme1. INTRODUCTION
Yangon, which is one of the largest economic cities in the Republic of the Union of
Myanmar, has been experiencing rapid motorization since around 2010. They havecaused serious traffic congestion at many road sections and intersections in the City,
and led to significantly negative impacts on regional and local economies. Note thatcurrently five kinds of transportation modes are available in Yangon: private car, rail,taxi, rickshaw, and bus. Although the so-called truck bus was one of the most popular
public transportation options for commuters in Yangon, private cars have been recently
increasing rapidly.
Although urban transportation is one of the most critical issues in Yangon City, the lackof statistical data has made it difficult for researchers and policy makers to formulate ascientific approach to them. Despite the poor availability of local data, some studies
have so far challenged to analyze the transportation in Myanmar. For example, Kato etal. (2011) studied the feasibility of introducing bus rapid transit into Yangon City withthe empirical data regarding travel behaviors and cost structure of bus operators. Zhang
et al. (2008) analyzed the individual’s travel modal choice using both stated andrevealed preference data collected in Yangon. Although they provided valuable
implications to the public transportation policy in Yangon, the datasets used in their1

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmaranalysis were quite limited in terms of their survey scale as well as their geographicaland socio-demographic coverages. This study uses the large-scale data, collected in the
Project for Comprehensive Urban Transport Plan of the Greater Yangon (YUTRA)
organized by the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), 2013. As YUTRA’s
data was collected through a rigorously statistical process, which covers almost all
Greater Yangon Area, it enables us to analyze holistically the latest traffic situations inYangon. This paper reports the current problems of urban transportation in Yangon anddiscusses the future direction of transportation policy using the results from the largetransportation surveys in YUTRA.
2. DATA COLLECTION
The YUTRA project team including the author implemented the Person Trip Survey(PT Survey) in 2013. Figure 1 shows the target area including Yangon City and a part ofThalyin, Hmawbi, Helgu, Htantabin, Twantay, and Kyauktan. This survey collected theindividuals’ daily travel episode, socio-economics and socio-demographics ofhouseholds, their opinions about current transportation policies. The dataset contains the
responses from 11,330 households, which account for 1.0 to 2.0% out of total
households in the target area.
In addition to the PT Survey, the YUTRA also implemented other surveys including (1)the Cordon Line Survey that collected the data of origin-destination of trips, number ofpassengers, and traffic volume on 17 roads across the survey border for 16 or 24 hours;(2) the Screen Line Survey that surveyed the traffic volume and number of passengers
of vehicles running through 13 roads across specific screen lines inside the survey areafor 16 or 24 hours; (3) the Intersection Survey that collected the traffic volume bydirection and by vehicle type, intersection queue length, signal parameters, and physicaldesign at 19 intersections for 16 hours; (4) the Parking Survey that surveyed the
dynamic change in the number of both off-road and on-road parked vehicles by vehicle
type at 8 locations for 16 hours; and (5) the Travel Speed Survey that surveyed the

Figure 1: Map of the Study Area of YUTRA Project in Yangon
Source: JICA (2013)2

New Technologies
Urban
Safety Cities
of Mega
Cities in Asia
New Technologies
for Urbanfor
Safetyof Megain AsiaICUS Report 78

travel time along 10 major roads by car during morning peak hours, daytime hours, andevening peak hours.
3. RESULTS
3.1 Modal Share
Figure 2 shows modal shares including all modes, excluding walk, and excluding nonmotorized modes. The share of walking is 42.2 %, followed by bus (28.5%), bicycle(13.0 %), car/van (4.7%), taxi (4.4 %), and motorcycle (4.2%). The share of public
transportation including bus, taxi, rail, and water ferry is 34.9%.
Figure 3 shows that the modal share by car ownership and by monthly householdincome. First, the modal share of walking is the highest in the household whosemonthly household income is less than 200 US$. This is first because the workplaces of
low-income individuals are located near their settlements and second because the lowerincome individuals participate less in leisure activities at further places. Next, the modal
share of buses in the middle income class (200-275 US$) is higher than that in otherincome classes for both car owners and non-car owners. The higher income car owning

Figure 2: Modal Shares for All Trips, Excluding Walk, and Excluding Non-motorized Mode

Source: JICA (2013)

Figure 3: Modal Share by Vehicle Ownership and Household Income Level

Source: JICA (2013)

What are critical issues of urban transportation in Yangon, Myanmar?
What are critical issues of urban transportation in Yangon, Myanmar?

3

November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar
November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

Figure 4: Distribution of Departure Time by Travel Mode
Source: JICA (2013)

households use cars and the higher income non-car owning households use taxis while
the lower income households tend to walk. Finally, the modal share of buses in the carowner subgroup is 22.8%. They use public transportation services even though theyown cars firstly because they use their cars not only for personal use but for commercial
use such as commercial taxi services, and secondly because few household members
have their own car licenses, and finally because they often do not like to spend money
fueling up.
Figure 4 shows the hourly distribution of departure times by travel mode and by travel
purpose. It reveals two peaks at around 7:00 to 8:00 am and at around 5:00 pm. Buses
are used almost constantly throughout the day while other transportation modes are usedmainly at peak hours. This shows the good provision of bus services from the earlymorning to the late evening.
3.2 Travel Time and Speed
Table 1 shows the distribution of travel time by travel purpose. First, this shows themost dominant travel time is 10 to 20 minutes while the average travel time is 31.6
minutes. The average travel time is much longer than its median because the tail oftravel-time distribution is quite long where even over 120-minute trips were observed.
Next, the average travel time for home-to-work, home-to-school, business, and private
are 43.6, 24.0, 41.2, and 25.8 minutes, respectively. The long travel time for commuting
trips partly reflects the long travel distance, which is caused by the current land-use
pattern in Yangon. As the urban population increased, the urban area has been extended
from the CBD to the north due to the geographical constraints of rivers. In addition,transportation infrastructure including highway and rail networks had also beendeveloped to connect the CBD with the northern part of Yangon City. The main
residential areas are located in the northeastern part of the City from which many
commuters travel to their workplaces in the CBD.

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ICUS Report 78

Table 1: Distribution of Travel Time of Observed Trips by Trip Purpose
No. of Trips by Trip Purpose (000/day)Travel TimeTo HomeTo Work

To School

Business

PrivateOthersTotal-10min

688

106

227

52

310

119

1,501

-20min

1,916

298

610

146

825

321

4,116

-30min

498

129

133

64

192

95

1,110

-40min

674

218

162

100

215

100

1,469

-50min

280

137

62

55

84

45

662
271

-60min

125

66

24

16

29

12

-75min

443

204

72

74

102

50

946

-90min

144

83

21

23

35

9

316

-120min

276

121

46

42

63

21

569

120 min+

182

58

16

35

46

17

354

Total Trips

5,226

1,420

1,374

606

1,900

788

11,313

32.1

43.6

24.0

41.2

25.8

25.8

31.6

Average Travel
Time (min)Source: JICA (2013)

Figure 5: Travel Speeds Observed at Major Roads during Morning, Afternoon, and Evening
Source: JICA (2013)

Figure 5 shows the travel speeds observed at major roads in Yangon. This indicates thatthe average travel speed along major roads connecting suburbs with the CBD varies
from 15 to 35 km/h. The outbound traffic from the CBD suffer from serious traffic
congestion during evening peak hours while the inbound traffic to the CBD suffer fromtraffic congestion both during morning and evening peak hours. The inbound traffic
congestion during the evening peak hours may be due to the poor traffic management
and low capacity of intersections. The lower travel speed during morning peak hours
also affects longer travel time of commuters.
4. URBAN TRANSPORTATION PROBLEMS IN YANGON
Urban transportation problems identified from the large-scale surveys in Yangon can besummarized as follows: “traffic congestion,” “long travel time,” “poor public
transportation service,” and “mobility gap between high and low income individuals.”

What are critical issues of urban transportation in Yangon, Myanmar?
What are critical issues of urban transportation in Yangon, Myanmar?

5

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmar

Major reasons for the above problems are listed as follows:(1) Urban travel demand has been increasing at a high growth rate along with theeconomic and population growth;(2) Capacity of road network is not sufficient enough to cover the urban travel demand;(3) Sprawling of the urban area requires the residents to travel in a long distance andthis leads to longer travel time particularly for commuting from suburbs to the CBD;
(4) The facilities and infrastructure of public transportation has not been well developed,
thus the individuals prefer private travel mode rather than public transportation;(5) The gap in availability of motorized travel modes is significantly large between
low/middle income classes and high income class; and(6) Technical training and enlightenment regarding transportation is poor among drivers
and pedestrians.
Although there are many similarities in the urban transportation problems of Yangon toother developing cities, the following unique issues relating to the recent history andtransportation policy in Yangon should be noted. The first is that the motorcycle andbicycle ban policy has led to the public transportation oriented city where the bus was
widely used in the City. Note that the motorcycle ban has been introduced into Yangon
City since 2003 for reducing the number of traffic accidents in the City. The second isthat the regulation of vehicle imports has reduced the car ownership in Yangon and thisalso contributed to a high modal share for public transportation. Note the regulation ofimporting foreign motorized vehicles in Myanmar was introduced a few decades ago,
however, the government relaxed the regulation in 2010 in order to promote thereplacement of the old motorized vehicles. The third is that the recent lift of economic
sanctions from the international community has started to boost Yangon’s economy,
which has escalated the traffic demand growth.
The motorcycle and bicycle ban should be respected as a challenging transportation
policy. The ban has used to work well for motivating the individuals who own no car touse public transportation. The ratio of registered motorcycles to registered vehicles in
the Yangon Region is significantly lower than other states/divisions in Myanmar. On
the other hand, this may imply that motorcycles could be used more if the motorcycle
and bicycle ban was lifted in Yangon. More individuals may request a stoppage of the
motorcycle and bicycle ban policy. Interestingly, however, the local people still have apositive opinion for the current motorcycle and bicycle ban policy. The Person Trip
Survey requested the respondents to answer a question: “Do you think the current
limitation on the use of motorcycle in Yangon should be continued?” The results
showed that 57.6% of the respondents support the regulation.
The effectiveness of motorcycle and bicycle ban could be weaker under the current
situation where the vehicle import regulation has been relaxed. It is feared that this may
give an incentive for high income individuals to use private cars after relaxation of thevehicle import policy. The survey also requested the respondents to answer a question:“Do you think the current limitation on the import of used vehicles should becontinued?” The results show that half of the respondents disagreed with the regulation.
If the urban transportation policy is determined by reflecting the opinions of local
people, the motorcycle and bicycle ban should be continued while vehicle imports
should be further deregulated; and this should lead to more demand of car usage inYangon City.

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New Technologies
Urban
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New Technologies
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Safetyof Megain AsiaICUS Report 78

5. POTENTIAL SOLUTONS TO THE PROBLEMS
5.1 Actions Required
Solutions to the urban transportation problems in Yangon are challenging because thetravel demand continues to increase at a high growth rate while the capacity of
implementing the appropriate transportation policies may be poor in Myanmar. Ideally,
mass rapid transit (MRT) such as an underground rail system should be introduced fortransporting the commuters from the suburbs to the CBD while the urban expressway
network should be developed for expanding the road capacity and for bypassing thethrough-traffic. The Myanmar Government unfortunately does not have sufficient
capacity to raise the funds for such infrastructure investment. Thus the top priority
should be given the projects with high efficiency and low cost such as
optimizing/upgrading existing facilities, namely: (1) bus rapid transit (BRT) into major
corridors of the City to increase the traffic capacity and keep attracting people to use
public transportation with better level of service, (2) improvement of the existingroad/rail facilities to increase the traffic capacity and upgrade the service quality, and(3) traffic management including intersection improvement such as signal improvement
and lane assignment to make full use of the road capacity.
The BRT should be well connected with a feeder service and also installed with a welldesigned terminal in order to develop an intermodal transportation network where low
income and/or handicapped individuals can participate in social activities. The existingbus operation should also be upgraded along with the introduction of a new BRT system
where the individual-based bus operators should be restructured into a well-organizedcompany/corporation as pointed out by Kato et al. (2010). However, as the BRT may
not provide sufficient traffic capacity to cover the high traffic demand in Yangon City,
continuous efforts to introduce MRT should be taken by the Government.
The urban sprawl should also be controlled by improving the efficiency of land-use
patterns in the CBD as well as by developing strategically located satellite industrial
cities so that the travel time could be reduced and the traffic congestion at the CBD
could be eased.
5.2 Financial Issues
The above potential solutions could be realized through official development assistanceincluding government-based loans or through the private sector participation in
infrastructure investment projects. However, additional financial sources should be also
explored by the authority/government to invest the transportation infrastructure in asustainable way. One of them may be the value capture in transit-oriented development.
The land value capture has been widely discussed as a potential tools of financing
transportation infrastructure. The policy of land value capture is based on the theory thatthe increased value of land arising from improving the accessibility provided bytransportation operators can be captured for funding or partly funding transportation
infrastructures (Suzuki et al., 2014). As shown earlier studies such as TCRP (2002), thevalue capture can take various forms. The appropriate form may depend on thegovernance and capacity of stakeholders including public transportation operators, landowners, urban developers, and the government. Further examination is required for

What are Whatcriticalof urbanin Yangon,
areissuescriticalissues transportationof urban transportation
in Myanmar?
Yangon, Myanmar?

7

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmarfinding the best financing approach to transportation investment in the context of
Yangon.
6. CONCLUSIONSThis paper reported the latest traffic conditions and current problems in urban
transportation of Yangon. The large-scale survey have successfully revealed the criticalissues in a holistic manner. It also discussed the uniqueness of its urban transportation
policies: motorcycle and bicycle ban and regulation of vehicle imports, which
contributed to a reduction in car usage in Yangon. However, the effectiveness of thoseunique policies may be questionable due to the recent rapid changes in socio-economics
and socio-demographics. Thus the introduction of BRT/MRT and urban growth control
are strongly required. For sustainable transportation investment, an introduction of new
funding schemes should be also investigated in addition to the conventional ODA
financing and public-private partnership. They may include the land value capture
relating the public transportation investment.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The surveys were implemented under the support of the Ministry of Rail Transportation,
Ministry of Transport, Myanma Railways, Public Works under the Ministry ofConstruction, Traffic Police under the Ministry of Home Affairs, Yangon City
Development Committee, and Yangon Region Government. This paper was completed
on the basis of achievements in the YUTRA project organized by JICA. I sincerely
thank them for their kind supports.
REFERENCES
Japan International Corporation Agency (JICA) (2013). Draft Report of Project for
Comprehensive Urban Transport Plan of the Greater Yangon (YUTRA),
unpublished.
Kato, H., Saito, N., Inagi, A., and Myint, U. A. (2010). Regulatory framework andoperational system of urban bus transportation in Yangon, Myanmar. Paper
presented at the Transportation Research Board 2010 Annual Meeting,Washington D. C. (U. S.), January 2010.
Kato, H., Inagi, A., Saito, N., and Thun, P. T. T. (2011). Feasibility analysis for the
introduction of a bus rapid transit system in Yangon, Myanmar. Journal of theEastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, No. 9, pp. 914–929.
Suzuki, H, Murakami, J., Y., Hong, H., and Tamayose, B. (2014). Financing TransitOriented Development with Land Values: Adapting Development-based Land
Value Capture in Developing Countries, Washington, DC, USA: The World Bank
Publication.
TCRP (2002). Transit-Oriented Development and Joint Development in the UnitedStates: A Literature Review, Research Results Digest, No.52, Transportation
Research Board of the National Academies.
Zhang, J., Fujiwara, A., and Thein, S. (2008). Capturing traveler’s stated mode choice
preferences under influence of income in Yangon city, Myanmar. Journal ofTransportation Systems Engineering and Information Technology, Vol.8, No.4,
pp. 49–62.

8

New Technologies
Urban
Safety Cities
of Mega
Cities in Asia
New Technologies
for Urbanfor
Safetyof Megain AsiaTetsuro Ito
Visiting Professor
Institute of industrial science, The University of TokyoJapan
ABSTRACTThis paper describes empirical analysis about crisis management measures. The crisis
management measures was not sufficient at the time of the Kobe Earthquake Disasteroccurred in January 1995, and then was improved. The Analysis is about what was the
improved result actually function in the Great East Japan Earthquake Disasteroccurred in March 2011. Result of the verification gets great clarity about the
improvement effect of the issues that have been extracted in the previous greatearthquake and improved in the Great East Japan Earthquake Disaster. On the other
hand, in the field that had not been improved, it became clear that the same problem
occurs again. It is important to reflect on failure and learn a lesson, and this paper
shows the truth that further disasters occur at the place where the lessons are notutilized.
.
Keywords: Crisis management, Great East Japan Earthquake
1. INTRODUCTION
For enhancement of the crisis management measure it is important to continue
analyzing response to actual outbreak of crisis and improving the measure. Especiallyin Japan, there is an issue that the system functions poorly and difficult to understand.
The system is to function PDCA, such as analyzing the failure, reflecting the analysis
results, assessing the reflected result and improving the measure additionally and is inorder not to repeat the same mistakes.
However, as natural disaster comes to large-scale in Japan, people have understood theimportance of the crisis management of the nation. In order to increase the crisis
management capability of this nation, it is important to function PDCA fully and to
improve continually the ability of those who manage the crisis.
The author has the experience which is working hard to secure emergency
transportation as a director of Traffic Management and Control Division of the National
Police Agency at the time of the Kobe Earthquake Disaster of January 16, 1995, andalso spearheading the entire crisis management as the Deputy Chief Cabinet Secretary
for Crisis Management, as a top of the affairs of the crisis management at the time of
the Great East Japan Earthquake of March 11, 2011. From the experience at the center

9

November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

November 2014, Yangon, Myanmarof the crisis management of the nation, I was keenly aware of the importance ofimproving the ability of person in charge of crisis management in each field.
In order to clarify the importance of the improvement of crisis management capacity of
the nation, this study describes empirical analysis of the following: how to analyze theproblems of the Kobe Earthquake Disaster which is the greatest crisis on record in the
post-war years, how to improve the measures, and was the improved results actuallyfunction at the Great East Japan Earthquake.
2.
RESPONSEOF
NATIONAL
GOVERNMENT
AND
LOCAL
MUNICIPALITIES DURING THE KOBE EARTHQUAKE DISASTER
2.1 Timeline and response during earthquake
On 16th January 1995 at 5:46 am, a magnitude 7.3 earthquake occurred in the Kobe areaof Western Japan. Since it was believed that the magnitude of an earthquake occurringin this region would be relatively small, many inhabitants did not think this greatearthquake would occur, and their preparation was not adequate enough. Even theJapanese Government, which historically has experience and knowledge concerning
large earthquakes, was also not prepared. Murayama Cabinet headed by Prime Minister
Tomiichi Murayama and the National Land Agency Disaster Prevention Bureau werethe concerned authority in the region. Figure 1 shows Timeline and initial response of
the Government during earthquake.
At 5:55 am, the Japan Meteorological Agency announced that a seismic intensity 5
earthquake had occurred. With a seismic intensity 5 earthquake, shaking was intense
enough to crack walls and pillars in old houses that did not have adequate earthquake
measures, despite the fact that earthquakes with seismic intensity 5 occur every year inJapan. The Japan Meteorological Agency sent the information by fax to the concerned
authority, the National Land Agency. However, there was no person on duty around theclock at the National Land Agency to collect information. As a result, a security guardof the government building received this information.
At 6:07 am, the security guard contacted officials of the National Land Agency whowere at home. This was the moment that the concerned ministry came to know of theoccurrence of the earthquake for the first time. At 6:13 am, the Japan Meteorological
Agency announced that the earthquake was of seismic intensity 6, which had destroyedsome buildings. At 6:45 am, the National Land Agency officials confirmed via a
television announcement that it was seismic intensity 6.
The Secretary of the Prime Minister saw the news on the television at 7:00 am,
confirmed the earthquake situation with the National Land Agency, and responded thatthe only answer was “there is no more information than television”. At 7:15 am, theNational Land Agency queried the extent of damage with the National Police Agency
and Disaster Fire Management Agency, but the response was that “information cannot
be received from the local”. At 7:30 am, the secretary of the Prime Minister initiallyreported to the Prime Minister Murayama on the occurrence of the earthquake.

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In Hyogo Prefecture, on the other hand, Governor Kaihara showed up at the prefectural
government at 8:20 am. In addition at 8:26 am, Prime Minister Murayama went to thePrime Minister’s Office. By this time, over two and a half hours had elapsed since theearthquake had occurred; this was the same time attendance as usual in spite of theemergency.
At 10:04 am a regular cabinet meeting was held. The meeting determined theestablishment of a disaster management headquarters of the Government headed by the
Chief Commissioner of the National Land Agency, based on the Disaster
Countermeasures Basic Law. However, this headquarters was not the Emergency
Disaster Response Headquarters headed by the Prime Minister, which is the second
biggest system of the government.
Table 1: Timeline and initial response of the Government during earthquake
5:46 am
5:55 am
6:07 am
6:13 am
6:45 am
7:00 am

7:15 am

7:30 am
8:20 am
8:26 am
10:04 ama magnitude 7.3 earthquake occurred
the Japan Meteorological Agency announced that a seismic intensity
5 earthquake had occurred
the security guard received the fax message and contacted officialsof the National Land Agency
the Japan Meteorological Agency announced that the earthquake
was of seismic intensity 6
the National Land Agency officials confirmed via a televisionannouncement that it was seismic intensity 6.
The Secretary of the Prime Minister saw the news on the televisionat 7:00 am, confirmed the earthquake situation with the National
Land Agency and responded that the only answer was “there is no
more information than television”
the National Land Agency queried the extent of damage with the
National Police Agency and Disaster Fire Management Agency, but
the response was that “information cannot be received from thelocal”
the secretary of the Prime Minister initially reported to the Prime
Minister Murayama on the occurrence of the earthquake
Governor Kaihara showed up at the prefectural government
Prime Minister Murayama went to the Prime Minister’s Officea regular cabinet meeting was held

2.2 Problems of the initial response of the Government
When an earthquake occurs, how did the government the emergency countermeasures
go? As mentioned earlier, at the National Land Agency, a responsible authority when an
earthquake occurs, there was no one available to collect information over a 24 hour
period. Also, there was no one available to collect information to convey instruction to
the Prime Minister’s office or the Cabinet Secretariat to support the Prime Minister.
Only the Prime Minister, Chief Cabinet Secretary and Deputy Chief Cabinet Secretary
had the privilege to organize and co-ordinate the operation of each ministry and only
their secretaries could support them; therefore, nothing was done in practice. There wasalso legislation in the occurrence of a disaster i.e. give the Prime Minister the authority
The evaluation
on improvementof Japanese
government
crisis management
The evaluation
on improvementof Japanese
government
crisis management
system system on the 2011
11
Great
East
Japan
Earthquake
distaster
on the 2011
Great
East
Japan
Earthquake
disasterNovember 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

to direct each minister and the prefectural governors, but it had not been executed. For
this reason, the government let each ministry independently implement emergency
countermeasures. Organizing and coordinating operations of each ministry that the
Cabinet should do were not executed. Coordination with other ministries was only
conducted by their own judgment and only when they felt it was required. For thisreason, many emergency countermeasures were lacking in organization.
2.3 Problems of the initial response of the local government
In and around the city of Kobe, damage due to the earthquake was extensive. Due toloss of power and disruption of communication lines due to radio tower collapse,
communication was so poor that it was not possible to know the full extent of thedamage caused by the earthquake.
The Prefectural government of Hyogo Prefecture and the Prefectural Police
headquarters escaped the collapse of prefectural government buildings, although thisinformation could not be gathered due to power outages and disrupted communications.
On the other hand, Kobe City Hall, that was in the vicinity of the center of theearthquake, had been destroyed. For this reason, rescue activities, relief request to thegovernment and the SDF were not made for a few hours after the initial earthquake.
The magnitude of the earthquake damage to housing, railroad tracks and highways was
confirmed via observations from news organization helicopters. While there was no
information that some areas were affected, there were also a places in those districts
where most of the houses had been destroyed. However, those living in the damaged
areas were unable to see the reports on TV because of power failure in the disaster area.
2.4 Problems of the relief activities
Concerning relief activities following the earthquake, relief troops including police andfire troops from across Japan and relief supplies were initially dispatched to the disasterarea. However, some problems with these relief activities occurred. Firstly, the terrainof the area made access by emergency vehicles difficult. It was only possible to go to
the site via the east and west because the disaster area was surrounded by sea andmountains. Three existing highways were also destroyed, and relief activities were only
possible by two national roads. Moreover, one of these national roads could not be used
due to collapse of the highway on it and the other national road was congested bygeneral vehicles driven by concerned relatives of those within the disaster area. In
addition, there was no reliable communication network connecting Tokyo and thedisaster area.
Dispatch requests from the local government to the Self Defense Force (SDF), which is
the mainstay of the relief activities, was not made quickly enough. This is because theGovernor was required to request the dispatch to the SDF and the requirements for thiswere strict, and the SDF was not able to take any action requested by the municipality.
Regional collaboration and cross-support system of concerned bodies such as police andfire troops was not efficient enough. For this reason, after receiving a support request,
each prefectural police and each municipal fire troops made a decision about which
troop should go and how many troops should go. And then they ordered the troops out.

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Police and fire troops that went to provide support in the disaster area had wirelesscommunication equipment but, as the frequency of the radio wave was different, they
were unable to get in touch with the headquarters and local troops within the disasterarea as well as between the support teams. In addition, fire hoses were unable to beconnected to fire hydrants in the disaster area due to differences in the size of calibers.
Furthermore, many problems occurred in cooperation between police, fire troops andthe SDF due to not only problems in communication and terminology but also lack ofknowledge between the groups.
3. IMPROVEMENT OF THE CRISIS MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
3.1 Strengthening of the country's crisis management capabilities
From the review of the Kobe Earthquake Disaster and several incidents concerning
terrorist attacks after the earthquake, it was pointed out from all sides that crisis
management functions were insufficient. The government decided to enhance its
nationwide crisis management capabilities. The position of Deputy Chief Cabinet
Secretary for Crisis Management was established so that organization and coordinationof each ministry, which the Cabinet has in the Legislation of Japan, can be made tofunction at crisis management. It makes possible to carry out a coordinated crisis
management by the government if emergency of the nation occurs such as disaster or
terrorist attack [1998].
Additionally, a cabinet crisis management system composed of about 200 people wasestablished to support the Deputy Chief Cabinet Secretary for Crisis Management. Also,
the National Land Agency Disaster Prevention Bureau was moved to the Cabinet Office
to provide adjustment to the measures of each ministry.
3.2 Fortification of information collecting system and risk management system atthe time of emergency
To enhance emergency system in the country, following system was established:I)
To grasp the initial information in a state of emergency: (1) a 24-hour Cabinet
information aggregation Center was established; (2) an early warning system to
the Prime Minister was built; and (3) rapid announcement of earthquake
information and transmission system was developed for the Japan
Meteorological Agency.
II)
To understand the extent of damage in the early stages of an earthquake: (1) an
earthquake disaster information system (DIS) was established in the Cabinet
Office; and (2) a Helicopter TV system was developed for police and fire
authorities, the SDF and the Japanese Coast Guard etc.
III)
For the establishment of a crisis management system in the Prime Minister's
Office, in addition to the Deputy Chief Cabinet Secretary for Crisis Management
and crisis management staff of the abovementioned: (1) a crisis management
center was developed in the Prime Minister’s office for several hundreds ofpeople working 24 hours a day; (2) crisis management accommodation wasestablished to develop an emergency response system for crisis management
The evaluation on improvement of Japanese government crisis management system on the 2011
Great onEast
Japan Earthquake
distaster
The evaluation
improvementof Japanese
government crisis management system
13on the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake disasterNovember 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

personnel; and (3) to build a quick decision system by an emergency response
team from director-general level of the ministries was set up.
3.3 Development of a national crisis management system
The following measures for activities in an emergency were undertaken, to make firstaid measures more effective:I)
For highly reliable communication network construction: (1) central disasterprevention wireless networks in municipalities across the country were installed;and (2) communication networks from each ministry to the Crisis Management
Center in the Cabinet were consolidated.
II)
For the rapid dispatch of SDF requests: (1) some authority to dispatch requests
was given to municipal mayors; (2) the dispatch procedure was simplified; and(3) voluntary dispatch of the SDF was improved.
III)
For the construction of a wide area support system and collaboration systems
between police and fire authorities: (1) wide area emergency relief teams topolice were installed across Japan; (2) fire emergency relief teams were
installed across the country; (3) a cooperation agreement between police and fire
authorities and the SDF was established; (4) which strengthened the partnershipof the authorities through partnership training; and (5) unity in wirelessfrequencies in case of emergency and uniform diameter fire hose wasestablished.
4. THE 2011 GREAT EAST JAPN EARTHQUAKE DISASTER- LESSONSLEARNT FOLLOWING THE KOBE EARTHQUAKE DISASTER
On March 11th 2011, 16 years after the Kobe Earthquake Disaster, a massive earthquake
hit Japan again. Massive damage caused by the earthquake shaking and the damage
caused by the following tsunami, occurred over a wide area in the Tohoku region ofJapan. The scale of the earthquake was large, also loss of human life and damage ofbuildings and facilities exceeded the Kobe Earthquake Disaster. At that time, did thiscountry learn constructive lessons from the Kobe Earthquake Disaster?
In terms of the response to the earthquake and the tsunami, Japan applied the lessons
and the reflection of the Kobe Earthquake Disaster. Firstly, quick announcement ofearthquake information from the Japan Meteorological Agency and the transmission
system functioned immediately. Before the earthquake shaking reached Tokyo, theEarthquake Early Warning (EEW) system, alerted immediately that the seismic
intensity was seven, which was the maximum on the scale for earthquakes. The initial
announcement of the tsunami height was 6 meters, but was corrected to 10 meters 30
minutes following the announcement. When the EEW predicted that height everyone
must evacuate immediately.
The Cabinet Crisis Management Center also launched a system of emergency 4 minutes
following the earthquake, gathered emergency teams from each ministry and discussed
operations. The Earthquake Disaster Information System (DIS) also functioned andpredicted the magnitude of the damage caused by the earthquake. Hundreds of crisis
management staff were also gathered in a short time. In terms of the dispatch of the
SDF, some went ahead to the local areas within the damaged areas before the request
came out. A cabinet meeting was opened within 30 minutes of the earthquake, and it

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ICUS Report 78

was decided to install an Emergency Disaster Response Headquarters as a maximum
response organization of the government.
Radio frequencies around the country functioned. CCTV on helicopters used by each
institution also started sending video images to the Prime Minister’s Office. It took time
to disperse rescue activities to every corner of the disaster area because it was a very
wide area and damage was vast, but police and fire troops, the SDF and the Japanese
Coast Guard from across the country, medical teams and road clearing teams also weredispatched to the disaster areas. Emergency relief supplies were successfully delivered
to the damaged areas. Problems relating to traffic regulations or wireless networks wereminimal.
5. CONCLUSIONSThis paper describes empirical analysis about what was the improved results actuallyfunction in the Great East Japan Earthquake. In conclusion, Japan applied the lessons of
the Kobe Earthquake Disaster to the Great East Japan Earthquake Disaster. Taking
advantage of the lessons as the wisdom of the future is the way to prevent a newdevastation. However, the earthquake taught us that further disasters occur at the place
where the lessons are not utilized. Among these, it has become an only major problem
in emergency countermeasures against earthquake that fuel is insufficient and its
transport was delayed significantly. Furthermore, it is not covered in this presentation,but, apart from this problem, accident of Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant thathas occurred at the same time caused a serious problem indeed followed today. Both areenergy-related issue under the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI). As
it turned out later, because problem of energy did not become a major issue at the Kobe
Earthquake Disaster, the METI had not been taken any earthquake measures whatsoever.
There would be many other problems on the Great East Japan Earthquake. To inquest
and improve each single problem is the preparation for future disaster. I hope further
development of research on disaster prevention.

The evaluation
on improvementof Japanese
government
crisis management
The evaluation
on improvementof Japanese
government
crisis management
system system on the 2011
Great
East
Japan
Earthquake
distaster
15
on the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake disasterNovember 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

Table 2: problems on the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake and improvement on the
Great East Japan Earthquake

Japanese
Government

Local
government

Reliefactivities

16

no one on duty at the
National Land Agency
Disaster Prevention
Bureaulack of manpower
and facilities to collectinformationlack of staff toorganize andcoordinate operationsof each ministry by thePrime Minister

Establishment of Deputy Chief
Cabinet Secretary for Crisis
Management
Moving the National Land
Agency Disaster Prevention Bureau
to the Cabinet Office
To grasp the initial informationa 24-hour Cabinet information
aggregation Centeran early warning system to thePrime Minister
strengthen the system for theJapan Meteorological Agency
To understand the extent ofdamageDIS
a Helicopter TV system
To enhance the systema crisis management center in thePrime Minister’s officedeveloping an emergency
response systemdevelopment of a quick decisionsystemtsunami forecasting
systemThe Cabinet Crisis
Management Centerlaunched a system of
emergency 4 minutes
following theearthquake
gathered emergency
response teams
DIS predicted themagnitude of thedamage caused by theearthquake
CCTV onhelicopters started
sending video images
crisis management
staff were gathered ina short time
installed an
Emergency Disaster
Response
Headquarters

collapse ofgovernment buildings
disruption ofcommunication lines
breakdown of thesystem of knowing thedamage, relief
activities and dispatch
requests
difficulty ofgathering staff
lack of roads
lack of reliablecommunication
networkdelay of dispatch
requests
insufficiency of
support system ofconcerned bodies
not-standardized
equipment of relief
troopsproblems incommunication andterminology between
relief troops

development of a national crisis
management system
For highly reliablecommunication network
construction
install central disaster prevention
wireless networks
communication networks to the
Crisis Management Center in the
Cabinet
For the rapid dispatch of SDF
requestssome authority to dispatch
requests was given to municipal
mayorssimplify the dispatch procedurevoluntary dispatch of the SDF
For a wide area support system
between police and firepolice emergency relief teams
fire emergency relief teams
a cooperation agreement between
police, fire and the SDF
partnership training
unity in wireless frequencies anduniform equipment was establishedvoluntary dispatchof the SDF, rapid
dispatch of SDF
requests, dispatch of
100,000 SDF people
activate
communication
network
police and fire
troops gathered fromacross the country
grasp the damage
from CCTV on
helicopters of the
SDF, police, fire andJapan Coast Guard,
relief activities
dispatch of medical
teams and roadclearing teams

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia
New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Lessons we learn from unexpected hazards
Taketo UOMOTO
Chief Executive, Public Works Research Institute
Professor Emeritus, the University of Tokyo, Japanuomoto@pwri.go.jp
ABSTRACT
When new construction works starts, the designers and engineers working in the field ofcivil engineering always try to keep the structure safe enough against expected natural
hazards. The problems are that these expectations may not meet the actual hazards.
Many different natural hazards are occurring every year throughout the world andsome of the hazards exceed the expected level of hazards. The Great Hanshin-Awaji
Earthquake happened in 1995 exceeded the expected level of ground motion and many
structures were destroyed by the ground motion. In 2011, the Great East Japan
Earthquake taught us the unexpected hazards caused by the Tsunami just after theearthquake. At the time of design, although these hazards were expected and consideredto certain extent, the scales of the hazards expected were far smaller than the actual
situation. There are similar unexpected hazards occurring elsewhere throughout theworld. This paper shows examples how the engineers have to decide what to do in caseof unexpected hazards, especially the case of earthquakes, tsunami, landslides causedby rainfalls, and the problem of deterioration of structures.
Keywords: engineering judgment, preparedness, earthquake, tsunami, typhoon,
landslide, natural dam, deterioration, maintenance
1. INTRODUCTION
Although many hazards may occur, it is important to keep the country safe from thehazards and offer comfortable life to the people. The civil engineers are working every
day to accomplish the target, but the hazards caused by nature may exceed the expectedhazards. To deal with the problem, the engineers must learn from the actual hazards.
Japan is a country of many natural disasters, such as earthquakes, tsunamis, typhoons,volcanic actions, liquefaction, landslides, floods, snow slides, fires, etc. To deal withthese natural hazards, many attempts are being made for disaster prevention andmitigation. Figure 1 shows some of the main natural hazards happened in Japan from2011 to 2013. From the figure, we can easily understand that the hazards are happening
throughout the country.

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November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarFigure 1: Examples of natural disasters occurred in Japan (2011-2014I)
Disaster prevention and mitigation is usually planned against individual disasters asshown in Figure 2. We try to prevent and mitigate the disasters when we construct
structures. But several disasters may happen at the same time; not only earthquake, butalso tsunami, fire, liquefaction and even collapse of deteriorated structures. To deal withthe problem, the civil engineers must learn from the disasters what is the cause of thedisaster, how to prevent or mitigate the disaster against the next disasters. This paper isaimed to introduce the causes of disasters, the preventive measures and the lessons welearn from these disasters.

Figure 2: Example of disaster management cycle

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2. THE GREAT HANSHIN-AWAJI EARTHQUAKE AND THE GREAT EAST
JAPAN EARTHQUAKE
2.1 The Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake
The Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake took place in Hyogo prefecture in the earlymorning of January 17, 1995, with the Magnitude of 7.3. The strong ground motion
collapsed many bridges, houses, and industrial facilities mainly in urban area. After theearthquake, fire took place in many wooden houses in the Kobe City. The number ofdeaths and missing of the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake was 6,437 persons. The
houses and bridges in the Hanshin Area were damaged by the earthquake as shown in
the Figure 3. Further, wooden houses were damaged not only by the ground motion but
by the fire caused by the disaster.

Figure 3: Destructive damage to bridges in 1995 Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake(MLIT)
One of the lessons we learned from this disaster is that the existing structures may notpossess enough strength against seismic motions. Up till the disaster, experimental shear
strength of concrete was overestimated at the time of design. To deal with the problem,
we changed the design seismic forces and developed the methods to retrofit existing
structures against seismic load. As a result, many structures were retrofitted after theGreat Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake throughout the country. The lessons learned from thedestructive damage to houses and bridges caused by the earthquake prevented thecollapse of the structures by the Great East Japan Earthquake in 2011.
2.2 The Great East Japan Earthquake
On March 11, 14:46 PM, 2011, a massive scale “Great East Japan Earthquake” hit thecountry of Japan mostly on Pacific coast. The magnitude of the earthquake was reported
as 9.0, and shook Japan from Hokkaido to Osaka City. The epicenter of the Great East
Japan Earthquake was about 130km from Sanriku area (East coast of Honshu Island,facing Pacific Ocean) with the depth of 24km. The maximum JMA (Japan
Meteorological Agency) Seismic Intensity was 7.0 (strongest level), and the maximum
ground acceleration was more than 1,000cm/sec2. More than one half of the whole
Honshu Island and Hokkaido Island were shaken and the maximum peak groundacceleration (PGA) observed was 2,933 cm/sec2. Furthermore, the aftershocks were also
tremendous. The number of aftershocks above the magnitude of 5.0 within one monthafter the Great East Japan Earthquake (up till April 10, 2011) was more than 440 times.
As a result, some of the structures which were not damaged much at the main shock
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November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmarwere severely damaged to larger extent by the aftershocks. The aftershocks and the longtime duration of ground motion significantly affected the damages caused by the soilliquefaction.
After the earthquake, a huge tsunami occurred. The total width of the tsunami was about
450km from north to south, and it reached most of the eastern coastal lines of Japan asshown in Figure 4. As shown in the figure, the coastal lines of north eastern part ofJapan were attacked by huge tsunami. The figure is the warnings of tsunami by Japan
Meteorological Agency (JMA) just after the earthquake (March 11, 16:08 PM). The
estimated maximum height at the time of warning was more than 3m, but the actual
height was more than 10m at some part of the coastal lines.

Figure 4: Warning of tsunami by JMA justafter the earthquake (Internet information)

Figure 5: Houses on hilltop without
damage by tsunami (Photo: PWRI)

Due to the huge tsunami, many structures located at the coastal lines were damaged andmany houses were swept away. The newspapers informed that most of the houses
located close to the coastal line from Iwate prefecture to Miyagi prefecture weredamaged and more than 15000 people lost their lives and more than 8,000 people were
missing (by June 6, 2011). The damages by tsunami were far larger than the damages
caused by the seismic ground motion. Most of the houses located near the coast were
swept away and only the houses located at hilltops could remain as shown in Figure 5.
Due to the tsunami, the Fukushima No.1 nuclear power plant was damaged. The
tsunami attacked the plant over flooding the dikes, and the sea water flooded electric
power facilities shutting down the electric control of the plant. As a result, the nuclear
plants became out of control, causing hydrogen explosion and melt down of the boilingwater reactor (BWR).
Comparing the two earthquakes (Table 1), the main causes of the Great East Japan
Earthquake were quite simple. As shown in Figure 6, original cause was the earthquakewith the magnitude of 9.0. In case of the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake occurred in
1995, magnitude of the earthquake was 7.3, and the damages of the structures were
mostly caused by the strong ground motion (1). But in case of the Great East Japan
Earthquake was followed by huge tsunami, damaging both the structures and the people(2). One of the structures was the nuclear power plant of Fukushima No.1 (3). The
BWR of the power plant became out of control due to loss of electricity (both normal
and temporary electric supply were not available for some time) and cooling water (4).
As a result, melt down of the BWR started (5). After the hydrogen explosion,

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radioactive contamination spread around the surrounding area of the region. This forced
the people to evacuate from the location of the power plant, and the citizens were forced
to live in the evacuation area far from their residential area.
Table 1: Comparison of the Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake and the East Japan Earthquake(Data from the Cabinet Office of Japanese Government)

Date and Time
Magnitude
Type ofearthquake
No. ofprefectures
above JMA
intensity 6.0
TsunamiCharacteristicof damageNo. of deaths
and lost
CollapsedhousesDistribution ofground motion(JMA seismic
intensity above
4.0)

Great Hanshin-Awaji
Earthquake
1995/1/17 5:46 AM
7.3
Local earthquake

Great East Japan Earthquake

1 (Hyogo)

8 (Miyagi, Fukushima, Ibaraki,
Tochigi, Iwate, Gumma,
Saitama, Chiba)

Several ten cm
Collapse of houses andbridges, big fire occurred
Deaths: 6,434; Lost: 3

Huge tsunami (max: above 9.3m)
Houses, bridges etc. were washedaway
Deaths: 15,270; Lost: 8,499

104,906

102,923

Lessons we learn from unexpected hazards
Lessons we learn from unexpected natural hazards

2011/3/11 14:46 PM
9.0
Subduction-zone earthquake

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November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarFigure 6: Causes of the disasterOne of the main reasons why such a disaster occurred is that these situations were notexpected even at the time of designing the structures. The expected conditions during
design of structures were a large earthquake may occur during their service lives, but
the attack of tsunami was considered much less in the design. Although the certain levelof a large earthquake with longer return period compared to the usual structures wasconsidered in the design of nuclear power plants, it is true that the Great East Japan
Earthquake was the earthquake with very low possibility to occur. The structures
constructed after 1995 or retrofitted using the modified standard specifications
considering the damages by the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake, did not suffer severe
damages by the Great East Japan Earthquake (see Figure 7).

Figure 7: Bridge piers strengthened (left, no damage) and before strengthened (right,
damaged) (Photo: PWRI㸧
But for the tsunamis, the loads were considered little on structures such as houses andbridges. This is one of the reasons why so many houses and structures were damaged(see Figure 8). The reason why the tsunami load was not considered in the design ofstructures is that the general concept to deal with the tsunami is to evacuate people tohigher places, and it was not generally employed to design structures against thetsunami loads considering economy and limited engineering knowledge on tsunami
design.

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Figure 8: Bridge girders washed away from their piers by Tsunami (Photo: Tohoku
Regional Bureau of MLIT)As shown in Figure 8, many bridge girders were washed away by tsunami. Some were
floated, some were turned upside down, and some had stayed as it was without any big
damage. Experiments were performed to clarify the causes of these differences. And theresults show that the shape of the girder made a big difference due to not only the speedof the tsunami, but also the overhanging width of the girder of the bridge (see Figure 9).

Figure 9: Experimental result of the tsunami force acting on bridge girder (Hoshikuma
et al, PWRI)
3. NATURAL DAMS FORMED BY LANDSLIDESIn the year 2011, not only the earthquake but also many landslides occurred in
mountainous regions of Japan. Most of the landslides occurred due to heavy rain carriedby typhoons, and one of the most severe landslides was deep-seated landslides causedby the rainfalls of Typhoon No.12 arrived at Japan in September with the total amountof rainfall of 1800mm in 3 days. Total affected areas by the landslides were about 10
million square meters and total amount of collapsed debris was more than 100 million
cubic meters mostly in Nara, Wakayama and Mie Prefectures. Since it is difficult to
identify the vulnerable areas to deep-seated landslides caused by heavy rains and thenumber of such areas is so large, it is not easy to conduct preventive works in a shortperiod of time. Therefore, the response to manage such damage becomes important.

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The problems of the landslide debris are: (1) landslide debris may attack the houses androads underneath, (2) transported landslide debris may form temporary natural dams
stopping water flow of the narrow rivers, and (3) these natural dams may not be
sufficient enough to resist against the ponded water pressure acting on the dam (seeFigure 10). Especially where the rivers are narrow, such temporary natural dams may
easily be formed by the landslide debris and may cause water flood to the people living
underneath when they collapse. Actually, in case of the Typhoon No. 12, 17 temporary
natural dams were formed within a few days.

Figure 10: Schematic figure of the effectof landslide debris on a narrow river(Ishizuka et al., 2012)

Figure 11: AcAMet used to monitor thelevel of accumulated water (Ishizuka et al.,2012)

To prevent further disasters, such as flood, it is important to evacuate the people livingin the downstream of these rivers. But the time of the collapse cannot be estimatedaccurately, and it is difficult to monitor the change of the situation of the reservoir
especially in deep mountains. To monitor the real time change of the water level of thereservoirs, AcAMet (Aerially-conveyable Automatic Water Level Meter: see Figure 11)
was introduced and set by a helicopter. This equipment was developed by combining
the water level sensor and satellite communication device. Using such a simple APF
Gauge, real time monitoring of the water depth was performed, giving enoughinformation to the public when to evacuate. The similar situation occurred in the upper
reach of the city of Ambon, Indonesia, in July 2012. Although the natural dam collapsed
in July, 2013 after one year, people living in the village of Negeli Lima evacuatedbeforehand and only a few people were affected. The collapse invaded the village andabout 60% of the village was flooded and washed away. The similar device (AcAMet)
was also used for real time monitoring to help the people to evacuate before the flood.
4. DETERIORATION PROBLEMS OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Deterioration problems are becoming another important item to consider from now on,
especially in Japan with rapid new construction works being done up till today. The
increases of aged structures may lose their performances with time and may cause
disasters even without other disasters such as earthquakes. Figure 12 shows how rapid
the annual investment for maintenance and renewal of aged structures is increasingfrom now on.

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Figure 12: Investment for annual construction works (MLIT)
To deal with the problem, preventive methods have been studied in many research
institutes including universities. Japan Society of Civil Engineers (JSCE) has been
studying how to construct new structures and maintain existing structures from now on.
“Standard Specification of Concrete Structures (Design)” and “Standard Specificationof Concrete Structures (Maintenance)” were published in 2007 with the concept of (1)for new construction works, durability design must be used, and (2) for existing
structures maintenance must be done keeping the required performances throughout theservice life of the structure. The newly proposed performance-based durability design
can be summarized as follows:
1) The concrete structure must be quantitatively checked whether the structure
possesses required performance within the designed period.
2) The degree of deterioration of the structure in service for a specified cause must be
specified.
3) To maintain the structure above the specified degree of deterioration, the required
performance must be specified.
To examine the performance on durability, a kind of limit state design scheme wasintroduced for the durability of concrete structures. The equation can be written as
shown in equation 1:

J i  Ad A

lim

d 1.0

(1)

where, Ad is designed performance of the structure at specified time considering thespecified deterioration cause, Alim is limit of the performance of the structure, and Ȗi iscoefficient of the structure considering the importance, etc.
Generally, performance of concrete has to be verified to satisfy the required
performances. Not only resistances against deterioration but also mechanical propertiesof concrete have to be verified throughout the service life of the structure.

Lessons welearn from
unexpectedhazards natural hazards
Lessons
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November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarFigure 13 shows an example of the calculated result for minimum cover thickness toprevent carbonation induced corrosion at different years of service for OPC concreteand BFSC concrete. As shown in the figure, the cover thickness required changes
according to the type of cement to be used, water-cement ratio of concrete, years ofservice and exposed condition (wet or dry) of the structure to be constructed. When the
structure is designed for long period of time, the cover thickness may become too large,
and it is recommended to use other countermeasures such as to use Epoxy-coated bars
instead of normal reinforcing bars.

Figure 13: Calculated results of concrete cover according to JSCE Standard
Specification (Concrete Committee of JSCE)
Deteriorated structures such as shown in Figure 14, need a quite large amount of fee formaintenance, and if not, the structure cannot be used safely throughout the service life.
Several existing structures are already abandoned or limited for use.

Figure 14: Deteriorated RC wharf due tochloride corrosion (Photo: Dr. Ema Kato)

Figure 15: Location of road bridges
already closed or regulated in Japan(MLIT, 2011)

Figure 15 shows the location of bridges already closed or regulated due to deterioration.
Although disasters caused by deteriorated structures did not happen so often up till
today, some structures caused disasters. One of the recent disasters is the collapse oftunnel ceiling happened in December 2012. The ceiling RC slabs of Sasago-Tunnel fell
on to the cars running underneath in Chuo-Expressway. The running three cars weresmashed and 9 people in the cars lost their lives. It was an unexpected accident for most26

New Technologies
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New Technologies
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Safetyof Megain AsiaICUS Report 78of the drivers and passengers. The main cause of the disaster was the pull out of theadhesive anchors embedded to the tunnel roof lifting the ceiling slabs. To prevent futuredisasters, the ceiling RC slabs were removed from all the existing tunnels. If we do not
pay much attention to the deterioration of existing structures, similar accidents may
occur at any deteriorated structures in the near future.
5. CONCLUSIONS
After the earthquake, some engineers mentioned that “we did not expect to have such alarge tsunami attacking the structures”. Although the available standard specifications
did not mention about the design considerations when tsunami attacks the structures, theengineers must think about the safety of the people who uses the structures. It is
important for the civil engineers to realize how we should keep the structures safeenough for the people or should give the information to what extent the structure canresist against any unexpected situations. To do so, it is important for civil engineers tolearn from the disasters already happened and also try to estimate other disasters which
may happen in the future. Usually, the civil engineers do their works to meet theavailable specifications trying to prevent and mitigate the disasters as much as possible.
But furthermore, care is needed to anticipate what may happen if the disaster become
far larger than the expected and/or with the combination with other disasters. Including
the measures for evacuation, preparedness and response are the most important points tobe considered even in such cases. After the Great East Japan Earthquake, lots ofinvestigations and research works have been done. We know that any disaster may
occur at any time exceeding the expected situation and scale. The civil engineers must
always be careful to do their works considering the “worst case scenario” and try tokeep the users of the structures safe enough at any situation.
REFERENCES
Concrete Committee of Japan Society of Civil Engineers (JSCE), 2010. Standard
Specifications for Concrete Structures -2007 “Design”.
Concrete Committee of Japan Society of Civil Engineers (JSCE), 2010. Standard
Specifications for Concrete Structures -2007 “Maintenance”
Hoskikuma, J., Zhang, G., Nakao, H., and Sumimura, T., 2012. Researches on behaviorof bearing supports in highway bridges under tsunami-induced force. 28th U.S.-Japan
Bridge Engineering Workshop, UJNR, Oct. 2012.
Ishizuka, T., 2013. A landslide dam in Ambon Island, Indonesia and TechnicalCooperation by Public Works Research Institute. The Sabo 46, 20-22 (in Japanese).
Ishizuka, T., and Osanai, N., 2012. Deep catastrophic landslides and landslide dams inJapan, In Proceedings of International Symposium on Dams for a Changing World, 7580.
Nakao, H., Zhang, G., Sumimura, T., and Hoshikuma, J., 2013. Numerical assessmentof tsunami-induced effect on bridge behavior. 29th U.S.-Japan Bridge Engineering
Workshop, UJNR, Nov. 2013.
Uomoto, T., 2013. Importance of maintenance for sustainable structures. ICCS13,
Tokyo.

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28

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Suguru ISHIGURO, Ph.D.,
Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST),
Department of International Affairs
ABSTRACTIn 1995 the Diet of Japan adopted the "Science and Technology basic law" aiming to transform Japan into ascience- and technology- oriented nation. Since then, Science and Technology Basic plans have, in accordancewith this law, been drawn up every five year (first to 4th) and other various policies were formulated andmeasures have been taken.
Among such governmental efforts, one of the international research initiatives is the Science andTechnology Research Partnership for Sustainable Development (SATREPS) program. The program is conducted
through collaboration with the framework of Official Development Assistance(ODA)'s technical cooperation.
Based on the needs of developing countries, SATREPS promote international joint research targeting global
issues such as climate change adaptation, low-carbon society, bio-diversity conservation, and disaster prevention
and mitigation, with an objective to utilize research outcomes in the foreseeable future.
In the symposium, the framework and current trends of SATREPS will be discussed.

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Oral Sessions

Initiative on Quality Management System (QMS)
for Myanmar construction company
Aye Mya Cho
Associate Professor, Civil Engineering Department,
Mandalay Technological University, Mandalay, Myanmar
amcho.civil@gmail.com
ABSTRACTThe most important focus of the construction industry is to emphasize that a project tobe completed within the predetermined time, quality and cost. The implementation ofquality management system (QMS) in construction industry assists improvement of theorganizational management system efficiently and effectively with targeted objectives ofrespective company. Myanmar construction industry has been still trying to enhance its
leading role to systematic set up with standardized procedure or process. Not only
locally attention on it also internationally focus of it calls for inauguration of quality
management system (QMS) to Myanmar companies. This leads to introduce an
exemplary way of the QMS in Myanmar construction industry. The main idea of QMS isbased on ISO quality family series which provide continuous improvement by using
PDCA (Plan, Do, Check, Act) circle. As a short outline it includes four main categories;
quality planning, quality control, quality assurance and quality improvement. Under themain considerations requirements on the QMS of a company; detail presentation of
mission and vision statement of the company, method of developing the quality
management, the quality policy, quality objectives, organization and responsibilities,
material purchasing and supplying, control of non conformity, work procedure arepresented .
Keywords: quality, quality control, quality assurance, quality improvement, objectives,
policy1. INTRODUCTION
Myanmar has started massive development in construction after the 80s of the 20th
century. In the beginning there were a lot of unsystematic approaches to theimplementation of construction and companies used the traditional management style
under instability of some situations. Today Myanmar reforms all sectors, including theconstruction industry also. Construction is usually accomplished through thecooperation of the designer, the architect, the builder, site supervisors, HVAC,
plumbing, electrical, and other contractors; manufacturers and suppliers of materials
and components etc. Implementation of construction is done by team with smoothnessof cooperation of them to meet end user’s requirements. A number of constructions
companies is growing and participating in the creation of the new and modernizedcountry in abreast with others. For their long term competition with them a company
requires accreditation. Here setting up the Quality Management System plays in
topmost role.

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November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

2. QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (QMS)
Quality Management System is management system to direct and control anorganization with regard to quality. A fully documented QMS will ensure that two
important requirements are met:
1. The customers’ requirements – confidence in the ability of the organization todeliver the desired product and service consistently meeting their needs andexpectations.
2. The organization’s requirements – both internally and externally, and at an
optimum cost with efficient use of the available resources – materials, human,
technology and information.
To fulfill these requirements, the international organizations standardization points out
the two considerations to be set up in an organization as follow:
1. needs to demonstrate its ability to consistently provide product that meets
customer and applicable statutory and regulatory requirements, and2. aims to enhance customer satisfaction through the effective application of thesystem, including processes for continual improvement of the system and theassurance of conformity to customer and applicable statutory and regulatory
requirements. The followings are useful terms in QMS.
(1) Quality: Conforming to the plans, specifications and applicable codes andstandards; conformance to the requirements (i.e., meeting the owner’s
requirements).
(2) Quality control (QC): Individual activities, such as inspecting and testing, bywhich conformance to the project specifications is validated.
(3) Quality assurance (QA): Activities that validate the effectiveness of thequality control.
(4) Quality management system (QMS): The people and processes in place toensure that construction meets the owner’s requirements.
(5) Quality management program (QMP): The people and processes in place toensure that construction meets quality requirements.
(6) Quality management plan (QMP): The project-specific plan to ensure that
quality is outlined in a quality management program.
(7) Quality management: The application of a quality management system inmanaging a process to achieve maximum owner satisfaction at the lowest
overall cost to the organization while continuing to improve the process.
Myanmar Construction Company has been trying to participate in ASEAN as well asinternational community with expected standards. This situation calls for companies tobe well qualified and accredited. As consequence, companies need individual QMS intheir organization. After providing general requirements mentioned above, a company
requires providing documentation requirements. These requirements are set up
according to the ISO Standards.

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3. ISOISO (International Organization for Standardization) is the world’s largest developer
and publisher of International Standards. ISO is a non-governmental organization that
forms a bridge between the public and private sectors. On the one hand, many of its
member institutes are part of the governmental structure of their countries, or are
mandated by their government. On the other hand, other members have their roots
uniquely in the private sector, having been set up by national partnerships of industry
associations. Therefore, ISO enables a consensus to be reached on solutions that meetboth the requirements of business and the broader needs of society.
4. ESTABLISHMENT OF QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM IN A
COMPANYFirstly, a company should identify the general requirements and documentation
requirements in the system, compromising customer requirements with its requirements
and shall establish the standards of quality management system, and form it to
document, implementing and maintaining it, and continually improving its effectiveness.
This study presents four main categories to apply QMS in a company. These are:(1) Quality Planning(2) Quality Assurance(3) Quality Control, and(4) Quality Improvement
4.1 Quality planning (QP)
The foremost step to set up QMS is to make a plan for a quality system. In this plan acompany should express its background in brief, location of the office, and field ofoperation, mission and vision statement by top management person. The following
points are considered in the planning.
1. The director of construction company should write a clear quality policy.
2. Define the objectives of quality management system in some detail.
3. Quality manager must be appointed to direct operations. He or she should
prepare job descriptions related to achievement of targeted quality and point out
the territory of individual managerial responsibilities.
4. Recognition on QMS should be widely spreaded by compromising the needs ofthe customer and of the company and the system should be clearly defined,
understood and operated by all internal, external and third parties.
5. Arrange for audits regularly to find out which operations areas occur potential
problems and improve those.
6. Quality improvement programme (QIP) should be designed to achieve
established objectives.
7. QIP implementation requires the commitment and involvement of all employees.
8. QIP should be kept to the agreed timetable (monitor progress).
9. Audit and review overall effectiveness. The practical implementation andappropriateness of the quality system should be continually compared with theobjectives. A method for changes in the plan should be defined.
The organization will always need to plan and strategize activities with time boundbefore execution otherwise achievement cannot be measured. Therefore this position is
Initiative on Quality Management System (QMS) for Myanmar construction company
Initiative on quality management system (QMS) for Myanmar construction company

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November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmaressential for quality management system and the followings are the project manager’
responsibilities;
1. Working especially with the project team to schedule activities until delivery
and completion
2. Working with procurement officer and construction manager and incorporating
their work scope plan into the project schedule
3. Agreeing with customer and fix milestone on project schedules
4. Setting up progress monitoring system and monitor progress on project andmaking alert to the project team in the case when particular activity is lagging
behind
5. Fixing critical path in schedule as project required and advicing strategies toaccomplish activities on critical path
6. Planning the organization’s implementation of quality management system andworking with management representative on review of the system
7. Writing planning and progress monitoring procedure for the continuity ofsystem
4.2 Quality assurance (QA)
Quality assurance covers all activities from design, development, production/
construction, installation, and servicing to documentation, and also includes regulationsof the quality of raw materials, assemblies, products, and components; services related
to production; and management, production, and inspection processes. This should bedone by quality assurance manager assigned in the company. The followings are theresponsibilities to do by himself or herself.
1. Distributing roles and duties of the quality control team thereby setting up
quality assurance system and reviewing construction procedure to ensure quality
performance completeness2. Overseeing the production of quality inspection plan by designating witness,review and hold points of inspection
3. Reviewing design documents and drawings ensuring that the correct revision isused in construction
4. Discussing and agreeing corrective action on non-conformance with customer
representative and verification on implementation of the corrective action
5. Seeing the qualification and certification of employees and labours according tocontract requirements
6. Performing surveys on suppliers for their qualification
7. Reviewing and evaluating supplier’s quality program for integration into quality
management system
4.3 Quality control (QC)
Quality control is a process employed to ensure a certain level of quality in a product orservice. The basic goal of quality control is to ensure that the products, services, orprocesses provided meet specific requirements and are dependable, satisfactory, andfiscally sound. The organization laid more emphases on quality assurance and that is
why this position is paramount to quality management system. The quality control
engineer has the authority and responsibilities as follows;
1. To check for completeness in inspection and test reports and authenticates them34

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2. To work alongside QA/QC manager in the preparation of inspection and test
plan on construction works and monitors its implementation
3. To review quality records and procedures and later authenticates them for
QA/QC manager’s approval
4. To take up the role of management representative in steering the quality
management system if delegated to do so
5. To attend project quality meetings and advice improvement on quality of work
6. To work with the QA/QC manager for quality assurance of the suppliers
4.4 Quality improvement (QI)In QMS, continual improvement enhances the organizational capabilities and flexibility
to allow it to react quickly to opportunities and to make continual improvement as apermanent objective of the organization. This should be done in a company or an
organization by using plan-do-check-act (PDCA) circle as shown in the Figure 1.

Figure 1: PDCA circle
1. Plan: Establishes the objectives and processes necessary to deliver results inaccordance with customer requirements and organizations policies.
2. Do: Implements the processes.
3. Check: Monitors and measures the processes and product against policies,
objectives and requirements for the product and report the results.
4. Act: Taking actions to continually improve process performance.
This PDCA circle should use at all phases of construction.
4.5 Findings of quality problems in construction
From the previous surveys, the followings are found as some problems in most ofConstruction Company.
1. Laying down of impracticable aim and objectives
2. Unclear identification of responsibility and authority for people in it
3. Inadequate Construction Laws and Regulations
4. Lack of awareness in principles, regulation and procedures of project
5. Quality deficiency because of management and skill requirements
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6. Insufficient inspection in all parts of construction implementation
7. Extra relationships with unnecessary people in and out of the organization tooperate a project
8. Lack of finding poor area of construction and upgrading it to a required level
9. Less applying management techniques to all phases of construction
10. Lack of on-job and off-job trainings
4.6 Ways to cope the problems
Myanmar Construction Industry runs for long time with limited application ofinternational concerns. This leads to dissatisfaction of construction performance by allparties inside and outside the country. Now a day the adaptation of QMS becomes
popular demand in Myanmar. The followings are important considerations to initiate
QMS in the country.
1. Country-wide well known Construction Organization should be set up.
2. This organization should deliver update procedures, principles, information to all
construction companies.
3. Document adequate information about company profile, field of operation, andchallenges, etc.
4. Mission and vision statement should be laid down in accordance with availability ofresources by company or organization.
5. Organizational structure should be established, providing adequate staff at all levels.
6. Top management team or assigned person should write required policies, manuals,
and occasionally update and let all employees know them in time.
7. Top management should ask for report back from lower levels, revise old plans
with new, practicable, applicable and beneficial ones
8. Accountability is required by all people at all levels of a company or an
organization
9. Project manager, quality assurance manager, quality control manager, etc. should
write respective policy, manual and all necessary outlines.
10. Monitoring from resources collection to the completion of construction project isrequired and provide close control plan for nonconformity with prescribed
specifications.
11. A company or an organization must be accredited through internal and external
audit.
5. CONCLUSION
Quality management system starts with commitment from the top management
presented in the form of a quality policy. Although QMS is initiated by the uppermost
management level, it is essential to do works in ever y steps by everybody to effectively
move to targeted system implementation, compromising individual requirements andorganization’s requirements.

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REFERENCES
Adefolalu, O., 2013. Developing a TQM system for a Company, Degree Programme in
Environmental Engineering.
AS/NZS ISO 9000:2006, Quality Management Systems – Fundamentals andVocabulary.
AS/NZS ISO 9001:2008, Quality Management Systems – Requirement.
AS/NZS ISO 9004:2011, Management for the Sustained Success of an Organization.
Gašparík, J., 2007. Quality Management Development and Implemetation inConstruction Company, 5th Research/Expert Conference with International
Participations ”QUALITY 2007”, Neum, B&H, June 06-09, 2007.
Rumane, A. R., 2011. Quality Management in Construction Projects, Taylor andFrancis Group, LLC.
Tek, O. H., Quality and Value Management in Construction, Achieving Excellence
through Value-Managed Quality System (VMQS).

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Initiative on quality management system (QMS) for Myanmar construction company

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38

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Ryoko SERA1, Yutaka KOIKE1, Yasushi HIRONAKA2 , Haruto NAKAMURA2
and Reiko KUWANO 3
1
Research-and-development center, Geo Search Co., Ltd., Japanr-sera@geosearch.co.jp
2
Disaster reduction department, Geo Search Co., Ltd., Japan
3
Professor, ICUS, IIS, the University of Tokyo, Japan
ABSTRACTRoad cave-in accidents have been occurring frequently in many parts of the world inrecent years. In the wake of multiple road cave-ins in Tokyo in 1988, which became asocial issue known as the "cave-in syndrome", regular road cavity surveys wereintroduced in Japan. At present, road cavity surveys are carried out on the roads thatare managed by the national and local governments as measure to prevent road caveins. By March 2014 more than 120,000 km of road lanes have been surveyed and morethan 25,000 cavities have been found. It is well known that cavities form when soil
particles wash away through breakage of degraded sewer pipes, but the frequent
natural disasters in recent years, such as heavy rain and earthquakes, and the increasein underground congestion, also contribute to the formation of cavities. This paper
summarizes the knowledge about the actual condition and trend of cavities that were
found through regular surveys and surveys conducted in recovery efforts following
earthquake disasters, and also mentions several survey examples.
Keywords: geotechnical disaster, subsurface cavity, road cave-in
1. INTRODUCTION
In Japan, road cavity surveys started in 1988, because multiple road cave-ins occurredin the Tokyo metropolitan area, which became a serious social issue known as the“cave-in syndrome”. Since then the needs for road surveys as a means to prevent roadcave-ins have increased. Presently, a survey system has been established, and continues
to evolve. The effectiveness of this system, which was developed by Geo Search, hasbeen very well proven by road surveys all over Japan. The increase in the occurrence ofcavities will be inevitable because of further urbanization and higher frequencies ofnatural disasters, and the cases that road surveys become indispensable will increase.
2. CAUSES OF CAVITY OCCURRENCE AND ITS TENDENCY
2.1 Main Causes of Cavity Occurrence
Cavities are formed by a phenomenon in which small voids expand by washout or
consolidation settlement of soil particles in the subgrade. Subsurface cavities formed

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November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

expand over time under the influence of various factors, some of which are shown in
Table 1. When the strength of pavement exceeds its limit, a cave-in ultimately ensues. A
more, detailed classification of cavity factors is shown in Table 2. In many cases, some
contributing factors influencing each other cause cavities. The general tendency
observed of the cavity expansion speed and direction is summarized in Table 3.
Table 1: Classification of contributing factors to the causes of cavities
Contributing Factors
Phenomenon or Details
DirectBuried items, Damaged Bank Protection, etc.
IndirectRain Water, Ground Water, Ground, Tide, Earthquakes, etc.
External
Poor Workmanship, Excessive Traffic Loads, Vibration, etc.
Table 2: Detailed classification of contributing factors to the causes of cavities
7 Major Factors
Washing Out of Soil around
Buried Structures
Consolidation settlement ofaround Buries Structures
Related to Large Scale
Underground Structure
Influence of Rain Water and
Ground Water
Earthquake Influence
Sucking out from Embankment
Others or Unknown Causes

Details of Contributing Factors
Broken Pipes or Conduits or Manhole Structures orBoxes or Side Ditch, Faulty Pipe Connections,
Unplugged Pipe Ends, Leakage in Water Pipes
Lack of Backfill Compaction, Inferior Backfill,
Influence of Near-by Work or Propulsion Work of
Shielding Construction
Remnant of Buried Structures, Water Flowing Passaround Buried Structures
Influence of Ground Water, and Rain Water Erosion
Settlement Caused by Vibration, Liquefaction
Washout of Soil and Sand from Embankment

Table 3: Cavity expansion speed and expansion direction
Cavity Expansion Speed
Expanding Phenomenon
Position
Direction of Expansion

Fast
Washout
Deep (Breakage sewer
pipes, etc.)
Vertical (Upward) andHorizontal

Slow
Consolidation settlement
Shallow (Directly under
the Pavement)
Horizontal

2.2 Frequency of Cavity Occurrence
Figure 1 shows a comparison of cavity occurrence ratios by road administrator
classification. The cavity occurrence ratio is defined as the number of subsurface
cavities found in 1km of survey distance. This ratio is based on data of 25,642 cavities
which were confirmed through the inspection surveys covering a distance 125,043 km
of paved roads all over Japan, conducted by the authors from 1988 to 2013. Because of
the fact that each road has its specific pavement structure, roadside attribute, and buried
items, the conditions that result in cavity occurrence are not the same but depend on

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geographical location. Buried items are found to have many contributing factors thatcause cavities. It is shown that this comparison is related to the quantity of the buried
item. National roads have few buried items compared with other roads, resulting in alower ratio. On the other hand regional roads and roads of government ordinance cities
have a higher numbers of buried items such as subways and large-scale undergroundstructures, resulting in a higher ratio.
Overall Mean 0.206 cavities / km

Figure 1: Comparison of cavity occurrence ratio by road administrator classification
3. CAVITIES OCCURRED UNDER NORMAL CONDITION
3.1 Causes of Cavity Occurrences under Normal Condition
Cavities that occur under normal conditions are, as shown in the Table 2, mainly related
to buried items and structures underground. According to a report by the Tokyo
Metropolitan Government, out of 1,018 cavities confirmed in the surveys from 2001 to
2009, 28% were caused by breakage of sewer pipes and rain water conduits, 32% werecaused by inferior backfilling, and 14% were caused by congestion of buried items. It
was confirmed that underground structures and items represent a major cause of
subsurface cavities in city environments.
3.2 Thoughts on Factors Contributing to Cavity Expansion
Fig. 2 shows the aggregated number of cave-ins per month reported in national
newspapers from 1988 to 2013. It shows that cave-ins increase in summer when asphalt
becomes softer because of high road surface temperature. It is also reported that in
Nagaoka City, Niigata Pref., numerous road cave-ins occurred as temperature rose andsnow melted in May of the year following the 2004 Ch etsu earthquake. The paper by
Koike et al. (2012) indicated that many cave-ins occurred in the years with many heavy
rain days since 1995. It is assumed that the rapid expansion of cavities is caused byrepetitive washout of loosened soil by rain water flowing into the underground throughbroken parts of underground pipes.
The frequent occurrence period of cave-ins

Figure 2: Newspaper reporting of cave-ins by month (throughout Japan)
Actual condition and trend of cavity occurrence under Japanese roads in recent years
Actual condition and trend of cavity occurrence under Japanese roads in recent years

41November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar
November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

3.3 An example of a Cavity Caused by a Breakage of Degraded Sewer Pipe
Figure 3 shows an example of an open-cut location to confirm a cavity caused by soil
particles washout through a broken sewer pipe. The following explains how the cavity
was formed.
(1) No subsidence was observed in the open-cut location at the start of cutting theasphalt pavement.
(2) After removal of the pavement, a small hole appeared.
(3) Loosened parts around the hole were dug out.
(4) Digging proceeded at intervals of about 10 cm and loose soil was confirmed at eachinterval.
(5) Water was poured through the loose part of the soil surface to confirm the route ofwater flow, and further digging revealed a ceramic sewer pipe broken at its connecting
joint. This digging operation confirmed that the cause of occurrence and expanding of
the cavity found was flowing out of soil and sand through a broken sewer pipe
connecting joint. The ceramic sewer pipe was of an old type which is now out of use
and the connecting joint was broken because of age deterioration.
(1)

(4)

(2)

(5)

(3)

(5)-close up

Figure 3: Open-cut investigation of a cavity caused by breakage of sewer pipe
4 CAVITIES CAUSED BY LARGE-SCALE EARTHQUAKES
For those geotechnical disasters where the damage is visible, such as landslides andslope failures, it is relatively easy to execute countermeasures. On the other hand,through investigations other studies have reported that earthquakes frequently cause
invisible subsurface cavities. Once those subsurface cavities become apparent by
subsidence, cave-ins, etc. countermeasures become possible. However, unrepaired
cavities left unattended will surely come up to the surface as time advances. In order to42

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ensure disaster recovery activities, subsurface cavities need to be repaired early. This
chapter explains aspects of subsurface cavities with observations based on surveys
carried out by the authors immediately after 4 earthquakes larger than 5+ by Japan
Meteorological Agency Seismic Intensity Scale (hereinafter referred to as "Ijma") that
occurred in 5 regional areas as shown in Table 4.
Table 4: Outline of 4 Large-Scale Earthquakes and findings about cavity occurrenceNo

Names (Date)
Magnitude, Max Ijma

1

2004 Ch etsu Earthquake(2004.10.23)
M 6.8, Max Ijma 722007 Ch etsu Offshore
Earthquake (2007.7.16)
M 6.8, Max Ijma 6+

32005 Fukuoka Earthquake(2005.3.20)
M 7.0, Max Ijma 6-

4
5

the Great East Japan
Earthquake (2011.3.11)
M 9.0, Max Ijma 7

Topography or use
Main Disasters
Mountains and Flats (Sand
Ground)Landslide, dike and slope
failureMountains and Flats (Sand
Ground)Landslide, dike and slope
failureFindings about Cavity
OccurrencePort Facilities

Relations between sectionof seawall structure andcavity locations

Destruction of Port
Facilities
Mountains and Flats, Urban
Area
Tsunami, Destroyed
Buildings, Road Collapse
Reclaimed Land by Sand

Liquefaction, Subsidence

Multiple occurrenceswhere under Ijma 5 andaround buried items
Around the boundary of
cutting and filling ofembankment

Multiple occurrenceswhere under Ijma 6 andaround buried items
Caused by liquefaction,
thin and large areas

4.1 2004 Ch etsu Earthquake and 2007 Ch etsu Offshore Earthquake (Road
Damages)
The 2004 Ch etsu Earthquake that occurred on October 23, 2004, and the 2007 Ch etsu
Offshore Earthquake that occurred on July 16, 2007 devastated roads by landslides andsoil avalanches. In urban areas, soil liquefaction occurred, destroying road surfaces inmany locations. Figure 4 shows the Ijma maps of both large-scale earthquakes.

2004 Ch etsu Earthquake

2007 Ch etsu Offshore Earthquake

Figure 4: Ijma map of 2004 Ch etsu Earthquake and 2007 Ch etsu Offshore Earthquake
Actual condition and trend of cavity occurrence under Japanese roads in recent years
Actual condition and trend of cavity occurrence under Japanese roads in recent years

43November
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After each of the Earthquakes road cavity surveys were conducted to protect against
road cave-ins. Abe et al. (2007) and Yoshikawa et al. summarized facts about what waslearned from the surveys. A relation between the Ijma and the occurrence of cavities was
identified. On roads which were stuck with Ijma 5+, the occurrence ratio was 2~8 times
larger than normal. In addition, many cavities were found around undeground box
culverts and boundaries of cutting and filling of embankment. The fruits of their study
are utilized by many as a precious aid for judging the timing and methodology ofemergency surveys soon after large-scale earthquakes. Figure 5 shows the typicallocations demonstrating cavities that were caused by 2007 Ch etsu offshore earthquake.
Cavities were found to develop discontinuously along the boundary line of cutting andfilling which is running across the road. Photos of cavities taken through boreholes
show that cavities that were found to be irregular in shape, as if they had been formed insudden collapse of soil. They were different from cavities formed under normal
conditions.
Plan position of cavities

A

B

C

Borehole pictures
A
B

C

D

D

Figure 5: An example of cavities that occurred around the boundary of cutting andfilling of embankment (2007 Ch etsu Offshore Earthquake)
4.2 2005 Fukuoka Earthquake (Port Facilities)
The 2005 Fukuoka earthquake of March 20, 2005 is known as one of the large-scale
earthquakes. Figure 6 shows the Ijma map of this earthquake and a picture taken at thetime of recovery work showing pier surface cave-in. Many facilities of Hakata Port
were severely damaged by the quake. Liquefaction, cracks, subsidence, uplifting in thepier apron yard, bulging out of the normal lines of seawalls, and cave-ins in thebackland were observed. For the purpose of ensuring safety and prevention of cave-ins,

Figure 6: Ijma map of 2005 Fukuoka Earthquake and a picture taken at the time ofrecovery work showing pier floor cave-in.

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cavity surveys were started. The recovery works while avoiding unfavorable influence
to the cargo loading activities at the port, were completed in 2 years.
Figure 7 shows the relation between the distance from the seawall structure and cavity
locations. In case of gravity type, sections where cavities were found showed that themain cause was considered to be the shifting and washout of landfill materials throughjoints which occurred because of inclination and slippage of the seawall. In case of
sheet-pile construction, the main cause was considered to be the uneven gaps between
the slab and the ground behind it because of the shifting of the seawall toward the sea.

Figure 7: Cross section of seawall and the position of cavity formation (2005 Fukuoka
Earthquake)
4.3 The Great East Japan Earthquake (Road Damages)
The Great East Japan Earthquake is the earthquake with the highest Ijma sinceobservations began in Japan. It occurred on March 11, 2011 and recorded a magnitudeof 9.0 and a maximum Ijma of 7. The quake-hit area spread across the Japanese mainisland from the North East region to the Pacific coast of Kanto region, all of which wereextensively damaged by not only a Tsunami, but also by ground liquefaction andsubsidence.
4.3.1 Miyagi Prefecture
In Miyagi Pref., which is the region nearest to the epicenter, Ijma 5+ was observed. Even
6 months after the Earthquake, more than 3,400 spots of disrupting road traffic were
repaired on the roads of Miyagi Pref. By the situation mentioned above, a 5 stage surveyof subsurface cavities was motivated. The survey was conducted over a period of 3
years and revealed 1,309 cavities in 1,995 km of roads. The survey was indispensable
for securing traffic safety for the disaster recovery activities. Figure 8 shows the Ijma
map of this earthquake and a picture of the survey conducted in Miyagi Pref.
According to Agatsuma et al. (2014) the cavity occurrence ratio was maximum 4.0
times and area was maximum 1.7 times as large as those under normal times. Figure 9shows 75% of the confirmed cavities were formed in the vicinities of buried items andmanhole structures. It is considered that those cavities are caused by washout of soil
through broken parts and loosened by earthquake vibration. Further, heavy rains
brought by a typhoon and repeating aftershocks caused large amount of rain water toflow out into the underground and the backfilling soil in the vicinities of pipes was
softened.
Actual condition and trend of cavity occurrence under Japanese roads in recent years
Actual condition and trend of cavity occurrence under Japanese roads in recent years

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Figure 8: Ijma map of the Great East Japan Earthquake and a picture of survey conductedin Miyagi Pref.
Road-crossing drainage lines, road-crossing water ways
Sewerage line and its manholes
River and coastal embankments
Vicinities of side ditch waterways
Buried water conduit other than sewerageRoads leading to bridges
Others unknown reasons

Figure 9: Places of subsurface cavities at Miyagi Pref. (the Great East Japan
Earthquake)
The same report analyzes cases of cavity occurrence based on underground vibrationand multiple factors. In the result, there were correlations among susceptibility tovibration, degrees of congestion of buried items and rate of sewer damage. Especially inpoor subsoil, cavity occurrence ratio and area of cavity tended to be large. The followup observation revealed that the expansion of cavities over time and a new fact that,even after the passing of certain period from an earthquake, cavities develop dependingon the status of aftershocks and underground soil conditions.
4.3.2 Tokyo Bay Coastal Areas Where Land Liquefaction Occurred
In the Tokyo Bay coastal areas, Ijma 5+ was observed. Soil liquefaction was confirmedin large
areas
reclaimed
land.
Roads
sandEarthquake
boiling spotsthat brought
Figure10:ofIjma
map of theGreat
EasthadJapanand everywhere
picture of survey
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about suspicion of subsurface cavity development. Though it was the first time that aroad cavity survey in liquefied areas was conducted, the survey was carried out for the
purpose of grasping the actual conditions of roads to ensure traffic safety. Sera et al.
(2013) published a fact finding report about the characteristics, conditions, etc. of
subsurface cavities in liquefied ground. Figure 10 shows the Ijma map and a picture of
the survey conducted in the liquefied area along Tokyo Bay coast.
In liquefied ground, cavity occurrence ratio and area of cavity tended to be large andthickness was thinner than in normal times. Many of those cavities found showed thefact that they were formed between the pavement and subbase after the liquefaction
phenomena. Figure 11 shows borehole pictures of a “string of cavities” which is one of
the characteristics of liquefaction cavities. All the cavities eroded subbase in upward
direction wavelike. The fact came out that cavities formed close to gaps aroundmanholes, around the drainage systems, and under pavement joints. Kuwano et al.
(2013) elucidated the mechanism of these cavity formations by experiment.
Asphalt

SlagsubbaseCavityCavityFallen slag,
Sand, etc.

Figure 11: Borehole pictures of a string of cavities in liquefied ground (the Great East Japan
Earthquake)
4.4 Summary of Occurrences of Cavities after Large-Scale Earthquakes
In all the above cases, cavities developed after the earthquakes have a tendency to
become “thin but covering wide areas” and cavity occurrence ratio was higher ascompared with those formed in normal times. Especially in areas which have highcontents of sand in the ground, it is considered that cavity developments is susceptible
to the vibration from large scale earthquakes. Table 7 below summarizes what is known
from the status of cavity occurrences after large-scale earthquakes in 3 areas.
Table 7: Summarization of occurrence situation of cavity after large-scale earthquakes
Earthquakes

2004 Ch etsu
2007 Ch etsu 2005Fukuoka
OffshoreOccurrence situation
Earthquakes with Ijma 5 ormore caused more than 3 times
Multiple occurrence
Large area and thin form
Sandy ground or material of
Sand were related
New cavities in the same area*) : Relevant, : Not Investigated, but Highly Possible,

2011 the Great
East JapanTokyo
Miyagibay: Irrelevant

Actual condition and trend of cavity occurrence under Japanese roads in recent years
Actual condition and trend of cavity occurrence under Japanese roads in recent years

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5. CONCLUSION
Table 7: Summarization of occurrence situation of cavity after large-scale earthquakes
In the future, with further urbanization and the increase of natural disasters such as
earthquakes, there will be more occurrences of subsurface cavities. It is considered thatthe road cavity survey will become one of the indispensable means for disasterprevention and mitigation, daily road management and the security of road traffic. It is
assumed that repair work becomes difficult when many cavities occur at once like aftera large-scale earthquake. For the determination of the priority of repair of a huge
number of cavities, Miyagi Pref. used a positioning map method for assessing of thedegrees of cave-in after the Great East Japan Earthquake. This method, which consistsof the depth and area of cavities, enabled to deal with the problem. Based on thisassessment, cavities are classified into three steps of countermeasures to be taken: i.e.
immediate repair, repair in order of priorities, and follow-up observation. Thus concrete
steps for securing traffic security have been taken in a reliable way. Hereafter, with thepossibilities of multiple cavity occurrences in mind, it is desired to execute a series of
preventive measures against road cave-ins as a part of systematized countermeasuresincorporating road surveys and practical repair methods.
REFERENCES
Abe, T., Saika, M., Kusakabe, T., Kichikawa, S., and Fujii, K., 2007. Management of
the road cave-in risk after a large earthquake using subsurface cavity survey
technology. 23rd World Road Congress of the World Road Association (PIARC).
Agatsuma, K., Tobita, Y., Sera, R., Hironaka, Y., Amari, N. and Konno, C., 2014.
Characteristics of subsurface cavities in Miyagi pref. caused by the Great East Japan
Earthquake –incidence rate trend analysis-. The Japanese Geotechnical Society special
symposium – overcome the Great East Japan Earthquake, 285-293 (in Japanese).
Koike, Y. and Sera, R., 2012. Basic Consideration on Occurrence of Sinkhole under
Pavement - General Characteristics. 47th Geotechnical Symposium, 1457-1458 (inJapanese).
Kuwano, R., Kuwano, J., Taira, S., Sera, R., and Koike, Y., 2013. Model tests
simulating sub-surface cavities formed in the liquefied ground. New Technologies for
Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia 2013.
Sera, R., Koike, Y., Nakamura, H., Kuwano, R. and Kuwano, J., 2013. Survey of subsurface cavities in the liquefied ground caused by the Great East Japan Earthquake.
New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia 2013.

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Subsurface cavity beneath a buried sewer pipe
supported by piles
Reiko KUWANO1, Jiro KUWANO2 and Yikiko SAITO3
1
Professor, ICUS, IIS, the University of Tokyo, Japankuwano@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
2
Professor, Saitama University, Japan
3
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transportation, Japan
ABSTRACT

Frequent road cave-ins happened in the area beneath which an old sewer pipe of 2mdiameter was laid at a depth of 3m. The sewer pipe was supported by piles. The area
was long subjected to significant ground subsidence mainly due to continuous pumpingof ground water. Voids and ground loosening were considered to be formed under thefoundation of pipe at a depth of 5m because the ground below the sewer pipe seemed tosettle at approximately 1m while the ground above the pipe did not follow the settlement.
Unlike usual subsurface cavities, the ground penetrating radar exploration technique
was not effective as the pulse radar exploration was capable of detecting undergroundcavities up to 2m deep. Ground investigation including the surface wave survey and theground penetrating radar exploration from a borehole was carried out to identify
location and size of ground cavities and loosening.
Keywords: subsurface cavity, sewer pipe supported by piles, ground cave-in, groundloosening, ground settlement
1. INTRODUCTION
Uneven settlement was observed in the prefectural road. It caused cracks in the asphalt
pavement and road cave-ins. Local government officials filled the cave and overlaying
asphalt when it repeatedly happened. The subjected area is in front of a hospital, where
the traffic of emergency vehicle is often expected. Local government conducted site
investigation as well as laboratory tests to identify the subsurface cavities causing caveins. This paper describes the results of the investigation and mechanism of sub-surface
cavities formation.
2. OUTLINE OF THE OBSERVED PHENOMENON
2.1 Observed phenomenon
At the suburb of Tokyo, surface deformation and frequent cave-ins occurred on one laneof the prefectural road. The damaged area is about 70m long. There is a buried sewer
pipe under the lane at a depth of 2 to 4m as shown in Figure 1. Uneven settlement
caused cracks and steps in the approach road to the hospital, where emergency vehicles

49

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmarare often passing. Asphalt overlay seemed to be repeatedly conducted at the damage ofpavement. Local government became aware of the problem and started to monitor thesettlement from 2011, further carrying out site investigation in 2012.

Figure 1: Location of damaged area
2.2 Possible cause for cave-ins
The major reason for the urban road cave-in is usually the failure of buried sewer pipe.
Soil around the broken pipe is flown into the pipe and a cavity is formed in the ground.
A subsurface cavity expands due to repeated internal erosion and eventually reaches theground surface (Kuwano et al., 2010). However in this case, according to theobservation from inside the sewer pipe, there was no sign of significant damage in thesewer pipe. The buried sewer pipe is 2m in diameter. It seems to sit on a concrete
foundation supported by piles, although details are unknown because the construction
was so old that no information on the foundation and the piles remained.
The area was widely subjected to the ground settlement. Judging from fences at thepedestrian road adjacent to the area, the degree of settlement can be up to 1m as shownin Figure 2. The shape of the road surface above the sewer pipe is like a horse back,curving down at both sides as shown in Figure 3. It is likely that the pile supported
buried pipe did not follow the surrounding settlement and large voids were formed
under the foundation of pipe. The estimated mechanism of the subsurface cavity andcave-ins are schematically shown in Figure 4.

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Figure 2: Significant ground settlement in the area

Figure 3: Curved surface of the road

Figure 4: Process of subsurface cavity formation
Subsurface cavity beneath a buried sewer pipe supported by piles

Subsurface cavity beneath a buried sewer pipe supported by piles

51November
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Yangon,MyanmarNovember
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Yangon,Myanmar

2.3 Site investigation
In order to determine countermeasures for the cave-ins, it is necessary to know thelocation, size and state of cavities. Area of ground loosening associated cavities shouldbe also obtained. For the detection of subsurface cavities, the ground penetrating radar
exploration technique is usually adapted but in this particular case it was not effective as
the pulse radar exploration was capable of detecting underground cavities up to 2m deep,
while suspected cavities were at larger depth. Ground investigation including thesurface wave survey and the ground penetrating radar exploration from a borehole wascarried out to identify the state of ground cavities and loosening. Items of investigation
are shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Site investigation
BoringSettlement monitoring
Sewer pipe inspection
Surface wave survey
Borehole radar
Soil sampling

PurposeEstimation of ground profile, measurement ofground water level
Measurement of settlement
Search for damage in a sewer pipe
Estimation of overall loosened area
Detection of cavity
Consolidation test to estimate further
settlement

3. RESULTS OF INVESTGATION
3.1 Geological profile
Bore holes were conducted at 4 locations, 1 to 4 indicated in Figure 1. Ground profile

along the road, line A-A’ in Figure 1, is presented in Figure 5. There are 3 to 5 m thickpeat and 5 to 10 m thick Alluvial clay. According to the laboratory test, theconsolidation yield stresses for peat and Alluvial clay exceeded effective overburdenpressures.

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Figure 5: Ground profile for line A-A’ (after Sugito land development office, 2012)
3.2 Ground water
Ground water levels measured at borehole 1 to 4 from March 2012 to February 2013 arepresented in Figure 6. All are in similar trend but the variation of ground water level atborehole 1 was particularly larger, about 2.5m between maximum and minimum waterlevel. It was found that there are several points where pumping up of ground water was
carried out. For example, the amount of pumping near borehole 1 in 2010 was 332m3.
3.3 Inspection of sewer pipe
The sewer pipe was inspected from inside. No deformation of the pipe was found below
the area of damaged road. However at the both ends of damaged road area, suddenchange of inclination, step, crack or large settlement of the pipe was observed. These
facts imply the sewer pipe was pile-supported only at certain area, about 70m long of
the pipe.

Subsurface cavity beneath a buried sewer pipe supported by piles
Subsurface cavity beneath a buried sewer pipe supported by piles

53November
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Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarFigure 6: Variation of ground water level (after Sugito land development office, 2013)
3.4 Surface wave survey
A subsurface wave survey was conducted on eight lines, a1 to a8, indicated in Figure 7,
in order to obtain the location of underground cavities and ground loosening. Lines a1
to a3 are along the road, while lines a4 to a7 are normal to the road. The profile of S
wave velocities at lines a1 to a3 is shown in Figure 7. The S wave velocities are
between 200 and 250 m/s. There is a layer in which S wave velocity is more than
300m/s on the surface. This is probably overlaid asphalt for the repair of damaged
pavement. Areas of low S wave velocities are also observed in a1 and a2. Those arepossibly loosening of the ground.
The results obtained from lines a1 to a3 are presented as S wave velocity distribution at
the elevation up to GL-6m in Figure 6. GL-0.8m, GL-3.1m and GL-5m represents thedepth above, at the center and below the sewer pipe respectively. Figure 8 indicates thatthe area of low S wave velocities is spread at GL-5.0 to 5.5m, where voids or loosened
ground may exist.

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Figure 7: Measurement lines for surface wave survey and the results obtained forlines a1, a2 and a3 (Sugito land development office, 2012)

Figure 8: S wave velocity distribution at lines a1 to a3 (Sugito land development office.
2013)
Subsurface
cavity beneathburied sewer
pipe
supportedby piles by piles
Subsurface
cavityabeneatha buriedsewer
pipe supported

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November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar
November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

3.5 Borehole radar investigation
Ground penetrating radar survey was conducted from two boreholes, B1 and B2,
indicated in Figure 9. The boreholes were excavated beside the pipe foundation, 1.9m
from the pipe center for B1and 1.75m from for B2. The results gave the information on
the location of several characteristics points, such as ground water level, pipe center, top
and bottom of foundation and tip of pile. There were some sign of ground loosening in
the results obtained at B2. A 10cm thick void was also observed below the pavement at
B2.

Figure 9: Ground penetrating radar survey from boreholes (Sugito land development
office, 2012)
4. SUMMARY
Frequent road cave-ins happened in the area beneath which an old pile-supported sewer
pipe of 2m diameter was laid at a depth of 3m. The area was subjected to significant
ground subsidence mainly due to continuous pumping of ground water. Voids andground loosening were considered to be formed under the foundation of pipe at a depth
of 5m because the ground below the sewer pipe seemed to settle at approximately 1mwhile the ground above the pipe did not follow the settlement. Unlike usual subsurface
cavities, the ground penetrating radar exploration technique was not effective as thepulse radar exploration was capable of detecting underground cavities up to 2m deep.
Ground investigation including the surface wave survey and the ground penetrating

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ICUS Report 78

radar exploration from a borehole was carried out to identify location and size of groundcavities and loosening. It was found that the surface wave survey was helpful to obtain
the approximate area of loosened ground. The inspection of the sewer pipe also
indicated the section of sewer pipe which gave damage in the ground. Based on theinvestigation, it became possible to consider the countermeasure for the further cave-ins.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We greatly appreciate Dr. Sekiguchi, former director, and other staffs of Sugito Land
Development office who provided valuable data set of site investigation conducted by
OYO Corporation.
REFERENCES
Kuwano, R., Sato, M., and Sera, R., 2010. Study on the detection of underground cavity
and ground loosening for the prevention of ground cave-in accident, Japanese
Geotechnical Journal 5, 219-229.
Kuwano, R., Horii, T., Yamauchi, K., and Kohashi, H., 2010. Formation of subsurface
cavity and loosening due to defected sewer pipe, Japanese Geotechnical Journal 5,349-361.
Sugito land development office, 2012. Document for the first meeting, June 5, 2012.
Sugito land development office, 2012. Document for the second meeting, October 15,
2012.
Sugito land development office, 2013. Document for the third meeting, March 12, 2013.

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Subsurface cavity beneath a buried sewer pipe supported by piles

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Prevention of lateral movement andreinforcement of substructures on soft ground
Yukitake Shioi
Emeritus Professor,
Hachinohe Institute of Technology,
Hachinohe, Aomori, Japanyshioi@blue.plala.or.jp

ABSTRACTIn Myanmar, there are many new bridges on soft ground, which are suffered dependent
on the horizontal movements of substructures by the lateral flow of soft soils and thetensile force from cables of suspension bridges. The lateral flow of soft soil is caused by
the weight of backfill behind the abutment. The movement of the anchorage ofsuspension bridge by the creep phenomenon depends on its weak foundation. Thesemovements of substructures may cause superstructures to fall, piers to incline a large
amount of compression to the beams to be inclined, spaces between beams to be lost,the seismicity to deteriorate and so on. These movements shorten the bridge’s lives. It
is necessary to consider a design that prevents such movement. The author indicatesseveral methods for preventing or mitigating the lateral flow based on experiences inJapan. Furthermore, he proposes recovery and reinforcement methods for thesedeformed bridges. Since accidents of bridges damage the function of the entire routeand require a long time and money to restore, the soundness and the long life of abridge are very important.
Keywords: bridge, soft ground, horizontal movement, lateral flow, substructure
1. INTRODUCTIONIn Myanmar, many new bridges have been constructed on four major rivers in the last
25 years, as shown in Figure 1. The main bridges are situated on soft ground along theserivers. They are suffered depending on the horizontal movements of abutment by thelateral flow of soft soils and the tensile force from cables of suspension bridges.
These movements of substructures may cause superstructures to fall, piers to incline, alarge amount of compression to the beams to be induced, spaces between beams to belost, the shoes to break, seismicity to deteriorate and so on. These movements
deteriorate not only the function of bridges but also shorten their lifespan.
This paper indicates the mechanism of lateral flow on soft ground. Then, it shows
measures to prevent such movement. Furthermore, it demonstrates methods forrecovering and reinforcing the abutments or anchorages that were moved.

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November
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Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarFigure 1: Completed main bridges on four major rivers (after 1988)
2. MECHANISM OF LATERAL FLOW AND ITS BEHAVIORS
The phenomena of lateral flow on very soft ground take place according to the weightof distributed surcharge. In the case of bridges, abutment on soft ground moves forward
and the front ground heaves up by the backfill behind despite the regular pile foundation,
because soft clay under the footing causes plastic flow laterally as in Figure 2. Then, thebackfill sinks gradually.
This plastic flow acts on the pile foundation equally and each single pile moves paralleland horizontally together with the clay layer, since the rigidity of long pile is not sostrong. This phenomenon is a kind of equilibrium state of soft clay layer versus thechange of the surrounding loads.

settlement

heaving
soft layerflowfirm layer
Figure 2: Concept of lateral flow

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To evaluate this phenomenon the following criteria is useful.
1.0ӍȢ࣭Țh/c(1)
Where,
 Ȣ: safety factor (1.2㹼1.5)
Ț: unit weighth: height of backfill
c: cohesion of soft layer
It depends on the relationship between the weight and the ground’s strength. However,since the deformation of this phenomenon continues for a long time similar to thesecondary settlement of soft clay, a large safety factor is preferable.
3. EFFECTS TO BRIDGES
The lateral flow of the soft clay layer damages the superstructure and the substructure ofactual bridges on soft ground. The superstructure loses the interval of expand joints andits bearing shoes are damaged. Then, uncalculated large compression stresses are
introduced in the beams or the slab and it encounters a dangerous situation in certain
cases. In case of the substructure, since the maximum bending moment depending onlateral flow generates at the lower part of the pile where the stress is relatively small, thedamage is not so fatal. However, the subsidence of the backfill resulted from lateralflow causes a gap between the bridge and the access road to disturb the comfortablerunning. Figure 3 shows Maubin Bridge near Bassein south-west in Myanmar. It is afour-span

Figure 3: Lower & upper plate positions of bearing on piers of Maubin Bridge

Photo 1: Deformed locker shoes on end pier Photo 2: Deformed shoe on pier 7
Preventionof lateral of
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November
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Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmarcontinuous truss bridge supported by pile foundations. It receives strong horizontal
force from both sides but the force from the left side exceeds the force from the rightside.
The left end pier creeps forward together with the piers of approach short span bridges
by lateral flow due to the backfill. The end of the truss beam end come in close contact
with the parapet wall of pier through deformation of the bearing shoes in Photo 1 andthe pier pushing the whole continuous truss toward the right side. Then, the bearing
shoes on other piers were deformed as in shown Photo 2 and a few cracks appeared on
the sidewall of the pier with the fixed shoes. Such conditions are observed in many
places.
Furthermore, similar phenomena generate changes in the topography. Figure 4 showschanges to the riverbed at Thakyut Bridge site near Yangon. The topography of theriverbed at the site changed after the completion of the bridge in Figure 4. By thischange, bearings on the piers on the left side moved as shown in Photo 3. The geology
at the site is illustrated in Figure 5. The layer of very soft clay is deposited up to a depthof 60 meters. Thus, lateral flow occurs not only by artificial embankment but also by
natural changes to the land.

Existing bed
level

Bed level before
construction

Existing bed
level
Figure 4: Thakyut Bridge site

Photo 3: Displacements of beams at Thakyut Bridge

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-60m
-70m

Figure 5: Geology at Thakyut Bridge

4. PREVENTATIVE MEASURES FOR DAMAGE FROM LATERAL FLOWThe orthodox method of abutment on soft ground is implementing measures that sustain
the weight of the backfill and transfer its load to bearing stratum or the intermediate
layer to escape the impact of lateral flow. Figure 6 indicates the method for sustaining
backfill with gravel drain piles or sand compaction piles or sand drain piles via sandmats. They have three major functions. The first is sustaining power. The second isevacuating excess pore water pressure in clayey layers. The third is the horizontal shear
resistance of P tan ȭ(P: vertical load in piles,ȭ: internal frictional angle in piles). In
this case, although a small subsidence of road surface may occur due to theconsolidation of soft clay, it is possible to recover the level of pavement easily. Insteadof these sandy piles, adopting palm tree piles which are porous and have moderate
strength (in Figure 7) may be considerable. Although the displacement of abutment andthe heaving height decrease greatly, it is difficult to expect the complete prevention of
movement by lateral flow, because a part of settling backfill not sustained by piles
presses the soft soil and the pressed soft soil passes through the piles. If palm tree piles
do not reach a firm layer, the weight of the backfill disperses downward from thebottom of the pile group. The impact of lateral flow may be reduced due to the deep
loading level.

Prevention of lateral movement and reinforcement of substructures on soft ground

Prevention of lateral movement and reinforcement of substructures on soft ground63

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarFigure 6: An example to sustain backfill with sandpiles

Figure 7: An example to sustain backfill with palm treep1

front side

p2
ț3

ț2

ț1

ț

-p3

back side
Figure 8: Front embankment and backfill

Figure 9: Hysteresis curve ofsoft groundAs an easy method, the precedence of the front embankment prior to the backfill iseffective in Figure 8. In this case, the embankment of the backfill should be constructedstep-by-step observing the surrounding deformations. The movement of soft ground isroughly illustrated in Figure 9. Firstly, soil moves to the left and lower section(backward) to the front embankment and then it goes toward the right and upper section

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and the actual displacement becomesț2.
5. REINFORCEMENT METHOD FOR EXISTING DEFORMED STRUCTURES
5. 1 Abutment
There are many bridges on soft ground by the lateral flow in Myanmar. They are being
repaired by the method shown in Figure 10 or the expansion of the bridge seat (Photo 4).
It is the correct way to clear the backfill and to reset the bearing shoes. Then, it isnecessary to improve the soft ground under the backfill or to extend the superstructure
as the approach viaduct up to a low height. In these cases, traffic will be stopped during
construction. The way to widen the bridge seat and reset the bearing shoes is a shortterm measure for the lateral flow since that movement continues for a long time as thesecondary consolidation settlement of clay.

Figure 10: Eliminating backfill andextending the superstructure

Photo 4: Expansion of bridge seat

Refilling &compaction
Compacted
sand piles
Figure 11: Recovering method for abutment that was moved by lateral flow
In order to reinforce the soft ground under the backfill without blocking traffic, there isa method to penetrate piles (gravel pile, sand compaction pile, palm tree pile, otherprecast piles) into the soft ground from the road surface to a relatively firm layer and torefill the holes in the backfill firmly with reliable materials. In this case, it is possible toconstruct them on each lane one after another. This method is applicable to stop or todecrease the continuous displacement of the abutment by lateral flow. Then, anothermethod, known as the CCP (chemical churning pile) method, is used for the same
Prevention of lateral movement and reinforcement of substructures on soft ground
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November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmarpurpose in Japan. It is a method that forms long pile in the ground with rotational nozzle
of high-pressure chemicals or cement mortar. It is a little somewhat expensive.
5. 2 Anchorage of suspension bridge
The anchorages of suspension bridges on soft ground in Myanmar are constructed on
cast-in-place pile foundations. Therefore, most of them suffer damage because of thehorizontal displacement of anchorage due to the large tensile force of the main cable.
This displacement will gradually continue for a long time and will cause the towers tolean slowly and collapse by buckling. Actually, the stiffening truss is increasing its sagat the center span. Furthermore, the increasing stress at the pile head is anxious by that
displacement. Figure 12 shows side view of suspension bridge with the central span of
about 250 meters, Pathein Bridge near Bassein. Photo 5 indicates that the bridge and thetowers have leaned. The horizontal displacement of the left anchorage is 8 cm inward
and also the right one is 12 cm inward. Now, although it is still open to traffic, earlymeasures are required since this route is very important.

8cm

12cm

Figure 12: Side view of Pathein Bridge

Photo 5: Pathein Bridge and its tower

Figure 13: Troubles of Twantay Bridge and measures to reinforce substructure

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Figure 14: Geologicallog of Twantay Bridge

Photo 6: Twantay Bridge and its tower

Figure 13 shows the side view of a suspension bridge with the central span of about 250
meters, Twantay Bridge, near Yangon. Photo 5 indicates that the bridge and the towers
have leaned. Although the horizontal displacements of the anchorage are not yetmeasured exactly, it has been observed that the road surface and the handrails show agentle deflection and the towers lean slightly inward. These deformations will cause
loss of the bridge’s functions and will lead to the bridge collapsing. Although it is very
difficult to deal with these problems, the author would like to propose several possiblemeans for doing so. Figure 13 also illustrates troubles that the bridge is facing, andmeasures for restraining the displacement of the anchorage and reinforcing thestructures.
One of the measures for restraining the displacement of the anchorage is a method for
combining the anchorage and the piers inside, using reinforced concrete struts withinclined piles (steel or concrete piles). If it is insufficient, the diaphragm walls in thefront ground up to the intermediate firm layer (Figure 14) are the best way. It can besubstituted with the soil cement diaphragm wall. In case of the inclined piles in Figure
15, the pile inclined to the horizontal force is stronger than the pile inclined oppositely.
As measures related to the superstructure, the following methods can be considered; 1)
the method for converting a single span suspension bridge to a three span suspension
bridge and hanging the approach bridges together with the piers, 2) the method for
installing inclined piles at the both sides of the moved anchorage as shown in Figure 15,3) the method for providing additional main cables between the anchorage and thetower, and 4) the method for strengthening the stiffening truss with strong materials andto changing the present bridge to a self-anchored suspension bridge and so on.

H

H

Figure 15 Comparison of inclined piles

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November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

5. SUMMARY
The bridges on soft ground in Myanmar are suffering damage from horizontal
displacement by lateral flow due to the backfill or the strong tensile force of main cablesof suspension bridges. This paper explains the mechanism of lateral flow and its
behavior. Then, the impact on and damage to bridges are indicated with several
examples. After that, various measures are introduced to prevent and mitigate
displacement by lateral flow. Similarly, measures for recovering and reinforcing
structures that have already been damaged are mentioned. On the other hand, unusualcases where huge anchorages of the suspension bridges with pile foundation on soft
ground moved by strong tensile force from the main cables, are pointed out. The author
proposes several means to restrain those behaviors from substructure and superstructure
perspectives for consideration, based on his experience. Now, Myanmar is requested toestablish the design codes for bridges on soft ground and the manuals for reinforcing
structures that have already been damaged.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author expresses a great deal of gratitude to Mr. Hajime Asakura and Mr. Akira
Komuro who gave him an opportunity to visit Myanmar in December, 2011.He is also
very thankful for the accommodations by Mr. Han Zaw and Mr. Nay Aung Ye’ Myint
who received the mission for maintaining bridges, including the author, in Myanmar.
REFERENCES
Nu, T., 2011, Country report for comprehensive bridge engineering, Public Works,
Ministry of Construction, Myanmar.
Shioi, Y., 2013. Design methods for foundations on very soft ground, Foundation andSoft Ground Engineering Conference, Thu Dau Mot University ICTDMU-1, Vietnam
Shioi, Y., Oowada, A., and Swaishi, M., 2013. Reinforcement method to reduce
settlement for existing pile foundations on soft ground, Geotechnics for Sustainable
Development - Geotec Hanoi 2013, Phung (ed.). Construction Publisher. ISBN 978604-82-0013-8, Vietnam.

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New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Yasuhito SAKAI1
Dr.Eng., Management Department,
Japan Expressway International Company Limited ,Tokyo, Japany.sakai.aa@jexway.jp
1

ABSTRACT
H-BMS (Hanshin expressway Bridge Management System) is a custom-mademanagement tool of viaduct structures consisting Hanshin Expressway which is one of
the biggest and busiest urban toll highway network in Japan. Its main features are toestimate maintenance, repair and other related costs optimized on a long-term basiswith the concept of life cycle cost minimization, and to set repair work priorities by
each structural element to help construct rational yearly repair planning. The system is
now recognized as a part of decision-making process of structural management. H-BMS
is now practiced in the construction of 5-year budget framework and concrete repair
work programs in the local level. After the introduction of the system’s contents, thispaper shows some feedbacks from users and evaluates the system in terms of its
practicality in actual management situations.
Keywords: BMS, life cycle cost ,asset management systems
1. INTRODUCTION
Since its foundation in 1962, Hanshin Expressway Public Corporation (HEPC) has built
and been operating an urban toll road network in Kansai Metropolitan Area for over 40
years. The network currently expands to 259.1 km in total length and is used averagely
by about 740,000 vehicles per day. In 2005, HEPC was privatized by a policy of thenational government, Hanshin Expressway Company Limited (HEX) was establishednewly. But it is apparent that Hanshin Expressway is playing a very important role forthe economic and social activities of the area as a main traffic artery supporting people's
daily life in every aspect.
90% of the network is formed by viaduct structures and more than 30% are over 40
years old. The older these structures get, the more important their maintenance/repair
treatment becomes in order to keep accommodating such heavy traffic. However, while
the route length in service is increasing and traffic volume is steady, maintenance andrepair budgets are being curtailed due to the current social and economic circumstances.
Furthermore the development of more rationalized allotment scheme of the limited
budget is critical as the financial condition is unlikely to be recovered in the near future.
For continued proper maintenance of road structures, more effective and efficientmeasures need to be taken against structural aging in conjunction with future mediumand long-term plans. It is also necessary that user service be maintained at proper levels.

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November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarFor these, public understanding on importance and significance of maintenance need to
be further promoted.
This paper describes about, the Hanshin Expressway Bridge Management System (HBMS). H-BMS is a maintenance management system which has functions to calculate
optimal repair policies by minimizing life cycle costs, to simulate future condition state
and repair costs and to determine repair priority. It uses the latest inspection data andtraffic data which are stored in the Maintenance Information Management System for
improving accuracy.
1. OUTLINE OF THE H-BMS
Many bridge management systems (BMS) have been constructed in recent years,
modeling bridge deterioration processes from diagnostic or health evaluation results.
They are designed to assist proper determination of repair and retrofit techniques andpriorities for minimizing life cycle costs within limited budget. Accurate prediction ofdeterioration of bridge members is the key in the BMS. Deterioration process iscommonly expressed using Markov transition probabilities, and a number of Markov
decision models have been proposed for optimum repair strategies of civil engineering
structures. For life cycle cost assessment which is the other key in the BMS, either of
the two methods is available: 1) discounted present value method which evaluates life
cycle cost at discounted current value; and 2) non-discounted present value method
which directly evaluates life cycle cost without any discount. The discounted present
value method is used in existing optimum repair models and also in the PONTIS, one of
the typical BMS's in the U.S.
The Hanshin Expressway has been working on establishing a bridge management
system called H-BMS for effective and efficient planning of maintenance management.
In the H-BMS actual deterioration process information is integrated in the deterioration
prediction through estimation of Markov transition probabilities based on the long-time
accumulated inspection data of the Hanshin Expressway using multi-staged exponential
hazard models. The use of multi-staged exponential hazard model allows for estimationof deterioration curves by routes and structural types. Discounted present value method
is used for life cycle cost assessment. The system is also capable of simulating repair
and deterioration processes of road structures with annual budget limitations taken into
account.
2. PURPOSE OF THE H-BMSThe H-BMS being developed at the Hanshin Expressway has the following purposes.
i) Calculate the expenses required to maintain road structures at proper levels for an
extended period.
ii) Calculate long-term changes in performance levels and costs and priorities ofrepair projects, and provide reference materials for maintenance management
planning.
iii) Provide an explicit basis for repair plans and repair costs to support
accountability.
The Hanshin Expressway has owned and operated the maintenance information
management system which is road structure database since well before its privatization.

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Using the asset, inspection and repair data stored in the database, the H-BMS
determines condition of each structure and predicts deterioration, calculates repair andmaintenance costs and priorities of repair and maintenance projects required formaintaining proper performance, and establishes budget plans and repair plans. Throughex post facto evaluation of repair and maintenance actually performed and updating ofasset information, repair and maintenance policies are reviewed. This maintenancemanagement procedure using the H-BMS can be modeled as shown in Figure 1.

Inspection,
Diagnosis,
Monitoring

Target Maintenance/Repair Outcomes
Budget Constraints
Deterioration Model
Cost ModelManagement Optimization
Model Simulation

Management Strategy
Review/Modification

Structural
Information
Database

Asset Information
Updating

Cost Estimation
Work Prioritization

Budget Allocation andWork Program Construction

Program Review

Work Program
Implementation

Figure 1. New management routine of expressway structures with integration of H-BMS

Figure 1: Maintenance management procedure using the H-BMS
3. SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
The H-BMS is designed for maintenance management planning against deterioration ofroad structures. Structural categories included in this system are pavement, painting,expansion joints, slabs/decks, steel structures and concrete structures, and it is possible
to establish maintenance management plans by structural categories. The system has
been first tested with such categories that constitute large percentages of themaintenance budgets and have simple deterioration mechanisms. The following
description introduces a case of pavement where the system has been most developed sofar.
At the Hanshin Expressway, the system collects pavement condition data including
cracking ratios by spans and by routes, average rutting depth and longitudinal roughness,using automated measuring vehicles. MCI is used as the pavement health indicatorwhich is calculated using the following equation.
MCI

10 1.51C 0.3

0.3 D 0.7

(1)

Optimal maintenance strategies based on BMS of a large urban expressway network in Japan
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November
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Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarHere, C is cracking ratio (%) and D is rutting depth (mm). With allowable roughness in
as-built management taken into account, it is assumed that cracking ratio is 0%, rutting
depth is 2.0 mm and MCI is 9.5 when the pavement repair is complete.
The Hanshin Expressway developed stochastic deterioration models using theaccumulated data about pavement deterioration process and carried out estimation of
future pavement deterioration using the models. The deterioration process was
expressed using Markov transition probabilities for its uncertainty. Multi-staged
exponential hazard model15) is used to assure good precision in the probability
estimation which handles inspection data from different time points at varied intervals.
The parameters of the multi-staged exponential hazard model are estimated based on theinspection data, using maximum likelihood method. Markov transition matrix is derived
analytically based on them, and using the Markov transition matrix, typical deterioration
curves are estimated. This allows reproducing the changes in deterioration rate inrelation to the pavement health, providing good consistency with logical approach.
Markov transition matrix can be estimated for each section or each route of theexpressway where deterioration mechanism varies. Consequently, deterioration curves
are finely defined.
For the estimation using the multi-staged exponential hazard model, hazard rate wasdefined for the health level of each section. The following equation estimates the
exponential hazard model with the hazard rates by health levels independent of time.
i

yi

(2)

i

Here, i is health level of the member, i is hazard function, yi is a point on the time axis,
and i is a constant (unknown parameter). The health level needs to be expressed as adiscrete value to use the Markov transition probability. For the pavement, continuous
MCI values were classified by 1.0 point in the range of 5.0<MCI 10.0 where the data
exist, and the median value was taken as the typical value for the health level.
For using the multi-staged exponential hazard model, Markov transition probability isexpressed as described below in accordance with the degree of deterioration.
(when the health level does not change)
ii

exp

i

(3)

Z

(when the health level changes by one rank)
exp

i

ii 1
i

i

Z

exp

i 1

(4)

Z

i 1

(when the health level changes by two or more ranks)
j
ij

k 1

k i m i

m
m

j 1
k m k

m
m 1

exp
k

k

Z j 1,,J(5)(when the health level changes to the bottom rank)

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iJ

1

J 1
ij

j i

i 1,

(6)

,J 1

Here, Z is inspection interval, i is health level before change, and j(j>i+1) is health level
after change. By estimating i in the hazard function by maximum likelihood method,
Markov transition matrix (7) can be estimated using equations (3) to (6).
11

Z

iJ

Z

JJ

Z

(7)

Z
0

As deterioration change is modeled by the hazard function, the expected time length for
deterioration to reach a next level (RMD) can be expressed as follows.
RMDi

0

exp

i

yi dyi1(8)iEquation (8) provides typical deterioration process. Through these processes, data areclassified into some groups by factors dominating the tendency of deterioration change,and performance curves are generated. Performance curves for the pavement are
generated for each slab/deck type and by routes to express different deterioration
processes by traffic characteristics and road alignments. Figure 2 shows thus obtained
performance curves for the pavement by slab/deck types. As shown here, pavement
deterioration rate is faster on the earthworks.

Figure 2: Pavement performance curves
4. DEFINITION OF THE OPTIMUM MANAGEMENT LEVEL
Costs required for maintaining the performance of road structures properly is evaluatedby using the life cycle cost (LCC). LCC is expressed as a sum of the direct cost which is
imposed on the expressway company and the external cost which is imposed on theroad users:
LCC = direct cost (repair cost and maintenance cost) + external cost (vehicle
operating cost and travel delay cost).
Each cost element is defined as follows:
Repair cost: repair work expenses, including expenses for traffic restriction required
for road work.

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Maintenance cost: expenses for routine maintenance activities including repair of
potholes and correction of bumps to be carried out with the pavement
deterioration (set according to MCI).
Vehicle operating cost: fuel, vehicle depreciation and other vehicle-related expenses
to be imposed on road users in extra due to decrease in MCI.
Travel delay cost: loss caused to road users due to traffic congestion resulting fromrestriction on traffic for road work.
The travel delay cost is calculated with changes in travel time and traffic congestion
condition taken into account, by using a traffic flow simulation model which has been
separately developed for the traffic control system of the expressway. This modelallows for a more precise reproduction of congestion and time loss by routes. A rule forrepair is assumed here in which pavement repair shall be executed when the MCI value
reached a certain level. That level is called a management level. The LCC required atthat point is calculated for the given management level. Figure 3 shows the relationshipbetween the management level and the LCC. The management level where the lowest
LCC is reached is called the optimum management level. The time when the MCI value
for the pavement reaches the optimum management level is the optimum repair time.

Figure 3: Determination of the optimum management level and priorities
5. DETERMINATION OF PRIORITIES
If no limitation is imposed on the pavement repair budget, it is possible to repair all
locations or routes where the MCI reached the optimum management level on theannual basis, achieving the minimum LCC. However, budget is always limited,
requiring prioritization of determines repair priorities according to the descending orderof the ratio (repair efficiency = D/C) of the extra on the LCC due to delay from theoptimum repair time (D: delay cost) against the repair cost for carrying out repair at the
optimum management level (C).

LCC
Travel delay cost
Repair cost
Maintenance cost
Vehicle operating cost

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LCC
Travel delay cost
Repair cost
Maintenance cost
Vehicle operating cost

Optimummanagementlevel (6.3)

Performance level at the time of repair

Figure 4: Optimum management level
6. RESULT OF SIMULATION
Figure 5 shows a simulated relationship between the LCC and the management level fora section of the road network for next 100 years, suggesting that repairing this section at
MCI = 6.3 achieves the minimum LCC.

Repair cost

*1
*2

Maintenance costYear(a) Budget limit: "A" 100 million yen/year*1 Average total cost (1,408 million yen)
*2 Average repair cost (999 million yen)*3

Cost (in 100 million yen)

Cost (in 100 million yen)

The H-BMS is capable of determining repair locations based on the aforementioned
priorities for each year under a budget limitation which has been given exogenously as a
scenario, and simulating the repair process. Figure 5 shows predicted changes in the
direct cost for that section with time. There are two cases simulated here: (a) with theannual repair budget limited to "A" x 100 million yen; and (b) with an annual repair
budget of "A+ " x 100 million yen (cost required for maintaining the optimum
management level). In case (a), the limited repair cost leaves some pavements in poor
condition as they are over the optimum repair time. Because of this, the maintenancecost for coping with them starts to increase from 2005 and reaches its limit in about 20
years. In case (b), repairs carried over from the past can be eliminated gradually,making it possible after 35 years from now to execute repairs based on the optimum
management level within the annual budget limit. In addition, the total cost(maintenance cost and repair cost) for the 100 years is reduced by about 11%.

*1
*2

Repair cost
Maintenance costYear

*1 Average total cost (1,315 million yen)
*2 Average repair cost (1,006 million yen)*3

100 million yen/year

Figure 5: Changes in maintenance management cost

Optimal maintenance strategies based on BMS of a large urban expressway network in Japan

Optimal maintenance strategies based on BMS of a large urban expressway network in Japan75

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarFigure 6 shows changes with time of average MCI levels for the studied section and of
the lowest MCI level within that section. The (a) and (b) in this figure are those in
Figure 6. In case (a) average MCI level goes down continually. Repair carryover
accumulates during that period, causing the lowest performance level to decline after
about 20 years. As a result, management level goes below the management limit
specified by the Hanshin Expressway.

Performance level

Performance level
Management limit (4.2)

Average performance level
L owest performance level

Average performance level
Lowest performance level(a) Budget limit: "A"Management limit (4.2)

Year
100 million yen/year

Year(b) Budget limit: "A+?"

100 million yen/year

Figure 6: Changes in performance level
The management limit is the level that both cracking ratio and rutting depth in the
pavement are ranked as damage needing to be repaired in the criteria of the Hanshin
Expressway. It is about 4.2 when converted into MCI values. In case (b), average
performance level is kept around the current level for an extended period, and thelowest performance level does not go below the management limit.
Consequently, it can be concluded that proper maintenance of the pavement for an
extended period would be impossible with the annual budget of "A" x 100 million yen
and would require the budget of "A+ " x 100 million yen every year.
7. SUMMARY
This paper introduced the H-BMS road structure management system and the logic
model for routine maintenance management of the Hanshin Expressway. Of the six
structural categories, the H-BMS is operated currently on pavement, painting andexpansion joints as a tool for establishing annual plans of major repair projects
including those requiring full closure of the entire expressway system. Its application to
structural bodies (concrete structures and steel structures) is also under investigation.
For the application of the logic model, constant measurement will be continued on all
indicators to accumulate more data and detailed examination will be carried out forestablishing management levels (management limit, optimum management level, etc.)
to be used as criteria for normalization of risk.
REFERENCES
Kaito, K., Hota, K., Kobayashi, K. and Owada, K. 2005. Optimal maintenancestrategies of bridge components with an average cost minimizing principles,76

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Proceedings of JSCE, No. 801/I-73, 83-96.
Kobayashi, K., 2005. Decentralized life-cycle cost evaluation and aggregatedefficiency, Proceedings of JSCE, No. 793/IV-68, 59-71.
Kobayashi, K., Ejiri, R., and Do, M., 2008. Pavement Management Accounting System,
Journal of Infrastructure Systems 14, 159-168.
Nam, L.T., Obama, K., and Kobayashi, K. 2008. Local mixture hazard model, A semiparametric approach to risk management system, IEEE International conference on
Systems, Man and Cybermetrics SMC.
Sakai, Y., 2007. Practical management system of Hanshin Expressway-Logic modeland BMS, 2nd International Workshop on Lifetime Engineering of Civil Infrastructure.
Sakai, Y., Arakawa, T., Inoue, Y., Furutam H., and Kobayashi, K., 2009. The
development of practical asset management system for the Hanshin Expressway
Network, The 4th International Conference on Structural Health Monitoring ofIntelligent Infrastructure.
Sakai, Y., Arakawa, T., Inoue, Y., Furuta, H. and Kobayashi, K., 2009. The
development of practical asset management system for the Hanshin Expressway
Network, The 4th International Conference on Structural Health Monitoring ofIntelligent Infrastructure, SHMII-4.
Sakai, Y., Arakawa, T., Inoue, Y., and Kobayashi, K., 2008. The development of the
Hanshin Expressway Bridge Management System, Proceedings of Information on
Management, 17, 63-70.
Sakai, Y., Arakawa, T., and Kobayashi, K., 2007. Study on HELM logic model
intended for effective maintenance of expressways, 62nd Annual Conference of Japan
Society of Civil Engineers.
Sakai, Y., Inoue, Y., and Kobayashi, K., 2008. The effect of simultaneous pavement
repair in urban highway network. Proceedings of Construction Management.
Sakai, Y., Uetsuka, H., and Kobayashi, K. 2008. New approach for efficient roadmaintenance on urban expressway based on HELM, Society for Social Management
Systems.
Tsuda, S., Kaito, K., Aoki, K., and Kobayashi, K., 2006. Estimating marcovian
transition probabilities for bridge deterioration forcasting, Journal of StructuralEngineering and Earthquake Engineering 23, 241-256.
http://www.pontis.com/

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78

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Noboru SATO
President, Sankyo Co. Ltd., Tokyo, Japannsato@sankyo-net.co.jp
ABSTRACTIn Japan, deterioration of infrastructural objects which were built during high-growth
era such as bridges, tunnels, public buildings and others are observed. It can be social
issues with, for instance, debris from deteriorated concrete construct causing humansuffering. At the symposium this time, several case examples are presented regarding
means of deterioration survey mainly on infrared thermography method.
Keywords: non-destructive inspection, infrared thermography
1. INTRODUCTION
In order to understand deteriorated situation of massive infrastructures, many
experienced engineer is needed. In the movement of increase aging structures, many
companies become difficult to get experienced civil engineer due to low birth rate andlongevity in Japan. Therefore, in Japanese civil engineering market, they need to work
efficiency improvement and highly accurate measurement by Non- Destructive Testing(NDT) techniques.
In this symposium, we introduce some research examples by Infrared Thermographymethod that is one of our NDT techniques and it has comparatively high penetration in
Japan. And those research examples are including the method of the infrastructure
deterioration surveying that will face at South East Asia countries in near future.
2. DAMAGED STRUCTURE EXAMPLESIn this section, we introduce some examples which are the damaged structure of civilengineering and construction in Japan. Figure 1 shows the fallen concrete from thecanopy top of school building. It detached itself by pushed concrete to outside due torebar corrosion. It is due to construction defect.

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November
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Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarFigure 1: Surveying works and the detached concrete itself

Figure 2: The case of tile detached itself

Figure 3: The case of dropped cast-in-place concrete from PC bridges

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Figure 4: Cracks on highway concrete
bridge pierFigure 5: Degradation of road bridge
floor board concrete

Figure 6: Degradation damage of road bridge main girder (Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure and Transport website)

Figure 7: Degradation damage of the excavation slopes (Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure and Transport website)

Case examples
surveysover architectural
civil engineering
structures by infraCase examples
of surveysofoverarchitectural
buidlingsbuildings
and civil andengineering
structures81
redthermography
thermographymethod
methodby infrared

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarFigure 8: Pavement peeling of the airport runway ((Ministry of Land, Infrastructure andTransport website)
3. THE CASE STUDIES BY INFRARED THERMOGRAPHY METHOD
3.1 Measurement principle
The Infrared Thermography method is the techniques that gather “Void” in concrete
structure from visualized object’s surface temperature distribution by Infrared Thermal
Imaging Camera. Measurement principle is shown Fig.3.1. At day time, heat of sunlighttransmits from concrete structure surface into inside. However, due to the insulating
effect of the air layer, the defective part of surface warms faster than healthy part when
there is peeling or internal voids at nearly concrete surface. This principle allows us todetect internal defects from the surface temperature distribution.
Solar thermal

Concrete
Peeling section

Healthy section
Infrared

Peeling section

OutdoortTemperature difference

Indoor

Surface material

Figure 9: Surface temperature difference between the healthy part and the defective partOn the other hand, the measurement time period becomes at night, the surface
temperature of the defect part becomes lower temperature against healthy part. The
defect part temperature follows the outside temperature faster than the healthy part. The
healthy part has higher temperature than the defect part, because accumulated heat in
the deep healthy part of concrete emits longer than defect part. (Temperature of thedefective part is reversed in the day and night)

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Temp

Healthy point

Outside temperature

Time

Figure 10: The process of the surface temperature of defective part and healthy part in aday
3.2 The case study of the building wall
3.1.1 The floating tiles surveying of wall
The floating tiles surveying of the wall has been conventionally performed byhammering test close to wall. However, this method takes extra cost such as temporary
scaffold or vehicle for high lift work to close to wall. Infrared Thermography method is
possible to study from the ground with non-contact and safety. And it is possible toobtain objective infrared images.

Figure 11: Conventional wall surveying

Figure 12: The survey status by infrared thermography method

Case examples of surveys over architectural buidlings and civil engineering structuresby infrared
thermography
Case
examples ofmethod
surveys over architectural buildings and civil engineering structures by infra- 83
red thermography method

November
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Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarPeeling of tile

Peeling of tile

Figure 13: Visible image and infrared thermal image
3.1.2 Detection of the invisible window
The opening (window) has been blocked through many years renovation. The Infrared
Thermography detects the original opening easily.

Figure 14: Detection of the invisible window
3.1.3 The floating part surveying of concrete wall bridge railingThis structure has not had enough covering depth from the time of completion of
construction. Then, floating part was generated at surface of concrete caused by rebar
corrosion. Infrared Thermography detects the float that occurred on the wall of the roadbridge. Those float parts are at risk for detached itself and hits passers under the bridge.

Figure 15: The float that occurred on the wall of the bridge railing84

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3.1.4 Cavity surveying that occurred on the back side of the excavation slope
The spray concrete of excavation slope must be integrated to the ground. However, it is
at risk of caving and collapse concrete structure. It is possible to survey dangerous
place like this in advance accident by Infrared Thermography method.

back cavity

Figure 16: Back cavity detection of slope
3.1.5 Airport runway surveying
Asphalt paving of the airport runway has been constructed to many lay. However, thedelamination occurs due to some reasons, and sometimes interferes with the landing of
the aircraft. Previously, surveying was done with hammering test by night inspectors,
but it is possible to detect high accuracy and objectively with Infrared Thermographymethod.

Figure 17: The hammering test by nightinspector

Figure 18: The inspection by Infrared
Imaging Camera

Case examples
surveysover architectural
civil engineering
structures by infraCase examples
of surveysofoverarchitectural
buidlingsbuildings
and civil andengineering
structures85
redthermography
thermographymethod
methodby infrared

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Visible image

Thermo image

RunwayFigure 19: Case study of the runway (Combine the picture 100 m length)
4. SUMMARY
In this report, we introduced some case studies of degradations and damage case of civilengineering structure and building structures by Infrared Thermography method.
Infrared Thermography method is very effective against structures that involve
temperature difference between good part and bad part. Infrared Thermography method
has a many potential to detect degradations and construction defect of concrete structure
more than those reported cases in this time.
The degradations and construction defects might claim many lives, and become a big
social problem. In recent Japanese situation, the development of various NDTtechniques is required, because Japan Government makes infrastructures maintenanceobligatory. About 30 years ago, in Japan, Infrared Thermography method wasintroduced by several companies. And it has been established applicability as asurveying technique through many trial and errors.
Today, many companies have introduced Infrared Thermography, and it becomes anactive surveying market. In Southeast Asian countries at the period of high economic
growth, it may face infrastructure degradation and damage problem same as Japan in
the future. We desire to effective utilization of those technology that was introduced thistime in the Southeast Asian maintenance market. However, we suggest that you shouldtake enough training before survey by Infrared Thermography method, because it haveapplicability limit.

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Hiroshi DOBASHI
President, Shutoko Engineering Co., Ltd., Japanh.dobashi118@shutoko.jp
Visiting Professor, ICUS, IIS, the University of Tokyo, Japandobashi@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
ABSTRACTThe first section with 4.5km length of the Metropolitan Expressway opened in 1962
between Kyobashi and Shibaura to reduce traffic congestion in the city center. And until
1962 when Tokyo Olympic game was held, about 33km were opened. Today, theMetropolitan Expressway network plays an important role as major traffic facility that
supports socio-economic activities in the Tokyo metropolitan area and it currently
extends for approximately 300 km. Among those, 95% of the network is comprised of
the structures such as bridges, tunnels and semi-underground structures, and 30% of
the structures have passed more than 40years after opening to traffic.
In recent years, for deterioration of the urban infrastructure and a large-scale disastersuch as large earthquake, appropriate operation, maintenance, retrofit and renewal
works are highly required in addition to development of the infrastructures. Therefore,
inspection, investigation, diagnosis for degradation and countermeasures of thestructure are focused as an issue of maintenance management in order to ensure safe
structures and effectively utilize existing infrastructures. In this paper, changes inseismic design criteria and seismic retrofit works for bridges are described. In addition,
the repair work and reinforcement work carried out for existing damaged both steel andconcrete structures are introduced.
Keywords: urban infrastructure, maintenance management, repair and retrofit works,
deterioration
1. INTRODUCTION
The first section of the Metropolitan Expressway between Kyobashi and Shibaura wasopened in 1962 to reduce the traffic congestion in the central Tokyo. Currently, theMetropolitan Expressway network extends for approximately 300 km (Figure 1). In
2011, it carried about 1 million vehicles and about 2 million passengers per day.
Although the total length of the network in service is only 15% of the total length ofmajor city roads in the Tokyo metropolitan area, it carries approximately 30% of thetotal traffic in terms of vehicle-kilometrage, indicating the degree of utilization. Since it
carries approximately 28% of freight transportation in the area, it is considered tofunction approximately twice more in vehicle-kilometrage and approximately threetimes more in freight transportation than other major city roads. As described above, the87November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarFigure 1: The network of Tokyo Metropolitan Expressway
Metropolitan Expressway network serves as a major traffic facility that supports socioeconomic activities in the Tokyo metropolitan area, and it is a road system that is
indispensable to the lifestyle of the people in the area.
Focusing on the structural features of the Metropolitan Expressway, about 95% among
the networks are comprised of the structures such as bridges, tunnels and semiunderground structures, and about 30% of the structures have passed more than 40years
after opening to the traffic. Therefore, deterioration of the structures has been
progressed under the severe use environment with heavy and overloading traffic. The
classification and elapsed years of the structures are shown in Table 1 and Figure 2.
For seismic design, seismic coefficient method was stipulated in 1926 after the Great
Kanto Earthquake which was occurred in 1923. By incorporating the new findings fromthe earthquake that occurred after this, seismic design criteria have been revised. In
recent years, the design criteria against inter-plate great earthquake have just beenreviewed anew by the East Japan Great Earthquake.
This paper describes changes in seismic design criteria and seismic retrofit works forbridges. In addition, repair works and reinforcement work carried out for existingdamaged both concrete and steel structures are described.

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Surface
Earthwork
Semi
5%
Underground
6%

Table 1:
1: Classification
Classification ofof structures
structures
Table
Percentage
Accumulate
Percentage ofof
Accumulatedlengthaccumulated
lengthaccumulated length
Type ofof structures
structures d length
Type
(%)
(km)
(%)
(km)
Steel Girder
Girder
199.9
66%
Steel
199.9
66%
Concrete Girder
Girder38.6
13%
Concrete
38.6
13%
95%
95%
Tunnel28.9
10%Tunnel
28.9
10%
18.5
6%
Semi Underground
18.5
6%
Semi
Underground
15.4
5%
5%
Surface Earthwork
15.4
5%
5%
Surface
Earthwork
Total
301.3
100%
100%
Total
301.3
100%
100%

Tunnel 10%

Concrete
Girder 13%
Steel Girder66%

Figure 2:
2: Elapsed
Elapsed years
years ofof thethe structures
structures
Figure2. CHANGES IN SEISMIC DESIGN CRITERIA
2.1 Overview of seismic design revision
Design seismic
seismic coefficient
coefficient was
was stipulated
stipulated forfor thethe first
first time
time inin seismic
seismic design
design ofof RoadRoad
DesignBridge inin JapanJapan inin 1926
1926 which
which wasthree years
after thethe Great
Great Kanto
Kanto Earthquake.
Earthquake. Then,
Then,
Bridgewas three
years afterwith thethe revision
revision of
the Specification
Specification for
Bridges, design
design seismic
seismic coefficient
coefficient ininwithof thefor Highway
Highway Bridges,
seismic coefficient
coefficient method
method isis embodied
embodied andand hashas been
been standardized.
standardized. However,
However, important
importantseismic
factors such
such asas natural
natural vibration
vibration characteristics,
characteristics, ductility,
ductility, liquefactionliquefaction ofof thethe ground,ground,factors
bridge falling
falling prevention
prevention structures
structures andand etc.
etc. were
were notnot included
included inin seismic
seismic design
design at
at thatthatbridgetime. Horizontal
Horizontal seismic
seismic coefficient
coefficient kkhh=0.2=0.2 andand verticalvertical seismic
seismic coefficient
coefficient kkvv=0.1=0.1 were
were
time.
standard respectively.
respectively. In
In 1971,
Guideline of
Seismic Design
Design forfor Highway
Highway Bridges
Bridges waswasstandard
1971, Guidelineof Seismic
established based
based onon thethe researchresearch results
results ofof Niigata
Niigata Earthquake
Earthquake (M7.5)(M7.5) which
which waswasestablishedoccurred inin 1964.
1964. InIn thisthis guideline,
guideline, modified
modified seismic
seismic coefficient
coefficient method,
method, simple
simpleoccurredjudgment method
method ofof liquefactionliquefaction andand bridge
bridge falling
falling prevention
prevention structures
structures were
were
judgment
stipulated forfor thethe first
first time.
time. InIn 1980,
1980, this
this guideline
guideline was
was revised
revised as
as “Specifications“Specifications forfor
stipulated
Highway Bridges:
Bridges: Part
Part VV Seismic
Seismic Design”,
Design”, andand aa verification
verification ofof deformation
deformation
Highway
performance toto prevent
prevent brittle
brittle fracture
as shearshear failure
performance
fracture such
such asfailure ofof RC
RC pier,pier, judgment
judgment
dynamic analysis
analysis were
were introduced.
introduced. In
1990,
method ofof liquefactionliquefaction by
by thethe value
value ofof F
FLL,, dynamic
In 1990,
methodwithresearch
resultsonseismic
responseofbridgesandpiers,averification
methodwith research results on seismic response of bridges and piers, a verification method
taking accountaccount ofof Level
Level 22 earthquake
earthquake groundground motion
motion andand plastic
plastic deformation
deformation
takingperformance forfor RC
RC pierpier were
were introduced.
introduced. The
The important
important changechange waswas thatthat seismic
seismic
performancehorizontal strength
strength (L2)
(L2) including
including ductility
ductility andand dynamic
dynamic strength
strength inin thethe plastic
plastic region
regionhorizontal
was stipulated
stipulated forfor RC
RC pierpier forfor thethe first
first time.
time. InIn 1996,
1996, based
based onon thethe damage
damage ofof roadroad
wasbridge due
due toto thethe Hyogo-ken
Hyogo-ken Nanbu
Nanbu Earthquake
Earthquake (M7.2),(M7.2), Seismic
Seismic horizontal
horizontal strength
strengthbridgemethod waswas employedemployed inin earnest
earnest inin addition
addition toto considering
considering thethe earthquake
earthquake groundgroundmethodmotion by
by inland
inland earthquakes.
earthquakes. Furthermore,
Furthermore, aa verification
verification method
method ofof seismic
seismic
motionperformance byby dynamic
dynamic analysis
analysis was
was introduced
introduced with
with aiming
aiming forfor specifications
specifications ofof
performance
performance
based
designin
2002.
Finally,specificationsarerevised
based
on
the
performance based design in 2002. Finally, specifications are revised based on the
research results
results ofof analyses
analyses ofof disasterdisaster case
case study
study onon roadroad bridges
bridges due
due toto earthquake
earthquake ininresearch
recent years
years andand East
East Japan
Japan GreatGreat Earthquake
Earthquake (M9.0)(M9.0) inin 2012.
2012.
recent2.2 Review of Level 2 ground motion (Type I)
In seismic
seismic design
design forfor roadroad bridges,
bridges, twotypes ofof thethe groundground motion
motion such
such asas TypeType II due
due
In
two types
to large
large plate
plate boundary
boundary earthquake
earthquake andand Type
Type II
II duedue toto large
large inland
inland earthquake
earthquake as
as LevelLeveltoearthquake groundground motion
motion areare considered.
considered. TypeType II groundground motion
motion ofof Level
Level 22 isis
22 earthquake
The current
reinforcement
and seismic
works
of bridge
forbridge
effective
Therepair,current
repair, reinforcement
andretrofit
seismic
retrofit
works offor utilization
effective utilization of89
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November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar
November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

2002 Type I2012 Type I
Type II

2002 Type I2012 Type I
Type II

2002 Type I2012 Type I
Type IINatural period T(s)Natural period T(s)Natural period T(s)(a) Type I ground(b) Type II ground(c) Type III groundFigure 3: Comparison of standard acceleration response spectrum
reviewed in the Specifications in 2012 since it is assumed to occur in near future Tokai,
Tonankai and Nankai Earthquake which are the same plate boundary earthquake as East
Japan Great Earthquake.
Comparison of standard acceleration response spectrum in between 2002 and 2012 areshown in Figure 3. Level 2 ground motion (Level 2) is determined based on the resultsof the ground motion generated in the Tokyo area at the Great Kanto Earthquake
estimated using the attenuation formula that is advanced by a modified regression
analysis and strong motion data obtained in recent years, and by the engineering
judgment.
Type I ground motion is revised in 2012. Peak of the spectrum of Type I is larger thanthat of the ground motion of Type I in 2002 and larger than that of Type II for a long
period. In addition, peak of the spectrum of Type I ground motion for the Type III
ground such as soft ground of alluvium ground was set to be larger than that for Type I
ground such as good ground of rock and diluvium ground in 2002. However, peak of
the spectrum has been reversed in 2012. This is because that the result of estimation of
the acceleration response spectra to calculate the correction factors for each ground typeby using only the strong motion record with large amplitude. As a result, the peak of theacceleration response spectrum become smaller in order Type I, Type II and Type III
ground.
2.3 Examples of retrofit work and results
In this section, retrofit work of RC pier is described. Failure type of reinforced concrete
columns can be classified in two such as flexural failure and shear failure. Flexural
failure can hold the required horizontal strength with keeping deformation performancefor repeated deformation after the main reinforcement exceeds the yield stress. On theother hand, shear failure is brittle fracture of concrete before the main reinforcement
exceeds the yield stress so that critical damages are occurred such as collapse and dropof bridges and large difference in level of road. In addition, flexural and shear failure
which is transferred from flexural failure to shear failure after yielding of main
reinforcement. To prevent above failures, retrofit work such as reinforcement of RC
piers are carried out. In general, to increase ductility, flexural strength and shear

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ICUS Report 78

Wrapped by steel plate

Cover concrete at
the bottom

Anchorreinforcement
Axial reinforcement for anchor(a) Wrapped by steel plate(b) Wrapped by reinforced concrete

Wrapped by fiber sheet in axial direction
Flexural Reinforcement
jacked by fiber sheet in horizontal direction
Reinforcement for shear and ductility(c) Wrapped by fiber sheet such as carbon and aramid fiber
Figure 4: 3 types of seismic reinforcement work for RC piers
strength “Wrapping Method” is used. There are three types of wrapping methods that is,
wrapping with steel plate, reinforced concrete and fiber sheet shown in Figure 4.
Method by wrapping RC pier with steel plate and filling up filler such as mortar, epoxy
resin between their gaps is employed in many cases when there is not enough spacearound pier and construction period. When flexural reinforcement is required, it isnecessary to fix the footing by anchor reinforcement shown in Figure 4(a). In this case,a checking in the horizontal direction of the foundation is required. In case of shear
reinforcement, it is not necessary to wrap up around the rigid zone. In case ofreinforcement at the cut-off point, it may be wrapped around its reinforcing section.
Method by wrapping RC pier with reinforced concrete is employed in case that there isenough space around pier. It is necessary to unify with existing RC member and new
concrete. Therefore, it is required to carry out surface treatment of the existing RC
structures by chipping and etc. In case of shear reinforcement, the longitudinal
reinforcements at the four corners of RC pier are arranged for the hoop ties and they are
not fixed at the footing. However, in case of flexural reinforcement, they are anchoredwith the footing as well as above case shown in Figure 4(b).
Method by wrapping with fiber sheet such as carbon fiber or aramid fiber is employedin the case of very narrow space when shear reinforcement is required to improve
ductility (Figure 4(c)). Therefore, flexural strength is not increased by this method.
Shear strength of this reinforcement is calculated as the sum of contribution of concrete
and reinforcement of the existing RC member, and fiber sheet. There are two failuremodes depending on amount of fiber sheet reinforcement. In case of small amount offiber sheet, tensile shear failure is occurred. In this case, shear strength is determined by
the break off of the fiber sheet. On the other hand, in case of large amount of fiber sheet,shear strength is determined by the collapse of the concrete in compression zone
without break off of the fiber sheet. Failure mode is transferred to the shear compression
Therepair,current
repair, reinforcement
andretrofit
seismic
retrofit
works offor utilization
effective utilization of
The current
reinforcement
and seismic
works
of bridge
forbridge
effective
91
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November
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Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmar(a) Before reinforcement(b) After reinforcement
Figure 5: Seismic reinforcement of RC piers wrapped by steel plate
failure type. For this reason, the upper limit value of shear strength reinforcement isdefined as 0.2%, the maximum ration of reinforcement material.
Figure 5 shows the example of seismic reinforcement work of RC piers. The piers arewrapped by the steel plate. Concrete covers the bottom of the piers and surface of thesteel plate is painted.
2.4 Examples of bridge damage due to the East Japan Great Earthquake
The East Japan Great Earthquake was occurred on March 11th in 2011. The magnitude
scale was 9.0, the largest earthquake recoded in Japan and maximum JMA (Japan
Meteorological Agency) seismic intensity was 7 and areas with strong intensity were
widely distributed. This earthquake was plate boundary type.
Figure 6 and Figure 7 show the comparison between RC piers with and without retrofit
works. The different results between piers in two photos obviously have been foundafter the earthquake. The piers shown in Figure 6 with retrofit work were not damaged
due to the earthquake. The piers in the left and right photo got the seismic intensity 6+
and 6-, respectively. As results of these, crucial damage was prevented by carrying out
appropriate seismic strengthening.

Retrofit Work

Retrofit Work(a) Seismic intensity 6+(b) Seismic intensity 6Figure 6: Piers with seismic retrofit work

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Close upWithout Retrofit Work

Figure 7: Pier without seismic retrofit work

3. REPAIR AND REINFORCEMENT WORKS OF BRIDGES
It is important to maintain appropriate level of performance structures should have,carrying out inspection, investigation, diagnosis and measures in-service of structures.
The results of design, construction, inspection, evaluation and measures, should berecorded in a database and it is desirable to easily access to them. Especially, therecords during construction and of initial inspection are very important to understandthe initial situation. In addition, the records of repair and reinforcement works are
essential to evaluate current situation and appropriate retrofit work. Furthermore, it isimportant to feed back to design and construction of new structures of a knowledge
obtained during inspection, investigation and measures. In this chapter, typicalexamples of retrofit work of bridges are described.
3.1 Examples of the damages and retrofit works of steel structures
Among the damage of steel bridge structures of the Metropolitan Expressway, iscorrosion and cracking 65% shown in Figure 8. The typical damage, their cause andcountermeasures are described below.
3.1.1 Degradation of painting
film and corrosion
Degradation of the painting andcorrosion is caused by ultraviolet
light and water leakage. In
particular, rust of main girders,crossbeam, is caused by stagnant
water and water leakage from theabutment and expansion joints at
the end of the girders. This
portion is easy to rust since themany members are connected
and a space is narrowed andclosed. In addition, rust aroundthe bearing supports occurs due
to rainwater and soil from the
expansion joints.

Damage of Steel Bridge: 6,284
Bolt damage

OthersWater leakage

Degradation of painting

Rusting,
Corrosion

Sediment

CracksFigure 8: Typical damage of Steel Bridge

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Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmar(a) Before repair(b) After repair
Figure 9: Repainting and reinforcement with stiffening plate
For the measures, it is important to eliminate the cause of such leakage and the wet
environment in order to prevent corrosion. Waterproof measures such as installing
waterproof layer on the surface of the RC slab and employing non-drainage structure of
expansion joints.
For degradation of painting film, it is required to repaint regularly. For repainting,adhesion is important between old and new painting film. In order ensure the adhesive
force, surface preparation should be carried out and the breakable layer which loses therust effect shall be removed. In repainting, same paint system should be basically
employed. However, a paint system with better anti-corrosion function such as
fluororesin-based paint and polyurethane-based paint will be employed in case ofextending a repainting period and not removing the cause of leakage and high floating
salinity environment. In this case, weak solvent should be used not to damage oldpainting film or old paint should be removed. Figure 9 shows repair works such as
repainting and reinforcement with stiffening plate.
3.1.2 Fatigue damage
Fatigue of steel bridge is a phenomenon that fatigue cracks occur due to repetition oflarge stress change at the stress concentration portion such as welded joint and areprogress. There is also a risk of collapse of a bridge when fatigue cracks are progress.
Therefore, a fatigue measure is an important issue in ensuring the safety of steel bridge.
The fatigue measures are classified in two countermeasures such that in-advancecountermeasures to prevent occurrence of cracking, i.e. preventive maintenance andcountermeasures after the crack has occurred i.e. corrective maintenance.
In order to determine the need for fatigue measures, it is necessary to diagnose andevaluate understanding the situation in which the structures are used in addition to thedetails of joint structures in which fatigue cracking occurs.
In this paper, typical measures as repair of fatigue damage such as a stop hole method
and the mechanical repair by bolts and spliced member are introduced.
A stop hole is a circular hole which is installed in order to remove the crack tip portion.
By removing the stress concentration portion with installation of a circular hole, it ispossible to prevent or delay the progress of cracks. Stop Hall is generally used as
emergency measures until the permanent measures are carried out or used inconjunction with other permanent measures.
Figure 10(a) shows an example that a stop hole is installed at the tip of a crack
generated from the weld toe. The tip of a crack shall be completely removed byinstalling stop hole. Figure 10(b) shows the method of stop hole bolted with splice plate.
This method is to improve the fatigue strength reducing the stress concentration of the94

New Technologies
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Figure 10 Measures for fatigue damage
crack tip by installing stop hole and being bolted tightly with splice plate around thestop hole.
3.2 Examples of the damages and retrofit works of reinforced concrete structures
Among the damage of concrete bridge structures of the Metropolitan Expressway, arecrack, water leakage and free lime 46%. The main factors of deterioration of concrete
structures are carbonation, salt damage, freezing damage, alkali-silica reaction,
chemical erosion and fatigue of concrete slab. In this section, the typical damage ofconcrete slab, their cause and measures are described below.
The drying shrinkage of concrete is restricted by steel girder so that cracks are occurred
perpendicular to the bridge axis. As a result of crack development due to repeatedloading of wheel load, anisotropy of slab proceeds. For this reason, cracks are also
occurred in the bridge axis due to the re-allocation of bending moment in the directionof the main reinforcement. Therefore, cracks at the bottom of the slab progress in two
directions. By shear force and torsional vertical shear force by the repetition of wheel
load, cracks in two directions are progressed to the entire lower surface of slab anddeveloped into a hexagonal crack. Finally, peeling off and corner falling of concrete
facing on cracks occurs by repeated ground-phenomenon due to opening and closing of
cracks. Ultimate shear failure is occurred after local failure is induced by punching
shear failure.
As the measures for fatigue cracks of concrete slab, there are several retrofit methods
such as to increase thickness of upper or lower surface of the slab, to adhere steel plateor continuous fiber sheet, to install stringer and to replace the slab. Currently, carbon
fiber sheet adhered in a grid shape is often used for the slab of highway bridges shown

Figure 11: Carbon fiber sheet method
The current repair, reinforcement and seismic retrofit works of bridge for effective utilization
The current repair, reinforcement and seismic retrofit works of bridge for effective utilization of 95
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November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmarin Figure 11. By adhesion of carbon fiber sheet, there is an effect of restraining
deflection and cracks, and improving bending strength of the slab. And f there is
seepage water from the bridge surface, there is no stagnant water in the lower surface ofthe slab so that it does not adversely affect the slab by employing this method. It is also
possible to visually inspect and observe a part of the lower surface after construction
since the concrete surface is exposed between the carbon fiber sheets.
4. SUMMARY
Seismic design standards in Japan, has been revised according to the progress of
research on seismic technology of bridge and the earthquake experience with pastearthquakes as described in 2.2. Relatively large damage has occurred on the bridges
with structural types that was designed by seismic standard older than 1990, damaged inpast earthquakes and seismic design was not performed. On the other hand, the bridges
designed by seismic standard after 1990 and retrofit works were carried out, were notdamaged. Therefore, it is important to carry out appropriate seismic design and seismic
reinforcement shown in 2.2 and 2.3. Three types of wrapping method for RC piers are
introduced. As compared between the RC piers with and without retrofit work of bywrapping method, it is obvious that crucial damage was prevented by carrying out
appropriate seismic strengthening.
In recent years, the importance of maintenance has been increasing with deteriorationand damage of the structures. Typical damage and repair and reinforcement works ofsteel and concrete bridges are introduced. As for steel bridge, fatigue damage has
currently become a major problem as well as corrosion. Typical measures for fatigue
cracks are introduced in 3.1 and several inspection methods for detecting fatigue cracks
such as ultrasonic testing (UT) and magnetic particle testing (MT) have been developed.
As for concrete bridge, cracks and water leakage are major damage, especially fatigue
crack of RC slab has been issued from the past. Several reinforcement works of RC slab
are introduced and the one of the retrofit method which is lately employed for the
Metropolitan Expressway is described. In addition, the effective measures, is the water
proofing works of the top surface of slab to improve fatigue durability of concrete slab.
Based on experience of damage, deterioration and earthquake, development of newmaterials and further development of non-destructive inspection technology is requiredfor carrying out effective maintenance of the structures. Furthermore, advanced
infrastructure management system using ICT technology, utilizing monitoring and etc.
is desired for sustainable operation and maintenance of the infrastructure.
REFERENCES
Hoshikuma, J., 2012. Overview of the revision of seismic design standard for roadbridge, Bulletin of JAEE, No17, Japan, 57-60.
Hoshikuma, J., 2012. Damage of Road Bridge by the Great East Japan Earthquake andfurther research, Planning and Construction, No.748, Japan, 20-24.
Committee on Bridges, 2012. Revision of Specification for Highway Bridge, No 5,
Japan Road Association, Japan, 57-59.
Niwa, J. 2012 (editor-in-chief), Encyclopedia Sustainable Construction, Sangyo
Chosakai, Japan.

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A mathematical model for electric vehicle
movement with respect tomultiple charging-stops

1

Yudai HONMA1
Lecturer, International Center for Urban Safety Engineering,
Institute of Industrial Science, the University of Tokyo, Japan
yudai@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp

ABSTRACTAs environmental issues become more prominent, electric vehicles (EV) have attracted
an increasing amount of attention. However, the continuous cruising distance of an EV
is limited to around 160 km, which is insufficient for everyday use. Battery capacity is
the limiting factor in long-distance EV travel. Nissan Co., Ltd. intends to deploy rapid
battery chargers for its commercial EV, the Nissan LEAF. The company will install the
chargers for over 200 company dealers distributed throughout Japan. These stations
enable LEAF motorists to charge their car whenever required. However, theabovementioned dealers own, at most, two rapid chargers. When multiple users
converge at the station, a “queuing (or waiting)” condition is created, which may leadto the “call loss” condition. In other words, in planning the EV infrastructure, anappropriate number of chargers must be installed at each station. Therefore, thenumber of vehicles entering the station must be estimated. In this study, on the basis of
the supporting infrastructure for widespread EV use, we propose a mathematical modelfor estimating the number of vehicles arriving at each charge station.
Keywords: electric vehicle, EV supporting infrastructure, multiple stops
1. INTRODUCTION
As environmental issues become more prominent, electric vehicles (EV) have attracted
an increasing amount of attention. EVs have gradually become commercially available
and are expected to become widely used in society. However, despite ongoing efforts toimprove performance, the continuous cruising distance of an EV is limited to around
160 km, which is insufficient for everyday use (Husain, 2010). Battery capacity is thelimiting factor in long-distance EV travel.
Nissan Co., Ltd. intends to deploy rapid battery chargers for its commercial EV, theNissan LEAF, which is gaining widespread attention. The company will install the
chargers for over 200 company dealers distributed throughout Japan. These stations
enable LEAF motorists to charge their car whenever required (Nissan, 2014). They arelocated strategically, such that no region of Japan lies beyond 40 km of a rapid charge
station, rendering long-distance travel by EV imminently feasible.

97November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarHowever, the abovementioned dealers own, at most, two rapid chargers. When multiple
users converge at the station, a “queuing (or waiting)” condition is created, which maylead to the “call loss” condition. In other words, in planning the EV infrastructure, anappropriate number of chargers must be installed at each station. Therefore, the numberof vehicles entering the station must be estimated.
In this study, on the basis of the supporting infrastructure for widespread EV use, we
propose a mathematical model for estimating the number of vehicles arriving at eachcharge station. The rest of paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, a mathematicalmodel to estimate the number of EVs arriving at each charge station is formulated, andbasic properties of our model are derived. In Section 3, the model is applied to theJapanese traffic flow and road networks. Conclusion of this study and present ideas for
future studies are presented in Section 4.
2. CHARGE STATION AND TRAFFIC MODEL
Set up in two dimensions, the model assumes O trip start points (Origins)O  1,..., o,..., O , D trip end points (Destinations) D  1,..., d ,..., D , and K EV charge

stations K  1,..., k ,..., K 㹡. It further assumes that Tod EVs travel from an origin ( o ) toa destination ( d ) within the OD matrix. The maximum cruising distance of the EVs is
L . The EVs unable to travel from “ o ” to “ d ” without charging their batteries must use
one of several charge stations. Under the above assumptions, we derive the number of
EVs arriving at each charge station.
Now, a directed graph G V , E connecting the following paths (i) through (iv) is
introduced, where the distance between two points is L or less V O  D  K .
(i) Origin (Start point) Ѝ Charge station(ii) Charge station Ѝ Charge station(iii) Charge station Ѝ Destination (End point)(iv) Origin (Start point) Ѝ Destination (End point)
All conceivable paths of EVs traveling from the origin to destination, in the above
network, are expressed on the directed graph G , and path (s) that can be expressed on
the directed graph G are the only feasible paths.

Figure 1: Idea of EV routing network
Given the above conditions and assumptions, we consider an EV moving from an origin( o ) to destination ( d ) on the directed graph G . Many paths linking “ o ” to “ d ” are98

New Technologies
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available, including one that utilizes the shortest travel time. Understandably, the pathof shortest travel time will be used most frequently, and longer the travel time of a path,the less frequently it is used. To incorporate this concept into the model, we specify theprobability that an EV moving from “ o ” to “ d ” will use the r th path. On the basis of
the multinomial logit model, the probability is defined as>@

exp  JC rod

Prod

¦ >

exp  JC rodr) od(1)@where C rod is the cost of traveling the r th path from ͆ o ͇ to ͆ d ͇, and ) od is a setof paths from ͆ o ͇ to ͆ d .͇ In this study, C rod is the sum of link costs, and isexpressed as
C rod

def.

cok1 

/ 1

¦c
l 1

(2)

k l k l 1  c k / ddef. d

(3)

ok
T
v
def. dkk 'C kk '
Tv
def. d
kd
C kd
v

C ok

(4)
(5)

Here, the r th path is the following route from ͆ o ͇ to ͆ d ͇ :o o k1 o k 2 o  o k / o d , d ** is the distance between two points, v is speed of theEV, and T is the time required for rapid battery charging.
When the set of paths ) od is a subset of the ͆entire conceivable paths,͇ the network
flow expressed by equation (1) is equivalent to the Markov distribution (Akamatsu,
1996)
pd j | i

Wid

def.

@WW ,

(6)

¦ exp > JC @ G .

(7)>

exp  Jcijr) id

id
r

jd

id

id

where p d j | i is the transition probability of EV traveling from node i  V to nodej  V , and G id is the Kronecker delta symbol. Wid in the above equation can be obtainedby the following equation (9), whose elements are given by equation (8) using thematrix A of N u N :aij>­exp  Jcij®
0¯

^Wij ` >I  A@1

@ When the link e exists
ij

otherwise(8)(9)

A mathematical model for electric vehicle movement with respect to multiple charging-stops
A mathematical model for electric vehicle movement with respect to multiple charging-stops

99

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Note that the EV travel can be described by the Markov model. Next, we investigate theMarkov process that reaches destination ( d ). When the transition matrix between nodes
in the Markov process is defined by equation (10), the number ( N id ) of EVs entering
each node (while traveling towards the destination) is determined by equation (11):
Pd

def.

> pd j | i @§ N1d ·¨¸
¨ N 2d ¸¨  ¸¨¸¨N N d ¸
©
¹

T

(10)
T

§ T1d ·¨¸
¨ T2 d ¸
1¨  ¸ >I  Pd @¨¸¨T N d ¸©
¹(11)Thus, the number ( N k ) of EVs arriving at charge station k can be derived as follows(independent of destination):
Nk

¦N

dD

kd

(12)

3. TRIAL CALCULATION BASED ON PASSENGER MOVEMENT IN JAPANThe model described in the above sections is applied to the movement of traveling
passengers in Japan (excluding Hokkaido and Okinawa), to estimate the number of EVS
arriving at the charge station. Data regarding vehicles and traveling passenger
movements have been extracted from the Third Inter-Regional Travel Survey (MLIT,
2010) issued by the Japanese Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism.
Origin and Destination points are set by 10km mesh population data. Furthermore,travel time between two points is calculated based on the minimum road network
distance (EV travel speed v 80[km/h] if highways, v 60[km/h] if metropolitan
expressways, and v 30[km/h] if ordinary roads) from real road network data
(Sumitomo Ltd., 2005).
Figure 1 shows the distribution of 2151 EV charge stations at which rapid chargers are
currently installed (CHAdeMO Association 2014). The number of EVs arriving at thestation per day is calculated. In the survey, traveling passenger movements areaggregated over the each 10km mesh (3470 meshs in total). The centers of population
gravity in each meshs are set as origin and destination points, and time for rapid battery
charging ( T 40[min.]). The parameter J is set to 0.1.
As evidenced from the intensity of dots shown in Figure 1 (indicating the number of
EVs arriving at the charge station per day), the stations located around large cities andnear arterial roads are the most frequently visited. Figure 2 is a histogram of the numberof EVs arriving at the charge station per day. Approximately 63% of the 1351 stations
are visited 1000 EVs per day or less (average number of EV visits 1097.2 [car/day]). In
contrast, the number of EVs arriving at the busiest station is 46031.3 [cars/day],suggesting that so many chargers in the station will be needed.

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Figure 2: Number of EVs arriving at each charge station per day

Figure 3: Histogram of the number of EVs arriving at charge stations per day
4. CONCLUSION
The waiting time at rapid-charge stations as well as the number of rapid chargers
required at each station is easily determined from the Queuing Theory (M. Haviv 2013),
provided that the number of EV visits at each station can be properly estimated. In
addition, this model can elucidate the distribution of EVs, traveling time, and charging
events (the number of times the EV will require charging), while accounting for
multiple charging events in a single trip.
REFERENCES
Akamatsu, T., 1996. Cyclic flows, Markov process and transportation stochastic
assignment, Transportation Research 30B, 369–386.
CHAdeMO Association, CHAdeMO Association HP (in Japanese):
http://www.chademo.com/wp/japan/. 2014/8/31
A mathematicalmodel formodel
electric
with respectmultiplecharging-stops
A mathematicalforvehicle
electricmovement
vehicle movement
withtorespect
to multiple
charging-stops

101

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarHaviv, M., 2013. Queues: A course in queueing theory, Springer.
Husain, I., 2010. Electric and hybrid vehicles: Design fundamentals, CRC Press.
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, 2010. The inter-regional travel
survey.
Nissan Motor Company, Nissan LEAF official Web Site, Nissan Motor Company.
http://www.nissanusa.com/leaf-electric-car/. 2014/08/31.
Sumitomo Electric Industries Ltd, 2005. Japanese digital road network database.

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Safetyof Megain Asia

Khaing Zar THWIN1 and Kay Thwe TUN2
1
Civil Engineer, Pyaeg Hlyan Moe Construction Company, Myanmar
ngengemdy1989@gmail.com
2
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
Mandalay Technological University, Myanmar
ABSTRACTThis paper is focus on the prediction of future travel demand of Mandalay City which is an
essential task of the long-range transportation planning process to create a sustainable urban
transport system of five townships known as Aung Myay Tha Zan, Chan Aye Tha Zan, Ma Ha
Aung Myay, Chan Mya Tha Zi and Pyi Gyi Da Gun within the entire administrative area of
Mandalay City. For a thorough understanding of existing travel pattern and identifying andanalyzing of existing traffic related problems, the stepwise procedure known as four-stepmodeling process including four major steps: trip generation, trip distribution, mode choice,and traffic assignment is carried out. The origins and destinations of trips are determined byhome interviews (for internal travel) and roadside interviews at cordon stations (for externalinternal and through trips). The sample for the survey is generated using the method ofstratified random sampling, with stratification. Zonal least square regression analysis iscarried out for trip generation. Trip distribution is determined by using Gravity model. The
modal split analysis which involves the allocation of total person trips (by all modes) to therespective modes of travel, primarily automobile and public transit is obtained by using
multinomial logit model. Traffic assignment is accomplished by Equilibrium assignment. The
results of this study will give a performance indicator related to environmental problems foran effective and sustainable land transport system of Mandalay city. This travel patterndeveloping for a multi-modal transport network will overcome the traffic congestion anddelay problems occurred in Mandalay city.
Keywords: travel demand forecasting, four-step modeling process, the elasticity of demand,origin-destination (O-D) study

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Zin Mar LWIN1, Myint Myint KHAING2 and Kyaw Zaya HTUN3,
Associate Professor, Mandalay Technological University, Myanmar
dr.zinmar80@gmail.com
2
Associate Professor, Mandalay Technological University, Myanmar
3
Assistant Lecturer, Mandalay Technological University, Myanmar
1

ABSTRACTLand use/land cover change analysis is necessary to maintain urban environment. It also
plays an important role in urban planning and managing urban resources. Due tosocioeconomic factor, and increasing population density, Mandalay city has rapid
urbanization and taken placed a lot of changes in land use and land cover. This study is
focused on analyzing LULC changes in Mandalay city from 2004 to 2014.Changes of urban
green cover is also investigated over the 10 years period. Two satellite images; Quickbird
2004 and worldview 2014 are studied to monitor land use /land cover changes, andsupervised classification are done to classify different land use classes. Five land use classes
are identified: urban built up, water body, vegetation cover, open-land and agricultural land.
NDVI values of two images are differenced to know the changes of urban green spaces of
Mandalay. Remote sensing and GIS is a cost-effective tool for monitoring and analyzing ofurban LULC changes. Results show that noticeable amount of changes, especially fromagricultural land to urban area are taken placed in study area.
Keywords: land use/land cover, change analysis, remote sensing and GIS, Mandalay city105

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Kyaw Zaya HTUN1 and Myint Myint KHAING2
1,2
Assistant Lecturer, Remote Sensing Department,
Mandalay Technological University, Ministry of Science and Technology, Myanmar
kyawzaya.htun@gmail.com
ABSTRACTInle Lake is the second largest lake in Myanmar and one of the nine key sites for sightseeing there.
Inle Lake is not only a multiple purpose lake for the domicile of thirty five floating villages withapproximately 90,000 people living in the vicinity of the lake but also importantly the main water
source of Law Pi Ta electrical power plant which is the mainly electricity source for the whole
Myanmar. Nowadays, the most obvious problem of this lake is shallowness and decreasing area of thelake. According to Movius (1939), the water level in the lake was 100 m higher than the present level.
Deforestation, widespread of cultivation and soil erosion cause the three main streams in hilly region
to deposit a lot of sediment in the lake. Sediment deposition mainly caused the decreasing lake areaand depth. Revised Universal soil loss equation (RUSLE) was applied in conjunction with remotesensing and geographic information system technique to determine the influence of land use and land
cover change (LUCC) on soil erosion potential of Inle catchment during the period 1990 to 2010 andthe estimated erosion rates were compared with sediment delivery ratios. This study further
demonstrates that better soil management can reduce the sedimentation load in the Inle Lake and tosave from problem of shallowness and decreasing area of waterbody.

Keywords: RUSLE, LUCC, deforestation

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Aung Myo Khaing1, Akiyuki KAWASAKI2 and Win Win Zin3
1
Assistant Director, Directorates of Water Resources andImprovement of River Systems, DWIR, Myanmar
aungmyokhaing.77@gmail.com
2
Project Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
The University of Tokyo, Japan.
3
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
Yangon Technological University (YTU), Myanmar
ABSTRACT
Bago river basin is at the lower part of Myanmar, mountainous in the upstream and flat indownstream, so, yearly flood occurs including urban area of Bago city. Local people andauthorities are willing to reduce flood frequency and degree of destruction. Nowadays,
government agencies studied causes of flood and tried to settle with structural measures. This
study aims to generate flood inundation map by non-structural measures. One important data,
digital elevation model, DEM, available from websites could not delineate actual stream network
for the flood plain area. The 10m resolution DEM for Bago river basin was created with theelevation data of contour lines and point elevations from topographic maps and channel survey
maps. The accuracy of DEM was checked by delineating the stream networks and elevation
points comparing. That DEM was applied in Soil and Water Assessment Tool, SWAT, to simulatedischarge. The simulated result was checked with the observed data of two stations, Zaungtu andBago. HEC-RAS was applied to compute water surface elevation and flood inundation map was
generated in HEC-GeoRAS. The simulated flood area was compared with ALOS image for theyear 2006flood, 75% of flooded area was overlapped. The flood for different return periods wasconsidered and Gumbel’s distribution method was applied. Finally, flood hazard maps ofdifferent return periods were generated with HEC-GeoRAS. This flood result would support
decision making for safety of local people and less damage of croplands.
Keywords: flood inundation map, SWAT and HEC-RAS, DEM creating, Bago river basin, return

period flood109

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Flood damage estimation sensitivity
to spatial scale
Srikantha Herath1 and Akinola Komolafe2
1
Academic Director, 2Ph.D. Student,
Institute of for the Advanced Study of Sustainability, United Nations University
herath@unu.edu
ABSTRACT
Pre-disaster economic loss estimation is an important element in flood risk assessment
and useful for mobilising investment and developing policies for flood loss prevention.
With the potential increase of magnitudes and intensities of climate hazards withclimate change pre-disaster loss estimation is becoming extremely important as many of
the flood risk reduction decisions are made based on cost benefit analysis. From a
global or regional view point it is also important to understand relative impacts on
economies of countries to mobilise international support and develop response
strategies under future climate scenarios. This requires a unified approach to flood
damage estimation across countries and over large areal extents. There are manydifficulties associated in undertaking such a task. Economic losses from floods are
estimated using loss functions which relate damage to properties and content based onflood water levels. However, the classification of properties as well as approaches toderivation of these functions differ from country to country. In addition spatial
resolutions used in the assessment have a direct impact on the estimation of potential
flood heights as well as representation of property exposure. In this paper weinvestigate the sensitivity of spatial scale in estimating potential flood loss and what
approaches can be taken to minimise errors arising from coarse spatial resolutions.
Keywords: flood damage, spatial resolution, loss functions, exposure
1. INTRODUCTION
The general shift of focus from flood hazard control to flood risk assessment haspropelled the active involvement and interest in the flood impact assessment andeconomic damage estimation (Bubeck et al., 2011; Ke et al., 2012). Flood damage andloss estimation forms an integral part of flood risk assessment (Bates and De Roo, 2000).
Two methods of flood damage estimation involves: i. the use of flood survey of theaffected people and property to estimate the incurred damages and losses, mostly done
after flood disaster; and ii. the use of stage-damage functions (Herath and Wang, 2009).
Most flood damage estimation (especially in the developed countries) makes use ofdamage functions, formulated based on damage relationship between flood inundation
characteristics to assess both after and potential future losses for different flood
scenarios (Dutta et al., 2003; Islam and Ado, 2000; Ke et al., 2012; Mohammadi et al.,2014). After flood rapid damage estimations are useful for the allocation of resources
for recovery and reconstruction. Understanding the potential flood damages does
provide opportunity for identification of elements at risk, effective flood reduction

111

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2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmarplanning, flood mitigation and control, (adaptation, awareness creation and insurance(Bubeck et al., 2011). The synthetic estimation of damages is usually developed for
rapid estimation and compared with the observed (incurred) losses from the after flood
survey for different damage categories such as building, infrastructures, agricultural
crops. etc. (Dutta et al., 2003; Kreibich et al., 2005).
Flood damage is generally classified into two categories: the tangible and intangible
damages. The tangible damages are further divided into two: direct and indirect
damages. The direct damages are flood damages caused by direct or physical contact
with the flood water (e.g. physical damages, loss of life) while the indirect damages are
not directly connected to the flood water (e.g. trauma and loss of production andincome) (Jongman et al., 2012) (Table 1). Damage and loss estimations have been
derived for various categories of tangible properties such as residential, commercial andagricultural crops (Dutta and Herath, 2001; Dutta et al., 2003; Herath et al., 1999;
Kreibich et al., 2005). Although the intangible damages are complex and difficult toestimate, some researchers have however attempted to simulate the losses due to loss of
lives (Honghai et al., 2006).
Table 1: Flood Damage categories and examples after Dutta et al. (2003)
Tangible
Intangible
Primary
Secondary
Structures, Contents Land and environment Health,
Directand agriculture
recovery
PsychologicalTransportation,
Impact on regional Damage
Indirect
Business Interruption

and national economy

Two approaches that are usually adopted in the estimation of flood damages in urban
area as explained by Su et al. (2005) are parcel-based and grid-based. The former makes
use of detail information about the landuse categories, building types and dwellingtypes; whereas the latter approach divides the study area or region into grids of equalareas, with aggregated information from census data assigned to each cell assuming thesame socioeconomic activities within the cell (Dewan, 2013; Su et al., 2005). Bothapproaches depend mostly on the data availability, and the spatial and temporal scales
under consideration. Damage estimations are often done on micro-scale, meso-scale,and macro-scale levels. At the micro level, a detailed structural analysis of the exposureis undertaken; the types of buildings and the materials are taken into consideration ineconomic damage estimation. The meso scale makes use of the landuse data as the
economic assets for a particular region. The macro-scale, which is more coarse and oflarger units, is often used for a country and worldwide scale (Bubeck et al., 2011).
Generally, flood damages are modelled based on the influence of the inundation depths.
Besides the water depth factor, other flood characteristics such as velocity, sediments
load, warning time and awareness, winds and duration are also incorporated in damage
assessment analysis (Dutta and Herath, 2001; Herath et al., 1999; Herath and Wang,2009). Other advocated factors by Yang (2005) cited by Chang et al.(2008) aremeterological (rainfall terain) and flood prevention measures.
Damage estimation starts with the identification of the potental flood harzards and its
charcteristics using various flood models. The results of the model produces flood map

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showing the inundated area, either as a function of its depths,velocity or duration. With
the knowledge of the hazards extents, the exposure elements are identfied. Secondly, theexposure elements are classified based on the spatial characteristics; micro, meso andmacro scales. Thirdly, the economic analysis of the damages are done through either
survey questionaires after a particular flood events, insurance claim or construction
costs. Fourthly, the stage damage curve (also called vulnerability curve) is estabilished;
this is the widely accepted common method for estimating direct flood damage (Notaro
et al., 2014; Smith, 1994). Stage damage curve can be constructed using either empiricalor synthetic methods. The former makes use of the results of the field survey,
experiences of the property owners during flood events; the later is based on the expert
judgment through available data or the replacement costs of the damaged properties.
Stage damage functions are developed for various categories of the exposures using
different statistical fitting models (e.g polynomial, linear, square root, etc.) (Freni et al.,2010 ; Notaro et al., 2014). Lastly, the spatial layers of the hazards (inundation depths
for example), exposure (property, landuse) and stage damage function can be integrated
in Geographic Information Systems (GIS), normalised by the unit cost price of the
exposure and the floor area to estimate the potential damages (Dutta and Herath, 2001;
Herath et al., 1999) (Figure 1). Most damage simulations are done on detailed/local
scale, but in order to regionally estimate damages, a larger coarse scale will be needed.
The use of a larger resolution in damage estimation will have effects on the outcome ofthe estimated damages, hence the need to understand the impacts of the change in scale.
Understanding the damages at different scales would help to level of uncertainty
involved, and guide in the scaling of the estimation.
Flood Model

Inundation
Map

LanduseMap

Damage Model
Loss Function
Normalization

Unit Cost

Floor Area

SpatialDamages
Distributions

Total
damagesStage –
DamageCurves Curve

Figure 1: Conceptual framework for flood damage estimation
The closeness of the estimated losses to after-flood survey losses is determined by theaccuracy of the estimation processes, data inputs, and model used. The process of theestimation and the data inputs contribute significantly to the level of uncertainty
involved, which can either underestimate and/or overestimate the potential damages.
While a couple of processes have been evaluated for the level of uncertainty
contributions, little is known about the effect of the spatial resolutions on the damage
estimates. Due to multidisciplinary approaches in all stages of flood risk assessment, theintroduction of some uncertainties in flood damage estimation are inevitable (de Moel et
Flood damage estimation sensitivity to spatial scale
Flood damage estimation sensitivity to spatial scale113

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmaral., 2012). According to Bubeck et al. (2011) and Moel and Aerts (2011), theuncertainty in flood damage estimation comes through various sources of data inputs;
the flood models used for flood hazard (mostly inundation depth) modeling, theexposure (land use), the value of the element at risk and the susceptibility of the element
at risk to hydrologic conditions (depth damage function). These processes areaccompanied with certain uncertainty that can overestimate or underestimate thepotential damages.
Due to the complex nature of flood wave propagation processes, especially in the urban
watersheds and lack or limited data for validation and calibration, some level of
uncertainties are often associated with the flood damage model results (Freni et al.,2010 ; Jonkman et al., 2008; Notaro et al., 2014). Uncertainty in damage estimation is
acknowledged by many researchers in trying to assess the reliability and precision of
their works (Jongman et al., 2012; Ke et al., 2012). Most researches have proposed
analysis of uncertainty in flood damage estimate in order to ensure reliability andconfidence by the decision makers (de Moel et al., 2012). For instance, Bubeck et al.
(2011) had examined the uncertainties associated with landuse characteristics and theinfluence of modelling approches. Furthermore, de Moel et al. (2012) examined theinfluence of flood and damage models on the damage estimates. The results, however,revealed substantial uncertainties, which mostly resulted from the damage curves used.
But, the effect and the influence of flood depths and land-use grid resolutions on flood
damage estimates need to be considered. Inundation depths, which have elevation dataas an important part of its components, contribute a very large uncertainty to the loss
estimates (de Moel et al., 2012; Jongman et al., 2012; Moel and Aerts, 2011). The cellsize of the elevation model and grid cell as an input to flood model has strong influenceon the model output, and can either under or over predict the actual flood event. The
effects of resolutions on the floodplain models has been previously investigated for highresolutions (Dutta and Nakayama, 2009; Horritt and Bates, 2001; Podhorányi et al.,2013). But, the effect of a combined flood depth and land use/land cover resolution has
not been given much attention. In this paper, we present, with different scenarios theinfluence or sensitivity of the spatial resolutions of input data on the output of the flood
damage model for decision making in flood damage modeling.
2. METHODOLOGY
2.1 Study Area
Major processes in flood damage assessment were followed to analyze the sensitivity ofthe damage estimation to grid resolutions. Inundation maps, which produces flood
depths were obtained from the existing flood model; the landuse map describing theexposure; vulnerability analysis and damage estimation modelling using Geographical
Information Systems (GIS). The sensitivity analysis was done by varying the input
grids resolution in NK-GIAS.
The study area for this research is Ichinomiya river basin, situated in the Chiba
prefecture, Japan. The river is about 220sq.km basin and 37.3km in length. It lies within
the longitude 35o18’N to 35o30’N and latitude 140o10’E to 140o25’ E (Figure 2).
Topographically, the basin contains high elevation (about 155m) in the western part and114

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lowland in the eastern part, about 2m from the mean sea level. Ichinomiya basin isfrequently affected by flood resulting from intense rainfall, which often affects thelowland urban area. The basin’s mean annual rainfall is approximately 1,700mm andhas a uniform rainfall distribution (Dutta and Herath, 2001). In 1996, precisely between
September 22 and 25, the basin experienced an extreme flood disaster caused bytyphoon. According to Dutta and Herath (2001), the whole basin received about 236mm
rainfall within 24hours during that period.

Figure 2: Study area (Ichinomiya river basin)
2.2 Spatial Information
2.2.1 Landuse Data
The landuse/land cover map of the basin area was derived from Landsat imagery with
30m resolution. The land cover analysis was carried out using Maximum Likelihood(ML) Supervised Classification in ArcGIS classification tool. ML is the most powerfuland commonly used algorithm for image classification (Nicholas, 2005); it makes use ofboth variances and covariance of the class signatures to assign each cell to classes in thesignature file. Training classes were generated from the existing and Google map andclassification was done interactively. Generally, the basin consists of urban area,
vegetation (dense and light forest), water bodies and agricultural lands. The urban area
is largely situated downstream (lowlands) with flat topography; these areas are mostly
vulnerable to flooding in the past, with severe damages. The vegetation areas (dense andlight forests), which constitutes highest proportion of the entire coverage, serves aswater shed, and are distributed mostly upstream of the study area.
2.3 Flood Information
Being the first step in flood damage estimation, hazards identification and analysis wasdone to using existing flood hazard map of the study area. In this paper, water depths
Flood damage estimation sensitivity to spatial scale
Flood damage estimation sensitivity to spatial scale

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November
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Yangon,MyanmarNovember
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Yangon,MyanmarFigure 3. Landuse map of the study area derived from Landsat Image
was considered as the major factor that causes damages, and therefore forms the inputs
to this damage analysis. Flood hazard was obtained from the simulation done by Dutta
et al. (2003), an integrated GIS, hydrological and hydraulic model. The original vector
data was 50m x 50m; it shows the simulated water depths within the floodplain in thebasin. The inundation depths ranges from 0 to 5.3m, with higher water depths found in
the lowlands and along the river course.

Figure 4: Flood extent map of the study area after Dutta et al. (2003)

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2.4 Damage Functions

Damage Ratio (%)

Stage-damage function describes the relationship between flood damages and the flood
water depths (Notaro et al., 2014). In this research existing stage-damage model
developed by Dutta et al. (2003) was used for the estimation of flood damages in thisstudy (Figure 5). The stage- damage curves, developed for japan was developed basedon the averaged and normalized data retrieved from the Japanese Ministry ofConstruction,
which was based on site survey (Dutta et al., 2003). Damages are40
categorized into five categories; industrial contents, industrial structure, residential
contents, residential (non-wooden) and residential (wooden). For this research, aresidential
structure curve for Japan was adopted to examine the influence of spatial
30
resolutions on the estimated results.
20

10

0
0

0.5

1

1.5
2
2.5
Water Depth (m)

3

3.5

4

Figure 5: Japan’s flood damage function for residential structure {Dutta, 2003;
Herath, 1999; Herath, 2009}
Stage - damage function was derived using polynomial model of order three (3),which
describes
thedamagedegree functionof damages
as a functionof flood
depths
with
their
Figure5: Japan’s
flood
for residential
structure{Dutta,2003;
Herath,1999;
Herath,2009}
damagecoefficients(Equation 1).
Stage - damage function was derived using polynomial
model of order three (3), which
Df = (0.0126667+ (0.0008687*(x)-(0.000003 * (x)2 + (0.000000004922* (x)3…………… (1)describes the degree of damages as a function of flood depths with their damage
coefficients (Equation 1).
Where Df is damage function expressed as a function of flood depth (x) in meter
Df = (0.0126667+ (0.0008687*(x)-(0.000003 * (x)2 + (0.000000004922* (x)3…………… (1)WeDfestimateddamages
on mathematicalmodel
bymeter
Dutta et al.
Whereis damagefunctionbased
expressed
as a function offlooddeveloped
depth (x) in(2003) for Japan residential structure damage. The equation is a normalized damage
We function
estimatedthat
damagesbasedvarious
on mathematicalmodel
Dutta et al.cost(2003)
considersfactors suchas developed
floor area,byreplaceableoffor Japan
residential
structure
damage.
a normalized
damage equation
function
structureand numberof house
unit,The
etc.equation
For this isresearch,
the followingthat considers various factors such as floor area, replaceable cost of structure andwas ofused:numberhouse unit, etc. For this research, the following equation was used:
Dr (i,(i, j)j)==∑����������� �� �� � ������ �� �� � ������ �� �� � ����� �� �� ……………………….(2)……………………….(2)Wherefor foranyanygridgrid(i,j),
NsNs
is thenumberWhere(i,j),
is thenumberofofresidential
residentialbuildingbuildingofoftype
typek,k,Df
Df isis thethedepth-damage function for each categories, Fa is the unit residential floor area for
depth-damage function for each categories, Fa is the unit residential floor area forbuilding type k and Cp in Japanese Yen is the replacement cost price.
building type k and Cp in Japanese Yen is the replacement cost price.
Flood damage estimation sensitivity to spatial scale
Flood damage estimation sensitivity to spatial scale117

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3. ANALYSIS
Sensitivity analysis helps to gain insight into various effects of different assumption
which in many ways influences the model output and could guide in the choice ofmodel inputs. It is a simple process that involves changing of input values based on
different conditions to unravel its effects on the outputs (de Moel et al., 2012; JRC,
2011; Pannell, 1997). Pannell (1997) grouped the uses of sensitivity analysis into four:(i). decision making or recommendation for decision makers, (ii). communication, (iii).
increasing understanding and (iv). model development. Essentially, this study is done
to understand what happens to damages at a larger scale and for decision making in the
choice of input spatial resolutions in flood damage and loss modeling.
Sensitivity analysis was carried out interactively in GIS environment with varying grid
resolutions as inputs to the damage estimation. Damage was estimated using NK-GIAS
software. NK-GIAS (Nippon Koei-Geographic Information Analysis) is a Japanese
based integrated GIS and hydrological modelling software, which is used to handle
spatiotemporal data (Nippon Koei Technical report, 2011). Major grids input were: theLanduse, Floor Area, Flood depths and Cost Price. The landuse was reclassified into
two; residential and others, and assigned values 1 and 0 respectively. This was
resampled to various coarse resolutions (50, 100, 500, 1000 and 2000) m as in Figure 6.
200m

50m

500m

1000m

2000m

Figure 6: Different Landuse resampled grid resolutions used as inputs to the model
The flood depth was re-sampled into various spatial resolutions (200 x 200m; 500 x
500m; 1000 x 1000m and 2000 x 2000m) (Figure 5). Other layers were also resampled
to the same resolutions for input into the model simulation. Damage functions fordifferent flood depths resolutions (50, 200, 500, 1000 and 2000) m were derived withpolynomial function for residential structure in equation (1) using overlay analysis in

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GIS. Also, the total flood damages were simulated with the equation (2) by varying thederived damage functions grids with the landuse, cost, and floor area grids. Simulation
was done with two scenarios: (i). at constant high resolution (50m) property (landuse)with increasing flood depths coarse resolutions. Since the principle of overlay allows
grids of the same resolutions, the coarse flood depths were resampled back to the highresolution of the property distribution scale. (ii). at concurrent increase in the flood
depths and property resolutions. The results are shown in Figures 7.

50m

200m

500m

1000m

2000m

Figure 7: Flood depth resampled grid resolutions used as inputs to the model
In order to verify the authenticity of the simulated model and to determine the closenessof the simulated damages to the observed, a comparative analysis was done with thesurvey flood damages of the study area as reported by Dutta et al. (2003).
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Spatial resolutions in flood damage modelling impact greatly on the outputs damages.
The increase in the flood depth spatial resolution (coarse layers) as shown in figures a, b
and c demonstrated a large spread and flood extent with lower water heads while adecrease in grid cell sizes (high resolution) reduces the flood extent with higher water
heads (Figures 6); these variations however influences the outcome of flood damage
simulation.

Flood damage estimation sensitivity to spatial scale
Flood damage estimation sensitivity to spatial scale

119and c demonstrated a large spread and flood extent with lower water heads while aand c demonstrated
large
spreadand floodextentthewith
lower
water
decreasein grid cell asizes(highresolution)
reducesflood
extentwithheads
higherwhilewateradecreasein grid6);
cellthese
sizesvariations(high resolution)
the floodextent withhigherwater
heads(Figureshoweverreduces
influences
the outcomeof flood
damageheads (Figures6); these
variations however influences the outcome of flood damage
simulation.
November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmarsimulation.
For
the first scenario, at a constant high resolution property and coarse resolution of theFor
first scenario,
at a constanthigh showed
resolutiona property
coarseasresolutionof thefloodthedepths,
the estimateddamages
gradual andincrease
the resolution
floodthedepths,
the estimateddamages
showeda property
gradualincreaseasresolution
theFor
firstStatistically,
scenario,atthe
a constanthigh resolution
andcoarsetheincreases.
total
damagesincrease
with
about
10%
from
the resolution
50mofgridflood
depths,thedamagesa gradual
increase
astrendtheresolution
increases.
Statistically,
the total
damagesincreasewith
10% from
the shown
50m grid
comparedwiththe estimated
2000m
flood
depth showed
grids(Figure6).aboutThedamagebyincreases.
Statistically,
the
total
damagesincrease
with
about
10%
from
the
50m
grid
compared
with
the
2000m
flood
depth
grids
(Figure6).
Thedamage
trend
shown
by
linear modelwithsquaredof approximately
88%
as in
equation(3):shown bycomparedwiththeadjusted
2000mRflood
depth
grids (Figure 6).
Thedamagetrend
linear model with adjusted R squared of approximately 88% as in equation (3):linear model with adjusted R squared of approximately 88% as in equation (3):+ 5 × damages
10� ……………………………………………………
�Table2: 1���0��
Predicted
for different spatial resolutions as defined by (3)����� ��� Flood�……………………………………………………
(3)������ � 1���0���� + 5 × 10
the first……………………………………………………
scenario’s model(3)
SpatialPredicted Total

SpatialPredicted Total

Wherethe totalDamages
flood damages
any spatialand ��� is (Yen)the spatial
������ is(m)in yen atResolutions
Resolutions(Yen)(mscale Damages
is
the
total
flood
damages
in
yen
at
any
spatial
scale
and��
Where
�
resolution
meters (m)(m)
�� is themeters2100 in �����
5,386,484
3000
5,552,120
spatial resolution in meters (m)5,404,888
2200
4000
5,736,160
6
6
5
5
4
百万百万

damages(Yen)
TotalTotal
damages
(Yen)

2300
2400
2500
2600
2700
2800
2900
3000
3100
3200
3300
3400
3500
3600
3700
3800

4
3
3
2
2
1
1
0
0

0
0

5,423,292
5000
y = 184.04x + 6000
5E+06
5,441,696
R² = 0.8765
5,460,100
y = 184.04x + 7000
5E+06
R² = 0.8765
5,478,504
8000
5,496,908
9000
5,515,312
10000
5,533,716
11000
5,552,120
12000
y = 9E+06x-0.14
R² = 0.9666
5,570,524
13000
y = 9E+06x-0.14
5,588,928
14000
R² = 0.9666
5,607,332
15000
5,625,736
16000
5,644,140
17000
5,662,544
18000
5,680,948
19000
500
1000
1500
5,699,352
20000(m)
500Spatial Resolution
1000
1500

2000
2000

5,920,200
6,104,240
6,288,280
6,472,320
6,656,360
6,840,400
7,024,440
at equal flood depth
7,208,480
and propertyatequal
flood depth
7,392,520
resolutions
and property
7,576,560
resolutions
7,760,600
at a constant property
7,944,640
layer andvaryingataconstant
property
8,128,680
flood depth
layer
and
varying
resolutions
8,312,720
flood depth
8,496,760
resolutions
8,680,800

Figure 6: Variation of damage estimations with spatial resolutions (at a constant
Spatial Resolution (m)Figure 6: Variationof damageestimations
with spatial(at a constant property layer andpropertylayervarying
flood resolutions
depth
The second scenario
ofthisandanalysis
ensuredthat resolutions).
resolutionof both grids are
varying flood depth resolutions).
Figure6:
Variationofdamageestimations
withspatialresolutions(ataconstant
layer andincreased simultaneously. The result revealed an opposite side of theproperty
first scenario,
Thevarying
secondflood
scenarioof
thisanalysis
ensuredthat
resolution
of
both
grids
are
increased
depth resolutions).
with lower damages
experienced,
decreases
40% fromtosimultaneously.
The result
revealed anwhich
oppositeside ofwith
the almost
first scenario,
with50m
lower
damagesexperienced,
decreases
almostfromto 2000m(Figure 6).
2000m(Figure 6). which
The trendof thewith
results
were40%
fittedby 50minversepower regression
Themodeltrend withof theresults
werefittedbyinversepower
regression
model
with
97% adjusted R squared as shown in figure 6. For every increase in97%
theadjusted R squared as shown in figure 6. For every increase in the resolutions of bothresolutions of both flood depths and landuse, the expected flood damages can be
flood depths and landuse, the expected flood damages can be defined as:
defined as:
New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia������ = 9 × 10� ��������

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia…………………………………………………………
4………………………………………………………… 4

Where������ is thethe total
total flood
flood damages
damagesininyen
yenatatany
anyspatial
spatialscale
scaleand
and��
Where
F_(d(ij))is
x_ij�� is thespatialresolution
in meters(m) (m)spatialresolution
in meters
By using equation 4, we estimated the projected damages for different resolutions, forBy using equation 4, we estimated the projected damages for different resolutions,both 100m and 1000m resolution steps as revealed in Table 3.
for both 100m and 1000m resolution steps as revealed in Table 3.
Unlike the first scenarios with a constant increase in flood damages, the table shows anunequalbutthedecreasein flood withdamagesfor bothincreasing
stepsdamages,
in spatialthe
resolutions.
Unlikefirst scenarios
a constantincreasein floodtable showsan unequal but decrease in flood damages for both increasing steps in spatial
resolutions.

120

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Urban
Safety Cities
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New Technologies
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Safetyof Megain AsiaICUS Report 78

Table 2: Predicted Flood damages for different spatial resolutions as defined by
the first scenario’s model
SpatialPredictedTotal
SpatialPredictedTotal
Resolutions(m)
Damages(Yen)
Resolutions(mDamages(Yen)
2100
5,386,484
3000
5,552,120
2200
5,404,888
40005,736,160
2300
5,423,292
5000
5,920,200
2400
5,441,696
6000
6,104,240
2500
5,460,100
70006,288,280
2600
5,478,504
80006,472,320
2700
5,496,908
90006,656,360
2800
5,515,312
10000
6,840,400
2900
5,533,716
11000
7,024,440
3000
5,552,120
12000
7,208,480
3100
5,570,524
13000
7,392,520
3200
5,588,928
14000
7,576,560
3300
5,607,332
15000
7,760,600
3400
5,625,736
16000
7,944,640
3500
5,644,140
17000
8,128,680
3600
5,662,544
18000
8,312,720
3700
5,680,948
19000
8,496,760
3800
5,699,352
20000
8,680,800
Table3:PredictedFlooddamagesfordifferentspatialresolutionsasdefinedbythe
secondscenario’smodel
SpatialPredictedTotal
SpatialPredictedTotal
Resolutions(m)
Damages(Yen)
Resolutions(mDamages(Yen)
2100
3,084,124 3000
2,933,902
2200
3,064,103 40002,818,085
2300
3,045,093 50002,731,409
2400
3,027,004 6000
2,662,572
25003,009,753 7000
2,605,726
26002,993,272 80002,557,466
2700
2,977,499 90002,515,640
2800
2,962,377 10000
2,478,806
2900
2,947,860 110002,445,950
3000
2,933,902 12000
2,416,335
3100
2,920,464 13000
2,389,409
3200
2,907,512 140002,364,746
3300
2,895,013 150002,342,015
3400
2,882,939 16000
2,320,950
3500
2,871,263 17000
2,301,334
3600
2,859,961 180002,282,992
3700
2,849,012 190002,265,776
3800
2,838,395 20000
2,249,564

In general, for coarse grids, the lowering of water heads causes the flood damages to besmaller while the large extent coverage increases the flood damages; these, however,compensate each other during simulation.
Flood damage estimation sensitivity to spatial scale
Flood damage estimation sensitivity to spatial scale

121

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarComparing the observed total damages after 1996 flood event with the estimateddamages from the sensitivity analysis, the results of both scenarios showed that none of
the estimations are near the observed/surveyed values, except the higher resolution(50m) for first and second scenarios. This points to the fact that for a robust accurate
estimates, a resampling of flood depth to high resolutions and having property
distribution layer at higher resolution would be necessary (Figures 7 and 8). However,from the results, modeling damages at a large scale can achieve reasonable results, withlittle changes when maintaining property at a constant high resolution with increasing
the resolution sizes. This is confirmed in the first sensitivity scenarios where there is arelatively small increase in damages with increase in the cell sizes compared to thesecond scenarios, which has a large decrease in damages.

Figure 7: Comparison between the observed residential structure flood damage and thesimulated flood damages at different resolutions for the first scenarios: at constantproperty and increasing flood depths’ coarse resolutions.

Figure 8: Comparison between the observed residential structure flood damage and thesimulated flood damages at different resolutions for the second scenarios: at the same
increasing resolutions of flood depths and property.

122

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5. CONCLUSIONS
Damage estimation simulations require the integration of various spatial data layers,which are heavily dependent on the scale used to represent data. Apart from individual
examination of the contributions of input data on the overall simulation results as done
previously by other authors, an effort is made in this study to analyze effect of spatial
resolution on flood loss estimation in order to retain original information as much as
possible. This study examined the sensitivity/response of damage models to various
spatial resolutions of the input data such as the flood depths and the property layers,
under two scenarios: first, at a uniform increasing grid sizes for both flood and exposure
information and, secondly, at a property distribution at a high resolution but flood depth
at varied scales. The research reveals that it is possible to estimate pre-disaster losses
close to actual losses if high spatial resolution data are used. However, as it is notpossible to model floods at such a high resolution at regional scale it is inevitable to usecoarser grids to model floods for regional studies. By adopting a higher resolution
representation of property distribution, it is possible to retain much of the accuracy of
forecasts even though the flood heights are averaged over larger grids. This result is
encouraging as the computational resources required to combine coarse flood
information with static high resolution property distribution to compute flood losses
require much less computer resources than modeling inundation at a high spatial
resolution.
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Flood damage estimation sensitivity to spatial scale
Flood damage estimation sensitivity to spatial scale

125November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

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Numerical simulation of environmental disasters
in the waterfront area
under the impact of extreme events

1

2

3

Bin HE , Kyoji SASSA , Yi WANG
And Srikantha HERATH4
1

Key Laboratory of Watershed Geographic Sciences, Nanjing Institute of Geography and Li
mnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing, 210008, China
2hebin@niglas.ac.cn
International Consortium on Landslides (ICL)
3 4, United Nations University (UNU)

ABSTRACT
Waterfront is the land area alongside a body of water (ocean, river, lake), such as a harbor,
dockyard, riverbank, etc. It is well known that a majority of landslides, flooding and pollution
occurred in waterfront area during extreme events (e.g., heavy rainfall and earthquakes). It
causes tremendous disaster to urban riverbank, port and industrial facilities. However, little
attention has been paid to the environmental disaster issues in the waterfront areas. It presents
the necessity of a new modelling technology for disaster risk preparedness which simulates
initiation and motion of waterfront disasters, especially for urban regions. In this paper, thefeatures and problems related to the waterfront landslide, flooding and pollution will be
reviewed. The related simulation model, which was developed from the geotechnical modelfor the motion of landslides and flood, will be introduced. The waterfront landslides/floods
are simulated for several cases of waterfront. The performance will be examined under
different conditions of earthquake and rainfall. The process of progressive landslide and flood
will be visualized in both two dimensions and three dimensions. The preliminary results of acomputational study conducted to analyze waterfront landslide and flood for several casestudies will then be presented.

127

November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

128

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Development of flood inundation map
for the Bago River Basin
Shelly Win1, Win Win Zin2, Akiyuki KAWASAKI3
and Tin MAUNG4
1
Master Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Yangon Technological University
zigmobridge@gmail.com
2
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
Yangon Technological University
3
Project Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
The University of Tokyo, Japan
4
Visiting Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
Yangon Technological University
ABSTRACT
Flooding is one of the major hazards in Myanmar. In this study, the Bago River basin
was taken as the case study area. Flood inundation maps are needed for floodplain
analysis and management. In order to perform flood inundation mapping, HEC-HMS
and HEC-RAS were used as hydrological and hydraulic models, respectively. During
the pre-processing of the GIS data, Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and Triangulated
Irregular Network (TIN) were prepared from available contours, point elevations andsurveyed cross sections data. The river geometric data was extracted by using HECGeoHMS and HEC-GeoRAS extension and exported to HEC-HMS and HEC-RAS model,
respectively. Daily rainfall data is used for HEC-HMS calibration and validation. HECHMS model is used for determining the design flow hydrographs. HEC-RAS is applied
to compute the water surface elevations. The observed daily water level data were used
for the calibration and validation. The flow conditions for 2, 10, 50, and 100 year
return periods of flood were computed in HEC-RAS model. The model result of 2006
flood inundation was verified by Advanced Land Observing Satellite (ALOS) SAR image
from Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) of June, 2006. The flood inundation
map was classified for the degree of hazard based on the flood depth. The flood hazard
maps with different return periods were delineated by using HEC-GeoRAS.
Keywords: flood inundation maps, floodplain analysis and management, HEC-HMS,
HEC-RAS, river geometric data, water surface elevations.
1. INTRODUCTION
During the year 2011, there were two severe floods happened in the Bago River basin in
July and August. Nearly all of the rivers and creeks were over flooded and inundated
paddy fields areas were 498 km2. Thousand of households and properties were also
affected and inundated duration was at least above five days (Aung, 2013).
In this study, HE-HMS and HEC-RAS were utilized as the hydrologic andhydrodynamic models which were linked to a GIS environment using HEC-GeoHMS

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November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmarand HEC-GeoRAS. 10 m resolution DEM developed by Khaing (2014) was used. This
study contributed to develop the flood inundation maps for different return periods – 2,
10, 50 and 100 year as the future scenarios. Two statistical criteria are used to evaluate
the calibrated model performance such as: Pearson’s coefficient of determination (R2)and Nash and Sutcliffe model efficiency (ENS) in this research.
2. LOCATION OF THE STUDY AREA
Bago River originates from the middle mountainous region named Bago Yoma and thelarge portion of the river itself is within Bago Region. A small portion of the river (theoutlet) is in Yangon Region where Bago River joins the Yangon River and, from there,
enters the Gulf of Mottama. The basin has a catchment area of 5348 km2, and the mainriver is about 331.5 km long, lying between longitudes 95q53’30”E and 96q43’30”E andbetween longitudes 16q43’15” N and 18q26’17” N in lower Myanmar.
The Bago River is one of the most important and useful river basins in lower Myanmar
for hydropower generation, irrigation use, fisheries and navigation use. The location
map of the Bago river basin with the completed structures is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Location map of the study area
3. METHODOLOGY AND MODEL DEVELOPMENT
3.1 Methodology
Computers models for the determination of river flood inundation mapping generally
consists of four parts, these are:(1) The extraction of geospatial data for use in the hydrological and hydraulicmodels (HEC-geoHMS and HEC-geoRAS). Geospatial Hydrologic Modelingextension (HEC-GeoHMS) is a software package which can be used as an

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extension of the ArcGIS [USACE, 2004]. HEC-GeoRAS 4.1.1 [Ackerman,
2005], an ArcGIS extension, is adopted for post-processing of HEC-RAS
output to create inundation maps for all simulations.
(2) The hydrological model which develops a design rainfall or historic rainfall
events. (HEC-HMS)(3) The hydraulic model which routes the runoff through stream channels todetermine water surface profiles at specific locations along the stream
network. (HEC-RAS)(4) Flood inundation mapping and visualization (HEC-GeoRAS).
The flowchart for the methodology is shown in Figure 2.
1. Geo-referencing
2. Digitizing

HMS schematic

HEC-HMS

Fitted parameters

Calibration
Validation

Meteorological model
Rainfall time series

Soil type map+
Land use map

Contour
Elevation Points
Watershedboundary

Preprocessing

HEC-GeoHMS

Basin processing

CN grid (SCS Method)

Computation of topographicalcharacteristics

Basin model
Reservoir Data
Pair Data Manager
Observed flow data

Streamlines

Parameters

Topo to raster(ArcGIS)

Design hyetograph
Areal rainfall distribution
calculated from IDF+
Observed Rainfall
Pattern

Design hydrograph

HMS

Created DEM
Extracted from DEM
Contour+Bank lines

Surveyed CrossSection elevations
Created TIN

Preprocessing
Stream centerline

Steady or unsteady flow data
Generate RAS
import file

Boundary conditions

HEC-RAS

Flow paths
Bridges
HEC-GeoRAS

Levee alignment

Import geometric, hydraulicstructure and Manning 'n' value

Cross section cut lines
NO

Enough Cross
sections?
YES

Post-processing

Calibration
Validation

Fitted parameter

Water surface TIN
Floodplain and depth grid
Flood Inundation Map
Validation with observed Flood Map

Enough Flooddepth?

NO

YES
Generate RAS
GIS export file

Flood Inundation Map with Scenarios

Figure 2: Flow chart of methodology
3.2 Hydrological modeling
HEC-HMS version 3.5, developed by Hydrologic Engineering Center (HEC) of theUnited States Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) (USACE(a), 2010) is used in thishydrologic modeling study. Only two rain-gauge and water level stations such as Bagoand Zaung Tu are located in the Bago river basin. The observed daily time series ofrainfall and stream flow data were used to calibrate and validate the hydrologic model.
In HEC-HMS model, there are four main components such as loss method, transform
method, base-flow method and routing method. For each component, suitable method ischosen. In this study, SCS curve number and SCS unit hydrograph were selected forloss and transform method respectively. Recession and lag methods were assigned forbase-flow and routing method respectively.
HEC-HMS calibration was performed for five different flood events of 2004 to 2008
using daily flow basis. HEC-HMS has an optimization feature which can be used tomatch the simulated flow with observed flow. It allows for multiple parameters at theDevelopment of flood inundation map for the Bago River Basin
Development of flood inundation map for the Bago River Basin

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November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmarsame time for each sub-basin. There are 17 sub-basins for the catchment of the outlet at
Tarwa. In calibration procedure, six parameters which are initial abstraction, base-flow
initial flow rate, recession constant, base-flow threshold ratio and SCS lag were
adjusted.
Five different events were calibrated by the optimization trial option using the peakweighted root mean square error objective function. The average of those calibrated
parameters of five different flood events was used as the final calibrated parametervalues. The calibration result of 2006 flood event is as shown in figure 3. The value ofthe coefficient of determination (R2) was found as 0.84 and indicated a close
relationship between the observed and simulated flow.
The validation process was done by these final parameter values for three events (2009,2010, and 2011). The validation result of 2010 flood event is as shown in figure 4.

Figure 3: HEC-HMS calibration result for 2006 flood event

Figure 4: HEC-HMS validation result for 2010 flood event
3.3 Hydraulic modeling
HEC-RAS version 4.1, developed by HEC of USACE (USACE(b), 2010) is used in this
hydraulic modeling study. Data requirements for HEC-RAS include topographic
information in the form of a series of cross sections, friction parameter in the form ofManning’s n values across each cross section, and flow data including flow rates, flowchange locations, and boundary conditions (Cook, 2009).

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Hydraulic modeling in this study was conducted for 50 km reach of the Bago River andit started from Zaung Tu Weir to Tarwa outlet. Initially in the pre-processing, theavailable surveyed 48 cross sections for main channel and 1m contour lines extracted
from the DEM for the flood plain were applied to develop the Triangulated Irregular
Network (TIN). Then, by using HEC-GeoRAS extension in ArcGIS environment,
required geometry data such as: stream centerline, main channel banks flow paths, crosssections cut lines, and levee alignment, and bridge were created. Then, these data were
exported to HEC-RAS as the geometric data file.
1 D HEC-RAS model can be adequately calibrated on hydrometric data, and can then be
used to make adequate predictions of flood extent when water free surfaces are
extrapolated onto a high resolution DEM (Horritt, 2002).
The flow data with time series flood event simulated from HEC-HMS were used forcalibrating the model. The unsteady flow condition was adopted to run this model. The
manual calibration process was done for 2 different flood events (2004 and 2006). The
calibrated parameters, Manning’s ‘n’ values and slope value were adjusted by many
trials of running model until the satisfactory results were produced.
The fitted Manning roughness coefficient ‘n’ are 0.03 and 0.045 for the channel which
are different according to the nature of each cross section. And the fitted friction slope
is 0.00003. Design flood hydrographs simulated from the HEC-HMS model wereentered in HEC-RAS. The water surface elevation results of 2, 10, 50 and 100 year
flood return periods are outputs from HEC-RAS model.
The model was validated with the two different flood events (2010 and 2011) by using
the unsteady flow data option and calibration and validation results are shown in figure
5. Value of Nash-Sutcliffe model efficiency (0.6) indicates a satisfactory performance.

Figure 5: HEC-RAS results of 2010 and 2011 flood hydrograph
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Design flood hydrographs with different scenarios
The design rainfall hyetograph for different return periods was developed by using
Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) curve of Bago. The calculated design rainfall
hyetographs were the inputs for HEC-HMS model. Figure 6 shows design floodhydrographs with different scenarios.
Development of flood inundation map for the Bago River Basin
Development of flood inundation map for the Bago River Basin

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November
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Yangon,MyanmarNovember
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Yangon,MyanmarFigure 6: Design flood hydrograph with selected return periods
4.2 Flood inundation mapping
After getting the results of HEC-RAS model, the flood inundation maps for 2, 10, 50,
and 100 year return periods flood were delineated by the help of HEC-GeoRAS
extension. The verification process was done by the ALOS image of JAXA for 2006
flood as well as the surveyed ground GPS map of Bago urban area for 2011. Simulated
inundation area for 2006 flood event by model is 51 km². Inundation area based on 2006
ALOS SAR image is obtained as 42.9 km². Difference is obtained as 18.8 %. Inundation
urban area for 2011 flood event simulated by the model and observed map are 5.2 km²
and 4.9 km² respectively and the difference is obtained as 6.1%.
The degree of flood hazard depth are classified as (D< 0.5 m), (0.5 <D< 2 m), (2 m
<D< 4 m), (4 m <D< 6 m), (6 m <D< 8 m), and (D> 8 m). The inundation area withclassified hazard depths according to 2, 10, 50, and 100 year return periods are shown in
Table 1.
Table 1: Flood inundation area with classified hazard depths according to 2, 10, 50, and100 year return periods
Total inundation areas
Water depth
(m)

134

2 year flood

10 year flood

50 year flood

Area
%
(km²)
D < 0.5 m
26.45 49.58
0.5 m < D < 2 m 10.64 19.94
2 m < D < 4 m 11.26 21.11
4m<D<6m
3.85
7.22
6m<D<8m
1.1
2.06
D>8m
0.05
0.09
Total
53.35 100.00

Area
%
(km²)
25.65 45.09
10.93 19.22
12.4 21.80
5.7
10.02
2
3.52
0.2
0.35
56.88 100.00

Area
(km²)
24.9
10.77
14.06
9.7
3.16
0.81
63.4

%
39.27
16.99
22.18
15.30
4.98
1.28
100

100 year
flood
Area
%
(km²)
24.7 38.53
10.72 16.72
14.17 22.10
10.19 15.89
3.41
5.32
0.92
1.44
64.11
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4.3 Discussion
In the Table 1, the classification of flood depth areas indicates that half of the total flood
areas have water depth less than 0.5 m. The total area under the water depth greater than
6 m is quite small, although it increases considerably with the intensity of flooding. By
observing all maps, the depths and extents of the flood water for 2, 10, 50, and 100 year
return period are increased gradually according to the recurrence interval. The mostdangerous flood extents are occurred for the flow conditions of 50 and 100 year due tothe maximum flow conditions as shown in figure 7.

(a)

(b)

Figure 7: Flood inundation map for (a) 50 year, and (b) 100 year return period flood
5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
For considering the 50 and 100 year return period flood scenarios, the highest depth ofinundation can seriously affect in the Bago City urban areas and around Bago Bridge.
Most of the people in Kyauk Kyi Su quarter, Ywar Thit quarter, Mazin quarter, andKyun Thar Yar quarter might be migrated to the flood relief center. The largest flood
extent can occur in the rural areas located near the upper areas of Bago City. The
downstream rural areas including the paddy fields also can be affected by the flood. It
can be concluded that the inundation areas are increased according to the different
return periods. And the most dangerous condition will be occurred if the 50 year and
100 year return periods of flood come.
But there are only two rainfall gauge and water level stations in the entire river basin;
new automatic rain gauge stations and automatic water level recorder should beinstalled in the Bago river basin. The results of the model could be further improved if
dense network of weather stations are available along with a good network of stream
gauge data. For the more accuracy of the hydraulic model’s result, there need to survey
more cross sections with closer interval. For further study, the risk assessment andvulnerability analysis with 2-D hydrodynamic models were recommended.

Developmentof flood inundation
map for the
Bago
River
Basin
Developmentof flood inundationmap
for theBagoRiver Basin

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November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTFirst of all, the author is sincerely thankful to Dr. Nyan Myint Kyaw, Professor andHead of Civil Engineering Department, Yangon Technological University for his kindlead and guidance. The author is greatly indebted to her supervisor, Dr Win Win Zin,
Associate Professor of Civil Engineering Department, Yangon Technological
University, for her invaluable suggestions and careful editing this paper. The author isheartfelt thanked to Dr. Akiyuki Kawasaki, Associate Professor, Department of Civil
Engineering, The University of Tokyo, for supporting to survey the cross sections. The
author would like to express her special thanks to U Tin Maung, Technical Advisor,
NEPS Company Ltd. and also the Visiting Associate Professor of Yangon
Technological University, for his enthusiastic instructions and advices. The author isdeeply grateful to the Assistant Director and the staffs of the Irrigation Department at
Bago, for supplying data. The author would like to thank all the persons who havehelped towards the successful completion of this paper.
REFERENCES
Ackerman, C. T., 2005, HEC-GeoRAS: GIS Tools for Support of HEC-RAS Using
ArcGIS, Users Manual Version 4, US Army Corps of Engineers.
Aung, T. M., 2013, Flood inundation analysis for effective countermeasures in the Bago
River Basin, ICHARM Master Paper No.67, International Centre for Water Hazard and
Risk Management, Japan.
Cook, A., 2009, Effect of Topographic Data, Geometric Configuration and ModelingApproach on Flood Inundation Mapping, Journal of Hydrology 377, 131-142.
Horritt, M. S., 2002, Evaluation of 1 D and 2 D Numerical Models for Predicting River
Flood Inundation, Journal of Hydrology 268, 87-99.
Khaing, A. M., 2014, Mapping Flood Inundation in the Bago River Basin, Myanmar,
Master Thesis, Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Thailand.
USACE., 2003, Geospatial Hydrologic Modeling Extension (HEC-GeoHMS) User’s
Manual, US Army Corps of Engineers.
USACE (a)., 2010, HEC-HMS User’s Manual Version 3.5, Hydrologic Engineering
Center (HEC), US Army Corps of Engineers.
USACE (b)., 2010, HEC-RAS User’s Manual Version 4.1, Hydrologic Engineering
Center (HEC), US Army Corps of Engineers.

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Flood process and situation analysis
in Myanmar for flood disaster preparation
Wang YI 1, Bin HE 2, and Srikantha HERATH 3
1
United Nations University, Tokyo, Japan
2768259160@qq.com
2
United Nations University, Tokyo, Japan
3
Professor, The Institute for the Advanced Study of Sustainability,
United Nations University, Tokyo, Japan
ABSTRACT
Myanmar is exposed to several kinds of natural hazard. In its recent history the country facedwith disaster events that severely impacted its people and the overall economy of the country.
These events caused significant impact on the people’s livelihood, damage in the country’s
infrastructure systems, and sometimes a large number of fatalities. Among all the natural
disasters, floods have been the most prevalent in Myanmar. Flood associated with heavy
precipitation events is a recurring phenomenon across the country. Flood causes substantial
damage to livestock, agricultural, roads, bridges and buildings and serious negative effects
on social and economic development in the country. However, there is lack of knowledge andclear information in Myanmar regarding flood processes as well as flood characteristics
analysis. The methodology and technique for a comprehensive flood process analysis andflood situation assessment in Myanmar still remains in a poor level. A good understanding offlood phenomena and their potential will allow Myanmar government to make proper
advanced planning to lessen the impact of flood disaster events in the future, hence reducing
the disaster risk for the country. This paper aims to analyze the flood situation and process in
Myanmar from the historical events and collected hydrological information, the assessment of
the currently used approach for flood monitoring and forecasting will be carried out.
Furthermore, this paper will identify the current gap and possible needs for improvements offlood monitoring and disaster preparation in the different components, data observation, datacollection, data processing, issuing of warning and human resources for a comprehensive andeffective flood monitoring and forecast systems.

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Influence of member shape on the relationshipbetween surface defects and chloride
permeability of surface concrete
Katsuya MITA1 and Yoshitaka KATO2
Assistant professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
Faculty of Science and Technology,Tokyo University of Science, Japank_mita@rs.noda.tus.ac.jp
2
Associate professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
Faculty of Science and Technology,Tokyo University of Science, Japan
1

ABSTRACT
Once surface defects on a concrete structure are discovered it is then necessary to carryout repairs. However, the effect of surface defects on the permeability of surface
concrete has not been studied. This study aimed to understand the influence of surface
defects on the chloride permeability by intentionally producing initial defects on thesurface due to different member shapes in order to vary the degree of segregation. It
was observed that the surface was of uneven color and surface bubbles and sandstreaks occurred due to the rapid ascent of bleeding water where the member shape wasnarrower in the vertical direction. Furthermore, all cases where surface defects
occurred tended to have higher chloride penetration compared to the cases without
surface defects.
Keywords: surface defects, chloride permeability, uneven color, surface bubbles, sandstreaks
1. INTRODUCTION
Currently, to secure the durability of concrete structures, attention is being giving to
improving the quality of the surface of the concrete structure. Because deterioration
factor such as chloride ions, CO2 and moisture initially penetrate from the concretesurface, its quality is important in protecting the durability of the structure. In realconcrete structures, however, many initial defects may occur, such as cracks orhoneycomb. There are several types of initial defects, the majority occurs in theconcrete surface. Not only do these impair the appearance of the concrete structure, theyalso reduce the durability over time and require significant effort and cost for repair.
While some initial defects can be repaired as soon as they are found, such as
honeycomb and cracks, many are not recognized because they only detract from theappearance, such as sand streaks, uneven color, and surface bubbles (Figure 1), and thus
repair is not required performed. Therefore, although there are many studies on the
reduction method and the cause of the initial defects, the effect of initial defects has on
the durability of concrete structures has not been clarified. Much of the research on theinitial defects use a simple specimen, so there is no change in shape in the vertical139

November
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Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmardirection when studying initial defects, even though actual concrete structures have avariety of member shapes.
In this study, in order to understand the effect of surface defects on the durability of theconcrete structure, studies have been made on the effect of surface defects focusing on
the salt permeability.

(a)Uneven color(b)Sand streaks(c)Surface bubbles,

Figure 1: Surface defects
2. EXPERIMENTAL
2.1 Material and Mix-propotion
In this study, referring to the previous studies on surface defects, the mortar of concretesurface layer portion was prepared. Ordinary Portland Cement (density 3.15 g/cm3) andriver sand (density 2.64 g/cm3) were used. The mix proportion of mortar was W/C=55%
and S/C=2.5.
2.2 Specimen
Specimen were prepared in 5 shapes as shown in Figure 2. The name of each part of thespecimens is shown in Figure 3. T-shape and reversed T-shape simulate an actual
structure. It was considered that, in the case of T-shape and reverse T-shape with 60º at
the corner, accumulation of bleeding water could be reduced. To intentionally generate
defects, L-Shape turned 45º from ground was adopted, where the inclined slope could
crease a prone surface for bubbles and bleeding water could be expected in the corner.
Standard prismatic specimens of 150 × 150 × 530mm were also created. After placing
cement and fine aggregate in the mixer they were dry mixed for 30 seconds, then mixedagain for 60 seconds after putting in the water, and finally mixed again for 60 seconds
to prepare mortar. The mortar was placed into molds in two layers, and internal
vibration was using for compaction. The 0 hit flow value of the mortar was 106mm.
Moist curing was carried out for 7 days inside the mold, and at the age of 28 days
specimens were removed from the mold and cured in the air for 7 days.

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Safetyof Megain AsiaICUS Report 78a)T-Shapeb)Reverse T-Shaped) Reverse T-Shape with Angle 60º at cornerc) T-Shape with Angle 60º at cornere) L-Shape turned 45| from groundFigure 2: Specimens for experiments

Figure 3: Name of specimens parts
2.3 Bleeding test
The bleeding test was carried out in order to compare the ease of accumulated bleedingwater for each specimen shape. Following JIS A 1123, the bleeding water produced on
the top surface was collected as part of the bleeding test.
2.4 Visual test
By photographing with a digital camera all aspects of the specimens after curing, theoccurrence of specimen surface defects was investigated. The analysis was performed
using the captured image. By converting the images to binary, the rate of occurrence of
black-and-white on each side was used to calculate the area of uneven color. After
memberon the relationshipbetweendefects
surfaceand
defects
and chloride
Influence Influenceof memberofshapeon shape
the relationshipbetween surface
chloride
permeability
permeabilityofsurfaceconcreteof surface concrete141

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmarcalculating the total area of the defects of the target from the captured image, sandstreak and surface bubbles was calculated as a percentage of the total surface area.
2.5 Salt water immersion test
After curing, specimens were immersed for 7 days in NaCl solution of 10wt%. Aftercompletion of immersion, drilling up to 3.0cm by 0.5cm depth on each side of thespecimen using hammer drill, the total chloride ion content as a sample powder wasmeasured. The sample powder was taken from the portion where sand streaks andsurface bubbles and uneven color were visually observed. In the case of sand streaks, it
was taken from a section of the streaked area; in the case of surface bubbles, it was
taken from the center of the surface bubbles that are submerged hemispherically. In
addition, samples were also taken where no surface bubbles (following, vulnerable
surface) occurred. Measurement of the chloride ion content is compliant with JCI-SC4.
Based on the measured values, the apparent diffusion coefficient D (cm2/year) andsurface chloride ion concentration C0 (kg/m3) were calculated using a theoreticalsolution of the diffusion equation with a constant boundary concentration, and then thenumber of years to steel corrosion occurrence was predicted. In compliance with theStandard Specification for Concrete Structures, the steel corrosion occurrence limit
concentration was calculated to be 1.9kg/m3 in the case of W/C = 50%. It wasinvestigated by assuming a structure with 5cm thick cover.
3. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Bleeding test
The results of the bleeding test of each specimen are shown in Figure 4. It can be seenthat the bleeding water is less in T60°, turned 45° L-sharp, and reverse T-shape ascompared to the reference specimen. It was thought that it was difficult for the bleedingwater to rise to the top surface and the bleeding water reservoir inside those shapes.
3.2 Visual test
The uneven color area ratio is shown in Figure 5. The sand streak and sudface bubbles
area ratio is shown in Figure 6. As a result of the visual test, including the case where itis canted, sand streaks on the web and surface bubbles could be seen on the top offlange. In L-Shape turned 45º, surface bubbles on the slopeձ and մ were seen.
Uneven color only was observed in other shapes and the reference specimen without theother two defects. Uneven color has occurred uniformly across the entire measurement
surface at around 50% uneven color area ratio. Visual observation showed that areas
around the surface bubbles had turned white. It was thought that bleeding waterremained in the mold interface in areas with a higher rate of white. The percentage ofsand streaks was greater in Reverse T60°. Based on the results of the bleeding test andconsidering the previous studies, sand streaks are caused by bleeding water rapidly
flowing upwards. By using the slope in a mold, it is possible that it becomes easier for
bleeding water to flow. From the surface bubbles generated area ratio results, manyoccurred in reverse T60°. It was considered that surface bubbles occurred when
bleeding water accumulates at the mold surface.

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Figure 4: Result of bleeding test

Figure 6 Area ratio of sand streaks andsurface bubbles

Figure 5: Area ratio of unever color

Figure 7: Chloride ion content
from sand streaks

3.3 Salt water immersion test
The chloride ion penetration properties of the sand streaks and surface bubbles areshown in Figures 7 and 8. The salt penetration properties of the vulnerable surface areshown in Figure 9. When sand streaks occurred, the chloride ion concentration was
higher in any shape in the range of 0 ~ 0.5cm. It became almost the same as the basemortar, other than reverse T60º in the 0.5 ~ 1.0cm layer. In reverse T60°, degree of sandstreaks was greater (the sand streaks area ratio was twice as high), and the chloride ion
penetration amount was three times that of others at 0.5 ~ 1.5cm. Only the surface layer
portion is likely to penetrate by sand streaks and there was little effect on the inside.
However, it was considered that if the degree of sand streaks becomes large, there is an
impact on chloride ion penetration of the interior. Chloride ion concentration was higher
up to 0.5 ~ 1.0cm also due to surface bubbles. Surface bubbles were formed by bleedingwater retained at the interface with the mold because the water-cement ratio is high andthe organization of the cured body is a roughened. Chloride ion concentration at thevulnerable surface was higher than the base mortar. The vulnerable surface is laitancelayer overall, and is formed by the particulate component of the cement deposited by the
movement of bleeding water, and thus it is considered to have been easier to penetrate.
The salt permeability in the case when surface defects do not occur is shown in Figure
10. The results are shown for a T-shape specimen with ordinary mortar. Chloride ion
concentration in the white area and the black area near the surface to 0 ~ 0.5cm waslarger than the base mortar. In addition, the chloride ion concentration was higher thanthe base mortar in all measured surfaces. Compared to the measurement surface of thememberon the relationshipbetweendefects
surfaceand
defects
and chloride
Influence Influenceof memberofshapeon shape
the relationshipbetween surface
chloride
permeability
permeabilityofsurfaceconcreteof surface concrete143

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Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmarother, the chloride ion concentration was especially high in the range of 0.5 ~ 1.0cm inthe corner. It is considered that this is because the vulnerable layer is formed due to thebleeding water rise and the bleeding water is accumulated in the corner and moldinterface and is unable rise to the top surface. A similar trend was also observed in othershapes, but the region of where chloride ion concentration was extremely high was notobserved when it is angled in the corners.

Figure 8: Chloride ioncontent surface bubbles

Figure 9: Chloride ioncontent from weak layer

Figure 10: Chloride ion fromcontent from no defects
surface

3.4 The relationship between visual test and steel corrosion years
The relationship between the surface defect area ratio and the ratio of the steel corrosion
years of surface defects for it of base mortar is shown in Figure 11. Black markers in the
figure show the sand streaks and white markers show the surface bubbles. Steelcorrosion years was shorter than base mortar with increasing sand streaks area ratio. It isthought that, when sand streaks are present, there is a possibility that the steel corrosion
years are reduced to about half or less than the healthy cases. In the case of surface
bubbles, there is a tendency that, with the increase of the area ratio, steel corrosion years
are shortened roughly compared to base mortar. It is thought that there is a possibility
that the steel corrosion years is reduced to less than half of the base mortar when surface
bubbles are present as in the case of sand streaks. The relationship between steel
corrosion year and area ratio of the black region in case of uneven color is shown Figure
12. There was no clear relationship to the steel corrosion years and black area ratio.
However, the effect of the specimen shape is clear, as when compared with the basemortar, the steel corrosion occurred years had decreased in a wide range of 0.2 to 0.8
times. There is a possibility that this is due to the effect of bleeding water staying oneach side of the mold. The occurrence of bleeding water leads to uneven color, but the
influence of the behavior of the bleeding water has a large effect on the proportion of
the black region (or white area). It is considered that the factor reduce the surface
quality is by bleeding water accumulating on the mold interface. It is considerednecessary to eliminate by using a water absorbent mold or permeable mold, when
bleeding water easily stays in the mold interface, in order to deal with these effects.

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Figure 11: The relationshipbetween steel corrosion years
ratio and surface defects area ratio

Figure 12: The relationship between steel corrosion
years ratio and area ratio of black color surface

4. MEMBER SHAPE AND SURFACE DEFECTS
By the visual test of the actual structures, to figure out where it may be exposed to theprogress of deterioration, the relationship between steel corrosion occurs on each side ofyears and surface defect-prone and bleeding water (BL water in the figure) where is
likely to stay in that shape changes is shown in Figure 13. Numeric value in the figure is
the magnification for steel corrosion year of base mortar. If you spread in the height
direction, bleeding water is likely to move by ramping. As a result, it is considered thatthe surface quality is lowered in the direction of height and steel corrosion years ratio
becomes smaller. It was considered that the bleeding water is likely to move to the web
and put the case tilt narrowing in the height direction and the bleeding water
accumulated in the the part by surface occurs has influenced.

Influence of member shape on the relationship between surface defects and chloride permeabilityof surfaceInfluenceconcrete of member shape on the relationship between surface defects and chloride
permeability of surface concrete

145

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarFigure.13 The relationship between mold shape and steel corrosion year ratio
5. CONCLUSION
As a result of this study, the following findings were obtained.
1) Including the base mortar, uneven color occurred in all specimens.
2) Sand streaks occurred on the reverse T60° and reverse T-shape. It is considered that
it is likely to occur at the surface where there is a slope because bleeding water rises
suddenly.
3) Surface bubbles occurred at reverse T-shape and all of the L-shape turned 45°. It isconsidered that air engulfed during casting rises to the mold surface and it forms due to
bleeding water accumulating there.
4) If a visual inspection shows the occurrence of a defect, then the steel corrosion year
tended to be faster than the base specimen.
5) Even in the surface properties of uneven color, steel corrosion year has tended to befaster than a simple shape. However, there was no clear correlation between the two.
REFERENCES
Keisaburo, K., Takashi, K., Ryuichi, C., 2012. Technical skills for acquirement ofaesthetic concrete surfaces. Report of OBAYASHI corporation Technical ResearchInstitute 76, 1-6.
Shigeyuki S., 2007. Devised to reduce the slope of the surface bubbles. JCM Monthly
Report 16 5-6ࠋJapan Society of Civil Engineers, 2012. Standard specifications for concrete structures,

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Materials and Construction, Japan.
Katsuya, M., Yoshitaka, K., 2011. An experimental study on the effects of bleedingwater on the quality of the concrete surface layer. Proceedings of JCI Annual
Conference 33,1385-1390.

Influence of member shape on the relationship between surface defects and chloride permeabilityof surfaceInfluenceconcrete of member shape on the relationship between surface defects and chloride
permeability of surface concrete147

November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

148

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Application of steel fiber reinforced concrete to
reduce crack width of structures
Hoang Giang NGUYEN 1 and Trung Hieu NGUYEN 1
Structure testing & Construction Inspection Division,
Department of Building & Industrial Engineering,
National University of Civil Engineering, Vietnam
giangnh@nuce.edu.vn
ABSTRACTThe use of steel fiber for reinforcement has been attracted a great attention fromacademic and industrial parties. Various applications of this type have been using inpavements, segments, shotcrete, drainage pipes etc. This steel fiber reinforcement has
shown excellent performances in crack control and load distribution due to its 3D
equally distributed location. This paper presents a series of tests and analysis fordifferent types of steel fiber in concrete samples and beams. The comparison ofexperimental tests of conventional and steel fiber reinforced structures are carried out.
The tests show positive results and possible applications to construction structures inVietnam where many cracks and failures of these types of conventional structures havebeen reported.
Keywords: steel fiber, concrete beam; reinforced concrete
1. INTRODUCTION
Vietnam is on the rapid development of its infrastructure and concrete structures haveplayed a key role in whole process. However, many of these new structures have cracks
and defects during and after construction. The presence of micro cracks in the mortaraggregate interface is responsible for the inherent weakness of plain concrete. Many
constructions have experienced such defects and needed additional reinforcements.

Figure 1: Cracks on Waste water pond (Thermal Power plant)149

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
MyanmarFigure 2: Cracks on Bridge abutments

Figure 3: Failure of pavement
It is therefore a crucial issue to carry our research for a new material which could
replace or strengthen current applications. Among those reinforcement methods, fibers
have been studied by a number of researchers such as Shende et al. (2012) carried out aseries of tests for M-40 Grade of Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete. The results showedthat with the increase of fiber in concrete, Compressive strength, Flexural strength andSplit Tensile strength of steel fiber concrete also increased. Narayanan and Darwish(1987) reported the increase of shear strength attribute to steel fibers varying from 13 to
170 %. Many other researchers also have conducted research for sample of steel fiber
such as (EFNARC, 2002) carried out the test to evaluate properties. Lofgren (2005)
conducted research for self-compacting concrete for precast industry and otherapplications. It was found that Steel fibers proved to have the potential to increase thepost-cracking energy absorption capacity of cement based materials, enhancing theductile character of concrete structures behavior, mainly of those with high redundantsupports (Barros and Figueiras, 1998).
In Vietnam, steel fiber has been applied in some constructions such as pavements forindustrial floors, tunnel’s segments, and bridge surfaces, however, the applications havebeen limited. In this research, a series of experiments to test performances of steel fiberin concrete beam and pipes.

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2. EXPERIMENTS
The purpose of the experiments is to compare capacity of traditional steel bar structureswith steel fiber ones. The steel fiber volume types and volumes were varied to findeffects of quantity on performances of structures. In this study, two types of steel fibers(FF3 and FS3N) were used. The fibers were high strength, hooked-end cold drawn
produced by Maccaferri. Properties of steel fibers are shown in table 1.
Table 1: Properties of Steel Fibers
Type

Diameter
D (mm)

LengthL (mm)

Aspect
ratio
L/D

FF3
FS3N

0.75
0.75

50
33

67
44

Tensilestrength of
the wire(MPa)> 1100> 1100Strainat
failure

Shape

< 4%
< 4%

The concrete used local coarse aggregate and natural sand for mixture. The steel fiber
dosage in each mix were 0, 20, 40 kg/m3 of FF3 for the elastic modulus test.
2.1 Compression test & Young Modulus
The Cylinder samples following ASTM39 Test Standard Test Method for Compressive
Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens for same tests at the same age of 28 days
were used to evaluate compressive strength and young modulus of pure concrete andsteel fiber concrete with different dosage. Compression test are shown in Figure 4.
Table 2: Concrete mixture for 1m3 of Cylinders (150 x 300)
Type

Water/cement
ratio (W/C)

Water
(Kg)

Cement(Kg)

Aggregate
(Kg)

Sand
(Kg)

M0
M20
M40

0.49
0.49
0.49

201.99201.99201.99

409.5
409.5
409.5

1258.51258.51258.5

649.5
649.5
649.5

Steel
fiber
FF3
(Kg)
0
20
40

The compressive strength is calculated as:
R=P/F
While: Pmax : Maximum load (Kg); F: Cross sectional area of sample (cm2)

Application of steel fiber reinforced concrete to reduce crack width of structures
Application of steel fiber reinforced concrete to reduce crack width of structures

(1)

151

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
MyanmarFigure 4: Concrete compression test
The results of compression tests are shown in Table 3.
Table 3: Compression test
Traditional
Concrete
(kN)
P(kg)
289.5
F(cm2)
176.68Rn(kg/cm2)
163.86

SF concrete
20kg /m3(kN)
350
176.68198.10SF concrete
40kg/m3(kN)
502
176.68284.13

It can be observed that the steel fiber concrete increases the compressive strength of
concrete with 20.9 % and 73.4 % for 20 kg/m3 and 40 kg/m3 of steel fiber respectively(Figure 5).

Figure 5: Increase in compressive strength of concrete152

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2.2 Young Modulus tests
The young modulus tests were carried out with 6 cylinder concrete samples of with 2
for each type. The concrete mixture are shown in table 4. The testing model is shown in
Figure 6.
Table 4. Concrete mixture for 1m3 of Cylinders (150 x 300)
Type

Water/cement
ratio (W/C)

Water
(Kg)

Cement(Kg)

Aggregate
(Kg)

Sand
(Kg)

M0
M20
M40

0.49
0.49
0.49

201.99201.99201.99

409.5
409.5
409.5

1258.51258.51258.5

649.5
649.5
649.5

Steel
fiber
FF3
(Kg)
0
20
40

Steel
fiber
FS3N
(Kg)
0
20
40

Figure 6: Young modulus test
The increase of young modulus is shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7: Elastic modulus test

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It can be observed that with the increase of fiber content, the elastic modulus ofconcrete also increases for both cases of fiber types. With the effects of hooked end
fiber, the concrete performance is increased.
2.3 Concrete bending beam tests for both conventional and steel fiber types
The reinforced concrete beams with steel bars and stirrups shown in Figure 8 were
tested. Steel fiber with dosage of 0, 20 and 40 kg/m3 were added to beams. The
concrete mixture of beams were similar to cylinders’. Sizes of beams: b x h x l=120 x
200 x 2000 mm. 01 beam were made for each case. The model and equipment for beam
are shown in figure 9 a & b.

Figure 8: Reinforced steel beams

a)

154

Figure 9: Testing modelb)

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Indicators, LVDTs were used to determine displacements and deformation of beam at
middle and 2 ends of beams. Tow indicators (I1; I3) were put at 2 ends of beam andmiddle part (I2) to measure displacements. Indicators (T1; T2) combined with struts
were installed at tension and compression zones of beam to measure deformation andcracks.
3. RESULTS
The ultimate loads for each type of beam are shown in table 5. The ultimate loadincreases with the increase of dosage of steel fiber in concrete mixture.
Table 5. Ultimate loads for beam testing
Beam types
Conventional
SF dosage 20kg/m3
SF dosage 40kg/m3

Ultimate load (kN)
28
30
32

Mechanism
Stiffness - Bending
Stiffness - Bending
Stiffness - Bending

The displacement of beams were measured and shown in Figure 10 versus applied loads.
It can be seen that with the increase of steel fiber dosage in concrete mixture, beam
showed less displacement.

Figure 10: Displacement of beam vs applied loads
Deformation of beam for tension and compression zones were measured and plot versus
applied in figure 11. As observed in figure 11, beam with less steel fiber dosage showed
more deformation in both tension and compression zones.

Application of steel fiber reinforced concrete to reduce crack width of structures
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November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
MyanmarFigure 11. Beam deformation vs applied loads
Cracks appeared on the beam during the tests were recorded. The number of cracks oneach beam are shown in Table 6. The crack width of beam are also shown in figure 12.
It can be seen that beam with less dosage of steel fiber in concrete mixture has greater
crack width under same loads in compare with other beams.
Table 6. Number of crack on beam
Concrete Types
Conventional
SF dosage 20kg/m3
SF dosage 40kg/m3

Number of cracks
11
15
18

Figure 12: Crack development under applied load

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As shown in figure 12, among three types of beams, crack appeared first for
conventional beam (0 SF kg/m3) under load of 1600 kg. And cracks appeared for 1800
kg and 2000 kg for 20 kg/m3 and 40 kg/m3 respectively. It also can be observed that thehigher of dosage of steel fiber, the higher ultimate loads the beam could sustain.
In table 6, number of crack for each type of beam after testing are shown. The
conventional beam has 11 cracks then 15 and 18 for 20 kg/m3 and 40 kg/m3. It meansthat steel fiber contribute to transfer load evenly. Steel fiber with higher tensile strengthof concrete, hooked end effect contribute to transfer load from high concentration area
to adjacent zones reducing cracks. The crack width of beam with 40 kg/m3 of SF issmaller than beam with 20 kg/m3 and cracks on 20 kg/m3 is smaller than conventional
beam without SF. Thus, steel fiber contribute to reduce crack width. It could be
explained that when small crack appeared, steel fibers in this cracked zone absorbed
energy through tensile strength. This will reduce cracks to widen as well as transfer
energy to other parts.
4. CONCLUSIONS
After the series of tests and analysis, the following conclusion can be made in thisresearch.
1. The steel fiber contributes to the increase of compressive strength of concrete.
This is due to energy absorption as well as load transfer mechanism of hooked
end steel fiber to increase bonding of aggregates and cement in samples.
2. Young Modulus of concrete also increases with the increase of steel fiber dosage.
With effect of high strength steel fiber, concrete becomes harder.
3. Steel fiber contributes to increase of beam stiffness under applied load forbending. It also reduces cracks on beam thank to its high tensile strength toabsorb energy at the cracked zones. The number of cracks on beam are higher(but crack widths are smaller) with ones with higher steel fiber dosage. Stress ismore evenly distributed in beam with higher dosage of SF as well.
REFERENCES
Barros, J. A. O., and Figueiras, J. A., 1998. Experimental behaviour of fiber concreteslabs on soil. Journal Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials 3, 277-290.
EFNARC (2002). Specification and Guidelines for Self-Compacting Concrete. ISBN 09539733 4 4, 32.
Lofgren, I., 2005. Fibre-reinforced Concrete for Industrial Construction. PhD Thesis,
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Chalmers University ofTechnology, Sweden.
Narayanan, R., and Darwish, I. Y. S., 1987. Use of steel fibers as shear reinforcement.
ACI Structural Journal 84, 216-227.
Schrader, E. K., 1971. Studies in the behavior of fiber-reinforced concrete, MS thesis,
Clarkson College of Technology, Potsdam.
Shende, A. M, Pande, A. M, and Gulfam Pathan, M., 2012. Experimental study on steel
fiber reinforced concrete for M-40 grade. International Refereed Journal of Engineeringand Science 1, 043-048.

Applicationof steelfiber reinforced
concrete
reducecrack
width of structures
Applicationof steel fiber
reinforced
concrete to
reduce to
crack
width
of structures

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Two-dimensional investigation on chloride ion
penetration into cementitious material
under freeze-thaw environment
Katsufumi HASHIMOTO1, Hiroshi YOKOTA2 and Tomoyuki TANIGUCHI3
1
Assistant Professor, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Japanhashimoto.k@eng.hokudai.ac.jp
2
Professor, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Japan
3
Master's course student, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Japan
ABSTRACT

To simulate freeze-thaw environment on the surface of concrete structure in realsituation, which shows severe damage in cold region as mentioned, it is necessary to
prepare experimental methodology to induce two-dimensional chloride ion penetrationand icing behavior on top and side surface of concrete. The purposes of this researchare 1) to prepare test methods for concrete durability under two-dimensional frost
damage and chloride ion penetration and 2) to clarify chloride ion penetration behavior
by Electron Probe Microscope Analyzer. Moreover, it is also targeted 3) to establish
numerical method to calculate chloride ion penetration behavior under twodimensional frost damage and chloride ion penetration. As the results, EPMA analysis
showed that chloride ion concentration of thaw water and icing condition on theconcrete surface influenced on chloride ion penetration depth and concentration in
concrete. Additionally, prediction results on chloride ion penetration by proposed
calculation method based on Fick's law in this paper showed good correlation withexperimental results, although it must be further improved with consideration on
diffusion coefficient alteration due to degradation degree from exposure surface.
Keywords: concrete, frost damage, chloride attack, icing condition, thaw water
1. INTRODUCTION
Concrete structures and members deteriorate and their performance will be degraded
during the service life. In particular, frost damage due to freeze-thaw cycles causes
deterioration of concrete structures in cold regions (Shashank, 2008). Also, chloride
from deicing agents can penetrate into concrete and accelerate the deterioration due tofrost damage in a freeze-thaw environment. Consequently, corrosion of reinforcing bars
occurs in concrete members (Wang et al., 2014). Moreover, it has been reported that
icing on the surface of concrete leads to acceleration of frost damage, which must
consider the geometric conditions of the structure such as which concrete surfaces are
exposed to snow cover and thaw water with chloride ion. In particular, parts of theconcrete structure which have higher potential to be deteriorated by frost damage, suchas bridge piers, would have chloride ion penetration two-dimensionally from the top andside surfaces of concrete. To simulate freeze-thaw environment on the surface of159

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmarconcrete structures considering the real environmental exposure, which shows severe
damage in cold regions as mentioned earlier, it is necessary to prepare an experimental
methodology to induce two- dimensional chloride ion penetration and icing behavior on
the top and the side surfaces of concrete.
2. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
2.1 Materials and mix proportion
As for concrete specimens, Ordinary Portland cement (density: 3.16 g/cm3, specificsurface: 3320 cm2/g), river sand (surface dry density: 2.71 g/m3), and coarse aggregates(surface dry density: 2.72 g/m3) were used for concrete specimens. Table 1 presents themix proportion of the concrete. An air entraining agent was not used. As for mortar
specimens, Ordinary Portland cement was used for casting mortar prisms. River sand(surface dry density: 2.67g/m3, fineness modulus: 2.82, maximum size: 1.7mm) wasused for mortar specimens. Mix proportion of the mortar was W/C of 0.5 and S/C of 3.0.
Concrete and mortar prisms, the dimensions of which were 100mm x 100mm x 400mm
respectively. Test specimens were cut into the sizes of 100mm x 100mm x 100mm.
Table 1 Mix proportion of concrete
W/C (%)
72

s/a (%)
45

Unit cement content (kg/m3)
W
C
S
G
220
304
831
1007

2.2 Outline of specimen
The concrete specimens were placed and exposed to an environment of immersion andfreese-thaw cycles as shown in Figure 1 (A series, using 20 mm long rebars withdifferent covers from the top) and Figure 2 (B series, using 20 mm long rebars withdifferent covers from the side). The mortar specimens were also placed and exposed tothe above mentioned environment without rebars. The specimens were demolded after
24 hours from casting, and cured in 20qC water until the age of 21 days and in air for afurther 7 days. The following deterioration tests were conducted after the curing.
2.3 Freeze-thaw test and immersion test with NaCl solution
Freeze-thaw cycles of temperature history and immersion test were applied as shown in
Figure 3 using 1, 3 or 5 wt% of NaCl solution in the bank on the top to simulate icing
conditions. There were two test series for concrete specimens: freeze-thaw cycles for 6
days and immersion test for 1 day (Cycle 1) and immersion test for 7 days (Cycle 2).
These were executed cyclically for 28, 56 and 84 days. As for mortar specimens, freezethaw cycles for 12 days and immersion test for 1 day were periodically-cycled till thefreeze-thaw cycles reach 100 times.

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8cm

2cm

4cm

4cm

Bank height
5 or 10 or 20mm
NaCl
1 or 3 or 5wt%

6cm

8cm

2cm

8cm

6cm

Bank height
5 or 10 or 20mm
NaCl
1 or 3 or 5wt%

8cm

8cm 8cm

Figure 1 Geometry with different covers to Figure 2 Geometry with different covers torebar from the top (A series, Left)rebar from the side (B series, Right)
2.4 Measurement items
In concrete specimens, chloride ion contents around 10 mm from the surface of eachrebar were measured according to JIS A 1154. In mortar specimens, chloride ion
penetration behavior by Electron Probe Microscope Analyzer (EPMA). The sample for
EPMA was fabricated into the size of 50 x 50 x 8mm.
3. NUMERICAL METHOD ON CHLORIDE ION PENETRATION
In order to calculate two-dimensional chloride ion penetration, Fick's 2nd law ofchloride diffusion was expanded to express two-dimensional chloride ion ingress asshown in equation 1 and 2.
wC
wt

w
wC
w
wC
( Dx
)  ( Dy
)
wx
wx
wy
wy

(1)

Where,
C(x, t): Chloride ion concentration (kg/m3)
C0: Surface chloride ion concentration (kg/m3)
D: Apparent chloride ion diffusion coefficient (cm2/year)§ Ci1, j (t' )  Ci, j (t' ) ··C(t  't)  C(t) Ci, j (t''t' )  Ci, j (t' ) 1 §¨¸¸¸'i1 ¨¨
Dࠉ
¨
¸
't
't'
'x ©
'x
©
¹¹
§ Ci, j (t' )  Ci1, j (t' ) · 1§ Ci, j1 (t' )  Ci, j (t' ) ·§ Ci, j (t' )  Ci, j1 (t' ) ·¸¸  Dࠉ¸¸  Dࠉ¸¸ Dࠉ'i1 ¨¨' j1 ¨¨
' j1 ¨¨
'x
'y
'y
©
¹ 'y
©
¹
©
¹

(4)

Where,
erf: Error function
Ci,j(t): Chloride ion concentration in element (i, j) (kg/m3)
D’i: Apparent chloride ion diffusion coefficient in i element from the side (mm2/year)
D’j: Apparent chloride ion diffusion coefficient in j element from the top (mm2/year)
Two-dimensional
investigation
on chloride
penetration
into cementitious
material material underTwo-dimensional
investigation
on ionchloride
ion penetration
into cementitious
under freeze-thaw
environment
freeze-thaw environment

161

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmar'x: Mesh size of x axis (mm)'y: Mesh size of y axis (mm)'t’: The numbers of freeze-thaw cycle
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Chloride ion concentration in thaw water

Chloride ion concentration (wt%)

Figure 3 shows chloride ion concentration on the top of the specimens with elapsed timeof freeze-thaw cycles after 0 oC. In the process, NaCl solution was concentrated, where
it was found that the thaw water has been perfectly iced at 1.5 hours in the case of
1wt%-10mm (initial NaCl concentration-bank height) and 3wt%-5mm. Also in the othercases, thaw water has been iced at 2.5 hours.
20

1wt%-10mm
1%-10mm
3wt%-15mm
3%-5mm3wt%-10mm
3%-10mm
3wt%-20mm
3%-20mm
5wt%-10mm
5%-10mm

15
10
5
0

0

0.5
1
1.5
Elapsed time(hour)

2

Figure 3 Chloride ion concentration in thaw-water
3wt%-15mm
3wt%-10mm
3wt%-20mm

105wt%-10mm

5

0

15

1wt%-10mm

0

20

40

60

Distance from the exposure top (mm)a) A series

Chloride content (kg/m3䠅

Chloride content (kg/m3)

1510
1wt%-10mm

53wt%-15mm
3wt%-10mm
3wt%-20mm

05wt%-10mm

0
20
40
60
Distance from the exposure side (mm)b) B series

Figure 4 Total chloride ion concentration in concrete specimens

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00

Topᾐ㏱㠃㸦⤖ị࠶ࡾ㸧
exposure surface
10
20
30
40
10
20
30
40

(mm)
(mm)
(kg/m33))
(kg/m

50
50

00

15

Topᾐ㏱㠃㸦⤖ị࠶ࡾ㸧
exposure surface
10
20
30
40
10
20
30
40

15

13

ᾐ㏱㠃㸦⤖ị࡞ࡋ㸧Side
exposure surface

ᾐ㏱㠃㸦⤖ị࡞ࡋ㸧Side
exposure surface

13

11

11
9

9

7

7

5

5

3

3

(mm)

(mm)
3
50
50 (kg/m(kg/m3) )
44
33
22

1

1

1

a)a)NaCl⃰ᗘ
NaCl: 1%1㸣00

Topᾐ㏱㠃㸦⤖ị࠶ࡾ㸧
exposure surface
10
20
30
40
10
20
30
40

0

1
00

0
a) NaCl⃰ᗘ 1㸣

a) NaCl: 1%

(mm)
(mm)
50
(kg/m33))
50
(kg/m
15

00

Topᾐ㏱㠃㸦⤖ị࠶ࡾ㸧
exposure surface
10
20
30
40
10
20
30
40

15

(mm)

(mm)
50
3 3)
50 (kg/m
(kg/m
)
44

ᾐ㏱㠃㸦⤖ị࡞ࡋ㸧Side
exposure surface

11

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9

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exposure surface

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1

1

0

0

1

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b)b)NaCl⃰ᗘ
NaCl: 3% 3㸣

00Topᾐ㏱㠃㸦⤖ị࠶ࡾ㸧
exposure surface
10
20
30
40
10
20
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b) NaCl⃰ᗘ 3㸣b) NaCl: 3%

(mm)
(mm)
50
(kg/m33))
50
(kg/m
15

00

Top exposure surface
ᾐ㏱㠃㸦⤖ị࠶ࡾ㸧
10
20
30
40
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ᾐ㏱㠃㸦⤖ị࡞ࡋ㸧Side
exposure surface

13

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5
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2
1

1
c)c) NaCl⃰ᗘ
NaCl: 5%5㸣

1
00

(mm)

3
50(mm)
(kg/m
50
3
(kg/m
) )
84

0

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2
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c) c)NaCl⃰ᗘ
NaCl: 5%5㸣Figure 5 EPMA results on chloride ion concentration of mortar specimens (Left)
Figure 6 Calculation results on chloride ion concentration of mortar specimens (Right)
4.2 Chloride ion ingress
Figure 4 shows total chloride ion concentration in concrete specimens. In comparison
with Figure 4a) and b), chloride ion concentration from the top of specimen with icing
formation was totally lower than that from the side of specimen without icing formation.
Also, increasing tendency on chloride ion concentration from internal pat at 60mm ofconcrete cover to surface at 20mm of concrete cover was more remarkable in A series
than B series, which means chloride ions were more concentrated in the surface area
due to icing formation on the surface of concrete.
Two-dimensional
investigation
on ionchloride
ion penetration
into cementitious
Two-dimensional
investigation
on chloride
penetration
into cementitious
material material underfreeze-thaw
environment
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November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar


Figure 5 shows EPMA results on chloride ion concentration of mortar specimens. In
any cases in this study, it was confirmed that chloride penetration depth was 10 to15mm, which is corresponding to the experimental results. As visual inspection on thesurface of mortar specimens after 100 times of freeze-thaw cycles, the case with lower
concentration of initial NaCl in thaw water lead to larger scaling of top surface withicing formation, while the scaling was not observed on the side surface without icing
formation.
As for chloride ion diffusivity in the EPMA results, more chloride ions were penetrated
from top surface and less chloride ions from side surface in the case of NaCl 1%. In thecase of NaCl 3%, more chloride ions were penetrated from side surface than top surface.
Especially, the chloride ion penetration depth at 0-30mm from the top surface waslarger than at 40-50mm. When NaCl 5% was used, the difference did not occur.
4.3 Evaluation on two-dimentional numerical analysis
Figure 6 shows the calculation results on chloride ion concentration of mortar
specimens with using two-dimensional numerical analysis with using equation 2.
Surface chloride ion concentration and apparent diffusion coefficient were set to beconstant to each axis. Additionally, 'x and 'y were 1mm.
As the results of calculations, the results from calculations gave close agreement withthose from experiments, where particularly the increase of chloride penetration from top
with NaCl 1% and side from NaCl3%. It is necessary to put the influence ofdeterioration details into the numerical method, such as diffusion coefficient in each
depth from surface and mechanical properties, to improve the method for moreadvanced discussion.
5. CONCLUSIONSChloride ions were more concentrated in the surface area due to icing formation of thaw
water due to freeze-thaw action on the surface of concrete. On the other hand, EPMA
analysis on mortar specimens showed that chloride ion concentration of thaw water andicing condition on the concrete surface influenced on chloride ion penetration depth andconcentration in concrete. Additionally, prediction results on chloride ion penetration byproposed calculation method based on Fick's law in this paper showed good correlation
with experimental results, although it must be further improved with consideration on
diffusion coefficient alteration due to degradation degree from exposure surface.
REFERENCES
Shashank, B., 2008. Strain-temperature hysteresis in concrete under cyclic freeze-thaw
conditions, Cement Concrete Composites 30, 374-380.
Wang, Z., Zeng, Q., Wang, L., Yao, Y., and Li. K., 2014. Corrosion of rebar in concrete
under cyclic freeze–thaw and chloride salt action, Construction and Building Materials
53, 40-47.

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New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Masaru KUWANA1, Kazuhisa KIZU2, Naotsugu KOGA3,
Yoshihiko MUTOU4, Keiji OOISHI5 and Shinji KONISHI6
1
Assistant Manager, Structure Engineering Division, Tokyo Metro Co., Ltd., Japanm.kuwana@tokyometro.jp
2
Chief Engineer, Structure Engineering Division, Tokyo Metro Co., Ltd., Japan
3
Manager, Structure Engineering Division, Tokyo Metro Co., Ltd., Japan
4
General Manager, Engineering Division, Tokyo Metro Co., Ltd., Japan
5
Deputy General Manager, Engineering Division, Tokyo Metro Co., Ltd., Japan
6
Senior Manager, Engineering Division, Tokyo Metro Co., Ltd., Japan
ABSTRACT
Since opening the Ginza Line as the first subway in the Eastern world in 1927, Tokyo
Metro has continued operations while expanding its lines. Subsequently, with the
opening of the Fukutoshin Line in June 2008, the Tokyo Metro has been upgraded toinclude nine lines, 179 stations over a 195.1 km span of open tracks, and a daily
passenger base of 6.44 million people. Tokyo Metro aims to create stations that, "allpassengers can use comfortably and easily." However, many of the stations are aging,and through future renewal, in order to continually maintain stations that achieve thisaim we have drawn up the "Tokyo Metro Station Design Guidelines." The guidelines
consist of the following steps: "Area > Space > design concept > design guideline". For
example, the order of progression is: "Concourse > accessway > smooth transit > goodvisibility". The guidelines indicate the Tokyo metro design concepts and design policy,
and we are committed to providing customers with pleasant and attractive station
spaces through the common efforts of everyone engaged in station design andconstruction. In this paper we will introduce the background and details of theguidelines as well as several cases from the renewal plans for the Namboku Line,
Fukutoshin Line, and Ginza Line.
1. TOKYO METRO: STATION DESIGN GUIDELINES
1.1 Aims and Composition
The guidelines embody the group ideal of "Keeping Tokyo on the Move" that weuphold, and they stipulate the best designs for the stations which will be a source ofTokyo's appeal and dynamism. Tokyo Metro has established the basic idea for its
designs and image that embodies these designs, and we will achieve a station designunique to Tokyo Metro and aim to increase the value of every station through sharing
these perspectives and views among a broad range of people involved in the design. The
guidelines integrate the "design concepts," "domain-specific concepts," and "domainspecific design guidelines" that comprise the group ideal of "Keeping Tokyo on theMove" which is the fundamental idea of the design.

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1.2 Group Concept: "Keeping Tokyo on the Move"
With privatization in 2004, the Tokyo Metro group put forward its ideal of, "Keeping
Tokyo on the Move" which demonstrates the group's desired attitude from a long-term
perspective. This ideal is a statement of the future form that we aim for as a corporation
playing a central role in the metropolitan rail network, and as a commitment tostakeholders, it will be crucial to continuously engage in various activities. In particular,
stations are a crucial interface where stakeholders come into contact with the Tokyo
Metro on a daily basis, and the stations play a major role as sites to achieve the group's
ideal. Hence, in formulating the guidelines, based on the group's ideal we conductedinvestigations into the best form of station design.
Group Ideal
Keeping Tokyo on the Move
The Tokyo Metro group aims to develop the railway business as ourcentral enterprise and thereby support the urban function of
Metropolitan Tokyo.
We will maximize the city's appeal and dynamism,
and through our excellent technology and creativity,
we will provide dependable, pleasant, and better services,and will contribute to the active daily routines of the people of Tokyo.

1.3 Design ideal "A place that enriches both Tokyo and the heart"
In order to achieve the group's ideal of "Keeping Tokyo on the Move" what role muststations play? This is the first consideration in station design.
The Tokyo Metro stations are key places of the city which extends into the far cornersof Tokyo, and when considering the role of the stations we must perceive them in termsof their crucial urban function. By bringing energy to local areas and the city, andthrough transmitting the appeal of Tokyo to the public as the "face" of Tokyo, we aim toplay a role in making Tokyo an appealing and plentiful city.
Tokyo Metro stations are also places that broaden the flow of life of the public. We
perceive stations as places closely related to everyday life, and aim to enrich the heartsof every individual connected to Tokyo through providing energy and affluence topeople leading a busy daily life, and creating happiness and pride in Tokyo.
In terms of the elements comprising the design ideal of "a place to enrich Tokyo and theheart," from the five perspectives of travel, life, local area, city, and society, weinvestigated a station format for Tokyo Metro to aim for that is not merely that of atransport hub.
1.4 Stations that Tokyo Metro aims to create
Tokyo Metro aims for the following kind of stations:

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Stations are places open to usage by people in various capacities and situations
regardless of age, sex, or nationality. As transportation hubs that support the public's
bustle-free circulation of metropolitan Tokyo, we must achieve stress-free travel for all.
We aim for stations that achieve smooth travel without delays even at peak times, that
alleviate the sense of being trapped underground and the anxiety felt by elderly anddisabled people, and that are able to provide a reassuring and pleasant time and space
for the public as a whole.
Stations are situated within people's flow of life, and are places that link various life
scenarios such as commuting to work and school, shopping, and tourism. As the"intermediary" between life scenarios, stations must be spaces that accommodate eachindividual in various capacities and situations. Sometimes stations will calm ourpassengers through providing friendly surroundings, and sometimes they will switch themoods of our users through a small surprise or discovery. We aim for stations that
support the lives of our users, and that are capable of changing their day-to-day feelings.
The stations are places that welcome and send off many people, such as people living in
town, commuters, and first-time visitors. As central points in the local area and town,
even underground we must convey the mood of the town and create a sense of
expectation for the town. Stations condense the charm of all Tokyo's various local areas
and towns, and communicate that charm to the people that use them. We aim to create
stations that draw people to, and develop bonds between people and the town, bringing
dynamism to the local areas and towns linked to our stations.
Stations extend into the far corners of Tokyo and are essential to Tokyo as a city. To
people living in and visiting Tokyo, it is necessary that stations are equipped with urban
sensitivity that communicates Tokyo's individuality and characteristics. While advanced
and progressive and possessing an emotive aspect conveying a sense of subtlety andwarmth, stations embody the quintessence of Tokyo. Through communicating Tokyo's
atmosphere and charm, we aim to create stations that raise the image of the city.
Stations are places that support society as underground network hubs that areenvironmentally friendly means of transportation. In order to deliver social
responsibility as public amenities, stations must contribute to the maintenance andcleanup of the environment. Stations must alleviate the environmental burden throughthe effective usage of natural energy and enhancing maintainability and serviceability.
Through environmentally friendly approaches that eliminate the burden on theenvironment, we aim to create stations able to take responsibility and contribute tosociety.
1.5 Focus areas of the guidelines
When determining the guidelines, the basic premise was shared focus areas. Morespecifically, the guidelines are comprised of the fundamental spaces of three areas andeight spaces.
Exit/Entrance areas : Shed space/station building space/ascending and descending space
Concourse area: Accessway space/central space
Platform areas: Ascending & descending space/platform space

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Concourse area

Platform areas

Shed space

Central space

Platform space

1.6 Common design guidelines
As well as design guidelines for individual areas and spaces, we determined design
guidelines common to all areas and spaces that Tokyo Metro stations must fulfil.
Through the guidelines we sought to create a consistent worldview for the stations
overall.
Table 1: List of general common design guidelines
Design guideline
Details
Designs that convey the atmosphere Structures and designs that convey a sense ofof Tokyo
Japan amidst progressiveness
Designs that take full advantage of materials
Designs with a sense of uniformity Advertisement arrangements with a functionaland harmony
beautyAdvertising spaces and media that maintain asense of harmony of design
Designs that maintain their charm
Designs that are unaffected by fashions andover time
maintain their charm over time
Environmentally friendly designs
Use of maintainable and serviceable materials
and technology
Use of energy-efficient equipment and facilities
Ingenuity that incorporates natural energy into
the station buildings

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Fukutoshin Line: Kitasando St.

Fukutoshin Line: Nishi-Waseda St.

Marunouchi Line: Shinjuku-sanchome St.

Tozai Line: Urayasu St.

Table 2: List of detailed design guidelines
Area

Entrance& ExitConcourse

Space

Design concept

Sheds

Spaces that havepresence within the city
and a sense of openness

Stationbuilding

Spaces that harmonize
with surrounding
scenery, and that areopen to the town

Ascending/descending

Spaces that provide anatural and stress-freelink between the levels
above and below ground

Accessways

Spaces which enable

Station design
guidelinesof Tokyo Metro
forMetro
renovation
Stationdesign guidelinesof Tokyorenovation

Design guideline
Designs that are easily
identifiable as metro stations
Open designs that alleviate
the sense of oppression andanxiety
Design that are easy to use
Designs that indicate this is ametro station
Designs that are open to the
local area
Designs that alleviate thesense of oppression andanxiety felt when descending
below ground
Designs that alleviate thestress ofdescending/ascending
Uplifting designs that convey
the atmosphere above ground
Simple designs with good169

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Comfortable spaces
which convey theCentral space atmosphere of the local
area and city

Ticket gatesSpaces that are
welcoming and friendly

Ascending/descending

Spaces that enable stressfree and smooth passage

Platforms

Spaces that are peacefuland calm, and provide asense of ease

Platforms

visibility
Designs from which it is easy
to ascertain the proceeding
direction
Designs that create acomfortable feelingOpen designs without a senseof oppression
Designs that relax andcomfortDesigns with a range ofemotions
Designs that do not create thestress of an entrance and exit
place
Designs from which it is easy
to ascertain the proceeding
direction and how to use theticket gates
Designs which convey asense of warmth andhospitality
Designs that alleviate thesense of oppression andanxiety
Designs that alleviate thestress ofdescending/ascending
Designs that do not convey asense of the monotony ofascending/descending
Designs which ensure goodvisibility and safety
Designs that clearly identify
the station name, lines andexits
Designs that are calm andmake waiting times
comfortable

2. TRANSITIONS IN STATION DESIGN
Here we will introduce Tokyo Metro's station design from past to present.

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2.1 Ginza Line
On the Ginza line, we considered design alterations at every station to clearly identify
user stations. We changed the color of the platform walls at Tawaramachi, Inaricho andUeno stations. At other stations we painted the walls and ceilings white to optimize
lighting efficiency.
For purposes of station identification, we changed the color of advertising print holders
and the body tile capping at individual stations.
2.2 Marunouchi Line
On the Marunouchi line, we changed the texture and colors of finishing materials andmade individual stations easily identifiable. For the finishing materials, we selected
durable and water-resistant materials, and materials with relatively high soundabsorption to reduce noise.
2.3 Hibiya Line
On the Hibiya line, we further standardized facilities common to all stations. The
selection conditions for finishing materials took into consideration high temperatures,
high humidity, as well as fire-resistance, water resistance and durability in addition toserviceability issues and economics.
2.4 Tozai Line
On the Tozai line, with the colors of platform wall tiling we attempted a tiling method
divided into a 3-color 3-step system at several stations to make all stations easily
identifiable.
2.5 Chiyoda Line & Yurakucho Line
On the Chiyoda line, we altered the platform colors and wall tile sizes to make thestations easily identifiable.
2.6 Hanzomon Line
On the Shibuya to Suitengumae section, to make user stations easily identifiable we
designed the platform walls characteristically using finishing materials and colors andalso according to the features of the local area.
On the Suitengumae to Oshiage section, to ensure clear visibility that will lead tosmooth circulation planning, in terms of creating a pleasant environment based on aconsideration of a finish and color scheme plan, we implemented a bright and fun color
scheme and graphics plan to create an open space that does not convey a sense of
darkness or enclosure.

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2.7 Namboku Line
On the Namboku line, based on the basic ideal for the vision of the Namboku line of, "anew, convenient, pleasant, and appealing subway for the 21st Century," we created a"basic plan and basic design for the Namboku line design" based on which we
considered and incorporated new design profitability and an array of devices andingenuity such as platform doors, movable benches, station colors, media-walls, ticket
gates, symbol columns, ticket offices, contact corners and sheds at entrances and exits.
We also installed art-walls at every station on the inside walls of the tracks and central
spaces.
As three crucial design elements in making subway station spaces into appealing urban
spaces, we thought up the following three considerations that are essential to theformation of the Namboku line’s design image.
(1) HIGH QUALITY (2) AMENITY(3) TOTALITY

We will specifically describe the basic policy for the design of platform spaces
according to the basic ideal.
Firstly, as the new subway, platform doors will be introduced to the Namboku line
platforms, and we believe this will create a less conventional platform space. We
attempted to establish the "image of a new space" to correspond to the introduction of
platform doors, and secondly we increased the "quality of the space" in an attempt toensure comfort. Thirdly, the platform doors will give all the stations a strong sense of
uniformity, and were created to have identity and be clearly distinguishable at eachstation. We predicted that introducing the platform doors would make it difficult torecognize the stations from inside the carriages when checking the station signs on
platforms and due to differences in the finishing materials of the stations, so we madethe differences clearly recognizable through a clear-cut expression of color on the door
sections of the platform doors.
On the pillars and joists of the platform doors, we used "charcoal gray" to minimize
assertiveness as much as possible, and for the door sections we determined a basis of
the six colors yellow, orange, red, purple, blue, and green to enable clear recognition.
Furthermore for all stations on the Namboku line, we decided on and used color in a

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uniform order. We established this basis of six colors as the station colors andpractically applied them to the platform seats, escalator belts and concourse wall
surfaces. In the sections of the track closed off by the platform doors, as an extension of
the platform space and in order to create a sense of "expanse" and "openness," we useda bright motif (pattern) and color scheme, and through incorporating high-quality
graphic-design we created an enjoyable scene and a cheerful impression for passengers
while at the same time establishing the identity of each individual station.

Namboku line: Korakuen St. Namboku line: Ichigaya St. Namboku line: Iidabashi St.
2.8 Fukutoshin LineWe decided on the overall concept of, "a fun station, a fun local area," for the
Fukutoshin line, and as the design methods we determined the lobby space, comfortable
space (large spaces and atrium), universal design, local area projection, and public art.
We zoned the approach spaces and lobby spaces inside the station building, and clearly
divided the two spaces using lobby gates. We determined that the main sections of theapproach spaces would be from the station entrance and exit to the lobby gates, andmade them into low cost simple spaces. As for the lobby spaces, we determined that theconcept for each station would be considered with an emphasis on comfort.
Inside the station building, we established large spaces with high ceilings and atrium,and planned open spaces that dispelled any sense of being trapped below ground. We
planned the stations to reflect local history and culture in the concepts of each station,
and artists installed public art in every station to improve their cultural value.

Fukutoshin Line: Shinjuku-sanchome St

Fukutoshin Line: Meiji-Jingumae St.

3. FUTURE TOKYO METRO STATION DESIGN
3.1 Station Design on the Ginza line and Station Renewal Plan
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The Ginza line marked the 85th anniversary of opening the Asakusa to Ueno section in
2012. The current station renewal emphasizes the history of Japan's oldest subway thathas linked Tokyo's towns, and simultaneously aims to solidify an image as a line
incorporating and communicating advanced functionality. Based on the line's concept ofa "fusion of tradition and progress," we divided the Ginza line into the five areas of the
Shitamachi area (Asakusa - Kanda), commercial area (Mitsukoshimae - Kyobashi),
Ginza area (Ginza), business area (Shimbashi - Akasaka-mitsuke), and the trend area
(Aoyama-itchome - Shibuya). Subsequently, in tandem with revision to the stationlayout to improve customer convenience, while retaining uniformity of design as a line,
we renovated the station to express its individuality. From this design concept, we
decided to hold a design competition for each area to widely recruit various ideas
contributing to improving the Ginza line’s new appeal.
First we held the "Shitamachi area" design competition and received as many as 96
works. Based on the many ideas received, in addition to the "Tokyo Metro Station
Design Guidelines" we formulated the "Ginza Line Station Renewal Design Guidelines(Joint Edition)." These guidelines were created to provide guidance on steering thedesign policy for the Ginza line station renewal design and construction in the best
direction and to ensure conformity, and also to specify basic rules on essential design
considerations when advancing the design and construction of each station. However, tocomplement the Joint Edition of these guidelines we are also composing an area edition
specific to each area.
We are currently drawing up the final design for the Asakusa and Kanda section basedon the "Ginza Line Station Renewal Design Guidelines (Joint Edition)" and the"Shitamachi Edition," and are scheduled to complete the construction in 2017. In 2014
we also held a design competition for the "Commercial area" and a successful entry was
selected. In future, based on the best work we will formulate the "commercial edition"and draw up a final design. Subsequently, next time we will prepare for the "Ginzaarea" competition followed by the "business area" and "trend area."174

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New Technologies
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Safetyof Megain AsiaICUS Report 78"Shitamachi area" Design competition winning entry Ueno St.

"Shitamachi area" detail design path Ueno St.

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Khushboo GUPTA1, Onkar DIKSHIT2, Sudhir MISRA2
Research Associate, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Kanpur, India
2
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Kanpur, India

ABSTRACTWith rapid growth of cities, increasing urban assets like water supply, roads, public
transportation systems and power supply demands proper handling. In this research,which uses the water supply system of IIT Kanpur as a case-study, development of a
web enabled water infrastructure management system (WIMS) is suggested as apossible solution for proper handling of these assets focusing on tube well as one of thecomponent of water asset. The purpose is to initiate the design of a centralized databaseof tube wells which can be used for decision support, inspection planning, community
need-to-know, and check for regulatory compliance. The work includes: designing offormat for data collection, database creation and web based representation using open
source tools to answer non-spatial queries. The system has been built in a manner thatit permits upload of spatial and related non-spatial information of tube wells. It
facilitates appending information related to uploaded features thereby helping to build
a spatial database for tube wells. There is a need for a standard format for datacollection for each and every asset existing. This would not just ease the data collection
process but will also enhance the data quality. This system is built to help anorganization’s works department to carry out better management of water
infrastructure by keeping an up to date water infrastructure database. The above
research is applied in Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur (IITK) to enhance themanagement of water infrastructure (tube wells) by Institute Works Department (IWD).
Keywords: Urban asset management, tube well, data collection format, databasecreation, web enabled water information management system
1. INTRODUCTION
When we refer to an asset management system, an "asset" is a component with anindependent physical and functional identity, value and service life. Maintenance,
renewal and replacement of these assets is an integral part of ‘managing’ the assets,
which can be done effectively only if an accurate and appropriate database of the assets
is available (Betti, 2010). Virtual non-availability of such a database is one of thechallenges faced by managers of public assets in India. The problem is compounded by
the multiplicity of organizations involved in operating and maintaining the assets(Mukherjee, 2013).

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Taking the case of water supply related infrastructure, developing an efficient water
information management system (WIMS) which stores appropriate data for relevant
assets is important for several reasons, some of which are listed below:
1. Providing a location based approach to manage operational challenges like solving
complex geographical, hydrological and planning problems related to distribution ofwater (Garg et al, 2000).
2. New ways of acquiring water asset data and providing efficient means of processing,managing and integrating this data to meet decision making needs (Opadeyi, 2007).
3. Integrating non-spatial attribute information within the map geography, linking
databases together, consolidating workflows, and presenting a common operating
picture for the end user to perform water asset related spatial and non-spatial query(Kulshreshtha, 1998)
4. Handling large volume of deteriorating water infrastructure systems, particularly
underground water infrastructure like tube wells, underground tanks and pipelines,
which pose serious threats to the environment if they fail; as the information about
the establishment and condition of these valuable assets get buried with them
(Karlaftis et al., 2009; Singh, 2011).
WIMS will help a water works’ manager to answer the above questions accurately andrationally, and assist in the day to day functioning of the department.
This paper focusses on the issues relating to development and management of WIMS inan urban scenario and uses the campus water supply network in Indian Institute ofTechnology Kanpur (IITK) as a case study. It emphasizes the need to create andmaintain appropriate databases and suggests a simplified approach by developing aformat for data collection considering the case of tube wells at IITK. The final objective
is development of web enabled WIMS, and also explore the possibility of extending thisconcept to management of other urban assets such as roads and power supply systems.
2. METHODOLOGY SUGGESTED
The stages for developing the information management system for an organization’s
water infrastructure are as follows:1.
2.

Understanding the existing infrastructure and availability of related information.
Identifying the components of water infrastructure present (e.g. drinking water,
waste water and storm water pipelines, tube wells etc.).
3. Obtaining relevant information (as hardcopy, soft copy, interview, reports etc.)
about these assets.
4. Interviewing the engineers and gathering the information relevant with respect tothe organization’s personnel for water assets.
5. Development of a data collection form (template)
2.1 Algorithm development for WIMSThe methodology used in this study is described briefly in a flow chart in Figure 1,
along with the tools to be used at each step.

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Format for Data
Collection(Designing the format
for tube wells)

Database Creation(Performing queries in
Postgre sql using Post
GIS database)

Data Display on local
host(Display of spatial
queries on GeoServer)

Data Collection(Using GPS
Receivers, andinterviews with IWD
engineers)

Data Sanitization(Verification of data)

Data display on web(Linking the local host
to web to display
queries online)

Data Representation(Shapefiles added anddisplayed in QGIS)

Data Addition(Addition of spatial
and non-spatial
attributes in QGIS)

Development of the
Platform(Styling of the layers,
web page andplatform, providing
security essentials)

Figure 1: Flow chart for development of Water Infrastructure Management System(WIMS)
2.2 Application of suggested methodology as a case study for water assets in IITK
The suggested methodology was implemented in the IITK campus established about 65
years ago in outskirts of Kanpur. It should be remembered that IITK is 1100 acre
campus with a population of about 12000, has no ‘municipal water supply’ at present
and relies completely on about 10 operational tube-wells to draw groundwater. The
spread of all tube wells, working as well as abandoned in the IITK campus is describedin Figure 2. The extent of campus is shown by boundary and road layers and the bullets
in represent the locations of tube wells in the campus.
The system is managed completely by the engineers of the Institute Works Department(IWD). The design of data collection format for water assets involved the following
steps:
1. Identifying the components of water infrastructure and the state of its management:This step involved identification and classification of these components under
different heads based upon their nature. For example: Tube wells (used forextraction of water from ground)
2. Interviewing the IWD engineers to get an insight about their requirements regarding
data for managing the water assets in an efficient manner.
3. Grouping these parameters under different heads to provide individual as well as
overall picture of the assets. These parameters are listed in Table 1.
4. Based on these parameter heads data collection format was created.

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5. Infoormation waas obtained about thes e assets byy going throough docum
ments (such as
boree log reporrts) with IWD
I
relateed to tube wells and interviewiing the IW
WD
perssonnel.

Figure 2:: Tube well locations in
n IITK cam
mpus
2.3 Description off tools used
Relevannt spatial daata were coollected by Trimble GPS
G receivers R3 and R7. The webwenabledd system was develloped by using Qu
uantum GIS (Quantuum GIS 1.8
1documeentation), pggAdmin IIII (PostgreSQ
QL Manuall, 2006), GeoServer (GGeoserver 2.0
2Documeentation), GeoNodeG(G
Geonode mmanual) andd log plot utilityuof RoockWare (fforgeneratiing bore loogs). A detailed desccription abo
out these toools and thheir usage ispresenteed in Guptaa (2014).
3. RESUULT AND DISCUSSIION
This seection desccribes the data collecction formaat and difffferent typees of queriies
perform
med on data.
3.1 Description off data collecction formaat
The data collectionn form consiists of attribbutes for a tubetwell giv
ven in Tablle 1.

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Table 1: Tube well attributes and their description included in data collection form
Name
ID
Tube well Name

Type
Numeric
Text

Location

DoubleDescriptive location

Text

Type1
Condition
Start date
Abandonment dateCasing Size2
Hosing size2
Drilling depth
Pipe depth
Pipe material
Pump specifications
Establishment
Charges3
Maintenance
Charges3
Running Duration
Running Schedule
Discharge

Text
Text
Date
Date
DoubleDoubleDoubleDoubleText
Integer
Integer
Integer
Integer
Text
DoubleComment
Unique identity number for a tube well
Naming convention followed
Coordinates in UTM projection using WGS-84
reference ellipsoid
Area or recognition point near which tube well ispresent
On the basis of tube well depth (deep/shallow)
Working condition or abandoned
Year in which tube well started working.
Year in which tube well was abandoned
Diameter of the casing pipe
Diameter of the hosing pipe
Depth of bore drilled
Depth till which the pipe is inserted in bore
Material of tube well pipe
Power of pump in HP (horse power)
Expenditure (INR) spent during establishment oftube wellYearly expenditure on maintenance of tube well
(INR)
Total no. of hours of drawing water in a day
Daily running schedule tube well
Discharge measured in liters per hour.

Electrical units
consumedInteger

Hourly consumption of electrical units
consumed for running tube well

Bore log4

RasterInformation about lithology type existing in thebore varying with depth

Notes:
1. A tube well classified on the basis of its depth – those with depth greater than 200
m are called ‘deep’ and those with depth less than 200 m are defined as ‘shallow’.
2. A tube well casing houses the inlet, cylinder, piston valves and rising main of a"down-the-hole" type hand pump. The upper casing has a bigger diameter than thenormal casing which is known as hosing. In the data set used (IIT campus), thediameter of the hosing and casing pipes are 350 mm and 250mm, respectively.
3. The cost detail is split into development and operational charges. The former
consists of the all expenditure for establishment of the well, the latter includes theoperational electricity charges, and repair and renewal charges.
4. Bore logs give the variation of lithology, and locations of aquifer and non-aquifer
layers at different depths.
The form was used to create a database for all tube wells including functional and nonfunctional ones in the campus. This database formed the basis of a (local) WIMS, which

Development of asset management system - A case study tube wells of IIT Kanpur
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November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

provided greater insight to the asset manager and provided answers to non-spatial
queries, as explained in the following paragraphs.
3.2 Analysis
Basically, to be able to answer the queries of an asset manager (AM), the information
can come from the data of the tube well (discharge, etc.) and/or bore log. It should beborne in mind that it may not be possible to answer all the questions that AM may havefrom the overall data set created. To that extent, it may become necessary to modify thedata collected from time to time. Questions that can be answered based upon tube welldata include those relating to location, condition, efficiency, present value of discharge,
running hours, cost details, etc. Another set of questions which arise include bore log
related questions like soil profile, aquifer related information, etc. Queries relating tointegration of tube well and bore log data can provide us information related to possible
new locations of tube well, abandoning of deep tube wells, etc.
A number of queries, single or multiple, can be performed in a WIMS which are needed
to set consciousness of saving and cost control, to make decisions on the strength ofknowledge and analysis of resource utilization. The following paragraphs discuss someexamples of the kinds of information that can be useful to an AM in a local WIMS.
3.2.1 Description of tube well data
From the data collected for tube wells, it can be stated that:
1. Total number of tube wells present in the campus (working or abandoned) are 22.
Majorly tube wells are located towards the periphery of the campus. Out of
which currently 10 are in the working condition and rest 12 tube wells areabandoned.
2. Initially, most of the tube wells built in the campus were shallow but with time
all the shallow tube wells have been replaced by deep tube wells. Currently there
are 12 deep tube wells and 10 shallow tube wells (working/abandoned). There isjust one shallow working tube well and the others are deep tube wells.
3. The deepest bore dug is more than 400m and the shallowest bore is about isabout 150m.
4. Abandoning of deep tube wells is majorly due to malfunctioning of tube wellparts, like damaging of hosing pipe, inadequate screen and filter-pack selection
or installation, incomplete development, screen corrosion, collapse of filter pack.
5. On the basis of establishment year of tube wells, it was realized the number oftube well currently employed for extraction of water were built after 1999. The
average life span of tube wells is about 18 years.
3.2.2 Descriptive analysis on the basis of bore logs
The variation of lithology of soil with depth of drilled bore is defined as a bore log.
These bore logs are generated using RockWare’s log plot utility (Rockware, 2007).
Individual bore log reports (Gupta, 2014) show how the soil profile varies for aparticular bore and area around that bore. The major soil types found in IITK campus
are clay, morum, sand (fine to coarse), kankar clay, kankar and sand stone layer. Somelayers are a combination of the above types.

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Bore log reports also help in deciding the position of blind and slots to be provided in apipe for a tube well bore. Slots are provided for the aquifer layers (medium to coarse
sand, morum, gravel, sand stone layers) and blinds are provided in the non-aquifer
layers of the bore (majorly clay layers). These bore logs are an important initial
database requirement for performing soil profiling of the campus.
3.2.3 Information retrieved from both tube well and bore log data
There are certain aspects which need derived results using tube well and bore log data.
Information related to new possible locations of tube wells require both tube well datafor knowing the current locations of working tube wells and bore log data for
determining the better choice for building tube wells in future based upon soil profile inrespective bore logs.
Reasoning behind abandonment of tube wells, majorly shallow tube wells can beunderstood by integrating both the available data. The individual bore logs also gives
the aquifer layer corresponding to a bore. These aquifer layer were used to study theshift of shallow tube wells to deep tube wells. On studying individual bore log reports, it
was found that water in the aquifer layer existing from 100 m - 200 m below surface isalmost dried up. It was observed below 200 m, aquifer layer existed deep down at about
320 m and further down. From these aquifer layers water can be extracted. Thus deeptube wells were dug and all the existing shallow tube wells on the verge ofabandonment were replaced by deep tube wells.
4. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RECOMMENDATIONThis research concluded with a well-defined format to include most of the possible
fields for tube wells. Based upon this format, data collected is utilized in successful
development of web enabled WIMS for tube wells of IITK using open source tools. The
data collection format forms the basis of creating a well-structured database for tube
wells. It would solve the problem of data scarcity and will be helpful in proposing
models based upon various attributes described. This WIMS provides user with easy tounderstand GUI. The secured platform built facilitates user to upload and append thespatial features in the form of vector layers. It gives freedom to perform spatial and nonspatial query for pipelines and tube wells. This platform also provides the facility ofexporting and printing of layers and maps in various formats.
Web enabled WIMS built can be further used to develop models for cost estimation andcost comparison between different techniques. This format can be further strengthened
by including the cost drivers of tube well development. The bore log information
available can be modelled to obtain bore log profiling for the soil of the institute. This
will require interpolation of bore log data.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTWork reported in this paper is a part of the research work being carried under the
Obama-Singh Knowledge Initiative at IIT Kanpur in collaboration with Virginia Tech,

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USA. The authors are grateful for financial support from the Initiative and to Prof. Sunil
Sinha for his inputs.
REFERENCES
Betti, R., 2010. Buildings and infrastructure protection series: Ageing infrastructure.
US Department of Homeland Security.
Garg, P., Gupta, R., and Arora, M., 2000. Analysis of Intra-District Disparities using
GIS Technique. 3rd International Conference on GIS/GPS/RS. New Delhi.
GeoNode Manual. Retrieved March 5, 2014, from GeoNode: http://GeoNode.org
GeoServer 2.0 documentation. 2012. Retrieved January 11, 2014, from GeoServer:
http://GeoServer.org/display/GEOS/Welcome
Gupta, K., 2014. A web GIS for IITK water infrastructure. M Tech thesis submitted to
IIT Kanpur, India
Karlaftis, M., and Peeta, S., 2009. Infrastructure planning, design and management for
big events. Journal of Infrastructure Systems.
Kulshreshtha, N., 1998. System design and considerations in some geo information
systems. M Tech thesis submitted to IIT Kanpur, India
Mukherjee, A., 2013. Archives Retrieved from Waterscapes:
http://aditimukherji.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/how-many-wells-and-tubewells-inindia-no-one-really-knows/
Opadeyi, J., 2007. Road map towards effective mainstreaming of GISfor watershedmanagement in the Caribbean. Retrieved January 13, 2014, fromhttp://www.cep.unep.org/events-and-meetings/13th-igm-1/IWCAM-2en.pdf
PostgreSQL: Manuals. 2006. Retrieved January 15, 2014, fromhttp://www.PostgreSQL.org/docs/manuals/
Quantum GIS user guide. Release 1.8.
http://docs.qgis.org/1.8/pdf/QGIS-1.8-UserGuide-en.pdf
Rockware, 2007. Logplot user manual. colorado.
https://www.rockware.com/assets/products/176/downloads/documentation/7/logplot7_
manual.pdf
Singh, N., 2011. India’s water management challenge. Retrieved March 15, 2014, fromhttp://www.eastasiaforum.org/2011/02/08/indias-water-management-challenge

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Shear failure behavior of high strength concretebeams with different shrinkage and strength
development histories

1

Koji MATSUMOTO1, Keisuke OSAKABE2 and Junichiro NIWA3
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology,Japanmatsumoto.k.ar@m.titech.ac.jp
2
Kajima Corporation, Japan
3
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan

ABSTRACT

Utilization of high strength concrete has many advantages such as it can achieve highseismic performance because of the lightweight superstructures by reducing the size ofthe cross section as well as long span bridges and high rise buildings. In the meanwhile,
one of the problems of high strength concrete is its large autogeneous shrinkage. This
study focuses on the history of autogeneous shrinkage and strength development which
affect the initial stress of high strength concrete beams. The objective is to investigate
the effect of the combination of each history on the initial stress and shear failure
characteristics of high strength concrete beams. Loading tests of high strength concretebeams, whose strength development history was varied, were conducted. As a result, theinitial stress and shear cracking load can be evaluated by the strain of tensile
reinforcements just before the loading test even though the autogeneous shrinkage andstrength development histories are different. In addition, the structural analysis byusing Rigid Body-Spring Model (RBSM) considering each history was carried out. The
result of the analysis indicates that the initial stress induced by autogeneous shrinkage
and the shear failure characteristics are affected by the combination of history of
autogeneous shrinkage and strength development.
Keywords: high strength concrete, autogeneous shrinkage, strength development
history, shear failure, RBSM
1. INTRODUCTION
High strength concrete (HSC) enables to reduce cross sectional area and increase span
length of concrete bridges. On the other hand, HSC has large autogenous shrinkage inan early age. When HSC is applied to reinforced concrete (RC) structures, thedeformation of concrete is restrained by inner reinforcements and measurable shrinkage
stress occurs in concrete.
Kawakane & Sato (2009) have experimentally investigated the decrease in diagonal
cracking strength of HSC beams without stirrups and proposed the equation forprediction of diagonal cracking strength based on the concept of the equivalent tensile
reinforcement ratio which considers the effect of shrinkage. However, they do not

185

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmarconsider the effect of history of shrinkage and strength development. The objective of
this study is to investigate the effect of the combination of each history on self-induced
stress and shear failure behavior of HSC beams. Loading tests of HSC beams withdifferent strength development histories were carried out. Moreover, the discrete
analysis was also carried out by using the rigid body-spring model (RBSM) considering
shrinkage and strength development histories.
2. LOADING TEST OF HSC BEAMS
2.1 Experimental program
To investigate the effect of the combination of the histories on self-induced stress andshear failure behavior of HSC beams, it is desirable that the values of them at theloading test are same. According to the results of the pilot test, mix proportions ofconcrete were determined as shown in Table 1. Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) wasused for OPC specimen, while high-early strength Portland cement (HPC) andexpanding material (EX) were used for HEX specimen. To design all specimens to be
failed in shear failure, high strength steel bars were used for the tensile reinforcements.
The outline of the specimens is shown in Figure 1. Casting and curing of concrete werecarried out in the environmental chamber with a constant temperature and relative
humidity of 20 degree Celsius and 60%, respectively. Sealed curing was continued justafter the casting of concrete until the loading test.
Before the loading test, autogenous shrinkage of concrete and strains of tensile
reinforcements were measured just after the casting of concrete until the loading test.
Furthermore, compressive strength and elastic modulus of concrete were measured at
the age of 0.5, 0.67, 0.83, 1, 5, 7, 14, 21 and 28 days to obtain the strength development
history from the early age. Free strain and temperature of concrete were measured by
the embedded gauge placed at the center of the prism specimen with 10x10x40 cm. The
shrinkage strain of concrete was determined by subtracting thermal strain, which was
Table 1: Mix proportions of concrete

Unit weight (kg/m3)
s/aType ofGmax W/B
Name(mm) (%)(%)
cement
W
C
SF
S
G
EX
SP
OPC
OPC
20
23
45
155
607
67
701
866
0
9.4
HEX
HPC
20
23
45
155
597
67
701
866
10
10.8
B: binder (=C+SF+EX), s/a: sand percentage, SF: silica fume, EX: expanding material, SP: superplasticizer
Compressive strength (N/mm2)

120

Steel gauge

CL100
D22, yield strength=1197 N/mm2
200
250 80
60
40

150

4@150

4@150

150

1500

Figure 1: Outline of the specimen

186

150
(Unit: mm)

OPC
HEX

20
0
0.1

1

10

Age (days)

100

Figure 2: Compressive
strength history

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Elastic modulus (kN/mm2)

50

Shrinkage strain (x10-6)

100

40

0

30

-100

50

OPC
HEX

10

-50

1

10

Age (days)

-100

-300

OPC
HEX

-150

-400
100

-500
0.1

Figure 3: Elastic modulus
history

OPC
HEX

0

-200

20
0
0.1

Steel strain (x10-6)1

10Age (days)

100

-200
0.1

Figure 4: Shrinkage
strain history

1

10

100

Age (days)

Figure 5: Steel strain
history

calculated by multiplying the coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete(=10x10-6/°C) to the temperature of concrete, from the measured strain.
At the loading test, mid-span and support displacements were measured by using
displacement transducers and the strains in tensile reinforcements were measured bystrain gauges. Three-point bending tests were conducted. Teflon sheets were inserted
between the specimen and the supports to prevent the horizontal friction.
2.2 Strength development and shrinkage histories
Figures 2 and 3 show compressive strength development history and elastic modulus
development history, respectively. In HEX specimen, compressive strength and elastic
modulus developed earlier than OPC specimens. The difference was large in the early
age and decreased with the age. As for the elastic modulus, more than 50% value at theloading test already developed at 1 day regardless of the type of concrete.
Figure 4 shows shrinkage strain history. Shrinkage strain is defined as negative value,
while expansion strain is defined as positive value. In all cases, the large part ofshrinkage already developed before 1 day and then gradually developed. Comparing
HEX to OPC, the large shrinkage caused by high-early strength Portland cement was
reduced by expanding material.
Steel strain history measured by strain gauges at the mid-span is shown in Figure 5.
Compressive strain is defined as negative value, while tensile strain is defined as
positive value. Nearly uniform strain distribution along the longitudinal direction oftensile reinforcements was observed in all specimens. From the comparison between
OPC and HEX, the histories of them were almost same, thereby the effect of thedifference of strength development history due to the cement type on steel strain wasslight.
2.3 Results of the loading test
Mechanical properties of concrete at the loading test, results of the shrinkage test andthe loading test are shown in Table 2. Load-displacement relationships are shown in
Figure 6. At the diagonal cracking, the load clearly dropped in all cases.
To calculate the diagonal cracking load (Pc=2Vc), Eq. (1) proposed by Kawakane &Sato (2009) was used. The equation is based on the concept of the equivalent tensile
reinforcement ratio and takes into account the effect of shrinkage.
Vc = 0.11 Ec2/5 ft1/5 (100pw,e)1/3 d–2/5 (0.75+1.4/(a/d)) bd

(1)

Shear
failure behaviorof high concrete
strength concrete
beamswith different
and strength
Shear failure
behaviorof high strength
beams withdifferent
shrinkageshrinkage
and strength
development
histories
development histories

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Table 2: Mechanical properties of concrete and results of the experiment

Test ageEcName(day) (kN/mm2)

fc’ft(N/mm2)

Hsh

Hs

Pc

Pc_cal(kN)

Pc /Pc_calPmax(kN)

Failuremode
Diagonal
OPC
28
39.9
97.8 4.5 -407 -180 121.7 112.0
1.09
121.7
tension
Shear
HEX
23
41.4
109.5 4.5 -390 -171 124.8 114.3
1.04
160.2
compression
Ec: elastic modulus, fc’: compressive strength, ft: tensile strength, Hsh: autogenous shrinkage (+:expansion, –: shrinkage), Hs: steel strain (+: tension, –: compression), Pc: diagonal cracking load, Pc_cal:
calculated value of Pc, Pmax: the maximum load(x10-6)

Load (kN)180

Beam element for
reinforcements

150
120

Spring oflink element

90
60
30
0

OPC
HEX

0

1

2

3

4

Age (days)

5

6

Figure 6: Load-disp. relationship

Concrete element

Spring of concrete

Figure 7: Outline of RBSM

where, Ec is the elastic modulus (N/mm2), ft is the tensile strength (N/mm2), pw,e is theequivalent tensile reinforcement ratio, d is the effective depth (mm), a is the shear span(mm) and b is the web width (mm).
There was slight difference in experimental results of the diagonal cracking load asshown in Table 2. Comparing between OPC and HEX, the diagonal cracking loads ofthem were also almost same in spite of different strength development history.
The range of the ratio of experimental result and calculated result was from 1.04 to 1.10.
Therefore, even if HSC beams have different amount of autogenous shrinkage anddifferent strength development history, diagonal cracking load is able to be evaluated byusing the steel strain caused by shrinkage within the range of this study.
3. NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
3.1 Methodology
Rigid Body-Spring Model (RBSM) (Saito & Hikosaka, 1999), which is one of thediscrete analysis methods, was used. In RBSM, since cracks initiate and propagate
along boundaries between elements, mesh arrangement affects the crack pattern.
To avoid such a problem, a random geometry was introduced using the Voronoi
diagram. Concrete is modeled as the assemblage of rigid particles. Each element has
two transitional and one rotational degree of freedom at the gravity point. The interface
between two elements consists of normal and shear springs at the midpoint of the facewith the stiffness kn and ks, respectively. As for reinforcements, discrete reinforcement
model was used. Reinforcements are represented by a series of regular beam elements.
The beam nodes are attached to the concrete elements through zero-length link elements.

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0.95fc’
0.5fc’
0.2fc’

V

V

W
0.5Ec
Ec

ft

I

Hcu 2Hcu(Hcu=0.003)

H

fc’

0.5fc’fycft

Figure 9: MohrCoulomb type criterion

Bond stress

Wmax

s3

H

–fy

Figure 8: Tension andcompression model of concrete

s1 s2

Es

V

Slip

Figure 11: Bond stress-slip relationship

Figure 10: Reinforcement
model

Reinforcement(Unit: mm)

200

600

600

200

200

250

Figure 12: Analytical model

The link element consists of tangential and normal spring. Bond behavior between
concrete and reinforcement is modeled using tangential spring. The outline of RBSM
used in this study is illustrated in Figure 7.
3.2 Material models
Poly-linear model was used for compressive behavior and 1/4 model considering
tension softening was used for tensile behavior as shown in Figure 8. The fractureenergy of concrete was obtained so that the flexural strength of bending analysis ofplain concrete corresponds to the experimental result of high strength concrete.
The shear strength was assumed to follow the Mohr-Coulomb type criterion as shown in
Figure 9. After the shear stress reaches the yield strength, the stress moves on the yieldsurface until the shear strain reaches the ultimate shear strain (Ju=4000x10-6). For
cracked interfaces, a softening branch was introduced after the shear stress reaches theyield strength. Moreover, the shear transferring capacity at the cracked interfacechanges according to crack opening. In order to take into account this effect, the shear
stiffness is reduced by reduction factor (E) which is a function of normal strain.
The stress-strain relationship of reinforcements was idealized as a bilinear model asshown in Figure 10. The unloading and reloading paths follow the initial stiffness.
The bond stress-slip relationship for conventional reinforcements was modeled asshown in Figure 11 following CEB-FIP model code (1990). For the parameters in
Figure 11, the values for confined concrete with good bond condition are used. The
normal spring is treated as an elastic spring having elastic modulus of concrete.
3.3 Analytical model
Figure 12 shows analytical model used in this study. The average size of concreteelement is 20 mm, taking into account the maximum size of coarse aggregate. To avoid
the effect of mesh arrangement, the same mesh is used for all analytical cases.
Three analytical series were carried out. Series 1 is the analysis without considering theshrinkage. In series 2, autogenous shrinkage is introduced under the constant material
Shearfailure behaviorof high concrete
strength concrete
beamswith different
and strength
Shear failure
behaviorof high strength
beams withdifferent
shrinkageshrinkage
and strength
development
histories
development histories

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November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar
November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar
Stage 1Introducing histories(load control)

Input data

Stage 2
Loading(displacement control)

No loadBoundary condition

Enforced displacement[K] is created using Ec(ti)Solve {f}=[K]{u} equation

Hsh(ti) is given as initial

Calculate strain H from disp. u

STARTstrain( )( )( )'H(ti)=H(ti)–H(ti-1)
V(ti)=V(ti-1)+Ec(ti)×'H(ti)Calculate using constantmaterial properties

Calculate stress V from strain H

Hsh(ti) is subtracted'H(ti)=H(ti)–Hsh(ti)Calculate force f from stress V

Table 3: Analytical cases

Calculate unbalanced force[K]: stiffness matrix
ti: the age at i stepEc(ti): elastic modulus at ti
Hsh(ti): shrinkage strain at ti
H(ti): strain at ti
V(ti): stress at ti

Convergence criterion
OK
No

Final step
OK
END

No

No

Case
No. 1
No. 2
No. 3
No. 4
No. 5
No. 6

Series123123

ObjectOPC
HEX

Figure 13: Flowchart of the analysis in series 3
properties (the effect of histories are not considered). Series 3 is the analysis
considering shrinkage and strength development histories. Figure 13 shows a flowchartof the analysis in series 3. The developments of shrinkage and each material property
such as compressive strength, tensile strength and elastic modulus are given in eachtime step (ti) in the analysis. The analytical cases are shown in Table 3.
3.4 Introduction of the histories
The experimental results of each history shown in Figures 2 to 4 are used as input data.
Since there is no data before 0.5 day, assuming the age when the strength begins todevelop is the age when autogenous shrinkage begins to develop, the data before 0.5
day is linearly interpolated as well. The autogenous shrinkage strain is given to only
normal spring of all concrete elements as initial strain.
3.5 Analytical results
3.5.1 Self-induced stress
As an example of the analytical results, the self-induced stress distribution of concretein the case No. 6 is shown in Figure 14. It is found that the tensile stress occurred in thelower part of the beam because the reinforcement is provided. Consequently, thecompressive strain occurs in the reinforcement in the analysis considering shrinkage aswell as the results of the experiments. The experimental and analytical results of steel
strain are shown in Figure 15. Both values are the strains measured and calculated at the
mid-span, respectively.

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Exp. No. 1 No. 2 No. 30
Tensile stress (N/mm2) 0(deformation x 50)

3

0

-100
-200

-171

-300

-320

-400

-255

Steel strain (x10-6)

Figure 14: Self-induced stress distribution (No. 6)
Load (kN)

Load (kN)

No. 1
No. 2
No. 3

180
150

150
120

90

90

60

60

30

30
0

1

2

3

No. 4
No. 5
No. 6

180

120

0

Figure 15: Steel strain causedby shrinkage

4

Displacement (mm)5Figure 16: Load-displacement
relationship (OPC)

6

0

0

1

2

3

4

Displacement (mm)56Figure 17: Load-displacement
relationship (HEX)The steel strains in the series 1 are naturally zero due to no consideration of shrinkage.
The results of series 2 significantly overestimate those of experiments. This is because
shrinkage is introduced under the constant material properties in series 2. On the other
hand, the results of series 3 are closer to those of experiments since series 3 considers
the shrinkage and strength development histories. The phenomenon that the shrinkage
occurs in concrete during the material strength development can be more appropriately
simulated in the series 3 by introducing the histories.
3.5.2 Load-displacement relationship
Load-displacement relationships of OPC and HEX are shown in Figures 16 and 17,
respectively. Since series 2 and series 3 consider the shrinkage, flexural cracking loaddecreased compared to series 1. In OPC and HEX, the member stiffness of series 3 (No.
3 and No. 6) near the flexural cracking is quite close to the experimental results.
The diagonal cracking loads obtained by the experiments and analyses are compared in
Figure 18. The range of the ratio of the analytical result to the experimental result inseries 1 is from 1.10 to 1.12, thereby series 1 overestimates the analytical result. In
series 2 and series 3, the diagonal cracking load decreased due to the effect of shrinkage.
In series 2 having excessive shrinkage effect, the range is from 0.80 to 0.90, thereby
series 2 underestimates the analytical result. However, the range in series 3 is from 0.93
to 0.98. The reduction of diagonal cracking road due to shrinkage can be simulated byintroducing the histories to the analysis.
3.5.3 The effect of shrinkage on shear failure behavior
The stress distributions with deformation of No. 4 and No. 6 at the same load (100 kN)
are shown in Figure 19. Compared to series 1, the deformation of series 3 was larger
Shear failure
behaviorof high strength
beams withdifferent
shrinkageshrinkage
and strength
Shearfailure behaviorof high concrete
strength concrete
beamswith different
and strength
development
histories
development histories

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November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar
Analytical result (kN)
150
OPC
140

Tensile stress (N/mm2) 0
Compressive stress (N/mm2) 0(Deformation x 50)

3
30

130
Series 1
Series 2
Series 3

120
110
100

(a) No. 4 (Series 1)

HEX

90
90 100 110 120 130 140 150
Experimental result (kN)(b) No. 6 (Series 3)

Figure 18: Diagonal cracking load

Figure 19: Stress distribution at 100 kN of load

due to the effect of shrinkage in spite of the same load. In addition, a greater number of
flexural cracks with wider opening occurred and they propagated deeply towards theupper part of the beam. This result corresponds to the indication of the previous
research (Kawakane & Sato, 2009). Thus, the effect of shrinkage on the shear failure
mechanism can be simulated by the analysis considering the histories.
4. CONCLUSIONS
1) Even though high strength concrete have different strength development history, thediagonal cracking load can be evaluated using the steel strain caused by shrinkage.

2) The RBSM analysis result revealed that histories of autogenous shrinkage andstrength development are necessary to be considered to simulate self-induced stresses.

3) The effect of shrinkage on shear failure mechanism of high strength concrete beams,

such as the increase in the number and width of flexural crack and deeper crack
propagation, can be analytically verified by the method developed in this study.

REFERENCES
Comite Euro-International du Beton, 1990. CEB-FIP Model Code 1990 First Draft.
Ito, H., Maruyama, I., Tanimura, M., and Sato, R., 2004. Early age deformation andresultant induced stress in expansive high strength concrete. Journal of Advanced
Concrete Technology, 2(2), 155-174.
Kawakane, H., and Sato, R., 2009. Evaluation of shrinkage effect on diagonal cracking
strength of reinforced HSC beams, Journal of Materials, Concrete Structures andPavements, JSCE, 65(2), 178-197. (in Japanese)
Saito, S., and Hikosaka, H., 1999. Numerical analyses of reinforced concrete structuresusing spring network models. Journal of Materials, Concrete Structures and Pavements,
JSCE, 627, V-44, 289-303.

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New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Tetsuya KOHNO1, T. NANAZAWA2, S. NAKATANI3
Researcher Public Works Research Institute (PWRI), Center for Advanced Engineering
Structures Assessment and Research (CAESAR), Japan
2
Chief Researcher, PWRI, CAESAR, Japan
3
Director, PWRI, Geology and Geotechnical Engineering Research Group, Japan

1

ABSTRACT
Recently, underground structures, for example footings and columns, which havedegenerated due to Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR) have been discovered in Japan. In
order to perform appropriate diagnosis of these structures, it is necessary to acquire alarge amount of knowledge regarding underground structure degeneration caused by
ASR, such as the conditions under which ASR occurs in underground structures, and theinternal degradation conditions. For this reason, road administrators are unable toperform sufficient maintenance, and this constitutes a serious problem with respect tosafe operation of the road network. Hence, in order to obtain the relevant knowledge, along term exposure test has been performed under actual conditions, up to the present
time, and the cracks and strain in the footings and temperature and water level in the
exposure environment have been measured. In addition, we have analyzed thedifferences in the degradation of footings caused by the environment with respect to thewater, air and underground conditions, and used the measured data to examine thereasons for these differences.
Keywords: underground structure, alkali silica reaction, exposure test, strain, crack.
1. INTRODUCTION
Recently, underground structures damaged by ASR have been reported. Some havebeen seriously damaged, such as the steel being fractured. Since they are underground,these structures are not generally visible. Hence, not much is known about footings
damaged by ASR. Nothing is known about how ASR progresses in undergroundstructures, or how it results in a decrease in load carrying capacity. Therefore, we
conducted an exposure test in order to acquire relevant knowledge regarding footings
damaged by ASR. This test was conducted under actual conditions over a long period,
i.e. 6 years. We evaluated the extent of the damage occurring in the undergroundstructures by measuring strain.
2. EXPOSURE TEST DIAGRAMS
The factors affecting damage by ASR are temperature, water and amount of reinforcing
steel. Therefore, the exposure environment, scale and arrangement of the reinforcement
were determined in consideration of these factors.

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Figure 1 shows the details of the model. It is expected that structures damaged by ASR
are those constructed before 1980. Hence, the models were designed with reference tothe footings used at the time. The reinforcement used in the models was SD 295A, theratio for the tensile reinforcement was 0.20%, and that for the compressive
reinforcement was 0.05%.

unit:mmFigure 1: Drawing showing dimensions and bar arrangement of footing models (For
Cases 1 and 2. Left: plane section for footing, Right: vertical section)
Three test models were used. They consisted of a pier and footing. The sizes of thefootings were the same, the width and length being 2.0m and the height 0.7m. The
width and length of the pier were 0.6m. The height of the pier was 1.0m in Cases 1 and
2, and 2.6m in Case 3. The cement used was ordinary Portland cement. The design
strength of the concrete was 21N/mm2. The ratio of alkali reactive aggregate to nonreactive aggregate was 50:50 for the coarse aggregate, and 40:60 for the fine aggregate.
Table 1 shows the exposure test cases, and Figure-2 shows a photograph of the exposure
test conditions. The test models for Cases 1 and 2 were exposed in water, and that for
Case 3 was exposed underground. The groundwater level in Case 3 was around thefooting, and the water level in Case 1 was changed based on the groundwater level inCase 3. The water level in Case 2 did not change. The cracks and strain in the concretesurface and reinforcement were measured.
Table 1: Exposure test cases for footing models
Case
1

2
3

194

Exposure environment
In the cistern. The water level changed
between 3 levels (above the surface of thefooting, halfway up the footing and around
5 cm above the bottom of the footing)In the cistern. The water level did notchange (was always above the surface ofthe footing)In the ground

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New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

ICUS Report 78

Case 1Case 3

Case 2
Figure 2: Photograph showing exposure test conditions
3. EXPOSURE TEST RESULTS
Figure 3 shows the variation of the groundwater level over time, and the temperatureand strain in the reinforcement of the column in Case 3. Strain and temperature were
measured at the same point. The groundwater level was below the bottom of the footing.
The amount of reinforcement of the column does not vary with depth. Therefore,
environmental conditions constitute the only reason for differences in the strain at eachpoint.
The variation of temperature over time shows that the closer the point of measurement
to the ground surface, the higher was the maximum temperature, and the lower was theminimum temperature.
The trend toward increasing strain differs depending on depth. The strain measured at
GL. + 300, which is the point at which the highest temperature was measured, hadreached 2000 after around 760 days.
Conversely, the deeper the point at which the strain was measured, the later the onset ofstrain increase. For example, the strain measured at GL. -300 increased 1 year and 3
months after the exposure test began, and that at GL. -1200 increased at 1 year and 6
months. In addition, the deeper the point of measurement, the smaller was the increasein speed. Furthermore, the strain at GL. +300 did not increase in winter, during which
the temperature became lower than 10 degrees. Conversely, at GL. -1200, the increasein speed was similar regardless of season. At this point, the temperature was close toexceeding 10 degrees. From these results, it can be seen that the trend toward increasingstrain is dependent on temperature. The strain at GL-1200 decreased at 5 years and 6
months. It is thought to be due to occurring large crack on the concrete of this point.
Figure 4 shows the strain and temperature values measured in the upper steel of thefootings. The temperatures measured in Cases 1 and 2 were almost the same. In contrast,
the temperatures measured in Case 3 were different from those in Cases 1 and 2, boththe maximum and minimum temperatures in Case 3 being lower. These results are
similar to those shown in Figure 3.

Exposure test results for underground structures damaged by ASR
Exposure test results for underground structures damaged by ASR

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November
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Yangon,MyanmarNovember
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Yangon,Myanmar

GL+300GL 300GL 1200

unit(mm)(a) Measurement
points(b) Measurement results

Figure 3: Time variation of steel strain and temperature in column
The strain results for the exposure tests show that strain values increased in all cases.
However, these cases show differences in the trends that they exhibit. The strain value
in Cases 1 and 2 started increasing at around 180 days. In contrast, the strain value inCase 3 started increasing at around 560 days. In addition, the speed of increase in Case
3 was similar regardless of season, but that in Cases 1 and 2 was larger in the summer
when the temperature was high, and smaller in the winter when the temperature was low.
The strain values in Cases 1 and 2 converged 9 months after commencement of the
exposure test. In contrast, those in Case 3 had still not converged after 2 years. However,after 4 years, the strain values in Case 3 became higher than those in Case 2. From thisresult, it can be concluded that the strain resulting from exposure at low temperature
increases more slowly but reaches a higher final value than that resulting from exposure
at high temperature.

(a) Measurement points(b) Measurement results

Figure 4: Time variation of steel strain and temperature in footings
4. CONCLUSION196

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We conducted an exposure test on underground structures. This was conducted in thefield, over a long period. From this test, we acquired knowledge regarding ASR inunderground structures, the results determining the relationship between the strain in thesteel due to ASR and temperature.

Exposure Exposure
test results
forresults
undergroundstructuresstructures
damaged damaged
by ASR by ASR
test
for underground197

November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

198

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Punching shear of RC elements with recycled
glass as fine aggregates
Kiang Hwee TAN
Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
National University of Singapore, Singapore
tankh@nus.edu.sg
ABSTRACT
To address the issue of sustainability of concrete as a construction material, waste glass
particles have been considered as a possible substitute for sand as fine aggregates.
Previous works have indicated that use of glass particles did not cause any adverse
effect on the properties of concrete at the freshly mixed state and hardened state.
Durability properties were also found to be comparable or even better than concretewith natural sand as fine aggregates. Further tests revealed similar flexural and shear
characteristics of beams made with waste glass or natural sand or a combination ofboth as fine aggregates. This paper reports the punching shear characteristics ofreinforced concrete elements with waste glass as fine aggregates. Fifteen square slabs,
each measuring 700 mm in side dimension and 90 mm in thickness, were supported onfour sides with an effective span of 600 mm, and tested to failure under a concentrated
load over a square area of side 100 mm at the center. The test parameters wereconcrete strength, reinforcing steel ratio, and glass-to-fine aggregate ratio. Test results
indicated similar punching shear characteristics in terms of ultimate load, deflection
and cracking, regardless of the percentage of glass particles as fine aggregates.
Keywords: fine aggregates, punching shear, recycled glass, reinforced concrete,sustainability.
1. INTRODUCTION
Concrete is the second most used commodity after water. It is mixed using cement,water, sand (that is, fine aggregates) and gravel (that is, coarse aggregates). The
manufacture of cement results in 0.8 to 1.0 ton of CO2 being released into theatmosphere for every ton of production, while the harvesting of sand and gravel resultsin deforestation and ecological damage.
Towards the sustainability of concrete as a construction material, waste glass particles
have been considered as a possible substitute for sand as fine aggregates. Previous
works indicated that use of glass particles did not cause any adverse effect on theproperties of concrete, both at the freshly mixed state and hardened state (Tan and Du,
2013; Du and Tan, 2013, 2014). Durability properties were also found to be comparable
or even better than concrete with natural sand as fine aggregates. Additionally, tests
revealed similar flexural and shear characteristics of beams made with waste glass or
natural sand or a combination of both as fine aggregates (Tan, 2013).

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November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarThis paper reports further structural performance in terms of punching shear
characteristics of reinforced concrete elements with waste glass as fine aggregates.
Slabs were tested to failure under a concentrated load at the center, and the punching
shear strength, and deflection and cracking characteristics are discussed herein.
2. TEST PROGRAM
2.1 Test Specimens
Fifteen square slabs as shown in Table 1, were fabricated. Each slab measured 700 mm
in side dimension and 90 mm in thickness. The slabs were grouped according to thetarget concrete cylinder compressive strength fc’ ((30, 45 and 60 MPa) and reinforcing
steel ratio Ul (0.8, 1.5 and 2.0%). Each group had three specimens with glass-to-fineaggregate ratio g/fa equal to 0, 50 and 100%.
Table 1: Test specimens and parameters
Slab Designation fc’ (MPa) Ul (%) g/fa (%)
30M-01
30M-02

0
30

1.5

50

30M-03100

45L-010

45L-02

45

0.8

50

45L-03100

45M-010

45M-02

45

1.5

50

45M-03100

45H-010

45H-02

45

2.0

50

45H-03100

60M-010

60M-02
60M-03

60

1.5

50
100

2.2 Materials
2.2.1 Steel reinforcement
The steel reinforcement in each specimen consisted of 13 mm diameter bars placed at a
spacing of 200, 150 or 75 mm in orthogonal directions as shown in Figure 1. The bars
were placed at an average effective depth of 68 mm, giving an average reinforcing steel
ratio of 0.8%, 1.5% and 2.0% respectively. The bars had an elastic modulus of 193 GPa,yield strength of 480 MPa, yield strain of 0.0027, and ultimate tensile strength of 586
MPa, based on the average test results of three bar samples.

200

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Safetyof Megain AsiaICUS Report 78(a) Ul = 0.8% (gridspacing = 200 mm)(b) Ul = 1.5% (gridspacing = 100 mm)(c) Ul = 2.0% (gridspacing = 75 mm)

Figure 1: Reinforcement layout and instrumentation of strain guages
2.2.2 Concrete mixture
The concrete mixtures were designed according to ACI211.1 (1992) and the mixture
proportions are shown in Table 2. They were designated C30, C45 and C60, with target
cylinder compressive strength of 30, 45 and 60 MPa, respectively. Ordinary Portland
cement was used. For each mixture proportion, natural sand and waste glass particles inthree different combinations, that is, 100/0, 50/50 and 0/100 percent by mass, as fineaggregates. The waste glass particles consisted of brown and green glass in equal
proportions.
The waste glass particles were obtained by separately crushing green and brown glass
bottles, originally used as beer bottles, using a jaw crusher to meet the specifications of
ASTM C33 (2003) for fine aggregates with a maximum of 4.75 mm. The coarse
aggregates had a maximum size of 10 mm. All concrete mixtures were designed with
100 mm nominal slump, using a superplasticizer.
Table 2: Concrete mixture design
Content, kg/m3
CoarseFine
Mixture Water Cement
w/c fa/c
Aggregate Aggregate
(w)
(c)
(ca)
(fa)
C30
185
378
1048
741
0.49 1.96
C45
185
487
1048
649
0.38 1.33
C60
185
578
1048
572
0.32 0.99
2.3 Fabrication of test specimens
The slabs were cast in wooden molds in batches each with six accompanying cubes forthe determination of concrete cube compressive strength at the time of slab testing. The
cylinder compressive strength was taken as 0.8 times the cube compressive strength. A
super plasticizer was added to ensure workability. Compaction of concrete was carriedout using a vibrator. The slab and cube specimens were removed from the molds after
24 hours, and then placed under wet gunny sacks for ten days and subsequently left in
the laboratory under ambient conditions until the day of testing, typically 28 days after
casting.
PunchingPunching
shear of RC
elements
with recycled
as fineshear
of RC elementswith glass
recycled
glassaggregatesas fine aggregates

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2.4 Test instrumentation and test set-up
The slabs were simply-supported on four edges with an effective span of 600 mm inboth directions and subjected to a concentrated load over a square area of side 100 mm
at the center. Prior to casting of the slab, electrical resistance strain gauges were
installed on the reinforcing bars at distances d and 2d, where d is the effective depth,
from the loading face, as shown in Figure 1. Linear variable displacement transducers
were also used to monitor the deflection of the slab. The test set-up is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Test set-up
3. TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Load-deflection characteristics
The central deflections of the slabs are shown in Figure 3. The deflection initially
increased linearly with the increase in applied load. For slabs with low reinforcing steel
ratio Ul of 0.8% (Group 45L), the load-deflection curves showed a drop in slab stiffness
indicating the occurrence of cracks. For other slabs, the deflection continued to increase
almost linearly with the applied load up to failure.

202

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New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

ICUS Report 78(a) Group 30M(d) Group 45L

Ͳ01:0%GlassFA
Ͳ02:50%GlassFA
Ͳ03:100%GlassFA(b) Group 45M(c) Group 60M(e) Group 45H

Figure 3: Load-deflection characteristics of test slabs
The applied load dropped drastically upon reaching the maximum value, indicating abrittle mode of failure. Despite the different composition of fine aggregates, the loaddeflection characteristics were almost identical up to failure for each group of slabs.
3.2 Steel strains
The development of steel strains are shown in Figure 4.
Punching shear of RC elements with recycled glass as fine aggregates
Punching shear of RC elements with recycled glass as fine aggregates

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November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarFigure 4: Load-steel strain relations (left to right: g/fa = 0, 50, 100%; bottom to top:
Series 45L, 30M, 45M, 60M, 45H)
In general, the strains were higher at location d near the loading face, and lesser at
location 2d further away. Also, the transverse steel strains were higher than thelongitudinal steel strains at the same location.

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The steel reinforcement did not yield in most of the specimens. However, for slabs withlower concrete strength (Group 30M) and lower reinforcing steel ratio (Group 45L), thesteel reinforcement were near to or exceeded the yield strain of 0.0027 at failure. That is,
the higher the concrete strength or reinforcing steel ratio of the slab, the lesser was thestrain developed in the reinforcement.
The development of steel strains was similar in each group of slabs, that is, irrespectiveof the proportion of waste glass particles.
3.3 Cracking pattern
The crack patterns at the bottom face of the slab elements after they have been tested to
failure are shown in Figure 5. Cracks were observed to radiate from the loading area tothe edges of the slabs. The number of cracks was relatively less in slabs with smaller
reinforcing steel ratio (that is, Group 45L slabs). The crack widths were larger in thisgroup of slabs compared to other groups.
Also, the crack intensity appeared to be smaller in slabs with a larger portion of glass
particles as fine aggregates.
3.4 Punching shear strength
Due to different batches of casting, the slab elements had different compressive
strengths from the target values. Table 3 shows the concrete cylinder compressive
strength at the time of testing the slabs, and the average value for each group of slabs.
The observed punching shear strength Pu,test is also listed. In order to compare thepunching shear strength of slabs within each group, the observed value is adjusted bymultiplying the value by a factor (fc’ave / fc’)1/3, on the basis that the punching shear
strength is proportional to the cubic root of fc’ (EN1992 2004).
The adjusted punching shear strength Pu,adj was found to increase with higher concrete
strength and reinforcement ratio, as shown in Figure 6. Also, the strength appeared to beslightly higher for slabs with a higher proportion of glass particles as fine aggregates,
except for Group 45 slabs which had a lower concrete strength.

PunchingPunching
shear of RC
elements
with recycled
as fineshear
of RC elementswith glass
recycled
glassaggregatesas fine aggregates

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November
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Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarFigure 5: Cracking pattern of test slabs (left to right: g/fa = 0, 50, 100%; bottom to top:
Series 45L, 30M, 45M, 60M, 45H)206

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Table 3: Punching shear strength
SlabAveragefc’ (MPa)
Pu,test (kN) Pu,adj (kN)
Designation
fc’ave (MPa)30M-01
42.6
175156
30M-02
36.8
168
157
38.2
30M-0335.1
177
168
45L-01
64.7
138
122
45L-02
65.0
142
126
63.8
45L-0361.8
131
118
45M-01
53.0
196
186
44.4
45M-0235.5
165
179
45M-0344.8
193
193
45H-01
45.2
173
173
41.8
45H-0235.5
163
176
45H-03
44.8
191
191
60M-01
57.5
168
170
57.0
60M-0260.0
180
180
60M-03
53.5
214
222

Punching shear strength, Pu,adi (kN)

60M
45M
45H
30M
45L

Glass-fine aggregate ratio, g/fa

Figure 6: Effect of g/fa ratio on punching shear strength
4. CONCLUSION
The punching shear behavior of reinforced concrete slabs, with waste glass particles asfine aggregates, either partially or totally, was investigated. Test results indicated thatthe load-deflection characteristics, development of steel strains, and cracking pattern,

PunchingPunching
shear of RC
elements
with recycled
as fineshear
of RC elementswith glass
recycled
glassaggregatesas fine aggregates

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November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmarwere not affected with the use of waste glass particles. The punching shear strength ofslab elements with waste glass particles was comparable if not higher than those without
glass particles as fine aggregates. The results further attested to the viability of using
waste glass particles in structural applications.
REFERENCESACI Committee 211, 1992. Standard practice for selecting proportions for normal,
heavyweight, and mass concrete (ACI 211.1-91). American Concrete Institution,
Farmington Hills, MI, 38 pp.
ASTM C33, 2003. Standard specification for concrete aggregates. ASTM International,West Conshohocken, PA, 11 pp.
Du, H. and Tan, K. H., 2013. Use of waste glass as sand in mortar: Part II – Alkali-silica
reaction and mitigation methods. Cement and Concrete Composites 35, 118–126.
Du, H. and Tan, K. H., 2014. Concrete with recycled glass as fine aggregates. ACIMaterials Journal 111, 47-57.
Du, H. and Tan, K. H., 2014. Effect of particle size on alkali-silica reaction in recycled
glass mortars. Construction & Building Materials 66, 275-285.
Du, H. and Tan, K.H., 2014. Durability performance of concrete with glass powder as
supplementary cementitious material. 13th International Conference on Durability of
Building Materials and Components (XIII DBMC), Sao Paulo, Brazil, September 2-5,
938-945.
EN 1992-1-1: 2004. Design of concrete structures – Part 1-1: General rules and rules
for buildings. CEN, Brussels.
Tan, K. H., 2013. Recycled glass concrete beams under bending and shear. 12th
International Symposium on New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega-Cities in Asia
(USMCA 2013), Hanoi, Vietnam, October 9-11, ICUS Report 73, 219-227.
Tan, K. H. and Du, H., 2013. Use of waste glass as Sand in Mortar: Part I – Fresh,
Mechanical and Durability Properties. Cement and Concrete Composites 35, 109–117.

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1

Hiroaki HASHIGUCHI1 and Shinsuke SHIRAKO2
Deputy Manager, Renovation & Construction Department, Tokyo Metro Co. Ltd., Japanh.hashiguchi@tokyometro.jp
2
Manager of Vertical Access Facilities Upgrade Design, Renovation & Construction
Department, Tokyo Metro Co. Ltd., Japan

ABSTRACTThe first subway in Asia began running in December 1927 when service began on a 2.2 km
section of Tokyo Metro’s Ginza Line between Asakusa and Ueno. When the Fukutoshin Line
opened in June, 2008, the Tokyo Metro network had expanded to 9 lines and 179 stations, andservice covering a total of 195.1 kilometers. The network was built according to a network
plan based on Japan’s national transportation policy. Tokyo Metro created this plan to meetsocial needs, such as the need for convenient transportation in areas without service in theTokyo Metropolitan Area. Careful consideration was given to profitability and augmentationof the area’s transportation network, including existing railways. In constructing the network,
every effort was made to develop technologies needed for the safest, most reliable and mosteconomical construction methods possible. This included trial-and-error approaches tosolving problems at actual construction sites. Since no two sites had construction conditions
that were completely alike, Tokyo Metro has accumulated a wealth of experience in decadesof subway construction. This is the foundation for Tokyo Metro’s technologies. This paper
introduces the changes that have taken place in public transportation in Tokyo, the transitionsin the Tokyo Metro’s network plan, and traces the history of subway construction.
Keywords: subway, network plan, construction
1. TRANSITIONS IN THE SUBWAY NETWORK AND CHANGES IN TOKYOMETRO'S NETWORK AND STATION PLANS
1.1 Transitions in the subway plan network (characteristics and history)(1) Emphasis on Imperial Palace southeast-bound routes and their connection to the Toden
network
Tokyo's subway lines' network has been planned with focus on southeast-bound Imperial
Palace since the 1920s. Building an underground high-speed railway in this area was stressedin planning due to the southeast area of Imperial Palace historically being a core district forbusiness and commerce, and due to high demand because of the many government offices.
Although Tokyo's subway routes have a strong element being alternative routes to Toden, butalso exists for long-standing riding customs and existing demand. The above-mentioned
emphasis on Imperial Palace southeast-bound is due to the Toden network being deployed
densely in this area.

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November
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Yangon,MyanmarNovember
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Yangon,Myanmar(2) Implementation and merits of mutual direct operation
From 1948 to around 1955, each of the private railways simultaneously sought to serve
central Tokyo to relieve traffic congestion. Although there were drives to have the subway
operated by the metropolitan government, the advisable course of action was deemed to bepromoting integrated operations under Eidan (name at that time). This was in order to avoid achaotic network plan and causing complicated fare calculation work.
The merits of mutual direct operation include 1) reduction of transfer congestion atconnecting stations, 2) passengers on directly connecting lines can be switched directly overto one's company line, and 3) passengers can travel to their final destination in the inner-citywith one transfer. Due to the network's capabilities in central Tokyo, congestion rates havebeen equalized over every route, and mutual direct operation has proved to be tremendously
effective.
(3) Changes in ideology towards relieving congestion in terminal stations
A fundamental approach of the 6th report of the Council for Urban Transport, produced in
1962, was to plan routes as to not pass through the three urban sub-centers of Ikebukuro,
Shinjuku, and Shibuya, as a key measure to relieve congestion caused by transfer passengers.
As urban sub-centers, these three terminal stations experienced significant congestion. After
this in the 10th report of the Council for Urban Transport in 1968, the trend shifted towards
focusing on passing through these three urban sub-centers, in contrast to the previous policy.
1.2 Transitions in Tokyo Metro's network and station plans
The interval at which stations are built along Tokyo Metro's routes is mostly uniform with anaverage of roughly 1.2 km between stations. This was determined based on the fundamental
planning and design ideology that people should be able to travel to a station on foot within
about 500 m (or 6 to 7 minutes). It should be noted that the emphasis was placed upon the
points below in the network plan.
(1) Is the area lacking rail service?
(2) Is there local demand along the route?
(3) Will it contribute to relieving congestion other routes?
(4) Can it lead to strengthening the network for existing routes?
(5) Are there routes where mutual direct operation is possible?
(6) Are the roads of a certain width or larger?
Described below are the network plan's features and background for each route from the
Marunouchi Line onwards.
1) Marunouchi Line
The Marunouchi Line was planned to a scale commensurate with its transport capacity. Since
it was planned before the concept of mutual direct operation, it was planned and designed as
an individual route. What is notable about the Marunouchi Line is that in addition to limiting
construction funds to the initial cost, consideration was given to the distance between stations
and area influenced by stations in order to meet increasing demand of the future. The line wasstructured in such a way that stations could be easily retrofitted at locations deemed likely toneed so in the future.

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2) Hibiya Line
Hibiya Line required the simplest and most economical planning and design since it wasparamount that it be completed time-wise by the start of the Tokyo Olympics (opening
October 10, 1964). Meanwhile, it was to be the first time to implement mutual direct
operation at both ends of the route, so it was necessary to unify standards between theincoming Tobu Isesaki Line and the Tokyu Toyoko Line.
3) Tozai LineThe Tozai Line was the first time a route was envisioned as a large-scale mass transit with
unprecedented characteristics as a subway such as the implementation of mutual direct
operation with Japan National Railways (as it was known at the time) and operation of 10-car
formations of 20 m long cars, which were the same as Japan National Railways trains. Thus,
the scale of the station facilities was planned and designed while seeking to adapt to thesecircumstances.
4) Chiyoda Line
The Chiyoda Line has the same transportation capacity as the Tozai Line; however, the scaleand configuration of the station facility was radically revised in planning and design based on
experience gained with the Tozai Line. The platform configuration was planned and designed
to take island type platform as its standard based on the perspective that, among other things,
it allowed the area of the platform to be utilized effectively. This was because opposing
separate platforms, which were commonplace up to that point, had several disadvantages suchas the way that space was utilized, and the fact that imbalances in passenger loads between
incoming and outgoing platforms could not be addressed.
5) Yurakucho LineThe Yurakucho Line can be broadly separated into three phases as the route was planned over
the transition period to the network plan methodology. For Ikebukuro to Shintomicho inPhase 1, the plans and design directly followed the ideology of Chiyoda Line. For Wakoshi to
Ikebukuro in Phase 2, there was rising awareness of issues concerning the surroundings
received from residents along the railway, and measures were considered for homes along theroute. For instance, weight was added to the construction to counteract vibrations. In the final
Phase between Shintomicho and Shin-Kiba, the comfort of passengers became the focus. For
instance, natural exhaust vents were installed in order to mitigate train wind. Construction
cost increased by incorporating measures such as those mentioned above; however, theplanning and design was a forerunner to the environmental measures and comfort
improvements that are taken for granted today.
6) Hanzomon LineThe Hanzomon Line basically followed the ideology of Chiyoda and later lines. It wasplanned and designed with an emphasis placed on measures to address housing along theroute and improving convenience – even more so than in the Yurakucho Line – coupled withadvancing design and construction methods.

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7) Namboku Line
The Namboku Line basic- ally followed theideology of Chiyoda and later lines, but toembody the image of a 21st century railsyst- em, and as a metropolitan mass transit
system, the installation of revolution- naryplatform screen doors (photo-1.1), and Oneman Operation were planned.
8) Fukutoshin Line

Photo-1.1: Platform screen doors

Fukutoshin Line is basically followed the ideology of the previous Chiyoda and Namboku
Lines, but adopted new technologies across the entire line as a culmination of all Tokyo
Metro's civil engineering and architectural
technologies.
In order to enhance safety for passengers on theplatform, for instance, automatic platform gates(photo-1.2), which were a signifi-cant improvement
upon the screen doors adopted in the Namboku
Line, were installed in conjunction with
implementing One-man Ope-ration. Consideration
was put into added security, and movable steps
Photo-1.2: Automatic platform gates(photo-1.3), were installed at loca-tions with large
gaps between the car and platform in order to prevent people from losing their foot-ing whenembarking and disem-barking.
With respect to the station design, based on factors
such as changes in the social climate and diversifying values, high vaulted ceil-ings and open
spaces were planned to promote policies that stress
comfort. Universal designs were introduced that
aspire towards making the station easy-to-use forall people, without making distinctions for persons
with disabilities, the elderly, and health individuals.

Photo-1.3: Movable step

2. TOKYO METRO'S CONSTRUCTION HISTORY
2.1 Pre-1945
Miyagi Electric Railway's (currently known as the JR Senseki Line) Sendai Station was thefirst to open in Japan in 1925 as an underground business route. It spanned a distance of justover 200 m. Two years after this in December 1927 a 2.2 km subway route spanning between
Tokyo subway Asakusa Station and Ueno Station opened to much fanfare, being hailed as"The first subway of the Orient."
The cut and cover method, typical in urban tunneling, was adopted as the standard method forconstructing these railway sections. In these early days, planning concepts were heavily

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influenced by the design and const-ruction technologyof the time. It could be said that transitions inconstruction technology have a pro-cess history ofdeveloping techno-logies through trial and error
approa-ches to avoid obstacles such as rivers andexisting structures.
Prior to 1945, pile driving was accomplished withsteam hammers; soldier piles and horizontal lagging
was used in earth retaining; squared timber was used instruts and intermediate pile; lumber was used indecking for road surface lining - steel material was onlyused in soldier pile, steel sheet pile, and girders for roadsurface lining.
2.2 Post 1945

Photo-2.1: Pile driver

In 1945, the Marunouchi Line sections between Ikebukuro and Ochanomizu opened.
Generally the construction method used was the cut and cover method, conforming to pre1945 technology. A noteworthy development at this time period was full-scale adoption ofready mixed concrete. The use of ready mix concrete became the standard from this point
forward at sites where large quantities of concrete would be used, and ways to establish areliable supply for concrete as well as improve quality began to be considered.
2.3 Post 1955
An era of high economic growth was entered after 1955. There was a preference towards
multiple routes for subways and construction demand ballooned rapidly. At this time roadtraffic volume increase significantly, and automobiles grew larger - as did the burden on roads.
In addition to this were a growing number of intersecting properties such as existing routes,
structures, and roads. Construction depths also became progressively deeper. As a result, thiswas a time of remarkable development for cut and cover methods of earth retaining, sincegroundwater conditions also became more demanding.
Up to Hibiya Line which opened all its routes in 1964, the soldier piles and horizontal lagging
method was the standard, and soldier pile remained the driven-type; however, for earth
retaining in the Tozai Line and onwards, where excavation depths became increasingly deeper,column row type continuous underground walls, which have relatively large cross sections
and superior water shielding properties, were employed. Initially an erection method using asingle axis auger to build the reinforcement cage was utilized. Steel material also began to be
used in struts, intermediate pile, and plating in the road surface lining. In addition to these,
methods to provide high rigidity earth retaining were used in the Marunouchi Line; the ICOS
method, which pioneered reinforced concrete continuous underground walls, was used in trial
construction and an under-road type caisson method was used in sections with soft subsoil.
Meanwhile, adoption of shield tunneling methods for sections with deep excavation depth
was proactively examined, and in 1957 a roof shield was used around Kokkai-gijid -mae
Station on the Marunouchi Line, which had reached an excavation depth of 22m. Then in
1964 a circular single shield was used on the inbound and outbound lanes around Kiba Stationon the Tozai Line. Kiba Station became Japan's first shield tunneled station to have a one

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November
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2.4 1965 to 1975
From this time there was increasing demand for environmental protection from noise andvibration, lowering groundwater levels, ground settlement and such, thus mechanized
construction, no-vibration and low-noise construction, improvement of rigidity and water
shielding properties, heavy load coping, and other such technological innovations were being
promoted.
In the cut and cover method, moving towards column row type continuous underground wallswith multiple axes, and core plates to steel material was promoted in conjunction withfocusing efforts on improving power, reducing vibration, and reducing noise of theconstruction machines themselves, including pile drivers, backhoes and cranes. Reinforced
concrete continuous underground walls with superior water shielding properties and highrigidity were among things developed to address excavation depths that grew at anaccelerating pace.
Regarding shield methods, just as before some shield tunneling methods were adopted for
sections with deep excavation. Coupled with this was a leveraging of the benefits of non-open
cut methods, which did not requiring road surface lining and make it possible to excavate
under residential areas. These methods were also adopted in constructing stations that had
deep installation locations as well as for sections located under rivers or in areas of highly
undulating terrain. From the Chiyoda Line onwards, Eidan Subway also gradually increased
sections in which shield tunneling methods were adopted. These methods were used inroughly 20% of all routes in the Chiyoda Line, and roughly 70% of all routes in the
Yurakucho Line and Hanzomon Line.
As for the change towards large diameter shields, in 1965 when construction began on the
Osaka Municipal Transportation Bureau's Chou Line between Tanimachi 4-Chome Stationand Morinomiya Station, the first double-track shield (with an outer diameter of 10.1 m) wasused. Eidan Subway later used a 9.8 m diameter double-track shield between Kokkai-gijid mae and Akasaka on the Chiyoda Line, whose construction began in 1969.
Shield machines were commonly open type compressed air shield tunneling styles until
around 1975. Closed type blind shield tunneling was used between Kita-Senju Station andMachiya Station on the Chiyoda Line, which began construction in 1966. However, due toreasons such as being limited in the geology it could be applied to, it was never fully adopted.
Technological innovations for closed type shields, which do not require compressed air, soil
stabilization or other methods to assist construction, advanced from 1975 onwards. It also
became possible to adopt them in multiple track class large cross sectional tunnels as well. In
closed type shields at that time, slurry pressure shield machines were commonplace. On the
Yurakucho Line which started construction in 1978, between Kotake-Mukaihara and
Hikawadai a 10 m class outer diameter double-track shield was employed as a slurry pressureshield - the world's largest. From this point forward slurry pressure shields wereacknowledged as the standard form of closed type shields.

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With regard to shield tunneled stations, Shin-Ochanomizu Station on the Chiyoda Line, whichbegan construction in 1966, differed from Kiba Station in that it was to have a genuine island
type platform installed. Thus the area between two single shield bored tunnels, was cut andexpanded for all sections using a Kanzashi-beam method to complete Japan's first binocularshaped shield tunneled station. After this, the Kanzashi-beam method was adopted for theleading and terminal edge sections of the platform in Kokkai-gijid -mae Station on the
Chiyoda Line. Nagatach Station on the Yurakucho and Hanzomon Lines, andMitsukoshimae Station on the Hanzomon Line adopted a roof shield to cut and open all
sections. All these projects were completed by 1975.
2.5 Post 1985
2.5.1 Overview of construction technology
Around this time the principle of using the cut and cover method for station sections andshield tunneling method for areas between stations had become entrenched. For cut andcovermethods that increased excavation depth further, as a general rule the highly efficient
multi-axis style column row type continuous underground walls were used in hard ground,and the highly rigid reinforced concrete continuous underground walls were used in soft
ground. In the Namboku Line, which began construction in 1986, a wide variety of elemental
technologies linked to deep underground development in Namboku Line were employed. An
inverted lining method that combined the use of reinforced concrete continuous undergroundwalls and steel continuous underground walls was used in K rakuen Station to excavate to adepth of 40 m. In addition, Roppongi-itch me Station's construction location was adjacent toan elevated two-layer structure of the Tokyo Metropolitan Expressway, as well as having
topography with a 10 m difference in elevation across the transversal direction. Therefore all
sections of the station were partitioned into 27 square blocks using a continuous undergroundwall, which also served as a buttress wall built in the transverse direction. After the blocks
were filled with slurry and the ground around them stabilized, a transverse continuous
underground wall method which excavates underwater was used to achieve stability in theconfined water and earth pressure.
In shield tunneling methods, technologies
were developed to excavate a station shieldand storage track with a single shieldtunneling machine.
For the station shield, a "Detachable triple
shield," with the capability to change from a
triple shield configuration to a double shieldconfiguration was employed. Here, a doubletrack shield tunneling machine departingfrom the Namboku Line Shirokane-dai
Photo-2.2: Detachable triple shield machine
Station ventilation room was mounted with aslave machine at the starting edge of Shirokanedai Station, to excavate the sections of the
opposing separate platforms. After transforming the tunneling machine into a triple station
shield and excavating the Shirokanedai Station sections, the slave machine was detached at
the terminal edge shaft.
For the storage track, in order to provide a return track line between the inbound andoutbound lanes on the Meguro side of Azabu-J ban Station on the Namboku Line, a threelane sized ultra large diameter shield machine was launched from the shaft connecting theHistory of the network plan and construction of Tokyo Metro
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November
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efficient construction and considerable cost savings.
In terms of shield formats, even in conventionallarge
cross-sectional
excavation
fieldsdominated by slurry shields, EPB shields havemade technological advances and built up a
construction track record. For this reason they
were used in the second phase of construction
on the Hanzomon Line in three areas at sections
where the geology had uniformly cohesive soil.
At Kiyosumi-Shirakawa Station on the sameline, triple continuous station shields were used,
continuing from the work on Namboku Line.
Although construction gradually progressed on
the storage track and station parts, this was thefirst time a concrete segment was used in ashield tunneled station.

Photo-2.3: Composite circular crosssection double-track shield machine

In construction on Fukutoshin Line - the last of new route construction for Tokyo Metro while reducing the dead space of the top and bottom sections of the circular cross-section,
which are spaces not used by the railway, a compo-site circular cross-section which takes
advantage of the structural characteristics of circular cross-sections was adopted in the tunnel
between Meiji-Jing mae Station and Shibuya Station. As a result the reduced cross-sectional
area was roughly 10% smaller than that of conventional circular cross-section double lane
tunnels, making a significant contribution to reducing environmental impact.
Tokyo Metro is hopeful that the underlying logic of its network plan and construction history
will serve as a useful reference in the future for progressing construction of subway
development.

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Safetyof Mega
Citiesin AsiaMyint Myint KHAING1, Hla Myo AUNG2, Kyaw Zaya HTUN3,
Zin Mar LWIN2 and Takeshi KOIKE4
1
Associate Professor, Mandalay Technological University, Myanmar,
drmmkhaing@gmail.com
2
Associate Professor, Mandalay Technological University, Myanmar,
3
Assistant Lecturer, Mandalay Technological University, Myanmar,
4
Academic Advisor, Japan International Cooperation Agency, Japan
ABSTRACT
Mandalay city is surrounded with potential seismic risk which might be caused from theactive fault lines of Sagain Fault. In the past disastrous events, many people were
injured or lost under vulnerable residential buildings. Even if some people can be saved
from the fallen housings, not easy access to the nearest hospitals led to loss of life. The
disaster prevention activity needs two types of works, one of which is seismic
reinforcement of buildings and infra-structures, and the other is related to human safety
management which includes the emergent scheme in which injured people must be
saved to transport to the hospitals or be led to the evacuation open spaces, intermediate
scheme where evacuated people must stay at the shelters during at least 3 days with
supplied emergency food and water, and long term scheme in which people have tospend inconvenient life up to recover the infrastructures. In the emergent scheme,
injured people can be saved by improvement of vulnerable buildings and by increasing
access to the emergency hospitals. In this study, the accessibility to the hospitals is
discussed to know which factor among the hospital allocation, accessible roads andrapid transportation time is the most effective for saving the human life.
Keywords: hospital, seismic risk, fragility curves, probability of failure, human life,
housing damages
1. INTRODUCTION
Myanmar is exposed to range of natural hazards such as floods, cyclone, earthquakes,
drought, tsunami, etc due to its geophysical location. Among them, earthquake is one ofnatural hazards which threaten human lives and loss of properties. There are many cities
lie on the active Sagaing Fault and all those cities have high potentials exposed to theearthquake hazard.
Since Mandalay city is surrounded with potential seismic risk from the active fault linesof Sagaing Fault, it is prone to earthquake. According to the historical records, the mostsignificant shock is probably 23 March, 1839 event, by which very serious damages and
300 to 400 casualties resulted, and the most recent one is the magnitude 7 event shocked

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Yangon,Myanmaron 16 July, 1956, known as the Sagaing earthquake, causing several damages and about
50 deaths (Ref: Myanmar Earthquake Committee (MEC), 2012).
Seismic risk assessment is important and urgent needs to estimate potential damage inbuildings and facilities including hospitals which are essential for human lives. It is alsoneeded to improve the ways to assess various facilities under risks.
In the past disastrous events, many people were injured or lost under vulnerable
residential buildings. Even if some people can be saved from the fallen housings, noteasy access to the nearest hospitals led to loss of life. Lessons learnt from pastearthquakes point out the needs to improve the transportation condition to hospitals to
reduce human loss due to earthquake risks.
There are totally five townships in Mandalay City which are Aung Myae Thar Zan ,Chan Aye Thar Zan, Mahar Aung Myae, Chan Mya Tharzi, Pyigyithakon Townships.
Among them, Chan Aye Thar Zan Township is chosen to carry out seismic risk
assessment since the hazard profile of Mandalay city, the high degree of vulnerability
area lies in Chan Aye Thar Zan Township which peak ground acceleration (PGA) value
is about 0.25g and is also highly populated commercial zone. There is only one general
hospital in Chan Aye Thar Zan Township, which is called Mandalay General Hospital.
In this study, that hospital is assumed to be target one to reach from each ward of thattownship. Remote sensing and GIS are integrated, well developed and successful tool in
disaster management, and these tools are used to find out the location of hospitals andthe shortest path to hospitals under seismic risks.
2. SEISMIC HAZARD MAP IN MANDALAY
One of the active fault (Sagaing Fault) runs from north to south passing through thecentral region. According to the historical accounts, many of strong earthquakes had
occurred and felt along the Sagaing Fault and Sunda-Andaman Trench which is parallelto the Myanmar Coastal. These earthquake generators had been the focal point of many
great earthquakes. The following map shows the tectonics and depths of earthquakes
throughout Myanmar.
Myanmar lies on the earthquake belt of Himalayan range. The northeastern part of the
Indian plate subcontinent is seismically active. It comprises of east-west extending
eastern Himalaya belt, which marks the collision boundary between the under thrusting
Indian plate and the Eurasia plate; approximately N-S extending Indo-Burmese Arc(IBA), which extends further southward to join the Andaman Arc and the Eastern
Himalayan Syntaxes (EHS), which lies at the junction of the above two. Subduction
zone occurs along the Andaman arc. The Indian (IN) plate motion with respect toEurasia (EU) is highly oblique to the margin on the subduction zone, the right-lateralshear motion occurring along the Sumatra fault evolves northward into the rift system of
the Andaman Sea. The Burma plate is thus delineated in the east by the Sumatra fault,
which follows the line of arc volcanoes and the rift segments of the Andaman Sea. The
right-lateral Sagaing shear fault shown in the Figure 1 is delineated in the west by theAndaman-Nicobar Trench. The seismic records show that there have been at least 15

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0 within thee territory oof Myanmar for the
paast 100 yearrs. The seism
micity in M
Myanmar is attributableato the folloowing two reeasons:
The continnued subduction (with collision on
nly in the north) of thee northward
d-moving
Indian Plaate underneaath the Burmrma Platelett (which is a part of thee Eurasian Plate) at
an averagee rate of 5.5
5 cm/yr (5.55 Found by thet author) and
The northhward moveement of tthe Burma Platelet fro
om a spreaading centre in the
Andaman Sea at an averagearatee of 2.5 – 3.0 cm/yr. Veery large ovver thrusts alongatheWestern Fold
F
Belt reesulted fromm the formeer movemen
nt, and the SSagaing andd related
faults fromm the latterr movemennt. Intermitttent jerks allong these major activ
ve faults
resulted inn the majoriity of earthqquakes in Myanmar.
M

Figuree 1: Map shoowing tectoonics
and deepths of eartthquakes

Fiigure 2: Thee seismic haazard map ofoMyanmarM
bassed on the ddeterministic data

(Sourrce: Figures taken fromm the Myanm
mar Earthquuake Commmittee)Thhe seismicc hazard map
mof Myyanmar bassed on thee determiniistic data and theprrobabilistic data can bee described aas the follow
wing diagraams.
Thhe maximum
m accelerattion is estim
mated by using the atten
nuation funcction for earrthquake,(B
Boore, et al., 1993), (M
McGuire, 20004) as

log Amax / g

0.038 0.216 M W

60.777 log R 0.15GB

0 .254GC (11)w
where Amax, MW, R, GB
G and GC aare peak ho
orizontal groound acceleeration at theegrround surfacce, momentt magnitudee, hypo-centtral distancee (km) and eempiricalcooefficients, respectively
y. These tw
wo empiricall coefficientts are given by Table 1.
Table 11: Empiricaal Coefficien
nts
Site Cllass
A
B
C

W
Velocityy
Shear Wavein Uppeer 30 m (m/s)
750
360-750
180-360

GB

GC

0
1
0

0
0
1

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Thhe transporta
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November
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Yangon,MyanmarIf the peak acceleration can be estimated as 90% non-exceeding level of random value,
this acceleration can be expressed with its statistical moments as follows:
ln Amax

E ln A

1

0.90

ln A

1

1

0.90

ln A

E ln A(2)

in which are mean value, standard deviation, coefficient of variation of the groundresponse logarithmic acceleration, ln A, and is a standard normal probability cumulative
function (Ang et al., 1975) of a random variable whose mean value is zero and its
standard deviation is unity.
Then, the expected ground acceleration is obtained as follows:

E ln A1ln Amax
1
0.90

ln A

1

ln Amax
1
0.90

ln A

,

ln A

E ln A

,

ln A

A

(3)

ln A

So

ln Ameanln Amean

(4)

ln A

3. DAMAGE PREDICTION OF BUILDINGS AND HUMAN LOSS IN THE
EXISTING CONDITION(1) Structural damage estimation
Structural damage due to seismic ground motion can be evaluated by using a fragility
curve which can be formulated as the conditional probability of structural failure for agiven seismic intensity.
When a structure is applied by a seismic intensity SI which is brought by an earthquake
EQ, the probability of structural failure can be formulated by

P D j xi EQ

P Rj

SI xi

(5)

which is equal to the probability of damage occurrence, or fragility curve of type jbuilding for a given EQ, and the parameters, SI , EQ, D j , R j , x i are defined as follows:
SI: seismic intensity to be given by ground response acceleration of A
EQ: earthquake event
D j : Damage state of type j building
R j : Strength of type j building which is measured by acceleration

xi : Location at the residential area of each ward
If all the uncertainty parameters are normal variables, equation (5) can be simply
expressed as

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P D j xi EQ

P Rj

SI xi

Rj

1

Amean

(6)

A

The strength of Rj must be evaluated based on the ultimate limit state analysis of thestructure. But in this study a rough estimation is adopted as shown in Table 2 (Roberto
Miniati et al., 2014)
Table 2: Structural strength of various buildings

Type
1
2
3
4

Building type

Yield
Yield
Maximum Typical period
strength of the building aceleration displacement
in cm
in g
(sec)
in g or cm

Unit

Wooden
g
0.3
Brick
g
0.5
RC-lowg1
RC-highcm
10(Note) g means the gravity acceleration

0.35
0.4
0.7
1.8

0.7

5

(2) Fragility curve estimation
Since the high-rise RC building is designed to expect an inelastic capacity, the ultimate
limit criterion is given by the critical displacement. Based on the energy balance
criterion (Chopra, 2012) for a structure having a perfect plastic stress-strain curve, theinelastic response displacement, d, can be converted from the acceleration as follows:
d xi

1
1
2

A xi
Ay

2

dy

(7)

So the corresponding mean and its standard deviation for the displacement are obtainedasd mean

1
1
2

Amean
Ay

1
1
2

Amean
Ay

2

dy ,

d

d

d

(8)

2

where
d

2
A

1
1
2

dy , d

Amean
Ay

2
A

dy

(9)

Then the fragility curve for high-rise RC building is given by

P D4 xi EQ

P R4

d xi

1

R4

d mean(10)dwhere the strength of R4 is a strength for high-rise building.
(3) Estimation of injured people
The expected number of injured people can be obtained as a summation of injured
people in the Ak zone as follows:

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mx

j P Djx EQ dx(11)

in which is the k-th zone, and

HLk : number of human injured at zone k for a given EQ

m x : number of residential people at the subzone “x” in the Ak zone
j : occurrence rate of injured people in the damaged type j building

In this study, the occurrence rate of injured people for 4 types of structures are simply
assumed as shown in Table 3, which are roughly estimated based on the judgment by
experts in Myanmar.
Table 3: Rate of injured people (%) under the damaged buildings

Type

Building type

Rate of injured people(%) under the damagedbuilding

12
3
4

WoodenBrick
RC-low
RC-high

10
50
30
40

(4) Life saving rate by hospital care at the duration time of T after the EQ occurred
When a number of human survived at zone k for a given EQ is expressed as HS Ak ,the number of the survived people can be predicted by the following formula.

E HS AkAk

HL a

f HL at a da(12)

in whichf HL a : Probability density function of injured resident having a parameter of aTwhich is defined in the local area Ak.
Life saving rate by hospital care at the duration time of T after the EQ
occurrence.

The duration time T is estimated by
T (a)length(a)
60
wv

(13)

where

T a : time from the zone Ak to the target hospital (min)length (a ) : length from the zone Ak to the target hospital (m)w : walking velocity (km/hour)
In general, average walking speed in the free condition can be assumed to be(Case 1) w

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Buut, immeddiately aftter an eaarthquake
will beocccurrence, traffic conditioncdiifferent froom the usu
ual conditiion. Thew
walking speeed must be decreased bby trafficjaam in such an emergency conditiion. So I
thhis study, the following three cases inwwalking speeeds are coompared aas accesscoonditions.
(C
Case 2) w(C
Case 3) w

2 km / hoour
1 km/ hoour
Figure 3:: Rate of savving life forr duration tiime

Liife saving raate given byy T refleects the effiiciency of thhe emergenncy care during the
coonveying tim
me to the hoospital. If a careful caree is applied to an injureed person, thispeerson will beb possibly saved,sso thhat the life saving rate will
w be increeased. The circlecmmodel in Figuure 3 suggeests this situuation.
F BUILDIINGS AND
4.. DAMAGE PREDICCTION OFD HUMANN LOSS IN THE
R
REVISED CONDITIOCONThhe study areea has 20 lo
ocal zones sshown in Figure 4. Each local zonne has its own
o subzoones wheree various housingsharre located. The route from the zone to th
he targetemmergency hospitalhis siimply assum
med to be givengby onee representaative route, becausethhe target cityy, which is an ancient capital, hass a grid roadd system as shown in FigureF
5.
A
As the strateggy to impro
ove the acceess-ability forf each sitee to the hosspital, the fo
ollowing
thhree options are proposed:(11) If the roaad conditionn (available width, decrreasing park
king cars) hhas been imp
provedbefore thhe earthquaake, the walkking velocitty wv mightt be increassed.

ur
The folllowing 3 casses are evalluated: w 4km / hour, 2 km / houur, 1km / hou(22) Durationn time to thee hospital is a key facto
or to save th
he life of injuured personn.
Two types of criticaal time for liife saving area assumedd, linear moddel or circularmodel, asa shown in Figure 3.
(33) Vulnerabble building
g is reinforceed, so that the
t fragility curve for reesidential buildingb
is improoved.
By usingg a new Rj, the disasterr prevention
n managemeent effect caan be evaluaated by
the com
mparison amo
ong the cas es of the presenting bu
uildings, detterioratingbuildinggs and reinfo
orced buildiings.

Figure 4 : Site map forf Locationn ID
The transportation condition improvement to hospitals in Mandalay under seismic risks
Thhe transporta
ation conditiion improvem
ment to hospiitals in Mand
dalay under sseismic riskss

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Figure 5: The routte from a zoone to the taarget emergeency hospitatal
Tabble 4: Structural strenggths of locall buildings underu
the asssumption oof various
coonditions
Building
Existingg Deterioraated Reinfoorced
Type
Unit
strengthh
strengtth
strenggth
type
Woodenn
1
g
0.3
0.21
0.455
Brick
0.755
2
g
0.5
0.35
1.55
RC-low
3
g
1
0.7
cm
155
RC-highh
4107(Note) g meansmthe grravity acceleeration

CaseC
1: Detteriorated sttrength

Case 2:
2 Existing strengthsstrength
R
Case 3: Reinforcing

Figuure 6: Numbbers of injurred residencces in each local zone

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Walking speed 4km/hourLinear

100

5.0

80

4.0

60

3.0

40

2.0

20

1.0

0

0.0

CircleDistance

Location ID(Case 1) Walking speed 4km/hour
Walking speed 2km/hourLinear

100

5.0

80

4.0

60

3.0

40

2.0

20

1.0

0

0.0

CircleDistance

Location ID(Case 2) Walking speed 2km/hour
Walking speed 1km/hourLinear

100

5.0

80

4.0

60

3.0

40

2.0

20

1.0

0

0.0

CircleDistance

Location ID(Case 3) Walking speed 1km/hour
Figure 7. Mortality rate (%) due to walking conditions to emergency hospital from each
local zone
All the local zones have a complex of wooden houses, brick houses, low RC buildings
and high RC buildings. Now let assume all the strength will be deteriorated in the samerate. In Table 5, the deteriorated strength of all the structures are assumed to be 70 % of
the existing ones. On the other hand, the reinforced strength is increased to be 150% of
the existing ones.
In the deteriorated case, the number of injured people will be 4 times of that in theexisting case. In the reinforcing case, on the other hand, the number of injured people
will be 1/8 of that in the existing case. It suggests the reinforcing measures are
extremely important for the reducing the injured people.
The transportation
conditioncondition
improvement
to hospitals
in Mandalay
under seismic
The transportation
improvement
to hospitals
in Mandalay
underrisks
seismic risks

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The mortality rate in this study can be defined as a ratio of dead persons per total
injured persons to be conveyed from the k-th zone, Ak, to the hospital. The mortality rate
curve shows the same profile with the required time by a linear model. The circularmodel can decrease the mortality rate in 50% than that of the linear model. It suggeststhat the initial emergency treatment for the injured people is more important to decrease
the mortality rate.
If the traffic is congested after the earthquake, the time to emergency hospitals will be
increased by slow walking speed. This effect can be shown in the Figure 7. The case ofslow walking speed of 1km/hour shows 100% mortality rate in many local zones. It
suggests that the access to emergency hospitals immediately after the earthquake must
be obtained for the rapid transportation of the injured people.
5. CONCLUSIONS
The accessibility to the hospitals is discussed to know which factor among the hospital
allocation, accessible roads and rapid transportation time is the most effective for saving
the human life. According to the numerical result, the following results are obtained:(1) By reinforcing the existing houses up to 150% of the present strength, the number of
injured people can be reduced to 1/8 in the case of the existing houses.
(2) The mortality rate is directly proportional to the time from the site to the emergency
hospital, which depends on the traffic conditions just after the earthquake
occurrence.
(3) The numerical result suggests that the initial emergency treatment for the injured
people is more important to decrease the mortality rate
REFERENCES
Roberto Miniati A.N., Pietro Capone, A., Dietrich Hosser, B.: Decision support system
for rapid seismic risk mitigation of hospital systems - comparison between models andcountries, International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction 9, pp.12–25, 2014.
McGuire, Robin K.: Seismic hazard and risk analysis, EERI, 2004.
Douglas, John: Ground-motion prediction equations 1964-2010, PEER Report2011/102,
PEERC, 2011.
Chopra, A. K. : Dynamics of Structures, Fourth Edition, PRENTICE HALL, 2012.
Ang, A. H.-S. and Tang, W. H.: Probability Concepts in Engineering Planning and
Design, Volume I-Basic principles, Wiley, 1975.
Boore, D. M., Joyner, W. B., & Fumal, T. E.: Estimation of response spectra and peakaccelerations from western North American earthquakes: An interim report. Open-File
Report 93-509. U.S. Geological Survey. 70 pages, 1993.
Myo Thant, Ngwe Le’ Nge, Soe Thura Tun, Maung Thein, Win Swe, Than Myint,
Myanmar Earthquake Committee, Seismic Hazard Assessment for Mandalay, Mandalay
Region, March, 2012.
8.
Luis E.Yamin, Alvaro I.Hurtado,Alex H.Barbat, Omar D.Cardona, Seismic andWind Vulnerability Assessment, 5th May, 2014.

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Survey on the reach of flood evacuation
information - A case study of Nagoya City, Japan1

Miho OHARA1 and Hisaya SAWANO2
Senior Researcher, International Centre for Water Hazard and Risk Management(ICHARM) under the Auspices of UNESCO,
Public Works Research Institute (PWRI), Japanmi-ohara@pwri.go.jp
2
Chief Researcher, International Centre for Water Hazard and Risk Management(ICHARM) under the Auspices of UNESCO,
Public Works Research Institute (PWRI), Japan

ABSTRACTIn Japan, flood early warnings and evacuation information are disseminated by various
kinds of media such as television, radio, loudspeakers, emergency mail service tocellular phones, and the Internet. This paper proposes an index called the disaster
information reach ratio (DIRR) for evaluating how widely each medium candisseminate warnings and information to the public. On 4 September 2013, Nagoya Cityin Aichi Prefecture, Japan, announced “evacuation preparation information” to theentire city area at 5:10 p.m. during torrential rainfall. This paper focuses on this eventand calculates the DIRR using data from a questionnaire survey of people present in
Nagoya City at that time. For all media, DIRR was limited to about 50% after theannouncement. Among various media, emergency mail service to cellular phones had
the highest DIRR. Emergency mail service was found to be an effective tool for disaster
information dissemination in Japan. To evaluate how DIRR would be affected undervarious scenarios of future social change, a model for forecasting DIRR was developedby logistic regression analysis. Sensitivity analysis results imply that increasing the
public’s knowledge and experience of receiving information and upgrading own
cellular phones would increase DIRR in the future.
Keywords: flood warning, evacuation information, preparedness
1. INTRODUCTION
In Japan, disaster early warnings and evacuation information are disseminated byvarious kinds of media such as television, radio, loudspeakers, emergency mail service
to cellular phones, and the Internet. To transmit disaster warnings and information to all
the people in an at-risk area, it is necessary to use media effectively by understanding
the characteristics of information dissemination by each medium. This paper proposes
an index called the disaster information reach ratio (DIRR) for evaluating how widely
each medium disseminates warnings and information to the public. The term reach ratio
is usually used in the context of advertising in order to indicate the ratio of the people ina target audience who receive an advertising message one or more times. In reference tothis, DIRR is defined here as a ratio of the people in an at-risk area who successfully
obtain disaster early warnings or evacuation information issued during an emergency.

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November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarOn 4 September 2013, Nagoya City in Aichi Prefecture, Japan, was struck by torrential
rainfall due to the effects of Typhoon No.17 and extratropical cyclone. The Nagoya
Local Meteorological Observatory announced “record short-time heavy rain” after
observing an hourly rainfall of 110 mm from 4:00 to 5:00 p.m. in Nagoya City. Figure 1
shows the radar precipitation maps observed at the Nagoya Local MeteorologicalObservatory (2013). The Emergency Operation Center in Nagoya City was establishedand issued “evacuation preparation information” to the entire city area at 5:10 p.m.
Local governments in Japan can issue three kinds of evacuation information: evacuation
preparation information, evacuation advisories, and evacuation orders. Evacuation
preparation information is the information provided at the initial stage.
This paper focuses on this event and calculates DIRR using data collected by aquestionnaire survey of people present in Nagoya City at the time of the announcement.
Moreover, this study aims to evaluate how DIRR would be affected by future socialchange. This is done by using logistic regression analysis to develop a model forforecasting DIRR.

Figure 1: Radar precipitation maps
2. OVERVIEW OF QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY
To calculate DIRR for information sent out during the torrential rain in Nagoya City, an
online questionnaire survey was conducted during 13–20 December 2013. The
questionnaire targets were the people aged 20-69 years who were present in Nagoya
City at 5:10 p.m. when the evacuation preparation information was announced to theentire city. In an initial screening, candidates for the main survey were identified bytheir reported location at the time of the announcement. They were classified into threegroups: group A, who were inside buildings such as houses, office buildings, shopping
centers, and restaurants; group B, who were driving a motor vehicle; Group C, whowere outdoors. As a result, 815 respondents were included in the main survey (425 ingroup A, 370 in group B, and 20 in group C). This paper focuses on the behavior of the
respondents in group A. An analysis of group B has been reported by Ohara (2013).

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3. QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY RESULTS
3.1 Demographic characteristics of the respondents
Among the 425 respondents in group A who were indoors at the time of theannouncement, 107 were at home; 234 were at their office or school; 50 were insidebuildings other than their home, office, or school; and 34 were inside commercial
facilities such as shops or restaurants (excluding underground shopping centers). The
ages of the respondents were as follows: 20–29 years, 8.24%; 30–39 years, 24.7%; 40–
49 years, 39.8%; 50–59 years, 21.9%; and 60–69 years, 5.41%. By a chi-squared test,
no significant difference was found between the age groups and location at the time of
the announcement (χ2=15.0, p=0.243).
3.2 DIRR among the respondents
Figure 1 shows the DIRR values calculated for groups A and B. For group A, DIRR isshown by location at the time of the announcement. The figure shows both the DIRR
just after the announcement and the final DIRR. The final DIRR indicates the
proportion of people who received the information at any time after it was announced(not just immediately afterward); it is less than 100% because some respondents learned
about the announcement from the questionnaire and were therefore not counted ashaving received the information.
DIRR just after the announcement was limited to about 50%. The DIRR for group B (ina vehicle) was 37%, which was lower than the DIRR for group A. This suggests thatreceiving disaster information is more difficult for drivers. In group A, no significant
difference was found in DIRR between the four types of locations (χ2=7.43, p=0.283).
For respondents not in a vehicle, DIRR was almost the same regardless of where therespondents were located at the time of the announcement.
Group A (indoors; N=425)

51.8Group A-1(at home; N=107)

51.4

Group A-2(offices or schools; N=234)

50.0

91.3
86.9
91.5
62.0

Group A-3(other buildings; N=50)

98.0

50.0

Group A-4(commercial facilities; N=34)

94.1

37.0

Group B (in vehicle; N=370)
020

DIRR just after announcement

40

84.9
60

80

Final DIRR

100
(%)

Figure 2: DIRR by location at the time of the announcement
Among respondents in group A who received the evacuation preparation information
just after the announcement, 36.8% answered "All of Nagoya City is too wide an areafor evacuation preparation information”, 33.2% answered "I don’t know what to do for
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November
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an evacuation".
3.3 DIRR by medium
Nagoya City has various media for disaster information dissemination such as
loudspeakers for broadcasting disaster information, emergency mail service to cellular
phones from service providers, emergency mail to cellular phones and e-mails from thecity government, and the city’s website. Service providers (NTT DoCoMo, KDDI au,
Softbank) can send a short emergency mail to all cellular phones inside a city under thecontract between the City and them, without registration of mail address by cellular
phone users. Some of older cellular phone models cannot receive such mail; however,after the experience of the Great East Japan Earthquake on 11 March 2011, this service
became much more popular and was incorporated into new phones.
The City also provide another emergency mail service to cellular phones and e-mails,
called “Kizuna Net Disaster Prevention Information”, which can send a short mail tousers who registered their mail addresses in advance. The mail sent by this service isreceived regardless of whether the recipient is inside or outside the city. Also, disaster
information is conveyed by the mass media such as television, radio, and Internet newssites.
Figure 2 shows DIRR just after the announcement by medium. Emergency mail service
to cellular phones from service providers had the highest DIRR both as the first sourceof the information and as a subsequent source. This suggests that emergency mailservice to cellular phones is becoming an effective tool for disseminating disaster
information in Japan.
0Emergency mail to cellular phones
News flash on TV
News flash on One Seg TV
Radio
Emergency mail from city to registered address
Internet
Public announcement in buildings
Application on cellular phones
Cellular phones of neighbors
Mail from family, etc.
From neighbors
Loudspeakers
Telephone call from family, etc.
TwitterSocial networks (excluding Twitter)
Others

10

20

30
22.6

8.9
5.6
3.1
2.4
3.5
2.4
1.9
3.3
1.6 4.9

40

(%)

31.1

23.1
12.5

8.0
10.4

1.43.1
0.52.4

0.5 4.2

0.2
1.4
0.2
0.9

0.22.1
0.0
0.5
0.0
0.5

First information source
Subsequent information source

Figure 3: DIRR by medium

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The media with the next highest DIRR values were, in order, news flash on television,news flash on One Seg TV (which can be watched on cellular phones), radio,
emergency mail service from the city government (“Kizuna Net Disaster Prevention
Information” which requires registration in advance), and the Internet. Recently, almost
all local governments in Japan have a radio communication system for disasterprevention and install loudspeakers at sites within the city. In the case of the massive
tsunami triggered by the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake, loudspeakers were the mosteffective medium for conveying evacuation information. In the present case of thetorrential rain in Nagoya City, however, loudspeakers were less effective because of theheavy rain and the environment inside buildings.
4. MODELING FOR ESTIMATING DIRR
4.1 Logistic regression analysis
The DIRR in the questionnaire survey was limited to about 50%, which means that
improving the dissemination of disaster information remains an essential task. In thissection, a model for forecasting DIRR was developed by logistic regression analysis inorder to evaluate how DIRR would be affected by future social change.
DIRR might be affected by the various attributes of the respondents, such as theirfamily situation, their information literacy, their psychological status, their location andthe availability of media for receiving information. Here, the attributes that have an
influence on DIRR were first identified by a chi-squared test. The relationships between
about 50 respondent attributes and whether they received the information just after theannouncement were examined by a chi-squared test. The level of significance was set at
5%. Significant relationships were found for the following attributes: age group, priorexperience receiving evacuation information, knowledge of emergency mail service,prior experience receiving mails from emergency mail service, understanding
evacuation preparation information, start of using current cellular phone (before March2011 or after April 2011), having a smartphone, frequency of using mail on cellular
phones, registration with Nagoya City’s emergency mail service, anxiety about floods,
living with family members aged greater than 75 years, having family members aged
less than 12 years, and living with a family member who has a disability. Significant
relationships were not observed for sex, type of building, number of floors in building,presence of basement in home, anxiety about safety of family members or houses
during the heavy rain, cellular phone service provider, recognition of flood hazard map
published by Nagoya City, and occupation.
Next, a model for forecasting DIRR was developed by logistic regression analysis. The
explained variable was whether people received information just after the disaster. The
categories of information that showed significant differences in the above analysis were
tested as potential explanatory variables in “Excel Statistics 2012”. Those variables
found to have explanatory power were selected; these are shown in Table 1. The ratio ofcorrect prediction with this model was 76.6%, tested by forecasting the target variable
by using the model with the explanatory variables in Table 1 and comparing the resultwith the observed value. Taking this ratio and the values of Akaike’s information
criterion (AIC) and Nagelkerke’s R2 into account suggests that the chosen set of
explanatory variables is appropriate.
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Table 1: Obtained model of DIRR
Category

Items

Experience receiving evacuation information
Knowledge of emergency mail service
Information Experience receiving messages from emergency
literacy mail service
Frequency of using mails on cellular phones
Understanding of evacuation information
Start of using current cellular phonesMedia(before March 2011or after April 2011)
At home at time of announcement
Living with family member aged less than 12 years
FamilyLiving with family member aged greater than 75 years
Constant AIC=427.1, R2=0.233, Nagelkerke's R2=0.366

Partialregression
coefficient
0.303
0.573

Standarderror

P Value

Definition

0.270
0.299

0.262
0.055

Dummy（0,1)
Dummy（0,1)

0.252

0.127

0.047*

3 steps

0.359
0.496

0.139
0.147

0.010**
0.001**

4 steps
4 steps

1.120

0.167

0.000**

3 steps

0.296
0.506
-0.847-5.8922

0.293
0.297
0.349
0.86390.312
0.088
0.015*
0.000**

Dummy（0,1)
Dummy（0,2)
Dummy（0,3)

4.2 Sensitivity analysis
Finally, a sensitivity analysis was conducted to evaluate how DIRR would be affectedby future social change. By changing the values of explanatory variables in the model,
their influence on DIRR was simulated.
As shown in Figure 2, DIRR just after the announcement of the evacuation preparation
information was 51.8% in group A. Regarding their information literacy, 65.0% of the
respondents answered that they were aware of emergency mail service to cellular
phones from service providers before the heavy rain on 4 September among 425
respondents in group A. If awareness of this service were 100%, DIRR just after theannouncement would increase by 5.8% in group A. This result suggests that DIRR
could be increased by improving the public’s knowledge through education andcapacity building.
It was found that 59.6% of group A renewed their contract of using cellular phones after
April 2011 among the people who answered. If this ratio were 100%, DIRR just after
the announcement would increase by 7.0%. As mentioned before, some of older cellular
phone models, especially those produced before 2011, cannot receive emergency mailfrom service provides. Therefore, it could be expected that DIRR will increase overtime as new cellular phones replace older ones.
In group A, 14.7% lived with a family member aged greater than 75 years. Recently, theproportion of elderly people is increasing in Japan as the population ages and the birthrate declines. The proportion of elderly people in rural areas is further affected bydepopulation as younger people move to cities. Nagoya City is one of three largest cities
in Japan and is thus less affected by these trends. With respect to DIRR in rural areas,
the effects of population aging should be considered since residents’ behavior uponreceiving disaster information is associated with whether they are elderly persons or not.
In particular, if the percentage of people living with a family member aged greater than
75 years were increased by 20%, DIRR just after the announcement would decrease by
2.2%. This suggests that in rural areas today or in an aging society in the future, DIRR
would be lower.

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5. CONCLUSIONSIn this study, the disaster information reach ratio (DIRR) was proposed as an index forevaluating how widely various media can transmit disaster warnings and information to
the public. This paper focused on the announcement of evacuation preparation
information in all of Nagoya City at 5:10 p.m. on 4 September 2013 during torrential
rain, and the DIRR was calculated using data collected through a questionnaire surveyof people present in the city at that time.
DIRR just after the announcement was limited to about 50%. Among people who wereindoors, the ratio did not differ by location. Among the various media for receiving
information, emergency mail service to cellular phones from service providers had thehighest DIRR. This shows that emergency mail service to cellular phones is becoming
an effective tool for disaster information dissemination, and in this case, the DIRR ofthe emergency mail service was higher than that of loudspeakers, which are less usefulduring heavy rain.
To evaluate how DIRR would be affected under various scenarios of future socialchange, a model for forecasting DIRR was developed by logistic regression analysis. A
sensitivity analysis revealed that increasing the public’s knowledge and experience ofreceiving information and upgrading cellular phones could increase DIRR in the future.
Future studies should be conducted on DIRR in different types of disasters and indifferent locations. A limitation of the present study is that it considers only one type ofdisaster (torrential rain) in only Nagoya City, which may be representative of only
urban areas. Sensitivity analysis showed the possibility that DIRR would become lower
in rural areas and in an aging society. Further study of DIRR in rural area is therefore
necessary. Also, the event considered here occurred around 5 p.m. on a weekday, so
disasters occurring at various times of day and on various days of the week should beconsidered.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was supported by JSPS Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research(C) (KAKENHI)
titled “Design of disaster information dissemination system supporting Asian farm andmountainous villages and proposal of strategy for technical assistance” (Grant Number
12345678).
REFERENCES
Ohara, M., 2014. Estimation of the effect of flood information dissemination by nextgeneration vehicle information and communication system, The proceeding of the 34th
annual conference of the Japan Society of Traffic Engineers, 149-156.
Nagoya Local Meteorological Observatory, 2013, Meteorological news on torrential
rain during September 4-5, 2013.

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Shigeo TATSUKI
Professor, Department of Sociology, Doshisha University, Japan
statsuki@mail.doshisha.ac.jp
ABSTRACT
In order to identify functional needs of people with disabilities (PWD) during the 2011
East Japan Earthquake disasters, 41 impacted PWD and their supporters were invited
to a grass-root assessment workshop on October 14th 2013. The workshop participants
were from 16 different disability organizations for people with visual, auditory, speech,
physical, mental, developmental/intellectual disabilities as well as for people withinternal organ disorders and with paraplegia and quadriplegia. They were asked toreport on post-it-cards what challenges and difficulties they encountered in eachdisaster process phase from 0 to 10 hours, 10 to 100, 100 to 1,000 and to 1,000 to
10,000hours after the 2011 disaster. Following the Total Quality Management method,
the participants sorted/grouped the difficulty and challenge cards according to theaffinity by themselves. Correspondence (dual scaling) analysis was introduced toanalyze quantitatively the affinity association between disability categories and theircorresponding difficulties. The results indicated that mobility was the critical ICF
category during the first 10 hours, self-care and reasonable accommodations inattitudes of the society arose during the next 10 to 100 hours, domestic life tasks as well
as utilizing services, systems and policies characterized the following 100 to 1,000
hours phase.
Keywords: people with disabilities, functional needs, the Great East Japan earthquake
1. INTRODUCTION
Japan is a country that is taking the lead in promoting evacuation and sheltering
assistance for the elderly and PWD in times of disasters. In 2004, Japan experienced aseries of natural disasters such as the Niigata-Fukushima flood (July), Typhoon Tokage(October), and the Niigata Chuetsu earthquake (October), in each of which higher
mortality rates were recorded among the elderly and PWD. In response to these tragic
results, the Japanese Cabinet Office established a committee on “Communication
Disaster Information and Evacuation/Sheltering Assistance for the Elderly and Other
Members of the Population during Heavy Meteorological and Other Disasters.” This
committee published “Evacuation/Sheltering Assistance Guideline for People with
Special Needs in Time of Disaster.” The committee continued working. So, they revised
the guideline in 2006 and also published a report on the guideline in 2007. The termsaigai-jakusha or disaster vulnerable people has been customarily used since the 1995

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Kobe earthquake. The 2005 and the following committees coined the new term saigaijiyouengosha or “people with special needs in times of disaster.” This change was basedon a paradigm shift in disability studies, from “medical model of disability” to “social
model of disability” (e.g. Tatsuki, 2013).
The paradigm shift of disability studies has been made possible by the redefinition of
disability by PDW themselves. The new definition of disability is based on theperspective that disability is socially constructed. The medical model of disability, an
old paradigm, is a one way causal model. The individual physical condition(impairments) cause activity limitations and participation restrictions (disabilities), andthese cause social disadvantages (handicaps.) The solution proposed by the medical
model is medical intervention for individual impairments. The new social model, on theother hand, assumes interactive relationships between individual impairments and social
factors. In other words, individual impairments do not lead to disabilities, anddisabilities are caused by society when it fails to give reasonable accommodation to theneeds of individuals with impairments. That being the case, society has a responsibility
to relieve disabilities (e.g. Oliver, 1990; Hoshika, 2007). In the field of disaster research,
only a very few studies focused on people with disabilities from this new social
paradigm of disability (Tatsuki, 2013).
The International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) is aninternational standard to describe and measure health and disability based on the social
model of disability (WHO, 2002). ICF was accepted by WHO in 2001 as a response to
the paradigm shift in disability studies. In contrast to the International Classification of
Impairments, Disabilities and Handicaps (ICIDH), ICF includes environmental factors
and places more attention on the interactive relationships between individual
impairments and social/environmental factors. By using ICF, it becomes possible tooperationally specify what types of “special needs” the PWD experienced and more
importantly what types of “functional supports” are needed in the interactive
relationships between the PWD and their environment in times of disasters. This paper,
therefore, proposes the term saigaiji-seikatsu-kinou-youshiensha or “people withfunctional needs in times of disasters” (Kailes and Enders, 2007) which is more
operationally specific and therefore implementation-oriented rather than “disaster
vulnerable people” which neglects the social interaction aspect of why disability isconstructed or “people with special needs in times of disasters” which is moreconceptually vague and thus less prescriptive to emergency actions.
The purpose of the current study is to collect the facts about the difficulties that the
PWD experienced during the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake Disaster and to analyze
their functional needs from a social model of disabilities. The method of the study isqualitative and 41 PWD in Sendai city provided their life difficulty experiences in a
TQM-style workshop and the workshop data was classified by ICF and by disaster timephase (Hayashi, 2003; Kimura et al., 2014). The “ICF category by disaster time phase”
cross-tabulation table was then analyzed by dual scaling (also known as correspondence
analysis) method (Nishisato, 1980), which yielded particular sets of a given disastertime phase and corresponding specific functional needs. The research findings indicatedhow PWD-in-environment interactions needed to be accommodated in order to support
specific functional needs of PWD during each time phase.

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2.. METHOD
D
2..1 Participaants
On October 14th 2013, a grass-rooots assessmeent worksho
op was heldd in Sendai city. 41
PW
WD particippated in thee workshopp and they werew
recruitted from 166 different disabilitydorrganizationss catering for peoplee with visu
ual, auditorry, speech,, physical, mental,
deevelopmental/intellectu
ual disabiliities as weell as for people w
with internaal organdiisorders andd one for thoose sufferinng with paraaplegia and quadriplegiia. They weere asked
too report on post-it-cardp
ds what challlenges and difficultiess they encouuntered during each
off the disasteer time phasses (Hayashhi, 2003; Kiimura et al., 2014) fromm 0 to 10 hours,h10
too 100, 100 too 1,000 andd to 1,000 too 10,000 hours after thee Great Eastt Japan Earthquake.
Foollowing thhe Total Quaality Managgement metthod that was originallly introduceed in life
reecovery assessment woorkshops fo
for the 1995
5 Kobe earrthquake suurvivors, iddeas andoppinions werre sorted acccording to thheir affinityy.

Figure 1: ConceptualC
diagram off ICF (Sourcce: WHO (22002))
2..2 InstrumeentIC
CF is a classsification off health andd health-relaated domain
ns as shownn in the Figu
ure 1 andis the internaational standdard to desccribe and meeasure healtth and disabbility (WHOO, 2002).
Based on thhe social modelmof ddisability, IC
CF views disability aand functio
oning asouutcomes of interactions between hhealth condditions and contextual factors thatt include
ennvironmentaal and inteernal personnal factorss. ICF iden
ntifies threee levels off humanfuunctioning ata the level of body (phhysiologicall functioning and impaairments), th
he whole
peerson (activvity, activity
y limitationn participatiion and parrticipation rrestriction), and thewwhole personn in a sociaal context (p(physical, so
ocial and atttitudinal ennvironmentt). As anmmeasurementt instrumen
nt, ICF po stulates 4 constructs (or domaiins) such asa BodyFuunctions (bb), Body Structure (s),, Activity anda Particip
pation (d), and Enviro
onmental
Faactors (e), each of whichw
is opperationally defined in
n a hierarchhical fashioon (e.g.,
Chhapter, Seccond level, Third levell, and Fourtth level). Table 1 illusstrates the completeclisst of chapteers in ICF. For this sttudy, each statement thatt
the woorkshop parrticipants
prroduced waas viewed fromf
the IC
CF framewo
ork and wass coded at all four lev
vels. Form
more detailedd definition
ns of all ICF
F definitionns, please refer to ICFF illustrationn library(hhttp://www.icfillustratio
on.com/icfill_eng/top.hhtml).

Peeople with diisabilities (PPWD) and theeir functiona
al needs durin
ng the Greatt East JapanEaarthquakeDisasters:Theeresults
from
m
2013
Send
dai
grass-root assessmentt workshopof PWDs
People with disabilities (PWD) and their functional needs during the Great
East Japan
Earthquake
237
Disasters: The results from 2013 Sendai grass-root assessment workshop of PWDs

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovembeer 2014,
Yan
ngon,
Myanm
mar

Table 1: Chapters
Cof IICF (Sourcee: WHO (20002))

2.3 Procedure
The workshop dataa was classiified by ICF
F and by disaster time phase. Thiss produced an“ICF caategory by disasterdtimee phase” crooss-tabulation table. Th
he associatiion among thettable roow and coluumn categorries was theen quantitav
vely analyzzed by duall scaling (allso
known as corresppondence analysis) m
method (NNishisato, 1980),
1
a ttechnique forf
perform
ming quantiffication baseed on the prrinciple of internal consistency.
3. RESSULTS
3.1 ICFF-by-Disastter Time Ph
hase Cross--tabulationn
41 grasss-roots assessment woorkshop paarticipants producedp
429 statemeents regarding
their exxperienced life
l difficullties after thhe onset off the Great East Japann Earthquakke.
These sstatements werew
first categorizedd into one of the disaaster time pphases by thetworkshoop participaants themseelves. They were then brought baack to the laaboratory andawas codded in term
ms of ICF categories. Table 2 showss
frequuencies of ICF categoory(Chapteer and Seconnd level) byy time phasee. It was rev
vealed that life
l difficultties that PW
WD

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experienced peaked during the first 100 hours (about 70% of all the reported
difficulties) and lasted about 1,000 hours (90 % of difficulties collected at theworkshop). This suggested that PWD life difficulty experiences during the disaster time
approximately corresponded to the time phase when basic functioning of the society had
been impacted by the disaster until emergency relief activities helped recover the
essential utility, transportation and other critical facility basic functioning that tookapproximately 1,000 hours.
It became clear that PWD did not experience whole range of ICF category-relateddifficulties equally but specific category-related difficulties were experienced more
often than the other. The current study found that all the reported difficulties wereclassified either in the domain of Activities and Participation or Environmental Factors.
The four most reported difficulties in activities and participation were in the area of “d6Domestic Life” (30%) (e.g., acquisition of necessities, household tasks, and caring forhousehold objects), “d5 Self-Care” (13%) (e.g., washing oneself, caring for body parts,
toileting, dressing, eating, drinking and looking after one’s self), and “d2 General Tasks
and Demands” (9%) (e.g., undertaking a single and multiple tasks, daily routine andholding stress and other psychological demands), and “d4 Mobility” (4%) (e.g.,changing and maintaining body position, carrying, moving and handling objects,
walking and moving, and moving around using transportation). Within the environment
factors, the top three most reported life functioning needs were “e1 Products andTechnology” (19%) (e.g., medicines, equipments for personal daily living and mobility,and products and technology for communication), “e5 Services, Systems and Policies”(13%) (e.g., utilities, services for communication, transportation, civil protection, legal
and administrative applications, social security, general social support, and health), and“e3 Supports and Relationships” (8%) (e.g., family, friends, neighbors, personal careproviders, strangers, health and other professionals).
Table 2: Grass-roots assessment workshop results: ICF category by disaster phase
Disaster Time Phase
ICF Category
0hr - 10hr
10hr - 100hr
100hr - 1,000hr 1,000hr 01
0
d1Learning and Applying Knowledge
12117d2 General Tasks and Demands
02
1
d3 Communication
13
30
d4 Mobility
83115d5 Self-Care
31
50
33
d6 Domestic Life100d7 Interpaersonal Interactions and Relationships
003d8 Major Life Areas000d9 Community, Social and Civic Life30
37
13
e1 Products and Technology
e2 Natural Environment and Human-Made Changes
100
to Environment
1298
e3 Support and Relationships
13
3
e4 Attitudes
625
17
e5 Services, Systems and Policies
115
172
100
Column Total
(%)

(27%)

(40%)

(23%)

0
9
1
2
3
12
0
1
1
0

Row Total (%)
1 ( 0.2% )
39 ( 9.1% )4 ( 0.9% )
18 ( 4.2% )
57 ( 13.3% )
126 ( 29.4% )1 ( 0.2% )4 ( 0.9% )1 ( 0.2% )
80 ( 18.6% )0

1 ( 0.2% )

4
0
9
42

33 ( 7.7% )7 ( 1.6% )
57 ( 13.3% )
429

(10%)

3.2 Correspondence Analysis of the ICF-by-Disaster Phase Cross-tabulation Table
Correspondence (dual scaling) analysis was employed to analyze quantitatively more
intricate associations among ICF categories and disaster time phases by identifying themost characteristic associations of the row and column categories of the cross-tabulated
data. For example, ICF category of “d4 Mobility” accounted for less than 5 % out of all
the reported difficulties (i.e., 18/429). However, it accounts for more than 10 % of the
ICF categories if one focuses only to the first 10 hours (13/115). This suggests that there
Peoplewith disabilities(PWD)
their functional
needstheduringGreat
EastEarthquake
Japan
People withdisabilities(PWD) and
theirandfunctional
needs during
GreattheEast
Japan
results
from 2013
Sendai grass-root
Disasters:Earthquake
The resultsDisasters:from 2013The
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November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

may exist a characteristic relationship between the row category (d4 Mobility) and thecolumn category (0hr to 10 hour). Correspondence analysis produces a two-dimensional
plot (or biplot) of row and column category of cross-tabulation data where thosecharacteristic or corresponding row and column categories are placed in proximity inusually a 2 dimensional space (Nishisato, 1980).

Figure 2: Corresponding analysis results of ICF-by-time phase cross-tabulated data
Note: Those categories with low frequencies (i.e., less than 1 %) were excluded from the analysis forrobustness and stability of the analysis results.

The result of the correspondence analysis is shown in the above Figure2 where 1) fourtime phases and corresponding ICF category sets were clustered into three groups and2) characteristic ICF and disaster time phase correspondences were revealed. First of all,the left side cluster shows the most characteristic ICF categories that appeared within
the first 10 hours after the earthquake and it included “d4 Mobility”, “e1 Products andTechnology”, and “e3 Support and Relationships.” The most life-threatening needs that
PWD experienced in this phase were that of mobility. In normal circumstances, PWD
can rely on cars, wheel chairs, and other equipments for transportation with the support
from family members and their care workers. Most PWD, however, were not able tofind the support from the immediate relationships and thus were not able to evacuate to
nearby shelters. If they were able to elicit extra help from neighbors and even strangers
for mobility support and to move to shelters, they faced life difficulties due to thelack/unavailability of “e1 Products and Technology” such as medicines, equipments for
personal daily living and mobility, and products and technology for communication.
The right upper area shows the cluster consisting of two disaster time phases of 10 to
100 hours as well as that of 100 to 1,000 hours. These time phases corresponded withthat of sheltering (10 to 100 hours) and of living a life when lifeline and other basic
critical facilities were not functioning at normal level. The 10 to 100 hours phase was240

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first typified by “d5 Self-Care” difficulties which included washing oneself, caring forbody parts, toileting, dressing, eating, drinking and looking after one’s self either at the
shelter or at their disaster affected home. These difficulties were accompanied by thecontinuing lack/unavailability of “e1 Products and Technology” such as medicines,
equipments for personal daily living and mobility, and products and technology forcommunication. The life conditions of PWD were further aggravated by the lack ofreasonable accommodation from “e4 Attitudes” in family members, friends, neighbors,
shelter authority, personal care providers, strangers, health professionals, society andsocial norms.
The succeeding 100 to 1,000 hours phase was characterized by gradual re-entry into
post-disaster normalcy where PWD faced daily chores associated with “d6 Domestic
Life” that included acquisition of necessities, household tasks, and caring for householdobjects and those with “e5 Services, Systems and Policies” (e.g., utilities, services forcommunication, transportation, civil protection, legal and administrative applications,social security, general social support, and health).
The right lower cluster was characterized by the time phase of 1,000 hours and over and“d2 General Tasks and Demand” which mainly consisted of handling stress and otherpsychological demands in post-disaster recovery time.
5. CONCLUSION
This study showed how society and PWD themselves needed to handle the situation thatPWD faced in each time phase. First, it is indicated that during the first 10 hours,society in collaboration with PWD and their families need to activate Mobility
assistance plans that would help PWD to a nearby safer environment including thedesignated shelter. The evacuation assistance plan should also enumerate a list ofaccompanying necessity Products and Technology such as medicines, equipments for
personal daily living and mobility, and products and technology for communication.
Due to the fact that the participated PWD were not able to rely on regular service andcare personnel for the mobility assistance, it is also important to build an alternative
Support and Relationships in the neighborhood community. Second, sheltering
assistance plans need to be activated in the 10 to 100 hours time phase. Such Self-Careneeds as washing oneself, caring for body parts, toileting, dressing, eating, drinking andlooking after one’s self are critical in this period and therefore the matching reasonableaccommodations need to be arranged at every designated shelter. Third, 100 to 1,000
hours phase is characterized by gradual re-entry into post-disaster normalcy when PWD
face the tasks associated with Domestic Life such as acquisition of necessities,
household tasks, and caring for household objects. It is expected that a large number ofdisaster volunteers could be coordinated in order to respond to these needs. Third,
specific needs that require expert and professional assistance also arise during the same
phase for utilizing Services, Systems and Policies in utilities, services forcommunication, transportation, civil protection, legal and administrative applications,social security, general social support, and health. Professional volunteer and otheroutside experts/professionals could be mobilized to respond to these needs. Fourth, thephase over 1,000 hours is characterized by such General Tasks and Demands as
handling the continuing stress and other demands in post-disaster recovery time.
Traumatic stress prevention programs that focus on PWD may need to be prepared.
Peoplewith disabilities(PWD)
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needstheduringGreat
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People withdisabilities(PWD) and
theirandfunctional
needs during
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Disasters:Earthquake
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November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

Last, it is essential that the above indicated solutions need to be pre-planned before thenext disaster hit the society.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was supported by RISTEX, JST.
REFERENCES
Hayashi, H., 2003. Life saving earthquake disaster management (in Japanese). Iwanami,
Tokyo.
Hoshika, R., 2007. What is disability, Seikatsu-Shoin, Tokyo (in Japanese).
Kailes, J. I., and Enders, A., 2007. A function-based framework for emergency
management and planning, Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 17, 230–237.
Kimura, R., Tomoyasu, K., Yajima, Y., Mashima, H., Furukawa, K., Toda, Y.,
Watanabe, K., and Kawahara, T., 2014. Current status and issues of life recovery
process three years after the Great East Japan Earthquake questionnaire based on
subjective estimate of victims using life recovery calendar method, Journal of Disaster
Research, 673-689.
Nishisato, S., (1980. Analysis of categorical data: Dual scaling and its applications,
University of Toronto Press, Toronto.
Oliver, M., 1990. The politics of Disablement, Macmillan, London, UK.
Tatsuki, S., 2013. Old age, disability, and the Tohoku-Oki Earthquake. Earthquake
Spectra 29, S403–S432.
World Health Organization, 2002. Towards a common language for functioning,disability and health: ICF The International Classification of Functioning, Disability and
Health (http://www.who.int/classifications/icf/icfbeginnersguide.pdf?ua=1, accessed on
October 27, 2014).

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International tourists as a vulnerable
population during disaster events in Japan
Michael HENRY1 and Akiyuki KAWASAKI2
1
Assistant professor, Division of Field Engineering for the Environment,
Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Japanmwhenry@eng.hokudai.ac.jp
2
Project associate professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
The University of Tokyo, Japan
ABSTRACTThe international tourism industry in Japan has experienced significant growth over the
past 20 years – growth that is expected to continue in light of Tokyo’s selection as thehost city for the 2020 Summer Olympics. International tourists, however, are sensitive
to issues such as safety, and Japan has a high probability of being struck by futureearthquakes, which could disrupt the Olympics and severely affect the image of Japanas a tourism destination. It is thus necessary to consider international tourists in efforts
to improve disaster response and resilience. This paper first summarizes historical
trends in international tourism in Japan, and then identifies issues that need to beconsidered when addressing international tourism in disaster mitigation and response.
Keywords: international tourists; 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake; Tokyo Inland
Earthquake; 2020 Tokyo Olympics; tourism economy
1. INTRODUCTION
International tourism in Japan has historically been much smaller than in other major
developed countries, such as the United States or France, and has played only a smallrole in the development of Japan’s economy. However, with the awarding of the 2020
Summer Olympics to Tokyo, the international tourism industry may be one potential
area of future growth. Even before the awarding of the Olympics, the Japanese
government had already announced plans to more than double the number ofinternational tourists, from the 2012 level of 8.71 million to 20 million, by 2017 (TheAsahi Shimbun, 2013).
Unfortunately, Japan’s disaster hazards – which include earthquakes, tsunamis,
typhoons, floods, and volcanic eruptions – are well known and threaten the image ofJapan as a tourist destination. This problem was highlighted by the 2011 Great East
Japan Earthquake, and the subsequent tsunami and nuclear crisis, after which there wasa significant drop in international tourist arrivals. Although tourist numbers reboundedin subsequent years and even reached new milestones (as will be introduced later),disaster hazard is ever-present – including, most notably, the Tokyo Inland Earthquake,
which has a 70% chance of striking within the next 30 years (Cabinet Office, 2012) andcould catastrophically disrupt the 2020 Summer Olympics. Man-made disasters are alsoa threat, as the possibility of terrorism during the Olympics has always been high due to243

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmarthe event’s visibility (START, 2012). As a result, host countries must prepare for a wide
variety of scenarios, both natural and man-made.
One of the eight goals of the Tokyo Vision 2020, a plan developed by the Tokyo
metropolitan government to clarify its future vision and policy direction, is to “achievea sophisticated disaster resistant city and demonstrate Tokyo’s safety to the world”(Tokyo Metropolitan Government, 2011). While the sub-projects of this goal focus on
structural aspects such as seismic retrofitting and fire control, as well as non-structural
aspects such as community disaster units and ordinances for stranded people, there is no
mention of how Japan intends to address the needs of international tourists in the eventa disaster strikes. It is therefore highly important that Japan include international tourists
in its efforts to improve disaster resilience and response, both for the 2020 Summer
Olympics and beyond. In this paper, the recent history of international tourism in Japanis first examined to understand the underlying situation and trends. Issues related tointernational tourists in disasters situations are then identified considering the disaster
cycle, with a focus on the mitigation and emergency response phases.
2. INTERNATIONAL TOURISM IN JAPAN
2.1 Comparison at the global level
As an international tourist destination, Japan sits relatively low compared to otherdeveloped countries. As shown in Figure 1, Japan ranked 31st in the world in terms ofinternational arrivals in 2012, and 8th in the Asian region behind developing countries
such as China, Malaysia, and Thailand. In these figures, the term “international arrivals”
is defined as “the number of tourists who travel to a country other than that in which
they have their usual residence, but outside their usual environment, for a period notexceeding 12 months and whose main purpose in visiting is other than an activity
remunerated from within the country visited” (World Bank, 2014a).

(a) World

40

Philippines

India

VietnamIndonesia

0

Japan

20
Singapore

Malaysia

RussiaUK

Germany

Turkey

Italy

Spain

China

0

USA

20

31st in the world
8th in Asia

Macao

40

60

S. Korea

60

80

Thailand80

Hong Kong

No. of arrivals (in millions)100

FranceNo. of arrivals (in millions)

100(b) Asia

Figure 1: Top-ten rankings of the number of international arrivals for the world andAsian region in 2012 (data source: World Bank, 2014a)
2.2 Trends by country of origin
Figures 2 and 3 explore the historical data on international tourists visiting Japan ingreater detail. It should be noted that, unlike the previous results on the number of244

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international arrivals, the data given in Figures 2 and 3 are for international arrivals who
specified their purpose was “tourism;” therefore, these numbers are lower than the total
number of international arrivals, which includes those whose purpose was “business” or“other.”Americas

EuropeAsia

Yearly total

2013

2012

2011

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

Yearly total (in millions)

0

2000

0%

1999

2
1998

20%
1997

4

1996

40%

1995

6

1994

60%

1993

8

1992

80%

1991

10

1990

Percentage of yearly total

Africa, Oceania, Stateless100%(a) Asia(b) Europe

Australia
Africa

48
36
24

2013

2011

2009

0

2007

12
2005

2013

2011

0

2009

3

60

CanadaS. America
USA

2003

Yearly total (in 10 thousands)

6

2007

2013

2011

2009

2007

2005

0

2003

5

9

2005

10

Germany
Russia

12

2003

15

15

2001

20

France
Italy
UK

2001

TaiwanThailandYearly total (in 10 thousands)

25

China
Hong Kong
Korea

2001

Yearly total (in 100 thousands)

Figure 2: Total number of international tourists visiting Japan from 1990 to 2013 andthe percentage share by world region (data source: JNTO, 2014; JTMC, 2014)(c) Others

Figure 3: Number of international tourists visiting Japan from 2001 to 2013 by region
and country of origin (data source: JNTO, 2014; JTMC, 2014)
From 1990 to 2001, the yearly total number of international tourists increased by 45%.
However, between 2001 and 2008, the yearly total increased by 123% to more than 6
million international tourists. This number dropped the following year due to thefinancial crisis triggered in the US in 2007-2008, but recovered in 2010. In March 2011,
the Great East Japan Earthquake occurred and, as a result, the yearly total dropped
significantly. By 2013, however, the total number of international tourists rebounded
and reached a new high that represented an increase of 96% over the 2011 value in justa two-year period.
The percentage share of international tourists coming from Asia has been steadily
increasing, with a corresponding decrease in the share of tourists coming from theAmericas and Europe. In 1990, 67% of international tourists were from Asia and 22%
were from the Americas; however, by 2013 the percentage share from Asia increased to
81% and the share from the Americas decreased to just 9%. Over the same period, theshare from Europe fluctuated but only decreased by roughly 2%.

International
tourists astourists
a vulnerable
population
during disasterJapanin Japan
International
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The change in percentage share is generally not due to a decrease in tourists from North
America or Europe. Rather, as shown in Figure 3, it can be understood that there has
been greater relative growth in tourists from the Asian region. Tourists from South
Korea and Taiwan increased by 202% and 192%, respectively, from 2001 to 2013 and,in 2013, roughly half of all international tourists were from just these two countries.
Even more notable growth can be seen for China and Thailand, as the number ofChinese and Thai tourists increased by a massive 877% and 1,220%, respectively, from2001 to 2013. Over the same 13-year period, however, tourists from the US and Canada
increased by only 40% and 44%, respectively. The UK has historically been the largest
European source of international tourists; however, there was only a 15% increase in
UK tourists from 2001 to 2013. Other European countries have shown notably greater
growth than the UK: 195% from France, 212% from Italy, and 177% from Russia.
2.3 Trends by destination within Japan
Where do international tourists go once they have arrived in Japan? The Japan Tourism
Agency has been carrying out an accommodation survey quarterly from 2007 thatinvestigates where international tourists stay during their visit. While not a directindicator of the number of tourists visiting a prefecture or area (as tourists may conduct
day trips that do not involve an overnight stay), these results give some indication ofwhere international tourists are traveling to by means of where they are staying. From2007 to the first quarter of 2010 (Jan. to March), the survey only collected data fromaccommodation facilities with 10 or more employees; however, from the second quarterof 2010 onwards, the survey was expanded to include facilities with fewer than 10
employees. In this paper, only the results for accommodation facilities with 10 or more
employees are reported.
Figure 4 summarizes the percentage share of international tourists spending the night(“overnight lodgers”) by region of Japan. The Kanto region, which consists of thegreater Tokyo metropolitan area as well as surrounding prefectures such as Kanagawa
and Chiba, hosted between 40% to 50% of international overnight lodgers from 2007 to2013 period. The second most popular area was the Kinki region, which includes Osakaand Kyoto. This region has experienced some growth in the percentage share ofinternational overnight lodgers, from 18% in 2007 to 23% in 2013. Other regions ofJapan have only experienced small changes in their percentage share of internationalovernight lodgers – except for Okinawa, which has grown from 1% to 5% over the 7year observation period.
The yearly total for international overnight lodgers for selected areas is shown in Figure
5. Although there are 47 prefectures in Japan (including Tokyo, which is designated not
as a prefecture but as a metropolis), these top nine areas represent more than 75% of theyearly total of international overnight lodgers for each of the observed years. The Tokyo
metropolis was the top location for international tourists to stay in 2013, followed by
Osaka and Hokkaido. While all of the selected areas have shown growth over theobserved period, the largest amount of growth was in Okinawa, where the number ofinternational overnight lodgers increased by 509% in just 7 years, followed by Kyoto at
145%. Osaka, Hokkaido, and Fukuoka have also seen gains of between 49% and 63%,
whereas Aichi – home to Nagoya city – only increased by 9%.

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Chubu
Kinki

Figure 4: Percentage share ofinternational overnight lodgers from2007 to 2013 by region (data source:
JTA, 2014a)

2013

0

2012

20

2011

2013

2012

2011

2010

2007

2009

20%

40

2010

40%

Hokkaido
Okinawa
Fukuoka

60

2009

60%

Osaka
Chiba
Kanagawa

80

2007Yearly total (in 100 thousands)

80%

0%

Tokyo
Kyoto
Aichi

100

2008

Percentage of yearly total

100%

Okinawa
Hokkaido

2008

OthersKyushu
Kanto

Figure 5: Number of internationalovernight lodgers from 2007 to 2013
for the top nine prefectures or areas asof 2013 (data source: JTA, 2014a)

2.4 Economic aspect of international tourism(a) World

Percentage of GDP

12%
8%

8

Sri Lanka

0%Cambodia0Philippines

4%
Vietnam4
Indonesia

Thailand

Italy

Hong Kong

Macao

UK

Germany

0%

Spain

0

China

4%
France

40

16%

12

Japan

8%

80

16

20%

%GDP Receipts
22nd in the world
9th in Asia

India

12%

120

20

Receipts

Singapore

16%

160

24

S. Korea

103%

Malaysia

20%

%GDP

Receipts (in trillion $US)

200

Receipts

Percentage of GDP

240

USA

Receipts (in trillion $US)

In order to understand the economic aspect of international tourist-related activities,
data on international tourism receipts were examined (Figure 6). This term is defined as“expenditures by international inbound visitors, including payments to national carriers
for international transport” (World Bank, 2014b). The international tourism receipts as apercentage of GDP were also calculated to provide a frame of reference to the scale oftourism activities relative to the nation’s total economic output.

(b) Asia

Figure 6: Top-ten rankings of the receipts from international tourism (in current $US)
for the world and the Asian region in 2012 and the receipts’ percentage of 2012 GDP(data source: World Bank, 2014b; World Bank, 2014c)
Japan’s international tourism receipts ranked 22nd in the world in 2012, and was only
8% of the receipts of the USA. China, Macao, Hong Kong, and Thailand also ranked in
the top-ten globally, whereas Japan was ranked ninth in Asia. International tourism
receipts were only 0.3% of Japan’s GDP in 2012, which is much lower than touristoriented developing economies such as Thailand, Malaysia, Vietnam, or Cambodia, andstill lower than similarly developed countries such as the USA, France, Germany andthe UK.

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Yangon,MyanmarNovember
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Yangon,MyanmarOverall, international tourism is still a relatively small industry in Japan – both in termsof people and economics – compared to domestic tourism (Japanese citizens travelingwithin Japan). International tourists traveling in Japan contributed to only 4.6% of thedomestic tourism market in 2009 (JTA, 2013), with Japanese citizen’s domestic travels
making up 89.5% of the market.
3. INTERNATIONAL TOURISTS AND DISASTER EVENTS
3.1 Are international tourists a vulnerable population?
The review of past and current trends in international tourism in Japan provided
valuable information on who is coming to Japan and where they are going. Suchinformation is necessary when considering how best to address the needs ofinternational tourists as a vulnerable population before, during, and after a disaster event.
However, a more fundamental question is whether international tourists actually qualify
as a vulnerable population that requires special attention.
Gómez (2013) provided an overview of issues regarding international students as avulnerable population in their study after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake, inwhich they made some comparisons between international students and international
tourists. In that overview, several launching points for understanding the vulnerabilityof international tourists were mentioned. The first is “foreignness:” that is, international
tourists are more vulnerable due to their unfamiliarity with the local language, customs,
culture, and so forth. From this perspective, tourists in Japan are placed in the same
category as international residents in Japan. This presumes that the category “foreigners”
is homogeneous, and reflects the “us” (Japanese) and “them” (non-Japanese) mentalitythat is well ingrained in Japan. Previous research has demonstrated, however, thatinternational residents in Japan are a highly heterogeneous group, and the support they
may require after a disaster relies on more than assumptions based on their “foreignness”(Kawasaki et al., 2012; Henry et al., 2012; Kawasaki et al., 2013). In addition, theperception of disaster risk has been shown to vary widely even among international
tourists (Seabra et al., 2013). Therefore, while international tourists may indeed beconsidered a vulnerable population, the basic fact of their “foreignness” is not the only
factor that needs to be considered.
Another point is “transience:” that is, international tourists are only in Japan for a
relatively short time, are mobile, and are less likely to have ties to the areas they are
visiting or personal relationships with Japanese people. The last point is of particularimportance, as it was found that having a strong support network and close ties withJapanese people was one means by which international students at Tohoku University in
Sendai, Japan, coped with and responded to the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake(Gómez, 2013). For international tourists, one method for evaluating their “local ties”
may be via where they are staying, as international tourists exhibit different attitudes
towards risk depending on whether they are staying at a hotel or with family or friends(Drabek, 1999).
There may be other perspectives for clarifying the vulnerability of international tourists,
but the points summarized here provide some evidence in support of classifying

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international tourists as a vulnerable population in Japan. However, the issue iscomplicated by the heterogeneity of the “international” population.
3.2 Proposing measures using the disaster cycle
For improving the perception of Japan as an international tourist destination, there areseveral measures that can be taken that follow the spirit of Tokyo Vision 2020 to“demonstrate Tokyo’s safety to the world.” The disaster cycle (Figure 7) was used to
identify the specific areas where action may be taken. Among these phases, it is
proposed that “Mitigation” and “Emergency response” are the most relevant forinternational tourists. Details of these two phases will be discussed in the following
sections.
Mitigation

Forecast

Prevention
Rehabilitation

Early warning
Disastercycle

Reconstruction

DisasterAssessment

Emergency response

Figure 7: The disaster cycle with highlighted target phases
3.3 Resilience building in the mitigation phase
A wide variety of activities are encompassed by the mitigation phase, the goal of whichis to minimize the effects of a disaster. Mitigating the effects of a disaster oninternational tourists can be separated into two approaches: measures that should be
carried out by stakeholders in Japan, such as structural retrofitting; and measures thatshould be carried out by the tourists themselves, such as increasing their awarenessthrough education. The former is already being targeted and carried, as outlined by the
Tokyo Vision 2020. The latter, however, needs to receive greater consideration.
As discussed previously, disaster risk awareness varies widely among international
tourists. It is thus necessary to consider how to effectively educate international tourists– taking into account their diversity – in order to build their resilience against a disaster,should one occur during their time in Japan. This is complicated by their short period oftime in Japan and the desire of international tourists to get the greatest value out of theirtime. Educational campaigns targeting tourists interested in coming to Japan may be one
possibility to address this issue; however, such campaigns may also have the negative
effect of scaring away some tourists whose awareness is low. Finding an effectivebalance between these two aspects is therefore key to improving tourists’ resilience.
3.4 Post-disaster support during the response phase
The response phase is concerned with how to provide the proper support forinternational tourists in a post-disaster situation. The importance of considering suchsupport was previously observed in the aftermath of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami inInternational
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Yangon,MyanmarThailand, when the large number of international tourists affected by the tsunami placeda huge strain on the limited local resources that were available at the time (Deebaj et al.,2011).
A first step is to understand the legal situation regarding international tourists, in orderto clarify who is responsible for them and what rights they have after a disaster. For
example, after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake, Tohoku University served as amajor source of support for the affected international students (Gómez, 2013). The large
number of foreign embassies active in disseminating information and giving advisories
to their citizens in Japan is another example (Kawasaki et al., 2012). However, at thattime the direct impact to international tourists was relatively small, as the affected areas
along the Pacific coastline in the Tohoku region are not major destinations. If such alarge earthquake were to occur in Tokyo itself, the number of international tourists
requiring direct assistance would be much higher, and the burden carried by local
governments and organizations may increase accordingly.
The dissemination of disaster information is another important point for supporting
post-disaster response. Timely and relevant disaster information is necessary in order tosupport people’s decision making and for them to stay abreast of developing situations.
Kawasaki et al. (2011) previously examined how differences in the Japanese andEnglish language ability of international residents living in Japan at the time of the 2011
Great East Japan Earthquake affected their ability to gather information. It was foundthat people unskilled in Japanese could still acquire information from Japanese sources
via three methods: from the national broadcaster’s (NHK) English-language translations
and programs; from third-party translations of Japanese documents provided online; andby translating Japanese text themselves using translation tools. However, the quality of
the first- and third-party translations is questionable and may have varied widely, thus
demonstrating the importance of greater information dissemination in languages otherthan Japanese.
An additional point to consider regarding the implementation of support frameworks isthe difference between international tourist destinations within Japan. For example,
major tourist spots in Hokkaido – the third-largest destination – are generally in the
countryside, with few international residents in those areas. This is in contrast to othermajor destinations such as Tokyo, Osaka, Kyoto, and Chiba, where the local
international populations are much larger. As a result, these areas may be moreexperienced and better prepared for supporting international tourists after a disaster.
4. CONCLUSION
Following the intent of Tokyo Vision 2020 to create and demonstrate a safe Japan to theworld, it is important to consider and prepare specific measures for supportinginternational tourists in disaster situations. After reviewing recent trends in international
tourism in Japan, this paper proposed that consideration of international tourists should
focus on the mitigation and response phases of the disaster cycle. Continued research,however, is necessary to better understand the specific needs of international tourists.
The first step should be to clarify the similarities and difference between international

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tourists and short- and long-term international residents in Japan, as there may beoverlap in these areas – specifically with regards to post-disaster support.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research was partially supported by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science(Challenging Exploratory Research: “Investigation on disaster information
dissemination to foreigners after the great earthquake in the Tokyo metropolitan area”).
REFERENCES
Cabinet Office, Government of Japan, 2012. Counter-measures for the Tokyo
metropolitan earthquake (in Japanese).
http://www.bousai.go.jp/jishin/syuto/index.html (accessed Oct. 14, 2014)
Deebaj, R., Castrén, M., Öhlén, G., 2011. Asian tsunami disaster 2004: experience atthree international airports. Prehospital and disaster medicine 26, 71-78.
Drabek, T.E., 1999. Understanding disaster warning responses. The Social Science
Journal 36, 515-523.
Gómez, O.A., 2013. Lessons from international students’ reaction to the 2011 Great
East Japan Earthquake: the case of the School of Engineering at Tohoku University.
International Journal of Disaster Risk Science 4, 137-149.
Henry, M., Kawasaki, A., Meguro, K., 2012. Foreigners’ post-disaster relocation or
evacuation from Japan and their disaster information gathering behavior after the 2011
Great East Japan Earthquake. Journal of Social Safety Science 18, 373-380 (inJapanese).
Japan National Tourism Organization (JNTO), 2014. Tourism statistics.
https://www.jnto.go.jp/eng/ttp/sta/ (accessed Oct. 14, 2014)
Japan Tourism Marketing Co., 2014. Tourism statistics.
http://www.tourism.jp/en/statistics/ (accessed Oct. 14, 2014)
Japan Tourism Agency (JTA), 2013. General information of tourism statistics in Japan.
http://www.mlit.go.jp/kankocho/en/kouhou/general.html (accessed Sept. 8, 2014)
Japan Tourism Agency (JTA), 2014a. Accommodation survey (in Japanese).
http://www.mlit.go.jp/kankocho/siryou/toukei/shukuhakutoukei.html (accessed Sept. 5,
2014)Japan Tourism Agency (JTA), 2014b. Consumption trend survey for foreigners visiting
Japan (in Japanese).
http://www.mlit.go.jp/kankocho/siryou/toukei/syouhityousa.html (accessed Sept. 5,
2014)
Kawasaki, A., Henry, M., Meguro, K., 2012. Disaster information collection offoreigners after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake considering the difference inlanguage ability. Journal of Social Safety Science 18, 381-390 (in Japanese).
Kawasaki A., Henry, M., Meguro, K., 2013. Advisories by foreign governments and the
behavior of foreigners residing in Japan after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake.
Journal of Social Safety Science 21, 219-227 (in Japanese).
The Asahi Shimbun, 2013. Government aims to double foreign visitor numbers by 2017.
http://ajw.asahi.com/article/behind_news/politics/AJ201305110055 (accessed Oct. 7,
2014)International
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Yangon,MyanmarSeabra, C., Dolnicar, S., Abrantes, J.L., Kastenholz, E., 2013. Heterogeneity in risk andsafety perceptions of international tourists. Tourism Management 36, 502-510.
START (National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism),2012. Terrorism and the Olympics.
http://www.start.umd.edu/sites/default/files/files/publications/br/TerrorismAndOlympic
s.pdf (accessed Oct. 14, 2014).
The World Bank, 2014a. Data: International tourism, number of arrivals.
http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ST.INT.ARVL (accessed Sept. 5, 2014)
The World Bank, 2014b. Data: International tourism, receipts (current US$).
http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ST.INT.RCPT.CD (accessed Sept. 5, 2014)
The World Bank, 2014c. Data: GDP (current US$).
http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD (accessed Sept. 5, 2014)
Tokyo Metropolitan Government, 2011. Tokyo Vision 2020: driving change inJapan/Showing our best to the world.
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accident by the tanker truck on the Metropolitan
Expressway
Shuichi YAMAGUCHI 1
Senior Director for Management
JAPAN Expressway Int. Co. Ltd., JAPAN,
mailto:s.yamaguchi.aa@jexway.jp
1

ABSTRACT
August 3, 2008 (Sun) 5:52, on the Metropolitan Expressway Route 5 Ikebukuro line on
the northward, between Itabashi JCT and Kumano-cho JCT, a tanker truck, which wasloading gasoline 16kε and light oil 4kε , was rolled over, and occurred a collision on
the left side wall, and burned down. This fire caused extensive damage in the
superstructure of the viaduct, pier and floor slab. This point is very important part for
the road traffic and economy, connecting not only Route 5 and Center Circular Routebut also the downtown Tokyo and Saitama, northern district of Tokyo. Because of this
accident, expressway was stopped and heavy traffic congestion was occurred on theexpressway and surface streets in Tokyo. Therefore, Large-scale and immediate
recovery construction work, such as replacement of the steel girder was proceeded.
Because, since during the restoration work, traffic is closed fully and partially on theexpressway, severe traffic congestion continued on the roads around Tokyo and vicinity
area, support team was established to serve proper information to the drivers. This
paper is to report the impact of the accident on the structures and traffic, andrestoration works.
Keywords: all small character (except a proper noun)
1. INTRODUCTION
The Metropolitan Expressway (“Mexway”) network currently extends for almost
300km, and about 170km in Tokyo District and almost 13% of major surface streets.
Compared to the rate of total road length, vehicle-kilometers is almost twice, volume of
freight transport is almost three times. Mexway network serves as major traffic facility
supporting socio-economic activities in the Tokyo metropolitan area.
Because of huge traffic demand, Metropolitan expressway has been heavily congested,
especially daytime, on Friday, December (end of the year), March (end of the fiscal
year), August (before O-bon holiday).
August 3, 2008 (Sun) 5:52, on the Mexway Route 5 Ikebukuro line on the northward,
between Itabashi JCT and Kumano-cho JCT, a tanker truck, which was loading gasoline
16kε and light oil 4kl, was rolled over, and occurred a collision on the left side wall,

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Yangon,Myanmarand burned down. This fire caused extensive damage in the pier, etc. (digits, floor slab)
and superstructure of the viaduct.

⁆⁚⁗‒⁓⁕⁕⁛⁖⁗⁠⁦‒⁢⁡⁛⁠⁦‒

Figure 1: Metropolitan Expressway Network

Photo 1: Burned and damaged Structures

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Photo 2: Waved surface by heat of the fire
2. OVERBIEW OF THE DAMAGE OF THE ACCIDENT
2.1 The damage condition of expressway
For about 90 minutes, this rolled over tanker truck had been violently burst into flames.
It took more than five hours to extinguish this fire. This accident was occurred at thelower deck of the two-layer expressway viaduct.
Superstructure of this expressway is simple steel girder (6 I-beams), with lightweight
concrete floor. The pier is ramen RC pier. Affected temperature for the structure isestimated to be up to about 1200 Υ, severe damage has occurred in the upper structureof the two upper span and beam of the pier at the accident location. Condition of thedamage was as follows.

Photo 3: Damaged I- Beam
To understand the situation of deterioration and plan of the restoration work, checking
deformation of the structures, physical property tests, the estimation of the heatreceiving temperature was performed. Followings are the results.
OverviewOverview
of impact ofandrecoveryofimpact
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2.1.1 Upper deck࣭Physical deterioration of the steel girder was significant at Beam-1 ~ Beam-3 near
the fire point, because temperature of the structure was very comparatively high.
࣭The beam-4 ~ beam-6, which are on the contrary of the fire, were no deterioration of
the material strength but deformation occurs in the whole steel beams.
࣭About the RC slab, near the fire, rebar exposure can be seen in a wide range but,beam-4 ~ beam-6 part away from the fire source, also seen the promotion ofneutralization strength reduction, by fire rather than peeling no.
࣭At the next span, which is not heated by the fire, deterioration of the RC slab and themain girder is not observed.
‵⁤⁡⁥⁥‒⁅⁗⁕⁦⁛⁡⁠‒⁇⁢⁢⁗⁤‒‶⁗⁕⁝‒
ୖᒙ䠄䠑ྕ⥺ୖ䜚䠅‾⁡⁩⁗⁤‒‶⁗⁕⁝‒
ୗᒙ䠄䠑ྕ⥺ୗ䜚䠅⁆⁚⁗‒⁓⁕⁕⁛⁖⁗⁠⁦‒⁢⁡⁛⁠⁦‒‾⁡⁡⁢‒ ᒣᡭ㏻‚⁥⁧⁤⁘⁓⁕⁗‒⁥⁦⁤⁗⁗⁦‛‒

Figure 2: Cross Section of the Expressway at the Accident⁅⁛⁖⁗‒⁈⁛⁗⁩‒⁇⁢⁢⁗⁤‒‶⁗⁕⁝‒‾⁡⁩⁗⁤‒‶⁗⁕⁝‒⁆⁚⁗‒⁓⁕⁕⁛⁖⁗⁠⁦‒⁢⁡⁛⁠⁦‒

Figure 3: Side view of the Expressway at the Accident

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2.1.2 Lower deck
࣭There is some distortion at the supporting point of Beam-1, Beam-2 near the fire.
And locally, the high heat is assumed, but the deterioration of physical property is
not found.
࣭For the RC slab, repair is required near the fire, but at other part, the promotion ofneutralization and strength loss was not be found.
2.1.3 Piers
࣭At upper and west side cross beam, that the deterioration of the cover concrete andexposer of reinforcing bar occurred, concrete strength of the pillar and beam had
dropped to about 80% of the design strength, but it was can be up to about 90% by
the recover work in the future . Deterioration of reinforcement bar is not observed.
3. OVER BIEW OF THE RESTORATIN WORKThis accident had no sooner occurred, than Metropolitan Expressway Co. Ltd.
(“MEX”) immediately started the damage survey and recovery of the ruined structure,and established Recovery Committee by external experts, chairman is Dr. Ikeda
Naoharu, Yokohama National University Professor Emeritus.
At the 1st Committee which was held on August 8, five days after the accident,
following policy was discussed and determined.
Replace damaged two girders, near the fire point.
࣭Concrete piers can be used continuously with repair.
࣭Beam-4 ~ Beam-6 of the east part of the girder were not affected by fire, and able touse for the present.
Because replacement of all damaged girders at one time must give the great impact on
the traffic of expressway and surface streets and causes heavy traffic congestion,
restoration work was performed in two terms.
3.1 The first term (August 9 to September14)
As shown in Figure 4, while one lane is opened to traffic at this point, the removal andreconstruction of the beam-1 ~ beam-3 of the west halves was performed and RC piercolumns and the transverse beam were restored.
This part of route five started service in 1977, and its superstructure was the steel
composite girder, the floor slab has been lightweight concrete.
Basic concept of the restoration is to adopt the original structure. Furthermore, toshorten the construction period, a non-composite girder was adopted.

OverviewOverview
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the fireofaccident
the metropolitan
expressway
recoveryandthe fire on
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Photo 4: Restoration Work 1 (Removal of damaged girders)

Photo 5: Restoration Work 2 (Setting of New Girders by the election girder)

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3.2 The second stage (October 14 - September14)
As shown in Figure 5, next step of restoration work is reconstruction of the eastern half.
After the western part was opened to traffic, and the girder of eastern part was removed.
The replacement of the upper slab concrete, in order to ensure integration with the deckof the western portion which is constructed in advance, was performed with the close of
traffic to extinguish traffic vibration.

         Figure 5: Cross Section2 (During second stage of restoration work)
3.3 Information management
To keep the information of the construction work and surrounding traffic, headquarters
for this reconstruction work was established to consolidate all the information about this
accident, develop of this recovery plan, and to implement a proper public relations.
And, “Route 5 accident emergency call center" was established to the inquiries fromderivers (inquiry Total number: 1,437: maximum number of about 22,000,1 days). To
collect traffic information of road network, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure andTransport, Tokyo, Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department, NEXCO East and Central
presented their traffic information to the headquarters.
3.4 To Shorten the construction term
To shorten the construction term,
continuous restoration work, with fourtimes expressway full suspension of
traffic, were performed.
And theprefabricatedhigh-early-strength
concrete slab form, and erection with thetruss girder was adopted.
And therecovery policy was smoothly determined
by Recovery Committee.
Finally, this part of expressway was
successfully and fully opened to traffic
again in October 14. Recovery work wascompleted in 73 days from the accident.

Photo 6: Reopened Expressway

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4. TRAFFIC IMPACTS OF THIS ACCIDENT ON THE METROPOLITAN
EXPRESSWAY
From August 4 to 8 (5 days of weekdays), during the traffic suspension at this point on
the expressway, at the Mexway Tokyo district, a 9% drop of daily traffic volume wasrecorded comparing with the last week (July 28 to August 1). On the other hand,congestion was increased by about 51%. (39% at 2007, 27% at 2009)
After one lane was opened to traffic on Saturday August 9, traffic volume was a 8%
drop, the traffic congestion was increased by about 25%.

Table 1: Traffic volume and Congestion Amount* of Metropolitan Expressway(Tokyo Area) before and after the accident㸨Ȉ (Congestion length × its Period)
Traffic Volume(vehicles/day)
Before Accident
28 Jul. to 1 Aug.
First period
4 Aug. to 8 Aug.

Volume×distance Congestion Amount(km࣭hour)(vehicles࣭m)909,408

18,628,384

617

829,318

16,360,875

925

Ÿ9%

Ÿ12%

+50%

Second period
832,497
16,932,013
772
20 Aug. to 26 Aug
Ÿ8%
Ÿ9%
+25%
( Opened One lane)ͤ
ͤConsidering the special impact on the traffic volume of the Bon holiday in mid-Aug.
  (Amount of congestion: Length ×period, one day average, Tokyo district)
In case of this accident, because the expressway traffic between Itabashi JCT and
Kumano-cho, JCT, one of the most important junction connecting Tokyo and Saitama
area, was damaged and suspended, stopped traffic was detoured to another routes,
between Kosuge JCT and Horikiri JCT, on Route 6. Accordingly, heavy traffic
congestion was caused from this point. Moreover, additional congestion was occurredfrom Kumano-cho JCT to the Inner ring, and Route No. 1 and No. 3, and almost of all
Mexway network. And traffic impact was greater for this time of the Bon holiday in
mid-August.
Because of this accident, travel time Takaido entrance (Route 4) to Misato JCT was
increased 70 minutes, from usual 61 minutes to 131 minutes at eleven AM. After the
one lane release, it became 87 minutes of this route. After the release of Yamate tunnel,
it becomes 53 minutes in late September, and traffic volume was almost equivalent tobefore the accident, the effect of Yamate tunnel as the bypass route of Inner ring has
been clearly shown.

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Table 2: The Amount of Traffic Congestion at MEXWAY before and after the
Accident (working day, 24hours even data, 2008)
1000
900
800
700
600
500

Mid Sep., 2007

400
300
200
100
0

Period 1

Period 2

Period 3

Period 4

Period 5

Last 6year

Period 1 28 Jul. - 1 Aug. (Before the Accident)
Period 2 4 Aug. - 9 Aug. (Just after the Accident)
Period 3 20 Sep. - 28 Sep. (Open of One lane )Period 4 24 Sep. - 30 Sep.(Open of Yamate tunnel, one part of Center Circular Route )Period 5 15 Oct. - 28 Oct. (Open of full lane, after restoration work)
On the other hand, the congestion of the surface streets and Mexway in Tokyo area
were significantly increased. Furthermore, peripheral national highway, such as Route
254, 17 and 5, which are parallel to the Mexway, and arterial circular surface streets,
such as Roop 7 and 6, were heavily congested.
In addition, the economic loss, which associated with this increased traffic congestion
by this accident, was estimated 300 million yen per day by the Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure and Transport.
5. CONCLUSION
In this accident, the importance and vulnerability of the road network, especially
Mexway, had become clear. We should pay special attention to the fact that traffic
accident at the critical point on the expressway, causes severe traffic congestion. In thiscase of the accident, fortunately big restoration work had finished in 2 month, without
stopping expressway.
Furthermore, in order to increase the alternative route, more expressway network is
urgently necessary, and construction of the second central ring route must be improved.
(Center circler route, second expressway ring, will be completed in the end of this fiscal
year.
Overview of recovery and impact of the fire accident by the tanker truck on the Metropolitan
OverviewExpresswayof impact and recovery of the fire accident on the metropolitan expressway

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2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmar‿⁗⁪⁩⁓⁫‒⁄⁡⁧⁦⁗‒‧‒≋‾⁡⁡⁢‒ ≌‒≋‿⁗⁪⁩⁓⁫≌‒⁆⁚⁗‒⁓⁕⁕⁛⁖⁗⁠⁦‒⁢⁡⁛⁠⁦‒≋‾⁡⁡⁢≙≌‒≋‾⁡⁡⁢‒‪≌‒

5km‶⁡⁩⁠‒⁆⁡⁩⁠‒⁡⁘‒⁆⁡⁝⁫⁡‒

Congestion Increase ratio(After accident to the before)

Comparison of Congestion length before and after
the accident, before: 20 Jul. 2008, After: 4 Aug. 2008

㹼

Figure 6: Increase of congestion at surface streets
Also, in case of the big accident with lane stop like this, usual traffic information
service is not sufficient for the driver, who must detour this accident point. In this case,
supported by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport, the Metropolitan
Police Department, and Tokyo metropolitan government, Metropolitan Expressway Co.
Ltd. established the supporting team, not only to control restoration work and but also toserve any necessary information. However, more useful information and early
establishment of accident detouring route must be big problem.
REFERENCES
Sasaki, K., Yamaguchi, S., 2009. Overview of Recovery and Impact of the Fire
Accident by the Tanker Truck on the Metropolitan Expressway Route 5. Expressway
and Automobile 52.

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New Technologies
for Urbanfor
Safetyof Megain AsiaOsamu MURAO
Dr. Engineering, Institute of Environmental Science and Engineering,Tohoku University, Japanmurao@irides.tohoku.ac.jp
ABSTRACTAs of December 2014, ten years will have passed since the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami
struck the coastal areas of Sri Lanka. Following the devastating event, most residents
in adversely affected coastal areas moved to inland resettlements by the government’s
recovery policy. Following post-tsunami urban recovery processes for several years,
the author conducted a field survey and questionnaire interviews about recent living
conditions to residents in several resettlement districts in Southwestern Coastal Areasin the country. This paper reports ten-year post-tsunami living conditions of theresidents and their tsunami risk awareness in order to consider future post-tsunami
recovery strategies.
Keywords: donor, permanent housing, relocation, urban recovery, risk awareness, The
Coast Conservation Act
1. INTRODUCTION
It will be one decade soon since the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami occurred on December
26, 2004. In Sri Lanka, where approximately forty thousand people were killed andninety-six thousand houses were damaged by the tsunami (Department of Census andStatistics, 2005), most victims resettled in inland permanent houses supported by thenational government and donors such as NGO.
Nakazato and Murao (2007) reported about the national housing reconstruction program,“Task Force for Rebuilding the Nation (TAFREN) and Tsunami Housing
Reconstruction Unit (THRU) provided the framework for the following three categories
of recovery housing: 1) Emergency shelters, 2) Temporary houses, and 3) Permanenthouses. For the third phase, the Buffer Zone settlement is an important concept.”
Namely, “the 1st strip (100 m landwards on the west coast and 200 m landwards on theeast coast) was defined as a Buffer Zone and reconstruction of affected houses in thisarea was regulated.”
During the decade, people resettled by the policy have rebuilt individual life in various
recovery processes. It is important to examine the resettlement strategy from theresidents’ point of view. To this end, the authors conducted a field survey in the263

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmarsouthwestern coastal area of Sri Lanka in February 2014. This paper reports remarkablefindings from the survey.
2. FIELD SURVEY
2.1 Outline
The field survey was carried out in resettlements located in the southwestern coastal
area of Sri Lanka from February 8 to 11, 2014, aiming to evaluate the post-tsunami
resettlement strategy implemented by the government and to clarify related problems
from the viewpoints of residents through individual long-term living after relocation.
Hearing surveys were conducted living in eleven resettlements provided after thetsunami by the government in five towns –Kalutara and Beruwala in Kalutara District,
Kahawa in Galle District, Dikwella in Matara District, and Hambantota in Hambantota
District shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Object towns for field survey
2.2 Questionnaire
Gathering basic information of the individual relocation sites (name of the place,address, and construction year), the author conducted hearing surveys based on aquestionnaire sheet prepared in advance. It contains following questions.
Individual Information of Interviewees:
sex, and age
Household Information:
number of families, and family structure
Conditions before Relocation:
previous address, land ownership, house ownership, number of building stories,
building structure type, distance from the coastline, inundation depth, building damage
conditions, and previous principal occupation for the family

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Conditions after Relocation:
present condition of residential site affected by the tsunami, present condition of landownership, individual relocation processes, date of moving in, support for relocationand donation conditions (temporary housing, permanent housing and land), present
principal occupation for the family, habitation satisfaction, income satisfaction, andquality of life
Risk Recognition:knowledge of tsunami, and feeling of relief
Evaluation of Government’s Resettlement Strategies:
preferable resettlement between inland and oceanfront, and resettlement policy
satisfaction
The number of interviewee became fifty-one, and total time of the interviews was eight
hours and twelve minutes.
3. REMARKABLE FINDINGS
Several remarkable findings were made by the hearing surveys. This chapter reports
two topics from them.
3.1 Differences caused by selection of donors
A lot of donors supplied permanent houses to the victims on inland residential sites
prepared by the national government after the tsunami in Sri Lanka as well as in othercountries. Quality of the provided housings, however, differed depending on donors,
and the difference has seriously widened for residents as time goes by.
Figure 2 left shows a house provided by an association. The donor gave the house to
the residents in December 2006, two years after the event, but construction quality was
unsatisfactory. Now that seven years had passed, some parts of the house deteriorated
as shown in Figure 3. Since the donor didn’t give maintenance service, the residents inthe area had to repair their deteriorated houses themselves. Whether they can live
confortable depends on their financial conditions.
On the other hand, residents living in Tzu Chi Great Love Village in Hambantota satisfy
their houses (Figure 2 right) and its environment. Tzu Chi foundation, based in Taiwan,
constructed the residential site and had kept improving environmental comfortability forlong-term recovery. Most residents were content with physical environment andcommunity relationship in the village.

Ten-year post - tsunami living conditions in southwestern coastal area resettlements of Sri Lanka
after 2004Ten-year
Indian Ocean
Tsunamipost tsunami
living conditions of residents in southwestern coastal area resettlements 265
in Sri Lanka after the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarFigure 2: A house provided by an association (left) and a house provided by Tzu Chi
Foundation (right)

Figure 3: Crack on the floor (left) and ill-shapen roof (right)
3.2 Environmental change as time goes by
Although Tzu Chi Foundation provided this fabulous community place to the victims in
Hambantota, one critical problem arose. Chinese Government started financial
supporting to construct International Airport and International Ferry Terminal in
Hambantota (Figure 4) some years ago, and Tzu Chi had to stop maintenance of thevillage. This undesirable situation was caused by an international political issue.

Figure 4: International Airport (left) and International Ferry Terminal (right)

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4. CONCLUSION
As of December 2014, ten years will have passed since the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami
struck the coastal areas of Sri Lanka. Following the devastating event, most residents inadversely affected coastal areas moved to inland resettlements by the government’s
recovery policy. Following post-tsunami urban recovery processes for several years,
the author conducted a field survey and questionnaire interviews about recent living
conditions to residents in several resettlement districts in Southwestern Coastal Areas in
the country.
This paper reports environmental differences caused by selection of donors andproblems caused by a change of supporting system as time goes by. The residents theauthor met in this survey were relieved living in safer inland places, but most of themwere facing problems of job opportunities and income. The author would like tocontinue analyzing gathered information by the survey.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was supported by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS)
through the Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research No. 23404019, “Examination of
Urban Recovery Plans after the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami and Urban Risk Evaluationof Tsunami in Asia Influenced by Global Warming.” The author would like toacknowledge contribution by Mr. Navindra De Silva, and Dr. Kazuya Sugiyasu at
International Research Institute of Disaster Science, Tohoku University. The author isalso grateful for the cooperation of residents.

REFERENCES
Department of Census and Statistics, 2005. Census of Persons, Housing Units andOther Buildings Affected by the Tsunami, 26th December 2004.
Nakazato, H., and Murao, O., 2007. Study on regional differences in permanent housing
reconstruction process in Sri Lanka after the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami. Journal of
Natural Disaster Science 29, 63-71.

Ten-year post - tsunami living conditions in southwestern coastal area resettlements of Sri Lanka
after 2004Ten-year
Indian Ocean
Tsunamipost tsunami
living conditions of residents in southwestern coastal area resettlements 267
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Expended energy based damage assessment of
RC bare frame using nonlinear pushover analysis
Anthugari Vimala1 and Ramancharla Pradeep Kumar2
Research Scholar, Earthquake Engineering Research Centre,
IIIT-Hyderabad, India
vimala.a@research.iiit.ac.in
2
Professor and Head, Earthquake Engineering Research Centre,
IIIT-Hyderabad, India.
1

ABSTRACTPast response analyses of structures under earthquake excitations revealed that boththe maximum displacement and the number of inelastic excursions cause higher damage
to the structure. However, it is observed that the quantification of damage is a difficult
task. In the paper, a new methodology is proposed for the quantification of damage ofreinforced concrete framed structure. This method is based on the nonlinear energy
dissipated by the structure along the complete displacement path. Three methods havebeen proposed to assess the global damage state of the structure, for any deformationlevel. In these proposed methods, the damage index is expressed as the ratio of
nonlinear dissipated energy at an instant, to the total non-linear energy capacity of thestructure. To calculate the energy, pushover curve is plotted between base shear versus
displacement at C.G of external force profile, which provides consistent meaning forwork done by external forces. The area under the curve represents the energy dissipatedby the structure. To illustrate the proposed concept, two cases i.e., G+5 and G+9 story
structures have been considered.
Keywords: Pushover analysis, expended energy, total energy, damage index.
1. INTRODUCTION
Many damage indices were proposed to quantify seismic damage sustained by complete
RC frame structures, each storey in them or individual elements. Damage indices areclassified broadly as local damage indices and global damage indices, the former
quantify damage in individual members, at individual joints or at a particular crosssection, and the latter damage in the whole structure (Kappos, 1997). The indices usedin literature are estimated combining local deformation quantities and/or some overall
structure response quantities. A detailed review of damage indices is available inliterature (Williams and Sexsmith, 1995; Ghobarah et al., 1999; and Padilla et al., 2009).
The most widely used damage index (Park and Ang, 1985) is derived to estimate (a)local damage (member damage) using a damage function based on maximum
displacement ductility and cumulative hysteresis energy, and (b) the global damage
using an average of local indices, weighted by local energy absorption. This index D

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November
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Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmartakes into account both maximum plastic displacement G max and plastic dissipatedenergy ³ dE , given by:

G max
E
(1)

dE
G u Q yG u ³
and is supported by a wide correlation with observed damage. But, experimental
determination of parameter ȕ is difficult.
D

Another damage index Dglobal (Roufaiel and Meyer, 1987) expressed global damage
using deflections at roof level, as:

Gm G yG f G y

Dglobal(2)

and yet another DI P (Powell and Allahabadi, 1988) on plastic deformations andductility:

DI P

umax  u y(3)umon  u y
In another study (Bozorgnia and Bertero, 2001), two damage indices DI1 and DI 2 wereintroduced for SDOF systems in terms of displacement ductility and energy capacity on
the system, as§ P  Pe ·
§ E ·
(4)
¸¸  D 1 ¨¨ H ¸¸ andDI 1 1  D 1 ¨¨
© P mon  1 ¹© E Hmon ¹
DI 1

where
umax
P
uy

Pe

uelasticuy§ P  Pe ·EH¸¸  D 2
1  D 2 ¨¨
E Hmon© P mon  1 ¹(5)

Displacement ductility ,Maximumelastic portion of deformationuy­ 1 for inelastic behaviour®
¯P for elastic behaviour

Pmon

Monotonic displacement ductility capacity ,EH Hysteretic energy demanded by earthquake ground motion ,EHmon Hystereticenergy capacity under monotonically increasinglateral deformationand0  Į1  1 and 0  Į2  1 are constants.

These models which include energy term need knowledge of time history response of
the structure during the earthquake. Another damage model proposed (Poljanšek andFajfar, 2008) for seismic damage assessment of RC frame structures expressed damage
index DI PF as a ratio of deformation demand to deformation capacity, given by:
u
(6)
DI PF
uequ
In general, any damage in the structure is related to inelastic deformations or inelastic
energy dissipated by member or structure. Inelastic energy dissipation capacity of a270

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structure depends on its structural configuration, yielding capacity of members andmaterial properties of the structure. At any deformation, it is an important index thatindicates the state of structural damage and reliability of the structure. Damage index
for a general force-deformation relationship (Cosenza, et al, 2000) is expressed as theratio of hysteretic energy capacity of the system under monotonically increasing
deformation to irrecoverable hysteretic energy, given by
DI H

EH
EHmon

(7)

Though the damage model is energy based, to quantify the damage state of the structure,
the dynamic time history response of the structure during earthquake event is needed,which is tedious and involve more calculations. Energy based damage model should be
simple and require less calculations.
2. PROPOSED DAMAGE INDEX ESTIMATION APPROACH
In the present study, a new global damage estimation approach is presented for seismic
damage assessment of RC frame structures, using a simple static nonlinear procedure.
Damage is represented as ratio of inelastic energy dissipated at any displacement to thetotal inelastic energy capacity of the structure. The energy dissipated is low when lateral
deformation is small, than that when lateral deformation is large. For the sake ofsimplicity, the proposed damage estimation approach uses inelastic displacement
excursion of the structure. Static pushover analysis provides a measure of nonlinear
behaviour of the structure. Two example buildings are considered in a pilot study,
namely one 6-storey and another 10-storey building. 2D frames are considered and thetotal energy capacity of the structure estimated by performing pushover analysis using
SAP2000 software. The effectiveness of proposed damage models is discussed alongwith the global damage state of the structure at four different displacement excursions.
In the proposed method, the total inelastic energy dissipated by frame in eachincremental load step of the pushover analysis is calculated as the area under the
pushover curve – base shear versus displacement of the frame at centre of gravity of
external force system, which gives the real meaning of external work done or totalenergy dissipated by the structure. To represent the damage state of a structure in eachincremental load step of the pushover analysis, a cumulative dissipated energy is used.
Based on the capacity curve of a structure, the damage state of the structure can be
represented in the four ranges as shown in Figure 1.

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Base shear

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarRoof displacement
Figure 1: Damage index estimation methods critical points
Point A indicates the elastic state of the structure, point B indicates the middle stage
between elastic limit and ultimate point, point C indicates the ultimate strength of thestructure, point D represents the stage of the structure between ultimate point andcollapse point, point E indicates the collapse stage. In the load control region (points Oto C), the strength carrying capacity of the structure increases in nonlinear state. In thedisplacement control region (points C to E), as the displacement increases, the strengthof the structure reduces. Possible damage ranges are shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Description of the behaviour of a typical structure in the whole range of
nonlinear action
Range of deformation
OA
AB
BC
CD
DE

Behaviour
Elastic
Strain hardening
Ultimate strength
Strength reduction
Imminent collapseState
No damageLight damage
Moderate damage
Severe damage
Extreme damage and collapse

In current study, overall damage index is estimated as the ratio of dissipated energy tototal energy capacity of the structure. In the present study, three methods are considered
for damage estimation in RC structures, namely
Method 1:

D1

Method 2:

D2

Method 3:

D3§ E  Eie ·¨¨¸¸ u 100© ET  Eie ¹§ E  Ee ·¨¨¸¸ u 100
E
E

ie ¹
© T
§ EL  ENL ·¨¨¸¸ u 100© ELT  ENLT ¹

(8)
and

(9)
(10)

where
E = Energy dissipated by structure at displacement level at which damage is being
estimated;

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Eie = Initial yield energy of structure;
ET = Total energy absorbed by structure;
Ee = Instantaneous elastic energy at displacement level at which damage is being
estimated;
EL = Linear energy at displacement level at which damage is being estimated;
ENL = Nonlinear energy at displacement level at which damage is being estimated;
ELT = Linear energy at maximum displacement of structure; andENLT = Nonlinear energy at maximum displacement of structure.
All parameters of above methods are represented in figure 2.

(a)

(b)

(c)
Figure 2: Parameters used for damage estimation in (a) Method 1, (b) Method 2, and (c)Method 3
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3. CASE STUDY
To study the efficiency of the proposed methods, the energy dissipation is studied in
two example structures, namely 6 and 10 storey RC frame buildings.
3.1 Details of the Structure
The two structures considered are to represent shear dominated building and flexure
dominated building for study. These 6 and 10 story buildings are designed inaccordance with the Indian codes of practice for plain and reinforced concrete (IS: 456)
and for earthquake resistant design (IS: 1893(1)) . The buildings are assumed to besituated in seismic zone V of IS: 1893–2002, with a zone factor of 0.36 groundacceleration. Material properties used are: 20 MPa for concrete compressive strengthand 415 MPa for steel yield strength for both longitudinal and transverse reinforcement
bars. Both 6 and 10 story buildings are 15 m by 15 m in plan (Figure 3). Typical floorto-floor height is 3m. The interior frames as shown in Figure 3 is 2D model of thesebuildings.

Figure 3: Plan view of 6 and 10 story buildings
The 6-story building is 18 m in elevation. All columns are 300mm x 400 mm
dimensions and the amount and arrangement of longitudinal reinforcement in columns
and beams are shown in Figure 4. All beams are 230 mm × 330 mm in cross section.
The 10-storey building is 30 m in elevation. Column dimension, location and theamount and arrangement of longitudinal reinforcement are shown in Figure 5. All
beams are 300mm×400mm and the amounts of top and bottom reinforcement of beams
are shown in mm2 in Figure 5.
3.2 Modeling
Since there is no torsional effect in the selected structures, two-dimensional (2-D)
modeling is employed. A two-dimensional model of each structure is created in
SAP2000 to carry out nonlinear static analysis. Beam and column elements are modeled
as nonlinear frame elements with lumped plasticity by defining plastic hinges at bothends of beams and columns. SAP2000 implements the plastic hinge properties
described in FEMA-356 and ATC-40. The structure is subjected to incremental lateral
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forces with uniform distribution along the height and the base shear versus displacement
at centre of gravity of external force profile diagram is plotted to calculate the energy at
any deformation. For any load pattern, if the curve is plotted with the displacement at
C.G of external force system. The area under the curve represents the total seismicenergy absorbed by the building which is equal to the work of seismic loads acting on
the structure.

(a)(b)
Figure 4: Details of 6-storey frame (a) Longitudinal reinforcement in beams (mm2)(b) Column reinforcement(a)(b)
Figure 5: Details of 10-storey frame (a) Longitudinal reinforcement in beams (mm2)(b) Column reinforcement
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In the present analysis the pushover curve is considered up to 2/3 of ultimate strength or
4% drift of the structure, whichever reach first. At any of the condition, damage in the
structure is assumed to be 100%, that means the structure is no longer in serviceablecondition. Pushover curves for 6 and 10 storey structure are shown in Figure 6. Defined
critical points for damage assessment are represented on the pushover curves. Using
three damage assessment methods, damage of 6 and 10 storey structures is calculated.
For damage estimation Method 1, the total non linear energy capacity ET, for the
structure is calculated as the total area under the pushover curve up to maximum
displacement where the pushover curve is stopped . the initial elastic energy Eie, iscalculated as the area under the curve up to initial yield point of the structure. E is theenergy dissipated by the structure up to a displacement where the damage to be
calculated.
For damage estimation Method 2, the instant elastic energy Ee, is energy restored in the
structure when the structure is unloaded and it is assumed that the structure come backto static position by moving parallel to initial tangent to the curve. All other parameters
are calculated as given in Method 1.

Base shear (kN)

For damage estimation Method 3, the damage at any deformation is estimated as theratio of expended energy for damage to total expended energy capacity to sustain thedamage of the structure. In this method, the actual non linear behavior pushover curveand imaginary linear elastic curve are drawn. At any deformation, it was assumed that if
there is no damage, the structure should be in linear state. Based on this concept, at any
deformation, damage causing energy which is named as expended energy is calculated
and represented as a percentage of total capacity of the structure to know the damage
status of the structure.

Displacement(mm)
(a)
(b)
(b)
Figure 6: Pushover curve up to 2/3 of Ultimate strength (a) 6 storey frame (b) 10 storey
frame

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Table 2: Damage in % for 6 storey structure under flexure failure
Method of Estimating
DamageMethod 1
Method 2
Method 3
Powell & Allahabadi

A
0
0
0
0

B
7
5
0.5
9

Damage at
C
70
65
44
61

D
87
85
71
74

E
100
99.8
100
100

Table 3: Damage in % for 10 storey structure under flexure failure
Method of Estimating
DamageMethod 1
Method 2
Method 3
Powell & Allahabadi

A
0
0
0
0

B
5
3
0.4
8

Damage at
C
93
87
84
93

D
94
89
87
95

E
100
97
100
100

Damage %To study the efficiency of proposed methods, the damage calculated at each step of
pushover analysis using three methods are presented in Figure 7. The damage profile inboth frames are same. From the analysis it is understood that the damage estimation byusing method 3 is more appropriate. The clear meaning of damage is that the amount of
non linear energy dissipated by the structure, as the method 3 represents the clear
meaning of damage estimation at any deformation, and estimates the damage state of
the structure as 100% at its maximum deformation capacity. Method 1 has the limit thatat any deformation, the elastic energy is assumed as the initial elastic energy, but thestructure may not have the same. Method 2 is also based on the assumption that at any
deformation, when the structure is unloaded, it moves to static position with initialstiffness. The damage calculated at defined critical points on the pushover curve ispresented in table 2 and table 3 for 6 and 10 storey structures respectively. To validate
the proposed methods, damage estimated at critical points is compared with Powel andAllahbadi model, which is based on displacement ductility.

Drift %
Figure 7: Damage Vs drift under flexure failure (a) 6 storey frame (b) 10 storey frame
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4. CONCLUSIONS
1. The ultimate deformation capacity of the structure is found by using static nonlinear
pushover analysis and for that deformation the energy capacity of the structure is
calculated.
2. In the paper 3 new damage estimation methods are proposed based on energy concept.
New damage estimation methods are expressed as a ratio of the nonlinear energy
dissipated for any deformation to the total nonlinear energy capacity of the structure.
3. The proposed approach is very simple for quick assessment of damage state of thestructure for any deformation.
4. Damage estimation method 3 is more appropriate to estimate the damage state of thestructure. This method is based on the expended energy which is responsible for thedamage. The deformation profile of the structure is clearly represented by damage
method3.
5. Method1 and method2 lead to the less accurate result compared to method 3 becauseof assumptions in that approaches.
REFERENCES
Bozorgnia, Y. and Bertero, V. V., 2008. Improved shaking and damage parameters forpost-earthquake applications. Proceedings of 14th World Conference on Earthquake
Engineering.
Comartin, C. D., Niewiarowski, R. W., Rojahn, C. and California Seismic Safety
Commission. 1996. ATC-40 Seismic evaluation and retrofit of concrete buildings,
Applied Technology Council, Applied Technology Council, Redwood City, California.
Cosenza, E. and Manfredi, G., 2000. Damage indices and damage measures. Progressin Structural Engineering and Materials 2, 50-59.
FEMA-356., 2000. Prestandard and commentary for the seismic rehabilitation ofbuildings, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Washington.
Ghobarah, A., Abou-Elfath, H. and Buddha, A., 1999. Response-based damage
assessment of structures. Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics 28, 79-104.
Kappos, A. J., 1997. Seismic damage indices for RC buildings: evaluation of concepts
and procedures. Progress in Structural Engineering and Materials 1, 78-87.
Kunnath, S. K., Reinhorn, A. M. and Park, Y. J., 1990. Analytical modeling of inelastic
seismic response of r/c structures. Journal of Structural Engineering ASCE 116, 9961017.
Murty, C. V. R. and Pradeep Kumar, R., 2013. Critical Review of Indian Seismic CodeIS1893:2002. International colloquium on Architecture & Structure Interaction for
Sustainable Development.
Padilla, D. and Rodriguez, M., 2009. A damage index for the seismic analysis ofreinforced concrete members. Journal of Earthquake Engineering 13, 364-383.
Park, Y. J., Ang, A. H. S. and Wen, Y. K., 1985. Seismic damage analysis of reinforced
concrete buildings. Journal of Structural Engineering ASCE 111,740-757.
Powell, G. H. and Allahabadi, R., 1988. Seismic damage prediction by deterministic
methods: Concept and procedure. Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics 16,
719-734.

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Roufaiel, M. S. L. and Meyer, C., 1987. Reliability of concrete frames damaged byearthquakes. Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE 113, 445-457.
Williams, M. S. and Sexsmith, R. G., 1995. Seismic damage indices for concrete
structures: A State-of-the-Art Review. Earthquake Spectra 11, 740-757.
Expended energy based damage assessment of RC bare frame using nonlinear pushover
Expendedanalysis
energy based damage assessment of RC bare frame using nonlinear pushover analysis

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Analysis on disaster information dissemination
process in a rural mountainous area,
northeast Thailand-Comparison with heavy rain disasterin a rural mountainous area, JapanShinya KONDO1, Akiyuki KAWASAKI2, Miho OHARA3 , Akira KODAKA4,
Adisorn SANTHARARUK 5, and Kazuyoshi OTA6
1
Chief Researcher, Disaster Reduction and Human Renovation Institute, Japankondo2@dri.ne.jp
2
Project Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
the University of Tokyo, Japan
3
Senior Researcher, Global Center of Excellence
for Water Hazard and Risk Management, Public Works Research Institute, Japan
4
Project Researcher, ICUS, IIS, The University of Tokyo, Japan
5
Loei Fund for Nature Conservation and Sustainable Development, Thailand
6
Civil Engineering Department, Wakayama Prefecture, Japan
ABSTRACTIn this study, for introducing a disaster information dissemination system in Japan torural mountainous area in Thailand, the authors tried to organize the information
dissemination process of leading the observation data of rainfall and river level toevacuation of residents during flood disaster, from the point of view of information
management and role-sharing between related organizations. The first target area was
Loei, in northeast Thailand. The second one was Kozagawa town, Southern part of
Wakayama Prefecture, Japan. Kozagawa town was damaged by flood and sedimentdisaster caused by 2011 typhoon Talas. The authors tried to clarify the problems of thetarget area in Thailand after compared with the result in Japan. There were two
problems, evacuation promotion of residents by districts, and sharing and observation
data / forecasting and warning of the central government.
Keywords: disaster information dissemination, rural mountainous area, information
management, local government
1. INTRODUCTION
Asia has achieved rapid economic growth, in the mountainous areas, there are many
places that are modified to farmland is cut entirely mountain surface by large-scale landdevelopment and economy promotion measures (Qiu (2009), Ziegler (2009)). In thepast to increase the resident population to the danger zone without residence experience,flood risk in the region has become significantly higher (IPCC (2007)). In these areas,poor farmers and immigrants are often living. However, governments are unable toprovide adequate disaster prevention measures in the limited resources. In the future, it281

November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar
November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

is necessary to measures such as early evacuation promotion by disaster information
dissemination and local community. Introduction of disaster information dissemination
system using a mobile phone and the Internet also can be a one of its means.
Dissemination of information and communication technologies such as mobile phones
and the internet in Asian countries is expanding rapidly. And in rural and fishingvillages in the mountainous areas, households that own the mobile phone are increasing.
For example, according to the National Statistical Office of Thailand (2012), theinternet and mobile phone penetration rate of residents of more than 6 years of age to beliving in non-urban areas of Thailand in 2012, is 20.5 percent and 66.2%. In Japan,
technology and scientific knowledge about the disaster experience and disasterprevention have been accumulated. Disaster information dissemination using the mobile
phone and the internet has already been made. In the rural and mountainous areas, it isnecessary in order to reduce human damage by future disaster to use this knowledge
according to local conditions.
In this study, for introducing a disaster information dissemination system in Japan torural mountainous area in Thailand, the authors tries to organize the information
dissemination process of leading the observation data of rainfall and river level toevacuation of residents during flood disaster, from the point of view of information
management and role-sharing between related organizations.
2. The disaster information dissemination process in Thailand
2.1 Overview of the investigation area
The investigation area in this study is Loei Wan Sai Sub-district of Phu Luang Districtat Loei Province, located in the northeastern part of Thailand (Figure 1). Disaster in theregion is most the flash floods and landslides caused by torrential rain. Figure 2 shows
the configuration of a local administration in this area. These are the outposts of DDPM
(Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation) at the Loei Province office. Thereare eight villages in the Loei Wan Sai Sub-district. In this area, there are PAO(Provincial Administration Organization) and TAO (Tambon Administrative
Organization) as local autonomy government.
2.2 Outline of survey
In this study, the authors conduct survey to organize the information dissemination
process of leading the observation data of rainfall and river level to evacuation ofresidents during flood disaster. Specifically, the interview survey of residents of villages
and the personnel of local government was carried out. And results of this interview
survey and the disaster prevention plan (DPP) translated in English was organized to theinformation dissemination process. Table 1 is the list of persons and dates.

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ICUS Report 78

Loei
Province
Loei WangSaiSubͲDistrict

thenortheasternpart

Phu Luang
District

NonPatta Na
Village
Loei TaoTadVillage

Loei WangSai
Village

Figure 1: The study area in Thailand
MinistryofInterior(MOI)
Localgovernment
Localautonomygovernment
Loei Province

Loei PAO

Phuluang District
Loei WangSaiSubͲDistrict

Loei WangSaiTAO

8Villages

Figure 2: The configuration of a local administration in this area
Table 1: The list of persons and dates
DPP

PersonsandDates

Loei Province䕿2012Mar.16:ViceͲgovernor,Directorof
DDPM,StaffofDDPM,Staffofgovernor’s
office.(Total7people)
2012Dec.6:DirectorofDDPM,StaffofDDPM.
(Total8people)

Phu Luang District䕿

2012Mar.15:Director, ViceͲdirector,Staff.
(Total9people)
2012Dec.6:ViceͲdirector.

Loei WangSai
SubͲdistrictͲ

2012Mar.15:Director

Loei WangSaiTAOͲ2012Mar.16:Mayorand Staff.(Total4
people)VillageͲ2012Mar.15:ResidentsatLoei TaoTadVillage
(Total8people)

Analysis on
disasterdissemination
process inprocess
a ruralinmountainous
area, northeast
Thailand
Analysis
oninformation
disaster information
dissemination
a rural mountainous
area, northeast
283-Comparison
with heavy
rain disasterin a rural
mountainous
area,mountainous
JapanThailand-Comparison
with heavy
rain disasterin a ruralarea, Japan-

November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar
November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

2.3 Division of roles between the organizations
The authors organized the disaster information dissemination process on evacuation
during flood in Loei Wang Sai sub-district from the point of view of the division ofroles between organizations. Figure 3 shows the disaster information dissemination
process in the work flow diagram. The horizontal axis indicates the relevantorganizations viewed from residents as ”Central government", "Province", "District","Sub-district", "TAO", "Residents" and "Upstream village / ranger". "Central
government" includes DDPM, TMD (Thai Meteorological Department), and RID(Royal Irrigation Department). "TAO" includes Sub-district. Disaster response of"Residents" is the almost same as that of "Village". The vertical axis represents thebusiness processes of up to evacuation of residents from the observation data of rainfall
and river level as “Observation of rainfall / water level”, “Disaster / damage estimation”,“Forecasting and warning”, and “Evacuation”.

ᵡᶃᶌᶒᶐᵿᶊᴾᶅᶍᶔᶃᶐᶌᶋᶃᶌᶒ
ᵭᶀᶑᶃᶐᶔᵿᶒᶇᶍᶌᴾ
ᶍᶄᴾᶐᵿᶇᶌᶄᵿᶊᶊᴾᵍᴾ
ᶕᵿᶒᶃᶐᴾᶊᶃᶔᶃᶊ

Businessprocessesᵢᶇᶑᵿᶑᶒᶃᶐᴾᵍᴾ
ᶂᵿᶋᵿᶅᶃᴾᶃᶑᶒᶇᶋᵿᶒᶇᶍᶌ

Observation
ofrainfall/
waterlevelᵲᵟᵭᵰᶃᶑᶇᶂᶃᶌᶒᶑ

ᵳᶎᶑᶒᶐᶃᵿᶋᴾᵴᶇᶊᶊᵿᶅᶃᴾᵍᴾ
ᵰᵿᶌᶅᶃᶐ

Observationofwaterlevel

Observation
ofwaterlevel

Observation
ofrainfall/
waterlevel

Relevantorganizationsᵮᶐᶍᶔᶇᶌᶁᶃ

ᵢᶇᶑᶒᶐᶇᶁᶒ

Disseminationofobservation
information

Disaster/Damage
Disaster/Damage Disaster/Damage
estimationby
estimationbased estimationbased
numerical
onexperiencesonexperiences
simulation

Disaster/Damage
estimationbasedonexperiences

Warning
Warningᵤᶍᶐᶃᶁᵿᶑᶒᶇᶌᶅᴾ
ᵍᴾᶕᵿᶐᶌᶇᶌᶅ

ᵣᶔᵿᶁᶓᵿᶒᶇᶍᶌ

Evacuation
message

Evacuation
message

Evacuation

Figure 3: The disaster information dissemination process in the work flow diagram(Loei Wang Sai district)
Information that central government, TAO, residents, upstream village and ranger has
been observed is reported to district. Then, district has been issued the evacuation
information to residents based on the warning information from central government andprovinces. This is because district has the authority to determine the evacuation ofresidents according to DPP. On the other hand, residents receive the observation
information from TAO, upstream village, ranger and residents. Then residents promoteevacuation to other residents based on this observation information and the warning
information from district. However, residents often determine the evacuation from
actually see the water level of the river. Two arrows connecting central government,
province and district are dotted lines. This indicates that there is a possibility of delays
in communication because of two reasons below. Firstly, information from the central

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government has been communicated to the prefecture by fax and email. Secondly, it isnecessary to approval of any stages to disseminate information.
3. The disaster information dissemination process in Japan
3.1 Overview of the investigation area
In this study, the investigation area in Japan is Kozagawa town, Wakayama prefecture(Figure 4). This municipality is located in the southern part of Kii Peninsula protruding
to the south from the center of Honshu, Japan. Kozagawa town is in the mountainous
area where depopulation and aging are progressing. A major industry is the primarily
industry a focus on forestry. Figure 5 shows the detail of Kozagawa town. This town islocated in the drainage basin of Kozagawa river. There is fear that the damage is causedby flood disaster and sediment disaster. Upstream of Kozagawa river, there is
Shichikawa dam that Wakayama prefecture manages.
Mie
Osaka
Nara

Wakayama

Kozagawa
town

Figure 4: Location of Kozagawa town

OfficeofKozagawa town
Road
River
RainͲgauge(JMA)RainͲgauge(Prefecture)

Nishikawa

Gaugingstation

Shichikawa
dam

Officeof
Kozagawa town

Figure 5: The detail of Kozagawa town
Analysis
oninformation
disaster information
dissemination
a rural mountainous
area, northeast
Analysis on
disasterdissemination
process inprocess
a ruralinmountainous
area, northeast
Thailand285
Thailand-Comparison
with
heavy
rain
disasterinarural
mountainous
area,
Japan-Comparison with heavy rain disaster in a rural mountainous area, Japan-

November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar
November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

3.2 Overview of Typhoon Talas
On 3 September, Typhoon Talas made landfall on Shikoku Island and reached the Sea
of Japan on the next day after crossing Shikoku and Chugoku regions. Because Talas
had a large scale strong wind area and moved very slowly, it induced moistureadvection for many hours and caused the record-breaking heavy rainfall over a wide
area from western to northern Japan, especially along the mountains.
Especially over a wide area of the Kii Peninsula, the total amount of the precipitationfrom 17 JST, 30 August exceeded 1,000 mm. The observing station at Kamikitayamavillage in Nara Prefecture observed 1,652.5 mm rainfall in 72 hours, hitting the record
high in Japan. The total amount of the precipitation at the station reached 1805.5 mm
and precipitation amount in some areas was estimated to be over 2,000 mm. (Japan
Meteorological Agency 2011). Figure 6 shows the relationship of precipitation, heavy
rain warning and landslide warning information at Nishikawa, the mountainous area of
Kozagawa town. Rain became heavily at early morning on 2nd September after heavy
rain warning issued. Landslide warning information was also issued at 21:45 on this day
at Kozagawa town. Human casualties caused by this disaster are 82 dead people and 16
missing people. In Kozagawa town, there were no direct human casualties (Fire andDisaster Management Agency (2012)).
By this disaster, there was damage to landline, mobile phone, and cable TV at
Kozagawa town. Then, residents could not use Internet services. So residents could notaccess observation information of rainfall / river level.

Hourly(Leftscale)
Total(Rightscale)

Total
precipitation

Monthlyaverageprecipitation
(September):401.8mm
Hourlyprecipitationᵟᶂᶔᶇᶑᶍᶐᶗ

ᵦᶃᵿᶔᶗᴾᶐᵿᶇᶌᴾᵿᶌᶂᴾᶄᶊᶍᶍᶂᴾᶕᵿᶐᶌᶇᶌᶅ
ᵪᵿᶌᶂᶑᶊᶇᶂᶃᴾᶕᵿᶐᶌᶇᶌᶅ

Figure 6: The relationship of precipitation, heavy rain warning and landslide warning
information (Kozgawa town)
3.3 Outline of survey
In this study, the authors conduct survey the same as Loei Wang Sai Sub-district.
Specifically, the interview survey of the personnel of Wakayama prefecture andKozagawa town was carried out. And results of this interview survey, DPP of
Wakayama prefecture, and abstracts of a record of this disaster (Wakayama prefecture(2013) and Kozagawa town (2011)) were organized to the information dissemination
process. Table 2 is the list of persons and dates.

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Table 2: The list of persons and dates
PersonsandDates
Wakayama 2012Jan.10:Disastermanagement
prefecture departmentstaff(total2 people)
Kozagawa
town2011Dec.22:Disastermanagementstaff
(1people)

3.4 Division of roles between the organizations
The authors organized the disaster information dissemination process on evacuation
during flood in Kozagawa town from the point of view of the division of roles between
organizations. Figure 7 shows the disaster information dissemination process in thework flow diagram. The horizontal axis indicates the relevant organizations viewed
from residents as ”Central government", "Prefecture", "Municipality (town)","Residents" and "Dam office". "Central government" means Wakayama Local
Meteorological Observatory. "Dam office" is Site office of Shichikawa Dam. The
vertical axis represents the business processes of up to evacuation of residents from theobservation data of rainfall and river level the same as Figure 3.
Relevantorganizationsᵡᶃᶌᶒᶐᵿᶊᴾᶅᶍᶔᶃᶐᶌᶋᶃᶌᶒ
ᵭᶀᶑᶃᶐᶔᵿᶒᶇᶍᶌᴾ
ᶍᶄᴾᶐᵿᶇᶌᶄᵿᶊᶊᴾᵍᴾ
ᶕᵿᶒᶃᶐᴾᶊᶃᶔᶃᶊ

Businessprocessesᵢᶇᶑᵿᶑᶒᶃᶐᴾᵍᴾ
ᶂᵿᶋᵿᶅᶃᴾᶃᶑᶒᶇᶋᵿᶒᶇᶍᶌ

Observation
ofrainfallᵮᶐᶃᶄᶃᶁᶒᶓᶐᶃ
Observation
ofrainfall/
riverlevel

Disaster/Damageestimationby
numericalsimulation
Settingthecriteriaofwarningᵫᶓᶌᶇᶁᶇᶎᵿᶊᶇᶒᶗ
ᵆᵲᶍᶕᶌᵇReportsfromthefieldᵰᶃᶑᶇᶂᶃᶌᶒᶑ

ᵢᵿᶋᴾᶍᶄᶄᶇᶁᶃ

Visualobservation

Discharge

Disaster/Damage Disaster/Damage
estimationbased estimationbasedonexperiencesonexperiences

Issuedforecasting/warning
Weatherinformationᵤᶍᶐᶃᶁᵿᶑᶒᶇᶌᶅᴾ
ᵍᴾᶕᵿᶐᶌᶇᶌᶅ

ᵣᶔᵿᶁᶓᵿᶒᶇᶍᶌ

sedimentflood
forecasting disasterwarning
information

Settingthecriteriafor
evacuation

Evacuation
warning

Decision

Evacuation

Figure 7: The disaster information dissemination process in the work flow diagram(Kozagawa town)
From Figure 7, each organization was estimated the disaster / damage based on theobservation information of rainfall and river water level, respectively. "Central
government" and "prefecture" were issued the forecasting and warning as
meteorological warning, flood forecasting, and sediment disaster warning information.
Analysis on disaster information dissemination process in a rural mountainous area, northeast
Thailandheavy rainprocess
disasterininaarural
ruralmountainous
mountainousarea,
area,northeast
Japan- Thailand
Analysis on
disaster-Comparison
information with
dissemination
287-Comparison with heavy rain disaster in a rural mountainous area, Japan-

November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar
November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar"Municipality (town)" had set the evacuation criteria jointly with "residents". Kozagawa
town was dispatched staff to the community. Then "residents" and staff set theevacuation criteria before sundown. Kozagawa town and “residents” had agreed to be
evacuated without fear fruitless before sundown based on past experience of typhoon.
As a result, evacuation of residents had been completed before the roads become
unavailable in the inundation from Kozagawa river. At that time, disaster management
staff of Kozagawa town had been in touch with site office of Shichikawa dam.
Kozagawa town had known when Shichikawa dam discharged.
4. Challenges of the disaster information dissemination process in Thailand
In this chapter, based on the case of flood disaster in Japan which was shown in chapter
3, the disaster information dissemination during flood disaster in Loei Wang Sai subdistrict is tried to evaluate. In this time, "District" in Thailand and "Municipality(town)" in Japan is the same level because they have the authority to determine theevacuation.
4.1 Share of observation information / forecasting and warning of central
government
For district and residents make the decision of evacuation in early and accurately, it isnecessary to get observation information as a basis. Kozagawa town grasped theobservation information about rainfall / water level by local meteorological observatory
and prefecture. However, in Loei province, the observation information grasped by
sensor by central government has been disseminated very late by telephone and FAX.
Visual observation in the field has a potential to be caught in flood. Then, observed by
the sensor is desired. To estimate the disaster is not easy for the personnel of district
who has poor knowledge of weather and river. The personnel of the central government
with the knowledge should estimate the situation, and disseminate to district andresidents as forecasting and warning.
As a solution to this problem, it is necessary to make an environment to share theobservation information and forecasting / warning by Internet. Figure 8 shows thedisaster information dissemination process in the work flow diagram based on thissolution. By share of observation information and forecasting / warning, district andresidents may increase the availability of information to determine the evacuation early.
4.2 Evacuation promotion of residents by district
Kozagawa town and “residents” had agreed to be evacuated without fear fruitless before
sundown based on past experience of typhoon. Then, residents were able to evacuation
before flood disaster. Kozagawa town was dispatched staff to the community. Then
"residents" and staff set the evacuation criteria before sundown. There was damage tolandline, mobile phone, and cable TV at Kozagawa town. Then, residents could not use
Internet services. On the basis of the above, it is necessary to make an environment that
district promotes residents to evacuation at Loei Wang Sai sub-district.

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There are two solutions to be considered. Firstly, district encourages residents to decide
whether to remain or to evacuate before the damage occurs. At normal times, district
and residents should agree to be evacuated without fear fruitless. And it is necessary for
district to remove the matters that residents are feeling the difficulty of evacuation.
Another is to multiplexing the means to transmitting the evacuation information toresidents from district. Current means is using voice (Loud speaker, Siren, etc.). At thetime of heavy rain, there is a possibility that the residents have not heard theinformation. Therefore, it is necessary to make an environment that district sends
information in the character data, such as mobile phone short message service (SMS). If
residents do not hear the voice, they confirm the information by mobile phone.

ᵡᶃᶌᶒᶐᵿᶊᴾᶅᶍᶔᶃᶐᶌᶋᶃᶌᶒ
Observation
ofrainfall/
waterlevelᵭᶀᶑᶃᶐᶔᵿᶒᶇᶍᶌᴾ
ᶍᶄᴾᶐᵿᶇᶌᶄᵿᶊᶊᴾᵍᴾ
ᶕᵿᶒᶃᶐᴾᶊᶃᶔᶃᶊ

Businessprocessesᵢᶇᶑᵿᶑᶒᶃᶐᴾᵍᴾ
ᶂᵿᶋᵿᶅᶃᴾᶃᶑᶒᶇᶋᵿᶒᶇᶍᶌ

ᵮᶐᶍᶔᶇᶌᶁᶃ

ᵢᶇᶑᶒᶐᶇᶁᶒ

Shareofobservation
informationofcentralgovernmentᵲᵟᵭObservationofwaterlevel

Disaster/Damag
Disaster/Damage Disaster/Damageeestimationby
estimationbased estimationbased
numerical
onexperiencesonexperiences
simulation
Warningᵤᶍᶐᶃᶁᵿᶑᶒᶇᶌᶅᴾ
ᵍᴾᶕᵿᶐᶌᶇᶌᶅ

ᵣᶔᵿᶁᶓᵿᶒᶇᶍᶌ

ᵰᶃᶑᶇᶂᶃᶌᶒᶑ

ᵳᶎᶑᶒᶐᶃᵿᶋᴾᵴᶇᶊᶊᵿᶅᶃᴾᵍᴾ
ᵰᵿᶌᶅᶃᶐ

Observation
ofwaterlevel

Observation
ofrainfall/
waterlevel

Relevantorganizations

㒆䛾ᑐᛂ
䛾䝣䜷䝻䞊
ᵣᶔᵿᶁᶓᵿᶒᶇᶍᶌᴾᶎᶐᶍᶋᶍᶒᶇᶍᶌ

Evacuation
information

Multiplexingthemeanstotransmittingtheevacuationinformation

Disaster/Damage
estimationbasedonexperiences

Shareof
forecastingand
warningofcentralgovernment

Evacuation
informationᵮᶐᶍᶋᶍᶒᶇᶍᶌ
Evcuation

Figure 7: The disaster information dissemination process in the work flow diagram(Loei Wang Sai district, improvement plan)
REFERENCES
Qiu, J., 2009, Where the rubber meets the garden, Nature, 457(15), 246-247.
Ziegler, A.D., Fox, M. J., Xu, J., 2009, The Rubber Juggernaut, Science, 324, 10241025.
IPCC, 2007, Climate Change 2007, IPCC Fourth Assessment Report.
National Stastical Office of Thailand, 2012, The Information and Communication
Technology Survey in Household.
Japan Meteorological Agency, 2011. Typhoon Talas relevant information -Portal-.
http://www.jma.go.jp/jma/en/typhoon_Talas.html
Fire and Disaster Management Agency, 2012. Disaster management of fire fighting in2011 Typhoon Talas.(Japanese)
Wakayama prefecture, 2013. Abstracts of disaster management in 2011 typhoon Talas,(Japanese)
Kozagawa town, 2011. Kozagawa public relations magazine, (Japanese)
Analysis
oninformation
disaster information
dissemination
a rural mountainous
area, northeast
Analysis on
disasterdissemination
process inprocess
a ruralinmountainous
area, northeast
Thailand289
Thailand-Comparison
with heavy
rain disasterin a ruralarea, Japan-Comparison
with heavy
rain disasterin a rural
mountainous
area,mountainous
Japan-

November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

290

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Quoc Toan NGUYEN 1, Thi Hoai An LE 2 and Bao Ngoc NGUYEN3
1
Phd Student, Lecturer, Faculty of Construction Economics and Management
hoaian102@gmail.com
2
Master student, Faculty of Construction Economics and Management,
3
Student, Faculty of Construction Economics and Management,
National University of Civil Engineering, Vietnam
ABSTRACT

There is an increasing number of construction activities in Hanoi, which affects to thedaily life of citizen there because of noise, dust or accidents. To minimize these harms,
implementation schedule of construction projects should be controlled. However, mostconstruction projects in Hanoi to be time delays, both leading to exceeding initial timeand cost budget of clients, contractors and bothering urban inhabitants’ life. The paper
constructed a questionnaire, basing on interview with stakeholders, which is distributed
among Vietnamese contractors for identifying and evaluating the risks in terms of timein construction phase of projects in Hanoi. Results found four main groups of causing
time delays: (1) by accident factors, (2) technique and management factors, (3) poor
supervision and (4) government policies. Then, the paper puts forward somerecommendations for the Contractors to prevent, deal with and manage time risk
encountered in construction projects for carrying out safe, efficient and quality
construction activities in Hanoi context, the capital of Vietnam.
Keywords: time-related risk, construction delay, construction projects in Hanoi
1. INTRODUCTION
Construction industry faces more risk than others because of its unique features such as
long period, complicated processes, environment influenced, and various stakeholders[Chidambaram, Narayanan and Arazi, 2012]. Different types of risk arise at different
stages in construction from preparation phase, construction phase to operation phase.
These risks lead to different effects to stakeholders. From contractors’ view, risks interms of time or schedule in construction phase are most concerned. Because, if projects
are time-delayed that will bring some problems to the contractors, for example, cost
overrun and accompanied by building quality degradation, losing the professional
reputation [Zou and Wang, 2009]. In Vietnam context, 90% [Vietnam Federation
Construction, 2011] of construction projects are exceeded their planned time. Thus,
effective time-risk management methods should be suggested to understand not only
what kinds of risks are faced, but also how to manage these risks in construction phase.
So, the paper will investigate the practice to identify and evaluate the risks causing timedelays of construction in Hanoi, from contractors’ perspective.

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2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Around the world, many researches have been carried out on project delay problems.
Typically in Vietnam, a research paper called “Risk management in oil and gas
construction projects in Vietnam” was published by Emerald Group Publishing Limited
in 2007 for identifying risk factors, which affect oil and gas construction projects in
Vietnam and derive risk responses(Van et al., 2007); a study of Dr. Nguyen Lien Huong
was published in the Vietnam Journal of Construction in No February/2002 issue, whichindicated major risks in construction projects; a study of Dr. Pham Hong Luan HCMUT
and M.S. Nguyen Thanh Binh UAH was published in the Vietnam Journal ofConstruction in the No January/2005, which shown what causes time overrun inconstruction projects in Vietnam; a study of Dr. Le Van Long (Institute of Construction
Economics) indicated risk management issues in construction projects, was published inthe Vietnam Journal of Construction in No April/2004 issue ;a study of Pham Thi Trang
DUT provided a number of solutions for managing risks in construction projects
through her research work in 2010. Recently, the topic was mentioned in a Master thesisof Nguyen Tien Lam (2014) in theme “Risk Management in ICON 4 Construction
Company”.
Those researches, which related to the above topic, demonstrated the general content aswell as some specific aspects of risk management. However, within the scope of theresearch works widely published which the authors found out, not seen much in-depth
study of risk management in terms of time delays in construction. Thus, it is necessary
to conduct a comprehensive research about time delays in Vietnam.
3. RESEACH METHODOLOGY
The research approach used for the paper included a comprehensive literature review,
an online questionnaire to the contractors and a statistical analysis of the survey data.
The paper uses results from a survey with respondents who are working for contractors
to investigate the issues in managing risks in terms of time and schedule.
Schedule overruns occur due to wide range of factors. Usually, the most majority of
project delays happen during the “construction phase”, when many unforeseen factors
are always involved. So, the scope of the research is focus on time overrun causing in“construction phase”.
The questionnaire comprised of two sections. While section 1 covered general
information about the respondents, section 2 carried 4 main factor groups with a total oftwenty-fifth questions related risks in terms of time delay causing. The factors to bemeasured in the questions have been developed from interim results collected in apreliminary survey through unofficial talks with some engineers and project managers.
The interviewees are requested to answer the questions according to their own
experience and knowledge. 55 results of the questionnaire were received back but only
51 questionnaires are accepted to be used in the research. Moreover, authors had met
some experts to interview for their suggested solutions to solve these problems.

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Data analysis method
The survey focus on 2 main purposes: occurring probability and impact level of timerelated risks or time delay causing. The research uses a score system from 1 to 4
representatives for rarely, usual, frequent and very frequent of factors’ probability.
Besides, the impact level also are assigned score 1 for low, 2 for medium and 3 for highimpact level. Then, the average of occurring probabilities and impact levels arecalculated to find out top time-risk in term of occurring probabilities and impact levels.
Probability index: A formula is used to rank causes of delay based on frequency ofoccurrence as identified by the participants (equation 1):(PI )(%)=(a*n/P)*100(1)

Where a is the constant expressing weighting given to each response (ranges from 1 forrarely up to 4 for very frequent), n is the frequency of the responses, and P is total
number of 4 main factors (25 factors) score in terms of probability.
Impact level index: The importance index of each cause is calculated as follows(equation 2):(ImI)(%)=(a*n/I)*100(2)

Where a is the constant expressing weighting given to each response (ranges from 1 forlow up to 3 for high), n is the frequency of the responses, and I is total number of 4
main factors (25 factors) score in terms of impact level.
4. SURVEY DATA AND DISCUSSION
The respondents came from contractors, both public and private companies, including
engineers, project managers, and consultants. Most of them (67%) work for privatecompanies and the others work in public sectors. Their average year of work experienceis 10 in the field; table 1 shows more detail of the interviewees. It can be seen thatapproximately 30% of respondents have worked more than 10 years in the industry, andthe longest is 28 years. Moreover, the data also shows that all respondents have received
tertiary education with 92% graduate degree and 8% of post graduate. The table 1 isevident that all respondents have enough experiences and knowledge to answer thesection 2 of the interview. Thus, the data received back are believable to be severed the
purposes of the research.

Time delays
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construction
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Hanoi,
Contractors'
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Time
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Table 1: Categories of respondents
No
1

2

3

4

Categories
Age group
Under 30
Over 30Work experience
Under 10 years
Over 10 years
Education
Graduate
Post Graduate
Type of Company
State-own company
Private company

No of respondents

%

10
41

20%
80%

36
15

71%
29%

47
4

92%
8%

17
34

33%
67%

Table 2 below shows the projects in Hanoi area which the authors conducted to find out
some reasons causing time delays.
Table 2: Categories of projects in survey
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Name of Project
National University of Economics Centre Building
Office building, Hai Ba Trung
Water supply and drainge in Gia Lam
Pacific Building
Lotte Building
Time City Mall Project
Cat Linh - Ha Dong Metro Project
345 Doi Can Building
Golden Place Building
Ministry of Foreign Affairs Head OfficeType of project
Civil (Office)
Civil (Office)Infrastructure
Civil (Office)
Civil (Office + Mall)
Civil (Office +Mall)
Infrastructure
Civil (Department)
Civil (Department)
Civil (Office)

The limitation of the survey is that did not cover all type of projects and number of the
projects is only 10. However, these projects are likely typical and from both private andpublic sector.
In term of time delay causing that the respondents had feedback, they can put into 4large groups: (1) by accident factors, (2) technique and management factors, (3) poor
supervision and (4) government policies. In which, 25 time-risk causes are identified
basing on information provided from participants. According to the result, group (3) isthe most popular cause, being mentioned by 65,37% of the respondents. It is also thehighest impact group with 61,13%. The group (1) is ranked 2nd with around 20% both
occurring and impact level. The next is group (4) and the last is group (3) with similar

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rate both occurring probabilities and impact levels. The detail is displayed in table 3. It
can be seen that the summary of percentages of all Group I + Group II + Group III +Group IV equals 100% both in terms of P.I and Im.I.
Group I: By accident factors
Because of unique features of construction industry as mentioned above, it is impacted
by accident factors easily. In the survey, the participants addressed probability of
causing by accident factors is around 20% and their impact level is around 20% too. In
which, risk factors from natural are assigned 11% of time-delay and “bad weather” isthe most popular cause. While the factors from market are occupied approximately 8%
both in terms of probability and impact level with the “material price increasing” is thehighest probability factor. The price of construction materials is usually changing in
response to the inflation and the relationship between supplies and contractors. With
regards to impact level, earthquake and economics crisis are the more influence in thegroup.
Table 3: Result of the survey
P.I (%)

Im.I
(%)

19,33

20,98

11,15

12,14

Causing factors of geology, hydrology, topography
conditions of the building site

3,61

2,64

1.2 Bad weather factors as: Heavy rain, too hot, too cold…

4,09

3,05

1.3 Disasters such as: storm, flood…

2,09

3,12

1.4 Seismic waves, earthquake…

1,35

3,32

2

8,19

8,84

2.1 Material scarcity and resource restrictions

2,57

2,82

2.2 Material price increasing

3,44

2,77

2.3 Economics crisis

2,17

3,25

II

Risks posed by technique and management factors

65,37

61,13

3

Risks in design and surveying

11,40

10,92

3.1 Inadequate or insufficient site information

2,37

2,80

3.2 Design variations

9,03

8,12

4

25,55

24,30

4.1 Tight project schedule

7,5

7,20

4.2 Inadequate program scheduling

5,96

5,60

4.3 Insufficient of productive resources

4,25

4,00

4.4 Variations of the construction programs

7,84

7,50

5

6,97

6,47

No
I
1
1.1

Categories of time-related risks causing
Risks posed by accident factors from external
impacts
Factors from natural conditions, environment andclimateRisks posed by unexpected market fluctuations

Unsuitable construction program planning

Risks posed by Labor factors

Time delays
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Contractors'
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delaysin construction
project
inVietnam:
Hanoi, Vietnam:
Contractors’
perspective

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November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

5.1 Low skilled workers

3,10

3,22

5.2 Workers' awareness

3,87

3,25

10,86

10,82

6.1 Negligence of construction safety policy

3,26

2,30

6.2 Labor accidents happened on site

4,02

5,30

6.3 Infrastructure problems: supply water, electric…

3,58

3,22

7

10,58

8,61

7.1 Causing by the client

3,81

3,30

7.2 Causing by suppliers

3,42

2,92

7.3 Causing by subcontractors
Risks posed by checking and taking over theIIIbuildings factors
8.1 Incomplete documents

3,36

2,39

6,74

8,76

2,91

3,17

8.2 High quality expectations

3,83

5,59

IV Risks posed by legal - administrative factors

8,57

9,13

9.1 Related - polices variations: interest rate, wage…

5,79

6,28

9.3 Bureaucracy of government

2,78

2,85

6

Causing associated with Infrastructure, Construction
Occupational Safety

Risks posed by stakeholders

Group IIGroup II is result from 7 key risks and it is considered the highest probability (65,37%)
and its result is the most dangerous when the risks happening.
The result also shows that “Unsuitable program planning” is the most significant risk tocause time delay with the amount percentages of probability and impact level aresimilar (25,55% and 24,3%), and each factor in the (II.4) has alike the amounts.
“Unsuitable program planning” may result from “Tight schedule”, “Inadequate program
scheduling”, “Insufficient of productive resources”, “Variations of the construction
programs”. It all can be responsible for lack of construction program planningknowledge of contractors. In which, “Variation of construction programs” was ranked
as the most significant risk in the group because of 7,84% probability and 7,5% impact
level. The next popular reason is “Tight schedule” with assigned 7,5% and 7,2%, which
guess that formulating an appropriate schedule in the feasibility phase is hardly moreconstructive to the project delivery. “Inadequate program scheduling” often emerges inprojects with a tight schedule when contractors need to be reduced some programs tomeet the clients’ requirements. Moreover, uncertainty surrounds most resources (labor,material, and machine) of construction projects, which makes it impossible to accurately
predict the resources required for various programs. That named “Insufficient of
productive resources” which leads to time risk in projects.
The next significant main risk came from design and surveying work. “Inadequate or
insufficient site information” especial soil test can affect the progress of undergroundwork such as excavation, foundation or basement. If the work be mistake or inaccurate,

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ICUS Report 78

this leads to design will be change after that. As the result, contractors have to revise
their planning, and more or less, it affects to the project time line.
Thirdly, the contractors’ abilities to communicate with stakeholder should be used as
key criteria in meeting the need of time. Lack of coordination between projectstakeholders may lead to change the programs. For example, the misunderstanding
requirements of Clients makes contractors difficulty in approval document or checking
and taking over the buildings. So, leads to late in revising and approving documents byowner causes slow payment of completed works. On the other hand, unsuccessfully of
subcontractors and suppliers management also brought total 6,5% time delay causing. It
may cause by poor contract management leads to occurrence of dispute between allparticipants.
Next, the accident on site can impede the construction progress. It may root fromnegligence of construction safety policy such as wearing protective tools or accident
regards to electric of machines as electric welding, steel bending. It is hard to control
these risks because it comes from labors’ awareness. Besides, insufficient amount ofskilled labor may result in delays in the construction phase. High productivity of labors
and their professional is one of the keys to achieve project objective in terms of time.
Group III
Although most risks are root from technical terms, the survey found that some risk
checking and taking over the buildings process. From clients’ perspective, the projects
outcome should be reach the need of market. So, “Incomplete documents” and “Highquality expectations” usually occurs in checking and taking over the building process inorder to secure quality of the project. This group is often happen when finishing theconstruction work and it also is the lowest probability (6,74%) and impact level (8,76%).
Group IV
These risks are normally out of the control of the contractors. The government
sometimes changes the wage, quality or management polices to develop macro
economics and to create a friendly environment for contractors. But, this sometimes
makes the projects be frozen to adjust contract, time line and budget. The survey data
addressed, from contractors’ perspective, 8,57% respondents agreed that policies
variation cause time overrun and 9,13% regards to impact level. This group especially issignificant meanings to the public sector, where project budget and time control areunder government agencies’ power.
5. RECOMMENDATION SOLUTIONS
According to the survey data, list risks to cause time overrun can be identified andevaluated their impact to projects. Then, the authors suggested some solutions to handle
the key risks. For example, the most significant factor, “Unsuitable construction
program planning”, related to the knowledge and experience of the planners. To reduce
negative influence of the risk, contractors should have deeply understand of the design,client’s requirements, related-polices and contractors’ resources themselves to set up an
informative program in order to meet the project’s demands and secure the profit of thecontractors. Similarly, the contractors should consider some solutions suggested below

Time delays
causesin causes
construction
projects in
Hanoi,
Contractors'
perspectives
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delaysin construction
project
inVietnam:
Hanoi, Vietnam:
Contractors’
perspective

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November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

mapping out strategies which suitable with their conditions and project’s context toprevent and deal with the risks in terms of time.
Listed time-risks usually happened in projects then set up a risk countermeasureslibrary
Training staffs to be more professional in stakeholder communicating, more
knowledge in setting up construction program planning to establish a systematicconstruction program scheduling
Maintaining close and understand relationship with project managers anddesign team to manage variations and avoid Occurrence of dispute
Providing safety training to on - site staff to improve their awareness of safety.
Maintaining close relationship with local government officers
5. CONCLUSION
This research achieved its initial purposes: identifying and evaluating the time delaycausing. According a survey with engineers, consultants and project managers, who
own experience and knowledge of construction projects, 25 key risks were highlighted
on a comprehensive assessment of their likelihood of probability and impact level on
project objectives. It can be seen that, from contractors’ perspectives, time delays
causes both derive from internal and external factors. “Variation of construction
programming” was found to have the highest impact level and probability. The factor
depends on contractors’ capacity especially experience and knowledge of construction
program planning. From external factors, stakeholders’ relationship is considered themost important one for achieving time planned.
From these result, the authors suggested some solutions to prevent time overrun. By
taking care of these solutions, contractors can reduce and control the extent of timedelays, contribute to carry out safe, efficient and quality construction activities in Hanoi,
Vietnam. The research findings are not useful for only participants in Vietnam butothers in developing countries.
REFERENCES
Alavifar, A. H., and Motamedi, S., 2014. Proceedings of the 2014 International
Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations Management, Bali, Indonesia,
919-929.
Bui, P. T., Pham, M. L., and Nguyen, T. L., 2014. Unpublished report, Student Sciences
Research Workshop, National University of Civil Engineering, Vietnam.
Chidambaram, R., Narayanan, S. P. and Arazi, B. I., 2012. Construction delays causing
risks on time and cost - a Critical review. Australasian Journal of Construction
Economics and Building 12, 37-57.
Le, L. H., Lee, Y. D. and Lee, J. Y., 2008. Delay and cost overruns in Vietnam large
construction projects: A comparison with other selected countries. KSCE Journal of
Civil Engineering 12, 367-377 (in Korean).
Nguyen, D. C., Ma, X. M. and Nguyen, T. Q., 2013. Risks from in-city construction
works to urban inhabitants’ safety in Hanoi: the city residents’ perspective. USMCA
2013 Hanoi, Vietnam, 429-440.
Nguyen, T. L., 2014. Master thesis in Construction Management. Risk Management in

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ICON 4 Construction Company, National University of Civil Engineering, Vietnam.
Rezaian, A., 2011. Time-cost-quality-risk of construction and development projects orinvestment, Iran. Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research 10, 218-223.
Zou, P. W. and Wang, J.Y., 2009. Identifying key risks in construction projects: Life
cycle and stakeholder perspectives. International Journal of Construction Management
9, 61-77.

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300

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Khin Su Su WAI1 and Aye Mya CHO2
Phd Candidate, Civil Engineering Department,
Mandalay Technological University, Mandalay, Myanmar
khinsusuwai235@gmail.com
2
Associate Professor, Civil Engineering Department,
Mandalay Technological University, Mandalay, Myanmar
1

ABSTRACTThe successful execution of a construction project is heavily impacted by making theright decision during tendering processes. Clients typically provide contractors with aset of tender documents for a bid proposal upon which a contract may be let andexecuted. Such tender documents often contain the information about a client’s projectplans so that a contractor can price it. However, in practice, tender documents are notclear, consistent and adequate. This makes the calculation of a tender programme andprice for a construction project difficult. The aim of this study is to ascertain the clarity
and adequacy of tender documentation in practice. This paper focuses on describing theimportance of tendering and contracting practices for building construction and how
the uncertainties and incomplete information can cause conflicts in construction state.
To be able to do this, it is important to capture the reality of the problem. Therefore,
twelve forms of tender documents from different construction organizations areanalyzed to understand the quality and nature of tender documents. By discussing
several issues crucial to tender preparations for building construction projects in
Myanmar, this paper seeks a deeper understanding of how project manager andquantity surveyor can better standardize tender preparation work and more successfully
manage in contracting processes.
Keywords: tender, contract, document, quality, standard, client, incomplete information
1. INTRODUCTION
Building construction is a highly competitive and risky business. This competitivenessis compounded where conflicting objectives amongst contracting and subcontracting
firms set the stage for an adversarial and potentially destructive business relationship.
The successful execution of a construction project is heavily impacted by making theright decision during tendering processes. Managing tender procedures is very complex
and uncertain involving coordination of many tasks and individual with different
priorities and objectives. Clients, especially those from the public sector, need broader
tender evaluation criteria to complement the traditional focus on bid price. This paper
describes the results and discussion of questionnaire survey concerning tendering, andcontracting practices from the viewpoints of respondents in Myanmar constructionindustry. It also focuses on describing the importance of tendering and contracting

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November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

practices for building construction and how the uncertainties and incomplete
information can cause conflicts in construction state.
2. TENDERING PROCESSES IN THE CONSTRUCION INDUSTRY
Tendering is the process used by many construction clients to obtain the program andprice for a project. The successful execution of a construction project is heavily
impacted by making the right decision during tendering processes. Successful projects
have generally started with the use of best practice tendering processes, and the benefitsof such tendering practice include:
1. A clear understanding of the rights and obligations of both parties.
2. An increase in the likelihood of procuring a project to meet the required scope,time, cost and quality parameters.
3. A reduction in the likelihood of misunderstandings and disputes.
Typically, the tender process involves three distinct phases: tender preparation,tendering and tender evaluation. The commencement of the tender process is thedevelopment of the project definition and scope which will set the scene for the successof the entire process. The second step is tender selection processes. There are five mainprocesses for the selection of tenderers. They are open or public tender, selected orapproved tender, pre-qualified tender, invited tender and direct negotiation tender.
2.1 Selection methods
Once the owner determines which project delivery method and corresponding
competition criteria they will use, the framework for the actual selection process has
been set. There are basically three selection methods utilized for purchasing
construction and construction management services:
1. Low-bid selection
2. Best-value selection (BVS)
3. Qualifications-based selection (QBS)
Each of these selection methods uses a different solicitation instrument to advertise theproject. For example, low-bid selection, which is most commonly associated withtraditional design-bid-build project delivery, utilizes the invitation for bids (IFB). Bestvalue selection utilizes a request for proposals (RFP), and qualifications-based selection
employs a request for qualifications (RFQ). Each of the selection methods represents a
different kind of competition, and the steps required to move through the process vary.
Because the market is wide open now for any one of these methods to be utilized, it isimportant to be familiar with each of them.
2.2 Criteria for selection
The criteria for selection must be clearly stated in the tender documents. Such criteria
need to cover the critical factors on which the success of the project is based. Typicalcriteria for selection include:
1. Conformity
2. Capability

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ICUS Report 78(1) Previous Experience on similar works(2) Financial resources(3) Managerial and Personnel resources(4) Technical resources(5) Current workload(6) Dispute Resolution record(7) Quality Assurance System(8) Environmental Compliance record(9) Industrial Relations record(10) Occupational, Health Safety & Rehabilitation record
3. Price
4. Construction Period
Hence, the criteria for selection involve both a “Price” and “Non-Price” components.
Depending on the nature of the client and project, each of the above factors will have avarying weighting or priority. It is recommended that the client ensures that the criteria
for selection weightings are determined prior to the opening and evaluation of tenders.
It is preferable that the weightings are not disclosed to tenderers.
2.3. Tender analysis
The importance of assembling an experienced and competent tender evaluation team is
critical to the success of the tender process. The team leader or chairperson should
possess leadership, communication and negotiating skills as well as technical andcommercial capabilities. One of the most important skills is the ability to maintaincritical objectivity during the tender process. Each member of the team must be free ofany conflict of interest that might undermine the objectivity of the assessment. The
appointment of such a team will ensure that the most appropriate tenderer is chosenwith respect to the defined criteria of selection. In major projects, each tender is likely
to contain differences in the areas of design, timing, capital cost, impact, service anddurability, and operating cost. Hence, a rigorous tender analysis process is required toobtain a fair comparison between individual tenders. The use of risk analysis techniquesin the tender analysis process is encouraged.
2.4. Condition of tendering
In traditional design-bid-build, price is the primary criterion used to determine who will
win the project. Basically, the contractor who submits the lowest price will be awarded
the contract. With construction management (CM) specifically, agency CM,
qualifications become the main factor in determining which CM firm will win thecompetition. And with at-risk CM and design-build, a combination of price andqualifications are considered when selecting the winning team. The following graphic(Figure 1) illustrates the connection between project delivery method and selection
criteria.

Investigationon tenderingand contracting
practicespractices
of Myanmar
building building
construction
Investigationon tenderingand contractingof Myanmar
construction

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November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar
Owner Decide to
Project Delivery Method

Design Bid Build

Agency CM

CM at Risk

Design Build

Price Only

Qualification
Only

Qualification
and Price

Qualification
and Price

Selection Criteria

Figure 1: Connection between project delivery method and selection criteria
3. CURRENT TENDERING PRACTICES OF MYANMAR BUILDINGCONSTRUCION
Tendering is one of the stages in a construction project that requires extensive
information and documents exchange. Tender documents contain the information abouta client’s project plans so that a contractor can price it. In practice, tender documents are
not always clear, consistent and adequate. This makes the calculation of a tender
program and price for a construction project difficult. Several aspects of the literature in
construction management indicate that the quality of tender documents is often “poor”
in practice. However, there is little empirical research in the literature on the quality oftender documents used in construction and the practical implications of poor quality
tender documents in construction.
Myanmar construction industry is expected with problem of construction risk as similar
to global phenomenon. However, there are still less facts and figures concerned with its
construction practices and no exact indication on its tendering and contracting practices.
Therefore, twelve forms of tender documents from different construction organizations
are analyzed to understand the quality and nature of tender documents. Letter A, B, C,
D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K and L represent construction organizations. The documents include
in these tender documentations are compared with tender documentation used byinternational construction firms and shown in (Table1). Symbol ( ) represents thestatement which can be seen in Myanmar building construction tender document as the
symbol (-) is lack of statement. The importance of tender documentation and current
tendering practices of Myanmar are discussed below.
Table 1: Tendering practices of Myanmar building construction
Description
Advertisement for bids
Project name and description
Project location (not detail)
Owner name and address
Architect name and address
Contact information
Details of tender submission
Where to access the plans and

304

A

B

C

D

E

F

G H

I

J

K

L

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

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specs
Project duration with anticipatedstart and completion dates
Bonds required
Restrictions on bidders
Project budget or anticipatedprice range
No; of copy require
Detail of tender submission
Agreement form
Tender form
Condition of Tendering
Delivery method
Procurement method
Selection Criteria (P=price only,
Q=qualification, B=both)
General Conditions
Owner Responsibilities
Contractor Responsibilities
Administration of the Contract
Subcontractor Relations
Construction by Owner or Others
Changes in the WorkTime and Schedule Requirements
Payments and Completion
Protection of Persons andProperty
Insurance and Bonds
Miscellaneous Provisions
Supplemental Conditions
Soils and soil-testing information
provided by the owner
Survey information provided by
the owner
Materials or other services
provided by the owner
Job signage requirements
Traffic control and pedestriansafety requirements
Phasing or special schedulerequirements
Requirements for security
Temporary facilities andsanitation requirements
Specifications
Technical
Materials
Standard of workmanship
Methods of installation and

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Quality control and quality
assurance procedures
Drawing (Depend on delivery)
Civil
Architectural
Structural
Electrical
Mechanical
Additional information
Environmental impact study

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Construction management personnel contact owners and designers on a regular basis toinquire about upcoming projects or the status of projects already on the drawing boards.
They also look for news articles and stories about facility expansions and newenterprises emerging and then follow those leads with letters of interest and company
brochures. Moreover, they also notice number of copy require, detail of tender
submission, agreement form, tender form and other required documents for tender
submission. This is all part of the marketing effort. Without this effort to keep finding
new work, a construction company cannot survive. According to studying tendering
practices of Myanmar construction organizations, there are weak points inadvertisement for bid. The main pessimistic point is unclear contact address of architector engineer to inquire incomplete information of scope and drawing. Moreover,construction management personnel from contractor organization may not know whereto access plans and specifications with clarity. Another point is project duration with
anticipated start completion dates which can cause difficulties to construction manager
in decision making in many states. In addition to project budget or anticipated pricerange, there is no transparency in pretender state. Since most of the tender projects are
simple projects in Myanmar construction industry, project budget can be anticipated forbidding. It is the main problem for estimator or quantity surveyor. Traditional practiceof Myanmar tendering style is giving contract form or agreement form to whom isawarded in competitive bidding. Therefore, construction management personnel cannot
know the term and condition of contract to decide for competition of bid. To sum up
most of the tendering practice of Myanmar construction organization are nottransparency which can cause many risks in construction projects.
4. DISCUSSION AND SUGGESTION OF TENDERING PRACTICES FOR
MYANMAR BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
To sum up, tendering practices of Myanmar building construction is not systematic andrequired more condition, specification and information. Myanmar construction industry
needs more effective changes and upgrading activities since Myanmar is developing
country. However, they are trying to be systematic tendering practice and to catch
international improvement. Therefore, competitors need to consider carefully to submit
tender at the time of unsystematic as well as systematic procedures of tendering
practices and need to understand the behavior of tendering practices and contractor
organization have to good estimator and general manger. Moreover, the decision to306

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tender should be made by the chief estimator or general manager using the following
points:
1. Is the work of a type which the contractor has experience, both in winningtenders and completing profitably? Does it conflict with the company’s
objectives and future workload?
2. How many contractors will be invited to tender?
3. Has the contractor the necessary supervisory staff and labour available, he may
not wish to recruit untried and unknown personnel in key positions?
4. Will the estimating department have staff available with suitable expertise for thetype of work to be priced?
5. Does the location of the proposed site fit the organization’s economic area of
operation?
6. Are there too many risks in the technical and contractual aspects of the project?
7. Will suitable documents be produced for tender purposes? A busy estimating
office may give priority to work that has been measured. Poor documentation
might give a clue to the standard of working documents during construction.
8. Has enough time been given to prepare a sensible estimate?
9. What will be the cost of preparing the tender? A contractor might limit the
number of design and construct tenders, for example, in order to limit his
exposure to cost. In the majority of cases, these costs are not recoverable.
On the other hand, the contractor needs to consider the criteria the client will use forselection. These can be:
1. Price; will the lowest price alone be the basis for selection?
2. Time; will a programme show the client that the contractor has thought about
how the job can be finished on time, or ahead of time?
3. Allocation of money; will the way in which money is distributed in the priced
bills help or irritate the client?
4. Method statement; would the client wish to know the methods to be adopted
before accepting the offer?
5. Safety and quality; does the client expect a statement of safety or quality showing
how the contractor will manage this particular contract?
6. Construction team; is the contractor proposing to supervise the job withexperienced staff who will work as an effective team with the consultants?
7. Presentation; how important is an accurate, well-presented offer?
In some modern forms of procurement, clients ask for risk schedules to be submittedwith tender documents. The aim is to consider which risks are best managed by eachparty to the main contract. An examination of the risks to be borne by the contractor
may be considered at this stage. This can be divided between technical and commercial:
Technical risks are dealt with by defining construction methods before costing the work.
If the cost of failure is high in relation to the value of the project, it may be possible toinsure against the loss, or increase the control. When uncertainties have been assessed
they are priced by adding lump sums, which are a proportion of the possible losses.
Commercial risks are those imposed by the form of contract and additional obligations
forming part of the agreement. The most common problems arise from failure to finish
by the date for completion, and commercial relationships with sub-contractors. If
management feels that the contract period could be exceeded, they should consider
adding a sum equal to the liquidated damages, which might be claimed. The client
might wish to manage the technical risk fund and the contractor is expected to manage

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November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

commercial risks. In any tender, risk management starts when the tender documents arereceived by identifying possible risks and allocating responsibilities to team members
for managing risks and looking for opportunities. Risk management is the process
associated with identifying, analyzing, planning, tracking and controlling project risks.
The decision to proceed with a tender is based on many factors including: the estimating
resources available; extent of competition; tender period; quality of tender documents;
type of work; location; current construction workload and conditions of contract. The
role of the contractor’s estimator is vital to the success of the organization. The
estimator is responsible for predicting the most economic costs for construction in a
way that is both clear and consistent. Although an estimator will have a feel for the
prices in the marketplace, it is the responsibility of management to add an amount for
general overheads, assess the risks and turn the estimate into a tender.
5. CONTRACTING IN THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
It is essential that the administration and management of contracts results in reducing
risks, maximizing cost savings, minimizing claims, and improving economic return inthe construction industry. These results can only be achieved through effectively
managing contract risks: developing tough but fair contract documents, engaging inaggressive negotiating practices, and employing outstanding communication skills. The
process of reaching a contract requires a specific sequence of steps. In taking these steps,
the project manager must make a series of choices between priorities for project
objectives, degrees of risk to be assumed by the contracting parties, control over project
activities, and the cost of achieving selected goals. This process must first be fully
understood by the project manager, then be tempered by experience, and finally be
expanded into the ability to reach a contract through the exercise of negotiating andcommunicating skills.
5.1 Standard form of contract
Standard forms of contract exist to identify the roles and responsibilities of the parties,
and their agents; and provide rules to protect and direct the parties should things gowrong. Clients have a wide choice of standard contracts for construction work, inparticular the forms used for building, which cover most of the common procurement
systems. The standard printed forms of contract have been developed over many years
to take account of the many events which could occur during and after a construction
project. Contract law will of course deal with many of the problems, but there are many
matters peculiar to construction which needs clarification. Once these terms have been
incorporated, they reduce the likelihood of disputes which can lead to arbitration or
litigation. Contract conditions are outlined by a reference being made to the standard
conditions in the tender documents, with amendments to suit the particular project.
5.2 Contract types
Just as the owner makes the decision regarding the type of project delivery to be
employed, the owner also determines which contract will be utilized for the project.
Generally, which form is used depends upon the type of project and the amount of risk

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that the owner is willing to accept. It is important that the construction manager befamiliar with each type. There are seven basic types of construction contracts: lump sum,unit price, cost plus fixed percentage, cost plus fixed fee, cost plus variable percentage,
target estimate and guaranteed maximum cost contract.
6. DISCUSSION AND SUGGESTION OF CONTRACTING PRACTICES FOR
MYANMAR BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
Although contracting practices of Myanmar construction industry have been applicablewith traditional system of contracting, there are weak points in many cases. Those weak
points can cause disputes and problems lead to risk for construction industry. Since
construction industry is very complex, it can involve different types of risk anduncertainty. The uncertainty in undertaking a construction project comes from manysources and often involves many participants in the project. Since each participant tries
to minimize its own risk, the conflicts among various participants can be detrimental tothe project. Only the owner has the power to moderate such conflicts as it alone holds
the key to risk assignment through proper contractual relations with other participants.
Failure to recognize this responsibility by the owner often leads to undesirable results.
In recent years, the concept of "risk sharing/risk assignment" contracts has gained
acceptance by the federal government. Since this type of contract acknowledges the
responsibilities of the owners, the contract prices are expected to be lower than those inwhich all risks are assigned to contractors. Therefore, contractor should pay more
attention on risk allocation and responsibilities when they entered to contracting withowner or other parties.
And then, another noticeable point for contractor is competitive bidding. Competitive
bidding on construction projects involves decision making under uncertainty where oneof the greatest sources of the uncertainty for each bidder is due to the unpredictable
nature of his competitors. Each bid submitted for a particular job by a contractor will be
determined by a large number of factors, including an estimate of the direct job cost, thegeneral overhead, the confidence that the management has in this estimate, and theimmediate and long-range objectives of management. So many factors are involved that
it is impossible for a particular bidder to attempt to predict exactly what the bids
submitted by its competitors will be.
Regardless of the type of construction contract selected by the owner, the contractor
recognizes that the actual construction cost will never be identical to its own estimate
because of imperfect information. The contractor should use different markups
commensurate with its market circumstances and with the risks involved in different
types of contracts, leading to different contract prices at the time of bidding or
negotiation. The type of contract agreed upon may also provide the contractor withgreater incentives to try to reduce costs as much as possible. The contractor's grossprofit at the completion of a project is affected by the type of contract, the accuracy of
its original estimate, and the nature of work change orders. The owner's actual payment
for the project is also affected by the contract and the nature of work change orders.
Once a contract is reached, a variety of problems may emerge during the course of work.
Disputes may arise over quality of work, over responsibility for delays, over appropriate
payments due to changed conditions, or a multitude of other considerations. Resolution

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November 2014, Yangon, Myanmarof contract disputes is an important task for project managers. Therefore, themechanism for contract dispute resolution should be specified in the original contract.
In order to do this, standard form of contract and standard condition of contract should
be set up for Myanmar construction industry.
Moreover, construction contracts are the basis of legally binding parties to a
construction project. Contracting parties and the contract administrator must clearlyknow their rights and obligations. Clearly, the construction process as a whole has tobecome more efficient, and it is important that the standard form of contract be used
intelligently to support this. For clients who undertake construction projects as a regularpart of their activities, the correct choice of a form of contract is more important, since
the application of the principles involved may be seen as precedents in theadministration of their contract. Since large sums of money are likely to be involved inthese activities, it is important that the contractual arrangements should always beformal and legal from the outset of the project.
REFERENCES
Brook, M., 2006. Estimating and Tendering for Construction Work, Third edition.
Building and Construction Authority, 2008. Public Sector Standard Conditions ofContract for Construction Work.
Chinyio, E. 2011. The Cost of Tendering, Engineering Project Organizations
Conference, Estes Park, Colorado, August 9-11, 2011.
Enshassi1, A., Mohamed, S., and Abdel-Hadi, M., 2013. Factors Affecting the
Accuracy of Pre-Tender Cost Estimates in the Gaza Strip, Journal of Construction in
Developing Countries 18, 73–94.
Evans & Peck Pty Limited, 2006. Guidelines for Tendering, Australian Constructor
Association.
Hampson, K., and Kwok, T. Strategic Alliances in Building Construction: A Tender
Evaluation Tool for the Public Sector, School of Construction Management,
Queensland University of Technology.
Jackson, B. J., 2010. Construction Management Jump Start (2nd edition).
Kelly, J., and Male, S. A Procedure for Best Value Tendering, Glasgow Caledonian
University, Glasgow.
Laryea, S. Quality of tender documents: case studies from the UK, School ofConstruction Management and Engineering, University of Reading, UK.
Robertsen, K., 2011. Selection Criteria and Tender Evaluation: The Equivalent andTender Price Model, Management and Innovation for a Sustainable Built Environment,
20 – 23 June 2011, Amsterdam, Netherlands.
Rumane, A. R., 2011. Quality Management in Construction Projects, Taylor andFrancis Group, LLC.
Tadelis, S. 2006. Incentives and Award Procedures: Competitive Tendering vs.
Negotiations in Procurement, University of California Berkeley, Haas School ofBusiness.

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Development of mobile education system
for supporting building damage assessment
during large-scale earthquake disaster
Makoto FUJIU1, Miho OHARA2, Shoichiro NAKAYAMA3
and Jyunichi TAKAYAMA4
1
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Environmental Design, Kanazawa University, Japanfujiu@se.kanazawa-u.ac.jp
2
Senior Researcher, International Centre for Water Hazard and Risk Management,
Public Works Research Institute, Japan
3
Professor, Dept. of Environmental Design, Kanazawa University, Japan
4
Professor, Dept. of Environmental Design, Kanazawa University, Japan
ABSTRACT
Building damage assessment is necessary for governments to issue the Victim
Certificates for residents who suffered from housing damages. The process ofassessment needs accuracy, quickness, objectivity and fairness because the results ofassessment are used as criteria for providing public monetary supports for rebuilding of
their livelihood. In Japan, several big earthquakes are expected to occur in the near
future. A lot of structural damages due to these earthquakes will cause enormous needs
for building damage assessment. However, there is a limit action on the number of
specialists with adequate assessment skills who can access the damaged area under bad
traffic conditions. Delay in building damage assessment by local governments candisturb rapid reconstruction of the damaged area. Considering these problems during
large-scale earthquake disaster, authors developed the remote building damage
assessment system for building damage assessment using photos of damaged housetaken by residents or volunteer fire corps in damaged area. Specialists outside thedamaged confirm these photos on the website and assess their damage levels. All thedata used for building damage assessment is managed with GIS database on the
management server located outside the damaged area under cloud condition. This kindof digital management system can contribute to enhance the accuracy and efficiency ofthe procedures for issuing the Victim Certificates for residents. In order to carry out theaccurate assessment as a developed system, then training of assessment using thesesystem is important. In this paper, mobile education system for supporting building
damage assessment was designed and its prototype system was developed. The systemfor education of damaged houses was developed as smart phone. The education system
for specialists to assess the damage level was developed as smart phone application.
Keywords: earthquake disaster, building damage assessment, IT system, mobile
education system

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1. INTRODUCTION
In Japan, several big earthquakes are expected to occur in the near future. A lot ofstructural damages due to these earthquakes will cause enormous needs for building
damage assessment. Building damage assessment is necessary for governments to issue
the Victim Certificates for residents who suffered housing damages. However, current
number of human resources who are trained with the procedure of building damage
assessment is not enough. The result of building damage assessment is used for issuing
the victim certificate. Then, the building damage assessment during large-scale
earthquake disaster requires some performances such as quickness, efficiency, accuracy,
objectivity and fairness. The guidelines of general procedure for inspecting building
damage and evaluating loss due to disasters were published by the Cabinet Office in2001 and 2009. Tanaka (2008) pointed out various problems of building damage
assessment such as inaccurate inspection, difficulty in quick inspection and lack ofhuman resources with sufficient skill of assessment in past disasters.
Considering the future risk of big earthquakes, it is necessary to develop a new system
which can correspond to next large-scale earthquake disaster. So far, Fujiu (2012) has
proposed new remote system for building damage assessment using IT system anddeveloped its prototype system. These systems have some features that can solve someproblems pointed out at the past building damage assessments and execute building
damage assessment with quickness, efficiency, accuracy, objectivity and fairness after alarge-scale earthquake disaster. The proposed system consists of four sub-systems asshown in figure 1: photo uploading system used in damaged area, assessment system forsupporting experts such as registered inspectors outside damaged area, e-learning
system for users and Web-GIS cloud server located outside damaged area. Although theauthors have already developed a prototype system, the evaluation of its effectivenesswas not fully done. Then, in this research, authors conduct an operation trial to verify
the usability and resolution of photos of the developed photo uploading system. This
trial aims to verify applicability of photo upload system as a part of remote building
damage assessment system.
System䠎Remote assessment system
for specialists

System䠍Photo upload systemin damaged area
Residents

Architect㻵㼚㼠㼑㼞㼍㼏㼠㼕㼢㼑㻌㼏㼛㼚㼐㼕㼠㼕㼛㼚

Smartphone

Region B 㻱㼤㼑㼏㼡㼠㼑㻌㼠㼔㼑㻌

Region A㼎㼡㼕㼘㼐㼕㼚㼓㻌㼐㼍㼙㼍㼓㼑㻌Architect㼍㼟㼟㼑㼟㼟㼙㼑㼚㼠 Experienced

Region C㻼㼞㼛㼢㼕㼐㼑㻌㼟㼛㼙㼑㻌㼕㼚㼒㼛㼞㼙㼍㼠㼕㼛㼚㻌

System3
e-learning
systempersonVolunteerfire corps

Region D person

Region E㻼㼔㼛㼠㼛㻌㼡㼜㼘㼛㼍㼐㻌㼛㼒㻌㼐㼍㼙㼍㼓㼑㼐㻌㼔㼛㼡㼟㼑㻌㻼㼞㼛㼢㼕㼐㼑㻌㻳㻵㻿㻌㼕㼚㼒㼛㼞㼙㼍㼠㼕㼛㼚㻌㼍㼚㼐㻌㼐㼍㼙㼍㼓㼑㼐㻌㼜㼔㼛㼠㼛㻵㼚㼜㼡㼠㻌㼠㼔㼑㻌㼐㼍㼙㼍㼓㼑㻌㼘㼑㼢㼑㼘

Experienced㻭㼞㼞㼍㼚㼓㼑㼙㼑㼚㼠㻌㼛㼒㻌㼕㼚㼟㼜㼑㼏㼠㼛㼞㼟㻱㼢㼍㼘㼡㼍㼠㼕㼛㼚㻌㼛㼒㻌㼠㼞㼍㼕㼚㼕㼚㼓㻌㼞㼑㼟㼡㼘㼠

㻹㼍㼚㼍㼓㼑㼙㼑㼚㼠㻌㼛㼒㻌㼐㼍㼙㼍㼓㼑㼐㻌㼜㼔㼛㼠㼛㻘㻌㼕㼚㼟㼜㼑㼏㼠㼛㼞䇻㼟㻌㼚㼍㼙㼑㻘㻌㻳㻵㻿㻌㼕㼚㼒㼛㼞㼙㼍㼠㼕㼛㼚㻘㻌㼜㼞㼛㼓㼞㼑㼟㼟㻌㼛㼒㻌㼎㼡㼕㼘㼐㼕㼚㼓㻌㼐㼍㼙㼍㼓㼑㻌㼍㼟㼟㼑㼟㼟㼙㼑㼚㼠㻌㼍㼚㼐㻌㼟㼛㻌㼛㼚㻚㻿㼥㼟㼠㼑㼙㻠 㼃㼑㼎䞉㻳㻵㻿㻌㼏㼘㼛㼡㼐㻌㼟㼑㼞㼢㼑㼞

Figure 1: Concept of remote building damage assessment system

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2. OUTLINE OF E-LEARNIG SYSTEM IN REMOTE BUILDING DAMAGE
ASSESSMENT SYSTEM
After the request from residents of damaged houses, building damage assessment is
executed based on building damage assessment guideline, issued by Cabinet office inJapan. Figure 2 shows the flow of building damage assessment based on the guideline.
The building damage assessment has three steps; the first one is the overview judgment
which is the judgment of the building damage from the overview, the second one is theinclination judgment which is the measurement of the building inclination, and the third
one is the building element judgment which is the measurement of the damage level andthe damage area of roof, wall and foundation. In each step, the damage ratio is
calculated based on the building damage level and the building damage area. When thedamage ratio reaches the standard value in each step, the damage level is decided as
major damage, major-moderate damage, moderate damage or minor damage.
Ϩ Overview judgment
A: The house is totally collapse.
B: A part of floors in the house is collapse.
C: A part of foundation in the house is broken by liquefaction.
Not applicable

Major damage

ϩ Inclination judgment

䠄Damaged ratio
50䠂 over)

Inclination of external walls is over 1/20.
Not applicableϪ Building elements judgment (roof, wall, foundation)
The damage ratio of fundamental is over 75%.
Not applicable

Over 50䠂

Major damage

The damage ratio of thedamaged house

From 40% to less than 50%

Major-moderate damage

The damage ratio of thehouse is calculated fromthe damaged elements.

From 20% to less than 40%

Moderate damage

Less than 20%

Minor damage

Figure 2: Flow of building damage assessment (Primary inspection)
Judgments of damage level and calculation method of damage area are explained in thisparagraph as an example of damaged wall. Each damage level has a basic damage ratio.
Figure 3 shows the relationship between damage level and basic damage ratio. The
damaged wall has small and short crack as shown in Figure 3a, and the corresponding
basic damage level is evaluated as 10%. The damaged wall has a long crack and small
peeling off of the wall facade as shown in Figure 3b, and the corresponding basic
damage level is evaluated as 25%. The damaged wall has a long crack and medium
peeling off of the facade as shown in Figure 3c, and the corresponding basic damagelevel is evaluated as 50%. The damaged wall has peeling off of greater part of theexterior wall facade as shown in Figure 3d, and basic damage level is evaluated as 75%.
The damaged wall has peeling off of almost the whole wall facade as shown in figure 3e,and the corresponding basic damage level is evaluated as 100%. The damaged area iscalculated based on the decomposition method. The method is decomposition of thedamaged wall to calculate the damaged area as shown in Figure 3f. The red dotted line
shows the decomposition line of the damaged wall. If there is some damage in one part,the part is defined as a damaged part.

Development of mobile education system supporting building damage assessment during largescaleofearthquake
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during large-scale earthquake disasterNovember
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarFigure 3: Typical damage levels of walls
The damage ratio calculation has four steps: evaluation of basic damage ratio,
calculation of damage ratio, calculation of sub total damage ratio and total damage ratio.
The basic damage ratio is evaluated based on the damage level. The damage ratio is thevalue which is multiplied by basic damage level and damage area for each element,
directions and damaged level as in equation (1). The sub total damaged ratio is
calculated by summation of damage ratio for each element and directions as in equation(2). Finally, the total damage ratio is the value multiplied by sub total damage level andcoefficient for each element as equation (3).

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‫݌‬

݊

‫ݍ‬

‫ ݆ܴ݅ܦ‬ൌ ෍ ෍ ෍൫‫ ݆ܴ݇݅ܦܤ‬ൈ ‫ ݆݇݅ܣܦ‬൯

(1)

݅ൌͳ ݆ ൌͳ ݇ൌͳ݊‫݌‬ܵܶ‫ ܴ݅ܦ‬ൌ ෍ ෍൫‫ ݆ܴ݅ܦ‬൯

(2)݅ൌͳ ݆ ൌͳ݊ܶ‫ ܴܦ‬ൌ ෍ሺܵܶ‫ ܴ݅ܦ‬ൈ ܿ‫ ݅ݐ݂݂݊݁݅ܿ݅݁݋‬ሻ

(3)

݅ൌͳ

i:Element, j:Direction, k:Damage level‫ܴܦ‬ ݆݅ : Damage ratio where i,j , ‫ ݆ܴ݇݅ܦܤ‬: Basic damage ratio where i,j,k‫ ݇ ݆݅ܣܦ‬: Damaged area where i,j,k , ܵܶ‫ ܴ݅ܦ‬:Sub total damage ratio where iܶ‫ ܴܦ‬:Total damage ratio, ܿ‫ ݅ݐ݂݂݊݁݅ܿ݅݁݋‬: Element coefficient
3 DEVELOPMENT OF E-LEARNING APPLICATION
3.1 Outline of e-learning application
Here, the “e-learning application for building damage assessment training” wasdeveloped. So far, human resources development of building damage assessment has
been done by textbook, DVD and lecture. But these human resources development
methods are limitation due to the paper based approach, and new human resources
development methods are requested from government side and worked in the disasterfield. In this study, “e-learning application for building damage assessment training”
was developed. This application was developed for mobile phones based on Android
operating system which is installed in almost all the smart phones except iPhone. The
photo upload application should be installed on each Android smart phone by the users
who are government officer or volunteer fire corps.
3.2 Choosing the training contents
The e-learning application for building damage assessment training can learn a great
number of questions. The trainee can choose the question based on the previous result

Development
mobile education
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damageassessment during largeDevelopmentof mobile ofeducationsystem forsystem
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scale
earthquake
disasterduring large-scale earthquake disasterNovember
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmarਖ਻঳༮૦੟LPDJH

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૦੟LPDJH䠐ᅇ๓ᅇᚓⅬਖ਻ਖ਻ਖ਻ٜ ٜٜ୔ಔ২‫ٲٲ‬୔ಔ২‫୔ ٲٲ‬ಔ২‫ٲٲ‬ਖ਻ٜ୔ಔ২‫ٲٲ‬૦੟LPDJH

૦੟LPDJH

૦੟LPDJHਖ਻ٜ୔ಔ২‫ٲٲ‬ਖ਻ٜ୔ಔ২‫ٲٲ‬ਖ਻๓ᅇᚓⅬٜ୔ಔ২‫ٲٲ‬૦੟LPDJHਖ਻૦੟LPDJH

૦੟LPDJH୔ಔ২‫ٲٲ‬

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Ꮫ⩦ᅇᩘ
䠐ᅇ

20Ⅼ

Figure 4: Question choice screenof learning, and this application have a recommendation function which provides
appropriate question based on the previous result of learning. Then, trainee can belearned effective training for building damage assessment. Figure 4 shows that question
choice screen.
3.3 Training screen
Figure 5 shows that question choice screen. Firstly, trainee chose the question in thequestion choice screen, and question data which is “wmv” file star to download fromcloud server. Then, question is displayed on the screen. The damaged building isdeveloped 3D model house. The trainee can move aspect using slide bar, and trainee
judge the damage level when the trainee finish the damage level, and final damagelevel calculate automatically.
ਖ਻௦इ়ॎचٜ

૦੟঒‫ش‬অ‫ش‬





৖ਜ਼॑৭උ

ોஉৃਚ॑৭උ

ਫએ

௤ം২









෢

੦ຊ

క

ం

௤ംએ஋





ഫએ
௤ംૠெ

٫

઄ശ

Figure 5: Question choice screen

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3.4 Confirmation of collect answer screen
The trainees finished answer the questions which are roof, wall and fundamental foreach side of the damaged building, and application screen change to the answer screen(Figure 6). This application has two kinds of answer procedure. First step is answer with
3D model, Second step is detail answer without 3D model.

Figure 6: Confirmation of collect answer screen
4. CONCLUSIONSIn this research, e-learning application for mobile smart phone as a part of remotebuilding damage assessment system was developed. Developed application have somefeatures which are using 3D model house, using walk through function and using two
kinds of answer confirmation method. As a result of interview survey for local
government, this application is effective to learn the building damage assessment before
occur the earthquake disaster.
As future study, we plan to conduct more practical operation tests with some local
government staffs to evaluate the effectiveness of e-learning application for mobile
smart phone.
REFERENCES
Fujiu, M., Ohara, M., and Meguro, K., 2012. Development of remote building damage
assessment system during large-scale earthquake disaster, Proceedings of the 15th
World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, CD-ROM, Lisbon, Portugal.
Tanaka, S., 2008. A Study on the building damage assessment processes for the 2007
Niigata Chuetsu Oki earthquake disaster: Kashiwazaki case study, Proceedings ofsocial Safety Science No.22, pp.35-38

Development of mobile education system for supporting building damage assessment
during large-scale
earthquake
disasterDevelopmentof mobile
education system supporting building damage assessment during large-317
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Strengthening and repairing of 5-Storey RC
ductile detailed structure with
open ground storey
Swajit Singh GOUD1 and Pradeep Kumar RAMANCHARLA2
1
PhD Student, Earthquake Engineering Research Centre,
International Institute of Information Technology, Hyderabad, India
swajitsingh.goud@reasearch.iiit.ac.in
2
Professor and Head, Earthquake Engineering Research Centre,
International Institute of Information Technology, Hyderabad, India

ABSTRACT

Reconnaissance reports of past earthquakes states that the open ground storey is one
the most common problems, causing severe damage in the structural members ofground storey. In majority of the buildings, it was observed that even after proper
ductile detailing, there is severe damage to the structure. This is mainly attributed to thepresence soft storey. In this paper, a study is carried out to improve the seismic
performance of a 5 storey open ground floor building with ductile detailing. The seismic
performance is improved by: (a) providing wall infill in some portion, (b) increasing the
moment carrying capacity of ground storey columns, and (c) combinations of the above
two. The proposed methods can be used for new structures by incorporating the effect indesign philosophy or can be implemented in the strengthening of existing structures.
The performance of the structure is determined with the help of Non Linear Pushover
analysis. The main parameters investigated are interstorey drift and lateraldisplacement. The study shows, with increase in design moments as per seismic codes
for the columns having open ground storey will not improve the performance of thestructure significantly. Also the open ground storey columns are severely damaged
making their repairing difficult and costly. It is suggested that seismic performance ofthe structure can be improved more significantly by combination of constructing wall
infill and higher design moments in columns; if damage occurs in wall only, it can bereconstructed and structure can be repaired easily.
Keywords: Open ground storey, pushover analysis, retrofitting, design provision
1. INTRODUCTION
Earthquake reconnaissance reports of past earthquakes shown that wall infill has
significant effect on the performance of the structures. Many of the buildings whichwere not designed as per the seismic demand had performed satisfactorily because of
infill wall. Past research done in the field of brick infill clearly shows that the stiffnessand ductility of the structure increases significantly because of brick infills. On the other
hand, brick infill may have negative effect introducing torsion, soft storey, weak storey
and short column effects, because of irregularity in the location of brick infill319

November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar
November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

horizontally and vertically. Open ground storey construction practice is most common
now-a-days, preferred by Architects. As it has many functional and aesthetic advantages
in multi-storeys, schools, hotels and commercial buildings. It has been recognized bystructural engineers and from past earthquake surveys, that this architectural practicewill do severe damage in the structural and non-structural element of the ground storey
and sometimes leads to total collapse of structure (Perez, 2012).
The open ground storey as construction practice is difficult to eliminate from thearchitects design criteria and hence it is preferable to provide a special design criteria
for such structural configuration. International seismic codes suggest that columns andbeams of the floor having soft storey are to be designed for higher moments to reduce
the soft storey effect. Indian seismic code IS 1893-2002 recommends a magnifying
factor of 2.5 times the design forces in beams and columns obtained from analysis.
The major challenge of having damages in structures in spite of following all seismic
design provisions is the difference in the analysis, design and construction. In analysis
and design the modeling of the structure is done as bare frame, whereas in construction
walls are provided at some locations. If wall provided does not introduce horizontal andvertical irregularity then wall infill will be advantageous, else it will lead to severe
damage in structural members. Wall infill will change the force transfer mechanism inthe structure and open ground storey columns will accumulate higher stresses leading tohigher damage (Murty and Jain, 2000). More amount of energy will be absorbed by soft
storey members, causing larger interstorey drift leading to higher deformation in groundstorey columns.
In the present paper a comparative study is done between the bare frame, frame withfull infill wall and soft storey model in terms of capacity, drift and time period of thestructure. Designing and retrofitting method for soft storey is done by; a) increasing the
moment carrying capacity of ground storey columns, b) providing wall infill in some
portion, and c) combinations of the above two.
2. STRENGTHENING TECHNIQUE
Strengthening of open ground storey structures can be done at local and global level bystrengthening ground storey columns and reducing the seismic demand, respectively.
Local strengthening can be done by column jacketing using steel and concrete, FRP
jacketing, steel caging, etc. The major disadvantage of local strengthening method isthat the strengthened member will suffer severe damage during seismic events andrepairing of such members will be more difficult and costly (Sahoo and Rai, 2013).
Strengthening at global level can be done by using energy dissipation mechanisms like,friction dampers, metallic dampers, viscoelastic dampers and bracing elements (Soongand Dargush, 1997).
3. STRUCTURAL DETAILSFor the current study a G+4 storey building assumed to be located in seismic zone III as
per IS 1893-2002 is considered. Ductile detailing provisions are considered in design as
per IS 13920. Shear force demand in the ground storey column increases significantly

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because of soft storey effect leading to shear failure in columns. The shear failure incolumns can be reduced to some extent by providing ductile detailing in columns.
Figure 1 shows the considered RC frame. Typical member reinforcement details of
beam and column is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 1: Building plan with column orientation and Building Model

Figure 2: Reinforcement detailing of column and beam
4. INFILL MODELING
Modeling of wall infill was done considering three strut model. Three strut model gives
the response of the structure closer to actual behaviour of frame with infill in continuum
modeling and better than single strut model (Kaushik et al., 2008). Material propertiesof masonry and dimensions were taken as reference (Kaushik et al., 2008).
5. PUSHOVER ANALYSIS
Pushover analyses were done for all the models considering the flexural and shear hinge
in beams and columns, and axial hinge in Strut. The shear and axial hinges were definedas brittle type. Pushover analysis was performed using SAP2000 Version 15.
6. BARE FRAME, FULL BRICK INFILL AND OPEN GROUND STOREY
Strengthening and repairing of 5-storey RC ductile detailed structure with open ground storey
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November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

Linear and non-linear response of the bare frame, frame with full brick infill and open
ground storey is studied in this section. Pushover curve and interstorey drift obtained in
Figure 3 clearly shows the influence of brick infill on the initial stiffness and strength of
the structure.

Figure 3: Pushover curve and Interstorey drift profile
The hinge mechanism in bare frame was totally different from that of open groundstorey (OGS), in bare frame model hinges were well distributed in all the floors whereas
in case of OGS hinges were observed only in ground floor columns. The sudden drop
down in full infill frame was because of shear failure in columns of ground storey andfailure of strut elements which were defined as hinge of brittle type. Interstorey drift
obtained clearly shows that in OGS the deformation was concentrated in ground floor
only whereas in case of full infill the deformation was observed in all floors. Thechange in time period (T), elastic stiffness (KElastic), shear force (SF), bending moment(BM), strength (V max.), design moment (DM) and amplification factor (AF) are shownin Table 2. SF and BM of ground floor column are shown for comparison. Table 2
clearly shows significant increase in elastic stiffness and strength, and decrease in time
period, SF and BM in full infill frame compared to bare frame and OGS.
7. COLUMN RETROFITTINGThe OGS structure was tried to strengthen by increasing the load carrying capacity ofcolumns of ground storey. The concept of increasing the load carrying capacity ofcolumns can be used at the time of designing new structure by increasing the column
dimensions and reinforcement or in existing structure by providing column jacketingand FRP coating to achieve the required moment of resistance. Columns of ground floor
were strengthened by increasing the design moment from 2.5 to 4 times of design
moments obtained from linear analysis. As per IS code (IS 1893-2002), if structure ishaving soft storey effect then the members of floor having soft storey need be designed
for 2.5 times of the design moment. Pushover curves and Interstorey drift of building
with increased column dimensions are shown in Figure 4. It was observed that bystrengthening columns of ground floor as per code non linear response of structure322

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improved, but significant changes were observed when column design moment wasincreased up to 4 to 5 times. Interstorey drift profile shows that even after increasing themember strength up to 5 times the deformation was concentrated in the ground floor
only. Table 1 shows the changes in non linear parameters with change in moment
carrying capacity of ground storey columns.

Figure 4: Pushover curves and Interstorey drift of building with column strengthening
or retrofitting
Table 1: Comparison of linear and non-linear response of column strengthened frames
Depth Width SF BMS.
DMTK Elastic V max
AF
No. (kN-m)(mm) (mm) (kN) (kN-m) (sec) (kN/m) (kN)
1
2
3
4
5
6

159
397
475
557
636
795

1
2.5
3
3.5
4
5

450
550
575
650
650
700

300
300
300
300
350
350

56.5
54.5
54.7
55.0
55.1
55.2

103.5
92.5
96.0
100.0
103.4
107.38

1.03
0.43
0.41
0.39
0.38
0.36

62236
78997
82548
92095
96573
102072

1158
1548
1671
2031
2205
2450

8. WALL RETROFITTING
Existing structures having OGS effect can be strengthened by introducing wall in some
portion of ground floor. In new structures also this concept can be used and wall
locations can be changed numerically to check the maximum response. In the present
study 3 probable locations of walls (Figure 5) were considered. The pushover curves
and interstorey drift obtained (Figure 5) clearly shows that the nonlinear response ofstructure significantly depends upon the wall locations. The strength and stiffness incase 1 and case 3 were not significantly changed, but the hinges formation ordeformation on the upper floor was observed more in case 3 compared to case1.
Increase and decrease in interstorey drift profile was clearly observed in upper andStrengthening and repairing of 5-storey RC ductile detailed structure with open ground storey
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November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

ground floor columns, respectively. Non-linear response of case 3 was better than case 1
because, high forces were acting in interior column which were supported by walls incase 3. Response of case 2 could be more than that of case 1 and 3, if the net shear areaof wall of case 2 is equal to case 1 or 3. Table 2 clearly shows significant increase inelastic stiffness and strength, and decrease in time period, SF and BM in case 1 and casecompared to case 2 and OGS.

Figure 5: Pushover curves and Interstorey drift of building with wall retrofitting
Table 2: Comparison of linear and non-linear response of wall retrofitted frames
S. No. TypeSFBMK Elastic V max
T (sec)(kN/m) (kN)
(kN) (kN-m)

1
2
3
4
5
6

56.5
53.7
19.1
17.5
63.6
40.6

Bare Frame
OGS
Full Infill
Case 1Case 2
Case 3

103.5
87.4
17.8
29.0
63.2
33.0

1.03
0.52
0.31
0.36
0.42
0.36

9721
62236
12100710198884669
103702

807
1158
4463
2890
2725
3430

9. COMBINED RETROFITTING
Column and wall retrofitting were done in combined retrofitting. Wall retrofitting ofcase 3 was only considered in combined retrofitting, as case 3 shown better responsecompared to other two cases. Column dimensions were increased in order to achieve theresponse similar to that of full infill. Figure 6 shows the pushover curves and interstorey
drift obtained for combined retrofitting. It was observed that column retrofitted bydesign moment of 5 times and wall retrofitted with case 3 gave response closer to thatof full infill. The interstorey drift profile also shows better performance of the abovecase. Table 3 shows the time period and stiffness of the above case was closer to full
infill frame.

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Figure 6: Pushover curves and Interstorey drift of building with combined retrofitting
Table 3: Comparison of linear and non-linear response of frames for combined retrofit
ColumnS. No.
Dimension

SF
(kN)

1
2
3

42.8
43.7
45.2

550 x 300
650 x 300
350 x 700

AFBM
(kN-m)

T
(sec)

2.5
3.5
5

38.0
45.8
58.9

0.34
0.33
0.32

K
Elastic(kN/m)
110618114527121185

V
max
(kN)
3290
3580
3961

10. RESULTS
The seismic response of open ground storey structure is poor and can lead to sudden
collapse of structure because of hinge formation in ground floor column. The stiffness
and strength of OGS is 2.8 and 3.9 times, respectively, lesser than full infill frame. The
SF and BM also in OGS are much higher compared to full infill frame.
The member level retrofitting done by increasing column capacity alone cannot improve
the seismic response significantly compare to wall retrofitting and combined retrofitting(Figures 3-6).
Location of wall plays an important role in improving the seismic response, case 3
shown the better response compared to case 1 and 3 (Figure 4). Wall should be locatedin places where the shear stress concentration is more.
The drift pattern of frame with column retrofitting was totally different from wall
retrofitting. In case of column retrofitting the damage is concentrated in ground storey
only, whereas in case of wall retrofitting the damage was observed less comparatively.
11. CONCLUSIONSStrengthening
and repairingof 5-storey
ductilewith openwith
groundStrengthening
and repairingofRC
5-storey
RCdetailed
ductile structure
detailed structure
openstorey
ground storey 325

November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar
November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

The study done clearly shows that strut modeling of brick infill should be done innumerical analysis to check the exact non linear response of the structure. The responseof structure will change more significantly if wall provided in structure is asymmetric.
Open ground storey should be avoided as far as possible, because design provision
given in seismic code shows member level retrofitting which improves the nonlinear
response not much significantly. The design provisions provided in seismic codes need
to be modified for design provisions of soft storey.
REFERENCES
Agarwal, P., and Shrikhande, M., 2006. Earthquake resistant design of structures. PHILearning Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
Applied Technology Council (ATC)., 1996. Seismic evaluation and retrofit of concretebuildings, ATC 40, California.
Bureau of Indian Standards., 1993. Indian standard ductile detailing of reinforced
concrete structures subjected to seismic forces - Code of Practice, IS 13920. New Delhi,
India.
Bureau of Indian Standards., 2000. Indian standard code of practice for plain andreinforced concrete, IS 456: 2000. New Delhi, India.
Bureau of Indian Standards., 2002. Indian standard criteria for earthquake resistantdesign of structures Part I: General provisions and buildings, IS 1893:2002. New Delhi,
India.
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)., 1997. Improvement of nonlinear
static seismic analysis procedures, FEMA 440-1997. Washington D.C.
Jain, S. K., and Nigam, C. N., 2000. Historical developments and current status ofearthquake engineering in India. 4th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering.
Kaushik, H. B., Rai, D. C., and Jain, S. K., 2008. A rational approach to analyticalmodeling of masonry infills in reinforced concrete frame buildings. 14th World
Conference on Earthquake Engineering. Beijing.
Murty, C. V., and Jain, S. K., 2000. Beneficial influence of masonry infill walls on
seismic performance of RC frame buildings. 12th World Conference on Earthquake
Engineering.
Perez, L. T., 2012. "Soft story" and "weak story" in earthquake resistant design: A
multidisciplinary approach. Proc. of the 15th World Congress of Earthquake
Engineering. Lisbon.
Pillai, S. U., and Menon, D., 2010. Reinforced concrete design. Tata McGraw-Hill
Education Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
Sahoo, D. R., and Rai, D. C., 2013. Design and evaluation of seismic strengthening
techniques for reinforced concrete frames with soft ground story. Engineering
Structures 56, 1933-1944.
Soong, T., and Dargush, G., 1997. Passive energy dissipation systems in structural
engineering. John Wiley and Sons Inc., England.

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Effect of soft storey in a structure present inhigher seismic zone areas
Neelima V. S. PATNALA1 and Pradeep K. RAMANCHARLA2
1
MS by Research Scholar, Earthquake Engineering Research Centre,
International Institute of Information Technology, Hyderabad, India
patnala.neelima@research.iiit.ac.in
2
Professor, Earthquake Engineering Research Centre,
International Institute of Information Technology, Hyderabad, India
ABSTRACTThe use of unreinforced brick masonry as infill material in reinforced concrete frames
is inevitable even in higher seismic zone areas. With increasing demands forarchitectural features in buildings, the provision of soft storey is a common practice inmany multi storeyed structures throughout the world, for parking. The standard code ofpractice in many countries suggests higher design forces for the columns present in thesoft storey. In order to understand the affect of increase in design seismic forces on thecolumns in a structure present in higher seismic zone areas, a study is carried out by
taking pushover analysis as a tool for obtaining capacity of the structure. A
comparative study between three types of arrangements; type I: structure with infill
walls in all floors, type II: structure with open ground storey, type III: structure with
open ground storey and columns designed for increased forces. It is observed that there
is an increase in maximum load carrying capacity for the type III structure as compared
to type II structure with no considerable change in behaviour of the two types ofstructures. It can be concluded that the increase in design forces of the columns at open
ground storey may not lead to the safety as of structure type I.
Keywords: Unreinforced brick masonry (URM), multi storeyed structures, higher
seismic zone areas, soft storey, pushover analysis
1. INTRODUCTION
Multi storeyed buildings gained huge popularity with the reliable applicability ofreinforced concrete frames infilled with masonry walls. Out of all the kinds of masonryunits used for constructing infilled walls, brick masonry is one of the oldest materials
used. Due to easy construction and low cost, brick masonry is used as infill material
even till date in many parts of the world. Though the presence of infill is inevitable, it isconsidered as a non structural element according the standard codes of practice in many
countries. This leads to improper analysis of the seismic behaviour of a building as awhole. Because of increase in demand to aesthetic appearance of a building, the civilengineering details of a building have lost their importance. Open ground storey is one
such detail which is mostly prevalent in the present day multi-storeyed buildings
throughout the world. The presence of open ground storey in a building leads to soft

327

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmarstorey effect. Though standard codes in some countries like India, Europe, Japan, etc.,
provide special clauses for the modeling the soft storey. The seismic behavior of thebuilding with soft storey is not completely understood. Hence there is a need to verify
the provisions given in different standard codes for the safety of the building with soft
storey.
Significant research has been carried out in understanding the effect of soft storey onseismic performance of brick infilled reinforced concrete frames. In a similar study,
Murty et al. (2000), conducted experiments on twelve single bay single storey RC
frames of full scale and scaled models subjected to reverse cyclic displacement
controlled loading. The main conclusions of this work were that the average initialstiffness, strength and ductility of infilled frames is 4.3 times, 70% and 4 times morethan the bare frame, respectively. In order to improve the performance of soft storey
buildings, Dande et al. (2013) conducted an analytical study on 12 storey symmetricbuilding with strut modeling for infill walls. A comparative study is carried out by
performing linear response spectrum analysis between the two types of retrofitting
techniques; 1) by providing stiffer columns at ground floor and 2) the other by
providing infill walls at the corners. It is observed that the provision of stiffer columns
in the ground floor may not reduce the displacement and force demands at the open
ground storey but can be reduced to some extent if infill walls are provided at the
ground floor.
This paper aims at understanding the seismic behaviour of building with soft storey andtries to verify the clauses given in Indian standard code for the safety of building. A
case study is carried out by performing pushover analysis on a commercial building.
The comparison is made between the structure with and without soft storey andinterpretations are derived.
2. NUMERICAL MODELING OF SOFT STOREY
The architectural plan and the grid line diagram of the structure are shown in
Figure 1. The structure is assumed to be present in zone IV area with high expected
seismic hazard. The geometric details of the structure considered are given in the Table
1. The structure with soft storey is designed for gravity loads and seismic loads,
according to the factors applicable for zone IV area as given in IS 1893-2002 and IS
456-2000.

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Figure 1: Architectural plan and grid line marking of building
Table 1: Details of considered building
Geometric details
1. Purpose
2. Total plot area
3. Bays
4. Floor Height
Loading (Seismic)
1. Seismic Zone
2. Zone factor
3. Response reduction factor
4. Importance factor
5. Base Shear
6. Time period in x direction

Commercial
24 x 22.9 m
4 x 4 in x & y dir
3.6 m
IV
0.28
3 (Non ductile)1
1488 kN
0.33 sec

3. PUSHOVER ANALYSIS
To carry out this study, four different cases are considered namely bare frame structure,
structure with soft storey, structure without soft storey and structure with soft storey
designed according to Indian standard code. As a first step, the pushover analysis isperformed on bare frame structure and the pushover curve is shown in the Figure 2
Pushover analysis is performed by modeling the structure with and without soft storey
using Applied Element Method (AEM) (Bishnu, 2004). The pushover curve obtained
from AEM analysis is shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4. The propagation of crack from
Effect of soft storey in a structure present in higher seismic zone areas
Effect of soft storey in a structure present in higher seismic zone areas329

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmarstarting stage to the end of the analysis is shown with figures at critical locations. The
location of the crack is indicated by white colored lines in the brick masonry wall andwith red colored circles in reinforced concrete elements. The red colored pointers areused to indicate the location of the crack and the scope of crack propagation. For clear
understanding, the sequence of cracking for the two analyses is shown in the Figure 3
and Figure 4.
The provision suggested by Indian standard code of practice for the safety of thestructure with soft storey should be verified. For understanding the issue of increasing
the moments and shear forces in columns, the same structure is designed for 2.5 times
moments and shear forces. The increase in moments is done only in the ground floor
where the structure is having open storey and the global pushover curve and thesequence of cracking in the analysis are shown in Figure 5 and Figure 8, respectively.

Figure 2: Global pushover curve for bare frame

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Figure 3: Global pushover curve for structure with soft storey

Figure 4: Global pushover curve for structure without soft storey

Effectof soft
in a structure
higherzone
seismic
zone areas
Effect of soft
storeyin astorey
structurepresent inpresent
higherinseismic
areas

331November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarFigure 5: Global pushover curve for structure with soft storey designed for 2.5 times
moments

Figure 6: Sequence of cracking for structure with soft storey

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Figure 7: Sequence of cracking in structure without soft storey

Figure 8: Sequence of cracking for structure with soft storey designed for 2.5 times
moments
Effect of soft storey in a structure present in higher seismic zone areas
Effect of soft storey in a structure present in higher seismic zone areas333

November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar
November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

The pushover curve for bare frame structure shown in Figure 2 clearly indicates that theload carrying capacity of the soft storey is almost same as that of the bare frame. From
this it can be concluded that a structure with soft storey reduces the lateral load carrying
capacity to that of a bare frame without infill walls. This is serious loss because thestrength and stiffness of the infill walls present in the top storeys are not at all
responsible for the behaviour. With the presence of soft storey, the beneficial influenceof the infill walls is completely neglected. This also causes brittle failure and easycollapse of the complete structure.
The striking observation that can be made from the curves in Figure 3 and Figure 4 isthat the lateral force carrying capacity of the structure with soft storey is much lesswhen compared to the structure without soft storey. As the walls are not present in the
ground floor, the transfer of load from top of the structure (i.e., the point of applicationof load) to the bottom is not continuous and is breaking at the ground floor beams. Dueto this, the load applied at the top of the storey is transferred only through the beamcolumn joints at the ground floor to the ground floor columns. Hence, it can be seen thatthe ground floor columns which acts as a soft storey, deflects more when compared tothe other floors. Proving this discussion, the infill walls in the structure without soft
storey, distributed the load uniformly depending on their relative stiffness. Due to this,the crack propagated uniformly in the infill walls from top to bottom of the structure.
The diagonal cracks, perpendicular to the line of application of load, in the tension zone,
formed in this structure show the bending behaviour of the structure is predominant. But
the cracks are visible only at the ground floor columns in the structure with soft storey
effect. In addition to this, there are no cracks observed in the top floor infill walls. This
indicates that the load is not transferred to any of the elements in the top storey. At thesecond critical point, the cracks are concentrated at the first floor wall where the suddenchange in stiffness of the structure is taking place. Later at the final stage, the infill wallat the first floor got separated from the RC frame. This is caused due to the concentrated
damage at the first floor.
Apart from this, another point to be observed is that, in the structure with soft storey, theground floor columns have not deflected equally. The first column is completely
straight whereas the other columns are almost reaching the collapse state. When thelateral force is acting on the structure towards positive X direction, the columns to theextreme right side are subjected to compressive forces and the columns to the extreme
left side are subjected to tension forces. In addition to this, the columns in the groundfloor are subjected to high lateral forces when compared to the other floors. At firstfloor, the tensile forces induced due to the bending behaviour of the structure aredominating the compressive forces applied at that floor. This causes columns on the left
side to act rigidly to the compressive forces acting on it. On the other hand, the columnson the right side deform depending on the individual relative stiffness. This causes thedifference in deformation patterns of the columns in the ground floor. The jaggerdnessof the pushover curve for open ground storey structure is caused because of the spring
failure which is the inherent property of the methodology used for the analysis. Whenthe spring reaches the limit specified, an equal force on the opposite side is applied tomake the net force zero. Because of irregular failure of springs in the case of soft storey
structure, the curve is obtained in such a pattern.

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The stiffness of the structure with and without open ground storey is varying largely andthe stiffness for open ground storey structure is less when compared to the structure
without open ground storey. This is because of number of effective structural elements
present for resisting the lateral forces acting on the structure. Finally, the ductility of thestructure which is responsible for the deformation carrying capacity of the structure ismore in the case of structure without soft storey and the ductility of the soft storey
structure is relatively less. On the other hand, there are no visible sudden drop in the
curve for soft storey structure which can be interpreted to be more ductile whencompared to the structure with all walls.
The pushover curve for structure, designed according to IS 1893, is almost similar to thepushover curve obtained for the structure with soft storey without increase in the designforces. Both the structure show similar behaviour in terms of the propagation of crack
and the distribution of load throughout the structure. As the discontinuous load path is
not treated in this structure also, the distribution of load is not uniform throughout thestructure. Due to this, there are no cracks formed in the top storeys of the structure. This
underestimates the strength of the infill walls present in the top storeys. In this structure,
cracks are more concentrated in the first storey near the beam column joint where thesudden change in stiffness is taking place. But the only difference that is observed in the
structures with and without increase in design moments is that the crack which is started
at the first storey is not propagated to the top storey. They are concentrated more in thefirst storey for the structure without increase in design moments. But in the structurewith increased design moments, the cracks initiated at the first storey propagatedtowards the top storeys. Hence the first bay which is directly subjected to the loads
effects more than the other floors. With this observation, it can be concluded that theload transfer is taking place from top to bottom of the structure on one side in the soft
storey structure with increased moments.
The stiffness and strength of the two structures are quantitatively shown in Table 2.
From the table it can be seen clearly that the structure with soft storey has very lessstrength and stiffness when compared to the structure without soft storey. This is true inthe case of soft storey structure designed for 2.5 times the moments and shear forces.
Table 2: Comparison of parameters

Initial Stiffness(kN/m)Max Base Shear(kN)

Structure without soft
storeyStructure with
soft storey

Structure with soft
storey (2.5times)

22.87 x 105

0.86 x 105

1.58 x 105

4673

160

578

4. CONCLUSIONSThis paper aims at understanding the seismic behaviour of some special cases in
Moment resisting frames with URM infilled frames. For fulfilling this objective, a RC
building is considered to be present in seismic zone IV. The capacity of the structure
was obtained and proper reasons were derived by observing the parameters involved inestimating the capacity and also the crack initiation and propagation patterns.
Effect of soft storey in a structure present in higher seismic zone areas
Effect of soft storey in a structure present in higher seismic zone areas335

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It was observed that the structure with soft storey losses greater initial stiffness andmaximum strength when compared to the structure without soft storey. It was also
observed that the load path from the point of application of load was not distributed
properly in the structure with soft storey. Due to the improper distribution of lateral load,
the structure with soft storey had very less capacity when compared to the structure
without soft storey. From the structure designed according to clause given in IS 1893, it
was observed that the structure had increased its maximum load carrying capacity withincrease in design moments. The crack pattern had not changes much in both the cases.
The assumption that the soft storey structure with increased design moments behaves as
the structure with enclosed full walls is directly under question with this observation.
There is no comparison between the soft storey with increased moments and thestructure without soft storey. The maximum load carrying capacity and the initialstiffness is hugely varying in both the cases.
REFERENCES
Bureau of Indian Standards, 2000. Indian Standard code of practice for plain andreinforced concrete for general building construction, IS 456, New Delhi, India.
Bureau of Indian Standards, 2002. Indian Standard Criteria for Earthquake Resistant
Design of Structures. Part – 1 General Provisions and buildings, IS 1893 – 2002, Part –1, New Delhi, India.
Crisafulli, F. R., 1997. Seismic behaviour of reinforced concrete structures withmasonry infills, PhD Thesis, University of Canterbury, New Zealand.
Dande, P. S., and Kodag, P. B., 2013. Influence of soft storey in RC frame building inearthquake resistant design, International Journal of Engineering Research andApplications 3, 461 – 468.
Elouli, T., Effect of infill masonry panels on seismic response of frame buildings, The
fifth Agdal Rabat Morocco, University of Mohammed.
Kaushik, H. B., Rai, D. C., and Jain, S. K., 2008. A rational approach to analyticalmodeling of masonry infill in reinforced concrete frame buildings, The 14th World
Conference on Earthquake Engineering, October 12-17, 2008, Beijing, China.
Lourenco, P. B., and Rots, J. G. 1997. Multi-surface interface model for analysis ofmasonry structures, Journal of Engineering Mechanics 123.
Murty, C. V. R., and Sudhir, K. J., 2000. Beneficial influence of masonry infill walls on
seismic performance of RC frame buildings, The 12th World Conference on Earthquake
Engineering, January 30 – February 4, 2000, Auckland, New Zealand.
Pandey, B. H., and Meguro, K., 2004. Simulation of brick masonry wall behaviour
under in plane lateral loading using applied element method, The 13thWorld Conferenceon Earthquake Engineering, August 1-6, 2004, Vancouver, B.C., Canada.
Pujol, S., Climent, A. B., Rodrigueand, M. E., and Smith-Pardo, J. P., 2008. Masonry
infill walls: An effective alternative for seismic strengthening of low rise reinforced
concrete building structures, The 14thWorld Conference on Earthquake Engineering,
October 12-17, 2008, Beijing, China.
Samoila, D., 2013. Masonry infill panels – analytical modeling and seismic behaviour,
IOSR Journal of Engineering (IOSRJEN) 3, 30-39.

336

New Technologies
Urban
Safety Cities
of Mega
Cities in Asia
New Technologies
for Urbanfor
Safetyof Megain Asia

Kenjiro YAMAMOTO1 Muneyoshi NUMADA2 and Kimiro MEGURO3
1
Graduate Student, Department of Civil Engineering,
The University of Tokyo, Japan, k-yama@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
2
Assistant Professor, ICUS, IIS, the University of Tokyo, Japan
3
Director/Professor, ICUS, IIS, the University of Tokyo, Japan
ABSTRACT
About sixty-percent of the total population of the world still live in masonry structures,and there have been heavy casualties in the past earthquakes due to their structural
collapses. To improve seismic capacity of these weak structures, many retrofit methods
have been developed. However, most of them are time-consuming and labor-intensive
and can only be applied for new construction, which slows down the spread of thesemethods. In our research, a much easier new method applicable for both new andexisting constructions was developed. The material used in this method is called ‘SG2000’, special paint reinforced with glass fiber. There are two merits to use it. Firstly, itneeds much shorter time and less labor to retrofit. Secondly, it has endurance to UV-ray,water, and fluctuation of temperature. An experimental study has been conducted toevaluate the performance of SG-2000 as a masonry retrofit material, and to find thebest way to paint on the wall. It has been proved that the wallette coated with SG-2000
has about 14 times and 16 times larger deformation capacities in both in-plane and outof-plane tests, respectively, than that of the unreinforced masonry wallette. We havealso found some efficient ways to coat masonry walls.
Keywords: masonry, seismic retrofitting, fiber-reinforced paint
1. BACKGROUND
1.1 Masonry
There are still many masonry structures in all over the world, especially in developing
countries. About sixty-percent of the total population of the world still live in masonry
structures. Many masonry structures are non-engineered structures that were built by
local people without any engineering background using locally available materials, suchas burned or unburned bricks, some kind of blocks and stones with poor cement or mud
mortar without following structural code, they are highly vulnerable to earthquakes. The
bricks are so heavy, and people will be injured by their fallings. Besides, bricks andmortar that have gotten back to soil powder due to the earthquake will bury people alive.
Because of these vulnerabilities, there have been heavy casualties in the pastearthquakes.

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1.2 Past researches for retrofitting masonry
To have an anti-seismic retrofitting of a masonry structure, it is important to improve its
three abilities, "strength", "deformability", and "energy absorption capacity".
1.2.1 PP-band (Polypropylene band) method (Sathiparan, 2005)
PP-band is commonly used for packing. The method of retrofitting is only to bindmasonry with PP-band in mesh shape. It is cheap, and reinforcing masonry with PPband needs no technical high skills. Besides, this method of retrofitting masonry does
not change the local style of living.
This method improves "deformability", and "energy absorption capacity" of masonry
structures. Because it does not improve “strength” of the structure, it cannot avoid theearly stage of destruction. It only prevents the masonry from collapse. Besides, there isanother disadvantage in this method. Binding masonry with PP-band needs relatively
less labor and time than other methods, but still it needs certain labor and time for real
size of houses.
1.2.2 C/G-FRP (Carbon/Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastic) method
This method improves "strength" of masonry. It prevents the early stage of destruction
as well as the collapse of the masonry structures. But the masonry makes a brittle
fracture if the force of an earthquake gets over the strength of the parts of the buildingthat are retrofitted with FRP. Besides, FRP is stuck to the building with epoxy bond, sowhen the adhesive strength of the bond is not so strong as that of FRP, it is equal to that
it is not FRP but the bond that works for retrofitting. Moreover, for the real size ofhouses, it needs large amount of FRP that are very expensive. Therefore, this method
also needs high cost, much labor and time for real size of houses.
2. PURPOSE
2.1 A new method of retrofitting masonry structures
The previous methods are simple ways to improve masonry structures’ seismic capacity.
However, they all need much labor and time for real size of houses. This research was
conducted to develop a new method of retrofitting masonry, which needs much lesslabor and time. This fact contributes to the spread of the retrofitting of masonry. The
material used in this method was "SG-2000" (Figure 1), a kind of paint that is reinforcedby mixing glass fiber. In this research, we conducted In-plane diagonal test and out-ofplane test to evaluate the performance of the proposed method.
3. IN-PLANE AND OUT-OF-PLANE TESTs
3.1 In-plane diagonal compression test

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3.1.1 Test setup
To investigate the effects of SG-2000 to improve masonry’s seismic capacity in inplane direction, we prepared seven models that vary in the amount of paint and in theway of coating as shown in Table 1. Using these specimens, we performed in-planediagonal compression test and compared the strength and deformability. To explore themost effective way of coating for reducing the retrofitting cost, we adopted two coatingways, full coating and mesh shape coating as shown in Figure 2. In the comparative
study, the force and deformation are normalized.
The dimensions of each specimen were 277.5×282×50 mm3 and composed of 7 brickrows of 3.5 brick each. A C/W ratio was 0.14. All the specimens were tested 28 days
after construction, and 28 days after the coatings of the paint. The loading rates were0.25 mm/min.

Figure 1: Paint for retrofitting (SG-2000)

Figure 2: Full coating of both sides (left) and coating in mesh shape (right)
3.1.2 Results
Figure 3 shows the crack patterns of URM in 2 mm deformation and IN-1 in 28 mm
deformation. Figure 4 shows the graph of the load and the deformation in in-plane
Experimental study on seismic retrofitting of masonry wall with special fiber reinforced paintExperimental study on seismic retrofitting of masonry wall with special fiber reinforced paint339

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmardiagonal compression tests of IN-1 and URM. URM’s stress was gradually increasing
until the peak strength at 2 mm deformation, but after that the stress dropped and thespecimen was broken. On the other hand, IN-1, fully coated in front and back side of
the specimen, had the same behavior until its peak strength. However, after that, thestress was gradually decreased to zero, at 28mm in deformation. IN-1 did not show thedrop of stress, so the mechanism of breaking was safe.
Table 1: Specimens for comparative study
Name
IN-1
IN-2
IN-3
IN-4

Coating
thickness
(mm)
1
2
0.5
1

IN-5

1

IN-6

1

IN-7

0.5

The content
of fiber(wt%)
1.5

Details of coating

Full coating of both front side and back side(see Figure 1)2

1.5

Full coating of front and back side without
Primer, the fixing agent of SG-2000 and thewall
Coating of front and back side in mesh shape,
the surface area is half of the total area (equal
weight to IN-3)
Coating of both front and back sides in meshshape, the surface area is half of the total area
(half weight of IN-3) (see Figure 2)

Figure 3: URM with its deformation of 2mm (left) and IN-1 with its deformation of
28mm (right)
The differences in strength between IN-1 and URM were not seen, but it was seen thatIN-1’s deformability was about 14 times as long as URM’s.
Figure 5 shows the normalized results of comparative studies in in-plane tests. IN-2,
whose coating is twice thicker than IN-1, had twice larger deformability than IN-1 had.
IN-3, whose coating thickness is a half of IN-1, had half deformability of IN-1. IN-6,

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which has the same amount of paint as IN-3, and coated in mesh shape, had longer
deformability than IN-3 had. IN-4, where paint with higher amount of fiber is used,maintained its strength for longer time than IN-1 had. IN-5, where the primer (thefixing agent of SG-2000 and the wall) is not used had longer deformation than IN-1.

Figure 4: Comparison between URM and IN-1

Figure 5: Normalized graph of comparative sturdy
3.2 Out-of-plane bending test
3.2.1 Test setup
To investigate the effects of SG-2000 to improve masonry’s seismic capacity in out-ofplane direction, we prepared three models that vary in the amount of paint and thecontent of fiber as shown in Table 2. Using these models, we carried out out-of-plane
Experimental study on seismic retrofitting of masonry wall with special fiber reinforced paintExperimental study on seismic retrofitting of masonry wall with special fiber reinforced paint341

November
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Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmarbending test and compared the strength and deformability of all models. In thecomparative study, the force and deformation are normalized.
The dimensions of each specimen were 475×241×50 mm3 and composed of 6 brickrows of 6 brick each. A C/W ratio was 0.14. All the specimens were tested 28 days after
construction, and 28 days after the coatings of the paint. The loading rates were 0.25
mm/min.
Table 2: Specimens for comparative study
Name
OUT-1
OUT-2
OUT-3

Coating
thickness (mm)10.5
1The content
of fiber (wt%)
1.5
2

Details of coating
Full coating of only underside

3.2.2 Results
Figure 6 shows the OUT-1 with its deformation of 10 mm. OUT-1, fully coated under
the specimen, prevented its stress from dropping, and the stress was gradually decreased
to zero, at 16 mm in deformation. OUT-1 did not show the drop of stress, so themechanism of breaking was safe.

Figure 6: Out-of-plane test of OUT-1 with its deformation of 10 mm
Figure 7 shows the results of out-of-plane bending tests OUT-1 and URM. It was notseen that OUT-1 has higher strength than URM (reason of lower strength of OUT-1 isuse of poor mortar than URM), but it was observed that OUT-1’s deformability was
about 16 times larger than URM’s.
Figure 8 shows the normalized results of comparative studies in out-of-plane tests.
OUT-2 and OUT-3, both of which have twice thicker paint than OUT-1 has, had twice

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larger deformability than OUT-1 had. OUT-3, where paint with higher amount of fiberis used, had almost the same curve as OUT-1 had.

Figure 7: Comparison between URM and OUT-1

Figure 8: Normalized graph of comparative sturdy
4. CONCLUSIONS
The results of in-plane diagonal compression tests show that:(1) SG-2000 did not contribute to the strength, but it made the wallette have larger
deformability.
(2) The deformability of retrofitted wallette depends on the thickness of coating. The
thicker the coating is, the larger deformation the wallette has.
(3) If coated with the same amount of paint, it is better to coat effectively in the mortar
joints between bricks.

Experimental study on seismic retrofitting of masonry wall with special fiber reinforced paintExperimental study on seismic retrofitting of masonry wall with special fiber reinforced paint343

November
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Yangon,Myanmar(4) The higher the content of fiber is, the longer the specimen can keep its strength, andtherefore the more its energy absorption capacity becomes.
(5) For burnt brick masonry, the specimen without using primer (the fixing agent of
SG-2000 and the wall) has larger ductility.
The results of out-of-plane bending tests show that:(1) SG-2000 did not contribute to the strength, but it made the wallette have larger
deformability.
(2) The deformability of retrofitted wallette depends on the thickness of coating. The
thicker the coating is, the larger deformation the wallette has.
(3) In out-of-plane direction, there was no clear differences among two models that varyin only 0.5% of their content of fiber.
Future researches should be carried out to check the dynamic performance byconducting shake table tests. Also, this paint SG-2000 does not contribute to increase
the strength of the structure, so it should be improved for the contribution of strength.
REFERENCES
Sathiparan, N., Mayorca, P., Nesheli, K. N., Guragain, R., Meguro K., 2005.
Experimental Study on In-plane and Out-of-plane Behavior of Masonry Wallettes
Retrofitted by PP-Band Meshes, SEISAN-KENKYU 57 (bi-monthly paper published by
IIS, The University of Tokyo, Japan).
Umair, S. M., Numada, M., Meguro, K., 2012. In Plane Behavior of Polypropylene and
FRP Retrofitted Brick Masonry Wallets under Diagonal Compression Test, 15th World
Conference on Earthquake Engineering (15th WCEE), Paper No.500, e-poster, 2012.

344

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Urban
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New Technologies
for Urbanfor
Safetyof Megain Asia

Kazuyuki TAKADA1, Makoto FUJIU2, Takahiro KONNO3
Professor, Tokyo Denki University, Department of Civil Engineering, Japan
takada@g.dendai.ac.jp
2
Assistant Professor, Faculty of Environmental Design, Kanazawa University, Japan
3
Bachelor Student, Tokyo Denki University, Department of Civil Engineering, Japan
1

ABSTRACT

Adachi-ku Senju district in Tokyo was selected as the investigated district of this study
because Senju district has been designated by the Tokyo Metropolitan Government as
the area with both high fire risk and high flood risk.
Questionnaire survey was conducted for the residents and employees in Senju district tocollect the data regarding knowledge of damage estimates of Senju district, knowledgeof evacuation method at big earthquake, and evacuation behavior at disasteroccurrence.
As the results of aggregative analysis, it became clear that there are several problems
in Senju distrct such that the employees have a tendency not to accurately understandthe damage estimates and the evacuation method, both the residents and the employees
have a tendency to underestimate flood risk, and some residents try to evacuate from theflood by going up the lower floor (2nd floor) of the residence under the situation thatfire spread and flood are occurring at the same time. Furthermore, two kinds ofevacuation behavior model were developed in this study. One is a model to explain thefactor inducing evacuation and the other is a model to explain the factor to choose
evacuation place under disasters. As the results of behavior model analysis, resident
chose a school for evacuation destination, and height and area of destination wereeffected by evacuation behavior.
Keywords: evacuation behavior, complex disaster, discrete choice model
1. INTRODUCTION
Massive destruction was brought to the north-eastern region of Japan when the 2011 off
the Pacific coast of Tohoku Earthquake occurred at 14:46 (JST) on March 11th, 2011.
In Tokyo metropolitan area where maximum of 5-upper seismic intensity (JMA) wasrecorded, the earthquake suspended the transportation system such as bus and train
services. On the other hand, Central Disaster Prevention Council, the supremeorganization of disaster affairs in Japan, has reported that Tokyo metropolitan area has
three kinds of natural mega-hazard such as M.7 class inner-plate earthquake, Tsunami
and flood. Meanwhile, the number of flood disasters occurrence has increased and it isnecessary to examine occurrence of the complex disaster which is over two kinds of345

November
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Yangon,Myanmardisaster in same time. In this study, Adachi-ku Senju district in Tokyo was selected forresearch, which has high flood risk and building collapse risk. Then, effective
countermeasures for complex disaster are required in these districts. The purpose of thisstudy is to analyze of evacuation behavior from complex disaster based on Stated
Preference Data. We have developed two kinds of models. One demonstrates the choice
behavior whether they stayed in damaged area or not and the other demonstrates the
choice behavior whether they evacuate vertical direction or horizontal direction.
2. Basic Analysis of Evacuation Behavior
2.1 Stated Preference Condition of Evacuation
In this study, questionnaire survey and SP survey were conducted for residents andemployee in Adachi-ku Senju district in Tokyo. The residents and employee were
provided some disaster condition as shown in table 1. Condition (a) was a situation that
there was “Not confirm the fire, cannot confirm the smoke”. The situations of sufferedpeople have a time for evacuation to the temporary evacuation shelter or river side
evacuation space. Condition (b) was situation that there were “Spreading and expansionof the fire”, “Not walk smoothly” and “Suspension of electricity, water supply andgas supply”. The situations of suffered people have to evacuate to the evacuation shelter.
Condition (c) was a situation that there was “Fear of the bank rip”. The situations ofsuffered people have to evacuate to the temporary evacuation shelter which does notinundate, outside of this district which does not inundate and evacuation shelter.
Condition (d) and (e) was set a situation that there was the complex disaster conditions.
The situation of suffered people have to evacuate to the temporary evacuation shelter
which does not inundate, outside of this district which does not inundate and evacuation
shelter which locate outside of riverside. Figure 1 shows that SP survey with condition(a), and Figure 2 shows that evacuation area choice analysis.
Table 1: Condition setting of Stated Preference survey
Condition(a)Situation
Flood risk

No evacuation-

Not confirm theFire after thefire, confirm theearthquake
Smoke
Congestionof road andSidewalk
Lifelinedamage346-

Condition(b)Gathers inevacuation area
Fire spreading
and fire
expansion
Not walksmoothly
Suspension ofelectricity,water supply
and gas supply

Condition(c)Condition(d)Condition(d)Evacuate toGathers in
Cannotoutside district
bridge area
evacuate
Fear of the bank Fear of the bank Fear of the bank
rip
rip
rip
Fire spreading
Spreading andand fire
expansion of the
expansion
fire
-

-

Not passsmoothly-

Suspension ofelectricity,water supply
and gas supply-

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Figure 1: SP survey with condition (a)Figure 2: Evacuation area choice
2.2 Results of Evacuation Method
Table 2 shows that results of evacuation method under SP conditions. Condition (a) is
high percentage of correct answer. On the other hand, Condition (b), (c), (d) and (e) is
low percentage of correct answer.
A few respondents answered that suffered people evacuate to evacuation space in riverside under condition (b), and almost respondent answered that suffered people evacuate
to evacuation space which is elementary school and so on. Almost respondent answeredthat suffered people evacuate to multistory building such as department store andresidential building under condition (c), and a few respondent answered that sufferedpeople evacuate to evacuation space which is registered by Tokyo Metropolitan
Government.
Moreover, same evacuation tendency confirmed under condition (d) and (e) which arecomplex disaster. As a result, evacuation method of suffered people is influenced bydisaster conditions. But evacuation method is not recommendation method, and thenimprovement of understanding level of evacuation under some disaster situation isessential.
Analysis of evacuation behavior from complex disaster based on stated preference data
Analysisof evacuation
complex disaster based on stated preference data………. 347-Case study
on Adachi-ku
Senju behavior
district infrom
Tokyo-

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Table 2: Results of evacuation method

Condition(a)Condition(b)Condition(c)Condition(d)Condition(e)Number ofcorrect answer
102
36
26
44
36

Number ofincorrect answer
87
189
245
228
216

Percentage ofcorrect answer
54.0
16.0
9.6
16.2
14.3

3. ESTIMATION OF EVCUATION BEHAVIOR MODEL
3.1 Evacuation behavior model
Table 3 shows that result of evacuation behavior model which is estimated by binary
logit model. As a result of estimation of evacuation behavior model, in case of roadcongestion and suspension of lifeline, both of suffered residents and workers stay insuffered position.
Table 4 shows that probability of evacuation under some disaster conditions. In case ofconfirming the smoke, spreading the fire and road congestion, evacuation probability ofresidents is low.
In case of confirming the smoke and fear of the bank rip, evacuation probability ofworkers is high. If spreading the fire and fear of the bank rip occurred in same time,
evacuation probability of residents are high.
When complex disaster such as fire and flood occurred, the possibility of isolation ishigh for suffered residents, and then they have high probability of evacuation.
Evacuation behavior under flood disaster may be influenced by number of stories, andthen evacuation behavior model considered numbers of stories dummy variables are
estimated. Depth of flood is estimated about 5.0 m in Adachi-ku Senju district in Tokyo.
The estimated evacuation behavior model adopted number of stories (1 2 stories)
dummy variables and number of stories (3 stories) dummy variables. As a result ofevacuation model estimation, residents which live in low layer floor evacuate positively
for avoiding of inundation.
Table 3: Estimated parameters of evacuation behavior model-1
Variables
Smoke dummyFire spreading dummy
Flood risk dummyRoad congestion dummy
Suspension of lifeline dummy
Initial likelihood
Final likelihood
Likelihood ratio
Adjusted likelihood ratio
Hit ratio
Number of samples

348

Residents
parametert-value
0.225
2.057
0.821
6.807
1.423
10.263-0.961-4.202-0.658-2.787
951.4
233.5
0.755
0.749
73.3%
1639

Employeeparametert-value
0.099
0.736
0.701
1.677
0.929
6.194
-0.12
-0.439-0.065-0.238-658.8-154.30.76580.7582
74.4%
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Table 4: Probability of evacuation behavior under some disaster conditions
Confirming
the Smoke

Spreadingthe fire

Fear of thebank rip

1
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
1
1
0
0
1
1

0
0
0
1
1
1
1

Prob. ofProb. ofRoad
evacuation evacuation
congestion

0
0
1
0
1
0
1

(residents) (workers)
55.6%
48.0%
69.4%
46.6%
46.5%
65.8%
80.7%
47.7%
61.4%
66.7%
90.5%
46.1%
78.4%
65.1%

Table 5: Estimated parameters of evacuation behavior model-2
Variables
Smoke dummyFire spreading dummy
Flood risk dummyRoad congestion dummy
Suspension of lifeline dummy
Number of stories(1 2 stories) dummy
Number of stories(3 stories) dummy
Initial likelihood
Final likelihood
Likelihood ratio
Adjusted likelihood ratio
Hit ratio
Number of samples

parameter
0.216
0.640
-1.738-0.0050.194

t-value
1.966
2.013-8.941-0.026
0.930

1.684

8.964

1.098

5.472
-1115.4-1033.2
0.07380.065756.%
1615

4. CONCLUSIONSIn this study, Adachi-ku Senju district in Tokyo was selected as the investigated districtof this study because Senju district has been designated by the Tokyo Metropolitan
Government as the area with both high fire risk and high flood risk Questionnaire
survey as s SP survey was conducted for the residents, employees and students in Senju
district to collect the data regarding the knowledge of damage estimates of Senju district,knowledge of evacuation method at the time of big earthquake, and evacuation behavior
at the time of the disaster occurrence.
In this study, evacuation behavior models were developed using SP data under complex
disaster conditions. It became clear that in case of road congestion and suspension of
lifeline, both of suffered residents and workers stay in suffered position, and in case ofconfirming the smoke, spreading the fire and road congestion, evacuation probability ofresidents is low and in case of confirming the smoke and fear of the bank rip,
evacuation probability of workers is high. If spreading the fire and fear of the bank rip
occurred in same time, evacuation probability of residents are high.

Analysisof evacuationfrom disastercomplex based
disasterstated preference
data……….
Analysis ofevacuation
behavior behavior
from complex
onbasedstatedonpreference
data
349-Case study on Adachi-ku Senju district in Tokyo-

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When complex disaster such as fire and flood occurred, the possibility of isolation ishigh for suffered residents, and then they have high probability of evacuation. Moreover,As a result of evacuation model estimation considered number of stories, residents
which live in low layer floor evacuate positively for avoiding of inundation.

REFERENCES
Cabinet office of Japan, Outline of Tokyo metropolitan area large-scale flood damage
measures (http://www.bousai.go.jp/kaigirep/chuobou/31/pdf/31_gijiroku.pdf), 2013.
Cabinet office of Japan, Outline of large-scale earthquake disaster damage reduction
countermeasures (http://www.bousai.go.jp/kaigirep/chuobou/34/pdf/34_siryo3-2.pdf),
2014.
Adachi ward office disaster council, Chapter of regional earthquake disaster prevention
plan, 2012.
Tokyo metropolitan government, Regional risk measurement investigation report book,2013.9.
Adachi ward office disaster council, the flood hazard map, 2007.
Kazuyuki TAKADA, Miho OHARA, Tomohisa YAMASHITA and Makoto FUJIU,
Consciousness analysis of evacuation from complex disasters in Tokyo Senjyu district,
Proceedings of Infrastructure Planning and Management, Vol.49.

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Tomoko MATSUSHITA
Graduate Student, the University of Tokyo, Japanmatsu-t@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
ABSTRACT
Approximately four million people are said to have lost homes after Typhoon Yolanda(internationally known as Haiyan) hit the Visayan islands of the Philippines on 8th
November 2013. The construction of permanent houses has started, however less than
10% of people in need of shelter are said to have received assistance for rebuilding
more than half a year after the typhoon, and the majority of the affected population still
live in temporary houses they build themselves using salvaged materials. More thanseventy national and international humanitarian agencies are working to assist
reconstruction of houses, however there are deep-rooted issues such as problems ofland tenure and the lack of a comprehensive system for providing post-disaster housing,that seem to have caused the delayed reconstruction. The author will examine issues
learned in the field through an on-going project “Post-Yolanda Support for Safer
Homes and Settlements” implemented by United Nations Human Settlements
Programme (UN-HABITAT) in the Province of Capiz, Panay Island. The recovery
process and the roles of various national and international actors is evaluated in terms
of approaches and effectiveness in order to create proactive suggestions for futuredisaster response.
Keywords: natural disaster, shelter, Typhoon Yolanda, international agency
1. INTRODUCTION
There are many guidelines about post-disaster housing readily available online thanks tothe efforts by leading aid agencies such as UNHCR, IFRC, UN HABITAT and theWorld Bank among others (Leon, 2012; Ashmore, 2013). Even though suchinformative materials based on numerous case studies are extremely useful andavailable, we still face difficulty in every disaster because each situation is different andthere is no ‘one size fits all’ solution to this problem, and because beyond the technicalaspects of physical construction, housing involves existing social system as well as
country-specific issues that requires more than just a humanitarian1 response (Jha, 2010;
Fan). In another words, short-term solutions that are often the focus of humanitarianagencies cannot address housing needs sufficiently. This problem has been recognized
as the “humanitarian development gap” and is still debated to this day, with rising1

The definition of humanitarian here refers to emergency

351

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
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Yangon,Myanmarconcern due to the growing urban population and increasing number of displaced people
after disaster (Moore, 1999; Steets, 2011).
Two big questions emerged during the housing reconstruction project in the Philippines
while the author was working as a junior shelter expert with UNHABITAT: 1) how“balanced” was the assistance that was provided to the affected populations, and 2)
whether it was reaching poorest of the poor people who most desperately need help.
Instead of trying to answer these rhetorical questions, the objective of this paper is tobring attention to the fact that housing reconstruction needs to take into account not
only humanitarian aspects of providing housing in emergency but also a long-term,
development aspect. In order to do so, this research uses case study analysis as amethodology and the authors will discuss and analyze the issues observed during theoperational process of housing reconstruction project by UN-HABITAT (UNH),
introducing cases from the field in the Province of Capiz and Iloilo in Region VI, thePhilippines. This paper is a preparatory study for advocating a holistic approach anddeveloping a better system to respond to post-disaster housing needs especially in the
rapidly urbanizing nations with increasingly complex issues.
2. BACKGROUND: TYPHOON YOLANDA RESPONSE
2.1 Facts and status of recovery
Typhoon Yolanda, internationally known as Haiyan, made landfall on November 8,
2013, causing 6,300 deaths and affecting a total of 3.4 million families, with 16 million
people in the Philippines. Nearly 1.1 million (1,127,041) houses were damaged
including 548,793 totally destroyed throughout the nine affected regions of the Western
Visayas (DSWD, 2013). More than half a year after the typhoon, the Regional
Coverage Gap indicated a 77% gap of households that have not yet received any
support (Philippines Shelter Cluster, 2014a). Eight months after the typhoon, “only
38% of assessed households reported having shelter assistance,” indicating that morethan 60% have not yet received assistance, according to the survey conducted across ten
typhoon-affected provinces by REACH, a joint initiative of NGOs and UNOSAT(Philippines Shelter Cluster, 2014b).
2.2 Response by the National Government
On 11 November 2013, due to the massive destruction and immense effects of Typhoon
Yolanda, the president declared a state of national calamity issuing Presidential
Proclamation No.682 and designated the Office of Presidential Assistant for
Rehabilitation and Recovery (OPARR) to oversee Typhoon Yolanda Reconstruction
and Rehabilitation per Presidential Memorandum Order No.62 dated 6 December 2013
(NDRRMC, 2014). OPARR was created to carry out a coordination role of similar tothat of UNOCHA in international disaster response. The national government
announced it will provide 30,000 PHP cash (not yet provided) and 2 sheets of CGI(corrugated galvanized iron) roof materials per household to be used for repair although
the delivery of this support has been delayed. In terms of permanent housing, thegovernment is in the process of reviewing proposals by local governments about how toproceed strategically to assure the security of safe housing for all.

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2.2.1 “No Build Zone”
The National Government has announced a so-called “No Build Zone2” to restrict theresidents from building in the area near the coast that was considered dangerous
immediately after the typhoon. Twenty-one percent of households are said to live in a
no-build zone according to a survey (Philippines Shelter Cluster, 2014b). The
announcement of the No Build Zone was not well received by affected people or local
governments, because the national government did not provide alternative plans forrelocating the affected population and therefore many residents had no choice but tostay along the coast, rebuilding their houses at the former places using salvaged
materials ways considered unsafe. The “No Build Zone” announcement has caused
great confusion because relocation is unrealistic for most people due to a lack ofrelocation area, and it also sends a wrong message that it is safe to live along the coastas long as the house is built 40 meters or more from the coastline. In fact, elevation
matters more than the distance from the shore since the storm surge caused the water torise up to 6 meters in the city of Tacloban, which caused most of the 6,300 deaths. The
government recognizes the needs and is trying to address this issue of informal residents
at risk living near the water while it proves to be difficult and has met great resistancefrom local governments and local people.
2.3 Response from the International Community
Due to the massive scale of destruction caused by Typhoon Yolanda, the United
Nations announced a Level 3 (L3) declaration3 that includes the activation of the Cluster
system4 for better coordination among actors of the same humanitarian sector (IASC,2012). On the ground, there were many national and international agencies actively
involved in the reconstruction effort throughout the entire regions of the Visayas islandsin the Philippines. The Philippines Shelter Cluster was established and led by IFRC,
and provided support such as setting up regular coordination meetings among shelter
agencies, being a focal point with the government and providing resources including
practical information on the web as well as personal consultation to discuss technicalissues about construction, etc. The Shelter Cluster was later renamed the Humanitarian
Shelter Working Group after the Philippines government announced that OPARR
would take over the coordinating role instead.
2.3.1 Different Shelter Options by phase
The Philippines Shelter Cluster created detailed guidelines for nine shelter recovery
options as shown in Table 1 (Philippines Shelter Cluster, 2014c). Among them, there
are four types of housing options namely temporary shelter, bunkhouse, core houses andpermanent houses with specified criteria such as the timeframe for use, size, budget andconditions of the target households. By making this type of distinction it clarifies theneeds and various types of shelters required at different phases of recovery. However
temporary housing often ends up becoming permanent because there is no place to
2

The Philippine Water Code states “40m No build zone”
Level 3 is activated when a large-scale, sudden-onset crisis occurs and it triggers the deployment of IARRM (InterAgency Rapid Response Mechanism) emergencies and is judged by their scale, complexity, urgency, the capacity
required to respond and the reputational risk to humanitarian organisations and responders, activated by Emergency
Relief Coordinator (IASC, 2012).
4
The cluster approach was introduced as part of humanitarian reform in 2005. It seeks to make humanitarianassistance more effective by introducing a system of sectoral coordination with designated lead organizations (IASC;
Steets, 2010).
3

Issues and analysis of the Post-Yolanda shelter recovery process and role of international
Issues andagencies
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November
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This has happened in many major disasters such as in Haiti and Japan among others andits ineffectiveness has been widely recognized.
Table 1. Nine options of Recovery Shelter Guidelines
Shelter options
1. Emergency
Shelter
Upgrade/Replacement
2. Temporary
ShelterTimeframe
6 monthto 1 year

Size

Budget(PHP)
N/A

Condition of target
householdMay not have clear longterm tenure over their
land

N/A

30,000Minimum
2
3.5m /person, 45,000
18m2/ family
of 5
N/A
N/A

Living in high risk area,
being relocated totemporary site

3. Sharing
Programs
4. Rental Support
5. Bunkhouse
Program

Up to 2years
2 years
2 years

6. Repair andRetrofit

N/A

N/A
N/A

N/A
N/A

N/A

N/A

7. Core House

9 years

8. PermanentHouse
9. Settlement
Planning andDevelopment

Permanent
N/A

Minimum
18m2
N/A

10-18,000(minor)20-40,000(major)60,000110,000
120,000250,000
250,000450,000

N/A

Facing longer
displacement potential
for relocation / living inhigh risk areas

Has a recognized form of
tenureHas a recognized form of
tenure(Philippines Shelter Cluster, 2014c)
3. ISSUES AND ANALYSIS 1: SECURITY OF LAND TENURE
This chapter discusses issues related to land tenure which is one of the two primaryconcerns observed during the operational process of implementing the housing
reconstruction project of UN Habitat.
3.1 Paradox in the aid reality: The more vulnerable are least likely to be assisted
It is paradoxical that the more vulnerable people are, the less likely they are to receive
housing support because they are often filtered out at the process of beneficiary
selection due to the lack of land tenure. It is difficult for the agencies to support
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guarantee that the landowner will let them stay after the housing is provided. The effort
could come to nothing unless the house provided is independent of the land like some
exceptional transferrable houses constructed in the Philippines in response to Typhoon
Washi in 2012 (Hirano, 2012). In the context of the Philippines where nearly eighty
percent of the population is said to be informal settlers, this creates a situation that the
majority of affected population will not be entitled to the assistance that they need
(USAID).
Many agencies face similar situations, being unsure of the impact of short-term
interventions such as assisting informal settlers on longer-term recovery, many agencies
end up leaving them out of disaster recovery (Fan). Sometimes agencies have to maketrade-offs between supporting the most vulnerable (those without land and housing
assets before and after natural disasters, or those in congested camps, squatting or
seeking rental accommodation) and less vulnerable groups (pre- and post- natural
disaster access to land and housing assets and providers of various forms ofaccommodation and tenure) (IASC, 2010). The diagram (Figure 1) presented byPhilippines Shelter Cluster illustrates this point by indicating beneficiaries that areowners with formal rights are ‘least vulnerable’ and ‘easiest to assist’ while thoserenters or settlers who share land illegally are ‘more vulnerable’ and ‘least likely to beassisted’ (Philippines Shelter Cluster, 2014d). It can be said, though not applicable forall, that there is an incentive for the agencies to select ‘easiest to assist’ people as theirtarget since it is more likely to achieve a “good result” by completing the work within
the proposed timeframe and budget that will satisfy donors and consequently getassurance for future funding.

Figure 1: Pre-Disaster Tenure Context in the Philippines(Philippines Shelter Cluster,
2014d)

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3.2 Process of housing reconstruction by UN Habitat: From most vulnerable to lessvulnerable
UNH decided to assist inland communities for their project “Post-Yolanda Support for
Safer Homes and Settlements” which began in April 2014, half a year after the typhoon,
because there were already a number of aid agencies concentrated in the coastal towns
that were heavily hit by the storm surge and less aid agencies were present in the inlandthat was also damaged by strong wind and rain but not getting as much attention as
coastal areas. The project had a set of criteria for beneficiary selection which included
the security of land tenure among other conditions. As explained earlier, these criteria
for beneficiary selection screens out the most vulnerable people from getting theassistance they need. Despite the given situation, the project by UNH demonstrated away of transforming those vulnerable people to become less vulnerable by assistingthem to gain formal ownership of the land through a series of community-level
involvement.
3.2.1 The People’s Process and idea of Core House
UNH’s working method is called the “People’s Process” which puts people in the centerof the process, and not only it provides housing to individual households but also it tries
to engage the community as a whole to build back safer. Community participation is a
crucial part of the process and would eventually enable members of the community to
become less vulnerable by strengthening ties among the community to collectively
tackle problems. The UNH’s project includes three main activities that are 1) to provide
Core House to approximately 600 households, 2) to provide technical trainings to build
safer homes and 3) to improve community infrastructure such as drainage and roads.
Core House is a compact house that satisfies minimum needs of a family such as
kitchen and toilet and is made to allow for expansion and building additional structures,
encouraging the beneficiaries to take an initiative of completing the house as per theirneeds, promoting empowerment. The degree of ‘completeness’ of Core House however
differs depending on who provides them and their philosophy about aids and this will be
discussed later.
3.2.2 Collaboration with local organization
In order to involve affected population as a community as their objective stated, UNH
collaborated with a national organization called Social Housing Finance Corporation(SHFC) to work closely with the community. SHFC assists informal settlers to gain
home ownership by helping them form a Homeowners’ Association (HOA) and getloans to acquire land titles from the landowner (SHFC).
3.3 Problems observed during the assessment and effort for solution
Prior to the disaster, some of the HOAs already had some problems within theircommunity and in the wake of Typhoon Yolanda these came to light. In some cases,
the process of the reconstruction project helped solve those issues.
3.3.1 Issues with arrears
One of the common existing problems in a number of HOAs was the problem of arrears
that some of the community members were delayed in their monthly payments and as aresult, some of them were deprived of the opportunity to apply for shelter assistance,

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often not given the applications by the community leaders. This was becoming an issue
since many of them were in serious need of assistance and it was evident that not giving
them shelter assistance would not improve their attitude towards payment in any way.
Thus the UNH team has consulted the community leaders, suggesting discussing withthose in arrears to come up with a kind of agreement between them so that they can beeligible for shelter assistance in exchange for a promise that they will pay their monthly
fees.
3.3.2 Lack of Community Leadership
The issue with arrears brought up another concern that is the power exercised by thecommunity leaders. During the field assessment, some community members came up
to the technical assessment team to ask why some of the most needy people in thecommunity were not given the opportunity to apply for the shelter program by UNH.
This caught the UNH staff by surprise since the applications should have been
distributed equally to all members of the affected population but in fact somecommunity leaders were making judgment as to who is eligible to apply for the UNH’s
project based on their records of arrears. After conducting thorough assessments andinterviews, UNH communicated the message clearly to the community that it willconsider all members for its project regardless of their arrear or any other condition that
may concern the leaders. Another issue regarding the leadership of the community wasa case where a local government official was interfering with the community matter tothe point that the official was taking over the role of community leaders by managing
the application submission. This was causing a lack of leadership in the community andweakening community ties. The communities with above mentioned existing issues
recognized the collective responsibility and the need to cooperate with each other forthe sake of mutual benefit, and tackled the issues as a community to be qualified forassistance from UNH, entailing positive outcomes in the end.
4. ISSUES AND ANALYSIS 2: COORDINATION AMONG ACTORSThis chapter discusses the other issue observed during the operation on the ground,dealing with the lack of sufficient coordination among agencies as well as with thegovernment.
4.1 Lack of inter-agency / government coordination
Despite the fact that many national and international organizations and NGOs wereactively involved in the housing reconstruction throughout the affected area, there wasneither comprehensive system to effectively match agencies with affected communities
nor Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) in place from the local government side to
guide agencies in selecting beneficiaries.
During an open forum led by OPARR, which succeeded the coordination function from
Philippines Shelter Cluster, a number of concerns were raised among of which are(OPARR, 2014):
Absence of coordination among NGOs and between LGUs in the local
Rehabilitation and Recovery efforts.
Overlapping of beneficiaries identified for the same service (livelihood, repair ofshelter, etc.) by the different agencies including the local government unit.
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November
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Yangon,MyanmarLocal Government Officials prohibiting its identified beneficiaries in availing of
Private Sector PPA.
What happens often in the field is that many agencies come to assist at an emergency
phase immediately after the disaster and develop a relationship with the local
community or local government and many organizations stay in the same area tocontinue their activities when the situation shifts from emergency to the subsequent
recovery and reconstruction phase. Without any coordination function in place for the
procurement of services, it is inevitable that overlapping of beneficiaries or otherconcerns expressed by OPARR would happen everywhere, due to pure luck ordifference in accessibility to information and assistance.
In this absence of coordination, the Philippines Shelter Cluster that was established soonafter the typhoon contributed greatly to enhance the quality of overall shelter assistanceand its presence proved extremely effective serving the needs of nearly 100 agencies
working in affected areas by creating a platform for agencies to interact with each otherand exchange information in addition to providing up-to-date information including
those from the government. Although all agencies were encouraged to take part in thisinter-agency exchange, there was no obligation or penalty for not participating and it
was up to the discretion of each agency. According to the interviews author conductedto some government officials and UN coordinators, there were some agencies that
conducted their operation, be it construction of houses or distribution of cash, directly tothe affected people without consulting or reporting to the local government or Shelter
Coordinator. This was conceived as very problematic because 1) the building may not
be compliant with the required level of quality to assure safety of the beneficiaries, 2) it
can interfere with the activities of other actors including government in negative way
and lastly 3) it can confuse the beneficiaries or even cause jealousy among thecommunity members by creating a situation that some receive more or better assistancethan others.
4.1.1 Core house: Same idea, different design
A confusion caused by a lack coordination was demonstrated in this case where one
community was receiving Core House from two agencies. During the beneficiary
selection process by UNH in one of the communities, it turned out that some membersof the community have already committed themselves in receiving Core House from a
local NGO called Iloilo People’s Habitat based in Iloilo Province. The issue was thatboth IPH and UNH had the same idea of providing core house in order to promoteparticipation and empowerment, the design was different. The core house by IPH wasmore minimum compared to that of UNH’s, consisted of four posts and a roof whilethat of UNH was more complete, only a part of the wall incomplete. IPH has expressed
its concern to UNH that UNH should match the design so that there will be no disparity
among the people. As long as the design and specification is compliant with thegovernment’s requirement, agencies should be able to provide services that fits theircapacity and principle, however it should not create confusion or inequality to thecommunity by their action. This problem could have been avoided if there was acentral coordinating body to manage the overall distribution.

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5. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTION FOR THE FUTURE
This paper looked at two issues from the UN Habitat’s project “Post-Yolanda Support
for Safer Homes and Settlements”- how targeting beneficiaries based on their securityof land tenure and the lack of sufficient coordination affect the reconstruction process.
The lack of security of land tenure was causing the paradox that the more needy,
vulnerable people were less likely to be assisted while the efforts of UN Habitat in its
attempts to involve the affected populations as a community and empower them waseffective in promoting positive change to this existing problem. The lack of sufficient
coordination among the actors was causing possible overlaps and confusion while theefforts by the Philippines Shelter Cluster to provide services to fill the gaps and promoteinter-agency coordination contributed to improve the quality of response to housingneeds.
5.1 Suggestions
It is important to approach the problem both from the policy as well as operational level
while understanding the limit of what aid agencies can and cannot do. Somesuggestions from the field experiences can be useful to improve the situation.
5.1.1 Community empowerment and Land issue
The land tenure is certainly an issue to be dealt with as a development issue rather thanhumanitarian and it could involve a high level policy change that requires a long-term,
substantial commitment by the government. While such long-term structural reform is
indispensable, it should be well acknowledged that empowering the community bybringing an individual issue up to the level of common community issue was effective
as demonstrated by UNH’s project.
5.1.2 Agencies’ role in Collaboration
Regarding the coordination issue, in author’s view, what was lacking most was acomprehensive, reliable database of the affected households including basic family
information and damage assessment that agencies can use while selecting beneficiaries.
As described earlier, there was no system to match the agencies with communities thus
each agency had to conduct its own damage assessment in an ad hoc manner which isinefficient and could be unreliable. Damage assessment should be done by the local
government for good reasons however there is neither enough manpower nor
knowledge / skills to do so rapidly at the time of disaster. Although many aid agencies
including UNH focus on providing actual housing, some providing full house others
repair kit, if some of the assistance can be used to help the local government in making
damage assessment and creating a comprehensive list of affected households to be usedby all involved in the housing reconstruction, it could speed up the process ofreconstruction greatly.
Humanitarian development gap is a growing concern and humanitarian agencies need to
pay attention to the approach in their response to housing needs. A holistic approach isneeded with which the actions of all the actors including NGOs, UN organizations andlocal and national governments are coordinated in order to make sure the assistance isdistributed in a systematic and balanced way to help the affected communities regain
their livelihood and safe housing as soon as possible.
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Steets, J., 2011. Donor strategies for addressing the transition gap and linking
humanitarian and development assistance, Global Public Policy Institute (GPPi), Berlin.
USAID, USAID Country profile; Property rights and resource governance, Philippines.

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Nandar LWIN
Department of Civil Engineering, Mandalay Technological University,
Mandalay, Myanmar
nandarlwin.civil@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Bridges are very important elements in the development of infrastructures because there aremany obstructions in Myanmar. Among the various types of bridges, truss bridge is acommonly used as the case of easy construction, assemblage and erection panelized steel
truss, and available for long span. In this study, the bridge has been built to carry
combination of two highways, a railway traffic and a sideway each. Seismic demand for
proposed model is determined by Time History Analysis (THA). Maximum deformation in
longitudinal direction is 1.022ft at joint 462 to opposite direction, which is occurred at 2.8
seconds in 20 second duration earthquake. Self mass of this bridge model is 666.72Kip-s2/ft
and its self weight is 21451Kip. Fundamental mode is occurred at 0.576705seconds andfundamental frequency is 2.1421cycle/sec. Maximum deflection of the bridge is 0.483 ft under
extremely event limit state I (EE I). The extending of seismic design is determined by
performing a comprehensive seismic analysis and computing capacity-demand ratios for thecomponents of proposed bridge. To evaluate the performance level of the proposed bridge,
this study is going to emphasize a vital role of Pushover Analysis. The formation of plastic
hinges along the entire bridge must be observed according to Plastic Hinge Length (PHL)
method under Direct Displacement Based Design (DDBD) approach and performance levelof the proposed bridge should be investigated. A collapse fragility curve of this hypotheticalbridge model under different earthquakes can also be observed in this study.
Keywords: capacity-demand ratios, performance level, pushover analysis, plastic hinge
length method, collapse fragility curve

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Comparison of estimators of Gumbel Distribution
for modeling maximum wind speed data
1

May Ei Nandar Soe1 and Daw Aye Aye Thant2
PhD candidate, Water Resources Engineering, Civil Engineering Department
Mandalay Technological University, Myanmar
einandarsoe2012@gmail.com
2
Lecturer, Water Resources Engineering, Civil Engineering Department,
Mandalay Technological University, Myanmar

ABSTRACT
Estimation of maximum wind speed potential at a coastal region is very important while
predicting storm surge associated with tropical cyclones to develop hazard maps,
vulnerable maps and risk maps for different return periods. Assessment of maximum
wind speed in a coastal region can expediently be carried out by probabilistic modelingof historical maximum wind speed data using an appropriate extreme value distribution.
This paper illustrates the use of five parameter estimation Methods( Method of Moment,
Probability Weighted Moment, Method of Least Square, Order Statistic Approach andMaximum Likelihood Method) of Gumbel distribution for modeling maximum windspeed data which caused storm surge propagation recorded at Rakhine coastal region.
Goodness-of-Fit (GOF) tests involving Anderson-Darling (AD) and KolmogorovSmirnov (KS) and, diagnostic test using Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) are adopted
for selection of suitable method for estimators of Gumbel distribution for modeling
Maximum Wind Speed. The study shows that Method of Moment is better suited for
estimation of maximum wind speed for the region under study. A comparative study ofmaximum wind speed of tropical cyclone for different period using five methods ofGumbel distribution is carried out and results are presented. .
Keywords: Maximum Wind Speed Estimators of Gumbel distribution, Anderson-Darling,
Kolmogorov-Smirnov, Root Mean Square Error, Rakhine Coastal Region
1. INTRODUCTION
Maximum Wind Speeds, and their static and dynamic effects, need to be taken into
account while considering cyclone and storm surge prediction. If the wind speed is
maximal, the effect of wind on the landfall area can be critical. High winds usuallycause damage to structures, vegetations, human’s live and properties. Maximum windspeed estimates likely to occur for different return periods are very often important
inputs for design purposes. These extreme events are also essential in the postcommissioning stage, wherein the assessment of failure of structures and place andadequacy of cyclone shelters, heights and intrusion distances of storm surge need to be
carried out. Most of research studies have shown that maximum wind speed of a storm
is needed for designing cyclone shelters and predicting storm surge because of relation
to wind speed and pressure deficiency and storm surge.

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A theoretical analysis of extreme hydrological phenomena has led researchers to
identify Gumbel distribution as a standard distribution for frequency analysis ofrecorded meteorological data and hence used in the present study. Standard analyticalprocedures such as Method of Moment (MOM), Maximum Likelihood Method (MLM),
Method of Least Square (MLS), Order Statistics Approach (OSA) and Probability
Weighted Moment (PWM) are commonly available for determination of parameters ofGumbel distribution. Number of studies has been carried out by different researchers on
analyzing the characteristics of the parameter estimation methods of Gumbel
distribution. Research reports indicated that MOM is a natural and relatively easy
parameter estimation method. MLM is considered the most efficient method, since it
provides the smallest sampling variance of estimated parameters and hence of theestimated quintiles compared to other methods. But, the method has disadvantage of
frequently giving biased estimates and often failed to given the desired accuracy inestimating extremes from hydrological data.
PWM and MLS are much less complicated, and the computations are simpler.
Parameter estimates from small samples using PWM and MLS are sometime moreaccurate than the MLM estimates for Gumbel distribution. On the other hand, OSA
estimators are unbiased and having minimum variance. Since there is no generalagreement in applying particular method for a region because of the characteristics ofthe parameters, an attempt is made to apply all five methods of Gumbel distribution formodeling MWSD of tropical cyclones recorded at Rakhine Coastal Region. GoF tests
involving AD and KS are employed for checking the adequacy of fitting of the method
to the recorded data. Diagnostic test involving RMSE is used for selection of a suitable
method of Gumbel distribution for modeling MWSD for the region under study. In thispaper, the Mean + SE values given by the suitable method of Gumbel distribution(using Goodness-of-Fit and diagnostics tests) are chosen to arrive at maximum values
for the region under study. The methodology adopted in estimation of maximum windspeed using Gumbel distribution is described in ensuing section.
2. METHODOLOGY
To compute the estimators of Gumble Distribution, the following function is adopted.
2.1 Probabilistic Distribution
The Probability Density Function [PDF; f (W)] and Cumulative Distribution Function[CDF; F (W)] of Gumbel distribution is given by:(1)(2)
Where α and β are location and scale parameters of the distribution. The parameters arecomputed by different methods and further used to estimate extreme wind speed (WT)
for different return periods from364

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The Lower and Upper Confidence Limits (LCL and UCL) of the estimated wind speeds
at 95% level are computed from LCL=WT- 1.96(SE) and UCL=WT +1.96(SE.)
Where YT is the reduced variate
YT = −Ln(−Ln(1−(1/T)))(4)

and SE is the standard error.
2.2 Methods for Estimation of Parameters
In this paper, five parameter estimation methods are adopted to determine the estimatorsof Gumbel Distribution.
2.2.1 Method of Moment
(5)
(6)
where

and SW are the mean and standard deviation of the recorded MWSD.

2.2.2 Maximum Likelihood Method(7)(8)
2.2.3 Method of Least Square(10)
where Pi = (i−0.44) / (N + 0.12) and ln(-ln(Pi)) define the cumulative probability of nonexceedance for each Wi .

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2.2.4 Order Statistics Approach
The OSA estimators of Gumbel distribution are given by:
and

(11)

where r* and are proportionality factors, which can be obtained from the selectedvalued of k, n, n' using the relations as follows:and(12)
Here N is the sample size containing the basic data that are divided into k sub groups ofn elements each leaving n' remainders.
andare the distribution parameters of thegroups, andandare the parameters of the remainders, if any. These can becomputed from the following equations:(13)

2.2.5 Probability Weighted Moment
α = M100 – 0.5772157β; β = (M100 – 2M101) / ln2(14)Here ‘i’ is the rank assigned to each sample arranged ascending order.
2.2.6 Computation of Standard Error
The values of SE of the estimated maximum wind speed by MOM, MLM, MLS andPWM may be computed form Eq. (14) and given by:(15)
The coefficient used in computation of SE by MOM, MLM, MLS and PWM are given
in Table 1. The SE of the estimated maximum wind speed by OSA can be obtained
from
(16)
where r* = (1/k)(kn/N)2 and r' = (n'/N)2 . Wn and Wn' are defined by general form as:(17)
The weight αni and βni used in determining OSA estimators, and values of An, Bn and Cn
used in computing the SE for OSA, are given in AERB safety guide.

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Table 1: Coefficients used in computation of SE by MOM, MLM MLS and PWMParameter Estimation
Method
MOM and MLS
PWM
MLM

Coefficient used in computation of SE
A
BC
1.15890.19191.10001.11280.45740.8046
1.10870.51400.60792.3. Goodness-of-Fit Tests
The AD and KS statistics are defined by:
(18)
(19)
Where Z(i) = F(Wi), for i = 1,2,3,…..,N and W1 < W2 < W3 < W4 < W5……………...WN.
Also Fe(Wi) =(i-0.44)/(N+0.12) is the empirical cumulative distribution function CDF
of Wi and FD(Wi) is the computed cumulative distribution function CDF of Wi. If thevalues of GoF tests statistics given by the method are less than that of theoretical values
at the desired significance level, then the method is accepted to be adequate fordetermination of parameters of Gumbel distribution for modeling MWSD.
2.4 Diagnostic Test
(20)
Where Wi and W*i are the recorded and estimated wind speed of ith observation. The
method providing minimum root mean square error, RMSE, is considered as the mostsuitable method for estimation of maximum wind speed.
2.5. Model Performance Indicator
The correlation coefficient (CC) measures the linearity of the probability plot. It has arange between -1 and 1. Values near ±1 suggest that the observation could have beendrawn from the fitted distribution. The CC is defined mathematically as;
(21)
Where
and

denote the average value of the observations and fitted estimation.

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3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Estimation of Maximum Wind Speed
By adopting the methodology described above, a computer program is developed andused to estimate the maximum wind speed for different return period in Rakhine Coastal
Region. The program computes the parameters of Gumbel distribution using fivemethods and statistical indicators such as test statistic for AD and KS, RMSE andcoefficient of correlation.
Maximum wind speed data recorded at Rakhine Coastal Region for the period 19672010 is used to estimate the extreme wind speed for different return periods adopting
five methods of Gumbel distribution. Table 2 gives the maximum wind speed estimatesfor different return periods together with SE given by five methods of Gumbel
distribution.
Table 2: Maximum wind speed for different return periods together with SE given fivemethods of Gumbel Distribution for Rakhine coastal region
ReturnPeriod
2
5
10
20
50
100

Estimated Maximum Wind Speed with SE(km/h)
MOM
MLM
MLS
OSA
PWM
WT
SE
WT
SE
WT
SE
WT
SE
WT
SE
182.1 12.7 181.8 12.4 183.74 14.3 184.3 15.1 182.4 13.8
208.3 18.9 207.9 17.1 213.21 21.2 213.5 21.5 210.9 19.7
232.1 25.5 231.6 21.9 239.87 28.7 239.9 28.2 236.6 25.8
254.9 32.2 254.3 26.8 265.46 36.2 265.3 35.1 261.3 32.0
284.3 41.2 283.6 33.4 298.52 46.2 298.0 44.3 293.3 40.2
306.5 48.0 305.7 38.4 323.40 53.9 322.7 51.4 317.3 46.8

3.2 Analysis Based on GoF Tests
GoF tests statistics is computed from Eqns. (18-19) using the estimators of Gumbel
distribution and given in Table 3.
Table 3: Computed values of test statistics
Parameter
Estimation Method
MOM
MLM
MLS
OSA
PWM

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Computed values of GoF tests for Rakhine Coastal
RegionAD
KS0.41560.13100.41810.12850.33700.12070.34360.12970.34970.1151

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Figure 1: Plot of recorded and estimated maximum wind speed of cyclones
given by Gumbel distribution (using MOM) for Rakhine Coastal Region

Figure 2: Plot of recorded and estimated maximum wind speed of cyclones for different
return periods given by Gumbel distribution (using MOM) together with 95%
confidence limit for Rakhine Coastal Region

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Comparison of estimators of Gumbel distribution for modeling maximum wind speed data369

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From Table 3, it may be noted that the computed values of GoF tests statistics given by
all five methods of Gumbel distribution are less than the theoretical values(AD0.05=0.757; KS0.05,11=0.410; KS0.05,13=0.377) at five percent significance level, andat this level, all five methods are found to be suitable for determination of estimators ofGumbel distribution for the region under study.
3.3 Analysis Based on Diagnostic Test
The Root Mean Square Error values are computed form Eqs. (20) using the estimatorsof Gumbel distribution and given in Table 4.
Table 4: RMSE values given by five methods of Gumbel Distribution
Parameter Estimation Method
MOM
MLM
MLS
OSA
PWM

RMSE(km/h)
11.179611.2290
11.5542
11.4688
11.2968

From Table 4, it may be noted that, by considering the amount of variation in RMSE,
MOM is defined as the best suitable method for determination of maximum wind speed
for Rakhine Coastal Region since this method gives the least value of RMSE.
3.4 Analysis Based on model performance indicator
Correlation coefficients were computed from Eqns (21) and given in Table 5.
Table 5: Correlation coefficient given by five methods of Gumbel Distribution
Parameter Estimation Method
MOM
MLM
MLS
OSA
PWM

Correlation Coefficient
0.958140
0.958125
0.958128
0.958127
0.958128

It may be noted that the correlation coefficient (CC) between recorded and estimatedwind speeds by all five methods of Gumbel distribution is almost equal as 0.9581.
Figurer (1) shows the recorded and estimated maximum wind speed using Gumbel
distribution (using MOM) and the plot of recorded and estimated Maximum Wind
Speed of tropical cyclone by Gumbel distribution (using MOM) together withconfidence limits at 95% level for different return periods in Rakhine Coastal Region
are developed and presented in Figure 2.

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4. CONCLUSION
The paper presents comparison of estimators of Gumbel distribution for estimation of
Maximum Wind Speeds of Rakhine Coastal Region for different return periods
adopting Gumbel distribution using Method of Moment, Maximum Likelihood Method
Method of Least Square, Order Statistic Approach and Probability Weighted Moment.
GoF tests (AD and KS) results confirm the use of five methods for determination ofparameters of Gumbel distribution for modeling of MWS. The diagnostic analysis
indicates that MOM is found to be an appropriate method for estimation of Maximum
Wind Speeds of cyclones based on the amount of variation on RMSE. The results showthat the RMSE on the estimated Maximum Wind Speed given by Gumbel distribution(using MOM) for Rakhine Coastal Region is the least (11.1796). The results also showthat the CC values between recorded and estimated maximum wind speeds of fivemethods are nearly the same (0.958140, 0.958125, 0.958128, 0.958127 and 0.958128).
The study suggests that the Mean + SE (where mean denotes the estimated maximum
wind speed) values of 194.8 km/h, 227.2 km/h, 257.6km/h, 287.1 km/h, 325.5 km/h and354.5 km/h related to 2, 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 return periods may be adopted forprediction purposes of storm surge and risk assessment at Rakhine Coastal Region.
REFERENCES
Arora, K., and Singh, V. P., 1987. On statistical intercomparison of EVI estimators byMonte Carlo simulation, Advances in Water Resources 10, 87-107.
Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB), 2008. Extreme values of meteorologicalparameters- AERB Safety Guide No. NF / SG / S-3.
Celik, A. N., 2004. On the distribution parameters used in assessment of the suitabilityof wind speed probability density functions, Energy Conversation and Management 45,
1735-1747.
Gumbel, E. J., 1960. Statistic of Extremes, 2nd Edition, Columbia University Press, New
York, USA.
India Meteorological Department (IMD), 2010. Report on availability of meteorological
data, India.
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), 2003. Meteorological events in site
evaluation for nuclear power plants- IAEA Safety Guide No.Ns-G-3.4, International
Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna.
Lieblein, J., 1947. Note on simplified estimates for Type I extreme value distributionNBSIR 75-647, National Bureau of Standards, U.S. Department of Commerce,
Washington D.C.
Manik, D., and Datta, S.K., 1998. A comparative study of estimation of extreme value,
Journal of River Behavior & Control 2, 41-47.
Murty, T. S., Flather, R. A., and Henry, R. F. 1986. The Storm Surge Problem in the
Bay of Bengal 16, 195-233.
Phein, H. N., 1987. A review of Methods of parameter estimation for the extreme value
type-I distribution, Journal of Hydraulics 9, 251-268.
Ranyal, J. A., and Salas, J. D. 1986. Estimation procedures for the type-I extreme value
distribution, Journal of Hydrology 87, 315-336.
Rasmussen, P. F., and Gautam, N., 2003. Alternative PWM-estimators of the Gumbel
distribution, Journal of Hydrology 280, 265-271.
Vivekanandan, N., Mathew, F. T., and Roy, S. K. 2012. Modeling of wind speed datausing probabilistic approach, Journal of Power and River Valley Development 62, 42-45.
Comparison of estimators of Gumbel Distribution for modelling maximum wind speed data
Comparison of estimators of Gumbel distribution for modeling maximum wind speed data

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November
2014,
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2014,
Yangon,MyanmarZhang, J., 2002. Powerful goodness of fit test based on the likelihood ratio, Journal ofRoyal Statistical Society, 64, 281-294.

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Seismic behavior of
traditional timber frames with through columnsof townhouses in Japan
Hiromi SATO1, Mikio KOSHIHARA2 and Tatsuya MIYAKE3
Research Associate, Department of Human and Social Systems,
Institute of Industrial Science, the University of Tokyo, Japansato310@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
2
Professor, IIS, the University of Tokyo, Japan
3
President, Nihon System Sekkei Architects & Engineers Co., Japan
1

ABSTRACTThis paper presents a study of the structural performance of traditional timber
townhouses in a historic town in Japan. The aim of this study was to clarify the seismic
behavior of traditional timber frame with through columns in townhouses. The target
area “Sawara” has many traditional timber townhouses built in from the late of 18th
century to the early 20th century and these townhouses have few structural walls in thefrontage direction at the first floor. In this study, the microtremor measurement and thethree-dimensional analysis about five townhouses in Sawara were performed. As theresults, the natural frequency of the first mode is from 2.32 Hz to 3.54 Hz by the
microtremor measurement. Moreover the seismic behavior at the severe earthquake
based on the Building Cord in Japan are verified and the seismic shear coefficient isclarified from 0.06 to 0.42. Finally, the result of analysis by the observation earthquake
wave of the 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku Earthquake is discussed in comparison
with the video recording of these townhouses on this earthquake.
Keywords: traditional timber construction, microtremor measurement, seismic analysis,the 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku Earthquake
1. INTRODUCTION
Japan has a long history of earthquakes and timber structures in Japan have suffered
great damage caused by strong earthquakes. Old traditional timber structures sufferedespecially heavy damage. Besides, many of historical towns in japan have many
traditional timber buildings that construction method is same in each area. These
traditional buildings often have insufficient earthquake-proof performance. However, if
the structural evaluation is suitable for the characteristics of their construction, thetechnique of earthquake-proofing suitable for those buildings can be examined.
Therefor it is important to clarify a suitable evaluation method in each historical area.
In the previous study about the traditional timber frame with through columns in Japan,
static tests and seismic analysis of the frame with through columns were performed andverified the relationship of wall quantity at the 2nd floor (H. Sato and M. Koshihara,
2010, H. Sato, M. Koshihara and T. Miyake, 2012, 2013 and 2014).

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2. OBJECT TOWNHOUSES
2.1 Sawara district and the target townhouses
The research area of the present study is the Sawara district of Chiba Prefecture, which
is located near Tokyo. The Sawara district is a historical town arranged on the riversideand contains traditional timber townhouse and storehouse with thick walls. They arebuilt in from the late of 18th century to the early 20th century (The Sawara City, 2004).
In townhouses in this area, the frontage direction of the first floor has few walls and theframes which consist of through columns. In this study, five townhouses faced on themain street were targeted (Figure 1 and 2).

Excluded the survey

Figure 1: Facade of the target townhouses㻺㻌
Through column

Y+

FKS

KBR

SNTK

KBK

SBD

X+

Figure 2: Plan on the first floor of objects
2.2 Previous earthquake damage
On 11 March, 2011, timber structures suffered a great deal of damage due to the 2011
off the Pacific coast of Tohoku Earthquake. This earthquake destroyed or severely
damaged 289 houses in the Katori city including the Sawara district. In the Sawara
district, many falls of roofing tiles, collapse of mud walls, and foundation damage wereobserved. The five object townhouses did not occur heavy damage, however the
townhouse FKS, KBR and SBD were observed the falls of roofing because they havethe very heavy roof thatched with mud and clay tiles.

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2.3 Seismic diagnosis
Seismic diagnosis was performed on target townhouses based on the investigation (TheJapan Building Disaster Prevention Association, 2004). The marks of the seismic
diagnoses at the first floor varied from 0.03 to 0.20 in the X direction (Table 1). The
mark calculated horizontal load-carrying capacity by necessary horizontal load-carrying
capacity and if it was less than 1.0, the building have possibility of collapse. The
seismic diagnosis on five townhouses indicated ‘high possibility of collapse’ because
these townhouses on the X direction of the first floor have few bearing walls.
Table 1: Characteristics of the object townhouses
nameConstruction year
Building area (m2)
[Total floor area (m2) ]Number of through columns
Size of through columns (cm)Mark of seismicX*,**diagnosis
Y

FKS
1895
47.5
[87.1]
18
12
0.06
0.36

KBR
1892
28.7
[51.8]
8
11.5
0.07
0.16

SNTK
unknown
41.4[79.7]
8
12
0.03
0.71

KBK
unknown
49.1[91.7]
9
14.5
0.20
0.40

SBD
1880
35.5
[63.3]
17
16.5
0.10
0.51

* at the first floor** based on reference [5]; -1.5: Safe, 1.0-1.5: Temporarily Safe,
0.7-1.0: Possibility of Collapse, -0.7: Dangerous (High Possibility of Collapse)

3. VIBRATION CHARACHTERISTICS
In order to clarify and evaluate the fundamental vibration characteristics of the target
townhouses, microtremor measurements and forced vibration tests were performed.
Seven accelerograms were used in the tests, and they were set at the points indicated infigure 3. The natural frequency of vibration, the damping factor and the vibration modeof the target houses were determined.

* Set on the eaves

Figure 3: Measurement apparatus (FKS, Measurement plan 2)
3.1 Fundamental vibration characteristics
The fundamental vibration characteristics of the townhouse are shown in table 2 and thetransfer functions are shown in figure 4. The natural frequency of vibration of the firstmode varied from 2.32 to 7.09 Hz. The natural frequency in the Y direction wasapproximately twice as large as that in the X direction. The damping factor was
calculated from the logarithmic decrement of the free vibration waveform. The damping
factor varied from 0.05 to 0.19.
Seismic behavior of traditional timber frames with through columns of townhouses in Japan
Seismic behavior of traditional timber frames with through columns of townhouses in Japan375

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Table 2: Fundamental vibration characteristics
namedirectionX
Y
X
Y

Transfer function (Hz)Dumping factor
60

Amplitude

ch1/ch5

FKS

50

FKS
2.32
4.08
0.05
0.06

KBR
2.88
7.08
0.05
0.05
ch2/ch6

SNTK
2.91
5.25
0.04
0.19*
ch3/ch5

KBK
3.54
5.42
0.07
0.10

SBD
3.08
5.86
0.06
0.16

*only advisorych4/ch6

40
30
20
10
0

㻜

㻝

㻞

㻟

60

Amplitude㻡Freqency(Hz)ch1/ch5

KBR

50

㻠

㻢

ch2/ch6㻣㻤

ch3/ch5㻥㻝㻜

ch4/ch6

40
30
20
10
0

㻜

㻝

㻞

㻟

60

Amplitude50

㻠㻡
Freqency(Hz)ch1/ch5

SNTK

㻢

㻣

ch2/ch6㻤
ch3/ch5㻥㻝㻜

ch4/ch6

40
30
20
10
0

㻜

㻝

㻞

㻟

60

Amplitude㻡Freqency(Hz)ch1/ch5

KBK

50

㻠

㻢

ch2/ch6㻣㻤

ch3/ch5㻥㻝㻜

ch4/ch6

40
30
20
10
0

㻜

㻝

㻞

㻟

60

Amplitude50

㻠㻡
Freqency(Hz)ch1/ch5SBD㻢ch2/ch6㻣㻤

ch3/ch5㻥㻝㻜

ch4/ch6

40
30
20
10
0

㻜

㻝

㻞

㻟

㻠

㻡
Freqency(Hz)

㻢

㻣

㻤

㻥

㻝㻜

Figure 4: Transfer function
3.2 Vibration mode
The vibration modes of these houses were determined from the phase difference and theamplitude of the transfer function from the microtremor measurements, as shown in376

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figure 5. The first vibration mode in the X direction is almost translational mode, but thedisplacement of the behind of the building was rather small.

FKS (2.32 Hz)

SNTK (2.91 Hz)

KBR (2.88 Hz)

KBK (3.59 Hz)

SBD (3.08 Hz)
Figure 5: First vibration modes (X)
3.3 Equivalent stiffness
The relationship between the natural frequency of vibration and the weight of traditional
townhouses in this study is compared with the results of previous research (H. Maekawa
and N. Kawai, 1993 and 2003, H. Maekawa, N. Kawai and A. UCHIDA, 2000), as
shown in figure 6. The natural frequency of the X direction of the townhouses in the
Sawara district is consistent with tendency of the previous research and that of the Y
direction is higher than the overall trend. The natural frequency of the first mode of thevibration is in inverse proportion to the weight of the building (figure 7). The buildings
are modelled as single-mass systems when applying the natural frequency and theweight of the building. The equivalent stiffness values of the X direction of the object
townhouses calculated from this modelling varied from 3.79 to 13.30 kN/mm.
Seismic behavior of traditional timber frames with through columns of townhouses in Japan
Seismic behavior of traditional timber frames with through columns of townhouses in Japan377

November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar
November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar
traditional house
townhouse_Y
14

townhouse_X
Sawara_Y

8

Natural frequency (Hz)

10
8
6
4
2
0
㻝㻢㻡㻜

㻝㻣㻜㻜

Sawara_X

7

300 kN
200 kN
100 kN

12

Natural frequency (Hz)conventional house
Sawara_X

㻝㻣㻡㻜

㻝㻤㻜㻜

㻝㻤㻡㻜

㻝㻥㻜㻜

㻝㻥㻡㻜

㻞㻜㻜㻜

㻞㻜㻡㻜

Sawara_Y

6
5

k
m

3

k 20
15 k N / mm

2

k

10

1

k

5

0

㻜

㻝㻜㻜

㻞㻜㻜

㻟㻜㻜

Construction year

Figure 6: Natural frequency – building year
relationship

1

2S

f

4

㻠㻜㻜

㻡㻜㻜

㻢㻜㻜

Weight (kN)

Figure 7: Natural frequency –weight relationship

4. EARTHQUAKE RESPONSE ANALYSISThe earthquake response analyses were performed on the target townhouses.
4.1 Model of analysis
To evaluate the structural performance in detail, the five townhouses were modelled as
three-dimensional frame model, as shown in figure 8. The horizontal load-resistingelements are mud walls and frames which consist of the through column and beam. The
skeleton curves of the structural elements were shown in figure 9. The models ofhysteresis characteristics were referenced (Architectural Institute of Japan, 2010). The
roof truss was not modeled but just considered to the weight.
᭤䛢せ⣲⩌Figure 8: Analysis models (FKS)
12
10

5

Moment(kNm)

Load(kN/p)

6

18

14

MudwallBoadinghorizontaldiaphragm

7

4
3
2

0

(1) mud wall and floor

300

350

Crampiron

Tenonjoint(Ͳ)

12
10

4

0
100
150
200
250
Deformationangle(mrad.)TenonandCotterpin

14

6

2

50

16

Tenonjoint(+)

8

10

Sashikamoi

Load(kN)

8

8
6
4
2
0

0

50

100
150
Deformationangle(mrad.)200(2) beam-column joint

0

2

4

6
8
Displacement(cm)10(3) joint

Figure 9: Skelton curves of structural elements

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4.2 Input wave

600
400
200
0
Ͳ200
Ͳ400
Ͳ600

No.1

5

10

15
time(sec)

20

25

600
400
200
0
Ͳ200
Ͳ400
Ͳ600

30

5

10

15
time(sec)

20

25

600
400
200
0
Ͳ200
Ͳ400
Ͳ600
10

15
time(sec)

20

25

30

100

150
time(s)

200

250

300
EW

200
0
Ͳ200
Ͳ400

30

0

50

100

150
time(s)

200

250

300

400

Acc.(gal)

5

50

400

No.3

0

0
Ͳ200
0

No.2

0

NS

200

Ͳ400

Acc.(gal)acceleration(gal)0acceleration(gal)400

Acc.(gal)acceleration(gal)The input waves of the analysis were three simulated earthquake motions equivalent todesign earthquake ground motion based on the Japanese Code and the observed
earthquake wave recorded at near to the objects, as shown in figure 10. The simulated
waves were modulate to the standard level using coefficient 0.85 and the input scale
was changed to determine the seismic clearance of them.

UD

200
0
Ͳ200
Ͳ400
0

(1) Simulated earthquake wave *

50

100

150
time(s)

200

250

300

(2) Observation earthquake wave ***based on the Building Standard Law in Japan**observed at near to objects

Figure 10: Time history waveform of the input waves
4.3 Results of analysis

The earthquake response analysis of the three-dimensional frame model was performedon the five townhouses. The seismic shear coefficient (C0) by the simulated wave varied
from 0.06 to 0.42 (Table 3). Moreover, the marks of seismic diagnosis by the analysis
varied from 0.5 to 1.7 and were equal to the safety clearance to large earthquake inJapan Cord. Furthermore the maximum displacement by the observed wave varied from
4.11 to 12.63 cm. The load - displacement relationship was shown in figure 11.
Table 3: Results of the analyses (X)Input data
No.1
No.2
Simulated No.3
wave

Observed wave

Value ofMaximum load*
(kN)
C0**
Seismic
diagnosis***Maximum disp.
(cm)

FKS
102.7
92.5
92.8
0.30

KBR
19.1
21.5
19.4
0.18

SNTK
16.2
15.8
16.8
0.06

KBK
112.9
111.3
108.1
0.42

SBD
106.2
111.0
110.1
0.35

1.0

0.6

0.5

1.7

1.5

4.11

12.63

12.61

5.49

5.78

*at the first floor, the scale of the input wave is on the safety clearance**the seismic shear coefficient, the maximum load divide by the weight of the building***the max acc. of the wave on the safety clearance divide by the max acc. of the basic wave on the Japan Cord

Seismic behavior of traditional timber frames with through columns of townhouses in Japan
Seismic behavior of traditional timber frames with through columns of townhouses in Japan379

November
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Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmar

100

80

80

80

60

60

60

40

40

40

20

Load(kN)

120

100

Load(kN)

120

100

Load(kN)

120

20

0

0

0

Ͳ20

Ͳ20

Ͳ40

Ͳ40

Ͳ40

Ͳ60

Ͳ60

Ͳ60

Ͳ80

Ͳ80

No.1
1FX

Ͳ100
Ͳ120
Ͳ30

Ͳ20

Ͳ10
0
10
Displacement(cm)

Ͳ20

Ͳ120
Ͳ30

120

100

100

80

80

60

60

40

40

20

20

Load(kN)

120

Ͳ20

Ͳ40
Ͳ60
Ͳ80

No.1
1FX

Ͳ120
Ͳ30

Ͳ20

Ͳ10
0
Displacement(cm)

10

10

Ͳ30

Ͳ20

Ͳ10
0
Displacement(cm)1020(3) SNTK (input scale: 0.5)

No.1
1FX

Ͳ100
Ͳ120
20

Ͳ120
20

0

Ͳ60
Ͳ100

Ͳ10
0
Displacement(cm)

No.1
1FX

Ͳ100

Ͳ20

Ͳ40
Ͳ80

Ͳ20

(2) KBR (input scale: 0.6) 

0

Ͳ80

No.1
1FX

Ͳ100
20

(1) FKS (input scale: 1.0)

Load(kN)

20

Ͳ30

Ͳ20

Ͳ10
0
10
Displacement(cm)20(4) KBK (input scale: 1.7) (5) SBD (input scale: 1.5)
Figure 11: Load - displacement relationship (1F-X, Simulated wave No.1)
4.3.1 Effect of the through column
Results of evaluations are compared and it verifies about the difference in evaluation
methods. At first, on the seismic diagnosis of the current standard in Japan, it does notevaluate the structural performance of through column. However, the earthquake
response analysis of three-dimensional frame model can evaluate the structural
performance including the influence of through column in detail. As a result, it wasclarified the structural performance of the traditional townhouse with through column
was influenced by the number or size of through columns. The two townhouses (KBR
and SNTK) have few small through columns and few mad walls in the first floor, sothey don’t resist against the horizontal load. On the other hand, the three townhouses(FKS, KBK and SBD) have structural elements against the horizontal load; they have
many or lather large through columns. That is the lager or many through column canbecome the earthquake resisting elements and their structural performance are notdecided by the general seismic diagnosis just only.

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Table 4: Seismic Performances on the frontage direction (X)
NumberThroughcolumnSize (cm)
Total weight (kN)
Equivalent stiffness* (kN/mm)
C0**Structural
Performan
Seismic diagnosis
ceSeismic diagnosis***

FKS
18
12
319
6.87
0.30
0.06
1.0

*calculated by the natural frequency and total weight;
to the Table 3

**

KBR
8
11.5
114
3.79
0.18
0.07
0.6

SNTK
8
12
259
8.78
0.06
0.03
0.5

KBK
9
14.5
265
13.30
0.42
0.20
1.7

SBD
17
16.5
309
11.74
0.35
0.10
1.5

the seismic shear coefficient, refer to the Table 3, ***refer

4.3.2 Comparison with the Earthquake damage
On 11 March 2011, these five townhouses did not have severe damage. However the
townhouse KBR and SNTK observed visible motion by the video recording(Townpromotion sawara, 2013). Moreover the falls of roofing observed at the
townhouse KBR, SBD and FKS. In the result of the analysis, the townhouse KBR and
SNTK verified large displacement. However, the roof truss and clay tile were notmodeled in this study, therefore the comparison about the falls of roofing did notverified.

Figure 12: Earthquake damage from the video recording (townpromotion sawara, 2013)
5. CONCLUSION
The structural evaluations performed on the five townhouses with the through columns
frame. There are few bearing walls in the X direction at the first floor, therefore theperformance is described particularly about the X direction in this conclusion.
1. As a result of the microtremor measurement, the natural frequency were from 2.32 to
3.54 Hz and the equivalent stiffness varied from 3.79 to 13.30 kN/mm.
2. As a result of earthquake response analysis, the seismic shear coefficient (C0) varied
from 0.06 to 0.42.
3. The marks of the seismic diagnosis based on the seismic analysis varied from 0.5 to
1.7. The townhouses which have many or lager through columns were evaluate thatthey have higher performance than the seismic diagnosis without considering theeffect of through column.
Seismic behavior of traditional timber frames with through columns of townhouses in Japan
Seismic behavior of traditional timber frames with through columns of townhouses in Japan

381

November
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4. The analytical model in this study did not modeled with the roof truss and the clay
tiles, therefore the falls of roofing regarding the seismic behavior could not verified
with this models.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors express their appreciation to the owners of the subject houses, Mr. Kawajiri
of Nihon System Sekkei Architects & Engineers Co. and to members of the studies
group of townhouse of the Sawara district, without whose help these experiment would
not have succeeded.
REFERENCES
Architectural Institute of Japan, 2010. Fundamental theory of timber rngineering, 314319.
Maekawa, H., and Kawai, N., 1993. Dynamic characteristics of traditional wooden
house: Part 4: Micro tremor tests for traditional wooden house in East Japan. Summaries
of Technical Papers of Annual Meeting Architectural Institute of Japan, C-1, 1029 1030.
Maekawa, H., and Kawai, N., 2003. Dynamic characteristic of traditional wooden
houses: Part 8: Micro tremor measurement on Tyugoku and Shikoku District.
Summaries of Technical Papers of Annual Meeting Architectural Institute of Japan, C-1,
449-450.
Maekawa, H., Kawai, N., and Uchida, A., 2000. Dynamic characteristic of traditional
wooden buildings: Part 9: Estimation of load-displacement relationship and natural
frequencies on houses. Summaries of Technical Papers of Annual Meeting Architectural
Institute of Japan, C-1, 339-340.
Sato, H., and Koshihara, M., 2010. Horizontal load capacity of sashikamoi frame withthrough column. Summaries of Technical Papers of Annual Meeting Architectural
Institute of Japan, C-1, 569-570.
Sato, H., Koshihara, M., and Miyake, T., 2012. Horizontal load capacity of sashikamoi
frame with through column Part 2 Effects of seismic performance of second floor on
through column. Summaries of Technical Papers of Annual Meeting Architectural
Institute of Japan, C-1, 461-462.
Sato, H., Koshihara, M., and Miyake, T., 2013. Seismic performance evaluation of
traditional timber townhouse with through column. Summaries of Technical Papers ofAnnual Meeting Architectural Institute of Japan, C-1, 505-506.
Sato, H., Koshihara, M., and Miyake, T., 2013. The structural performance oftraditional frames with through columns about townhouses in Japan. Summaries of 12th
International Symposium on New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia,
851-857.
Sato, H., Koshihara, M., and Miyake, T., 2014. Seismic performance evaluation of
traditional timber townhouse with through column Part 2 Vibration characteristics.
Summaries of Technical Papers of Annual Meeting Architectural Institute of Japan, C-1,
245-246.
The Japan Building Disaster Prevention Association, 2004, Seismic diagnosis andreinforcement of timber house.
The Sawara City, 2004, Townscape of the Sawara district
Townpromotion sawara, 2013, www.youtube.com/watch?v=R78ku1EA5ck

382

New Technologies
Urban
Safety Cities
of Mega
Cities in Asia
New Technologies
for Urbanfor
Safetyof Megain Asia

Ni Ni Moe KYAW1 and Dr. Kyaw Lin HTAT2
Ph.D candidate, Department of Civil Engineering,
Mandalay Technological University, Myanmar
summerroseoneone@gmail.com
2
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
Mandalay Technological University, Myanmar
1

ABSTRACT

Our country, Myanmar sometime suffers the unusual storms, especially in the lower
parts of the nation. Thus, a lot of bridges are necessary to design which can resist theunusual winds. So, this paper studied on the structural responses of long-spansuspension bridge due to wind effect. This paper also intends to realize the effect ofanchorage systems on the responses of long-span suspension bridge based on theperformance of wind. In this paper, the proposed bridge is modeled with two anchorage
systems. The specifications of the proposed bridge are used American Association ofState Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), Bridge Rules of Government ofIndia and Japan Road Association (JRA). The proposed model is analyzed and designed
by using Modeling, Integrated Design and Analysis Software (MIDAS). This paper alsoemphasized the deflections of the proposed bridge, the responses of the moving load
analysis and the responses which are focused on the wind speeds of 100 mph and 130
mph. By conducting this research, it is hoped to fulfill the knowledge of the anchorage
systems of the suspension bridge, discuss the responses under unusual wind speeds, andoffer the concepts of long-span suspension bridge which can provide the future progressof our country.
Keywords: long-span suspension bridge, AASHTO, Bridge Rules, JRA, wind speeds
1. INTRODUCTION
The essential points of evolution era of civil engineering are bridges. Besides,
suspension bridges are a viable structural solution to spanning long distances. It isimperative that the cable system proposed would be capable of supporting its own
weight in addition to the imposed loads of the superstructure. Very long span suspension
bridges are flexible structural systems. The introduction of these cable suspended
structures has been profoundly enhanced by the development of new structural materials
and computer methods of analysis. Suspension bridges, when well designed andproportioned, are clearly the most aesthetically pleasing of all bridges. The simplicity ofthe structural arrangement, with the function of each part being clearly expressed,
combines with the graceful curve of the main cables, the slender suspended deck andvertical towers, to produce a naturally attractive structure. This natural grace can also383

November
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Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmarmake a suspension bridge a suitable choice for relatively short span footbridges, inaddition to its more usual function of economically spanning long distances.
2. STRUCTURAL SYSTEM OF SUSPENSION BRIDGE
2.1 Structural components
For the vast majority of suspension bridges, it can be divided into four main components
as indicated in (Figure 1):(1) the deck (or stiffening girder);(2) the cable system supporting the deck;(3) the pylons (or towers) supporting the cable system;(4) the anchor blocks (or anchor piers) supporting the cable system vertically andhorizontally, or only vertically, at the extreme ends.

Figure 1: Main components of a suspension bridge
2.1.1 The deck (or stiffening girder)
In modern practice, the stiffening truss will be made as a space truss comprising fourchords connected by four diagonal bracings: two vertical and two horizontal. On theother hand, stiffening trusses is made up of:(1) vertical main trusses along the longitudinal direction,(2) transverse trusses at the cross-section,(3) floor beams and stringers and(4) horizontal lateral bracing at the horizontal direction.
2.1.2 The cable system
The suspension system comprises a parabolic main cable and vertical hanger cables
connecting the deck to the main cable. A group of parallel-wire bundled cables support
stiffening girders/trusses by hanger ropes and transfer loads to towers. In most cases, thesteel wire is of cylindrical shape with a diameter between 3 and 7 mm. Typically, a wirewith a diameter of 5–5.5 mm is used in the main cables of suspension bridges. In thetransverse direction of the bridge, a number of different solutions for the arrangement of
the cable systems can be found such as(1) One vertical cable plane(2) Inclined cable planes

384

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in AsiaICUS Report 78(3) Two vertical cable planes(4) Two vertical cable planes between three separate traffic areas(5) More than two vertical cable planes
Moreover, the following four types of cable are mainly used in suspension bridges:(1) Helical bridge strands (spiral strands)(2) Locked-coil strands(3) Parallel-wire strands for suspension bridge main cables(4) Parallel-wire suspension bridge main cables (AS method or PPWS method)
2.1.3 The pylons (or towers)
In principle, the pylon is a tower structure, but in contrast to a free-standing tower,
where the moment induced by the horizontal loading (drag) from wind dominates thedesign, the most decisive load on a regular pylon will be the axial force originating fromthe vertical components of the forces in the cables attached to the pylon. These
intermediate vertical structures support main cables and then transfer bridge loads tofoundations. The pylons or towers of a suspension may be made up of concrete, steel orcomposite material. Towers are classified into rigid, flexible, or locking types. Flexible
towers are commonly used in long-span suspension bridges, rigid towers for multi-spansuspension bridges to provide enough stiffness to the bridge, and locking towers
occasionally for relatively short-span suspension bridges. Towers are classified into
portal or diagonally braced types. Moreover, the tower shafts can either be vertical or
inclined.
2.1.4 The anchor blocks (or anchor piers)
The anchored system in a suspension bridge can be divided into self anchored andexternal anchored systems (earth anchored systems). In the self-anchored system, thehorizontal component of the cable force in the anchor cable is transferred ascompression in the deck, whereas the vertical component is taken by the anchor pier. In
the earth anchored systems, both the vertical and the horizontal components of the cableforce are transferred to the anchor block. In principle, both earth anchoring and selfanchoring can be applied in suspension bridges. In this study, the proposed suspension
bridge uses the cable system of two vertical main cable plans with vertical suspenders
which types are parallel wire cable (PPWS) are attached to the deck which is made up of
Warren truss and X-bracing. The pylon of the bridge uses steel materials with truss typeand self anchored and external anchored types are terminated at the bridge ends.
3. DESIGN APPROACH AND MODELING OF THE PROPOSED BRIDGE
3.1 Design specifications for preliminary configuration of suspension bridge
In deciding the system of the bridge, the following factors must be taken into account.
3.1.1 Span ratio
The side span length should preferably not exceed around 40% of the main span in orderto provide an effective restraint to the tower top. However, the side span should not beless than 25% to 30% of the main span length.
Wind effect on structural responses of long-span suspension bridge
Wind effect on structural responses of long-span suspension bridge385

November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar
November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

3.1.2 Sag
For conceptual designs, the height of suspension bridge towers above the deck dependon the sag-to-span ratio which can vary from about 1:8 to 1:12. A good preliminary
value is about 1:10. To this value must be added the structural depth of the deck and theclearance to the foundations to obtain the approximate total tower height.
3.1.3 Truss Depth
Stiffening-truss depths vary from 1/60 to 1/170 the span. According to the specifications
described above, in the proposed bridge, side span length is 40% of main span length.
Sag-to-span ration of 1:11.4 is used. The minimum depth of the stiffening truss of the
proposed bridge models is 1/120 of the span.
3.2 Design loads for proposed bridge
In considering the design loads for the proposed bridge, the structures shall be designed
to carry the following loads and forces to mainly focus on the performance of wind:(1) dead load,(2) live load,(3) impact or dynamic effect of the live load,(4) pretension,(5) wind loads.
3.2.1 Dead load
In the dead load of structural materials of the proposed bridge models, the weights of thedifferent materials are attained according to AASHTO, and Bridge Rules ofGovernment of India.
For cables, unit weight= 84 kN/m3
For girder and tower, unit weight= 77.09 kN/m3
For concrete slab, unit weight= 23.56 kN/m3
Railway rail
= 90 lb/yard (0.44 kN/m)
Guardrail= 200 lb/ft (2.92 kN/m)
Asphalt 2 in thick= 9x2=
18 lb/ft2 (0.86 kN/m2).
3.2.2 Live load
In the live load of the proposed bridge models, sidewalk loading at the edges of thebridge is involved.
Sidewalk loading, P= 32.82 lb/ft2 (1.52 kN/m2)
Moving loads on the specific lanes are highway loading of HS-25 according to
AASHTO and railway loading of Modified Meter Gauge Train according to Bridge
Rules of Government of India.
3.2.3 Impact for vehicle loading

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The amount of impact allowance or increment for highway loading and coefficient ofdynamic augment (CDA) for railway loading are
Impact fraction, I= 0.012CDA= 0.157.
3.2.4 Pretension
Pretension for hanger and main cable for proposed models are:Pretension for hanger= 2200 kN
Pretension for main cable= 12880 kN.
3.2.5 Wind LoadWind load on the proposed bridge with two anchorage systems is considered from thewind speeds of category 2 and 3 of Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale in (Table 1).
Table 1: Saffir-Simpson hurricane wind scale
Scale Number ( Category)
1
2
3
4
5

Sustained Wind (mph)
74 - 95
96 - 110111 - 130131 - 155
> 155

3.3 ModelingIn the modeling of the proposed bridge, the design data used of model 1 for selfanchorage system and model 2 for external anchorage system are shown in (Table 2).
By using (Table 2), the following are the illustrations of proposed bridge with selfanchorage model (Figure 2) and with external anchorage model (Figure 3).
Table 2: Design data used in proposed suspension bridge
Description
Bridge type
Total length
Span arrangement
Main span
Side span
Pylon height
Pylon type
Main cable plane
Number of hangers in main span
Number of hangers in side span
Main cable diameter
Hanger diameter
Sag to span ratio
Girder type

Model 1
Suspension bridge
2160 m3-spans arrangement
1200 m
480 m (each)
180 mTruss typeTwo vertical planes
60@20 m24@20 m1.5 m
0.5 m
1:11.4
Warren truss type

Wind effect on structural responses of long-span suspension bridge
Wind effect on structural responses of long-span suspension bridge

Model 2
Suspension bridge
2160 m3-spans arrangement
1200 m
480 m (each)
180 mTruss typeTwo vertical planes
60@20 m24@20 m1.5 m
0.5 m
1:11.4
Warren truss type387

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Girder height
Girder width
Anchorage Type
Traffic Lane

10 m
30 m, 4 m for each laneand 1 m for sidewalk
Self anchorage
HS 25-44, six lanes
Modified Meter Gauge
Train, one lane

10 m
30 m, 4 m for each laneand 1 m for sidewalk
External anchorage
HS 25-44, six lanes
Modified Meter Gauge
Train, one lane

Figure 2: 3D views of support conditions for self anchorage model

Figure 3: 3D views of support conditions for external anchorage model
4. ANALYSIS RESULTS OF PROPOSED SUSPENSION BRIDGE DUE TO
SELF WEIGHT AND MOVING LOAD
4.1 Girder displacements due to self weight for self anchorage model and externalanchorage model
The girder displacements due to self weight are illustrated as displacement versus bridge
length. Figure 4 illustrates the girder displacement about Z-axis for self anchorage
model and Figure 5 illustrates the girder displacement about Z-axis for externalanchorage model.

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Figure 4: Girder displacement about Z-axis of self anchorage model

Figure 5: Girder displacement about Z-axis of external anchorage model
4.2 Girder displacements due to moving load analysis for self anchorage model andexternal anchorage model
Figure 6 shows girder displacement about Z-axis for self anchorage model and Figure 7
shows that for external anchorage model. The displacements also called deflections of
the girder for each model are obtained from these figures.

Figure 6: Girder Displacement about Z-axis of self anchorage modelWind effecton structural
responsesresponses
of long-spansuspension
bridge bridgeWindeffect on structuralof long-spansuspension

389

November
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Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarFigure 7: Girder Displacement about Z-axis of external anchorage model
4.3 Checking of Deflection for Moving Load
Allowable deflection of proposed suspension bridge= 1200/350= 3.43 m
Maximum deflection due to moving load of self anchorage system= 2.464028 m
Maximum deflection due to moving load of external anchorage system = 2.464075 m
Maximum deflections of proposed self and external anchorage bridge modes lies within
the allowable limit of 3.43 m. So, it can be said that the proposed self and externalanchorage bridges are in the satisfactory condition.
5. ANALYSIS RESULTS OF PROPOSED SUSPENSION BRIDGE DUE TO
WIND LOAD
Girder forces due to wind loads are revealed with respective forces which occur along
the bridge length in proposed self anchorage bridge models. (Figure 8) reveals responses
such as axial force along the bridge length, shear about Y-axis along the bridge length,
shear about Z-axis along the bridge length, torsion along the bridge length, moment
about Y-axis along the bridge length, moment about Z-axis along the bridge length ofself anchorage system due to two different wind speeds is revealed.
Also in proposed external anchorage bridge model, girder forces due to wind loads are
revealed with respective forces which occur along the bridge length. (Figure 9) reveals
responses such as axial force along the bridge length, shear about Y-axis along thebridge length, shear about Z-axis along the bridge length, torsion along the bridge length,
moment about Y-axis along the bridge length, moment about Z-axis along the bridge
length of external anchorage system due to two different wind speeds is revealed. These
two wind speeds (100 mph and 130 mph) are selected from the category 2 and 3 ofSaffir-Simpson hurricane wind scale.

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Figure 8: Responses of self anchorage system due to 100 mph and 130 mph

Wind effect on structural responses of long-span suspension bridge
Wind effect on structural responses of long-span suspension bridge

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Yangon,MyanmarFigure 9: Responses of external anchorage system due to 100 mph and 130 mph

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6. DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
Only self weight condition under linear static analysis of proposed models, the value ofdisplacement about Z-axis of self anchorage system is not nearly the same with that ofexternal anchorage system. But, the maximum deflection of self anchorage system of
2.78425 m and the maximum deflection of external anchorage system of 2.78495 arewith in the limit of the allowable deflection of the proposed bridge of 3.43 m.
In moving load analysis, as in only self weight condition, the displacement of girder
about Z-axis of the external anchorage model is less than those of self anchorage model.
In checking of deflection, the maximum deflection of external anchorage model,
2.464075 m and the maximum deflection of self anchorage model, 2.464028 m are lessthan the allowable deflection, 3.43 m.
Under wind load conditions, the response configurations of the self anchorage modeland the external anchorage model are similar. The differences are occurred at axial forceof 100 mph (11987.05 kN) and axial force of 130 mph (20274.76 kN) of self anchorage
structure which is greater than those of 11986.71 kN and 20274.76 kN of externalanchorage structure; shear about Y-axis of 100 mph (37.39 kN) and shear about Y-axisof 130 mph (63.24 kN) of self anchorage structure which are greater than those of 37.15
kN and 62.84 kN of external anchorage structure. Moreover, moment about Y-axis ofself anchorage structure (188.89 kN.m at 100 mph and 319.66 kN.m at 130 mph) is
greater than that of external anchorage structure (188.79 kN.m at 100 mph and 319.49
kN at 130 mph). All maximum values for 100 mph, 130 mph of moment about Z-axis ofself anchorage model (149.75 kN.m, 253.26 kN.m) is greater than that of externalanchorage model (142.7 kN.m, 241.36 kN.m).
REFERENCES
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, 2002. Standard
Specifications for Highway Bridges, 17th Ed.
Buick, D., and Graham, O., 2003. Steel Designers' Manual, The Steel Construction
Institute, 6th Ed.
Chen, W. F and Duan, L., 2000. Bridge Engineering Handbook, CRC Press LLC.
Gimsing, N. J., 2012. Cable Supported bridges; Concepts and Design, John Wiley &Sons, 3rd Ed.
Gimsing, N. J., 2000. Cable Supported bridges; Concepts and Design, John Wiley &Sons, 2nd Ed.
Government of India, Ministry of Railways (Railway Board), 2008. Bridge Rules (IN SI
UNITS), Research Designs and Standard Organisation, Lucknow -226011, 2nd Ed.
Hany, J. F., 1999. Wind and Earthquake Response in Very Long Span Cable-Stayed andSuspension Bridges, Journal of Civil Engineering, 55-62.
Japan Road Association., 1987. Specifications for Highway Bridges, English Ed.
Ryall, M. J, Parke, G. A. R and Harding, J. E., 2000. The Manual of Bridge Engineering,Thomas Telford.

Wind effecton structural
responsesresponses
of long-spansuspension
bridge bridgeWindeffect on structuralof long-spansuspension

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394

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Aye Nyein THU1 and Dr. San Yu KHAING2
Ph.D candidate, Department of Civil Engineering,
Mandalay Technological University, Myanmar
rhythmangel11@gmail.com
2
Associate professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
Mandalay Technological University, Myanmar
1

ABSTRACTThis paper intends to investigate on the wind effects of long-span cable-stayed bridgewith H-shaped tower. The two main purposes of this article are to know the structural
behavior of long-span cable-stayed bridge and study the structural responses underwind load condition. Cable-stayed bridges have become very popular over the last 40
years because of their economy, structural efficiency and aesthetics. But long-spanbridges can be influenced by various natural hazards. Therefore, it is very important toconsider the effects of wind and earthquake on the kinds of long-span bridges. And then,
the wind-resistant designs of long-span bridges started around late 1950s and early
1960s. So, 2400 ft main span superstructure of long-span cable-stayed bridge isanalyzed and designed by using SAP 2000 version 14 software and specifications ofAmerican Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials and Japan Road
Association. It is analyzed and designed under linear static condition and moving loadconditions. Moreover, it is especially emphasized in the wind effects of long-span cablestayed bridge with H-shaped tower with the values of wind speed 100 mph and 130 mph.
This study provides the results of cable tension forces, bridge forces, truss girder
displacement, support reactions and so on.
Keywords: wind effects, long-span cable-stayed bridge, H-shaped tower, SAP 2000
version 14 software, wind speed
1. INTRODUCTION
The cable-stayed bridge has been developing rapidly since World War II, and becomes
one of the most competitive types of bridges for main span ranging from 300 to 600
meters. The cable-stayed bridge form has a fine-looking appearance and fits in withmost surrounding environments. The structural systems can be varied by changing
tower shapes and the cable arrangements. The configurations of cable-stayed bridge are
stiffening girder, cable system, towers and foundations. The stiffening girder is
supported by straight inclined cables which are anchored at the towers. These pylons areplaced on the main pier so that the cable force can be transferred down to the foundation
system. Nowadays, cable-stayed bridges are increasingly built because they can spandistance far longer than any other kinds of bridge.

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2. MAIN COMPONENT PARTS OF THE SUPERSTRUCTURE OF CABLESTAYED BRIDGEIn the superstructure of cable-stayed bridges, there are five components that must
consider. They are cables, cable system, pylon, stiffening girder or truss, cableanchorage and connection.
2.1 Cables
Cables are the most important elements of a cable-stayed bridge. They carry the load of
the girder and transfer it to the tower and the back-stay cable anchorage. Cables are
tension members. Types of cable may consist of locked coil , helical or spiral strands(prefabricated), bar bundles, parallel wire strand, new parallel wire strand(prefabricated), parallel strand.
2.2 Cable system
2.2.1 Cable arrangement
Three basic arrangements for the longitudinal layout of the stay cables are shown in
Figure 1. They are radial system, harp system and fan system.

(a) Radial(b) Harp(c) FanFigure 1: Configuration of longitudinal cable arrangement
2.2.2 Number of cable planes
The transverse cable layout may be arranged single plane system, double plane systemand triple plane system. The three basic transverse cable configurations are shown in
Figure 2.

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Figure 2: Configuration of transverse cable arrangement
2.2.3 Span arrangement
There are three basic span types. They are two spans; symmetrical or asymmetrical:
three spans: and multiple spans.
2.3 Tower or pylon
The towers are the most visible elements of a cable-stayed bridge. Therefore, aesthetic
considerations in tower design are very important. The design of the pylon must adapt
to the various stay cable layouts. The primary function of the pylon is to transmit theforce arising from anchoring the stays and these forces will dominate the design of thepylon. Many varied types of pylon have been developed to support both the vertical andinclined stay layouts. These include H-frame, A-frame and inverted Y-frame pylons.
In this cable-stayed bridge, portal-type (H-shape) pylon is used. The two legs of thepylon are interconnected by a horizontal strut at the top. This type is convenient with apure fan system. If the pylon legs are leaning in the regions where the cables are to be
attached, the horizontal strut should not be positioned at the top. Radial or harp system
was not convenient. The H-towers are the most logical shape structurally for a twoplane cable stayed bridges. The tower is steel.
2.4 Stiffening girder or truss
In modern practice, the stiffening truss will be made as a space truss comprising fourchords connected by four diagonal bracings, two vertical and two horizontal.
2.4.1 Arrangement of floor beams and stringers
Investigation on the wind effects of long-span cable-stayed bridge with H-shaped tower
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The floor beams at the nodes are supplemented by stringers spaced to give the deck
adequate support in the transverse direction. This arrangement was preferred in earlier
days when the bridge deck act independently of the truss and might still be a favorable
solution if the deck is made as a concrete slab with composite action the stringers, thefloor beam, and the top chords of the main trusses.
2.4.2 Bracing system
The bracing systems used in stiffening trusses are generally the same as found in othertrusses with constant depth. Three bracing systems for the vertical main trusses are
Warren truss, Pure warren truss and Pratt truss.
2.4.3 Horizontal lateral bracing
For the horizontal lateral bracing a symmetrical configuration will generally be applied.
Systems of horizontal lateral bracing are X-bracing, diamond bracing and K-bracing.
2.5 Cable anchorage and connection
In cable supported bridges, the structural connections between elements of the girder
and the pylon can be designed by principles generally known from other type ofstructure. The structural connections are those which the element of the cable system is
attached to the stiffing girder and the pylons.
2.5.1 Connection between cable and pylon(1) External anchorages(2) Internal anchorages(3) Anchorage by hooking
2.5.2 Connection between cable and girder
When designing a cable-supported bridge, it is very important to follow thoroughly thetransmission of forces from the cables into the stiffening girder.
3. STRUCTURAL SPECIFICATIONS OF CABLE-STAYED BRIDGE WITH HSHAPED TOWER
Structural specifications of proposed bridge with H-shaped tower are described in Table
1. The general arrangement of cable-stayed bridge is shown in Figure 6.
Table 1: Structural specifications of proposed bridge with H-shaped tower
Structural Specifications
Type of Bridge
Total length of Bridge
Span arrangement
Main span, Lm
Side span
Height of Pylon
Pylon

398

H- Tower Model
Cable-Stayed Bridge
4800 ft
3-spans arrangement
2400 ft
1200 ft (each)
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Cable system
No. of cables (each main span)

Fan type
40 @ 60 ft

No. of cables (each side span)

20 @ 60 ft
6 in
Double plane
30 ft
HS 20-44, four lanes
56 ft
Warren truss

Cable Diameter
Cable plane
Height of truss
Traffic
Girder widthType of truss

Figure 6: General arrangement of cable-stayed bridge
3.1 Cable tension force
Cable tension force can be calculated from reaction force and the angle between cableand girder. Cable tension forces and cable lengths for H-shaped tower model is
described in Table 2.
Table 2: Cable tension forces and cable lengths for H-shaped tower model
Cable No.

Cable
Length (ft)TensionForce (lb)Cable No.

Cable
Length (ft)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

1307.821250.52
1193.511136.841080.561024.74
969.462914.814860.92807.933
756.0421303622012587630
12131075
11665958
11191598
10707218
10211913
9704629918411886488888097123

21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31

410.41429.12455.109487.213524.309565.417609.725656.585705.49756.042807.933

1500788.4
2562182.5
3454541425151249841195669132
6316906
6934400
7526575
8097123864888812705.49752657532

860.929184118

TensionForce (lb)

Investigation on the wind effects of long-span cable-stayed bridge with H-shaped tower
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13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

656.585609.725565.417524.309487.213455.109429.12410.416934400
6316906
5669132
498411942515123454541
2562182.5
1500788.4

33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40

914.814969.4621024.741080.56
1136.841193.51
1250.521307.829704629
10211913
10707218
11191598
11665958
12131075
12587630
13036236

3.2 Load considerations
The applied loads on superstructure are dead loads, moving load, wind load with valuesof wind speed 100 mph and 130 mph.
3.2.1 Dead load
The following weights of materials are applied on superstructure of proposed bridge.
Unit weight of steel- 490 lb/ft3
Unit weight of concrete- 150 lb/ft3
Unit weight of guardrail- 200 lb/ft
Unit weight of asphalt, 2 in
- 9 × 2 = 18 lb/in2
3.2.2 Moving load
HS 20-44 truck is considered for moving load case based on AASHTO specifications.
3.2.3 Wind load
The wind load shall consist of moving uniformity distributed loads applied to the
exposed area of the structure. There are five tropical cyclone categories according to
Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale based on a hurricane’s sustained wind speed.
Tropical cyclone categories are described in (Table 3).
Table 3: Tropical cyclone categories
Scale Number Category
1
2
3
4
5

Wind Speed (mph)
74 - 95
96 - 110111 - 130131 - 155
> 155

3.3 Analysis results due to own weight
3.3.1 Girder displacement due to own weightThe displacements about X- axis are shown in Figure 7. We can see that thedisplacement about X- axis is exactly zero at mid span. The displacements about Y-axis
are also shown in Figure 8 and the displacements about Y-axis are symmetric.

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Displacement about X-axis

1

Own Weight

0.5
0
-0.5

0

600

1200

1800

2400

3000

3600

4200

4800

-1
Bridge Length (ft)Figure 7: Displacement about X-axis
Figure 8 illustrates displacement about Z-axis due to own weight. The maximum
vertical displacement (2.61 ft) occurs at mid span.
Displacement about Y-axis (ft)

0.003
0.002
0.001
Own Weight0-0.001

0

600

1200

1800

2400

3000

3600

4200

4800

4200

4800

Bridge Length (ft)Figure 8: Displacement about Y-axis
Displacement about Z-axis (ft)0-0.5 0
-1

600

1200

1800

2400

3000

-1.5
-2
-2.5
-3

3600

Own Weight

Bridge Length (ft)Figure 9: Displacement about Z-axis
3.3.2 Deflection check due to own weight
Allowable deflection, all
=
L/400
=
731.52/400=
6 ft
Maximum deflection due to self weightSo, it is satisfied.

=

1.83m

=

2.613 ft < 6 ft

Investigation on the wind effects of long-span cable-stayed bridge with H-shaped tower

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November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

3.3.3 Deflection check due to moving load=
L/400
Allowable deflection, all=731.52/400=
6 ft
Maximum deflection due to self weight
Therefore, it is satisfactory condition.

=

1.83m

=

4.71 ft < 6 ft

4. ANALYSIS RESULTS DUE TO WIND LOAD
From results due to wind load, the values in maximum wind speed (130 mph) are
optimum. The values of axial force for three basic wind speeds such as 100 mph, 130
mph are shown in Figure 10. For these wind speeds, the maximum values of axial forces
are found at mid span whereas minimum values occur at tower supports.
100 mph130 mph

Axial Force along the Bridge Length (lb)10000000
5000000
0-5000000 0-10000000-15000000-20000000

600

1200

1800

2400

3000

3600

4200

4800

Bridge Length (ft)Figure 10: Axial force due to wind load along the bridge length
The maximum values of bridge forces are found at mid span whereas minimum values
occur at tower supports in both shape tower models. The maximum values of vertical
shear and horizontal shear for wind load condition are shown in Figure 11 and Figure 12.
Vertical Shear along the Bridge Length (lb)

100 mph130 mph

1200

4800

20000
10000
0
-10000 0

600

1800

2400

3000

3600

4200

-20000-30000Bridge Length (ft)Figure 11: Vertical shear due to wind load along the bridge length402

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Horizontal Shear along the Bridge Length (lb)

100 mph130 mph0-5000 0

600

1200

1800

2400

3000

3600

4200

4800

-10000-15000-20000-25000-30000Bridge Length(ft)Figure 12: Horizontal shear due to wind load along the bridge length
Figure 13 illustrates the values of torsion for three kinds of wind load condition. The
minimum values of torsion are found at tower supports and maximum values occur at
mid span.
Torsion along the Bridge Length (lb-ft)

100 mph130 mph

1000
0
-1000

0

600

1200

1800

2400

3000

3600

4200

4800

-2000
-3000
Bridge Length (ft)Figure 13: Torsion due to wind load along the bridge length
In addition, maximum values of vertical moment and horizontal moment for three typesof wind load conditions are also shown in Figure 14 and Figure 15.

Investigation on the wind effects of long-span cable-stayed bridge with H-shaped tower

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November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar
100 mph130 mph

Vertical Moment along the Bridge Length (lb-ft)

0-50000 0

600

1200

1800

2400

3000

3600

4200

4800

-100000-150000-200000-250000-300000-350000
Bridge Length (ft)Figure 14: Vertical Moment due to wind load along the bridge length
Horizontal Moment along the Bridge Length (lb-ft)

6000004000002000000-200000 0-400000-600000-800000

600

1200

1800

2400

3000

3600

100 mph130 mph

4200

4800

Bridge Length (ft)Figure 15: Horizontal Moment due to wind load along the bridge length
5. DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONSIn this study, the 2400 ft main span cable-stayed bridge is analyzed by using SAP 2000
software. Therefore, this study would give some knowledge of analysis and design ofthree-span cable-stayed bridge with H –shaped tower and for the way how to use SAP
2000 software. The maximum values of bridge forces are found at mid span whereas
minimum values occur at tower supports in both shape tower models. The maximum
values of axial force for H –tower model are (4131.47 kip) for 100 mph and (7192.16
kip) for 130 mph. The maximum values of vertical shear, (9.38 kip) for 100 mph, (16.28
kip) for 130 mph can be seen at 2400 ft from bridge start distance or at mid span. The
maximum values of horizontal shear, (15.8 kip) for 100 mph, (26.76 kip) for 130 mph
can be seen at 1440 ft from bridge start distance. The maximum values of torsion,(274.65 lb) for 100 mph, (480.42 lb) for 130 mph are found at 2400 ft from bridge start
distance. The maximum values of vertical moment, (176.26 kip-ft) for 100 mph and(299.47 kip-ft) for 130 mph are found at 2160 ft from bridge start distance. The
maximum values of horizontal moment, (275.74 kip-ft) for 100 mph, (480 kip-ft) for
130 mph occur at mid span.

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REFERENCES
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials., 2002. Standard
Specifications for Highway Bridges, 17th Ed.
Buick, D and Graham, O., 2003. Steel Designers' Manual, The Steel Construction
Institute, 6th Ed.
Chen, W. F and Duan, L., 2000. Bridge Engineering Handbook, CRC Press LLC.
Gimsing, N. J., 2000. Cable Supported bridges; Concepts and Design 2nd Ed, John
Wiley & Sons.
Gimsing, N. J., 2012. Cable Supported bridges; Concepts and Design 3rd Ed, John
Wiley & Sons.
Government of India, Ministry of Railways (Railway Board)., 2008. Bridge Rules 2nd
Ed (IN SI UNITS), Research Designs and Standard Organisation, Lucknow -226011.
Japan Road Association., 1987. Specifications for Highway Bridges, English Ed.
Ryall, M. J, Parke, G. A. R and Harding, J. E., 2000. The Manual of Bridge Engineering,Thomas Telford.
Walther, R., 1999. Cable Stayed Bridges 2nd Ed, Thomas Telford.

Investigationon the windof effects
long-span
cable-stayed
bridge with
H-shaped
tower tower
Investigation
on effects
the windof long-spancable-stayed
bridgewith H-shaped405

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A statistical study for bi-directional seismic
interaction effect in isolated bridges
Ji DANG1, Yuki EBISAWA2, and Akira IGARASHI3
Assistant Professor, Graduate School of Science and Engineering,
Saitama University, Japan
dangji@mail.saitama-u.ac.jp
2
Graduate Student, Graduate School of Engineering,Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan
3
Professor, Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto University, Japan
1

ABSTRACTThe bi-directional nonlinear interaction effect of bridge structures has been omitted in
the current seismic design approach. The differences in hysteretic behavior of High
Damping Rubber (HDR) bearings and responses of isolated bridges are found to be
depending on the bi-directional ground motions’ uncertainties. In this study,
Incremental Dynamic Analysis (IDA) was conducted for evaluation of the bi-directional
earthquake interaction effect of isolated bridges. A recently developed hysteresis model,
the Modified Park-Wen (MPW) model, was applied to simulate the restoring force ofhigh damping rubber bearings under bidirectional deformation and a number ofearthquake records were used to obtain the uncertainty of phase difference of seismic
inputs. The IDA curves and fragility curves obtained from these analyses suggest thatthe bi-directional earthquake interaction is likely to increase the structural
displacement response. Furthermore, the difference between the directions of maximum
seismic input and maximum response is found to be the main cause of underestimationin assessment of seismic response of isolated structures using the unidirectional
approach.
Keywords: Incremental Dynamic Analysis, bi-directional interaction, phase difference
1. INTRODUCTION
From the 1990s, the use of elastomeric bearings started in highway bridges as
replacement of steel roller bearings. In the 1995 Kobe Earthquake, these bridges
survived with only relatively minor damage in contrast to severe damage experienced
by bridges with conventional steel bearings (Japan Society of Civil Engineering, 1996).
Natural Rubber (NR) bearings, Lead Rubber Bearing (LRB) and High Damping Rubber
Bearings (HDRBs) have been widely used for seismic isolation practice for highway
bridges thereafter. At the time of the Great East Japan Earthquake, although a few casesof fracture of rubber bearing were reported, performance of most of the isolated bridges
is mostly adequate as expected (Earthquake Engineering Committee of JSCE, 2011).
The HDRBs appear to be the most important seismic isolation device for highway
bridges applied in reconstruction and retrofitting in the foreseeable future, due to the407

November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar
November 2014, Yangon, Myanmarlack of other effective measures. As the preparation for the next major seismic event inJapan that can be disastrous in the near future, performance based seismic design for
highway bridges has been continually improved since the 1995 Kobe Earthquake. The
nonlinear time history analysis is generally used in practice for bridge design
incorporating seismic isolation concept. The bi-linear model and equivalentlinearization techniques are used to present the nonlinear character of rubber bearings.
However, the bi-directional nonlinear interaction effect of bridge structures has been
neglected in the current seismic design practice. This is because of the lack of reliable
models of bi-directional nonlinear interaction effect between structural nonlinear
response components. The behavior of bridge columns is assumed based on the loading
tests of the structural components under constant vertical force and cyclic unidirectional horizontal loading. The data for nonlinear hysteresis character of elastomericbearings as well as bridge columns under bi-directional loading have not been available.
To avoid the problem, continuous girder bridges with constrained transverse
displacement of the elastomeric bearings have been widely employed for the ease andconvenience of the design process, and a conservative isolation design method has beenused for curved girder bridges.
Recently, the bi-directional interaction effect in the restoring force-displacement
hysteretic behavior and seismic response were experimentally studied by conducting
both quasi-static loading and pseudo-dynamic loading tests (Iwata, 1998; Murakoshi2013). Increase of the hysteretic damping of HDRBs and consequent seismic responsechanges were found in the results of those experimental studies.
Furthermore, these differences in hysteretic response are dependent on the bi-directionalloading patterns and input accelerograms. Only very limited cases of seismic input canbe tested experimentally. To clarify the seismic response behavior of the isolated
bridges, the amplitude and the number of input accelerograms are the important keys toevaluate the measure of statistical correlations between the bi-directional components of
the nonlinear seismic response of structures.
In this study, the Incremental Dynamic Analysis (Vamvatsikos and Cornell, 2002) of
isolated bridges using a large number of input accelerograms is conducted. A recently
proposed numerical model for bi-directionally loaded HDRBs is used to simulate thecomplicated hysteretic behavior of the elastomeric bearing under bi-directional
deformation.
The seismic responses of the isolated bridges under uni- and bi-directional groundmotion input are compared by the average IDA curves. The likelihood of collapse or
failure of the isolated bridges neglecting the bi-directional effect is estimated using
probability concepts including the fragility curves and interval estimation. Finally,
seismic performance design recommendations and simple modified equations areproposed.
2. NUMERICAL STRUCTURAL MODEL
A benchmark bridge is hypothesized for the numerical model established for the
analysis. The bridge is represented by a two-mass 4-DOF model. The bridge piers are408

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assumed to behave in undamaged elastic range and expressed by linear springs in thetwo directions. The bi-directional nonlinear behavior of the rubber bearing is taken into
account with the Modified Park-Wen model.
2.1 Numerical bridge model
The benchmark bridge representing a typical viaduct, shown in Figure 1, consists of asuperstructure, bearings and substructure. In this study, the deformation of thesubstructures, such as the piers and abutments, is simply considered to be linear elastic.
The superstructure and the substructure are assumed to be modeled as the twoconcentrated masses. Thus, the bridge structure can be considered as a two-mass system
shown in Figure 2.

Girder (superstructure)
Elastomeri
c bearings

Elastomericbearings

Abutment

Piers

Piers

Abutment

Substructur

Figure 1: Layout of the benchmark bridge
Girder (superstructure)

Substructures

Figure 2: Bi-directional two-mass 4-DOF model for isolated bridges
As can be seen in the figure, the top mass point m1 represents the concentrated mass
corresponding to superstructure, and mass point m2 represents the half of the tributary
A statistical
study for study
bi-directional
seismic interaction
effect in isolated
bridges bridges
A statisticalfor bi-directional
seismic interaction
effect in isolated409

November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar
November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

mass of the piers. The restoring force and damping due to deformation of theelastomeric bearings are represented by the stiffness k1 and viscous damping coefficient
c1, and that of the piers are expressed by k2 and c2. The elastomeric bearings and piers
here are assumed to be replaced with a bi-directional nonlinear elasto-plastic model toexpress the complicated bi-directional hysteresis behavior of HDRBs in the nonlinear
time-history analysis.
The bi-directional hysteretic restoring force model for the bearings is calibrated byquasi-static loading test results. Test specimens for the tests are high damping rubber
bearing (HDR-S bearings) of a square cross-section of 160mm×160mm, with a total
rubber thickness of 40mm(=4×10 mm). The specimens were loaded under a constantvertical pressure of � = 6 MPa. The plan and elevation dimensions of elastomericbearings used in the benchmark structure are considered as 4 times larger than thespecimen, with a cross-section of 640mm × 640mm and total rubber thickness as
160mm. Thus, in accordance with the similitude law, the superstructure mass weight for
all bearings with the number of �� should be as follows.
�� = �� � � � �� � � � ��

(1)

where �� (=640mm×640mm) is the cross-section area of the elastomeric bearing, � isthe scale factor 4, and � represents the gravity acceleration.

The mass of the substructure is empirically chosen to be 1/2 times �� , and the tributarymass is assumed to be 1/3 of the mass of substructure.
�� =

��
��

��

(2)

The deformation of the substructure is considered to be within the elastic range, so thatthe restoring force can be expressed by the bi-directional linear spring of stiffness k2.
�� = (�� � �� )(��⁄�� )�

(3)

where �� represents the natural period of the bridge structure with the condition of fixed
connection between the superstructure and the substructure. Since typical regular bridge
structures without isolation have natural periods ranging from 0.2 to 1.5s, �� is specified
as 0.5 s for the benchmark structure.The Rayleigh damping assumption is used for
calculation of c1 and c2 , so that the modal damping ratio of all natural modes are 0.05.
2.2 Bi-direction model for HDRBs
Modified Park-Wen (MPW) model (Dang 2013) has been proposed and experimentally
verified recently for high-damping-rubber bearings under bi-directional loading. The
proposed MPW model can be expressed by the following equations.
�������� � = �� �� � � (� � �)�(� � �� � ) �� ������� = ���� � �|��� �� |�� � ���� ��� � ����� �� ��� � ���� �� ��
��� = ���� � ����� �� ��� � ���� ��� � �|��� �� |�� � ���� �� ��

410

(4)
(5)
(6)

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�=

� ���
���
�

(7)

�

where �� and �� are the restoring forces, �� and �� are displacements, �� and ��
represent the plastic components, corresponding to the x and y components, respectively.
The Symbol � denotes the initial elastic stiffness, �� is the second stiffness, which isalso the loading history independent elastic component stiffness for elastomeric. The(1 − �)� = (1 − α )�� ��� part presents the critical force normalized by the yielddisplacement �� . Constant A is generally equal to unity, and the maximum limit of ��and �� are the yield displacement �� , which is determined by the parameters � and �
defined as the following equation.
�� � �� � �� = �� = �

�

(8)

���

where �� and �� are defined by the implicit differential equations (5) and (6). They canbe easily obtained numerically by computing the step-by-step incremental
displacements ��� (= �� � �� ) and ��� (= �� � �� ) either in static displacement loading
analysis or time history simulation. However, the displacement increment ��� , ��� ineach step should be sufficiently small to allow accurate calculation of the increments of�� and �� , which are ��� (= ��� ��) and ��� (= ��� ��).
(2) Modification of theplastic component.

(1) Critical force dependency
on the total strain.
(3) Combination of plastic
and elastic components.
Figure 3: Constitutive rules for Modified Park-Wen model
The displacement increment limit for each step of �� /10 should be regarded as
sufficiently small. If the displacement increment is larger than �� /10, division of thestep to small multiple sub-steps is necessary. The symbol � denotes the total horizontal
shear strain of the rubber bearing under bi-directional loading, and ℎ is the total rubber
thickness.

The modifier term �� � expresses the change of the critical force due to the bidirectional shear deformation. This is a highly simplified representation of theassumptions of rubber bearing’s bi-directional interaction and the square term is used to

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approximate the relationship between the critical force and the shear strain level. The
constitutive rules of the proposed model are illustrated in Figure.3.

100

X-Direction

100

X-Direction

75

75

Restoring force[kN]

Restoring force[kN]

Comparison of the test result, the original Park-Wen model, and the MPW model areillustrated in Figure. 4, in which the advantage of using the MPW model is clearlyshown. The analysis results using the bi-linear model and the MSS-bilinear model arefound to be similar to that of the PW model shown in the figure, while they are greatly
deviated from the experimental result, which is most effectively approximated by the
MPW Model.

50
25

0
-100 -75 -50 -25
-25 0
-50
-75

25

0
-100 -75 -50 -25-25 0

25 50 75 100
Experiment
PW ModelMPW Model-100
Displacement[mm]

50

(a)

-50
-75

25 50 75 100
Experiment
PW ModelMPW Model-100
Displacement[mm](b)Figure 4: Comparison of MPW model with original Park-Wen model by (a) circular bidirectional loading and (b) hybrid-simulation (pseudo-dynamic test) loading
3. INCREMENTAL DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
Seismic response of complicated nonlinear systems, such as an isolated bridge structurewith bi-directional interactions, is greatly influenced not only by the ground motion
intensity but also by uncertainty due to the randomness of phase character. To evaluate
the statistical distribution of the seismic performance of isolated bridge structures underuni- and bi-directional earthquake excitation, both the uncertainty of the input groundaccelerograms and that of the intensity level of the input should be taken into account.
For this purpose, the Incremental Dynamic Analysis (IDA) approach is used as aneffective method to conduct this kind of seismic performance evaluations.
3.1 Outline of analysis procedure
Following calculation approach was used to perform IDA in this study.
1) Select a reference earthquake accelerogram ܽ௚ which satisfies appropriate
conditions.
2) Prepare the input accelerogram ܽఒ by scaling ܽ௚ by an intensity factor ߣ.
ܽఒ ൌ ߣ ൈ ܽ௚

(9)3) Conduct nonlinear time-history analysis for the structural model using the input ܽఒto find the structural response.

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4) Increase � to obtain increased input �� and repeat 2) and 3) until the failure of thestructure.
5) Determine the relationship between the input earthquake intensity and the
maximum nonlinear structural response.
3.2 Definition of intensity indices
The intensity of the input ground motion is evaluated on the basis of PGA (Peak GroundAcceleration) in this study. The PGA for the earthquake records containing two
orthogonal directions is calculated as their peak vector norm as the following
expression:����� � ���������� � � ����� � �(10)������� � ��������� �, �������� � ��������� �(14)

The input accelerograms are generated with the specified PGA which is increased from100 cm/s2 at the interval of 100 cm/s2 until the structural collapse. The maximum
response of the uni-directional loading case is evaluated by the absolute peak value ofthe response time history. On the other hand, the maximum response of the bidirectional input analysis is defined as the peak length of the displacement vector.

������ � ��� ������� � � ����� � �(15)

The collapse of structure is defined as the situation such that the response of the rubber
bearing reaches 250% shearing strain. Therefore, the ultimate response strain of rubber
bearings is defined as the following expression.

4. ANALYSIS RESULTS��� � ���� ⁄2.5ℎ(16)

The IDA curves representing the relationship between the increased intensity of input
ground motion and their consequent nonlinear response of the structures obtained byuni-directional and bi-directional accelerograms using 100 sets of earthquake records ofmajor earthquakes (Mw>6, PGV>50kine). The average curves are shown in Figure 5.
It can be seen from the figures that the IDA curves for uni-directional loading takehigher values than that for bi-directional loading. This implies that the seismic responseof the structure evaluated by conventional analysis based on the uni-directional loading
may be overestimated.

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4

2

IDA curve isolator

x 10

Average IDA Curve

X direction
Y direction
two directon

1.8
1.6
1.4

PGA[gal]PGA[gal]

1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4
0.5
0.6
ultimate response ratio

0.7

0.8

0.9

1

40000
35000
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0

predominantdirection
uni-direction
bi-direction0

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
1
ultimate response ratio

1.2

Figure 5: Analysis results: IDA curves for 100 sets of earthquakes and Average IDA
curves
The response ratio � is defined as follows to measure the difference of structural
response between uni- and bi-directional loadings.
(17)

� = ������ �������

1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0

Exceedance probability

Response ratio 

The response ratio of cases which have response near to level 1 and level 2 performance
demand are plotted with its wave number in Figure 6 (a). The probability of the
response ratios  exceeding a ratio level  P(>) is calculated by the proportion ofcases which resulted a ratio A that larger than . The exceedance probability and the
95% confidential level are plotted in the Figure 6 (b). These statistical estimation plots
reveal that the likelihood of the situation such that the response amplitude assessed byanalysis using uni-directional loading is smaller than that using the bidirectional loadingcase for the same PGA is about 62% to 77%. And responses of both levels of the
response performance show similar results. This implies that there are about 70%
possibility that a bi-directional seismic loaded isolated bridge may fail, which means
response larger, the uni-directional based design.

rate of level 1
rate of level 2

0

20

40

60

80

Number of seismic waves

100

(a)

0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0

level 1level 21

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
Response ratio (b)Figure 6: (a) Response ratios and (b) its exceedance probability
�(� � � � 0) = 66%(18)

Here, L is the response of structure due to uni-directional analysis, R is the deformation
design limit.

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The probability paper for estimation of the possibility distribution of response ration �
can be obtained by reorder the number of cases by ranging them in order of response
ratio, as can be seen in Figure 7, as well as its estimation of Possibility Density Function(PDF). The number of cases which imply the cumulative possibilities increase theresponse ration linearly, approximately. The linear regression estimation fits therelation in the figure well, this implies that the possibility distribution of response ratio� can be represented by a normal distribution with an average (expected value) �=1.1
and deviation �=0.11.
Thus a safety factor � can be introduced to low down the possibility of failure ofconvenient uni-directional design, due to the normal distribution estimation of response
ratio ��Thus, a proper safety factor for a desire design reliability can becalculated by following equation.
(19)

�(�� � � � ��� � �) � Φ(� � (� � ���)�����)For example the reliability of 90% need to use a safety factor C=1.3. �(�� � � ���� � ���) � Φ(� � (��� � ���)�����) � ��� . Here Φ(�) represent the standard
normal distribution.
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1
0.9
0.8

4
3.5

Possibility density

Response ratio

probability paper

2.5������
�����

20 40 60 80
Number of cases2

1.5

y = 0.0033x + 0.9422
R² = 0.8917
0

3

100

1

0.5
0

0.8

1

1.2

Response Ratio

1.4

Figure 7: Probabilistic distribution estimation of response ratio �Proportion of the number of cases such that the angle between the directions ofmaximum seismic input and the maximum response is greater than π/20 is as much as 75%
of all cases. Based on this observation, the difference of the directions of excitation andstructural response may be regarded as a major reason for the increase of the response
assessed by analysis using the bi-directional excitation. It can be seen in Figure 8 that theradian angle of difference in predominant directions of input earthquake and structure
response is also following a normal distribution with �=0.26π and deviation �=0.16π.

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0.5
0.4

ߪαͲǤͳ͸ߨ0.3

ߤαͲǤʹ͸ߨ

0.2
0.1
0

3

y = 0.0051x - 0.0016
R² = 0.9947

Possibility Density

input and response predominat
directions difference (pi)November
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Yangon,Myanmar

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0

0

20

40

60

80

Numbers of cases

100

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

directions difference (pi)Figure 8: Probabilistic distribution estimation of direction difference
CONCLUSIONSThe IDA curves and fragility curves for a typical bridge with seismic isolation are
obtained by nonlinear time history analyses under unidirectional and bi-directional
excitations using a model of the bi-directional hysteretic behavior of the elastomericbearing. The results indicate that the bi-directional earthquake interaction tends toincrease the seismic response and the associated bearing displacement. A simplified
design method to use a safety factor to increase the design reliability of uni-directional
analysis based design. The difference of the directions of excitation and structural
response under the bi-directional excitation may be a reason for the overestimate of the
response assessed by unidirectional analysis.
REFERENCES
Earthquake Engineering Committee of JSCE, 2011. Emergency Damage
Reconnaissance Report of Tohoku Earthquake.
Dang, J., Igarashi, A. and Murakoshi, Y., 2013. Nonlinear numerical hysteresis model
for bi-directionally loaded elastomeric isolation bearings. Proc. 2nd International
Symposium on Earthquake Engineering, No.2, 131-140.
Iwata, S., Iemura, H., Aoki, T., Sugiyama, K. and Uno, Y. (1998). Hybrid earthquake
loading test (pseudo-dynamic test) of bi-directional base isolation bearing for a largepedestrian bridge. Proc. of the 10th Earthquake Engineering Symposium 10-1, 207-212(in Japanese).
Japan Society of Civil Engineering, 1996. Reconnaissance Report of Hanshin-Awaji
Great Earthquake Vol.1 damage of civil engineering structures (Bridges) (in Japanese).
Murakoshi, Y., Igarashi, A., Dang, J. and Ito, T., 2013. Bi-Directional Experimental
Hybrid Simulations of Elastomeric Isolation Bearings for Validation of Hysteretic
Modelling, Proc. 15th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering.
Park, Y. J., Wen, Y. K. and Ang, A. H-S., 1968. Random Vibration of Hysteretic
Systems under Bi-directional Ground Motions, Earthquake Engineering & Structural
Dynamics 14, 543-557.
Vamvatsikos, D. and Cornell, C. A., 2002. Incremental Dynamic Analysis. Earthquake
Engineering & Structural Dynamics 31, 491-514.

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New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Quan A. PHUNG1
Project Management and Law Division,
Faculty of Construction Economics and Management,
National University of Civil Engineering, Vietnam
anhquan26@gmail.com
1

ABSTRACTIn recent decades, stakeholder management – a special perspective of management – hasbecome implanted in managers’ and planners’ mind. It is expected to become anincreasingly important management aspect. In Vietnam, there are some problems instakeholder management in construction projects like low level of vision sharing among
management team, lack or limited application in applying stakeholder management
processes, and weakness in managers’ ability and stakeholder management strategies. Allof them lead to an ineffective management style in projects and cause negative impact
when troubles from stakeholders appear. From these inspected causes, this paper is tosuggest a practical lean construction based solution for the top managers to apply tosolve their current problems and to improve effectiveness in construction companies andproject management. The paper discussed on six main reasons for this current situation;
they are silo information system, management process, human HR training quality,internal – external working environment, measurement and evaluating method, and top
management cause. Based on these causes, the thesis puts forward a solution andrecommendations for the top managers to apply some stakeholder management processes,
which expected to solve their current problem and increase effectiveness of construction
project management.
Keywords: stakeholder management, project management, Vietnam, construction andcivil engineering.
1. INTRODUCTION
No one can deny that a construction project requires the involvement among a numberof parties – stakeholders. This involvement, on the one hand, is the cooperation of
consultancy, capital, human resource, machines, technology, information and othersfrom different stakeholders (for example: authorities, partners, customers, distributors,
suppliers, and consultant groups); on the other hand, there is a mutual affection between
internal stakeholders of the project. Therefore, the success of a project depends on theway of managing these people and organizations. One thing that must be noticed is thatthe complexity of stakeholders in the modern economy when globalization andcooperation are becoming more and more popular. It means that relationships amongindividuals and organizations in constructing operation have turned to be more
complicated. Many researchers investigated and recognized that stakeholder

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November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmarmanagement is an important factor of civil engineering and management (Yang, 2010).
However, management of stakeholders and their relations does not meet the required
level (Rowlinson et al., 2010). One of keys reasons for the gap is that managers andtheir teams did not follow a possessive, systematic and official stakeholder management(Karlsen, 2002). Therefore, how to manage stakeholders effectively is still a question
mark to all project managers.
Regardless of managers’ attempts, the result of this research shows that there are threemain weaknesses behind the unprofessional working styles in Vietnamese construction
projects. Those weaknesses cause unexpected impact to image, competitiveness, profit
and other benefits of projects. The output will not change if everything stands still. It ishigh time to apply a more effective and efficient method of managing stakeholder inconstruction project. It is convinced that appropriate management of stakeholders will
improve performance and operations of the project, strengthen competitive advantage inthe market, enhance relations with partners (suppliers, contractors and subcontractors)
in sustainable way and long term orientation. It is also believed to improve working
environment for staffs and workers of construction projects, and enrich shareholders
and owners.
2. METHODOLOGYThis research followed a traditional research approach. Initially, the paper has started
from the fact. An investigation on the real conditions of Vietnamese construction
projects will help to find out their problems. In order to do that, this research makes useof results from a survey on the people who are working in Vietnamese construction
projects. The questionnaire used in the survey includes 33 questions which required the
respondents to answer the questions based on their own experience. 59 results of thequestionnaire were received back from various fields in construction, types and sizes ofprojects, and positions of interviewees. Collected data then was transcribed, coded, andanalyzed with SPSS software. After the problems are recognized, the literature then isreviewed in order to find out relevant knowledge, researches, and best practices to solve
the problems of the projects that have been applied on over the world. Finally, based on
knowledge and experience from various sources of research reference of which thethree most important are PMBOK (Project Management Institute, 2013), Stakeholder
Cycle Methodology (Bourne, 2009), and Turner’s model (Turner, 2009), the solution
was integrated, and modified to overcome three main weaknesses of Vietnameseconstruction project. This solution was proposed by taking all advantages and bestpractices of the global researches, which was adjusted to be suitable with particularcondition of Vietnamese construction projects and management style.
3. DEFINITIONS
3.1. Stakeholder
The term “stakeholder” was used the first time in 1963 by the Stanford ResearchInstitute's Long Range Planning Service (Thorpe and Holt, 2008), then many theories
and definitions were developed by experts and researchers in the world. From 1963, the418

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academic world have seen different definition of “stakeholder”, Friedman and Miles(2006) summarized 55 definitions of “stakeholders” in their book named “Stakeholder:
Theory and Practice”. To sum up, we can conclude that stakeholders are individual ororganization (like customer, sponsors, contractors, or public) who involved in or beunder influence, and they can make a remarkable impact (directly or indirectly) to theoperation and result of the project. It is worthy to notice that their impact can be in bothsides (positive and negative). Therefore, management should be wise to take advantage
of good impacts as well as prevent and minimize bad ones.
3.2. Stakeholder Management
Stakeholder management, in some publications, has been created with labels such as‘social responsibility manager’, ‘community manager’, and ‘environmental manager’(Miles et al., 2002). Like the term of stakeholders, there are lots of definitions proposed
for the term of stakeholder management. It can be understand as “essentiallystakeholder relationship management as it is the relationship and not the actual
stakeholder groups that are managed”(Friedman and Miles, 2006). Forward a practical
approach, PMI defines stakeholder management as a continuous chain of processes. It
includes processes of identifying the stakeholder; analyzing their expectations and result
impact on the project; and developing reasonable management plan for engagement.
Moreover, as mentioned in PMBOK, this institute stated that stakeholder management
should focus on “continuous communication with stakeholders” to comprehend “theirneeds and expectations” and to manage related issues and conflicts (ProjectManagement Institute, 2013). This definition can cover almost all of aspects instakeholder management.
4. CURRENT STATUS OF THE STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT IN
VIETNAMESE CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
4.1. A behavior analysis of managers
In the first part of the questionnaire, there are some questions about the importance of
14 key stakeholders in construction projects. Each of the stakeholders is evaluated on a
Likert scale with five levels of importance: code 01 is the lowest level, and code 05
means the highest one. The classification of them is based on cluster analysis bydendrograms using Ward Method in non-hierarchical clustering. By this method,elements (records) are combined together based on the similarity of them. The rescaled
distance cluster combines diagram shows that tradeoffs between the distance and thenumber of clusters, 3 clusters are reasonable. They are:
Cluster 1: Managers in this group can be named as “subjectivism”, they gave low
grades for 14 stakeholders, and the average grade they gave is 2.38, it ranges from1.73 to 3.20 over maximum level of 5.
Cluster 2: They are in the “neutral” group with the average grade for thesestakeholders is 3.25 (Ranged from 2.30 to 4.45)
Cluster 3: They can be called as “caution” group. Managers in this group are highly
appreciated key stakeholders, the average grade is 4.21 with minimum point is 3.67
and maximum value is 4.86, much higher than the two previous groups.
A solution for stakeholder management in Vietnamese construction projects
A solution for Stakeholder Management in Vietnamese construction projects

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November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarInterestingly, the “caution” cluster tends to be more successful in managing
stakeholders. They can realize connections between stakeholders with higher rate andpredict better troubles. Besides, these managers prefer to use negotiation when facingwith stakeholders, in other words, they try to avoid passive reactions when solving
problems with stakeholders. As a result, 21 managers in this group experienced a better
ability to preventing trouble and creating a good opportunity for the project. Moreover,the caution group can estimate better the attitude of stakeholder (whether they support
or oppose the project).
Table 1: Outstanding abilities of "caution" cluster
No. Ability to
Realize connections between
1stakeholders
2
Predict troubles from stakeholders
3
Solve problem by negotiation
4
Solve problem by passive reactions
5
Complete the mission

Cluster 1

Cluster 2 Cluster 3

60.0%

75.0%

81.0%

80.0%
6.7%
86.7%
95.3%

75.0%
20.0%
75.0%
85.0%

92.5%
28.6%
66.7%
73.4%

4.2. Three main problems in stakeholder management: An exploration
4.2.1. Low level of vision sharing among staffs
Stakeholder management is mainly implemented in a decentralized method. It meansthat different managers or staffs take roles on stakeholder management independently.
In 59 results of the survey, there is 63.8% and 66.1% of the questioned managers
manage their internal and external stakeholders in this way. Moreover, the idea of using
a common or formal method to connect staffs is less popular than informal ones. In fact,
the types of forms, tables and diary is used limitative (45.6% of result use them), andthere are only 17.5% of projects using professional tools and software to manage theirstakeholders. The communication between staffs (who are responsible for stakeholder
management) is mainly carried out via meetings (87.7% of answers) and interpersonalcommunication (54.5%) without or limited in recording as a document likememorandum of understanding. As a result, the lack and insufficiency of shared-vision
tools lead to a paradox in storing and retrieving stakeholder information. Up to 78% ofthem agree that they are in troubles of retrieving and using stakeholder information
regularly. The reason for this problem is the lack of a methodological method to store
useful information about stakeholders. Moreover, each staff uses their own way to store
their information.
4.2.2. Lack or limited application of stakeholder management processes and its
effects
In fact, almost all of these projects have not had an effective method to manage theirstakeholders. Only a small number of the projects use a simple method in their
management processes, but it is not clear in all the time. For instance, in stakeholder
analysis, there are three main issues: ineffectiveness; limited application in determining
stakeholders’ attributes; and in storing and updating information about stakeholders.
Firstly, making a full list of stakeholders is still used, but not effective because oflimitation in staffs’ skills. In detail, 76.2% of respondent stated that they have made aprediction about that list, but 52.5% of them often get into troubles when they cannot

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develop a full list of stakeholders. Secondly, only determining stakeholders’expectations is not enough to evaluate them and to decide the priority of who should bemanaged more closely than others. Besides, predicting stakeholders’ expectation is also
at a low level of efficiency. Only 15.3% of the staffs can estimate reasonably. This canbe understood when information resource is limited and there is lack of continuous
tracking for stakeholders in the operations of the project. Thirdly, although a list of
stakeholders is recognized as an important process of almost all of the stakeholder
management methods, this list is not usually stored as formal documents. Up to 45.8%
of surveyed staffs answered that there is no formal document about the list leading toanother issue where changes in characteristics of stakeholders (power, influence,
interest, requirement and others) will not be managed as a whole. Furthermore, the taskof responsibility assignment separates this list into small parts, but there is no tool tomanage them in an integrated list. This work pours into the top managers, who run it as
their own experiences. The result is that some stakeholders can be forgotten, no
crosscheck and hard to updating this list on time. Only 23.7% of staffs can update thislist timely then the list is normally insufficient.
In terms of developing stakeholder management plan, it is cursory. Top managers
mainly assign tasks to employees and let them do the work independently by their own
experience. No general strategy is agreed by the whole staffs. This unthoughtful
preparation will surely create troubles for the implementing stage. As the result,
troubles often occur in stakeholder communication, up to 85% of respondents admitted
that they have difficulties in communicating with stakeholders; 63% of respondents
recognized that the most important cause of this problem is the insufficient agility inreceiving and processing information related to the concerned stakeholders. Even in the
projects using a common form to manage stakeholders’ relations, they did not finish all
the required content in the form correctly and completely. In addition, 44.4% of staffs in
those projects think that the forms are outdated and should be updated and adjusted.
Another problem in communication is the passive role of project in solving stakeholder
related issues. To explain it, we can start from spare preparation, which leads toweaknesses in preventing the troubles and push project in a passive situation when theycannot anticipate future actions. As a result, staffs normally wait for problems happen
and try to solve them instead of finding a way to avoid them right at the beginning.
4.2.3. Limited ability of managers
Building strategies to manage stakeholders is not an advantage of managers in
Vietnamese construction projects. To hypothecate this, a small survey is conducted to
examine whether the staffs can develop appropriate strategies for different types of
stakeholders or not. This survey based on a very popular model in identifying
stakeholders – power/interest grid. Particularly, 59 interviewees were instructed about
the use of the model and tested to allocate 14 main stakeholders in the constructionindustry in that grid. Almost all of the allocations are similar to each other and 79.3% ofthem answered that this model is easy to apply. After they understand the model,
questions about choosing strategies for 4 main types of stakeholders in this model were
given to staff. Appropriate and accurate strategies are adapted from general principles tomanage each group of stakeholder stated by Johnson et al. (2005). The result shows
unappreciated selections of strategies. In details, 71.4% of interviewees did not choose
the suitable strategy for “keep satisfied” group (who have high power but low interest).
For the other three groups, the rates of wrong selections are 66.7%, 57.9% and 42.1%.

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4.3. Discussion about causes of the Problems
From the ideal of Ishikawa cause and effect analysis (Fishbone analysis) and the 6 Ms
(used in manufacturing industry), this paper summarize causes for the problem into six
types.
Silo and enterprise information system: The common causes in this group are
sending information is not sufficient and not timely, timely to accessing necessarydata, unclear method to send information to stakeholders, data is saved separately in
different ways, managed by different people and updated lately, or cannot be updated.
Management process: In management, managers did not make a full list of
stakeholders, they faced with limitation in evaluating stakeholders’ attributes, unclear
priority criteria for classification of stakeholders in term of strategy development, did
not use methodology strategy to manage and communicate with stakeholders.
Moreover, mistakes in evaluating stakeholders’ expectations, requirements andimportance lead to failure in gaining support, to bear negative reactions ofstakeholders. All of them lead them to a passive role in solving stakeholder problems.
Human resources quality and policies: Staffs are weak in negotiation andprofessional skills and top managers assigned responsibility inefficiency.
Internal working environment: This group expresses for lack of common form tocommunicate among staffs, lack of reference and standard guidance for staffs toimplementing processes and no measurement mechanism for evaluating results ofstakeholder management.
Top Management: Top managers are one of significant causes for problems when
they are afraid of change, and affected by group interest and underground problems
in the project. Moreover, they were stuck on limited budget.
External stakeholder relationships (external environment): Beside the subjective
causes, the complexity of stakeholders is another reason for problem when thestakeholder list can be changed over time and number of stakeholders can be very
high, and then managing them is difficult.
5. PROPOSAL OF A STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT PROCESSES
This paper proposes an integrated and improved stakeholder management model. Basedon three practical models of Project Management Institute (2013), Stakeholder cycle
methodology of Bourne (2009), and Turner’s stakeholder management process (Turner,2009), a chain of processes was created by taking advantages of the two models, andadapted to focus on solving the current situation in Vietnamese construction projects.
These three models are chosen because of they follow a logical and practical process
approach. The proposed processes will be graphed by the program of Business Process
Model and Notation (BPMN) because it supports a logical and understandable graph,and it is a good tool to present the formalization process for business activities. In thismodel, there are four main groups and one ancillary group of processes: (1) Identifying
stakeholders (Identification), (2) Developing stakeholder management strategies(Building strategy), (3) Managing stakeholder’s engagement (Engagement
management), and (4) Controlling communication with stakeholders (Control); and an
ancillary process of data storing (5). All five groups of process will be carried out
during operations of activity or project as many repeating cycles till the corporation
activity/project end. The use of four main stages (group of processes) is adapted422

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common points of the three models to create a closed management cycle. In each ofstages, processes were considered to join in proposed model in terms of ability ofpractical application, logical order and combination, advantages of related tools &techniques. Moreover, the balance between costs of management and benefits are also
taken into account for the selection, reconstruction of the proposed processes. This
proposal expected to give the managers a friendly and not complex model to apply
when all processes are clear and reduced all the theoretical and unnecessary
requirements, these processes are shown step by step, with detailed information to
implement. Moreover, the main idea to apply this model is continuously monitored andcontrol; it will help the team to be more flexible with changes in context.

Figure 1: Proposed processes of stakeholder management
In stage 1: The analysis of stakeholder’s relations network is divided into a
dependent process to stress on the mutual affection among stakeholders. Moreover,in the end of this stage, the process of identify key stakeholders will help managers
focus on important stakeholders and its output of a full list of stakeholders will beshared among all related managers and staffs.
In stage 2: Before the strategies are created, it is necessary to collecting more new
information or updating data to eliminate the risk that our strategies would be
developed based on out-of-date information.
In stage 3: Processes 3.1 to 3.3 are inherited from stakeholder cycle methodology
with evaluation of support, receptiveness and optimal engagement of stakeholders.
After understanding all these important features, the communication plan and control
plan have big chance to write into detail one. In order to finish this stage, aA solution for stakeholder management in Vietnamese construction projects
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responsibilities allocation is added. Although it is not mentioned clearly in the threemodels, it is very important in terms of performance management and control.
In stage 4: When the other models only control stakeholder by communication, I
believe that it is a big mistake because communication is not enough to control
stakeholders; they should be control through organization functions as well. It meansthat the project can influence their stakeholder by the affection of resourcesmanagement, which is control directly and indirectly by the organization functions.
Then, the process of “control by organization functions” is added to the model.
Furthermore, the measurement of stakeholders’ satisfaction is another new
contribution of this model; it is followed by a balanced tool to implement.
6. CONCLUSION
Stakeholder management is obviously expressing its important role with the change ofthe economy in a new era and the complex of projects and activities that carried out by
projects. The research on context and solution bring to managers in Vietnameseconstruction projects three main contributions. Firstly, it helps the managers tounderstand more about their stakeholders, their common weaknesses in Vietnameseconstruction projects, and to appreciate the careful attitude when solving problems ofand manage their stakeholders. Secondly, after investigation on current management
style of Vietnamese construction projects, the result shows three main weaknesses thatneed to be improved. Thirdly, the research proposed a solution of a detail management
process.
REFERENCE
Bourne, L., 2009. Stakeholder relationship management: A maturity model fororganisational implementation. Gower.
Friedman, A. L., and Miles. S., 2006. Stakeholders: Theory and practice. Oxford
University Press
Johnson, G., Whittington, R., and Scholes, K., 2005. Exploring corporate strategy Text and Cases, 7th edition.
Karlsen, J. T., 2002. Project stakeholder management. Engineering Management 14, 19.
Miles, S., Hammond, K., and Friedman, A. L., 2002. Social and environmental
reporting and ethical investment. London, United Kingdom.
Project Management Institute. (2013). A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge - 5th edition (pp. 391–415).
Rowlinson, S. M., Tuuli, M. M., and Koh, T., 2010. Stakeholder management throughrelationship management. Performance Improvement in Construction Management,
173-193. Spon Press, London.
Thorpe, R., and Holt, R., 2008. The SAGE Dictionary of Qualitative Management
Research.
Turner, J. R., 2009. The handbook of project based management - Leading strategicchange in organizations. McGraw-Hill.
Yang, J., 2010. A framework for stakeholder management in construction projects, The
Hong Kong polytechnic university, 11–12.

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New Technologies
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Safety Cities
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Cities in Asia
New Technologies
for Urbanfor
Safetyof Megain AsiaYudai AOYAGI1, Kimihiro FUJII2, Shouhei KAWABE3, Yoshiaki KIKUCHI4,
Kenji WATANABE2 Masatoshi IIJIMA5 and Fumio TATSUOKA4
1
Graduate student, Dept. of Civil Engineering, the University of Tokyo, Japany-aoyagi@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp2
Railway Technical Research Institute, Japan
3
National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Japan(Formerly, Tokyo University of Science)4
Professor, Tokyo University of Science, Japan
5
Integrated Geotechnology Institute Limited, Japan
ABSTRACT

A great number of fill-type coastal dikes fully collapsed by deep overtopping tsunami
current of the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake and could not function as expected atmany places. In this study, by using the following several different small models ofcoastal dikes arranged in a channel circulating water, the method to increase theresistance of coastal dike was studied: A) conventional embankment type coastal dikewith the upstream slope sprayed with cement slurry; B) both slopes are covered with amodel of soil bags; C) the crest of the embankment of model B was stabilized by using
compacted gravelly soil; D) the backfill is reinforced with geosynthetic layers and thesoil bag models were wrapped-around with reinforcement (GRS coastal dike); and E)
the crest of model D was stabilized in the same manner as employed in model C. As aresult, models D & E exhibited high resistance against erosion: i.e., the progress of theerosion was delayed by reinforcing the backfill with geosynthetic layers. The
improvement of the crest of the embankment in models C & E increased the resistanceagainst the erosion starting from the crest.
Keywords: coastal dikes, geosynthetics, tsunami
1. INTRODUCTION
The Great East Japan Earthquake generated a massive tsunami in the northwestern
Pacific Ocean on March 11, 2011. The serious damage by the 2011 Great East Japan
Earthquake includes: 1) damage to a great number of old soil structures due to strong
shaking in a very wide are; 2) soil liquefaction, in particular in young reclaimed lands;
and 3) damage by great tsunami. The tsunami run-up height reached 40m in somecoastal areas (The 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku Earthquake Tsunami
Information). A great number of coastal dikes collapsed by deep overtopping tsunami
current and totally lost their function as a tsunami barrier at many places (Figure 1). A
great number of wooden residential houses and reinforced concrete buildings were425

November
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Yangon,Myanmarwashed away. More than 340 bridges lost their girders or approach fills or both (Kosa,2012). The number of dead and missing is 18,500, most by tsunami.
Therefore, tsunami barrier dikes should survive deep over-flowing tsunami current.

Figure 1. A typical fill-type coastal dike that fully collapsed by tsunami, Aketo,
Tanohara, Iwate Prefecture (courtesy of Koseki, J., Univ. of Tokyo)
Based on this lesson, a reinforced soil dike with geogrids, Geosynthetic-Reinforced Soil
(GRS) coastal dike, has been proposed as a new construction method (Figure 2). This iscomposed of continuous concrete facing connected to the geogrid layers reinforcing thebackfill. The advantageous features of this type are as follows:
1) A very high seismic stability of GRS retaining walls (RWs) having full-height rigid
facing has been validated by their very high performance during the 1995 Kobe
Earthquake and the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake (e.g. Tatsuoka et al. 1998,2012). With slopes more gentle than the near vertical wall face of these GRS RWs,
this type of GRS coastal dike should have a very high seismic stability, definitely
much higher than the conventional type shown in Figure 1.
2) With the proposed GRS coastal dike, the ground in front of the toe of the down
stream slope should be protected against scouring with a concrete slab or anotherrelevant means. Even if some amount of scouring takes place, the facing on thedownstream slope can maintain its stability much better than the conventional type.
Besides, the facing has a high resistance against lift up by over-flowing tsunami
current. Even if the facing is lost, the resistance of the reinforced backfill against
erosion is higher than the unreinforced backfill of conventional type coastal dikes.

Figure 2. Geosynthetic-Reinforced Soil (GRS) coastal dike

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In previous studies, wave pressure, erosion, penetration and scouring are main causes ofcollapse. However, wave pressure caused by tsunami, and the others cause by long timeover-flowing tsunami current. Therefore, it is important to improve coastal dikes against
long time over-flowing tsunami current. This study was conducted to evaluate theresistance of GRS coastal dikes (Figure 2) against over-flowing tsunami current using
several small-scale models of coastal dikes arranged in a circulating water.
2. EXPERIMENT
Figure 3 shows the model test configuration (Aoyagi et al., 2014). To produce as muchas long-period over-flowing tsunami current, a channel circulating water was used. The
over-topping tsunami current was produced by using four submersible pumps. Figure 4
shows the quantity of flows after the start of over-flowing tsunami current. Five models
shown in Figure 5 and explained below were tested. The considered model scale in

Figure 3. Model test configuration

Figure 4. Quantity of flows after the start of over-flowing tsunami current
Length is 1:50: i.e. the simulated prototype dike is 5m-high and the initial height of thesimulated tsunami is from 1.2m to 3.2m. The model dikes were produced by
Evaluation of resistance of GRS coastal dikes against over-flowing tsunami current by small
Evaluationof resistanceof GRS coastal dikes against over-flowing tsunami current by model tests
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tests

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November
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Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmarcompacting moist Silica sand mixed Bentonite at the optimum water content (w=15%)
to degree of compaction Dc=95% by
the standard Proctor.
Width : 300mm
Model 1 (Figure 5a):This is a model of the conventional
fill-type dike without concrete facing
and reinforcement layers. Upstream
slope was sprayed with cement slurry.
Model 2 (Figure 5b):This is a model of the conventional
fill-type dike with a model of soil bags.
The unreinforced backfill is the same
as model 1. Both slopes are covered
with a model of soil bags that have
trapezoid shapes. The soil bags madeof gravel adding mortar and are notconnected to each other.
Model 3 (Figure 5c):
The crest of the embankment of themodel 2 was stabilized by using
compacted gravelly soil. As thegravelly soil Chiba gravel under
4.75mm diameter ( d=2.0g/cm3) isused.
Model 4 (Figure 5d):This is a model of GRS coastal dike
(Figure 2). The backfill is reinforced
with geosynthetic layers and the soil
bag models were wrapped-aroundwith reinforcement. The backfill of thesame fill-type as model 1 wasreinforced with five layers of apolyproylene geogrid with an apertureof 1.3 mm.

Upstream

Downstreama) Model 1

Soil bagb) Model 2

Compacted
gravelly soilc) Model 3

Geogridd) Model 4

Compacted
gravelly soil
Geogride) Model 5
Figure 5. Coastal dike models

Model 5 (Figure 5e):
The backfill was reinforced as model 4 and the crest was covered with the compacted
gravelly soil as used model 3.
3. TEST RESULTS
Figures 6-10 show the behaviors of models 1-5 during the over-flowing tsunami current
tests.
Model 1 (Figure 6; a model of the conventional fill-type coastal dike):

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By the attack of the over-flowing tsunami current, model 1 fully collapsed by very fasterosion of the backfill starting from the downstream slope. It was reconfirmed that theerosion in the upstream slope is much slower than in the downstream slope underotherwise the same conditions. This model completely collapsed for about 50 seconds.

a) t=0 seconds since start of over-flowingb) t=11 secondsc) t=26 secondsd) t=45 seconds
Figure 6. Model 1

Model 2 (Figure 7):
The start of backfill erosion delayed by covering the up- and down-stream slopes.
However, once the sand bags on the downstream slope were lost, then very fast erosion
started. Model 2 also fully collapsed by the over-flowing tsunami current. Although thismodel survived the over-flowing tsunami current better than model 1 due to a resistanceagainst erosion, it completely collapsed for about 90 seconds.

Evaluationof resistanceof GRS coastal
againsttsunami current
modelbytests
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coastaldikesover-flowing
against over-flowing
tsunamiby
current
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November
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Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmara) t=0 seconds since start of over-flowingb) t=56.8 secondsc) t=84 secondsd) t=97 seconds
Figure 7. Model 2

Model 3 (Figure 8):
As seen from Figure 8, this model fully collapsed by the following process: 1) As seenfrom Figure 8b, the bottom soil bag of the downstream slope was first washed awaytriggered by erosion of the backfill immediately behind. 2) As seen from Figure 8c, fasterosion of the backfill started from the downstream slope. 3) As seen from Figure 8d,
the full-section of the dike was finally lost. However, Figure 8 shows that the
improvement of the crest of the embankment increased the resistance against erosion
starting from the crest. This model survived the over-flowing tsunami for 440 seconds.

a) t=0 seconds since start of over-flowingb) t=393 secondsc) t=401 secondsd) t=440 seconds
Figure 8. Model 3

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Model 4 (Figure 9; a model of the Geosynthetic-Reinforced Soil coastal dike):
The collapse took place more slowly by some better resistance of the reinforced backfill
against erosion. The erosion took place one soil layer by one soil layer. Therefore, it iseasy to reconstruct after the over-flowing tsunami current. Although this model
survived the over-flowing tsunami current better than models 1-3 due to a higher
resistance against erosion, this model survived for 860 seconds.
Model 5 (Figure 10):Figure 10 shows the behavior of model 5. The model survived very well the overflowing tsunami current without exhibiting any significant erosion of the backfill. The
improvement of the crest of the embankment increased the resistance against erosion
starting from the crest. This model survived for 1750 seconds.

a) t=0 seconds since start of over-flowingb) t=722 secondsc) t=791 secondsd) t=866 seconds
Figure 9. Model 4

Evaluationof resistanceof GRS coastal
againsttsunami current
modelbytests
Evaluationof resistanceof GRSdikes
coastaldikesover-flowing
against over-flowing
tsunamiby
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small
model tests

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November
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Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmara) t=0 seconds since start of over-flowingc) t=1190 secondsb) t=864 secondsd) t=1760 seconds
Figure 10. Model 5

4. CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions with respect to the stability of fill-type coastal dike against
the over-flowing tsunami current can be drawn from the test results presented above:
1. When the backfill was not reinforced and not covered with facing, very fast erosionof the backfill started from the downstream slope and the full cross-section wasquickly lost.
2. The rate of backfill erosion decreased by reinforcing the backfill with geogrid layers.
3. The start of backfill erosion delayed by covering the up- and down-stream slopes.
However, once the sand bags on the downstream slope were lost, then very fasterosion started.
4. Geosynthetic-Reinforced Soil (GRS) coastal dike exhibited high residence against
erosion. And the erosion took place one soil layer by one soil layer.
5. The improvement of the crest of the embankment increased the resistance against
erosion starting from the crest.
The stability against over-flowing tsunami current of the models was evaluated by theretention ratio of cross-sectional area seen from the side (Figure 11). For the overflowing tsunami current, models 4-5 exhibit a higher retention ratio of cross-sectional
area than models 1-3. The process of fast erosion with models 1-2 are readily seen froma significantly decreasing rate of the retention ratio. Model 5 exhibited essentially no
loss in the cross-section. Model 4 also exhibited good performance against the overflowing tsunami current.

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Figure 11. Retention of cross-sectional area after the start of over-flowing tsunami
current
REFERENCES
Kosa, K., 2012. Damage analysis of bridges affected by tsunami due to Great East
Japan Earthquake. Proc. International Sym. on Engineering Lessons Learned from the2011 Great East Japan Earthquake, March, Tokyo, Japan, 1386-1397.
Tatsuoka, F., Koseki, J., Tateyama, M., Munaf, Y. and Horii, N., 1998. Seismic stability
against high seismic loads of geosynthetic-reinforced soil retaining structures, Proc. 6th
Int. Conf. on Geosynthetics, Atlanta, 1, 103-142.
Tatsuoka, F., Tateyama, M., and Koseki, J., 2012. GRS structures recently developed
and constructed for railways and roads in Japan, Proc. Second International Conference
on Transportation Geothehnics, IS-Hokkaido, Miura et al., eds., 63-84.
Tatsuoka, F., Hirakawa, D., Nojiri, M., Aizawa, H., Nishikiorim H., Soma, R.,
Tateyama, M. and Watanabe, K., 2009. A new type integral bridge comprisinggeosynthetic-reinforced soil walls, Geosynthetics International 16, 301-326.
The 2011 Tohoku Earthquake Tsunami Joint Survey (TTJS) Group, 2014.
(http://www.coastal.jp/ttjt/), The 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku Earthqukake
Tsunami Information.
Yamaguchi, S., Yanagisawa, M., Kawabe, S., Tatsuoka, F., Nihei, Y., 2013. Evaluationof the stability of various types of coastal dyke against over-flowing tsunami current,
Design and Practice of Geosynthetic-Reinforced Soil Structures, October, Italy, 572.
Yamaguchi, S., Yanagisawa, M., Uematsu, Y., Kawabe, S., Tatsuoka, F., and Nihei, Y.,
2012, Experimental evaluation of the stability of GRS coastal dyke against over-flowing
tsunami, Proc. 47th Japan National Conference on Geotechnical Engineering, 18091810.

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434

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

A study on applicability of dewatering method
as a countermeasure for liquefaction
Yuki HORIUCHI1, Toru SEKIGUCHI2 and Shoichi NAKAI2
1
Graduate student, Dept. of Civil Engineering, the University of Tokyo, Japany-hori@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
2
Professor, Chiba University, Japan
ABSTRACT
Dewatering method with sheet pile enclosure is one of the liquefaction countermeasures.
It is economical and highly effective for reclaimed land. Chiba City government, inJapan, conducted the demonstration test of this proposed method in Mihama ward. In
the present study, the centrifugal model test was performed based on the demonstration
test and this method was confirmed to be effective. It was observed that sheet piles
restricted pore water dispersion, which may enlarge structure settlement but it also
restricted ground movement, which reduced structure tilting. In addition, applicabilityof this method in Mihama ward was considered. Ground structure model which isusually used for an earthquake hazard map was improved and the suitable areas toapply the proposed method were identified, considering from three points of view. The
measure should be applied to the location with high risk of liquefaction. The placeneeds an enough thick cohesive soil layer to prevent groundwater influx. The depth ofthe cohesive soil layer should not be too deep to reduce construction costs of sheet pile.
The results show Mihama ward has complex ground structure, and finally theapplication map was produced as an example.
Keywords: liquefaction, centrifugal model test, groundwater revel, geologic map
1. INTRODUCTION
A number of houses built in the reclaimed land in the coast of Tokyo Bay weredamaged due to liquefaction at Great East Japan Earthquake. A countermeasure for theliquefaction was considered and Chiba City government conducted the demonstration
test of dewatering method in Mihama ward. The proposed method is to pumping up thegroundwater within the area surrounded by the sheet pile enclosure to lower the groundwater level, as shown in Figure 1.
In the present study, the centrifugal model test was performed simulating the proposed
method and effectiveness of this measure was examined. In addition, applicability ofthis measure in Mihama ward was considered. The ground structure model which isusually used for an earthquake hazard map was improved and the suitable areas to apply
the proposed measure were considered.

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November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarFigure 1: The concept of the dewatering method with sheet pile enclosure
2. EFFECTIVENESS OF THE PROPOSED MEASURE IN MIHAMA WARD
2.1 Overview of the model test
Table 1 presents test cases. Case 1 andCase 1’ simulated original groundconditions.
Figure 2 illustrates location of themeasuring sensors in Case 3 as real
size. Inner size of shear box was
770mm  470mm  370mm. The
model ground was prepared using
No.7 silica sand and 5% of kaolin clay(DrҸ35%) by air pluviation and pore
fluid of silicon oil. Water pressuregauges were set at depth of 2, 4 and6m. The structure model of detached
two stories house was put in the centerof ground surface. The size of thestructure foundation was 4.5m squareand depth of footing was 0.5m. The
mean contact pressure of the structure
was 21.8kPa. The left side of thestructure was heavier than the rightside. The contact pressure of the left
side was 25.9kPa and that in right sidewas 17.9kPa, respectively.
Figure 3 shows the input wave.
Figure 4 is the photo of model andshaking table set in the centrifugal
equipment. 30g was applied on themodel and when the value of all thegauges stabilized in 30g field, input
wave was applied.

436

Table 1: Test cases
Test
Groundwater level
cases(G.L.)
Case 1 1m
Case 1’ 0.5m
Case 2 3m
3m
Case 31m (Inside of sheet pile)

Sheet
pile
Not
exist
exist

Figure 2: Instrument layout drawing,
the upper part: Cross section
the lower part: A plane figure
Case 3, converted size

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Figure 3: Target of input wave
2.2 Results of the tests

Figure 4: model and shaking table

Figure 5 illustrates the overview of test cases. Figure 6 presents the time history of input
wave, acceleration of ground surface, acceleration of structure, excess pore waterpressure ratio of just below the structure and external ground. In those figures,converted values based on the similarity rule are presented. The acceleration of groundsurface and structure reduced when liquefaction occurred at some depth. The excess
pore water pressure ratio of just below the structure was small by effective verticalstress increment in comparison with external ground. As for the excess pore waterpressure ratio of external ground, the layer of 2m in Case 1 and Case1’ liquefied but
the layer of 4m in Case 2 didn’t liquefy nevertheless both were the same 1m below ofgroundwater level. This result suggests that non-liquefaction layer was increased morethan the unsaturated layer by dewatering.

Figure 5: Overview of a test caseͤTrouble 4m

Figure 6: Time history of acc. wave and excess pore water pressure

A study onA applicabilityof dewatering
method asmethod
a countermeasure
for liquefaction
study on applicabilityof dewatering
as a countermeasure
for liquefaction

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November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar
November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

ͤTrouble 4m

Figure 7: Time history of excess pore water pressure, groundsettlement, structure settlement and tilting
Figure 7 shows the long time history of the excess pore water pressure of just below thestructure and external ground, ground settlement, structure settlement and tilting. As
groundwater level was lower, dispersion time of excess pore water pressure wasdecreasing and settlement was also decreasing. As for the excess pore water pressure ofjust below the structure, dispersion time for Case 3 was longer in comparison with Case
2. Settlement seemed to increase due to the prevention of the dissipation of waterpressure by the sheet piles. The structure tilting of Case 2 and Case 3 was as small as
1/1000 or less. The constraint effect of the sheet pile reduced the structure tilting ofCase 3 in comparison with Case 2.
Figure 8 shows ground surface after the experiment of Case 1 and Case 2. The sandboiling was observed in the edge of the box and near the structure in Case 1.

Figure 8: Appearance after the experiment, left: Case 1, right: Case 2438

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ICUS Report 78

3. APPLICABILITY OF THE PROPOSED MEASURE IN MIHAMA WARD
3.1 Geological structure of Mihama ward
As shown in the Figure 9,
lowering the water table within
the enclosed area, sheet piles
should be constructed fromground surface to cohesive soil
layer. Then the cohesive soil
layer should exist in order toprevent groundwater influx.
However, the cohesive soil
layer should not be too thickbecause it may cause excessive
settlement due to consolidation.
Therefore cohesive soil layer ofappropriate
thicknessisnecessary for the proposed
measure.
To consider the applicability ofthe proposed measure in
Mihama ward, the geologicalstructure of Mihama ward
should be examined. The crosssection of the ground along thelines A-A’ to G-G’ in Figure 10
was reconstructed by thegroundstructuremodel
proposed by Murakata et al.
(2009). The two long crosssection lines, A-A’ and B-B’,
parallel to the coastline of

Figure 9: The difference due to the thicknessof cohesive soil

Figure 10: The distribution of sand boilingin Mihama ward and positions of cross section line

Figure 11: Geological cross section, left: long lines, right: shortlines
A study onA applicabilityof dewatering
method asmethod
a countermeasure
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Tokyo Bay and the five short lines, C-C’ to G-G’, perpendicular to the coastline wereshown. The distribution of sand boiling damages due to Great East Japan Earthquake
was also presented.
Figure 11 illustrates the cross sections. The geological features and age groupboundaries were indicated. In long lines, A-A’ and B-B’, the drowned valley wasobserved. In short lines, it is found that the sandy soil layer spread below the observed
sand boiling. The thick cohesive soil layer was observed in near the coast. The uniform
and thin cohesive soil layer was observed in the middle of D-D’ and F-F’. It is indicatedthat Mihama ward has a complex geological structure.
3.2 Applicability of the proposed measure in Mihama ward
The suitable areas to apply the proposed measure were identified, considering fromthree points of view. The location should be of high risk of liquefaction. The placeneeds cohesive soil layer of enough thickness to prevent groundwater influx as shown in
the Fig.9. The cohesive soil layer should not be too deep to reduce construction costs ofsheet pile. These geological features were computed quantitatively using improved
ground structure model. Figure 12 shows the distribution of the shallowest cohesive soil
layer, of those thickness and upper boundary. A very thin cohesive soil layer of lessthan 1.5m was neglected. A cohesive soil layer was not observed in Saiwaicho andnortheast of Masago. In addition, thick cohesive soil layer was observed near the coast
areas such as southwest of Isobe. These areas were not suited for the proposed measure.
On the other hand, middle of Shinminato was not suited for the measure because thecohesive soil layer was too deep. In this way, it was possible to catch the complexity of
the geological structure which was not captured in cross sections.

Figure 12: The distribution maps, left: cohesive soil thickness, right: sandy soil
thickness

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Figure 13: The distribution map of Dcy

Figure 14: The applicability map

Figure 13 illustrates the distribution map of Dcy, settlement expected due to liquefaction.
In a lot of areas, value of Dcy was more than 10 cm, which corresponds to the location ofsand boiling (Fig.10). Dcy was estimated in each mesh in the same way as the geologicalfeatures.
Figure 14 shows the distribution map of applicability of the proposed measure as an
example. In the evaluation, following factors were taken into account.
a) Consolidation settlement,b) Depth of cohesive soil layer,c) Dcya) and b) reflected the efficiency of the construction and c) represents liquefaction risk.
Consolidation settlement was calculated roughly in each mesh as one-dimensionalvertical calculation when the groundwater level was dropped from 1m to 3m. Only
plastic deformation was considered in landfill soil and alluvium soil. The increase ofvertical effective stress due to groundwater drawdown was considered following theconcept of Yasuda (2013). Required soil parameters for calculating ground conditions
was determined based on the literature and the report of demonstration test in Mihama
ward. Southwest of Masago and Takahama and middle of Isobe were found to be fit to
the proposed measure.
4. CONCLUSION
A series of centrifugal model tests simulating the dewatering method was performed
and the proposed measure was confirmed to be effective. The result suggests thefollowing findings.
࣭Non-liquefaction layer was increased more than the unsaturated layer by dewatering.
࣭By dewatering, dissipation of excess pore water pressure was accelerated, which
reduce settlement. The structure tilting became 1/4 or less compared to original
condition.
A study onA applicabilityof dewatering
method asmethod
a countermeasure
for liquefaction
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as a countermeasure
for liquefaction

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November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmar࣭By the sheet pile, settlement increased due to the delay of the dissipation of excess
pore water pressure. On the other hand, the structure tilting became smaller due to theconstraint effect.
In addition, applicability of the proposed measure was indicated as a distribution map
using improved ground structure model in Mihama ward.
REFERENCES
Architectural Institute of Japan, 2001. Building foundation structure design guidelines.
Steel pipe pile, steel sheet pile Technology Association, Steel sheet pile standard,
http://www.jaspp.com/index.html.
Geotechnical Society, 1990. Commentary with the methods of the soil test, 121.
Murakata, K., Sekiguchi, T. and Nakai, S., 2009. Evaluation of ground motion
amplification characteristics based on the ground model that takes into account thegeological cross section, Japan Association for Earthquake Engineering Competition,
210-211.
Sekiguchi, T., and Nakai, S., 2012. Influence of surface ground structure that gave theliquefaction damage in Mihama ward, Chiba city, Japan Association for Earthquake
Engineering Papers 5, 21-35.
Sekiguchi, T., and Nakai, S., 2012. Relationship of landfill ground structure andliquefaction damage distribution in Mihama ward, Chiba city, Architectural Institute ofJapan Collection, 469-470.
Yasuda, S., 2013. Features of damage and countermeasures of housing land, road andthe lifeline, GeoKanto 2013, Special Session.

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Nwe Ni MYINT
PhD Student, Department of Civil Engineering,
Yangon Technological University
nwenimyint28@gmail.com
ABSTRACTThe purpose of this study is to evaluate seismic performance for generic archetypal
Reinforced Concrete (RC) buildings in downtown area of Yangon. Most of the buildings
in downtown area of Yangon are regular both in plan and in elevation and designed forgravity loads only. These buildings have limited lateral resistance and are susceptible
to story mechanisms during earthquake loading. Seismic performance level of buildings
are essential to assess the seismic vulnerability of Gravity Load Design (GLD) RC
buildings in Yangon. The variable parameters are the number of storeys and the level ofseismic design, in terms of design Peak Ground Acceleration and design ductility level.
Plastic hinge is used to represent the failure mode in the beams and columns when themember yields. The pushover analysis is performed using ETABS software to assess Life
Safety performance under seismic effects. Base shear versus tip displacement curve of
the structure, called pushover curve, is an essential outcomes of pushover analysis for
two actions of the plastic hinge behavior, force-controlled (brittle) and deformationcontrolled (ductile) actions. Seismic structural capacity values will be selected
corresponding to the performance levels or damage states as specified in FEMA-356.
Keywords: seismic performance, seismic vulnerability, peak ground acceleration,
pushover analysis
1. INTRODUCTION
Earthquakes cause significant human suffering and damage to build environment that
includes buildings, water, gas, power supply, and transportation systems. This study isconcerned with assessment and evaluation of seismic performance for buildings in the
downtown region of Yangon. Yangon City, the largest economic center of Myanmar,
has about 5.14 million population (2011) and is experiencing rapid urbanization. This
current rapid urbanization is putting more pressure on the existing old infrastructures in
Yangon City and concerns for the deterioration of its urban environment are growing.
Estimates of structural capacity to disaster are of direct value to those making decisions
including engineers, city planners, emergency services, and also for optimizing theallocation of resources for maintenance, repair, and rehabilitation of buildings.

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1.1 Seismic hazard in yangon region
Most of Myanmar’s urban cities developed in the proximity of active seismic sources
and are at risk of experiencing earthquake events. Among the many seismic sources in
Myanmar, the Sagaing and Kyaukkyan faults produced significant earthquakes in thepast. Yangon is located 35km from the west of the Sagaing fault and on the southern
spur of NNW-SSE trending Bago anticlinal ridge. Based on the seismicity and theprevious records, Yangon region is assumed as low to medium seismicity region. The
most significant earthquake in this region is the Bago earthquake on 5th May, 1930 withthe magnitude of 7.3. This earthquake caused 500 casualties and great destructions in
Bago and considerable damages and 50 deaths were recorded in Yangon.

Figure 1: The seismicity of Yangon Region(Data Source – ANSS earthquake catalog, 1963 –2009)444

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Table 1: Some records of earthquakes in Yangon and surrounding areas
Date
1568

Location
YangonMagnitude and/or brief description
Collapsed of the upper part of the Shwedagon
Pagoda1661
YangonFell down of Htee (umbrella) with Magaik (pillarof umbrella) of the Shwedagon Pagoda
1664
YangonFell down of Magaik of the Shwedagon Pagoda
1668
YangonCollapsed of the topmost portion of the
Shwedagon Pagoda and falling down of Htee
27 Dec. 1927
DedayeML=7;Severe destruction of building in Yangon
including extending to Dedaye, Tharrawaddy,
Maubin and Pyapon districts (felt over 5000
square miles)
9 Sept. 1970
DedayeHits of moderate intensity and some damage inYangonSource: Seismic sources in Myanmar by Seismotectonics Research Division
1.2 Building inventory
Generic buildings are defined by structural geometry, typical structural components andmethods of design. Low- and mid-rise reinforced concrete (RC) frame buildings
represent a common type of construction in downtown area of Yangon and this region
has higher population than others.
In this study, the building data in downtown area collected by YCDC are used for theclassification of buildings based on the structural type, number of stories. There are six
townships in downtown area: Pazundaung, Botahtaung, Kyauktada, Pabedan , Latha
and Lanmadaw .In these area, the building types are masonry and reinforced concreteand the number of stories are in the low-rise to mid-rise stories range. Based on thenumber of stories, buildings are classified as low-rise (1 to 5 story) and mid-rise (6 to 12
story). Based on this inventory data, 3stories, 5stories, 6 stories, 8 stories and 12 stories
RC frame buildings are selected to represent the generic GLD RC frame buildings in the
study area.
2. NONLINEAR STATIC ANALYSIS
Nonlinear static (pushover) analysis is used to quantify the resistance of the structure tolateral deformation. In general, a sequence of inelastic static analysis is performed on
the structural model of the building by applying a predefined lateral load pattern which
is distributed along the building height. The lateral forces are then monotonically

Evaluation of seismic performance for typical reinforced concrete buildings in downtown area
Evaluation of seismic performance for typical reinforced concrete buildingsof Yangon City
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in downtown area of Yangon City

November
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Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmarincreased until it becomes unstable and reaches the collapse state (force controlled) or
its roof displacement reaches the predetermined limit (displacement controlled).
Nonlinear static analysis procedures include the capacity spectrum method (CSM) thatuses the intersection of the capacity (pushover) curve and a reduced response spectrum
to estimate maximum displacement; the displacement coefficient method that uses
pushover analysis and a modified version of the equal displacement approximation toestimate maximum displacement; and the secant method that uses a substitute structureand secant stiffness.
Two key elements of a performance-based design procedure are demand and capacity.
Demand is a representation of the earthquake ground motion. Capacity is a
representation of the structure's ability to resist the seismic demand. The performance isdependent on the manner that the capacity is able to handle the demand. In other words,
the structure must have the capacity to resist the demands of the earthquake such thatthe performance of the structure is compatible with the objectives of the design.
The nonlinear analysis of a structure is an iterative procedure and in this study, ETABS
software is used and it have features to perform nonlinear static analysis. It has built-in
defaults for ACI 318 material properties and ATC-40 and FEMA 273 hinge properties.
Also it has capability for inputting any material or hinge property.
2.1 Structural Capacity
In general, structural capacity is defined as the maximum displacement, force, velocity,or acceleration that a member or a system can withstand without failure, or more
specifically, without exceeding a prescribed performance level. The inter story drift
capacity corresponding to the desired performance level is used as the structural
capacity. The capacity values are considered corresponding to different performancelevels as specified in FEMA-356 (2000) and those computed from nonlinear pushover
analysis. The inter story drift capacity value described for different performance levels
according to FEMA-356 (2000) are: Immediate Occupancy (IO), Life Safety (LS), andCollapse Prevention (CP). In this study for low- and mid-rise GLD RC frame buildings
reduced drift capacity values of 1%, 2%, and 4% of the story height are used for IO, LS,
and CP performance levels, respectively. These drift values are selected based on theapproximate member level rotations for vertical elements suggested in FEMA-356(2000).

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Table 2: Structural performance levels specified in FEMA-356 (2000)

2.2 Nonlinear Hinge Property
In the present study, the nonlinear hinge properties as assigned in ETABS model
are calculated as described in the following:
1. Axial load-bending moment (P-M) interaction surface:P-M interaction surface determines the load at which a reinforced concrete section of
the beam or column becomes inelastic and forms a hinge. For a given section geometry,material and reinforcement, P-M interaction surface are calculated according to ACI
code (2002).
2. Moment-plastic rotation (M- p) relation:
M- p relation for a member section consists of plastic rotation and corresponding
moments as ratio of yield moment .This relation affects the behavior of a section once ahinge forms there. Plastic hinge length required for this calculation was based on FEMA
guidelines.
3. SELECTED CASE STUDIES AND ANALYSIS
In this study, pushover analysis will be carried out, modeling three-dimensional framebuildings using ETABS Software. Most of the buildings in downtown area of Yangon
City are rectangular in shape and the sizes are generally (25ftx 50ft) and (25ftx40ft) insome streets. The building types are one unit apartment or two unit apartment in one
floor. Floor to floor height is 9ft or 10ft for typical floor and varies from 10ft to 17ftfor
ground floor. In this report, 3stories with one unit apartment and six stories with twounit apartment had been analysed for ground motion of 0.3g & 0.4g. These building aresome existing generic residential buildings and the structural components are modelled

Evaluation of seismic performance for typical reinforced concrete buildings in downtown area
Evaluation of seismic performance for typical reinforced concrete buildingsof Yangon City
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in downtown area of Yangon City

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmaraccording to the permitted drawings for construction by Yangon City Development
Committee (YCDC). These models are analysed with live load of 40 psf for occupants,
20psf for roof and 15psf for finishing. Material strengths are f’c=3000 psi and fy=40000
psi. Data preparation for analysis and design are according to Uniform Building Code1997 and ACI 318-99. Depending on the time period of the structure, 4 percentage ofbuilding height with nonlinear response was used as target displacement in the pushover
analysis.

Figure 2: 3D View and Floor Plan of Structural Model for 3stories with 1unit apartment

Figure 3: 3D view and floor plan of structural model for 6 stories with 2 unit apartment
3.1 Defining hinge properties
There are three types of hinge properties in the software: Default hinge property, User
defined hinge property and generated hinge property. Only default hinge property are
assigned to the frame elements. Default hinge properties are as per ATC-40 and FEMA
273.Moment and shear (M & V) hinges are considered for beam element and axial withbiaxial moment (P-M-M) hinges are considered for column element

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3.2 Defining static push over cases
For push over analysis, the gravity loading is applied as PUSH 1 and subsequently
lateral displacement or lateral force is used as PUSH 2 in sequence to derive capacity
curve and demand curve. It starts from previous pushover case as PUSHDOWN for
gravity loads is considered for lateral loading as PUSH 2.
3.3 Pushover analysis results

Figure 4: Pushover curve for 3 stories building with 1 unit apartment

Evaluation of seismic performance for typical reinforced concrete buildings in downtown areaof Yangon City
Evaluation of seismic performance for typical reinforced concrete buildings449
in downtown area of Yangon City

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarFigure 5: Capacity spectrum for gravity plus earthquake for 3 stories building with 1
unit apartment

Figure 6: Pushover curve for 6 stories building with 2 unit apartment

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Figure 7: Capacity spectrum for gravity plus earthquake for 6 stories building with 2
unit apartment

Figure 8: Plastic hinge Patterns at gravity plus earthquake for 3 stories building and 6
stories building.

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Evaluation of seismic performance for typical reinforced concrete buildings451
in downtown area of Yangon City

November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar
November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
This study intended to apply the capacity design principles in seismic resistant design ofstructures. By applying the capacity design concept, the performance of buildings
during a severe earthquake can be known. Potential structural deficiency in RC framedue to earthquake can be estimated by the nonlinear pushover procedure. The procedure
showed that the frame is capable of withstanding the presumed seismic force with somesignificant yielding at several beams. The structure can be economically designed for afriction of the estimated elastic seismic design forces, while maintaining the basic safety
performance objective.
From the results for two types of case studies, it can be seen that performance point offrame structure without seismic design is within elastic range. Sequence of formation ofplastic hinges (yielding) in the frame members can be clearly seen in the beams only.
The building clearly behaves like the strong column-weak beam mechanism. Lateral
deformations at the performance point are required to be checked against the
deformation limits of ATC-40 for safety of people against seismic force. It can be seenthat building with symmetric frames have more seismic capacity than unsymmetricalbuildings.
REFERENCES
Applied Technology Council (ATC.), 1996. Seismic evaluation and retrofit of concretebuildings, ATC-40 Report, Redwood City, California, USA.
ETABS User’s Manual, Integrated building design software, Computer and Structures
Inc. Berkeley, USA.
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)., 1997. NEHRP guidelines for theseismic rehabilitation of buildings” FEMA-273.
Kadid, A. and Boumrkik, A., 2008. Pushover analysis of reinforced concrete frame
structures. Asian. J.Civ. Engrg, (Building and Housing) 9, 75-83.
Reston, Virginia Uniform Building Code: UBC, 1997, International Conference of
Building Officials, Whittier, Calif.
Srinivasu and Rao, P., 2013. Non-linear static analysis of multi-storied building.
International Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology 4.
Thant, M., 2012. Probabilistic seismic hazard assessment for Yangon Region, Myanmar,
the 5th AUN/SEED-Net, Regional Conference on Geo-Disaster Mitigation in ASEAN,
September 2012, Manila, Philippines.

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Study of atmospheric corrosion of steels in
Yangon, urban location

1

Yu Yu Kyi Win
Ph.D Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Yangon Technological University
yuyukyiwin@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
Corrosion is a degrading process and it is the main degradation problem in building
industry in the world. Corrosion cannot be defined without a reference to environment.
All environments are corrosive to some degree. Among the various types of corrosion,
the corrosion that occurs in the atmosphere is known as atmospheric corrosion and it
accounts for more failure than other types of corrosion. Models for predicting thecorrosion rate of metals in the atmosphere are useful for judicious selection ofmaterials concerning the durability of metallic structures, determining the economic
costs of damages associated with the degradation of materials, and acquiringknowledge about the effect of environmental variables on corrosion kinetics. So,
predictions of corrosion rates in structural elements are important to be considered.
The present study concentrates on the prediction of atmospheric corrosion rates ofstructural steel in Yangon, Urban location based on ISO 9223. The atmosphericvariables (pollutants and meteorological variables) are recorded every month. The
pollutant data of sulfur dioxide and chloride are measured by JIS Z 2382 and themeteorological data are collected by data logger. The corrosivity classification is madeaccording to ISO 9223 by evaluating the important atmospheric variables, such as Timeof Wetness, CL- and SO2. The corrosion rate is then predicted based on ISO 9223.
Based on the atmospheric data obtained, the total time of wetness, chloride, and sulfur
dioxide up to now are 3226 hours, 0.245 mg/(㹢m2࣭㹢) and 0.118 mg/(㹢m2࣭㹢),respectively. So, according to ISO 9223, the corrosivity categories for Yangon area may
be C3 and thus the predicted corrosion rate may be 201-400 g/m2.year.
Keywords: ISO 9223, atmospheric corrosion, pollutant data, meteorological data
1. INTRODUCTION
The term “atmospheric corrosion” means the attack on metal exposed to the air as
opposed to metal immersed in a liquid. Atmospheric corrosion is mainly anelectrochemical process that occurs in the presence of thin film electrolytes formed on
the metal surface. The attack proceeds by balancing anodic oxidation reaction, which
involves the dissolution of the metal in the electrolytic film, and cathodic reactions,involving the oxygen reduction reaction. There are several factors that influence the rateof corrosivity. These are: temperature, time of wetness, pollution by sulfur and airborne
salinity. Corrosion effects of other pollutants (ozone, nitrogen oxides, particulates) also
influence the corrosivity and can be evaluated as yearly corrosion loss, but these factors
are not considered decisive in the assessment of corrosivity according to international453

November
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Yangon,MyanmarNovember
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Yangon,Myanmarstandard, ISO standard 9223, which considered only temperature, time of wetness,
sulfur and airborne salinity for estimation of corrosivity. As far as the corrosivity of
atmospheres is concerned, EN 12500 defines five outdoor environments on the basis of
the presence of corrosive agents in the air, namely: rural atmosphere, urban atmosphere,
industrial atmosphere, marine atmosphere, and marine industrial atmosphere. The
conditions comprising the makeup of the atmosphere are very complex and continuallychanging. The atmosphere can contain acid rain, chloride salts, nitrogen compounds,
ammonia, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide and other industrial
contaminants. Climatic factors affecting atmospheric corrosion are items such as; solar
radiation, relative humidity, air chemistry, particles carried by the atmosphere (sand,soil, dust), air temperature, rain and winds

2. METHODOLOGY
2.1 Collecting of meteorological and pollutant data[1]. Meteorological Data
Meteorological Data; such as temperature, rainfall, and humidity of location
are recorded by one month time interval by data logger, and shown in Figure 1.
From these data, time of wetness is calculated according to ISO 9223.
According to ISO 9223, time of wetness can be calculated as hours per year
when relative humidity greater than 80 percent and temperature greater than 0°C.
[2]. Pollutant Data
The pollutant data of chloride and sulphur dioxide are obtained by using dry
gauze and lead dioxide cylinder methodology, according to JIS Z 2382, andshown in Figure 2, and Figure 3, respectively.

Figure 1: Weather monitoring system

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Figure 2: Testing for chloride with dry gauze methodology

Figure 3: Testing for sulfur with cylinder methodology
2.2 Prediction based on ISO 9223
The ISO corrosivity classification from atmospheric parameters is based on thesimplifying assumption that the time of wetness (TOW) and the levels of corrosive
impurities determine the corrosivity. Only two types of corrosive impurities are
considered, namely, sulfur dioxide and chloride. Practical definitions for all thevariables involved in calculating an ISO corrosivity index follow.
1. Time of wetness. Units: hours per year (h.year-1) when relative humidity(RH)>80 percent and t >0°C
TOW
10
250
2500
5500

T1
T2
T3
T4
T5

 10
< TOW  250< TOW  2500
< TOW  5500
< TOW

2. Airborne salinity. Units: chloride deposition rate (mg.m-2.day-1)
S  6060 < S  300
300 < S

S1
S2
S3

3. Industrial pollution by SO2. Two types of units are used:

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PC  4040 < PC  90
90 < PC

P1
P2
P3

Deposition rate (mg.m-2.day-1), PD
P1
PD  35
35 < PD  80
P2
P3
80 < PD
ISO 9223 Corrosivity categories of atmosphere

ISO 9223 Corrosion Rate after one year exposure predicted for different corrosivity
classes
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3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Meteorological data of Test Sites
The meteorological data, temperature, and relative humidity, from March, 2014 toSeptember, 2014 are shown in Table 1, and the variation of these is shown in Figure 4
and Figure 5, respectively. Time of wetness is calculated according to ISO 9223. The
variation of time of wetness is also shown in Figure 6.
Table 1: Meteorological data of the test site
Site

YTU

Time
18.3.14~22.4.2014
23.4.2014~22.5.2014
23.5.2014~22.6.2014
23.6.2014~22.7.2014
23.7.2014~22.8.2014
23.8.2014~22.9.201

Avg, T, ·C
29.88101
29.86671
28.08754
26.94331
26.54154
26.96366

Avg, RH, %68.27274
75.39856
87.46431
92.18743
94.60301
90.59358

TOW
329
361
573
641
703
619

Figure 4: Average temperature of the site

Study of atmosphericcorrosioncorrosionof steels in
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November
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Yangon,MyanmarNovember
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Yangon,MyanmarFigure 5. Average relative humidity (%) of the site

Figure 6: Variation and trend line for time of wetness
3.2 Pollutant data of Test Sites
The pollutant data, chloride and sulfur dioxide, obtained for March, 2014 and April,2014 is shown in Table 2, and Table 3 and their variations are shown in Figure 10. The
calculation of pollutant data is based on JIS Z 2382.

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Table 2: Chloride data of the test site㹲㹢

3/184/22
35

C1

mg/l

43.0

47.2

51.9

20.5

25.1

C2

mg/l

0.2

0.2

<0.1

<0.1

<0.1

0.050

0.065

0.069

0.028

0.033

Test period
Interval (days)
Amount of chloride
ion on dry gauze
Amount of chloride
ion in blank test
Amount of airborne
sea salt

R
NaCl·(NaCl) mg/(dm2·d)

4/225/2230

5/226/22
31

6/227/22
30

7/228/22
31

Table 3: Sulphur Dioxide data of the test site
Test period
Interval (days)
Weight of
BaSO4 fromPbO2 cylinder
Weight of
BaSO4 of blanktest
Amount of SO2
deposition

3/184/22

4/225/22

5/226/22

6/227/22

7/228/22

t

d

35

30

31

30

31

W1

mg

4.1

2.4

2.9

2.2

2.0

W2

mg

<1

<1

<1

<1

<1

S

mg SO2/(dm2·d)
㸦PbO2

0.032

0.022

0.026

0.020

0.018

Figure 10: Variation of pollutant data, chloride and sulfur dioxide

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3.3 Discussion
The present study intended to predict the rate of corrosion for steel under particularatmospheric condition by using ISO 9223 methodology. The atmospheric corrosion
rates of steel after one year exposure in Yangon (urban) atmosphere will be made. The
atmospheric variables (pollutants and meteorological variables) are also recorded every
month. Now, the meteorological data for temperature and relative humidity for six
months were obtained and the pollutant data for chloride and sulfur dioxide wereobtained for five months. Time of wetness is calculated from temperature and relative
humidity, according to ISO 9223. The prediction of corrosion rate will be made basedon ISO 9223 by evaluating the important atmospheric variables, such as Time of
Wetness, CL- and SO2.

4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
From the obtained meteorological data, all of the temperatures obtained yet are above
0°C, and the different is not very large (between 26°C to 29°C). From the obtained
relative humidity, the relative humidity of greater than 80% was selected for thisresearch to calculate time of wetness according to ISO 9223. The trend for relative
humidity is slightly increased. Time of wetness had an increasing trend and the R2 value
is 0.766. It can be clearly seen that time of wetness; main indicator for corrosion ismainly depended on the relative humidity because times of wetness and relative
humidity have nearly the same increasing trend. On the contrast, the effect oftemperature on time of wetness is not so much. So, for Yangon, relative humidity is themain contributor for corrosion, from meteorological point of view. For pollutants, total
chloride and sulfur dioxide for five months is 0.245 mg/(dm2·d) and 0.118 mg/( dm2·d),respectively and thus the amount is very small. Based on the atmospheric data obtained,
the total time of wetness, chloride, and sulfur dioxide up to now are 3226 hours, 0.245
mg/( dm2·d) and 0.118 mg/( dm2·d), respectively. So, according to ISO 9223, thecorrosivity categories for Yangon area may be C3 and thus the predicted corrosion rate
may be 201-400 g/m2.year.
For recommendation, the actual corrosion rates of commonly used structural steels
should be found and then compare with the ISO 9223 results. By correlation between
actual corrosion rates and atmospheric variables, the corrosion rates for each type ofsteel should be formulated. The prediction of corrosion rates for long term should bemade by using linear bilograthmic law. The testing should be done not only in urban
area, but also in other area, such as industrial, marine, and rural, and then comparison
between them should be made.

REFERENCES
Roberge, P. R., 2000. Handbook of corrosion engineering. The McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., New York.
Roberge, P. R., 2008. Corrosion engineering principles and practice, New York.
ISO 9223: Corrosion of metals and alloys—corrosivity of atmospheres— classification.
Japan International Standard; JIS Z 2382, JIS, Editor. 1987.
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Kyu Kyu Thin1 and Win Win Zin2
M.E, Yangon Technological University
2
Associate Professor, Yangon Technological University
kyukyut9@gmail.com
1

ABSTRACTThe integration of Geographic Information System (GIS) and remote sensing data
extracted from earth observation satellites with additional collateral data of the study
area, provides a powerful tool in estimation of runoff. Chindwin river basin is chosen ascase study area. In this study, runoff potential was analyzed by two methods: the SCS
curve number method and the Index method. The parameters such as land cover, soil
type, rainfall, area of the catchment and slope are considered. Landcover map was
prepared using LANDSAT images with supervised classification method. The slope map
was generated from Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of 30 meter spatial resolution byusing ArcGIS. Generally, flat and gently sloping areas promote infiltration and lessrunoff potential, and steeply sloping grounds encourage runoff and little or no
infiltration. The landuse pattern – arable land, grass land, forest or cultivated area,
greatly affect runoff. The soil classes used for the runoff potential are based on thehydrologic property of FAO classification. All point and polygon data were converted
to grid. In index method each of the class in the thematic layers was qualitatively
described and reclassified by assigning numbers starting from 1 up to 5. Numbers wereassigned based on runoff potentiality of each class in layers. The higher the number isthe better runoff potentiality is. Runoff potential of a catchment that is a crucial design
parameter for water harvesting systems.
Keywords: GIS, Remote Sensing, Runoff Potential, SCS Curve Number Method, Index
Method
1. INTRODUCTION
Surface runoff, or simply runoff, refers to all the waters flowing on the surface of theearth, either by overland sheet flow or by channel flow in rills, gullies, streams, or rivers.
Surface runoff is a continuous process by which water is constantly flowing from higher
to lower elevations by the action of gravitation forces. Small streams combine to form
larger streams which eventually grow into rivers. In time, rivers carry their flow into theocean, completing the hydrologic cycle. Rainstorms generate runoff, and its occurrenceand quantity are dependent on the characteristics of the rainfall event. Apart from theserainfall characteristics, there are number of catchment specific factors, which have a
direct effect on the occurrence and volume of runoff. This includes soil type, land cover,slope, rainfall intensity, duration of rainfall, catchment shape and area of the catchment.
Remote sensing and geographic information systems are modern scientific tools for thedetermination, assessment and modeling of environmental characteristics and processes.
In this study, remote sensing images were used in large scale to determine the land461

November
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Yangon,Myanmarcover for the study area. Geographical information systems allow the linkage andinterrelation with other data which are important to determine runoff potential. Remotesensing can derive information about objects on the surface of the earth without
physically coming into contact. The objective of this research is to estimate the runoff
potential of the study area based on the integration of satellite images, topographic data,
rainfall and soil data. This integration will be implemented through the use of spatial
databases and geographic information systems (GIS).
2. DATA USED IN THIS STUDY
The land use and land cover map was prepared using Landsat ETM and ETM+ satellite
images with a resolution of 30m. Digital Elevation Model (DEM) with 30 m resolutionof the study area was obtained from USGS (US Geological Survey). The soil
information was downloaded from FAO soil map of the world at 1:5,000,000 scale.
3. STUDY AREA
Chindwin river is the largest tributary of Ayeyarwaddy river. The Chindwin river,which is originated in the northern border mountains and the Kumon ranges in Kachinstate, flows down through the Hukawng valley, Hkamti, Tamanthi, Homalin, andMawlaik to the southwest along the eastern edge of the 2000-3800 m high Rakhine
Mountains with repeating numerous bends. The river changes its course at Kalewa to
the southeast, crossing a number of vast plains and finally joins the Ayeyarwaddy riverat the east of Pakokku via Mingin, Kani, Shwezaye narrow and Monywa. Location of
study area is shown in Figure 1. The Chindwin River has the catchment area of 115,300
km2 with the gap of 130 m between the confluence and the Hukawng Valley. Length of
the river is approximately 1046 km. Wide and thickly developed river terraces are
frequently seen on the both banks along the river, sometimes stretching more than amile wide across the river.
The Chindwin river is naturally configured with tremendous segments of rivulets,
streamlets and tributaries and it could of be ranked as the largest tributary of the
Ayeyarwaddy river. The source of the entire river system approximately falls at 97.00
degree Eastern longitude and 25.50 degree Northern latitude being having an elevationof about 2134 meters in the Kumoon range within the northern Kachin state of"Myanmar". The upper segment of Chindwin river is alternatively known as Tanai Hkathat flows in north direction in its upper reach before entering into the Hukaung valley.
Very clearly, rapids and waterfalls could often be seen along the river stretch within the
850 km water course from the origin to Mawlaik. After that, the system alters its
direction and runs West-North-West and the directional aspect changes to the South
while traversing for approximately 1200 km before joining with the Ayeyarwaddy rivernear Myingyan, being situated at 26 km upstream of Pakokku.

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Figure 1: Location of Study Area
4. LITERATURE REVIEW
Factors effecting runoff are storm characteristics, meteorological characteristics, basincharacteristics and storage characteristics. Steep rocky catchments with less vegetation
will produce more runoff compared to flat tracts with more vegetations. If thevegetation is thick greater is the absorption of water, so less runoff. Catchments locatedat higher altitude will receive more precipitation yield greater runoff. The land use
pattern – arable land, grass land, forest or cultivated area, greatly affect runoff. The
runoff potential can be determined through two different methods: One method included
the SCS method, the other one comprised the indexing method in this study. Within theindex method the various parameters for runoff generation were identified according totheir importance to runoff generation. A data layer in the raster format was made foreach parameter. The layers within this study include: slope, soil texture, land cover,rainfall and area of the catchment. Here an attempt was made to identify features (landcover) using remote sensing image interpretation. One form of classification is the
spectral one which includes unsupervised classification or supervised classification,neural network classification and the classification tree, statistical procedure within adecision making environment. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are computer
based tools that store, analyze, and retrieve, manipulate large amounts of spatial data.
They are spatial; data-base management techniques. Originally these tools weredeveloped to ease cartography, but are being used these days for inventory analysis
estimation, planning and modelling. GIS may be either raster-based or vector-based. A
raster-based GIS is more storage efficient than a vector-based GIS. The larger thecoverage the greater the storage spaced used by vector-based GIS. The processing speedof a vector-based GIS is slower and can be an important consideration if extensive
spatial processing is needed for a watershed model. GIS improves the ability toincorporate spatial details beyond the existing capability of watershed models. With
much better resolution of terrain-streams and drainage areas, the ability to delineate
more appropriate grid layers for a finite element watershed model is enhanced.

Estimation
Potential
ChindwinRiver Basin
Using
Estimation of runoff
potentialofinRunoff
ChindwinRiver inbasinusing remotesensing
andRemote
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5. METHODOLOGYThis research was accomplished by using ENVI 4.2 and Arc GIS 10. In this study,
LANDSAT ETM and ETM+ (30 m resolution) from the years 2009 images and DEM(30 m resolution) developed from USGS was applied in this study. Spatial baseline
database (soil, slope, rainfall) were prepared in GIS. The different polygons in thethematic layers were labeled separately and then they were registered. In the final
thematic layer initially each one of the polygons were qualitatively visualized into fivecategories and then in terms of their importance with respect to runoff potential andsuitable weights have been assigned. Finally thematic layers were converted into grid byonly considering the related weight and then integrated and analyzed, using weighted
aggregation method. The grids in the integrated layer were grouped into different runoff
potential by a suitable logical reasoning and conditioning. The runoff potential map was
generated and then reclassified by GIS into low, medium and high. The SCS method isbased on the empirical assumption that the ratio of actual to initial runoff is equal to theratio of actual retention to potential retention.
5.1 Implementation Program:Satellite and ancillary data acquisition, processing and analysis of satellite data
Development of landcoverPreparing spatial baseline database in GIS
Spatial data analysis and developing of appropriate model relating with meteorologicalcharacteristics and basic characteristics which influence the runoff potential of thestudy area.
Develop runoff potential map by overlaying all the thematic layers in GIS.
5.2 Land CoverIn this study, supervised classification with Maximum Likelihood method andMinimum Distance are used to develop the land cover map. Land cover map is shownin Figure 2.
Table 1: Weightage of Land cover For Runoff Potential
Land coverEvergreen forest
Mixed forest
Woody Savannas
Croplands

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2
3
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Figure 2: Land Cover Map of Chindwin River Basin
5.3 Slope
Generally, flat and gently sloping areas promote infiltration and less runoff potential,
and steeply sloping grounds encourage run-off and little or no infiltration. The area has
a steeply slope; it supports high discharge of overland flow and low rate of infiltration.
Therefore, runoff potentiality is expected to be greater in the steeply sloping area.
Steeply topography then will give more chance for runoff potential. The slope map was
generated from digital elevation model of 30 meter spatial resolution by using Arc GIS
and it is shown in Figure 3.
Table 2 : Weightage Of Slope For Runoff Potential
Slope
0 -7
7 - 1414 - 21
21 - 28
28 - 35

Description
Almost Flat
Undulating to rolling
Hilly Disserted
Steep Dissected
Very steep

Score
1
2
3
4
5

Estimation of Runoff Potential in Chindwin River Basin Using Remote Sensing and GIS
Estimation of runoff potential in Chindwin River basin using remote sensing and GIS
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Yangon,MyanmarFigure 3: Slope Map
5.4 Rainfall
Precipitation and evaporation are the two fundamental phases in the hydrological cycle
which involves processes in the atmosphere and at the earth’s surface/atmosphereinterface. It plays an important role in the hydrologic cycle which controls runoff
potential. Knowing the nature and characteristics of precipitation, we can conceptualize
and predict its effects in runoff, infiltration, evapotranspiration, and water yield.
Therefore, for hydrologic analyses it is important to know the areal distribution of
precipitation. Several areal precipitation estimation techniques are currently used for
averaging precipitation depths collected at ground stations. In this study, Isohyetal
method was applied to estimate the areal precipitation over the entire basin.
Table 3. Weightage of rainfall for
runoff potential
Criteria Classes(mm) Weight
Rainfall729-2295
12295-2297
2
2297-3820
3
3820-3931
4
3931
5

Figure 4: Isohyetal Map of Chindwin River Basin

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5.5 Soil TypeThe physiography of soil plays on important role on runoff potential and loss throughinfiltration. The type of soil and permeability affects the water holding and infiltrating
capacity of soil. The soil classes used for the runoff potential are based on thehydrologic property of FAO classification of soil FAO. In the study area there are about
6 types of soil classes. These are gleysols, luvisols, vertisols, acrisols, cambisols andlithosols. The following table lists soil types defined by the FAO together with a brief
description of the characteristics of each soil family.
Table 4. FAO Soil Legend
SymbolGL
CM

Soil Type
Gleysols
Cambisols

AC

Acrisols

LV

Luvisols

I
VR

Lithosol
Vertisols

Comment
Unless drained, are saturated with groundwater.
Soil with slight profile development that is not dark incolour.
Acidic soils with a layer of clay accumulation. This
class consists only of clays with low cation exchange
capacity.
Soils with strong accumulation of clay in the Bhorizon and not dark in colour. These soils have clays
with high cation exchange capacity.
Thin soils over rock.
Clayey soils that form deep and wide cracks whendry.
Table 5. Weightage of Soil TypeFor Runoff Potential
Soil Type Score
Gleysols
1
Cambisols
1
Acrisols
2
Luvisols
2
Lithosol
3
Vertisols
4

Figure 5: Soil Map of Chindwin River Basin
5.5 CN Value
A low curve number means that water easily infiltrates into the soil, leaving less forrunoff. A high curve number means the water is not captured by the land surface, but
Estimation of Runoff Potential in Chindwin River Basin Using Remote Sensing and GIS
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Yangon,Myanmarinstead turns into runoff. Popularity of the method mainly comes from thedimensionless number CN which is tabulated for various soil types and conditions (SCS
1972; USDASCS 1985). To account for the spatial variability of soil moisture, theoriginal USDA procedure adjusts the CN value on the total rainfall of 5 preceding days.
The storage volume can be calculated based on CN grids.

Figure 6: CN Map of Chindwin River Basin
5.5 Runoff Potential Using Index Method
The thematic layers include rainfall, land cover, soil type and slope. All point andpolygon data were converted to grid. Each of the class in the thematic layers was
qualitatively described and reclassified by assigning numbers starting from 1 up to 5.
Numbers were assigned based on runoff potentiality of each class in layers. The higher
the number is the better runoff potentiality is. Figure 7 shows the runoff potential map
for Chindwin river basin using index method.

Figure 7: Runoff Potential Map Using Index Method

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5.6 Runoff Potential Using SCS Curve Number Method
The Soil Conservation Service Curve Number (SCS-CN) method is simple, wellacclaimed and produces better results. This method takes into account major runoff
producing watershed characteristics, like soil type, land use and antecedent moisture
conditions (AMCs) to estimate the loss and runoff volume which can be obtained fromthe optical and microwave remotely sensed data. The calculation process was doneusing the geographical information system analysis by ArcView. Figure: 8 shows theresulting map of potential runoff for the study area. Maximum potential runoff is around
151 mm in upper part of the Chindwin basin.

Figure 8: Runoff Potential Map Using SCS Curve Number Method
6. CONCLUSIONSIn this study, runoff potential of Chindwin river basin is estimated integration with GIS.
Three classes such as low, medium and high potential were identified by index method
and the runoff potential was quantitatively classified by using SCS curve number
method too. A weighted overlay model was implemented using five different effective
weighted parameters such as land cover, slope, soil type, rainfall, area of the catchment.
Satellite data has been proven to be very informative and useful for surface runoff study,
especially in detecting surface features and characteristics such as land use and land
cover. Spatial thematic maps of the above parameters were prepared in a GIS and runoff
potential map was obtained by algebraic summation of these effective weighted
parameters. Runoff potential of a catchment that is a crucial design parameter for water
harvesting systems.
REFERENCES
Aye, M. N. 2001. Flood regionalization using rainfall and basin characteristics ofEstimation of Runoff Potential in Chindwin River Basin Using Remote Sensing and GIS
Estimation of runoff potential in Chindwin River basin using remote sensing and GIS

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Chindwin catchments, Ph.D Thesis, Yangon Technological University, Myanmar.
Chang, K-T., Introduction to geographic information systems 4th ed., Tata McGrawHill.
Maidment, D. R., and Mason, D., An analysis of a methodology for generatingwatershed parameters using GIS, The University of Texas, Austin, TX 78712-4497.
Maung Win Min Oo, 2013. An integrated approach of remote sensing and GIS for the
groundwater potential, Ph.D Thesis, Yangon Technological University, Myanmar.
Musa, K A., Juhari Mat, A., and Abdullah, I. 2000. Groundwater potential zoning in
Langat basin using the integration of remote sensing and GIS. The 21st Asian Conf. on
Remote Sensing, Taipei (Taiwan).
Longley, P. A., Goodchild, M. F., Maguire, D. J., and Rhind, D. W., Geographic
information systems and science 2nd ed., John Wiley and Sons, Ltd
Oberle, A., 2004. GIS-based identification of suitable areas for various kinds of water
harvesting in Syria.

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Tin Mar LWIN1, Khin Ni Ni THEIN2,Win Win ZIN3, Cho Cho Thin KYI4
Ph.D. Candidate, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Yangon Technological University,tinmarlwin001@gmail.com
2
Visiting Senior Professor and National Water Resources
Committee Member
3
Associate Prof., Dept. of Civil Engineering, Yangon Technological University
4
Associate Prof., Dept. of Civil Engineering, Yangon Technological University

1

ABSTRACTThe natural flow of the tributaries of Ayeyawaddy river have been altered due to theconstruction of the water infrastructures. . The flow alterations affect some or all componentsof stream health: ecosystem and physical alteration of the river. Many hydropower dams havealso been planned on the Upper portion of the main stem of the Ayeyawaddy river to fulfill thehydropower requirement for the socio-economic development of the country. For the Upper
portion Ayeyawaddy river, balancing the requirement of water of the aquatic environment,
environmental flow, and other uses is becoming critical to safeguard as the healthy river. This
study aim to assess the river health impact points of the Upper Ayeyawaddy River Basin byusing Dundee Hydrological Regime Assessment Method (DHRAM) tool based on dailyhydrologic data and also attempt to consider environmental flow requirements for the Upper
Ayeyawaddy River Basin at unmodified flow condition by applying hydrological method forsustainable development based on integrated water resources management (IWRM) approach.
Keywords: Dundee Hydrological Regime Assessment Method (DHRAM), environmental flow,hydrologic alteration, Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM)
1. INTRODUCTION
The Ayeyawady river flows from north to south of Myanmar. It is the country's largest river(about 1350 miles or 2170 km long) and the most important commercial waterway, with adrainage area of about 413,000 km². There is a saying that "Ayeyawady is Myanmar", whichreflects the fact that the total area of the Ayeyawady River Basin is nearly 61% of the total
land area of Myanmar. It is rich in natural resources particularly forests, land and water
resources in addition to biodiversity. Large part of the Water-Energy-Food security of
Myanmar depends upon that ecosystem. Therefore ecosystem of the Ayeyawady River Basinand the entire river system play a crucial role as the lifeline of Myanmar populace. Achieving
sustainable development of these resources is vital to the country and the sustainability ofwater-energy-food security in Myanmar is of paramount importance. Environmental flowsrefer to water provided within a river, wetland or coastal zone to maintain ecosystems and thebenefits they provide for people and the environment. In other words, environmental flows are
effectively a balance between water resources development and the need to protect

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freshwater-dependent ecosystems. There is abundant hydropower potential, mainly on theupper portion of the Ayeyawady river. Hydropower stations and dams are currently being
planned to fulfill the electricity requirement for the social and economic development of thecountry. The hydropower dams have been already constructed on the tributaries of the
Ayeyawaddy river. The study of environmental flow for Upper Ayeyawady River Basin aims
to minimize the adverse impact of water infrastructure development project on aquatic
ecosystems. Therefore, environmental flow is an urgent and important need to protect the
Ayeyawady’s river and it will also support in the development of integrated water resourcesmanagement in Myanmar.
2. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA
2.1 Physiography
The Ayeyawady River Basin is situated at 15º 30’ ~ 28º 50’ north latitude and 93º 16’~98º 42’
east longitude. The river has two source rivers. The eastern source originates at the southwest
foot of Boshula Mountains within Chayu Country of Tibet Autonomous Region in China,
which is called Jitaiqu in Tibet Autonomous Region and Dulongjiang in Yunnan Province. It
flows into Myanmar via Maku of Gongshan Country in Yunnan Province, China and is thennamed as May Kha River. The western source river, the Mali Kha River, originates from thenorthern mountainous region of Myanmar. The confluence (Myitsone in Myanmar language)is situated at a place approximately 45 km north of Myitkyina, where the two branches
converge. From there, it is called the Ayeyawady River. It traverses the entire Myanmar fromthe north to the south, flowing through the mountainous region in the north, the arid region incentral Myanmar and the delta area in the south.
2.2 Climate condition
The Ayeyawady River Basin lies in Asia southwest monsoon zone, where the climate iseffectively affected by the southwest monsoon. There are three seasons in a year. From March
to May, it is a hot season. From June to October, it is a wet season. From November to
February, it is a cool season. The average air temperature in January, the coldest month ranges
from 20ºC to 25ºC. The average air temperature in April, the hottest month, ranges from 25ºC
to 30ºC.
There is abundant rainfall in the basin with an annual rainfall of 2,000~4,000 mm in the northand the delta, and 600~1,000mm in the plains at the middle stream of the river. The maximum
rainfall usually occurs in July. Whenever the rainy season comes, the southwest monsoon isdominant, which brings abundant rainfall resulting in swift water rising and floods. When thedry season comes, the river water level drops. A lot of tideland and islets are outcropping andthe river drops. In the Bhamo region in the upstream of Ayeyawady River, the width of theriver is less than 500m in the hot season, while it reaches over 3 km in the rainy seasons. The
variation of the water level is around 10 m in a whole year. The average annual rainfall in
Machanbaw and Putao (within Myanmar) is approximately 4,000 mm. The average annual
rainfall in Myitkyina is 2,314 mm, 1,8000 mm in Bhamo and 1,510 in Katha.

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3. DATA USED
Environmentally acceptable flow regimes should mimic natural patterns of flow variability ina river (Richer et al., 1997; Hughes and Hannart, 2003). The natural flow variability is best
described by time series of daily discharges. In the Upper Ayeyawady River Basin, there arethree hydrological stations, namely, Myitkyina, Katha and Sagaing. The daily mean discharge
data of these stations were obtained from the Department of Hydrology and Meteorology(DMH). The available data length for these stations are_ Myitkyina station(1970-2011), Katha(1966-2011) and Sagaing (1966-2011). According to DWIR, the catchment area for
Myitkyina is 41, 803 Sq. Km, Katha is 77, 942 Sq. Km and Sagaing is 117, 900 Sq. Km
respectively. The river basins and river system of Myanmar is shown in Figure 1 and thelocation Map of Upper Ayeyawady River Basin and its hydrological stations are shown in
Figure 2. The location of proposed dam sites and constructed dam site are also shown in
Figure 3.

Figure 1: Major river basinsin Myanmar

Figure 2: Catchment area ofUpper Ayeyawady river basin

Figure 3: Proposed andFigconstructed dams location in
Myanmar

3. METHOD AND ANALYSIS
Five groups of hydrologic parameters,(1) maginitude of monthly water condition, (2)magnitude and duration of annual extremes, (3) Timing of annual extremes, (4) Frequency
and duration of high and low pulses and (5) Rate and frequency of change in conditions, areinfluenced on both river health and ecosystem. The mean and coefficient of these five groupsof hydrologic paramenters are generated by using Indicator of Hydrologic Alteration (IHA)
software based on daily flow data. The total impact point of river health is calculated bycomparing the percentage difference of mean and coefficient of variation of these five groups
Assessment of envionmental flows for the Upper Ayeyawaddy river basin
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November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar
November 2014, Yangon, Myanmarof hydrologic parameters of pre-alteration and post-alteration flow data periods by using
DHRAM (Dundee Hydrological Regime Assessment Method) tool. There is no risk to stream
health if the total impact point generated by DHRAM tool is zero. If the total impact points
range from 1 to 4, the river health is low risk. For the moderate risk of river, the total impact
points range from 5 to 10. The total impact points for high risk of river range from 11 to 20.
The river health can be defined as server risk if the total impact points range from 21-30. The
river health of Upper Ayeyawaddy river basin is assessed at Myitkyina, Katha and Sagaing
stations based on daily flow data by using IHA-DHRAM approach.
There are many techniques and methods being applied to assess the environmental flows
requirements. These methods can be classified into four categories_ hydrological method,
hydraulic rating methods, habitat simulation and holistic methods. The methods differ inscope of application and data requirements. The approach to assess environmental flow for theUpper Ayeyawady river basin was developed by using hydrological method. Tennant method
describes a threshold of 10 percent of mean annual flow reserved for aquatic ecosystem wasconsidered to be the lowest limit for environmental flow considerations. Fair/good habitat
conditions could be ensured if 35 percent of the mean annual flow is allocated forenvironmental purpose. Allocation in the range of 60 to 100 percent of mean annual flow
represents an environmental optimum. Historical daily mean discharge data of Myitkyina,
Katha and Sagaing stations was collected from Department of Hydrology and Meteorology(DMH). Mean annual flow for each discharge station is analyzed from the historical dailymean flow data. The seasons for Tennant’s method are categorized as high flow season for themonths of May to October, and low flow season for the months of November to April for the
study area.
Global Environmental Flow Calculator (GEFC) was developed by International Water
Management Institute (IWMI) to link the flow and ecology condition based on flow duration
curve approach method. Environmental management class (EMC) based on flow duration
curve approach is based on mean monthly flow data. There are six ecological classes in thismethod such as Class A- natural, Class B- slightly modified, Class C – moderately modified,Class D – largely modified, Class E –seriously modified and Class F – critically modified
Environmental flow requirement for each ecological class are determined by the lateral shiftof the original reference FDC – to the left, along the 17 percentage points on the probability
axis: 0.01, 0.1, 1, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 95, 99, 99.9 and 99.99. The higher the
EMC, the more water will need to be allocated to the ecosystem or conservation and more
flow variability will need to be preserved.
FDCs are hydrological tools that are used to represent the percentage of time flows that are
equaled or exceeded for a particular river location. Q95 and Q90 flows are most often used as
low flow indices the government literature and academic sources.
4. RESULTS
The pre-alteration period and the post-alteration period of Myikyina, Katha and Sagaing
stations are divided by based on the change point of cumulative curve of rainfall and waterlevel on slope line. After drawing the cumulative curves for each station, the change point of
cumulative curve for Katha station starts at 1979 and for the Sagaing station starts at 1975.

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There is no change point of cumulative curve for Myitkyina station. Therefore, pre-alteration
period and post-alteration period for Myitkyina station is assumed as (1970-1990) and thepost-alteration period for Myitkyina station is assumed as (1991-2011). The former periods ofchange points (1966-1979) is regarded as pre-alteration period for Katha station and the later
periods of change points (1980-2011) is regareded as post-alteration period. The pre-alteration
period for Sagaing station is (1966-1975) and the post-alteration period for Sagaing station is(1976-2011). The five groups of hydrologic parameters are caluculated by using IHA software
based on these pre- and post-alterations periods. DHRAM tool calculated the percentage
difference of mean and coefficient of variation of five groups hydrologic paraments to assess
the river health of Myitkyina, Katha and Sagaing stations. By using DHRAM, the estimatedimpact points for river health at Myitkyina station is 3 (low risk of impact), Katha station is 4
(low risk of impact) and the Sagaing station is 5 (moderate risk of impact).
The amount of environmental flows requirement at gauging stations of the upper Ayeyawady
river basin by using GEFC software is summarized in Table 1. The GEFC software describes
the amount of environmental flows requirement as a percentage of mean annual runoff. The
mean annual runoff calculated by GEFC software is for 159718 million cubic meter, 160,146
million cubic meters and 233,334 million cubic meters respectively in Myitkyina, Katha andSagaing stations. These can also be shown as flow rates in three gauging stations, 5065
cumecs in Myitkyina, 5078 cumecs in Katha and 7399 cumecs in Sagaing. The shifting flow
duration curve for each ecological class developed by GEFC software is depicted in Figure 4
to 6. Flow duration curve is based on daily mean discharge. In this study 50 percentile flowfor high flow season and 90 and 95 percentile flows for the low flow season is being
considered as require Environmental Flow as shown in Table 2 and Figure 7 to 9.
The mean annual flow analyzed from historical mean daily discharge data for Myitkyina is5155 cumecs, Katha is 5178 cumecs and Sagaing is 7609 cumecs. The environmental flows
requirement for the upper Ayeyawady river basin for wet and dry seasons based on Tennant
method is described in Table 3 and 4.
Table 1: Environmental flows requirement for the gauge stations of Upper Ayeyawaddy river
basin by global environmental flows calculators

Station name
Myitkyina
Katha
Sagaing

Class
A
82.5
78.9
78.1

Environmental Flow Requirement(% of MAR)
Class
Class
Class
Class
Class F
B
C
D
E
65.4
51.5
40.7
32.7
27
58.7
42.4
30.3
21.9
16.2
57.8
41.9
30.3
22.1
16.6

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Table 2: Environmental flows requirement for the guage stations of Upper Ayeyawaddy river
basin based on flow duration method by using daily mean
Station
Myitkyina
Katha
Sagaing

50th percentile flow
(cumecs)
3607
2812
4342

90th percentile flow
(cumecs)
1493
1003
1604

95th percentile flow
(cumecs)
1289
842
1217

Table 3.Environmental flows requirement for the guage stations of Upper Ayeyawaddy river
basin in wet season based on Tenant method
Narrative description of flows
Flushing or maximum
Optimum range
Outstanding
Excellent
Good
Fair or degrading
Poor or maximum
Severe degradation

Myitkyina

Katha

Sagaing

m3/s
10310
3093-5155
3093
2577.52062
1546.5515.5
0-515.5

m3/s
10356
3106.8-5178
3106.82589
2071.21553.4517.8
0-517.8

m3/s
15218
4565.4-7609
4565.43804.53043.62282.7760.9
0-760.9

Table 3: Environmental flows requirement for the guage stations of Upper Ayeyawaddy river
basin in dry season based on Tenant method
Myitkyina
m3/s

Katha
m3/s

Sagaing
m3/s

10310

10356

15218

Optimum range

3093-5155

3106.8-5178

4565.4-7609

Outstanding
Excellent
Good
Fair or degrading
Poor or maximum
Severe degradation

2062
1546.5
1031
515.5
515.5
0-515.5

2071.21553.41035.6517.8
517.8
0-517.83043.62282.71521.8760.9
760.9
0-760.9

Narrative description of flows
Flushing or maximum

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Figure. 6 Environmental flow duration curve Figure. 7 Daily flow duration curve for
Myitkyina discharge stationfor Sagaing discharge station by GEFC

Figure 8 Daily flow duration curve for Katha
discharge station

Figure 9 Daily flow duration curve for
Sagaing discharge station

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5. CONCLUSION
Although there is no dam along the main stem of the Ayeyawaddy river, many dams had
already been constructed and have been planned to construct at the tributaries of the
Ayeyawaddy river. To study whether the construction of dam at the tributaries affects on themain stem, the river health assessment is carried out on the Upper portion of the Ayeyawaddy
river.The river health is assessed at the guaing stations of Upper Ayeywaddy river basin:
namely Myitkyina, Katha,and Saginaing stations, by using IHA-DHRAM approach based ondaily flow discharge data. The river health assessment at the Myitkyna and Katha stations is
low risk of impacts and the moderate risk of impact is occurred at Sagaing station. This isseem to be that the hydropower dam at the upper portion of the Ayeywaddy river above
Myikyina guaging station are under planning state and there are not many dams near Katha
guaging station. Near Sagaing gaugin station, hydropower dams, Yeya and Shwe Li dams,
have already been constructed at the tributaries, Myitnge river and Shweli river, of the
Ayeyawaddy of the river near Sagaing station and the total catchment area of these tributaries
rivers is about 30 % of the Upper Ayeywaddy river basin. Since construction of dam at thetributaries of the river can also impact on the main stem of the river, environmental flow
requirements should be assessed not only at the adjacent downstream of the dam site but also
on the main stem of the river. The environmental flow requirement for the upper Ayeyawady
river basin at three gauging stations is calculated based on hydrological analysis method.
Those include six Environmental Management Class based on the flow duration curve
approach by applying Global Environmental Flow Calculator (GEFC), flow duration curve
method and Tennant method. GEFC and Tennant method describe the linkage between flow
and ecological discharge while the flow duration curve describes the percentage of time thatthe specified daily discharges are equal or exceeded during a given period of record. The
ecological class and the flow obtained by GEFC and Tennant method determined theconfidence limits of the flow amount by using a daily flow duration curve. The environmental
flow requirement for moderately modified condition of Class C calculated by GEFC and
Tennant’s method of wet season of good ecological condition exceeded the 50th percentile
flow of the daily flow duration curve. The dry season of good ecological condition by
Tennant’s method exceeded the 90th percentile flow of the daily flow duration curve.
According to the hydrological method based on daily discharge data, the conservation of 50th
percentile (for wet season) and 90th percentile (for dry season) of the daily flow duration curveat the Myitkyina, Katha and Sagaing stations will maintain the good ecological conditions.
Most of the Myanmar’s river basin, including the upper Ayeyawady river basin, there was noassessment made so far to determine the environmental flow requirement. The main purposeof this study is to simulate the environmental water allocation prospects in the country and theresults suggest that river ecosystem could be maintained in a reasonable state with existingdata based on hydrological method. This study should be seen as a step towards thedevelopment of more detailed environmental flow tool in the field of environmental flow
assessment for the Myanmar’s river basins.
REFERENCES
Acreman, M. and Dunbar, M. J., 2004. Defining environmental river flow requirements - areview. Hydrology & Earth System Sciences 8. 861-876.

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Brown, C. and King, J., 2003. Environmental flow assessment: Concepts and methods. Water
Resources and Environment, Technical Note C.1., World Bank, Washington D.C.
Dyson, M., Bergkamp, G., and Scanlon, J., 2004. Flow: The essentials of environmental flows.
IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK.
Korsgaard, L., 2006. Environmental flows in integrated water resources management: linking
flows, services and values. Ph.D Thesis, Institute of Environment and Resources, Technical
University of Demark. Available Online, from http:///www.er.dtu.dt
Mullick, M. R.A., Babel, M.S. and Perret, R., 2010. Flow characteristics and environmental
flow requirements for the Teesta River, Bangladesh. In: The Proceedings of International
Conference on Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh. University of Kitakyushu, Japan,
September 4, 159-162.
Meijer, K., 2006. Human Well-Being Values of Environmental Flows. Ph.D thesis. Delft
University, Delft, The Netherlands.
Poff N. L., Allan J. D., Bain M. B., Karr J. R., Presteegard K. L., Ritcher B. D., Sparks R. E.,
and Stromberg, J. C., 1997. The natural flow regime. Bioscience 47, 769.
Postel, S., and Richter, B., 2003. Rivers of life. Managing water for people and nature. Island
Press, Washington D.C.
Ramakar Jha, Sharma, K. D., and Singh, V. P. 2008. Critical appraisal of methods for theassessment of environmental flows and their application in two river systems of India. KSCE
Journal of Civil Engineering 12, 213-219.
Ritcher, B. D., Baumgartner, J. V., Braun, D. P. and Powell, J., 1997. How much does a riverneed? Freshwater Biology 37, 231-249.
Smakthin, V. U., Shilpakar, R. L., and Hughes, D. A., 2006. Hydrology-based assessment ofenvironmental flows: an example from Nepal. Hydrol. Sci. J. 51, 207-222.
Smakhtin V. U. and Anputhas, M., 2006, An assessment of environmental flow requriments ofIndian river basin, International Water Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 42 (IWMI,
research report 107).
Tharme, R. E., 2003. A global perspective on environmental flow assessment: Emerging
trends in the development and application of environmental flow methodologies for rivers.
River Research and Applications 19, 397-441.
Tennant, D. L., 1976. Instream flow regimes for fish, wildlife, recreation and related
environment resource. Fisheries 1, 6-10.
US Environmental Protection Agency, 2011. An approach for estimating stream health using
flow duration curves and indices of hydrologic alteration. Agri Life Reasearch and Extension,
Texas A&M system.
Vogel, R. M. and Fennessey, N. M., 1995. Flow duration curves II: A review of applications
in water resources Pplanning. Journal ofthe American Water Resources Association 31, 10291039.

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Yin Yin HTWE1 and Aye Aye THANT2
PhD research candidate, Department of Civil Engineering,
Mandalay Technological University, Mandalay, Myanmar
yinyinhtwe.civil@gmail.com
2
Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering,
Mandalay Technological University, Mandalay, Myanmar

1

ABSTRACTThis study reveals forecasting flash flood over Daungnay ungaged watershed using GIS
techniques and HEC-HMS model. The flash flood forecasting is one of the most important
challenges for research in hydrology as flash floods are considered natural disasters that cancause casualties and demolishing of infrastructures. In this study, Remote Sensing and GIS
Techniques are used to develop Digital Elevation Model and to extract watershed and its
drainage network for Daungnay creek. There are 17 sub-basins (10 upstream sub-basins and7 downstream sub- basins) in this watershed. The Soil Conservation Service (SCS) curve
number (CN) method and synthetic dimensionless unit hydrograph (UH), and Muskingum
stream routing applied in HEC-Hydrological Modeling System (HEC-HMS) to formulate
flood characteristic for the study area. Storm frequency is considered as input data for
meteorologic model component in HEC-HMS. Each sub-basin is modeled with its own
parameters. The respective curve number for each sub-basin is determined from the landuse
map and hydrologic soil map. Landuse map is classified from landsat satellite image in ENVI
software. Muskingum Stream routing method is used to predict the changing magnitude offlood as a function of time at the points along the watercourse for various design return
periods. Routing time step is assumed to be 15 minutes. The discharge data from the rainfallrunoff model utilizing HEC-HMS is used to produce maps for run-off volume and flood
discharge.
Keywords: flash flood forecasting, digital elevation model, Daungnay watershed, HEC-HMS,
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Climate change effects in central dry zone,
MyanmarAye Myint KHAING1 and Win Win ZIN2
1
Ph.D Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Yangon Technological University
ayemyintkhing410@gmail.com
2
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
Yangon Technological University
ABSTRACTThis research evaluates the possible effects of climate change on meteorologicalvariable of central dry zone of Myanmar. These variables are important indicators ofclimate change. One of the commonly used tools for detecting change in climatic andhydrologic time series is trend analysis. Annual rainfall data was analyzed in order todetect climate change. The physical impact of climate change in relation to water
resources through the analysis of water availability, water demand and the supply
situation are determined. The growing water scarcity due to climate change will pose aserious threat to food security, poverty reduction and protection of the environment. In
this study, the Mann-Kendall non-parametric test, which is widely used to detect trends,
was applied. The change per unit time was estimated by applying Sen’s estimator ofslope. It is important to investigate present and probable future climatic change
patterns and their impacts on water resources so that appropriate adaptation strategies
may be implemented.
Keywords: climate change, trend analysis, non-parametric test, Mann-Kendall, Sen’sslope.
1. INTRODUCTION
Particularly, identification of trends in long-term runoff is one of the important themes
in hydrologic science (NRC 1991). The reason is that the long-term runoff analysis is an
important tool for detecting any modification in hydrological systems (Chang, 2007).
Climate variability has relevant importance on the hydrology and water resources
availability in the world. Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns asconsequence of the increase in concentrations of greenhouse gases may affect thehydrology process, availability of water resources, and water use for agriculture,
population, mining industry, aquatic life in rivers and lakes, and hydropower. One of themost important impacts of climate change is on hydrology, which results in changes inriver flows and regional water resources. Climate change is expected to intensify the
global hydrological cycle resulting in major impacts on regional water resources. Achange in the total amount, frequency, and the intensity of precipitation will directly
affect the amount and timing of runoff and intensity of floods and droughts.
Trend detection in hydrological data has become increasingly popular in connection
with climate change (Hamed, 2008). Trend analysis has been widely used to evaluate483

November
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including the US, Western Europe, Canada, and Western Britain (Hamed, 2008).
Climate change also causes trends not previously experienced or detected, which
provide new challenges. In recent year, with growing concerns about the impacts ofclimatic changes (IPCC, 2007), researchers have employed various statistical andstochastic techniques to identify trends and shifts in hydrological series at different
temporal scales of aggregation.
Changes in precipitation and streamflow characteristics directly impact hydrology,
water resource management, agricultural practices and ecosystems. Therefore, it is vitalto investigate the climate change impact on spatial and temporal rainfall characteristics
to facilitate better water management practices and strategy. One of the commonly used
tools for detecting changes in climatic and hydrologic time series is trend analysis. In
this study, the Mann-Kendall non-parametric test, which is widely used to detect trends,
was applied. The change per unit time in a time series having a linear trend wasestimated by applying a simple non-parametric procedures namely Sen’s estimator ofslope. Trend detection is an active area of interest for both hydrology and climatology inorder to investigate climate change scenarios and enhance climate impact research.
Therefore, it is vital to investigate the climate change impact on precipitation andstreamflow characteristics to facilitate better water management practices and strategy.
In this study, the time series data refer to the period mostly from 1967 to 2013. The
methodology adapts statistical approach in order to detect possible changes in timeseries. The Mann-Kendall test is a non-parametric test for detecting trends in time series
data. This test is widely used for analysing environmental data, including precipitation
data (Partal and Kahya, 2006), streamflow data, and water quality data. This method is
simple and robust and can cope with missing values and values below a detection limit.
Linear regression is another simple and good approach to detecting trends in monthly
precipitation and discharge data.
The data network used in this study consists of twelve stations of Central Dry Zone of
Myanmar. This paper examines the possible effects of climate change on meterologicalvariables in Central Dry Zone of Myanmar.
2. LOCATION OF THE STUDY AREAThe Dry Zone is one of the most climate sensitive and natural resource poor regions in
Myanmar. The dry zone lies between latitudes 19° 20" and 22° 50" north and longitudes
93° 40"and 96° 30" east, stretching across the southern part of Sagaing Division, thewestern and middle part of Mandalay Division and most parts of Magway Division. It issituated in the rain shadow area of the Yakhaing Yoma and obtains most of its rainfall
from the southwest monsoon. The zone covers approximately 54,390square kilometers
and represents about 10% of the country's total land area. The present population in the
Dry Zone is estimated at 18 million people. It constituted 34% of the country's total
population. The population density is 123 people per square kilometer, making it thethird most densely populated region in Myanmar. Across the Dry Zone, water is scarce,
vegetation cover is thin, and soil is degraded due to severe erosion. The region ischaracterized by low annual rainfall that ranges between 508 and 1016 mm per annum

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with high variability and uneven distribution. The monsoon rain is bimodal with adrought period during July when dry desiccating winds blow from the south. The
undulating land, composed mainly of sandy loam with low fertility, is subjected tosevere erosion under rain and strong winds. The average mean temperature in the Dry
Zone is about 27 C and the temperature often rises to about 43 C in the summer period.
This dry environment with its other natural limiting factors has led to conditions ofgrowing food insecurity and severe environmental degradation.
The major economic activities in the Dry Zone are subsistence farming and small
agricultural crops such as paddy, sesame and groundnut. Agricultural productivity is
low and the farmers are heavily dependent on products from the natural forest especially
fuel wood, pole, post and fodder to support their living and livestock. Many landlesspeople are working as seasonal farm labourers, migrating to urban regions during nonplanting time to find temporary employment. Location of study area is shown in Figure
1.

Figure 1: Location map of the study area
3. METHODOLOGY
The steps involved in analysing are as follows:
1. The first step was to choose the variables to be studied. Rainfall and temperature
variables were used, as they tend to reflect an integrated response of thecatchment area as a whole.
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2. The second step was to choose the stations that have sufficient long time recordsof data.
3. The third step was to check for the present of trends in the data. This was doneusing the Mann-Kendall non-parametric test.
4. The fourth step was to determine the significance of the detected trends. This
was accomplished utilizing a permutation procedure. It was also necessary todefine a global, or field, significance level, reflecting the correlation structurethat exists in the data set.
3.1. Tests for Trends
There are many tests for trend identification. They are as follows:
1. Mann-Kendall test,
2. Sequential Mann-Kendall test,
3. Seasonal Kendall test,
4. Spearman’s Rho test,
5. Sen’s T test, and
6. Linear Regression test.
In this study, Mann-Kendall test was applied. This test was found to be an excellent tool
for trend detection by other researchers in similar applications (Hirsch et al., 1982).
3.1.1 Mann-Kendall Test
The time series of all the hydrologic variables were analysed using the Mann-Kendall
non-parametric test for trend. (Mann, 1945) originally used this test and (Kendall, 1975)
subsequently derived the test statistic distribution. The Mann-Kendall test is based on
the null hypothesis that a sample of data is independent and identically distributed,
which means that there is no trend or serial correlation among the data points. The
alternative hypothesis is that a trend exists in the data. First, the statistic defined byvariable S was computed. It is the sum of the difference between the data points for aseries {x1,….., xn} which come from a population where the random variables are
independent and identically distributed shown in the following equations:

n 1

n

S =   sgn x j  x k (1)
k 1 j  k 1

(2)

Mann (1945) and Kendall (1975) determined that the statistics S is normally distributed
when n ≥ 8 allowing for the computation of the standardized test statistics Z which
represent an increasing or decreasing trends respectively. For the statistical trend test
used in this study, a 5-percent level of significance was selected. The 5- percent level of486

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significance indicates that a 5-percent chance for error exists in concluding that a trend
is statistically significant when in fact no trend exists.

 S 1
if S  0 Var(S)
if S  0 
z  0 S 1
if S  0 Var(S)Where Var(S), the variance of the data point is given by,

(3)

1

n(n  1)(2n  5)   t(t  1)(2t  5)
(4)

18 
t

Where m is the number of tied (i.e., equal values) groups in the data set and t is thenumber of data points in the ith tied group. Under the null hypothesis, the quantity z
defined in the following equation is approximately standard normally distributed evenfor the sample size n = 10. The positive values of S indicate upward trends whereas
negative S value indicate downward trend.
Var(S) 

The slope of the data set can be estimated using the Thiel/Sen Approach. This equation
is used instead of a linear regression because it limits the influence that the outliers haveon the slope (Hirsch et al., 1982). To normalize the slopes calculated for streams ofdifferent size, the mean flow value of each parameter and station was used to find apercent change in flow rate.
X j  Xi β  Median  For all i < j ji (5)

Mann-Kendall approach requires the data to be serially independent. Serial
correlation indicates the relation between a data point and its adjacent point. If the data
are positively serially correlated then the Mann Kendal approach by itself tends tooverestimate the significance of a trend. If, on the other hand, the data have a negative
serial correlation, then the significance of the trend is underestimated. To correct theserial correlation in the data, a form of pre-whitening of the sample has been used (Yueet al., 2002).

Yt  X t  βt(6)Where Xt is the series value at time t, βt is the slope and Yt is the detrended series.
When the trend is removed from the data, then an estimate of the lag-1 sample serial
correlation using the detrended series is calculated using Equation 3.13. The use of an
autoregressive AR (1) model is justified due to the weak serial correlation present inmost hydrological time series. The lag-one serial coefficient is calculated after the trend
was removed in order to preserve the initial trend.

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1 n k Yt  Y t Yt k  Y tn  k t 1
rk 
(7)
2
1 n
 Yt  Y t
n t 1
If lag-one serial correlation coefficient (rk) is not significant at 5% significance level,
then the Mann-Kendall test is applied to the original time series. Otherwise, it isremoved from Yt as:
Y't  Y t  r1 Yt 1
(8)





This procedure is known as the Trend-Free Pre-Whitening (TFPW) procedure. The third
step is to add the trend back to Y't by using Equation 3.14 and then the Mann-Kendall
test is conducted on this new series.

Y  Y' t βt(9)Kendall’s tau is an alternative non-parametric statistic that can be used to test for trend(Hirsch et al., 1982; Hirsch and Slack, 1984). This statistic can be calculated as thenumber of possible pairs of years for which the ordering of the years is the same as theordering of the annual summary statistics (the lower annual statistic occurs in the earlieryear) less the number of possible pairs of years with the reverse ordering. If there is notrend and all observations are independent, then all rank orderings of the annual
statistics are equally likely, this result is used to compute the statistical significance ofthe tau statistic. Adjustments for tied annual summary statistics are described in thecited articles. Adjustments of Kendall’s tau for seasonality (Hirsch et al., 1982) andserial dependence (Hirsch and Slack, 1984) have been proposed and investigated in thecontext of water quality data analysis. A seasonally adjusted Kendal’s tau (Hirsch et al.,1982) allows for different annual means and trends in different calendar months byadding up the 12 Kendall’s tau statistics from each month. The null distribution of thisstatistic (when there are no trends) calculated assuming values from different calendar
months are independent. The null distribution calculated assuming values in different
months can be correlated. Both papers include calculations of the power of these tests
for simulated data. The power of the seasonal and serial dependence adjusted by
Kendall’s tau is greater than the power of the simpler seasonal dependence adjusted by
Kendall’s tau if there is serial dependence, but is less in the independent case.
Kendall’s tau test of trend is related to the Theil-Sen non-parametric slope estimator,
which gives an estimate of the assumed linear trend. This estimator is the median of all
possible ratios of the change in the annual summary statistic from one year to a later
year divided by the number of years separating the two values. If the trends differ by
calendar month, then the same calculation can be applied to the monthly summary
statistics by only considering ratios for values in the same month, i.e., that differ by anexact multiple of 12 months (Hirsch et al., 1982).
3.2 Sen’s Estimator of Slope Method
If a linear trend is present in a time series, then the true slope (change per unit time) canbe estimated by using a simple non-parametric procedure developed by (Sen 1968b).
The slope estimates of N pairs of data are first computed by488

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x j  xk

for i=1,…,
(10)
j k
Where xj and xk are data values at times j and k (j>k) respectively. The median of these
N values of Qi is Sen’s estimator of slope. If N is odd, then Sen’s estimator is computed
by
Qmed = Q (N+1) / 2
(11)
Qi 

If N is even, then Sen’s estimator is computed by
Qmed = [Q N/2+Q (N+2)/2] /2(12)Finally, Qmed is tested by a two-sided test at the 100(1-α) % confidence interval and thetrue slope may be obtained by the non-parametric test.
4. RESULTS
Hydroclimatologists are concerned with analyzing time series by concentrating on
differences in 30-year normals along the whole period of records. This is why the periodof 30-year is assumed to be long enough for a valid mean statistic. It also amounts todescribing hydroclimatic time series as non-stationary with local periods of stationary(Kite, 1991). The selection of stations in a climate change research is substantial at theinitial step and that a minimum record length of 25 years ensures validity of the trend
results statistically (Burn and Elnur, 2002). The length of data set in this study, mostly
46 years, suffices the minimum required length in searching evidence of climaticchange in hydroclimatic time series. The majority of rainfall and temperature records
include observations of 46 years spanning from 1967 to 2013. Daily rainfall andtemperature data of the selected stations were taken from the Department ofMeteorology and Hydrology (DMH). Table 1 and 2 show the results of Mann-Kendall
test for selected stations. Sen's slope results for total rainfall are shown in Table 3.
Table 1. Mann-Kendall test results for total rainfall
Station
1. Magway
2. Mandalay
3. Meikhtila
4. Minbu
5. Sagaing
6. Shwebo
7. Monywa
8. Pakokku
9. NyaungU

Tau
0.28
-0.06
0.11
-0.053-0.030-0.102-0.101-0.051
0.065

Test Statistic-Z
2.736-0.5781.07-0.499-0.284-1.103-0.954-0.496
0.616

Climate change
in effects
centralindry
zone,dry
Myanmar
Climateeffects
changecentralzone, Myanmar

Trend Direction
UpwardDownward
UpwardDownward
Downward
Downward
Downward
Downward
Upward489

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Table 2. Mann-Kendall test results for maximum rainfall
Station
1. Magway
2. Mandalay
3. Meikhtila
4. Minbu
5. Sagaing
6. Shwebo
7. Monywa
8. Pakokku
9. NyaungU

Tau
0.053
0.069
0.009
-0.009-0.1370.019-0.0380.121
0.018

Test Statistic-Z
0.512
0.663
0.076
-0.078-1.3350.18-0.3681.143
0.166

Trend Direction
UpwardUpwardUpwardDownward
Downward
UpwardDownward
UpwardUpwardTable 3. Sen's slope results for total rainfall
Station
1. Magway
2. Mandalay
3. Meikhtila
4. Minbu
5. Sagaing
6. Shwebo
7. Monywa
8. Pakokku
9. NyaungU

Slope Value
3.5
-4.06
-3.84
-0.09
-3.06
-3.526-3.32-1.703
1.890

5. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Changes in a time series can occur steadily (a trend), abruptly (a step-change) or in amore complex form. It may affect the mean, median, variance or other aspect of the data.
Trend has various statistical methods for detecting trend, step change, differences inmeans or medians between two data periods and randomness in hydrological time series
data. The Mann-Kendall method was applied to know the existence of trends instreamflow and precipitation time series. All the trend results in this research have been
evaluated at 10%, 5% and 1% level of significance to ensure an effective exploration of
the trend characteristics of the study region. The study period is mostly from 1967 to2013. Significance level indicates the trend’s strength and Sen’s slope estimatorindicates the magnitude of the trend. Sen’s estimator of slope was employed to figureout the change per unit time of the trends observed in all runoff time series, where anegative sign represents a downward slope and a positive sign indicates an upward one.
In this study, the time series of temperature and precipitation in central dry zone during
the period 1967-2013 were tested for gradual trend and abrupt change at the annual total
and maximum scales. The results of Mann-Kendall test showed some strong significant
decreasing trends in the annual total rainfall. The largest negative was occurred in
Minbu station. Sagaing station indicated negative trend in annual maximum rainfall. A
noticeable increase in the total rainfall was observed mostly in Magway station.

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6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTFirst of all, the author is sincerely thankful to Dr. Nyan Myint Kyaw, Professor andHead of Civil Engineering Department, Yangon Technological University for his kindlead and guidance. The author is greatly indebted to her supervisor, Dr Win Win Zin,
Associate Professor of Civil Engineering Department, Yangon Technological
University, for her invaluable suggestions and careful editing this paper. The author isheartfelt thanked to Daw Cho Cho Thin Kyi, Associate Professor, Department of Civil
Engineering, Yangon Technological University. The author would like to thank all the
persons who have helped towards the successful completion of this paper.
REFERENCES
Chang, H., 2007. Comparative stream flow characteristics in urbanizing basins in the
Portland metroplitan area. Hydrological Processes 21, 211-222.
Hamed, K. H., 2008. Trend detection in hydrologic data: The Mann-Kendall trend test
under the scaling hypothesis. Journal of Hydrology 349, 350-363.
IPCC. 2007. Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution ofWorking Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK.
Kite, G., 1991. Looking for evidence of climatic change in hydrometeorological timeseries. Western Snow Conference, April 12-15, Washington to Alaska.
NRC (National Research Council). 1991. Opportunities in the Hydrologic Sciences.
National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
Partal, T., and Kalya, E., 2006. Trend analysis in Turkish precipitation data.
Hydrological Process 20, 2011-2026.

Climate change effects in central dry zone, Myanmar
Climate change effects in central dry zone, Myanmar

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492

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Quan T. NGUYEN1, Mai T. Nguyen2, Quan A. PHUNG3
1,3
Project Management and Law Division,
Faculty of Construction Economics and Management,
National University of Civil Engineering, Vietnam
nguyenquan.nuce@gmail.com
2
Vietnam Green Building Council
ABSTRACT

Construction waste accounts for a large amount of waste in urban areas all over theworld as well as in Vietnam. Aiming to find out more proper solutions for managing thistype of waste, this paper looks into the practice of construction waste management inurban construction project in Vietnam. Using both secondary data available inpublished materials and primary data from a survey with 56 respondents asconstruction practitioners, this paper points out the application of six popular
approaches in waste management in urban construction projects in Vietnam: disposal,
process, recycle, reuse, reduce and prevent in different level of popularity. It also
reviews relevant regulations and laws for construction waste management in Vietnam
as supporting factor for promoting modern methods for construction waste management.
The roles of different stakeholders in urban construction projects such as owners,
contractors and construction management etc. are also investigated in terms or their
responsibility for waste management as well as cost bearing for implementing activities
for construction waste management.
Keywords: sustainable construction, construction waste, 3R, polluter pays, urban
environment protection
1. INTRODUCTION
Construction industry in Vietnam plays a significantly important role in Vietnam inmany aspects. Recently, when the Government committed for promoting andimplementing sustainable development, the construction industry cannot stand out. In
terms of sustainable construction, waste handling becomes the biggest issues, since theindustry consumes a huge amount of energy and natural resources. As a developing
country, Vietnam is a little behind the developed countries in construction waste
management. This paper looks into the practice of construction waste management andthen the implications of the issues in urban areas in Vietnam.

493

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2. CONSTRUCTION WASTE MANAGEMENT: A BRIEF LITERATURE
REVIEW
Waste is defined as “an object” that currently “no longer has any beneficial use” (NSCC,
2007). “Construction waste” is used to call waste generated from construction activities.
Construction wastes are classified using different criteria such as their properties,
sources etc. They are also categorized based on construction stages (Katz and Baum,2011), which generate different amount of waste. The most popular construction waste
include excavated soil & dust, green waste (bushes, grass), broken bricks, surplus
concrete, surplus mortar, steel & metal, wood, plastic, glass (NSCC, 2007) and otherwaste from catering or other activities.
There are a lot of methods to manage waste in general as well as construction waste.
Among them, the most popular approaches include the following six approaches (inorder of increasing priority): disposal, process, recycle, reuse, reduce and prevent.
However, the application of these approaches varies from country to country. There arebarriers for construction waste management that are categorized into five groups (Yuanet al., 2011): lacking of relevant laws and regulations; the underdevelopment ofrecycling markets; low understanding of construction waste management; in sufficienteconomic incentive and lack of proper skills.
3. RESEARCH APPROACH
This paper applies a triangular research approach. Data used are both secondary fromrelevant reports and primary collected in an empirical survey. Relevant laws andregulations and other governmental documents are also analyzed when applicable.
Before the main survey, a preliminary survey was carried out in order to collectinformation for designing the questions of the main survey. Respondents for the main
survey were recruited with a convenient approach, in which potential respondents wereintroduced to the researchers by existing respondents.
4. SOLID WASTE AND CONSTRUCTION SOLID WASTE IN VIETNAM
4.1 Concepts
In Vietnam, waste is defined as solid, liquid or gaseous substances that are disposed offrom production, business, service provision, citizens’ living activities or other activities.
Construction solid waste includes solid debris and waste discharged from construction
projects. Popular types of construction solid waste in Vietnam include mortar, broken
tiles, concrete, pipes, roof sheets etc. coming from demolition, innovation of existing
construction projects or building new projects.
4.2 Classification of construction solid waste
Generally, solid wastes in Vietnam are classified by origin into: urban solid waste,
construction solid waste, rural solid waste, industrial solid waste and waste from
hospital and health services. Waste (from here, we use the word “waste” with the494

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meaning of “solid waste”) are also categorized into unhazardous and hazardous waste.
In construction, wastes are also put into similar groups. Unhazardous waste include soil
and mud from excavation and other earthwork, wasted construction materials, etc.
(Vietnamese Government, 2007). Hazardous or dangerous wastes include contaminatedconstruction and demolition waste, such as soil excavated from polluted areas,
construction materials containing solid substance or asbestos, disposing hazardous
substance etc. as listed in Decision 23/2006/Q -BTNMT (MONRE, 2006).
5. THE PRACTICE OF CONSTRUCTION WASTE MANAGEMENT IN
VIETNAM
5.1 A review on relevant regulations and laws
There are a number of regulations and laws that have been issued for the purpose ofmanaging waste in general and construction waste in particular. The Law on Protectionof the Environment has reserved a full chapter (Chapter 8) for waste management(Vietnamese Congress, 2005). Decree 59/2007/ND-CP proposed regulations for solid
waste management. Chapter 5 in this Decree has presented 9 technologies for handlingsolid waste for the reference of waste handlers. Decision 23/2006/Q -BTNMT has put
out the list for hazardous waste. Decision 1447/2005/QD-BXD was accompanied with
“Action Program for protecting construction environment” presenting the objectives of
the industry for managing solid waste. Apart from those, there are circulars, guidelines
and Vietnamese standards on waste classification and management that need to be
consulted as well. Significantly important standards as listed in Table 1.
Table 1: Significantly important standards on waste management
No
1

Code of the standards
TCVN 7469: 2005

2
3
4
5

TCVN 7629:2007
TCVN 6705:2009
TCVN 6707:2009
TCVN 6696: 20096

TCVN 6706: 2009

Standards
Safety for radiation. Measurement of active
level of solid waste to be considered as notradio-active to recycle, reuse or dispose of.
Threshold for hazardous waste
Unhazardous waste. Classification
Hazardous waste. Symptoms and warning signs
Solid waste. Hygienic landfill sites. General
requirements on environment protection
Hazardous waste. Classification

That is to say, there are lots of regulations and laws in Vietnam on waste managementin general and waste in construction in particular and they are sufficient for managing
construction waste. However, those regulations are far from completely effective inpractice since the lack of the obedience by the industry stakeholders e.g. theclassification of waste at sources is not done as the Law on Protection of theEnvironment requires. Some regulations are still impractical and need more guidance tobe applied in the practice. Selected regulations do not force the industry to apply but
encourage, then do not attract proper attention from the practitioners.

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5.2 Construction waste generation in urban areas in Vietnam
According to statistic figures, construction waste in urban areas in Vietnam accounts forfrom 10-15% or the urban waste. More details, in 2009, there were approximately 1000
tons and 2000 tons of construction waste being generated daily in Hanoi and Ho Chi
Minh City, the two largest cities in the country, respectively (MONRE, 2011) and thefigures reached 2000-3000 tons for Hanoi (MONRE, 2013) and more than 1000 tons for
Ho Chi Minh City in 2013 (DONRE, 2013). In urban areas in a smaller province ofTien Giang, the amount of construction waste generated in a day has reached 40 tons in2010 (MONRE, 2011). In the next few years, the rate of waste generation is estimatedto significantly increase due to the renovation and development of old public housingsin large cities in Vietnam.
Despite of the huge amount of construction waste, especially in urban areas, waste
handling is still a problem in Vietnam. The rate of solid waste collection is only 83.5%
in urban areas, 50-60 in towns and 20-30% in rural villages (Khoa, 2013). In Hanoi,
URENCO, the state-run enterprise that is in charge of waste collection can only collectabout 790 tons/day, other bodies collect 600 tons/day (MONRE, 2013), leaving the rest
uncollected. In other large cities like Da Nang, Hai Phong, Can Tho, there is the sameproblem with construction waste management. Solid waste in urban areas in Vietnam
now is mostly subject to disposal by landfilling, but the collection capacity is too lowthat there are still lots of waste uncollected. What is more, the mass media haverepeatedly reported many cases of solid waste being disposed of illegally on pavements,
roads in areas with low population density. The practice leads to the need of solutions
for more effective management of construction waste in the country.
5.3 An investigation on construction waste in Vietnam urban construction projects
A survey conducted for the research with 56 respondents was carried out in late 2013.
Among the survey participants, there are people from investors/owners, main
construction contractors, subcontractors, material suppliers and even civil servants inconstruction industry. The classification of the survey respondents is presented in Table
2. Though the sample size is not large, the sample covers a variety of respondents’ type,ensuring its representativeness.
Table 2: Survey respondents’ classification
No
I
1
2
3
4
5
6
II
1
2

496

Classification
Type or organizations
Investors
Main contractors
Subcontractors
Material suppliers
Civil servants
Others/ Unanswered
Working experience
Less than 5 years
From 5-10 years

Number of respondents

Percentage

18
18
6
1
2
11

32.14%
32.14%
10.71%
1.79%
3.57%
19.64%

30
16

53.57%
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No
3
4

Classification
More than 10 years
Unanswered
Total

Number of respondents
7
3
56

Percentage
12.50%
5.36%
100%

Table 3 shows the survey results in terms of type of construction waste they haveobserved in the sites and the management approaches used in handling the waste.
According to the results, the most recognized waste is excavated soil and mud. Other
types of waste have also been repeatedly mentioned by most of the respondents (fromabout 90% or greater). Generally speaking, the approaches applied are suitable for thetypes of waste. All of six waste management approaches have been applied inconstruction in Vietnam.
Table 3: Types of construction waste and management approaches
Types of waste(A) Excavated soil &dust(B) Green waste(bushes, grass)(C) Broken bricks(D) Surplus concrete(E) Surplus mortar(F) Steel & metal(G) Wood(H) Plastic(I) Glass(K) Others
Total

Frequency%

55

Waste management approaches
(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

98.21%

41

5

1

8

0

0

52

92.86%

31

5

4

11

0

1

53
53
52
53
51
52
50
13

94.64%
94.64%
92.86%
94.64%
91.07%
92.86%
89.29%
23.21%

21
19
16
5
3
15
18
0
169

2
3
1
6
2
3
4
6
37

6
5
6
16
11
12
4
0
65

24
14
16
19
20
10
8
3
133

0
8
11
6
12
4
8
3
52

0
4
2
1
3
8
8
1
28

Notes on waste management approaches: (1) Disposal, (2) Process, (3) Recycle, (4) Reuse, (5)Reduce, (6) Prevention.

There are about 30 plants all over Vietnam for handling solid waste in operation withlocal and imported technologies. The most popular technologies include disposing of(burial), composting and burning (Manh Cuong 2013). This explains the figures that
Disposal is the most popular approaches in waste management approaches applied forconstruction waste, as in Table 3. Disposal is the first choice of practitioners inconstruction in Vietnam, regardless of their working positions. This reflects the fact thatthe conditions for handling waste in Vietnam is limited. Almost the waste collection
sites in Hanoi use landfilling method, but about 85-90% of the landfill sites are nothygienic and in danger of pollution (Thanh Tram 2009). In addition, landfilling
consumes large areas of land and it needs long time for the waste to dissolve. Therefore,
the industry should promote more the application of 3R in solving construction waste.
Solid waste management in urban construction projects in Vietnam
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November
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Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarBecause only a limited amount of construction waste is organic, most of constructionwastes are unable to be burnt or composted, burning is not considered as a suitable
method for construction waste, as well as composting. That is why recycling has been
applied less in practice than disposal and reuse (Table 3). The imported technologies
seem to be improper to Vietnam since wastes in Vietnam have not been classified
properly at sources. However, a significant number of applications was put on Reuse as
in Table 3, making it the second selection of the industry. Project stakeholders havethought of saving construction materials by finding ways to use again surplus materials
or usable waste such as wood, metal and broken bricks. Attracting far less number ofchoices, Reduce was mentioned only 52 times in Table 3. Broken bricks, concrete,wood and mortar are among the type of waste that people tend to apply the reduce
approach most. The figures show that some of the construction practitioners have madeefforts to plan for reducing the waste in their projects. Process and Prevention are theones getting the least applications in the respondents’ projects. It seems that
construction practitioners have got difficulties in getting equipped with proper
equipment or technology for processing the waste as well as effective method forpreventing waste in their projects.
Regarding responsibilities of each stakeholder in handling waste on construction sites,
the contractors have been most appointed to bear the biggest responsibility for handlingthe waste issue (Table 4). The second position is for professional waste treatment
enterprises, but the significance is very far from that of contractors. Only one survey
respondent chose the owner and no one selected the consultants/construction
management as the ones who are in charge of handling construction waste on site.
Table 4: Responsibility allocation in terms of managing construction waste
Total
Body in charge of waste issuesofon construction sites
choiceWaste management approaches
(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

Contractors
Investors/Owners
Construction Management
Professional waste management
enterprises

84
1
0

23
1
0

6
0
0

15
0
0

14
0
0

15
0
0

11
0
0

11

5

0

2

2

2

0

Notes on waste management approaches: (1) Disposal, (2) Process, (3) Recycle, (4) Reuse,(5) Reduce, (6) Prevention.

The survey results show that almost all of the construction project stakeholders agree
that it is the contractors’ responsibilities to solve construction waste issues. The
implication emerged from this for waste managers is to focus on this type oforganizations for better waste management. However, attention should also be paid onowners and construction management. The owners have lots of direct benefits such ascost savings in reusing waste. Construction management is in charge of the wholeconstruction phase, so they need to bear some responsibilities as well. The related
emerging issue is which body should bear the cost for waste management. Figures inTable 5 show that the owners and the contractors are the ones who should be
responsible for the cost, but the owners have been selected by more respondents. That is498

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to say, the figures support the “polluter pays” principle in dealing with environmental
issues. Nevertheless, the figures also show that it depends on each construction project’sconditions to decide who should bear the cost for waste handling. This may lead to thefact that everybody wants to shift the responsibility to another stakeholder, if there is no
particular agreement or regulation.
Table 5: The selection on body in charge of paying for waste handling
Body in charge of paying for
waste handling on construction
sites

Total
of
choice

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

Contractors
Investors/Owners
Construction Management
Professional waste management
enterprises

38
52
0

11
14
0

3
4
0

5
11
0

6
9
0

7
9
0

6
5
0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Waste management approaches

Notes on waste management approaches: (1) Disposal, (2) Process, (3) Recycle, (4) Reuse,(5) Reduce, (6) Prevention.

6. CONCLUSIONSThe construction industry in Vietnam have a rather good understanding on the issues of
construction waste since the country adopted sustainable development as its official
trend, that is why there are lots of relevant regulations and laws being issued recently.
Then construction waste gradually attracts more and more attention of projectstakeholders. Construction waste accounts for a large percentage of waste in large cities
in Vietnam and leads to big handling problem. Six approaches for construction waste
management have been applied in construction projects in Vietnam, but they are
different in the level of popularity. Disposal of waste, the lowest level in the waste
management approaches, is the most popular method to be used in construction projects
in Vietnam. Luckily, the next popular method is reuse, which is considered as at ahigher level of waste management that brings benefits to not only the contractors but
also the owners. Recycling waste is not popular due to the lack of localized technologies
and the habit not to classify waste on construction sites. There is also waste reduction as
well as prevention activities carried out on sites, but the practice is not very popular.
Conforming to the principle of “polluter pays”, it is recognized by the research resultsthat the contractors should be responsible for waste management but the cost
responsibility should be shared both the owners and the contractors.
However, in comparison to developed countries, there are not proper quantitative
criteria for waste in general and construction waste in particular. This practice, as wellas the limited application of high level waste management approaches are among theimportant barriers that Vietnam need to overcome in order to solve the constructionwaste issues and to achieve its objectives of 90% of urban waste are handled, 60% of
which would be collected for reuse or recycle purposes in 2025, as stated in theDecision 2149/QD-TTg dated 12th December 2009.

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REFERENCES
DONRE., 2013. Ten years for developing and improving the system for managing solid
waste
in
Ho
Chi
Minh
City.
Retrieved2013(http://www.donre.hochiminhcity.gov.vn/thong-tin-hoatdong/lists/posts/post.aspx?Source=/thong-tin-hoatdong&Category=C%C3%B4ng+ta%CC%81c+qua%CC%89n+ly%CC%81+m%C3%B
4i+tr%C6%B0%C6%A1%CC%80ng&ItemID=2968&Mode=1).
Katz, A., and Baum, H., 2011. A novel methodology to estimate the evolution of
construction waste in construction sites, Waste management 31, 353-358.
Khoa, K., 2013. The rate of solid waste collection is only 20-30% in rural areas, Hanoi
Moi Newspaper.
Cuong, M., 2013. Contributions to the draft of the Decree as a replacement for Decree
59
on
solid
waste
management.
Construction
Newspaper
Hanoi,
http://www.baoxaydung.com.vn/.
MONRE., 2006. Decision 23/2006/QD-BTNMT on the publication of hazardous waste
list dated 26th December 2006. 23/2006/QD-BTNMT. Ministry of Natural Resources
and Environment.
MONRE., 2011. Report on the national environment 2011 on solid waste. Hanoi.
MONRE., 2013 News from the website.
NSCC., 2007. Reduce, Reuse, Recycle Managing your waste. London.
Tram, T. 2009 "90% of the landfill sites are not proper sites." Dan Tri Newspaper.
Vietnamese Congress., 2005. Law on Protection of the Environment. 52/2005/QH11.
Vietnam. 52/2005/QH11.
Vietnamese Government., 2007. Decree No. 59/2007/ND-CP on Solid Waste
Management dated 09 April 2007. 59/2007/ND-CP. Vietnamese Government.
Yuan, H., Shen, L and Wang, J. 2011. Major obstacles to improving the performance ofwaste management in China's construction industry. Facilities 29, 224-242.

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New Technologies
for Urbanfor
Safetyof Megain Asia

Kazuteru Nonomura1 and Anders Hagfeldt2
Researcher, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (EPFL), Switzerland
kazuteru.nonomura@epfl.ch2
Professor, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (EPFL), Switzerland

1

ABSTRACT
Solar cells is one of the energy sources to cover the electricity in the world. Solar cells havesome advantages compared to other energy sources due to its environmentally friendly
characteristics. Especially, it is a large advantage that it is not necessary to transfer
electricity from the generation site to the consuming places. The challenges in the current
solar cell technologies are the stability and the efficiency. For the top solar cell like used in aspace project, the efficiency of over 40% have been achieved. However, in a market, theefficiency is less than 10% or so. Moreover, the cost of electricity generated by solar cells ishigher than the one generated from other sources. The reasons for the high cost are the costof the material and the preparation process. For example, silicon solar cells, most wellknown solar cell and the most introduced in the society, have a limitation in the materials andit requires a high purity of the materials.
Dye-sensitized solar cell is one of the challenges to solve these. Dye sensitized solar cell is asolar cell which can generate electricity by using metal oxide semiconductor, pigments andelectrolyte. Although the efficiency and the stability need to be improved further, theenvironmentally friendly characteristics are enhanced. The choice of the materials are huge
and the color of the solar cells can be tuned. In this presentation, dye-sensitized solar cell isgoing to be introduced and its practical applications will be shown.
Keywords: solar cells, dye-sensitized solar cells, renewable energy,

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502

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

The integrated modelling approach forland-use change projection,
Case-study in Dak Lak, Vietnam

1

Anh Nguyet DANG1 and Akiyuki KAWASAKI2
Research Associate, School of Environmental Engineering and Management,
Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand.
dang@ait.ac.th2
Project Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, School ofEngineering, the University of Tokyo, Japan

ABSTRACTWith the rapid socio-economic changes, Vietnam has experienced huge land conversions
which causes negative impacts on both natural ecosystem and human living environment.
In Dak Lak, the province possess the largest area of natural forest in central highland of
Vietnam, competition among forest conservation, agricultural development andurbanization have been increasingly a pressing issue. For this reason, appropriate landuse planning is required for sustainable development in this province and broadly
Vietnam. In this light, the aim of our study is to develop an integrated model for land-use
changes projection with the case study in Dak Lak. Our model integrates System Dynamic(SD) and GIS-based model in order to combine the strength and overcome the limitationof each single modelling technique. SD model can comprehensively examine theinteractions between land-use change process and non-spatial driving factors (economic
development, policy, technology, and population) but it cannot deal with a mass of spatial
data. While GIS –based model has superior power of storage, retrieval and presentationof spatial information for complex land-use allocation process however this model cannot
appropriately work with non-spatial driving factors. The output of SD model is the landuse demand of Dak Lak from 2015 to 2030. GIS-based model was used to allocate theseland-use demand to the most suitable location of each land-use type and produce landuse change projection maps in future. We employed backward method to validate resultof GIS-based model by comparing model-based land-use map in 2010 with actual landuse map in 2010. In addition, we also compared model-based land-use projection map in2020 and land-use planning map in 2020 obtained from Dak Lak province’s authority forfurther discussion. The outcome of our integrated model would support land-use plannerand policy makers for better land-use planning and managements.
Keywords: land-use change model, integration approach, System Dynamic, GIS
1. INTRODUCTION
Half of the Earth’s ice-free land surface has been transformed by humankind and most of
the rest is managed for human purposes over the past 10 millennia or so (Global Land
Project, 2005a). Land-cover changes are caused by both natural processes and humanactivities. However, large percentages of land-cover changes of the recent past up to503

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmarpresent are due to the changes of land-use purposes (Briassoulis, 2000; Turner et al.,1999). Changes in land-use have increasingly put the negative impacts on water cycle(Sterling et al., 2012; Swartz et al., 2003), soil environment (da C Jesus et al., 2009) tobio- diversity (Hof et al., 2011; Seto et al., 2012). These changes, ultimately, contributeto regional and global climate change through affecting the balance of greenhouse gas
fluxes and surface Aledo effect (Cai et al., 2004; Chhabra et al., 2006; Pielke, 2005;
Rindfuss et al., 2004; Steffen et al., 2004). Land-use change, therefore, increases thevulnerability of people to socio-economic and environmental issues (Lambin et al., 2001;
Wu et al., 2014). Nevertheless, with the continuous increase of world population, landuse change is an unavoidable process and sustainable land-use management have become
ever more important to human (Global Land Project, 2005b).
The issues of land-use change have attracted interest among a wide variety of researchers(Lambin et al., 2003; Ronneberger, 2006). At first, most land-use change research was
focused on land-cover conversions (e.g., deforestation, urbanization) by a simple
comparison of successive land-cover maps (Irwin et al., 2001). Over past few decades,
land-use change models has emerges as a mean for better understanding of land-use
dynamics which help to address why, how, when and where the changes occurred (Müller,
2003; Verburg et al., 2004a; Verburg et al., 1999). Through land-use model, the user cantest hypotheses, make predictions and evaluate scenarios for land-use planning and policy.
Due to the complexity of land-use change process, previous researches demonstrated thatno singer model is capable of capturing the whole range of land use change’s
characteristic (Briassoulis, 2000; Lambin et al., 2000; Verburg et al., 2004a). Accordingly,
integration modelling approach, which combines different modelling techniques has been
widely used (Michetti, 2012; Upadhyay et al., 2006; Verburg et al., 2009a). This approach
explicitly deals with temporal and spatial dynamics, and achieves a higher level ofmultidisciplinary. Examples of integrated land-use models are CLUE-GTAP (Britz et al.,2011), IMAGE-GTAP LEI (B. Eickhout et al., 2008; van Meijl et al., 2006; Verburg etal., 2009b), IIASA-LUC (Fischer et al., 2001), KLUM-GTAP (Ronneberger et al., 2009),
IMPACT (Rosegrant et al., 2002), IMAGE (Letourneau et al., 2012; Strengers et al.,2004). IAM (Matsuoka et al., 2001) and LandSHIF (Alcamo et al., 2011) etc.
The dimension of integration is not the same in different models. Take the integration of
CLUE-GTAP as an example, they are two independent models CLUE and GTAP
combined together. GTAP - the economic based model- was used to calculate changes indemand for areas of land use while a spatially explicit land use change model (CLUE-s)
was used to translate these demands to land use patterns (Verburg et al., 2008). The
models of IMAGE-GTAP LEI, IIASA-LUC, EPIC-IFPSIM or KLUM-GTAP employ thesimilar operation of integration.
Another group of integrated model including AIM, IMPACT, IMAGE and IIASA LUC
in which the integration is defined as the combination of sub-model adopted from a wide
range of disciplines. However, almost models of this group, are not specifically developed
for land use studies. IAM was designed to study impacts on the market and on greenhousegas emissions of land-using sectors rather than on land-use change prediction (Matsuoka
et al., 2001). The IIASA-LUC, IMAGE, IMPACT models are specific for agriculture
sector (Strengers et al., 2004). Although these models incorporates many sub-systems,
interactions and feedbacks, it has become complex to operate and, above-all, difficult toparameterize due to the high data requirements for most countries (Fischer and Sun 2001).

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Review from the previous land-use change models shows that although previous
integrated model are very advanced, they are still a black box to user. While working withthe operational models, it is quite difficult for user to understand what behind the model
operation. In addition, using the operational models may also limit the scope of study
because each model was built for a specific purpose and some just can be used foranalyzing the change of one or two land-use types. For this reason, our purpose of thisstudy is to develop an integration methodology which combine System Dynamic (SD)and GIS-based model for project land-use change with the case study in Dak Lak Province,
Vietnam. In our study, land-use changes in Dak Lak is projected in the period 2015-2030.
In the first step, SD model was used to estimate the land-use demand of Dak Lak from2015 to 2030. GIS-based model was then employed to allocate these land-use demand tothe most suitable location of each land-use type and produce land-use change projection
maps in future. The results map was validated by backward method. This newer approachis expected to increase the transparency of land-use change modelling process which is
the limitation of previous land-use change model. In addition, the integration of SD and
GIS-based model will be demonstrated as the robust method which is able to seize thecomplicated interactions among the factors as well as deal with the spatial scale issues.
2. STUDY AREA
Dak Lak is located in the Center High Land of Vietnam. The total area is 13,125.4 km2,
the total population in 2012 was 1.796 million. With the potential for economic
development, recently, Dak Lak has witnessed the significant increase of population due
to immigration from other provinces. The province has also attracted more domestic andforeign investment. Increasing population and investment create a growing demand for
agricultural land, especial for cash crop (coffee, rubber, sugar-cane) and forest products,
which leads to a degradation of forest quality and a decrease in forest cover in the recent
history of Dak Lak. Consequently, Dak Lak is facing the intense changes in land-use
especially for infrastructure and agriculture development.
Although there were several researches of land-use change carried out in Dak Lakprovince and Mekong river region, which encompassed Dak Lak, there has not been any
comprehensive study on land-use change in the whole province. Problems still remain
which mentioned in previous researches in Dak Lak and Mekong river region. Firstly, theprevious studies pointed out the limitation of including economy and policy factors inland use change measurement The research of Müller et al. (2004) put effort to examine
the complexity of natural, social and economic issues in two district (Lak and Krong
Bong) of Dak Lak, but only two factors, policy and technology, were taken into account.
Both Takamatsu et al.(2014) and Ty et al (2012) built land-use change models however
they could not cover socio-economic driving factors . Our research is expected to fill the
gap in land-use research in Dak Lak in particular and Mekong river basin in general. It
can contribute as the technical assistance for the policy makers and planners in Dak Lak
to address future land use change. Based on that, they can develop land-use planning andmanagement strategy for sustainable development in Dak Lak province, Vietnam.

The integrated
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3. DATA AND METHODOLOGY
3.1 Data
Both non-spatial data and spatial data were used. The non-spatial data are socialeconomic statistical data in different years were obtained from Dak Lak Statistics
Yearbooks (2004-2012). As there was a change of administrative boundary in 2004,
hence, we chose to start using data from 2004 to avoid inconsistence within data. The
social-economic statistical data includes data of population, labor forces, agriculture andforestry, economic, investment and construction, trade and price etc. In addition, wecollected planning reports from Department of Environmental and Natural Resources of
Dak Lak province as well as reports from Asian Development Bank (ADB) and MekongRiver Commission (MRC).
Spatial data includes two land-use map (2005, 2010) of Dak Lak province; Digital Terrain
Model raster data (resolution 30 m); soil map; road map; river map and province boundary
obtained from Department of Environmental and Natural Resources of Dak Lak province;
the population density raster (resolution 1000 m) from website of NASA.
3.2 Methodology
This study built an integrated SD and GIS-based model to account for the structure ofland-use change processes in Dak Lak. The SD model was used to comprehensively
examine the interaction among non-spatial driving factors (economic development,
policy, technology, population) and quantify the demand for land-use types as a wholewithout spatial consideration. (Heistermann et al., 2006; Kok et al., 2001; Verburg et al.,2008). SD is able to deal with temporal heterogeneity, i.e. fundamental changes in driving
forces or processes through time related to a change in system properties. The GIS-basedmodel which has superior power of storage, retrieval and presentation of spatial
information for complex land-use allocation process is occupied for the actual allocationof land-use. This combination can help to utilize the strengths and minimize theweaknesses of individual model.

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Figure 2: General framework for land-use change prediction model
3.2.1 System Dynamic model for land-use demand
Land-use is constantly changing in response to dynamic interaction between driving
factors and feedbacks from land-use change to these driving factor which can be
categorized as natural variability, economic and technological factors (e.g. rural income,agricultural productivity), demography (e.g. population growth, immigration), institution,
culture and globalization related factors (Lambin et al., 2003). The potential applicationof System Dynamic (SD) in land-use model was demonstrated in previous studies (Hanet al., 2009; Liu et al., 2013; Voinov et al., 1999). On the base of analyses on driving
factor, the structure of SD was drawn with the causality functions and feedback loop
between a large numbers of socio economic and policy variables (Han et al., 2009; Liu etal., 2013; Voinov et al., 1999). Once a systems of land-use change is constructed, whatif scenarios can be explored more easily than with other modeling approaches that are notsystems oriented (Veldkamp et al., 2001).
In this research, STELLA was used to designed stock and flow diagram according to thecausal loop diagram of SD model and automatically generate the corresponding equations
based on the designed stock and flow diagram. STELLA is chosen because it is welldocumented and has a very intuitive graphic user interface and can be used to develop
from simple to very complex models
Based on the availability of data and classification of driving forces, this study simplified
the major components of systems and grouped these components into 5 sub-systems: 1)
a land-use system, 2) a population and labor forces system, 3) economic system, 4) policy
system and 5) technology system. These sub-system are consistent with the groups ofcausal factors that affect LUCCs in Dak Lak that are population growth, economic
development, technology innovation and policy. The interactions of these subsystems areshown in Figure 3

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Figure 4 displays the structure of the population subsystem. The total population change
depends on factors such as: birth rate, mortality rate, immigration and emigration rate.
Population change affect agricultural activities, demand for housing which cause changes
in built-up land and agricultural land.

Figure 4: Structure of population subsystem
The major component in land-use subsystem are 6 land-use types: agricultural land,
livestock land, forest, built-up land, un-used land and inactive land. We defined theinactive land as lake, reservoir and protected area. The changes of each land-use type areinfluenced by other land uses as well as, population information, gross domestic product,
demand for cash crop production and food crop production, re-forestation policy, average
life of land which are obtained from population subsystem, economic subsystem, policy
subsystem and technology sub system (See Figure 5).
Technology

Land-use

EconomyPopulation and Labor Forces
PolicyFigure 5: Structure of land-use subsystem
Dak Lak economic depend mostly in agricultural activities that why economic subsystem
includes cash crop, food crop and livestock subsystem. Figure 6 illustrates the influenceof economic on the output of agricultural, industrial and services industry. GDP isconsidered a major economic actor resulting from agricultural, industrial and service,
which affect investment in agricultural activities, construction of built-up area, afforestation, livestock raise as well as job availability.

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Figure 6: The interactions within economy subsystem
3.2.2. GIS based land-use changes allocation
For the allocation model, the driving factors was translated into suitability or preference
maps, which are a key component of the allocation. Such suitability maps can be createdusing theory or expert knowledge of the land-use system, empirical analyses or rules
based on neighboring cells (Verburg et al., 2004b). Using this suitability and themagnitude of change, an allocation algorithm will then allocate the claims in the best
suited areas. This allocation algorithm can be a simple cut-off value that selects the mostsuitable locations, but can also be a more sophisticated algorithm that takes thecompetition between different land uses into account (Lambin et al., 2006).
In this study multi-logistic regression was used to indicate the probability of a certain gridcell to be devoted to a land use type given a set of potential driving factors. Based on GIS
dataset, logistic regression model was constructed to determine the relation between landuse types and a set of potential driving factors. Six predictor variables were compiled inour regression model: slope, elevation, population density, soil type, distance to road, anddistance to river.
After logistic regression analysis was successfully executed, the land allocation model
will be built based on eight steps are required to accomplish: (1) Create suitability map
to find the best suited location of the expansion of different land-use type; (2) Create amask of un-changed area includes lake, reservoir and protected area; (3) Allocate cell tofuture built-up land where there is no conflict of suitability between built-up land andother land-use type; (4) examine whether needed allocate additional cells to future builtup land where results show built-up land suitability values are in conflict; (5) Create a2030 remaining land mask to account or the cell allocated for future built-up land in step
1-2; (6) Allocate remaining cells to future agricultural use where results show agriculture
suitability values are not in conflict and greater than livestock land suitability value; (7)Allocate remaining cells to future livestock land suitability where results showconservation collapsed preference values are not in conflict and greater than agriculture
and urban collapsed preference values; (8) Allocate all remaining cell to either agriculture
or livestock land where results show collapsed preference values are in conflict (moderate
and major) but the normalized preference values for agriculture and conservation
respectively greatest (Hart, 2008).

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4. RESULTS
4.1. Projected land demand
The SD model was used to project the demand or land use type during 2004-2030. Basedon the local statistical social-economic information form 2004-2012, related
macroeconomic planning and policies at provincial level, variable setting of population
increase, economic growth, technology development, forestry recovery and marketing
have been designed in the next 26 year from 2004. Then according to the combination ofthese settings, a future social economic scenario is defined and their demand for land-use
change be projected. The time run for SD model simulation is from 2004-2030 with yearlytime step. The data 2004 were used to calibrate the model to specify model parametersand variables setting. The data of 2005-2010 was use to validate the model to evaluate its
ability of projection.
Table 1: Projected land-use demand in 2020 and 2030 (Thousand ha)
Land-use type
ForestAgricultural land
Livestock land
Built-up land
Unused land

2020
655.2
491.1
0.568
101.5
52.3

2030
646.9
501.8
0.709
107.8
43.5

Table 2: Validation of land-use demand (Thousand ha)2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Projected result668.5 667.7 666.8 666.0 665.2 664.3
ForestActual data
665.0 602.5 598.6 600.0 624.6 637.5
Projected
479.9 474.4 475.5476,.7 477.8 480.0
Agricultural land results
Actual data
477.4 478.2 478.9 487.1 479.0 487.0
Projected
0.327 0.325 0.342 0.359 0.376 0.393
Livestock land results
Actual data
0.325 0.323 0.308 0.229 0.389 0.455
Projected
Built-up land results
92.3 92.8 93.4 93.9 94.5 95.1
Actual data
91.8 95.5 100.8 101.4 102.0 105.0
Projected
59.8 65.6 64.7 63.8 62.9 62.0
Unused land results
Actual data
59.5 68.2 61.3 56.3 60.9 66.0

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4.2 Projected Land allocation
4.2.1 Results of multi-logistic regression
The result of multi-logistic regression analysis determine the relations between land-use
type and a set of land-use change driving factors. Theses formulas were then used toevaluate the suitability of certain grid cell. The ROC characteristic is a measure for the
goodness of fit of a multi-logistic regression which is similar to R- square statistic in
Ordinary Least Square regression. A complete random model gives a ROC value equalof larger than 0.5; a perfect fit results in a ROC value of 1.
(1) Forest = 6.12 – 1.66*Population density + 0.84*Slope - 0.54*Inverse distance to river + 0.27* Inverse
distance to road -0.67*Soil Fertility - 0.62*Elevation (ROC:0.88)(2) Agricultural Land= - 4.27 + 0.99* Population density - 0.70*Slope - 0.13* Inverse distance to river 0.37* Inverse distance to road + 0.52* Soil Fertility + 0.63* Elevation (ROC:0.84)(3) Livestock Land = -8.98 - 0.39* Population density - 0.13*Slope + 0.03* Inverse distance to river - 1.02*
Inverse distance to road + 0.55* Soil Fertility + 0.48* Elevation (ROC:0.72)(4) Built-up Land = -4.42 + 0.49* Population density -0.52*Slope +0.33* Inverse distance to river - 0.47*
Inverse distance to road + 0.27* Soil Fertility + 0.26* Elevation (ROC: 0.78)(5) Unused Land = -4.97 - 0.20* Population density + 0.18*Slope + 0.57* Inverse distance to river + 0.62*
Inverse distance to road + 0.13* Soil Fertility - 0.56* Elevation (ROC: 0.70)

From the logistic-regression results, we can found the specific characteristics of eachland-use type in Dak Lak. Forests are mostly at higher slope and lower elevation. The soil
in forest has high fertility that explains for the reason why many forest land has been
converted to agricultural purpose. As for Agricultural land, soil type is the one of the mostimportant factor. Cultivation is carried out at highland plain therefore we can observe thenegative relation between agricultural land and slope and the positive relation between
agricultural land and elevation. Built-up land is close to the road, high population densityand developed in plain area of the highland. This can be explain by negative coefficientof slope, positive coefficient of population density and elevation.
4.2.2 Land-use distribution in 2030
After conducting suitability map, the cell with highest suitability for specific land-use
will be assigned to corresponding land-use type using ArcGIS Modeler Builder. Figure 7
shows the simulated land-use in 2030. Table 4 compares actual land-use distribution andsimulated land-use in 2010. The Kappa statistic was employed to evaluate the accuracyof the model. Kappa statistic uses confusion matric to compare the ground truth data withland-use model results. In our case, land-use map in 2010 collected from Department of
Natural Resources and Environment Dak Lak is compared with the land-use map
conducted from our integration model.
The model was used to simulate land-use change in 2020 and compared with planned
land-use map obtained from Dak Lak administrators. Our simulation result relatively
close to the province land-use plan with Kappa value of 0.75.

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Table 3. Comparison of actual land-use (2010) and projected land-use (2010) by modeland Kappa value
Kappa value

Legend2010
0.87

Actualland-use
Projected
land-use by
model
Table 4. Comparison of planned land-use (2020) and projected land-use (2020) by
model and Kappa value
Kappa value

2020

Legend0.75

Actualland-use
Projected
land-use bymodel

Figure 7: Projected land-use in 2030

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5. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Discussion
Modeling involves making trade-offs between realism, precision and generality (Wainger
et al., 2007). The more precisely a model captures a particular system, the less likely it
can be applied to another area (generality). As for the demand model with SD, theselection of factors and modeling the integration among factors depends on the practicalsocio-economic circumstance of Dak Lak. To apply the model for other study area, theselection of factors have to be revised and modify in the model.
In addition, a challenge in any land-use change projection researches is the accuracy
assessment. In order to improve the application ability of our model, participatory
approach could be involved in the steps of selecting driving factors and model validation.
If the combination of SD, GIS-based and participatory approach is successfully applied,the uncertainty of our proposed model can be reduced.
The demand – driven approach in our model could helps modelling process in close
conjunction with clients (clients could be stakeholders such as decision-makers). Clientscan contribute to create a satisfactory balance among the social, economic, environmental
and institutional components of a specific problem.
5.2 CONCLUSION
This paper accounted for such perspective that combination or integration of existingland-use modelling technique could improve land-use change scenario analysis. Throughour research, the integration approach has demonstrate the ability to accelerate thestrengths of SD model and GIS-based model to characterize the land-change dynamic ina more realistic manner with a case study in Dak Lak province during the period of 20042030. The SD model help to predict the demand for each land-use type. The GIS basedmodel limits of including social-economic factors but can allocate the land-use demand
determined by SD model. By changing value of different factor in SD, the planners or
decision makers could create different scenario, then accordingly, could see how it affects
land change dynamic through GIS-based model. With it transparency characteristic, ourmodel can be a useful tool to analysis the complex land-use change process.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Mr.Pham Tan Ha, GIS expert at Department of Environmental
and Natural Resources of Dak Lak province, for his support during our project.
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516

New Technologies
Urban
Safety Cities
of Mega
Cities in Asia
New Technologies
for Urbanfor
Safetyof Megain AsiaNew mathematical model for maximizing profit of
new low-cost carrier
considering hub-spoke system

1

Ryosuke YABE1 and Yudai HONMA2
Master course student, Department of Industrial and Management System Engineering,
School of Creative Science and Engineering, Waseda University, Japanryabe@toki.waseda.jp
2
Lecturer, International Center for Urban Safety Engineering,
Institute of Industrial Science, the University of Tokyo, Japan

ABSTRACT
Recently, numerous low-cost carriers (LCCs) have been established and have become
popular as a new style of airline service. In Japan, Peach Aviation began business as an
LCC in 2012. However, while it is true that some airline companies are suffering from aslump in business, Peach Aviation has succeeded because it set up a hub airport at
Kansai International Airport and runs many cash-cow routes. To establish a new LCC,
consideration of airline networks is most important for success. Therefore, in this study,
we propose a mathematical model to optimize the airline network, flight volume, andnumber of aircrafts for maximizing a new LCC’s profit supposing a hub-spoke style
network, and solve the model as a mathematical programming problem. First, weinvestigate the case of a single-hub network, and subsequently consider a two-hub
network. It was determined that, when both Narita and Kansai International Airports
are chosen as hub airports, a new LCC’s profit is maximized.
Keywords: low-cost carrier, LCC, hub-spoke, airline network, single-hub, two-hub
1. INTRODUCTION
Recently, many airlines that offer low fares by simplifying services have been
established and are referred to as low-cost carriers (LCCs); this has resulted in a greaternumber of transportation choices for travelers. When a new LCC is founded, it isessential for the LCC to consider optimum routes. From this viewpoint, in this study, we
consider an LCC that has newly entered the domestic airline network in Japan. We
evaluate the optimal airline network with simultaneous consideration of flight volume
and number of aircrafts that will maximize the new LCC’s profit. In particular, weconsider a hub–spoke network used by many LCCs.
An earlier study by Sohn, called “A linear program for the two-hub solution problem,”is considered as a fundamental basis for the present study. Sohn discussed the means toformulate and obtain an exact solution for the problem of which link between a spoke
airport and a hub airport should be connected when the location of the hub airport isgiven to minimize transportation cost. Sohn’s model indicated that every spoke airport
must be connected to a hub airport. In our model, however, it is possible, under517

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optimum conditions, that some spoke airports are not connected to any hub airport.
Furthermore, Sohn considered a comparatively simple objective function involving
strictly the minimization of transportation cost; the model did not include theparameters of airline volume or number of aircrafts. Many differences exist therefore
between Sohn’s model and the model proposed in this study. In what follows, we
propose an optimal airline network to maximize a new LCC’s profit, and apply themodel to Japan’s domestic airlines.
2. PROPOSED MODEL
In this section, we assume a new LCC that gains access to Japan’s domestic airline
network, and simultaneously determine the optimal network, flight volume, and numberof aircrafts that maximize the new LCC’s profit.
2.1 Network modelFirst, we suppose a total of hub airports indexed by () and a total of
spoke airports indexed by (). In the proposed
network model, the hub airport is given and each spoke airport can be arbitrarily
connected to other hub airports resulting in a hub–spoke network (which suggests that
we assume a multiple allocation model). Within the proposed network, hub–hub
connections are possible but spoke–spoke connections are not allowed. As such, in thisnetwork model there are§I ·I u J  I  ¨¨ ¸¸(1)© 2¹
possible flight links.
In this study, we propose flight volumes

from a given hub airport to each hub–spoke airport and number of aircrafts as decision variables. Additionally, we suppose= 1 indicates a single service trip both outward anda hub–spoke network, so that
homeward between airports and . Furthermore, in this study, we suppose that thesame aircraft can be used in any flight.
2.2 Profit calculation for the new LCC
In this study, we consider both income and cost to maximize the profit of the new LCC.
First, fare income and incidental business income are considered for the total income.
Incidental business income is earned by charging food/drink or seat assignments. This
income, given by the parameter (%), is attached to the fare income. When the fare forlink is(Yen) and the number of embarkations between airports and is, thetotal income REV is formulated as given by Eq. (2).

REV

1 E

I

J

¦ ¦ ^Y m  m `i 1 j i 1

ij

ij

ji

(2)

By calculating the summation in (2), every link in (1) is considered.

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Safetyof Megain AsiaICUS Report 78

Next, the costs of airport use (and, Yen/year), sales management ( , Yen/year),aircraft ( , Yen/year), fuel and employment ( , Yen/flight·minute), and traveling,
maintenance, and shipping ( , Yen/flight) are considered. The parameteralso
includes the cost to employees for airport use.
Whenis the traveling time between airports and , and is 365 (days), the total
expenditures COST is formulated as given in Eq. (3).
COST

I

¦
i 1

Furthermore,

CiH 

J

I
J
b j C Sj 
eij K  AM
j I 1i 1 j i 1

¦

¦¦

Q

I

J

¦ ¦ R ^f t  t  2L`
i 1 j i 1

ij

ij

ji

(3)

, in the above equation, indicates whether there is more than one flightbetween airports and , where= 0 for no flight and= 1 for more than one

indicates whether a spoke airport is placed at airport j, where= 0 when airport is not used and = 1 if airport is placed as a spoke airport.
flight. Additionally,

2.3 Proposed model
Under the above assumptions, the proposed formulation for maximizing the new LCC
profit is given by Eqs. (4)–(16).
max REV  COST
(4)
I

s.t.

J

¦ ¦^R t  t  2T `d TA(5)

mij d nij i, j
mij d QGRij i, j
m ji d n ji i, j
m ji d QGR ji i, j
Rij d 99eij i, j

(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)

¦ e d Ib(11)i 1 i j 1

ij

ij

J

i I 1

ij

j

ji

j

0 d mij i, j
Rij  ^0,1,2,`A  ^0,1,2,`eij  ^0,1`
b j  ^0,1`

In the above equations,the shuttle time (min),

(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
indicates the maximum operation time (minutes), indicatesindicates the predicted number of people traveling in an

airplane between airports and , and indicates the number of seats in an aircraft.
Incidentally, the coefficients of determination of this mathematical programming are.
3. METHOD OF PARAMETER ASSIGNMENTS
To calculate revenues and costs, we must assign a value to each parameter. In thissection, we describe the parameter setting method employed.

New Mathematicalfor Maximizing
Profitof Newcarrier
Low-cost
Carrier Considering
HubNew mathematicalmodel forModelmaximizing
profit of new
low-cost
considering
hub-spoke systemspoke System

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3.1 Method to set predicted number of people using airplane,
To assign a value to, we use data from the “Domestic Passenger Record per eachroute and month” and “Inter-Regional Travel Survey” produced by the Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism.
The Domestic Passenger Record contains data regarding the number of people for eachroute among existing airlines and the total number of all airlines for each route in 2012.
The Inter-Regional Travel Survey contains the number of people traveling by airplane
between arbitrary prefectures in 2010. We use these data based on the rule above to set.
3.1.1 If an existing LCC is already in service
If the new LCC obtains a route wherein an existing LCC is already in service, we
ascertain the number of people using that route and divide that number by the number ofcompeting LCCs. In this case, we do not consider an increase in demand.
3.1.2 If only a legacy carrier is in service
When only a legacy carrier is in service, we ascertain the number of legacy carrier
customers on that route and consider an increase in demand owing to the new LCC
service. We subsequently employ a logit model to calculate the rate of LCC use. Finally,
we multiply the number of legacy carrier customers including the assumed increase indemand by the obtained rate of LCC use.
3.1.3 If any carrier is not in service
Because Inter-Regional Travel Survey data indicate air traffic between arbitrary
prefectures, we first mete out airports to each prefecture. We already calculated the rateof LCC use for each route by the logit model, and we calculate an average for each
airport. Then, we multiply the number of travelers derived from the Inter-Regional
Travel Survey by the average from the logit model for each airport and arrive at a valuefor .
3.2 Fare,If an existing LCC is in service between airport and airport airport, we use this value
for . We ascertain this value from each LCC’s homepage and use an average over one
month. If an existing LCC is not in service, we employ the relationship given by Eq.
(17) below, where distance is the air travel distance between airports to establish .
Yi j(calc.) = 872.96×distance 0.731(17)
3.3 Cost of airport use
andFrom data derived from Skymark Airlines Inc., one of Japan’s largest LCCs, the cost of
airport use consists of payments to employees and airport rental fees. The number of
employees is proportional to the flight volume; therefore, we calculate the payments toemployees per flight by dividing Skymark’s total payments to employees by Skymark’s

520

New Technologies
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New Technologies
for Urbanfor
Safetyof Megain AsiaICUS Report 78

total flight volume over a period of one year. This value is included in , the cost ofwhich changes depending on flight volume.
On the other hand, rental fees do not depend on flight volume but on land value or
airport size. It is not feasible to determine land values around each airport; therefore, we
assume that this fee depends only on the airport size, which we assume depends on thenumber of people using the airport. We then calculate
andby comparatively
allocating costs using the past record of the 14 airports used by Skymark.
To consider airports other than these 14 airports, the airport size is considered. We
already calculated the airport use cost for these 14 airports, and we employ a rate basedon these 14 airports in accordance with the relative size of the other airports to calculate
and.
3.4 Other parameters
To calculate the cost of sales management K on a per flight basis, we divide Skymark’s
cost of sales management by 22, which is the number of flight links in the Skymark
airline network. Next, Skymark has 18 Boeing 737 aircrafts, and we divide Skymark’s
cost of aircrafts by 18 to calculate the cost of aircraft M on a per aircraft basis.
Furthermore, we calculate the cost of fuel and employment per minute from Skymark
data. Finally, we calculate traveling, maintenance, and shipping cost L on a per flightbasis from Skymark data.
In a working paper by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism,
there is a comparison between the unit costs of Skymark and Air Asia for many of theparameters used here. We can use comparisons between the various parameterized costsof the two airlines to establish a rate by which we can appropriately scale each cost for a
new LCC. Additionally, for the type of aircraft, we assume the Boeing 737-800 with
189 seats, which is popular with LCCs, to be the standard aircraft. Therefore, for thenumber of seats in an aircraft, we assume.
4. EXAMPLE CALCULATIONSIn this section, we provide a specific calculation using our profit maximization model
for a new LCC given in Section 2, and the method of parameter assignment given in
Section 3 in the case of a domestic airline network in Japan.
4.1 Setting target airport
There are more than 100 airports in Japan, but in this study we restrict our investigation
to the Narita Airport and 15 other airports, and attempt to obtain an exact solution by
employing a branch and bound approach using Mathematica 9. It is not possible toconsider all airports owing to limitations in calculational resources. Therefore, we chosea hub airport that is ranked in the top 15 based upon the number of incoming andoutgoing passengers. Additionally, we chose Narita, Shin-Chitose, Fukuoka, Kansai,Naha, and Chubu as possible hub airports.
4.2 Value of each parameter
New mathematicalmodel forModelmaximizing
profit of new
low-cost
considering
hub-spoke system
New Mathematicalfor Maximizing
Profitof Newcarrier
Low-cost
Carrier Considering
Hubspoke System

521

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The parameters we must consider are the cost of airport use, aircraft ,fuel/employment , and traveling/maintenance/shipping . Furthermore, we set the
shuttle time = 30 min and the maximum operation time for each aircraft
600(min). Tables 1 and 2 below list the parameters used in the calculations.
Table 1: Values for the various parameters used in the calculations
Airport Use
Traveling
Maintenance
Shipping
SalaryAircraft(Yen/Year)(Yen/flight)(Yen/flight)(Yen/flight)(Yen/flight)

Table-2
81,994
17,226
12,99630,364(million yen/year࣭craft)

406(million yen/route)(Yen/minute)(yen/minute)

25
444
5,187

Sale Management
employment
Fuel

We also calculated cost of airport use (rental fee)table below.

; the results are listed in the

Table 2: Cost of airport use (Rental fee; million yen)
AirportNaritaShin-Chitose
Naha
Fukuoka
Chubu Kansai
Rental fee
131
572
508
505
164
185
Airport Kagoshima
Sendai
Hiroshima Kumamoto Miyazaki
Rental fee
162
88
78
97
91
Airport
Kobe
Matsuyama Nagasaki
Komatsu
Oita
Rental fee
86
80
92
69
50
4.3 Results of single-hub calculationsFirst, we list the results of single-hub calculations, where= 1, in Table-3.

Table 3: Results of single-hub calculations (million yen)
Hub
NaritaChubu
FukuokaKansaiShin-Chitose
Naha

Profit Revenue Cost
1,481 13,794 12,313
1,171 12,196 11,025
1,011
8,320
7,309
880
4,661
3,781
846
7,690
6,845
75
10,781 10,706

Number of Aircraft
7
6
4
2
4
6

From Table-3, the new LCC’s profit is maximized when Narita Airport is the chosen
hub airport. Table-4 below shows which airports best serve as spoke airports and therespective flight volumes from Narita.

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New Technologies
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Safetyof Megain AsiaICUS Report 78

Table 4: Flight volumes from Narita to various spoke airports (flights)
Spoke
Flight Volume
Spoke
Flight Volume
Spoke
Flight Volume

Kansai
Chubu
Fukuoka Shin-Chitose
Naha
0
0
0
0
0
Kagoshima
Sendai
Hiroshima Kumamoto Miyazaki
2
0
3
2
1
Kobe
Masuyama Nagasaki
Komatsu
Oita
1
0
1
3
1

It should also be noted that, wherever we set a hub airport, numerous links connect tosmall airports in rural areas. The reason for this is related to the cost of airport use(rental fee), in that the rental fee for a small airport in a rural area tends to beconsiderably smaller than that for a large airport in an urban area. While there are many
more travelers between large airports, the rental fee has a greater effect.
4.4 Results of two-hub calculations
Subsequently, we list the results of two-hub calculations, where= 2, in Table-5.

Table 5: Results of two-hub calculations (million yen)
Hub pair
Narita-Chubu
Narita-Fukuoka
Narita-Shinchitose

Profit
3,209
2,748
2,689

Revenue
31,82625,89927,495

Cost
28,61623,15124,806

Aircraft16
13
14

Narita-Kansai

2,673

22,347

19,67411

Chubu-Fukuoka

2,522

20,70318,181

10

Shinchitose-Fukuoka

2,329

20,34218,01310

Kansai-Fukuoka

2,130

18,432

16,302

9

Shinchitose-Chubu

2,000

16,46914,468

8

Shinchitose-Kansai

1,996

12,981

10,985

6

Narita-Naha

1,930

26,566

24,63614

As shown in Table-5, profit is maximized when Narita and Chubu International Airports
are chosen as the hub airports. Flight volumes from Narita and Chubu International
Airports are listed in Table-6 below.

New Mathematical Model for Maximizing Profit of New Low-cost Carrier Considering HubNew mathematicalmodel for maximizing profit of new low-cost carrier considering hub-spoke systemspoke System523

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Table-6 Flight volumes from Narita and Chubu International Airports (flights)

NaritaChubu
NaritaChubu
NaritaChubu

NaritaChubu

×0
Kagoshima
22
Matsuyama
100×Sendai01
Nagasaki
1
0

ShinChitose
3
1
3
5
Hiroshima Kumamoto
3300
Komatsu
Oita
3
1
0
0
FukuokaKansaiNaha

10Miyazaki
2
1

0
3
Kobe
1
0

Similar to the case of the single-hub calculations, numerous links connect to small
airports in rural areas, and, again, the rental fees affect the results. In fact, the primaryreason that the top two most profitable hub airport pairs are Narita-Kansai and NaritaChubu is that these three airports are the top three airports based on the number ofincoming and outgoing passengers with the lowest rental fees.
5. Conclusion
In this study, we consider a new LCC that has gained access to Japan’s domestic airline
network, and establish an airline network that maximizes the new LCC’s profit. We
consider a hub–spoke network that numerous existing LCCs presently use, and weinvestigate a multi-hub network using simultaneous decision of flight volume andnumber of aircrafts.
Furthermore, we found that rental fees profoundly affect connection choices. As such, itwould be most beneficial to establish more accurate rental fees to increase the accuracyof our calculations because the top three airports based on the number of incoming andoutgoing passengers with the lowest rental fees were chosen for hub airports as a result.
A source of inaccuracy in our calculations, which could be rectified in the future, is theuse of 2012 data. Use of 2013 data would allow for more accurate calculations if thedata were disclosed to the public.
REFERENCES
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, Cited 30 Apr 2014. Domestic
Passenger Record per each route and month, www.mlit.go.jp/k-toukei/index.html
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, Cited 30 Apr 2014. Theinterregional travel survey:
www.mlit.go.jp/sogoseisaku/soukou/sogoseisaku\_soukou\_fr\_000016.html
Sohn J., Park S., 1997. A linear program for the two-hub solution problem, European
Journal of Operational Research 100, 617-622.
Sohn J., Park S., 2000. The single allocation problem in the interacting three-hub
network, NETWORKS 35, 17-25.
Skymark Airlines Inc., Cited 30 Apr 2014. Skymark official HP, www.skymark.co.jp524

New Technologies
Urban
Safety Cities
of Mega
Cities in Asia
New Technologies
for Urbanfor
Safetyof Megain AsiaInvestigating socio-economic impacts offlood on the people affected by poverty:
Case study in Bago, Myanmar
Htoo Htoo Shwe1 and Akiyuki KAWASAKI2
1
Senior Sub-Assistant Engineer (Civil), Irrigation Technology Center (ITC),
Irrigation Department, Myanmar
hs.htoohtooshwe@gmail.com
2
Project Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
University of Tokyo, Japan
ABSTRACTThe study is aimed to analyze differences in impacts of flood between poor household
and non-poor household by investigating the social and economic standard of people
living in flood affected area with those living in non flood affected areas. A field survey
was carried out in 196 households in 13 wards of Bago city, Myanmar for year 2010
and 2011 flood. By the 2010 year poverty line and their own point of view, 52% of poor
people and 48% of non poor people lived in the field survey area. Cross tabulation wasused to describe statistical findings such as frequency, percentage, and average ofassessment of socio-economic status focusing on gender, age group, income, households’
attendance on disaster risk reduction training. Geographic Information System (GIS)
was used to visualize the place of flood affected zone with their spatial characteristicand demographic characteristic according to their location such as housing locationfrom the river bank, surface slope, elevation, and flow accumulation. Based on thisstudy, it is revealed that the poor people are more likely affected. The effects are studied
with reference to age group, income level, landholding size, housing location, accesses
to school and road. There are high direct and indirect costs on poor people comparedwith their average family income. The extents of flood impacts on poor people are morethan that of non-poor. The results of this study would indicate local people and policy
maker to be considered flood mitigation actions in order to alleviate the poverty more
and those will support also for further flood risk managements.
Keywords: poverty line, socio-economic impacts, flood mitigation, GIS
1. INTRODUCTION
The runoff generating from rainfall combine existing water and pass through any
waterway or drainage, or become flooding when those water is over-capacity of water
channels. Huge flood causes danger to human and their properties. The poverty anddisaster are linked (Fothergill and Peek, 2004). In developing countries, poverty causes
community getting more vulnerability to disasters and reducing its coping capacity andincreasing disaster risk again because of low education, cost of education and lesschance to join school. Socioeconomic status of people are taken into consideration in
many disaster management researches how people with different socio-economic

525

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Yangon,MyanmarNovember
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Yangon,Myanmarprepare for and respond to natural hazard risks and how much impacted differentiallybefore, during and after. Socio-economic impacts are such as direct damages to house,
more expenditures and low income, transportation disability, and water sanitation valves
damage, and time losses etc. The poverty is taken into account on the lack of access tothe factors: safe water and sanitation, health care, nutrition, job vacancy, education
opportunities, transportation, and electricity (David Singleton, 2003). Poverty is defined
as a deficit below some lowest amount level of resources, which is termed the poverty
line (Kyaw, 2006).To ensure development and sustainable poverty alleviation, risk
reduction into poverty reduction should be integrated to mitigate the community’svulnerability to natural hazards by assuring productivity, job opportunities andimproving stabilized incomes and consumption. Myanmar suffers annually from flood
disasters caused by heavy rainfalls of monsoon season (June to October). Approximately
60% of Myanmar people are farmers and fishermen who are highly vulnerable to floods
and cyclones. Currently, there is very few poverty studies related with disastermanagement in Myanmar because the statistics of observation on the impact of flood
disaster and understanding of poverty are inadequate. Therefore, policy maker, civilsociety, private sector may be failed to draw plan and design for reducing flood disasterand ameliorate the impact of flood on households, and poverty alleviation. The generalobjective of this study is to recommend the approach of poverty alleviation by flood
mitigation. It aims to assist in decision making for operation, maintenance, rehabilitationand modernization of water infrastructures for flood mitigation measures by developing
integrated GIS-based spatial characteristic maps of flooded places and flood impacts
which could be used as a tool for imagination of hypothesis and scenario to draw flood
disasters mitigation plans for the study area. This study assesses the adverse effects offlood disaster before and after flood for the year 2011 and 2012, to study the socioeconomic impacts of the flood events and to propose flood mitigation interventions fromsocio-economic point of view to alleviate the poverty of the study area.
2. DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA
Bago region is located in the southern central part of the country between 46°45'N and
19°20'N and 94°35'E and97°10'E.
Bago
regionproduces paddy second mostin
Myanmarafter
Zaung Tui
Ayeyarwaddy Region and
Kodugwethus possess a strong agroShwelaungbased economic and densely
populated. Location of theSalustudy site is shown in Figure 1.
The study site is, Bago
Township which area is
Z.T weir
7,830 km2, with a populationof 220,000. It is located near
Bago river bank and is
Bago city
flooded in every year due toits geographically lowland
Figure 1: Reservoir networks upstream of Bago
area to assess the floodinundated
place.
Heavy

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rainfall in the Bago river catchment and high tide from the downstream of the rivercause floods during the months of July and August. The flood reaches Bago city’s
danger level annually. Bago river is averagely 60 m wide and 5 m deep. Catchment area
is 2680 km2 and its annual inflow is 3530 x 107 m³. The maximum river water level inrainy season is 8.60 m above mean sea level and its’ danger level is 9.10 m. In flooding
time, approximately 3.2 km of Yangon-Mandalay highway and railway in the Bago was
flooded over 1 m and it causes transportation disabilities. Some areas of the city were
flooded with a depth of 1.5 m. Severe floods occurred in 2011 and its’ water level was
9.60 m. It was the highest new record during last 47 years. In 2012, Irrigation
Department constructed Kodugwe, Salu and Shwelaung dams upstream of the Bago river(Figure 1) in order to maintain some extents of flood protection.
3. DATA USEDDEM (Digital Elevation Model) data of 90-m resolution downloaded from hydroshedwebsite was used for GIS analyses. Field survey was carried out to investigate therelation between poverty alleviation and flood mitigation except information on healthand nutrition due to people’s limited knowledge on the health issues. Flood and damage
data before and after flooding were collected through questionnaire and also from local
authorities for the year 2011 and 2012. The focus region includes both the floodaffected wards and not comparatively affected wards. Data collection for households
was done using random sampling procedures. The general questionnaire are mainly
related to the respondents’ age, sex, education, occupation, housing details, income,asset, sources of water, and flood related problems of inundated depth and duration. The
questionnaire covered impact of floods on different occupational group, coping
mechanisms, household activities during and after floods. Quantitative information on
population of the villages, per capita income, and water level during flood was obtained
from focus group discussion.
4. METHODOLOGY
The research was carried out by the following methodological framework.
Survey• Flooded and Non-flooded region( GPS)• Socio-economic characteristics ofpoor before and after flood( Questionnaire survey)

Data Processing and Analysis• Separate study groups• Making analysis the socioeconomic impacts between thegroups by cross tabulation• GIS (Mapping out)
Outputs• GIS Map of inundation area in 2011 &2012• Flood impacts to welfare and life ofpoor
Outcomes• Proposed plans for mitigating
flood damage to poor people

Figure 2: Framework of the study
Investigating socio-economic impacts of flood on the people affected by poverty:
Case studyInvestigatingin Bago, Myanmar
socio-economic impacts of flood on the people affected by poverty: Case study in527
Bago, Myanmar

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarIn this study, poor people are defined on the basic of income and their self view on theirwealth status through questionnaire sheet and country poverty line for 2010. The
Ministry of National Planning and Economic Development in Myanmar provided thetotal year poverty line is about 376,151 kyats (431 USD) by 2010 year poverty line
(MNPED, at el, 2011). Flooded or non-flooded households were surveyed bycoordinating with the administrative office of wards. The respondents in the study area
are identified into four groups: (1) poor and flood (PF), (2) poor and non-flood (PNF),(3) non-poor and flood (NPF), and (4) non-poor and non -flood (NPNF) based on floodinundation depth and flood duration, characteristics of people who suffered flood
impacts, and damage cost due to flood.
Direct damaged cost will cover all costs immediately used after flood such as repairing
houses, fences, and other damages. Total damaged cost is the combination of direct
damaged cost and cost because of disabilities and also consideration of loss accesses. In
this study, the indirect cost was mainly calculated on income difference of respondent
before and during flood. Average daily income is generated from field survey by
dividing the monthly household income with 30 days. And finally indirect cost is
calculated by multiplying the daily income and flood duration in day.
Cross tabulation is applied to find out frequency and statistic of the variables of
respondents: education, occupation, location, age, geometry, distance from river bank,total damage cost. Locations of households observed with GPS were input to GIS maps
using Arc GIS 10.1 for spatial characteristics. Tabular information of analytical impacts,
flood characteristics on study groups are linked to the developed GIS maps.
5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
5.1 Demographic condition of the study area
Demographic condition is obtained from field survey through questionnaire sheets. The
sample number of each analysis was not being same and it depended on the respondent’s
feed backs. Average family size of study area is about 5 and for the whole country is
about 4 (minimum) and 5 (maximum). The fieldwork is carried out on 178 households
to know the gender distribution and age distribution of household-headed. It is
obliviously seen that most of households-headed are males 65% who get the mainincome for the whole family. Female household-headed 35% is less than male
household head and most of them is housewife. In study area most of the household
headed are in lower education standard. On occupation status, poor people are daily
wages while non poor people are doing business. In housing status, poor household
types are made of thatch roof and Bamboo, medium house are brick masonry andwooden house with zinc roofing. Most of rich people live in reinforced concrete andbrick masonry houses. In the survey, 136 households own their houses, and only 11
households are tenant. There are 134 separate type houses but only 7 are attached type
houses. In flood affected areas, the lowest floor level of houses are ranging from 1.2 m
to 2.5 m. Common water supply systems are tanks, earthen pots, public ponds, pipe lineor tube wells. In some places, people who has no own pumps or wells have to buy waterwith 700 kyats/day even on non-flood period. From field survey results, it was foundthat poor is 52% and non-poor is 48%, flooded is 55% and non-flooded is 45%.

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55.2 Flood Im
mpactsFloo
od inundatiion depth aand flood duration,flood
d affected household characterisstics anddamaaged costs area studied for four groups: (1)poorr and flood (PF), (2) ppoor and non-floodn(PNF
F), (3) non--poor and flflood (NPF)), and (4)non--poor and non -floood (NPNF
F). Thedistribution of those grooups is shhown in(Figu
ure 3).

Figure 3: DistributionsDs of PF, PNF
F,
N and NPNF
NPF

Flood
d Depth an
nd flood duduration afffected on
poorr and non--poor in 20011 and 2012
2
are
show
wn in (Figu
ure 4.1- 4.4)). It was foound thatmaxiimum floodd depth annd duration affectedon poorpmore than non-ppoor. By co
omparing
2011
1 and 2012 flood evvents, floood depthdecreeased in 20
012 while flood duration was
long
ger than in 2011.
2

F
Figure 4.1 FloodF
depth affected onn poor
andd non-poor in 2011

Figure 4.2: Flood duraation affecteed onpoor and non-pooor in 2011

Figure 4.33: Flood Dep
pth affectedd onpoor anda non-pooor in 2012

Figure 4.4: Flood Durration affecttedon poorr and non-pooor in 20122

Inn (Figure 5.11 and 5.2), educationeaand occupatiion status of four groupps are show
wn. It was
foound that 444% of PF arre illiterate than the otther three grroups and 662% of PF are labor

Innvestigating
socio-econo
micofimpacts
flood
on thet affected
peopleby
afffected
by pooverty: Case study in
Investigating
socio-economic
impacts
flood onofthe
peoplepoverty:529
Baago,
Myanmaar
Case study
in Bago,
MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovembeer 2014,
Yanngon,Myanm
marand dailly wages. Thus
T
PF sufffer impact of floods annd they hav
ve to find allternative jo
obs
for dailyy income duuring flood period.

Figuree 5.1: Houseehold distrib
butions withhthee educationn status of pooor andFiguree 5.2: Household distriibutions witth
the occupation staatus of poorr and floodeed

Figuree 5.3 Houseehold distributions witth
the disttance to riveer

Figu
ure 5.4 Dam
maged costs ffor flood
impaccts

Figure 55.3 shows household distributionn in relationn with distaance from tthe river. Itt isobliviouusly seen thhat more thaan 90% of hhousehold withinw
100m
m distance frrom river baank
is poor household. Figure 5.4 shows the ddamaged coost of respo
ondents affeected by flood.
Poor peeople have moremdamaaged cost thhan non poo
or. The amo
ount of maxximum costt is
430,0000 Kyats (495 USD) in 2011.
2
Mostt poor peoplle had two timetof dammage cost th
hannon pooor people.

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(b)
(a)
Figgure 5.5: (aa) Comparison of damaaged costs annd (b) total damaged coost for floodd
impacts
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Figure 5.5 shows the comparison of thehousehold distributions affected by direct
damaged cost and total damaged cost. It canbe seen in the (Figure 5.5 a) that poor live at
the left side of Bago river have low direct
damage cost however they have high total
damaged cost due to the addition of indirect
damage cost from disabilities of roads andelectricity affected by longer flood duration(Figure 5.5 b). The developed GIS spatial
characteristics map (Figure 5.6) shows thatpoor live at the left side of the river are inhigher elevation so that they are resilient todirect damage at flood depth up to 4 feet
(1.22 m) shown in orange circles.
About one fourth of total respondents(36:135) could not go to school during the
Figure 5.6: Elevation with flood
floods and the ratio of disabilities of poor
inundated depth
student and non-poor students is found to be(23:15). About half of respondents (72:135) could not access roads and electricity during
the flood and poor people could not use longer than non poor people. Over one fourth of
total respondent’s (30:135) loss accesses more than 16 days. Moreover, in the case ofwater sanitation system, 36 households is affected their daily use water sanitation system
due to flood. In the case of flood information, 52 households out of 196 did not getenough early information about flood for preparedness and evacuation and 26
households didn’t get the sufficient information.
The respondents have experiences in preparedness before floods and respondness after
the floods. They have different ways in preparedness and respondness according to theirfinancial status and locations of households. The study investigated the coping strategy
on PF, PNF, NPF, and NPNF from the aspects of physical, social and economical inflooded and non-flooded areas before, during and after the floods (Figure 5.7).

Physical Aspect

Social Aspect

Economic Aspect

Figure 5.7: Preparedness and respondness of respondents with specific item on flood
Investigating socio-economic impacts of flood on the people affected by poverty:socio-economic impacts of flood on the people affected by poverty: Case study in 531
Case studyInvestigatingin Bago, Myanmar
Bago, Myanmar

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarAmong the four groups, it can be seen that PF are more affected by floods in physical,
social and economical aspects strengthening houses before flood, evacuating goods
during flood, lend money for extra costs of recovery process such as repairing houses
after floods. NPF are the second most affected by floods. But they still have highrecovery process for direct damage. Thus, it is necessary to consider land elevation,
floor levels of houses and distance from the river for flood mitigation plans.
In case of flood impacts on farmlands and livestocks, paddy yield is decreasing about
50% due to flood in these years. Most area of Bago is unban and only sub-urban along
highway is the farmland outside city area. They are facing problem for agriculture inlack of water at summer time and heavy water on rainy time. They have no monthly
income and monthly expenditure is about averagely 180,000 kyats. The majority offarmer families are depending on yearly income from farmland. Low yearly income byflood affected to the farmers lowering living standard more and more. They can growonly one season starting about Nov or January only but not in rainy season because offlooding waters. The damaged cost on farming case includes the loss of farmlands (lowproduction) and recovery cost for farmland to be use in coming season. The averagedamaged cost of farmers is 1,857,066 kyats and 1,817,353 kyats for 2011 and 2012
respectively.
5.3 Proposed Flood Mitigation Measures
In the focus group discussion, some people in flooded wards have their own thinking for
reducing the impacts of flood. They would like to report to local authorities about theirdifficulties due to flood and they hope to mitigate the floods as much as possible
because of extra cost in transportation and evacuation, and income loss due to workabsence during the flood. On the other hand, the farmers would like to get better
drainage and irrigation system, improved flood protection works and to strengthen theexisting dykes and embankments for rice cultivation in rainy season. The farmer
presented their flood mitigation plans for their farmlands and they hoped to be
implemented in future. Most of the farmers in Mekone ward, would like to strengthen
the existing hydraulic structures and bridges across Thae Phyu Chaung and Mazin
Chaung because narrowing drainage gates and low height bridges disturb water flow andmake flood traps in the farmlands. The administrative people of Pinse ward would likethe stream to be dredged out and to be widen near the ward because water flows into theward and farmlands from the narrow stream.
The respondents in the most critical flood area in Bago city mentioned that hydraulicstructures construction to slow down the water flowing speed around Kyun Thar Yar
ward and Kalyarni ward because they could not go outside from their home during floodtime even though by boat and it is too dangerous around Kalyarni ward.
We developed a GIS flood mitigation measures map based on flood depths, land
gradients, streams across the wards and outcomes from focus group discussion. Floodmitigation approaches should be strengthening the existing embankment or construction
new embankment or hydraulic structure around Mazin stream, lateral of Bago river. And
early warning system will be reduced some extent the flood impacts (Figure 5.8).

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Drainages

Floo
od
mon
nitoring
station

Velocity
Dissipatingg

Flooded waards
Non floodedd
wards

Severely
Flooded area

Dredging

Figure 5.8: Study waards and prooposed GIS
S based flood mitigationn measures map
6.. CONCLUUSION AND
D RECOMMMENDAT
TION
6..1 Conclusiion
Demographicc characteriistics of thee study area Bago cityy, Bago Reegion, Myan
nmar areexxamined. Thhe differencce of flood iimpacts among four groups of pooor flooded, poorpnonfloooded, nonn poor floodded, and noon poor nonn flooded peoplep
are aanalyzed. The
T floodimmpacts are assessedain termstof soccial, econom
mic, physicaal aspects.
Thhe results showsthat thhe whole arrea of Bagoo city is noot inundatedd even in th
he severe
flooods. Floods annuallyy occur inn the samee places in July and August. However,H
Irrrigation Deepartment carriedcout flood mitig
gation workks by constrructing dam
ms in theuppstream of thet Bago Riiver in the yyear 2012. By
B means ofo those mitiigations, flo
ood areas
annd flood inuundation deepths were rreduced to some exten
nts and highh flood watter levelswwere lower thhan in year 2011.
M
Majority of poorppeople are illiteratte and havinng only primmary educattion level annd hence,
thhey have liimitation to access tto disaster related information and risk reductionr
prrogrammes.. Then they
y are relatiively moree suffered byb flood. H
However, nonn poorpeeople who havehmultipple sources of income and higher education are less afffected byfloood than pooor people. Poor peop le have mo
ore direct an
nd indirect costs whilee the nonpooor people havehdirect cost only. P
Poor and flo
ooded peop
ple group whwho live in nearn river
baank are dailly wages laabor and low
wer education than non
n poor. Pooor people lo
ost nearlytwwice than noon poor peo
ople and theyy are affectted by floodd impacts annd consequeences not
onnly during anda after thee floods, but
ut also they havehpreparration costs before flooods.
6..2 Recomm
mendationss
Thhe study would
wlike too recommennd that pooor people liive in inunddated area which is
cllose to riverr with low elevation. T
Thus, poor people werre more floooded than non-poornpeeople, but thheir econom
mic damagee would be lesslthan noon-poor beccause of low
w income
annd fewer prroperties. AbsoluteAecoonomic loss of poor peoplepwouuld be small but theInnvestigating
socio-econo
micofimpacts
flood
on thet affected
peopleby
afffected
by pooverty: Case study in
Investigating
socio-economic
impacts
flood onofthe
peoplepoverty:533
Baago,
Myanmaar
Case study
in Bago,
MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmarrelative economic loss and social impact of poor would be larger than that of non-poor.
Flood mitigation works should be planned in order to alleviate poverty on basic of the
combination of economic improvement, knowledge improvement and also ininfrastructure works. In the case of poor people, they can have flood impacts byunfavorable spatial characteristic of their locations. Even if their economic was
improved and they are likely to be suffered flood impacts with their low education andless matured than non poor people.
This study would likely to upgrade the interest of stakeholders on economy of poor
people. Single occupation may suffer flood impact more than multiple occupations andown business. Multiple occupations can increase not only income but also living
standards. Training, education and public awareness are needed to reduce flood impacts.
Public knowledge on practical preparedness measures at the household level is needed
so that the communities can implement on their own. Therefore, it can be reduced socialand economic impacts and improve preparedness plans in the affected area for the future
floods. The study is recommended to assist reliable information database for policy
makers, civil societies, private sectors to imagine how to reduce flood and the socioeconomic impacts on households and for the understanding of poverty alleviation byflood mitigation. It is recommended to do nationwide survey on flood impacts and to
speed up the poverty alleviation actions by flood mitigation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor, Professor Dr. Akiyuki
Kawazaki, and Professor Dr. Sutat Weesakul, Professor Dr. Damien Jourdain for theirguidance, comments and precious suggestions, close supervision. And I would like
express my deep appreciation to Director U Zaw Min Htut, Deputy Director U Kyaw
Lin Oo and Assistant Director Dr. Aung than Oo from Irrigation Department for theirguidance, encouragement and kind supports throughout the study. Deeply appreciations
and thanks are conveyed to my research donor, Swedish International Development
Cooperation Agency (SIDA). Special thanks are conveyed to the Director General,
Deputy Director General of Irrigation Department, Ministry of Agriculture andIrrigation, the Republic of the Union of Myanmar. Finally I would like to express mythanks to all who help and encourage me within my study period, and the authors, thepublishers of all books I referenced in my study.
REFERENCES
Kyaw, D., 2006. Rural poverty analysis in Myanmar - A micro level study in the dryzone, PhD Thesis, Asian Institute of Technology.
Fothergill, A., and Peek. L. A., 2004. Poverty and disasters in the United States: A
review of recent sociological findings. Natural Hazards 32, 89–110
Messner, F. and Meyer, V., 2005. Flood damage, vulnerability and risk perception challenges for flood damage research.
MNPED, UNDP, SIDA, 2011. Integrated Household Living Conditions Survey in
Myanmar, (2009-2010), Technical Report, 53.
Singleton, D., 2014. 4th Brunel International Lecture, Poverty alleviation- The role ofthe engineer, Institute of Civil Engineer (ICE), accessed the website in October, 2014.

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Muneyoshi NUMADA1 and Kimiro MEGURO2
Lecturer, ICUS, IIS, The University of Tokyo, Japannuma@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
2
Professor, ICUS, IIS, The University of Tokyo, Japan
1

ABSTRACTNews media reported the conditions of the damaged areas. Information disseminated bymass media is still considered as major information source to understand the damage,social trend and the activities in affected areas. The important roles of mass media aremainly two functions in terms of before and after the hazard attacks. After the disasteroccurs, huge amount of digital data of the Earthquake is provided by the highlydeveloped digital data technology. But the method and technique for analysis of thesehuge digital data are not developed sufficiently. This paper proposes a runningspectrum technique for text data and analyzing changes of disaster phase during thedisaster management cycle. Impact analysis of the disaster has been performed by using
Fukushima Minpo newspaper for its verification. The result shows the dynamic
characteristics of the disaster. As the time interval B becomes longer, the analysis data
is used from wide range period along with the smoothing effect. When observing
different time intervals B, fewer keywords have been ranked in the longer time intervalsof B. The proposed technique is a powerful tool to analyze effectively the huge amountof digital data for the effective and efficient disaster response and management.
Keywords: mass media report, disaster information, Tohoku earthquake, runningspectrum analysis
1. INTRODUCTION
Three years have passed since the 2011 Great East Japan earthquake. The impact of thisearthquake caused long-term problems during recovery and reconstruction not only indamaged areas but also all over Japan. People, governments and researchers have been
trying to solve these problems for the future society. Mass media (news media) reported
the conditions of the damaged areas during the 2011 Great East Japan earthquake. Even
with the development of social network technology, information disseminated by mass
media is still considered as major information source to understand the damage, social
trend and the activities in affected areas.
However one of the major problems of mass media during disaster situations is thefocus on particular areas with easy access or with shocking events. Therefore, it isdifficult to understand the total picture of the disaster. The important roles of mass
media are mainly two functions in terms of before and after the hazard attacks. After thedisaster occurs, huge amount of digital data of the Earthquake is provided by the highlydeveloped digital data technology. Huge amount of digital information related to the
Earthquake has been published by newspapers, wire agencies and TV stations. The
volume of information has exceeded that of past disasters because the tools by using tosend out information have dramatically changed; Internet-based platforms are now

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November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmarwidely used as popular sources for news updates. The contents covered include manydifferent kinds of events and problems that were caused simultaneously by theearthquake. Reports on regional damage induced by the earthquake, tsunami andeconomic problems in the Tokyo metropolitan area, Fukushima nuclear power plant
accident and much other information spread out at the same time.
Cloud computing technology can evaluate more and more digital contents that produced
and stored in the digital world. This new innovative environment and incorporating
powerful delivery data system enable us to use information more easily for different
purposes. However, the quality of data analysis technique in the disaster management
field is far from enough. Efficient tool boxes are needed to analyze important events outof the vast amount of information. Furthermore, the trends within a certain time frame
and the changes occurring in the disaster management phase can be observed.
Some algorithms in literature evaluation method suggest using association rules such as
TF-IDF (Term Frequency - Inverse Document Frequency) (Lindsay, 1995; Srinivasan,
2004), Z-score (Yetisgen-Yildiz, 2006) and Mutual Information Measure (MIM) (Wren,
2004). The association rules and TF-IDF are based on term co-occurrence frequencies,
while Z-Score and MIM are based on term co-occurrence probabilities (Meliha, 2009).
The characteristics of disaster-related-information change or shift in accordance witheach disaster management cycle phase, “which are namely damage mitigation,
preparedness, prediction and early warning, damage assessment, emergency disaster
response, recovery, and reconstruction/restoration”. When handling this kind of
information with characteristics that depend on time-changing, it is necessary to makeanalysis within a certain time span. Therefore, we propose a dynamic analysis techniqueof literature with considerations on time series to offer proper and appropriate responses.
This paper shows the overview of proposed techniques. News from the newspaper ofFukushima Minpo has been used for its verification. The proposed technique is a
powerful tool to effectively analyze the huge amount of digital data, thereby responding
to the upcoming society with growing volume of information.
2. RUNNING SPECTRUM ANALYSIS OF TEXT DATA
2.1 Running Spectrum Analysis
Running spectrum analysis is a method widely used in the seismic ground motion
analysis for understanding the wave characteristics in time and frequency domain. It isan approach that shifts a time interval of analysis points to conduct analysis within acertain time frame. In our research, the target is further expanded to the literature field.
It can be seen in Figure 1 that moving-average method which is widely used to smoothshort-term data fluctuations in time series is applied for dynamic analysis. The timeinterval B is defined as the calculating range for smoothing the data fluctuations.

Figure 1: Time interval B of moving average method.

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2.2 Flow of text data running spectrum analysis
Figure 2 shows the flowchart diagram of running spectrum analysis on text data
proposed in this research. Firstly, Japanese Kanji letters, Katakana letters, numbers andalphabets are extracted from the documents separately as keywords. For this purpose,
we have developed an "extract-keyword-program (EKP)". The EKP can extract eachkeyword individually and accurately. For example, “hinan” (“evacuation” in English)and “hinansya” (“evacuee” in English) are identified as different keywords within thesame document. The EKP can also count the frequency of appearance within one
certain day or all the days during the specified period. Users can freely reset the perioddepending on purposes. Secondly, keywords are reviewed and analyzed. The weights ofall extracted keywords are calculated respectively. Suggested algorithms for keyword
analysis are: Clustering, TF-IDF, LSI (Latent Semantic Indexing), and Co-occurrence.
Our proposed system can choose the most suitable weighing approach according to the
purposes and requirements of each user. In this paper, we have used TF-IDF (TermFrequency-Inverse Document Frequency) in the time span B. TF-IDF is a statisticalmeasurement method to evaluate the degree of importance of a specified keyword in adocument among a collection of numerous documents. The importance level isdetermined by the frequency and distribution within the collection of all documents(Meliha, 2009).

Figure 2: Flowchart diagram for running spectrum technique.
Role of newsfromexperiencesof the 2011
Great
East
Japan
earthquake
Rolemedia
of news
media
from experiencesof the
2011
Great
East
Japan earthquake

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To apply TF-IDF for the running spectrum analysis, TF-IDF value is calculated as:
TF IDF (t , j ) TF (t , j ) IDF (t , j )Kj (t )
Where,TF (t , j )K (t )T (t )
IDF (t , j ) log
Tj (t )

(1)
(2)
(3)

Where Kj(t) is number of occurrence of keyword (j), K(t) is total number of occurrence
keywords in the time interval B, Tj(t) is number of literatures which includes keyword(j) and T(t) is total number of literatures in the time interval B.
Thirdly, after the evaluation of the importance of each keyword in certain time interval
B, all keywords are ranked according to its weights.
3. CASE STUDY OF FUKUSHIMA MINPO NEWSPAPER
3.1 Newspaper data
Fukushima Minpo is a local newspaper with circulation of 250 thousand copies per day
and the largest in Fukushima Prefecture (Fukushima minpo co.). Newspaper repeatedly
reports on nuclear power plant accidents as the company office is located near the site.
Figure 3 shows news report archives from March 2011 to May 2012, analyzing articles
by the running spectrum approach described above. Figure 3 includes the reports about
not only nuclear plant accidents but also earthquake, tsunami, and damages to analyze
all impacts of this disaster.

Figure 3: Archives of Fukushima Minpo newspaper
3.2 Extracting keywords
Figure 4 shows the number of keyword items and its frequency. Total of 67,881
different keywords have been extracted. For example, Frequency is shown as “1” in
44,022 items (64.85% of the total), indicating that the keyword appears only one time.
Most newspaper articles report the name, gender and age of those dead or injured,
therefore the number of keywords with only one-time appearance equals the number of
items. Figure 5 represents keywords with high frequency. “Refuge” is listed as the mostfrequently used keyword with 1,696 appearances, followed by “residents” with 1,614

538

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times over the period from March 2011 to May 2012. Because both tsunami and nuclear
plant accidents induced the emergency evacuation and long-term evacuation to thepeople, refuge and residents are frequently used. Keywords related to nuclear power
accidents such as “decontamination”, “nuclear power plant accident”, “influence”,“radioactive material”, “children”, “dose of radiation” etc. are ranked high. In this study,
one-letter words have been omitted because the keyword often has no meaning by itself
at alone and therefore should be interpreted within idioms, phrases and contexts.

Figure 4: The number of keyword items and its appearance within a certain range.

1696
1614
1473
1182
1152
1107
1087
1067
1065
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992
985
958
882
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703
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685
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635

629
629
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559
558
556
544
539
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537
530
528
523
518
518
514
508
499
490
479
472
471
470
459

Figure 5: List of Keywords and its appearance frequency (high frequency part).
3.3 Results of running spectrum analysis
All keywords are given the rank respectively according to the weighting algorithm on
daily or monthly level by proposed method. We get to understand which keywords
received attention at the time and tracing down the hottest keywords changing with thecircumstances of the moment.

Role of news media from experiences of the 2011 Great East Japan earthquake
Role of news media from experiences of the 2011 Great East Japan earthquake

539

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmar(1) Time-chart of the top ranked keywords: Table 1 shows the time chart of the top
three ranked keywords having top ranking in a day in March 2011 as a sample period
for B =3, 7 and 31 days respectively due to space limit of paper.
Table 1: Time chart of keyword ranking

Taking a look at the B=3 cases, frequently used keywords in this emergency period
immediately after the quake include “tsunami”, “evacuation”, “disaster victim” and“debris”, “Blanket” was another important word since the earthquake occurred during
the winter season and blankets were strongly required by the evacuees.

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On March 19th, due to worries about the spread of radiation from the nuclear power
plant accident, the word “pregnant” was seen for the first time. On March 30th,“temporary home return” was ranked top. This was when the evacuees who had to leave
their hometown for fear of radiation and were allowed to pay a brief visit home just to
bring their valuables. The B=7 case, which is similar to the B=3 case, covers the time
when the earthquake hit. Keywords described as emergency terms such as “tsunami”,“evacuation” and “debris” is seen. On March 16th and 17th, “pregnant” was ranked top
indicating the serious concerns of radiation by pregnant women as in the B=7 case. As
for B=31, “evacuation” and “refuge” were the most used keywords for some days
during emergency period. From March 22nd, “election” was ranked high because thenationwide local elections in April were also another issue of attention.
(2) Effect of different time interval B: Comparing the short and long time intervals interms of “B” , top ranked keywords change day by day in B=3 (in which the target timeinterval days are shorter). On the other hand, some specific keywords, such as“evacuation”, “refugee”, “acceptance” and “election”, tend to be ranked higher in thelonger time intervals. Therefore, because the time interval B becomes longer, theanalysis data is used from wide range period along with the smoothing effect. The
characteristics of the duration effect of time interval B can be explained by how manykinds of keywords were ranked No.1 at least once as shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6: Comparison of items of keywords ranked No.1.

(a) B=3(b) B=7(c) B=31
Figure 7: Keywords ranked as No.1 and its frequency.

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541

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmar

When observing different time intervals B = 3, 7 and 31 days, fewer keywords havebeen ranked in the longer time intervals of B. For example, the B=31 case shows only
42 kinds of keywords ranked No.1 while the B=3 case shows as many as 248.
(3) Keywords ranked No.1: Figure 7 shows the keywords which were ranked No.1, andhow many times the keyword has reached the No.1 position. The most frequently
ranked as No.1 include: “decontamination” with 15 times for B=3 days, “sludge” with
22 times for B=7 days and “planting” with 36 times for B=31 days.
Table 2: Time-history of keywords that ranked as No.1 with its frequency

542

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From this result, we can see that specific keywords were constantly listed high for the
longer B due to the effect of soothing.
Table 2 shows the time-history of keywords that remained No.1 for a month. By
reviewing this table, the timeline of events are observed. Unfortunately, only the top
three are shown in this table due to the limitation of paper space even though many
keywords remained in the No.1 position for a month. Focusing on the B=31 case,keywords of the months in chronological order at the top are observed. “Evacuation”
was the most important keyword in March 2011, followed by “disaster victim” (April),“temporary payment” (May), “sludge” (June), “specification” (July), “compensation”(August), “two points” (September), “forest for disaster mitigation” (October),“compost” (November), “rice” (December). Moving onto 2012, “rice” (January),“planting” (February), “center” (March) and “detection” (April and May). By following
the top keywords, the outline and the stream of this complex disaster despite themintertwined problems and difficulties.
Trend of each keyword: This system also analyze the trend of specific keywords thata system user might take interest. For example, focusing on the top ranked keyword“planting” in Figure 7 (c), the trend of its ranking is presented as seen in Figure 8. The
nuclear power plant accidents have given the impact to the planting of rice in the rice
fields. The case B=3 shows high discontinuity, while continuity is clearly shown in
B=31 due to the soothing effects. From around October 2011, the problems related to“planting” constantly emerge as shown in the B=31 case.

600
900
1200
1500

(a) B=3 case
600
900
1200
1500

(b) B=7 case
600
900
1200
1500

(c) B=31 case
Figure 8: Time history of ranking of “Planting”.
4. CONCLUSIONS
Running spectrum system for analyzing text data in the advanced society having digital
data is proposed in this paper. The news reported by Fukushima Minpo newspaper isused for the verification of the technique and analyze of the impact of nuclear power
plant accidents in Japan. The result shows the dynamic characteristics of the nuclear
Role of news media from experiences of the 2011 Great East Japan earthquake
Role of news media from experiences of the 2011 Great East Japan earthquake

543

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmarpower plant accidents. As time goes on, more digital information on natural disasters
will become available. Then, the proposed technique serves efficiently and effectively
to analyze huge amount of digital information, thus providing appropriate understandingof the impact of the nuclear power plant accidents.
REFERENCES
Fukushima-Minpo
Co,
Tohokuearthquake
reports[Online],http://www.fukushimaminponews.com/ about.html (accessed June 28, 2012)
Wren., J.D., 2004. Extending the mutual information measure to rank inferred literature
relationship. BMC Bioinformatics 5, 145.
Yetisgen-Yildiz, M., and Pratt, W., 2006. Using statistical and knowledge-based
approaches for literature based discovery. Journal of Biomedical Informatics 39, 600–
611.
Srinivasan., P., 2004. Generating hypotheses from MEDLINE. Journal of the American
Society for Information Science and Technology 55, 396-413.
Lindsay, R.K., and Gordon, M. D., 1999. Literature based discovery by lexical statistics.
Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 49, 674-685.

544

New Technologies
Urban
Safety Cities
of Mega
Cities in Asia
New Technologies
for Urbanfor
Safetyof Megain AsiaEffect of text message of mobile phone
for disaster information dissemination
to rural mountainous area in Thailand
Akira KODAKA1, Akiyuki KAWASAKI2, Miho OHARA3
and Shinya KONDO4
1
Project Researcher, ICUS, IIS, The University of Tokyo, Japanakira@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
2
Project Associate Prof., Dept. of Civil Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Japan
3
Senior Researcher, International Centre for Water Hazard and
Risk Management (ICHARM) under the Auspices of UNESCO,
Public Works Research Institute (PWRI), Japan
4
Chief Researcher, Disaster Reduction and Human Renovation Institution, Japan
ABSTRACTAs one of the major Information Communication Technology, mobile phone has been
taking a significant role for disaster risk reduction during the time of emergency
situations by warning the public with text-based features. The role becomes more
important to the area where less improvement of infrastructure to mitigate disasterdamages is expected due to lack of human and material resources. Rural mountainous
areas are very places where mobile phone has great potential to be used for warning
the public as its penetration rate has been increasing rapidly. However, the effect of the
text-based features of mobile phone is still unknown in those areas. Here we show that
Short Message Service (SMS), one of the features, would be able to warn the public in arural mountainous area accurately and promptly. Furthermore, we found that SMS hasan effect of information propagation that content of the message is transferred fromrecipients to others even to those who do not receive the message. Our results
demonstrate the usefulness of mobile phone for strengthening and stabilizing current
dissemination system in the area, sound-based using loudspeaker and siren, by
multiplexing channel of communication and information representation. We anticipate
our research to be a basis for further analysis on the effect of text-based features ofmobile phone for warning the public. For example, propagation of the contents of SMS
among the public could be visualized in chronological order. Furthermore, accuracy ofdisseminated information should be examined when the hearsay information iscontinued to be transferred person-to-person.
Keywords: mobile phone, disaster information dissemination, rural mountainous area,
Short Message Service
1. INTRODUCTION
Mobile phone, one of the representative of Information Communication Technology(ICT), has been developed rapidly and taking an important role in disaster information
gathering, distribution, and sharing at the time of crisis. Besides, it has become popular545

November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar
November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

in all over the world. Mobile phone subscribers including multiple ownerships reached
at 93.1% of world population in 2013. The percentage is expected to increase up to
95.5% by 2014 worldwide and 87.6% in developing countries (International
Telecommunication Union: ITU, and the World Bank). It would appear that Short
Message Service (SMS) standardized by Global System for Mobile Communications(GSM) has high potential to be used as a media to warn public in developing countries
where available media including internet are limited. However, there is little researchhas been done that investigates actual effect of mobile phone used as a media todisseminate disaster information in rural mountainous areas.
On the other hand, mobile phone business in Thailand has been in transition period thatcarriers start providing variety of services drastically after December 2012. To total
population of approximately 67 million, the number of mobile phone subscribers hasreached around 92 million including multiple subscriptions as of 2013 (ITU). Smartphone and a tablet have become popular among people in urban areas, yet secondgeneration mobile phone called 2G has still been used mainly in rural areas.
Therefore, this paper aims to investigate a possibility of the SMS to be a media to warn
the public at rural mountainous areas in Thailand by conducting interview with relevant
local government and questionnaire surveys with villagers. To that end, result ofquestionnaire survey in need and importance for developing public warning in the area
are summarized. Subsequently, future challenges to analyze the effect of mobile phone
for warning the public are discussed.
2. STUDY AREA AND METHODOLOGY
2.1 Study area
In this research, Phuluang district, Loei province, located in northeastern Thailand(Figure 1) was chosen as a study area since there is surrounded by mountains at 600 to
1,500 meters high and many rural communities exist in there. Majority of residents arefarmers and many of them cultivate farm lands on mountain surfaces to grow cash crops
such as maze, cassava, rubber trees, and so forth.
Thai rural mountainous areas lag
significantly
behindofcommunication
infrastructuresdevelopment. Villages are sporadic
around intermountain areas withlower population density. Thus,
many villages are inaccessible tocommunication
services.
For
disaster information dissemination,
there are three types of media areutilized
mainly:loudspeaker,
walkie-talkie, and mobile phone.
Since sudden disasters such as flash
flood and land slide due to heavy

546

Loei province
Laos

Loei province

Phuluang district

Figure 1: Study area

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ICUS Report 78

rain are the most major in this area, prompt communication is highly required.
2.2 Questionnaire survey
Questionnaire survey with villagers was conducted covering three villages. First twovillages, Non Phattana (NP) and Loei Taw Tad (LTT), are designated as flood- andlandslide-prone areas assigned by Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation(DDPM) Last one, Loei Wang Sai (LW), has a monitoring point of rainfall and waterlevel of Loei River, a major River at the province, measured by a Mr. Warning, avolunteer trained by DDPM. The survey was started from April 6, 2011 for four days.
Total of 300 questionnaires, 100 in each questionnaire, are corrected. Face-to-faceinterview method was adopted considering misconception due to low information
literacy, and little penetration rate of a fixed-line phone, fax, and internet.
Furthermore, to make the result of the survey able to compare to the disaster awarenessin Japan, the questionnaire was made referring to the one used in Annual national
survey on disaster awareness conducted by the Center for Integrated Disaster
Information Research (CIDIR), The University of Tokyo. The questionnaire therefore
was made in Japanese firstly, and translated to English, and then lastly to Thai.
3. RESULT OF QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY
3.1 Characteristics of the sample
Although respondents were chosen to be equally distributed in ages and gender to avoid
bias of the sample’s characteristics, male to female ratio resulted in two third since
many males worked away from home for a long
period. Majority of the respondents at 75% of thetotal are farmers: 64% and 11% of them are fulland part-time workers respectively (Figure 2).
They are mainly growing rice and cash crops
including cassava, and maze. Respondents tend
to live with relatively larger family size made upof 55% of them who are living with more than
five people (Figure 3).
3.2 Awareness to disaster risk

Figure 2: Occupation (N=300)

3.2.1 Overall disasters
The question was made to figure out what type ofmatters respondents are worried in daily life. A
result is shown in Figure 4 by classifying thedegree of anxiousness into five levels.
Respondents cited “Politics” and “Crime” as theleast anxious matters. The sum of percentages of“Not at all” and “Somewhat” on each matter was
61% and 58% respectively. Meanwhile, theFigure 3: Family size (N=300)

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November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

percentage of “Natural disaster”, sum of “Very anxious” and “Anxious”, was 66%, thesecond-most anxious matter after “Market price of agricultural crops” of 78%. Whenscore is given to each level of anxiousness (five to “Very anxious”, and one to “Not atall”), “Natural disaster” is 3.8. The value is almost equal to the one in Japan of 3.9,
which was obtained by the “Annual national survey on disaster awareness” in 2011 with3,000 samples.
A result of the same question in each type of “Natural disaster” is summarized in Figure
5. “Flood” was cited the most by the 67% of respondents as they feel very anxious
followed by “Land slide” of 36%. The score of the “Flood”, 4.08, marked higher thanthe one of Japan of 3.17. On the other hand, “Earthquake” which marked higher score in
Japan resulted in lower for villagers in Thailand.

Figure 4: Awareness to issues (N=300)

Figure 5: Awareness to disasters (N=300)

3.2.2 Flood
The result of a question, whether a river close to their homes, Loei River in this survey,
is flood-prone or not, is summarized in Figure 6. 27% and 36% of respondents residing
in NP and LTT village respectively cited “Strongly agree”. The percentages exceed
80% for both residents when the valueof “Agree” is added while thepercentage at LW village stays lower at
69%. These results would be correlatedwith an influence of respondents’ pastdisaster experiences; only 39% of
respondents in LW had been affected bya flood disaster(s) yet those of NP and
LTT were at 76% and 66% respectively.
Figure 7 shows a comparison between
the situations of flood damage that the
Figure 6: Awareness to flood (N=300)
respondents have actually affected, and548

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weather they recognize the situation as
flood damage or not. For past disaster
experience, “Damage of agricultural
crops” and “Damage of homes andbelongings” were cited at higher rates
by 35% and 32% respectively. It could
be seen that the percentage of the
respondents who recognize a situation
as flood damage is lower than the one ofthose who actually experienced it. In
other words, the respondents tend torecognize the situation that they haveexperienced as flood damage; e.g. out of
35% of respondents who had “Damageofagricultural
crops”,
31%,
approximately 80% of 35%, have faced
Figure 7: Disaster experiences andsame situation in the past. On the otherawareness (N=300)
hand, among the respondents who havenever been damaged by flood, 98% ofthem cited “Do not know” for a situation that they recognize it as flood damage.
Therefore, it would be appeared that respondents’ risk awareness depend on their past
flood experience.
3.3 Media for disaster information dissemination
For disaster information dissemination,
media preferred by the respondents to
be used is summarized in Table 1.
Most-cited media was “Loudspeaker”
at 91.3% followed by “Television” of30%; the reason for the result would
be because the speaker is used forannouncements of their daily activities.
On the other hand, mobile phone(SMS) was cited only at 0.7% of the
respondents.

Table 1: Media preferred to receive
disaster information (N=300)
Type of media
Loudspeaker
Television
Radio
Mobile phone (call)Internet
Mobile phone (SMS)
Direct contact (face-to-face)

Percentage
91.3%
30.0%
17.3%
4.3%
1.3%
0.7%
0.7%

3.4 Mobile phone ownership rate
Understandably, mobile phone isrequired to receive SMS messages.
Figure 8 shows mobile phoneownership rate of the respondents by
age group. In this paper, phone issimply classified into two types fordescriptive purposes: Smart phonewhich has internet accessibility, andFigure 8: Mobile phone ownership rate
(N=300)Effect of text message of mobile phone for disaster information dissemination to rural moutainous area549
in Thailand

November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar
November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

mobile phone which doesn’t. Age group of “from 40 to less than 50” has mobile phone
the most at 84% followed by “from 30 to less than 40” of 80%. On the other hand, therate is relatively low in the group of “50 to less than 60” and “more than 60” at 61% and
47% respectively. For the rate of smartphone, the younger age groups the higher
ownership rate of smartphone: 8% at “from 40 to less than 50”, 10% at “from 30 to lessthan 40”, and 19% at the “less than 30”.
3.5 Mobile phone reception
As same as the mobile phone ownership, strength of mobile phone reception should beknown to ensure SMS message to be received properly. Since majority of respondents
are farmers working at their farm land in day time, strength of mobile phone reception
was asked for both at their homes and farm land. Since an antenna station is locatednear LW village and reception was fairly available at both places, 100% at home, and
74% at farm land are strong enough. Reception at both places is weak that 62% and
40% of respondents cited “No
reception” at their home and farm land
respectively.
3.6 Information propagation
It is known that the warning message
has a diffusion effect that a person who
received it would apprise others thecontent even to those who do notreceived the message (Ohara, 2012).
Figure 9 shows the result by family
size weather the respondents would
apprise others the contents of SMS or
not if they are assumed to be received
the message. In every group, sum of
Figure 9: Information propagation by size
“Family (oral)”, and “Relatives,of family (N=300)
acquaintances, and friends (oral)” citedover 80%. “Others” cited by 98% of
responses was village leader, and the smaller family sizes cited at the higher rate on him.
4. DISASTER INFORAMTION DISSEMINATION BY SMS MESSAGE
4.1 SMS messaging to mass mobile phone users
There are two types of messaging services to deliver SMS message to mass mobile
phone users: Service-Cell Broadcast (SMS-CB), which delivers multiple mobile phoneusers who are in specific area. Meanwhile, Bulk Messaging sends message to selected
users by registering their mobile phone numbers in advance.
Currently, three leading mobile phone operators named Advance Info Service PLC(AIS), Total Access Communication PCL (dtac), and True Corporation PCL (TRUE)
are providing the service to send SMS to multiple users; AIS and dtac provide both550

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services whereas True provides only Bulk messaging. They target mainly to corporate
purposes yet unfamiliar with public uses. SMS-CB is used for sending welcome andpromotion messages and only available at limited places such as a conference center,and exhibition where an antenna is installed. Therefore, Bulk SMS would be useful forrural mountainous areas since it only requires internet access for use.
4.2 mobile phone use in remote areas
By National Broadband Policy enacted in November 2010, internet access has beendeveloped preferentially to local government offices, schools, and important
communities even in rural mountainous areas. Therefore, Bulk messaging service canbe used technologically in those areas if a local government is assumed to take a role fordispatching SMS messages.
Moreover, National Broadcasting and
Telecommunications
Commission(NBTC), regulatory and supervisoryagencyinbroadcastingandTelecommunication
sectorsin
Thailand, leads Universal Service
Obligation (USO) that promotes
communication services to remoteareas where information access islimited (see Figure 10). Every
telecommunications carrier who has
acquired a business license from
Figure 10: Target area of USO
NBTC is required to accomplish for
USO projects. The three leading carriers have acquired the license in use of 2.1GHz
frequency at the same time on December 2012 from NBTC and been able to receive a
support from USO fund for their projects. Although NBTC is conditioning the projectsuch as how to examining a way of monitoring assessment and competitive bidding
system, there is a high possibility in the future that USO projects would expand mobile
phone service area to where a reception is currently not available.
5. DISSCUSSION
It would appear that SMS has high potential to be a mean for disaster information
dissemination at rural mountainous areas in Thailand as number of subscribers andservice area of mobile phone increase. Although, communication infrastructures ofinternet access have been developing and Bulk SMS is technologically available, its
introduction to the public should be taken into account carefully.
At the time of 2011 Thai Great Flooding, Flood Relief Operations Center (FROC)
announced disaster information to public starting from 11th Oct. 2011 through SMS
services asking all mobile phone operators. However the attempt had been faced
opposition from the public and stopped 23th of the month with only four SMS messages
in total. Feedbacks were “useless”, “not functioning as early warning”, and so forth. The
contents had less sense of emergency such as calling for volunteer and operating report.

Effectof text of
messagemobilefor information
disaster information
dissemination
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forphonedisasterdissemination
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November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

On the other hand, current information dissemination system in rural mountainous areas
uses mainly loudspeaker. If that is unusable due to blackout, handy siren will be usedinstead. Therefore, there is a challenge that disaster information would not betransferred clearly, or reached to villagers in a worse situation because the information
is sound-based and gets radio disturbance with heavy rain. In addition, majority ofhouses are corrugated-roofed which creates intense noise when it’s pelted by heavy rain.
SMS is a text-based feature that can redeem loudspeaker and strengthen the current
system of the rural mountainous areas to warm the public. Positive results from thequestionnaire survey were also obtained that ownership rate and service area of mobile
phone would be increasing in the future. Moreover, we found that villagers tend totransfer information obtained from SMS to others, especially family members, even to
those who do not receive the message. However, as villagers preferred loud speakerrather than SMS to obtain disaster information, usefulness and effectiveness of the SMS
should be demonstrated to prove an actual effectiveness of the SMS to be introduced
into current disaster information system of rural mountainous areas.
6. CONCLUSION
Characteristic of Thai is generally considered as they do not worry about risk of flood
disaster referred to as being “Sabai” and little research figures degree of the anxiousness.
In other words, even if the SMS system is possible to be installed, it would not besocially utilized, or not accepted in the worth case, by local people in the areas.
However, this research clarified that they concern flood damage seriously if there is athreat that their agricultural crops get damaged. Furthermore, it could be seen that SMS
has possibility to strengthen current disaster information dissemination system, soundbased using loudspeaker and siren, at rural mountainous areas by multiplexing channelof communication and information representation. To examine further possibility of the
SMS introduction, actual experiment sending SMS to observe whether the message isspread and propagate among villagers.
REFERENCES
International Telecommunication Union, ICT STATISTICS, http://www.itu.int/en/ITUD/Statistics/Pages/default.aspx.
The World Bank, Mobile cellular subscriptions (per 100 people).
http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/IT.CEL.SETS.P2
The Center for Integrated Disaster Information Research (CIDIR), The University ofTokyo, 2011. Annual national survey on disaster awareness.
Kawasaki, A., Kondou, S., Ohara, M., Komori, D., Kodaka, A., Kaewmoracharoen, M.,
Shrestha, S., Ninsawat, S., and Sunthararuk, A., 2013. Disaster information
dissemination system in rural and agricultural mountainous area in Thailand Part 1 Project outline-. Seisan Kenkyu 64, 505-508.
Ohara, M., Kawasaki, A., Kondo, S., and Tanaka, A., 2012. A Survey on Information
Dissemination by Area-mail during Storm Disaster due to Typhoon Talas in September
2011-Quick Report on Survey in Miki-cho, Kagawa Prefecture. Seisan Kenkyu 64, 553556.

552

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New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Takuho TANI1, Hiroshi YOKOTA2, Katsufumi HASHIMOTO3
and Kohichi FURUYA4
1
Master’s course student, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Japantanitakuho@eng.hokudai.ac.jp
2
Professor, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Japan
3
Assistant Professor, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Japan
4
Bureau of Construction, Tokyo metropolitan government, Japan
5
Institute of Construction Management, Service Center of Port Engineering, Tokyo,
Japan
ABSTRACTIn Japan, since many concrete structures were constructed in 1960s, the number ofconcrete structures with severe deterioration has been increasing. Although hugebudgets are usually required to repair such deteriorated structures, budgetary
restrictions are generally imposed. Therefore, this study discussed the prioritization on
repair procedure to repair deteriorated structures based on the net present values(NPV). There are few studies for effective prioritization of harbor concrete structures.
In this study, five superstructures of mooring facilities are focused on as a model caseand their prioritization procedures are evaluated. In this study, deterioration progressof superstructures in mooring facility was simulated by using the Markov-chain process.
Transition probabilities in the process were obtained with using the Monte Carlosimulation. After simulating the deterioration, the NPVs of each facility in the planned
service life (50 years) were calculated from repair costs and benefits under budgetary
restrictions. As the results, the NPV increased as annual budgets increase in spite ofcombination of repair scenarios, and the increase in annual budgets reduced thedispersion of NPV in the scenarios. In addition, the more NPV was expected for thefacility having higher benefit under a preventive maintenance strategy was set at thehigher repair prioritization.
Keywords: maintenance strategy, mooring facilities, NPV, prioritization, budgetary
restriction
1. INTRODUCTION
In Japan, the number of infrastructures has been built in 1960s. It is essential toestablish lifecycle management strategies in order to ensure performance of an existing
structure. Although huge budgets are usually required to repair such deteriorated
structures, budgetary restrictions are generally imposed. Therefore, it is difficult torepair all infrastructures in a short period.
Considering this situation, there is a need for the efficient and effective maintenancestrategy to decrease the cost for repair and replace. Conventionally, the maintenance553

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmarstrategy that determined the prioritization procedure of repair by only deterioration
condition is usually used. However, when there are budgetary restrictions, so it is out oforder that repair the facility that having low benefits. It is required to establish themaintenance strategy considering the repair costs and benefits. Concrete is used forinfrastructures commonly, and there are many researches that focuses on theprioritization procedure of repair for concrete structures. However, there are few
researches that have focused on the prioritization procedure of repair for port facilities.
Long-term performance of port facilities are affected by environments such as wave,
chlorides and so on. Therefore, this study discusses the prioritization procedure of repair
and most efficient annual budget based on the net present value (NPV). Five mooring
facilities were investigated in this study as a model case and their prioritization
procedure and annual budget were evaluated.
2. OUTLINE
2.1 Data of facilities subject to this study
In this study, five mooring facilities (W1~W5) in Y port were focused on as a modelcase. Y port plays an important role in Japan. Table 1 shows the data of facilities
subjected to this study.
Table 1: Data of target facilities
Constructed year
Structural type
Depth (m)Length (m)Number ofmembers(beam & slab)
Elapsed year fromsurveyd
Proportion
cofb
probabilityaStart DP

W1
W2
W3
W4
W5
1988
1981
1976
1994
2005
Open-pile Open-pile Open-pile Open-pile Open-pile
14
12
12
12
14
280
240
240
300
330
966

732

626

1010

-

17

24

28

16

-

0.64
0.34
0.01
0.00
1.63

0.67
0.28
0.05
0.00
1.52

0.70
0.30
0.00
0.00
1.48

0.88
0.04
0.00
0.08
1.09

-

2.2 Deterioration prediction
Deterioration progress of mooring facilities was predicted by using the Markov-chain
model in this study. A Markov process is a random process to simulate the present state,in which the future states are independent of the past. A Markov chain is a process thatconsists of a finite number of states and the transition probabilities Px, where Px is theprobability of moving from the state to other state. Furthermore, it is assumed that
infrastructure assets can deteriorate only one state at a time. For simplicity, the554

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transition probability in this study is assumed to be identical in each state (Kato et al.
2009).
The Markov-chain model is represented in Equation 1. Once the transition probability isdetermined, the deterioration progress can be simulated at any elapsed year t.
d

1 Px

0

0

0

t

1

c

Px

1 Px

0

0

0

b

0

Px

1 Px

0

0

a

0

0

Px

1

0

(1)

Where d~a are the proportions of probability remaining in respective grades, Px is thetransition probability and t is the elapsed year.
The deterioration point (DP) is defined to describe the overall degree of deterioration.
DP can be calculated by using Equation 2 in which factors of 4, 3, 2, and 1 are taken forweighting the grade of condition. Those factors are temporarily determined because theconstant transition probability is applied in every Markov chains and required further
investigation in the future.
DP(2)

4 a 3 b 2 c 1 d

Where d~a are the proportions of probability remaining in respective grades and DP is
the overall condition grade that is a discrete index (1.0~4.0).
2.3 Setting the transition probability (Px)
In this study, the probability density function was used for predicting the deterioration
progress because of accurate transition probabilities (Px) of Y port’s facilities were
unknown. The probability density
function was got from the investigation
12.0
for 56 open-piled marginal wharves inJapan, and the distributions of transition
10.0
probabilities conform with the logL: -2.582
normal distribution for open-piled
8.0
L: 0.638
marginal wharves (Furuya et al. 2011).
Figure 1 shows the distribution and its
6.0
parameters. Px was taken from the
distribution by using the Mersenne
4.0
Twister (Matsumoto and Nishimura
1998) for predicting the deterioration
2.0
progress.
0.0

0.1
0.2
Transition Probability (Px)

0.3

Figure 1: Probability density function, f(x) and its parameters

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2.4 Calculation method of repair costs
Repair methods were set by considering the deterioration condition. Based on the DP,
number of repairs and unit prices of each repair method according to repair costs ofeach facility were calculated. 3 types were set for repair methods, preventive
maintenance (Type P), corrective maintenance (Type C1~C4), and replacement (TypeR). Table 2 shows the number of repair percentage of concrete surface area for eachfacility and range of DP which is suitable for each repair method.
Table 2: Repair method and range of DP

P

TypePreventive
maintenance

C1
C2
C3

Corrective
maintenance

C4
R

Replacement

Repair method

Range of DP

Surface coating (100%)

1.7 DP<2.0

Patch repair (small: 80%)
+Surface coating (100%)
Patch repair (small: 60%, large: 20%)
+Surface coating (100%)
Patch repair (small: 20%, large: 60%)
+Surface coating (100%)
Patch repair (large: 80%)
+Surface coating (100%)
Replacement

2.0 DP<2.3
2.3 DP<2.6
2.6 DP<3.0
3.0 DP<3.5
3.5 DP 4.0

Surface coating is taken place overall concrete surface of facility as preventive
maintenance (Type P). Surface coating prevents chloride penetration which causes rebar
corrosion, therefore this method should be applied before the rebar corrosion starts. In
terms of the material deterioration mechanism, range of DP for preventive maintenance
was set at 1.7 DP<2.0. It is assumed that if surface coating is taken place at first time in
the planned service life (50 years), transition probability becomes the half (Yamaji et al.
2004).
Patch repair and surface coating are taken place as corrective maintenance (TypeC1~C4). Range of DP for corrective maintenance was set at 2.0 DP<3.5. However,deterioration condition depends on the proportions of deteriorated members.
Consequently, in this study, 4 repair methods (C1~C4) were set for corrective
maintenance. Each method was different from number of repair percentage as shown
Table 2.
Replacement is taken place when value of DP is 3.5 DP 4.0.
Table 3and 4 show the unit price for each repair method and concrete surface area &volume of each facility. In this study, repair costs were calculated from the unit priceand concrete surface area or volume.

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Table 3: Unit price of repair
Repair method
Preventive
maintenance
Corrective
maintenanceReplacement

Unit

Surface coating
Temporary structure fee
Surface coating
Temporary structure fee
Patch repair (small)
Patch repair (large)
Replacement

/m2

/m3

Unit price (Yen)
Slab & Beam
15,0009,000
13,5009,000
75,000115,000
300,000

Table 4: Concrete area and volume
Area (m2)Volume (m3)

W1
6,912
2,482

W2
7,364
2,731

W3
8,021
2,149

W4
8,664
3,748

W5
17,56812,7302.5 Calculation method of benefits
Benefits of each facility were estimated by given step. Figure 2 shows the schema of
benefit calculation method. In this study, benefits were calculated only by considering
the effect of cost for transportation (land transportation, sea transportation and transittime). Delivery area, transportation course and overseas port were set from type andamount of cargo for each facility. Transportation costs were calculated in two cases,
which one is the case that the facilities in Y port are used and the other is the case thatthe alternate port’s facilities are used. Finally, benefits were calculated from thedifference from transportation costs between the cases.
Cost for transit time (C3)

Cost forland transit (C1)

Port

Deliveryarea
Cost for landtransit (C1’)

Cost for sea
transit (C2)
Overseas
port

Alternate
port

Cost for sea
transit (C2’)

Cost for transit time (C3’)
Benefit = (C1’+C2’+C3’) - (C1+ C2+ C3)

Figure 2: Schema of benefit calculation

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3. DETERMINATION METHOD OF PRIORITIZATION PROCEDURE BY
USING THE NPV
3.1 Calculation method of NPV
The NPV of each facility in the planned service life (50 years) was calculated from therepair costs and the benefit by using Equation 3.
NPV

50
n 1

Bn

Cn

1 r n

(3)

Where n is the elapsed year, Bn is the benefit at n-th year, Cn is the cost at n-th year andr is the social discount rate (4% in this study).
Basically, it is assumed that facilities are repaired by using preventive maintenancemethod, which means that facilities are repaired at DP=1.7 because it is supposed thatthe repair costs are increased when corrective maintenance method or replacement isapplied. However, it is assumed in this study that the facility which has the higher
priority is repaired earlier if the repair of some facilities are coincidental. In addition, it
is presumed that no benefit can be expected during DP 3.0.
3.2 Budgetary restriction, repair scenario and benefit during the repair
It is assumed that there are annual budgetary restrictions (0.05, 0.1, 0.15, 0.2, 0.25, 0.3,
0.35 and 0.4 billion yen in this study). Therefore, repair may not be completed in one
year. Repair scenarios were set every conceivable pattern. In this study, 5 facilities werefocused, where 120 (=5!) scenarios were considered. NPV was calculated in all
scenarios. It is assumed that the benefits are reduced during the repair period and the
reduction depends on the repair method. In this study, 0%, 30%, 50% and 70%
reduction with Type P, C1, C2 and C3 are presumed, respectively. No benefit can be
expected during the repair with Type C4 and R.
3.3 Calculation method of NPV by using the Monte Carlo Simulation
The NPV was calculated by using the transition probability (Px) which is resampled in
the distribution 1,000 times under the condition shown in Figure 1. DP in first year isestimated by using the result of the visual inspection (Table 1). The most efficient andeffective repair scenario was investigated by comparing the NPVs in all scenarios. In
addition, the most suitable annual budget can be estimated by calculating the NPV under
the some annual budgets.
4. RESULTS OF CALCULATION FOR REPAIR COSTS AND BENEFIT
Table 5 lists the results of calculation for repair costs of each facility. In this study, unit
price is the same in all facilities, therefore repair costs depend on the concrete surface
area or volume. Comparing Table 4 and 5, the repair cost of larger facility is higher.
Especially, W5 is the largest facility in all facilities, and the repair cost of W5 is highestof all facilities. In addition, the repair cost of Type R was the highest of all repair

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methods at W4 and W5. However, the repair cost of Type C4 is the highest of all
facilities at W1, W2 and W3. The Type with the highest cost of all repair methods isdifferent in each facility because calculation method parameters are different. The repair
costs of Type P, C1, C2, C3 and C4 depend on the concrete surface area of each facility,
but that of Type R depends on the concrete volume of each facility.
Table 6 lists the type of cargo, cargo volume per year and benefit of each facility. From
the table, the cargo volume of W1 is the largest of all facilities and the cargo volume of
W2 is the smallest of all facilities. Similarly, the benefit of W1 is the largest of all
facilities and the benefit of W2 is the smallest of all facilities. However, the cargovolume of W3 is larger than that of W4 and W5, and the benefit of W3 is smaller thanthat of W4 and W5 due to the difference of transportation method. It was assumed thatthe cargo of W3 is transported by using trailer, while the cargo of W4 and W5 istransported by using container. The transportation cost using trailer is lower than thetransportation cost using container. As the result, the transportation cost of W3 and thedifference between the cases became small.
Table 5: Repair costs (billion yen)
W1
0.17
0.57
0.63
0.74
0.79
0.74

P
C1
C2
C3
C4
R

W2
0.18
0.61
0.67
0.78
0.84
0.82

W3
0.19
0.66
0.73
0.85
0.92
0.64

W4
0.21
0.1
0.78
0.92
0.99
1.12

W5
0.42
1.45
1.59
1.87
2.01
3.82

Table 6: Type of cargo, cargo volume and benefit
Type of cargo
Cargo volume
per year(thousand ton)
Benefit per year
(billion yen)

W1
Coal

W2
Coil

W3
Cars

W4
W5
Containers Containers

2,774

175

1,329

1,230

1,274

5.74

0.18

0.75

2.82

4.12

5. INFLUENCES OF ANNUAL BUDGET ON THE NPV
Figure 3 shows the average and variation coefficient of NPV which were calculated in
all repair scenarios under any annual budgets. Scenarios were classified as follows: thescenario which W1 is the highest priority was classified into Group 1. Similarly, thescenario which W5 is the highest priority was classified into Group 5. Also, the averageof NPV in the Group is shown in Figure 3, where the average of NPV increases as thatof the annual budget. The average NPV when the annual budget is 0.4 billion yen is 286
billion yen. This value is 41 billion yen larger than the average NPV when annual
budget is 0.05 billion yen. It is observed that there are large reductions of benefit in the
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November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmarcases where annual budgets are small because repairing period becomes long as
decrease of the annual budget. In addition, the repair costs are decreased as increase of
the annual budget because preventive maintenance can be applied to the repair offacilities. Furthermore, variation coefficient of NPV decreases as increase of the annual
budget. It means that average NPV varies widely in the cases where annual budgets are
small. This trend is noticeable when annual budget 0.05, 0.1 and 0.15 billion yen, where
variation coefficients are 0.044, 0.027 and 0.022, respectively. In cases where annual
budgets are small, the facilities which have low priority cannot be repaired. Thus, nobenefit can be expected from such facilities. Consequently, there is a difference between
each scenario. On the other hand, usual benefit can be expected in cases where annual
budgets are large because repair period tends to be short. Variation coefficient becomesless than 0.015 in all cases when annual budgets are more than 0.2 billion yen.
In each group of the Figure 3, the average of NPV varies widely in the cases whereannual budgets are small. Especially, the difference between maximum and minimum
value of average NPV in each Group is 10 billion yen when annual budget is 0.05
billion yen. The difference between maximum and minimum value of average NPV ineach Group decreases as an increase the annual budget.
0.05

290

0.04

Group 1
Group 2
Group 30.03

Group 4260

Group 5

0.02

Average
Variation coefficient

0.01

230

0.05

0.10

0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
Annual budget (billion yen)

0.35

0.40

0.00

Figure 3: Average and variation coefficient of NPV
6. MOST EFFICIENT REPAIR PRIORITIZATION PROCEDURE
Figure 4 shows the average NPV in each Group for each annual budget. The average
NPV of Group 1 is the largest of all Groups when annual budget is 0.05 billion yen andthe average NPV of Group 5 is the largest of all Groups when annual budget is morethan 0.1 billion yen. Group 1 and Group 5 are the groups that W1 and W5 have thehighest priority. From the table 6, W1 is the largest benefit of all facilities and W5 is thesecond largest benefit of all facilities. In addition, the average NPV of Group 2 is thesmallest of all Groups. When the preventive maintenance is applied, high priority
facility can be repaired at an early time and no loss of benefit is expected during theplanned service life. Therefore, it is estimated that average NPV becomes high in cases
where the facility with large benefit has high priority.

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290
Group 1

Group 2

Group 3

Group 4

Group 5

260

230

0.05

0.1

0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
Annual budget (billion yen)

0.35

0.4

Figure 4: Average NPV in same Groups
7. CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions are drawn in this paper.
1) Repair scenario should be carefully assessed because average NPV varies widely inthe cases where annual budgets are small.
2) When any facilities are under maintenance, the preventive maintenance should beapplied to the facility with the largest priority during the planned service life.
3) Average NPV tends to become larger in the scenario that the facility with larger
benefit is on high priority at any annual budget.
8. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to express their appreciations to port office, Mr Hirinao
Takahashi during the calculation of benefit. Also, the authors would like to express theirappreciations to Shinichiro Miyai and Takeshi Hyodo, Institute of Construction
Management, Service Center of Port Engineering for his help during the calculation of
NPV.
REFERENCES
Kato, E., Iwanami, M. and Yokota, H., 2009. Development of life cycle management
system for open-type wharf. Report of the Port and Airport Research Institute 48.
Furuya, K., Yokota, H., Hashimoto, K. and Hanada, S., 2011. Reliability of
Deterioration Based on Markov Model for Mooring Facilities. Journal of Japan Societyof Civil Engineers, Ser. F4 Vol.67, I_159-I_168.

Repair prioritizationof reinforced
concrete superstructuresin mooring
facilities facilities
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2014,
Yangon,MyanmarMatsumoto, M. and Nishimura, T., 1998. Mersenne Twister: a 623-dimensionallyequidistributed uniform pseudorandom number generator. ACM transactions onmodeling and computer simulation 8, 3-30
Yamaji, T, Komure, K. and Hamada, H., 2004. Durability of 15-years Old Concrete
Specimens with Surface Coating under Marine Environments. Report of the Port andAirport Research Institute 43.

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An investigation on the influence of someparameters in simulation of chloride ion
penetration in concrete based ontruss network model
Punyawut JIRADILOK 1 and Kohei NAGAI 2
Master course student, Department of Civil Engineering
The University of Tokyo, Japan
2
Associate Professor, International Center for Urban Safety Engineering
Institute of Industrial Science, The University of Tokyo, Japan
1

ABSTRACT
Many reinforced concrete structures are exposed to the marine environments which
result in chloride ion penetration, subsequently decreasing in structural capacity due toa corrosion of steel. Therefore, an estimation of chloride ion penetration in concrete isimportant for maintenance of the structures. This study aims to verify the accuracy ofchloride penetration simulation under saturated condition. In this study, a truss network
which represents the chloride penetration is introduced based on Fick’s 2nd law. The
chloride penetration profiles are varied due to the influent parameters, for example,
length or cross section area which converted from effective area of truss element. The
effect of related parameters, namely, element meshing size, time step interval, influenceof dimensions and spatial element arrangement, are investigated on the numericalsimulation by varying each parameter under control condition. Mesoscale modelling of
the chloride diffusion in single crack are then simulated to verify the applicability for
future study, i.e., the application with chloride diffusion in crack concrete based on
RBSM model. The study discusses about the optimum setting and influence for eachparameter in chloride penetration profiles prediction, which would be beneficial for the
future study of the chloride diffusion simulation.
Keywords: chloride ion penetration, truss network model, crack width, Fick’s 2nd law
1. INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, There are many reinforced concrete infrastructures which exposed to themarine environment, these lead to the deterioration of the structure. The main reason
is chloride ion ingression causes the corrosion of reinforcing steel. Therefore, aprecise prediction of chloride ingession profiles is crucially benefited to themaintenance and renovation of the structures. Presently, studies on the chloride
diffusion in concrete gains a lot of attention in the research community. A number ofstudies tried to simulate the chloride ion ingress into concrete by system of truss
element model with governing equation developed from Fick’s 2nd law, namely, a study
done by Nakamura (2006) or Wang and Ueda (20011) and so on. However, each
inputted parameters, like element size or time step interval, are various in each studies,and the effect of those parameter are not clarify yet. Hence, in this study, we want to563

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovembeer 2014,
Yanngon,Myanm
marverify tthe influentt of each parameter thhat related in Fick’s 2nd law. T
The numericcal
simulatiion based ono truss nettwork modeel and goveerning equation based on Fick’s 2nd
law are carried outt to predict chloride ioon penetraation profilee. 1D and 2D
D meso-scaale
truss mmodel with varying in
n influent pparameters are propossed. Severaal parameteers
relating to the accuuracy of chlloride penettration preddiction are investigatedid. Further, thetsimulatiion with sinngle crack is done to study the applicabilityay of combinning the tru
uss
networkk for chloridde ingressio
on with the R
RBSM moddel (Nagai ete al., 2004)) that can wellw
simulatee the crack pattern of concretecstruucture undeer the real working
w
loadd condition in
the futuure.
2. SIMUULATION
N MODEL2.1. Tru
uss network
k modelIn this chloride penetrationpsimulation meso-scale model, concretecis treated ass aheterogeeneous matterial. Specimen is meeshed into meso-scaleelement haaving averaage
msizes froom 0.5×0.5 mm2 to 15..0×15.0 mm
m2 as an inpu
ut value to see the effeect of meshingscale. T
The elemennt center iss spatially rrandom in square griid of elemeent size. The
T
chloridee transportaation is rep
presented bby assembly of one dimensiondpipe elemeent
system which asssembles intto truss neetwork. Th
he chloride ingress inn concrete ispresenteed by conccentration ata element nodes whiich linked together w
with the tru
uss
networkk that have coefficientt depend onn phase andd length beetween nodees it’s linkeed.
The inittial conditioon and bounndary condiition is set tot simulate the behavioor of concreete
exposedd to the chlooride enviro
onment whiich focusing
g on the tim
me dependennt diffusivity.
By settiing of the element sizze, number of elemen
nts in X, Y direction aand boundaaryconditioon, the sim
mulation in both one ddimension and two diimensions can be donne.
(Figure 1) In two dimension model, a node is ran
ndomly allo
ocated in sqquare grid of
inputtedd element siize using raandom numbber generato
or. Then, truss networkk is generatted
to link a node with it adjacent node for sim
mulating th
he path of chhloride ion ttransportatiion.
(Figure 1(b))(a) Truss moddel in one dimensiond(b). Settingg of truss syystem(c) Trusss network in
i two dimeension

Figure 1: TrussTmodell in one andd two dimennsions564

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2..2 Chloridee diffusion modelmand governing equation
Inn this modell, the scopee of study iss limited to case of waater saturatioon only. Heence, thecoonvection oro capillary suction traansportationn from diffferent moissture conten
nt is notcoonsidered. The
T chloridee ion transpportation is simulated to move throough “pipe”” systemthhat linked frrom node too node. Thee assembly of the truss system govverning by Fick 2ndlaaw (Poulsenn E, Mejlbro
o L,2006) is applied forr the whole domain.
డ஼
డ௧

ൌ‫ܦ‬

డమ஼
డ௫ మ

(1)

H
Here, C is thhe chloride content, t ttime, D thee chloride diffusiondcooefficient, and x the
sppatial coordiinate.
Foor this kindd of Fick’s 2nd law prooblem, the boundaryb
conditions aand initial conditioncarre usually seet as C(0,t) = Cs (constaant) and C(xx, t0) = 0 wh
hen t0 is inittial time.
Byy using thee Galerkin approach (R
RW. Lewiss, P. Nithiarasu, KN. SSeetharamu
u, 2004),nd
Fiick 2 law is converted
d into the fo
following syystem of linear equationn and applies to thewwhole domaiin.
பେ㻌 㻌 㻌 㻌 㻌 㻌 㻌 㻌 㻌 㻌 㻌 㻌 (2)  ൅  ൌ ப୲wwhere, M is thet element mass matriix, K the eleement diffusion matrixx, and f the forcingf߲‫ܥ‬veector. The ߲‫ ݐ‬indicattes a time derivative.. In this siimulation, the forcing
g vector
reepresenting the chloridee flow outw
ward the speecimen bounndary are seet to be zeroo, whichmmean no fluxx boundary conditions.. The mass matrix andd diffusion mmatrix is ex
xpressedass following::஺௅ ʹ ͳ஺஽ ͳെͳെቃ ǡ ‫ ܭ‬ൌ ቂ
(3)
ቃ
M= ቂ
଺ఠ ͳ ʹ௅ െͳͳHHere, L is thet elementt length, A element crosscsectioonal area, aand D is diffusiond-2
2
cooefficient, whichw
is sett to be 1.9771x10 mm
m /h for con
ncrete, as prroposed by Oh andJaang(2004). ߱ is a corrrection paarameter for conversioon the voluume of eleement tovoolume of truuss element due to thhe overlap arrea of adjaccent truss ellement. Con
nsideringmmass transferr to several directions from one node,nthere are overlapp zone of caalculated
truuss area. (Figure 2)

Figure 2:: Definition of overlap area
Thhe parameteer߱ is used
d to correct the errors ini calculatio
on of volum
me of truss elementfrom the voluume of voro
onoi cell, duue to the oveerlap area ofo adjacent eelement. It isiexxpressed as (Nakamuraa et al., 20066):
Ann investigatioon the infof somme paramete
ers in simulation of chlorride ion peneetration
An investigationon the on
influence
offluencesome parametersin simulationof chloride
ion penetration
565
in basedconcreteasednetworkon trussmodel
network moodel
in concrete
on ba
truss

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmar߱ൌ೙෌೔సభ ஺೔ ௅೔

(4)

௏ೝ೐ೌ೗

Where i= element number, n= total number of elements, Ai =effective area of each truss,
Li = length of each truss element and V= volume of the structure. Therefore, ߱ is set to
1 and 2 for one dimension and two dimensions respectively.

For estimating the value of chloride concentration depending on time, the implicit
method, Crank Nicolson approach, is adopted. The above system is converted into thefollowing matrix form.
ଵ

ʹ‫ܮܣ‬

൥ ͸߱
‫ܮܣ‬

͸߱

൅

െ

ο‫ܣܦݐ‬

ʹ‫ܮ‬ο‫ܣܦݐ‬ʹ‫ܮ‬ଵቀ‫ ܯ‬൅ ο‫ܭݐ‬ቁ ‫ ܥ‬௧ାଵ ൌ ቀ‫ ܯ‬െ ο‫ܭݐ‬ቁ ‫ ܥ‬௧
‫ܮܣ‬

͸߱
ʹ‫ܮܣ‬
͸߱

ଶ

െ

൅

ο‫ܣܦݐ‬

ʹ‫ܮ‬ο‫ܣܦݐ‬
ʹ‫ܮ‬‫ݐܥ‬൅ͳ݅ʹ‫ܮܣ‬൩ ൤ ‫ݐ‬൅ͳ ൨ ൌ ൥ ͸߱
‫ܮܣ‬
‫ܬܥ‬

͸߱

ଶ

െ

൅

ο‫ܣܦݐ‬‫ܮܣ‬ʹ‫ܮ‬ο‫ܣܦݐ‬

͸߱
ʹ‫ܮܣ‬

ʹ‫ܮ‬

͸߱

൅

െ

(5)
ο‫ܣܦݐ‬ʹ‫ܮ‬‫ݐܥ‬൩ ൤ ݅‫ ݐ‬൨㻌ʹ‫ܮ‬ο‫ܣܦݐ‬(6)‫ܬܥ‬

where ο‫ ݐ‬is the time step interval, ‫ ܥ‬௧ାଵ is chloride concentration at next time step.
Then, by solving the set of above equation, the chloride ingression profiles dependingon the time parameter can be obtained.
2.3 Analytical solution of Fick’s 2nd law in error function form
To predict the chloride ingression with focusing on time dependent diffusivity and set
boundary condition
By using the error function solution to Fick’s 2nd law, Equation.1 can be converted to
the following form, which can predict chloride concentration in term of penetration
distance and time dependent(Jens Mejer Frederiksen et al.,2008).
ሺǡ ሻ ൌ ‫ܥ‬௦ ൤ͳ െ ݁‫ ݂ݎ‬൬௫ඥସ஽೎ ௧

൰൨

(7)

where Cs = chloride concentration at surface, x = distance from exposed surface, Dc =chloride diffusion coefficient and t= time.
The equation 7 is appropriate for check the chloride ion penetration in cementitious
material by varying the diffusion coefficient as the materials. However, in the real
structure which concrete has cracks from the working load, only this equation is notenough to predict the chloride ion penetration.
3. SIMULATION RESULTS
3.1 Comparison the simulations results with the analytical solution of Fick’s 2nd law
In order to verify the simulation model from Equation 5, the Equation 7 was used tocomparing the results. The simulations which set similar condition in 1dimension and 2
dimensions are performed. The simulation conditions are set as following. The average

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truuss elementt length is 2.5mm.
2Thee diffusion coefficientcisi set to be 0.01971 mm
m2/hour.
-3
Thhe time stepp interval iss 1 hour perr step. Chlooride concentration at ssurface is 5×10
5
g/
2
cm
m Total tim
me of penetrration is 52 weeks. ߱ are set to beb 1 in one dimension and 2 intwwo dimensioons. The ressults of the ssimulationss are shown in followinng figure.
(a)

(b)

Figure 3:
3 Comparisson of chlorride concenttration in on
ne and two dimension (a),Chlorride concenttration profi
files in two dimensiond((b)
Frrom the sim
mulation results, the chhloride peneetration proffiles from trruss networrk model
prrovided a siimilar trend
d line with tthe analyticcal solution
n of Fick’s 2 nd law in bothbone
diimension andatwo dimmensions. The resultss confirm the correcttness of go
overning
eqquation (Eq. 5) and corrrection paraameter߱.
3..2 Effect off time step intervaliThhe input timme step interval ο‫ ݐ‬vaalues are varried from 0.1hour
0
to 1 68 hours, whilew
the2
otther parameeter are sett to be samme, as 2.5××2.5 mm of average meshing sizesand0.01971 mm2/hour of diiffusion coeefficient, forr observing the effect oof time step
p interval
onn the accuraacy of modeel. The resullts is shownn as followin
ng graph (FFigure 4)
An investigation on the influence of some parameters in simulation of chloride ion penetration
Annbased
investigatio
on on
the inffluenceme parameteers in simulation of chlorride ion peneetration 567
in concreteon truss
networkmodel of som
in concrete baased on truss network moodel

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Figure 4:: Effect of tiime step intterval on chhloride peneetration proffiles
From F
Figure 4, it shows thatt the small er time steep interval makesmthe chloride ioons
ndconcenttration profiiles more cllosely to thee trend of analyticalasoolution of FFick’s 2 laaw.
In case of ο‫ ݐ‬smaaller than 1 hour, the ggraph is clo
ose to the annalytical soolution and no
significaant differennce can be observed. In case thhatο‫ ݐ‬is veery large, ee.g. time sttep
interval larger thann 48hours, thet chloridee penetrationn profile sig
gnificantly decrease, andandshow biig different from the annalytical sollution of Ficck’s 2 laww.
3.3 Effeect of elemeent meshing size
For studdy the effect of meshinng size, the sspecimen off 50×75 mm
m and 150×1150mm ismeshedd to element average sizze of 0.5×0..5, 2.5×2.5, 5.0×5.0, 10
0.0×10.0 annd 15.0×15.00mm2 as show in Figgure 5(a), (bb), (c) and ((d) respectiv
vely. The modelmis thenn simulated
the chlooride penetration at 5 weeks.
w
The rresults is shown as follo
owing graphh (Figure 6))

Figuure 5: Trusss network of specimen of 50×75m
mm and 150××150 mm att different
messhing size

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Figgure 6: Effecct of time sttep interval on chloridee penetratioon profiles
Thhe simulatiion results in Figure 6 show that Chloride penetrationn profile giv
ving thesim
milar trend even the meshingmis laarger.
3..4 Effect off random reeahing andd regular meshingm
Inn two dimennsion model, regular mmeshing moodel and ran
ndom meshiing model has
h beengeenerated forr study the effecteof eleement arrang
gement. (Figure 7)

Figure 7: Reg
gular meshinng and rand
dom meshin
ng truss arraangement
Inn two dimeension moddel, a nodee is random
mly allocateed in squarre grid of inputtedellement size using rando
om numberr generator. The simulaation conditiions both inn regularmmeshing and random meeshing are sset as follow
wing. The averageatrusss element lengthlis
2
2.5mm. The diffusion cooefficient iss set to be 0.01971
0mm
m /hour. Thhe time step
p interval
is 1 hour peer step. Chlloride conceentration att surface iss 5×10-3 g/ cm2 Total time ofpeenetration iss 10 weeks. The simulaation resultss are shownn in Figure8 .

Ann investigatioon the infof somme paramete
ers in simulation of chlorride ion peneetration
An investigationon the on
influence
offluencesome parametersin simulationof chloride
ion penetration569
in basedconcreteasednetworkon trussmodel
network moodel
in concrete
on ba
truss

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Figuree 8: Chloridde penetratio
on profiles oof regular meshingmandd random mmeshing trussarraangement
In case of regular meshing, th
he chloride penetrationn profile is perfectly mmatch with thetndanalyticcal solution of Fick’s 2 law. W
While, in casse of randomm meshingg, the chloriide
profile slightly osccillate arounnd the analyytical solution. From thet overall picture, theere
are no ssignificantlyy different in
n trend betw
ween regulaar meshing anda randomm meshing.
3.5 Simmulation witth single crrack
For veriify the appllicability off the truss nnetwork witth the crack
ked concretee in the futu
ure
study, tthe simulatiion of singgle crack sppecimen haas been sim
mulate. The specimen of
50×75mmm2 with a singlecracck of 30 m
mm depth anda 50 Ɋ and 80 Ɋ width wasw
presenteed to see thee chloride peretrationptthrough cracck by truss model.(seemFigure 9)

Figu
ure 9: Singlee crack moddelingTo calcuulate the difffusion coeffficient throough crack Dcrack in ceement-basedd materials ,the folloowing experrimaltal biliinear equatiion,proposeed by Djerbii (2008), is uused.(Eq.8
and 9)
Dcrack = 2×10
0-11w – 4x100-10 (m2/s) for ͵ͲɊɊ ൑ ‫ ݓ‬൏ ͺͺͲɊ(8)(Dcrack = 1.4×10-9 (m2/s)
for ‫ ݓ‬൒ ͺͲɊ
(9)
(

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Fiigure 10 shhow the chlloride penettretion proffile of singlle cracked specimen at
a 1 day,
1w
week and 12
1 weeks ofo specimenn with single carck off 50ߤm andd more thann 80ߤm,reespectively.

Figure 100: Chloride penetrationpn profiles off single crack specimenn
Frrom the ressults, the chhloride peneetration through crack
k is faster ccomparing withw thatinngress fromm surface. Not
N only inncreasing the
t maximu
un penetrattion depth, but thechhloriod ion concentraio
on in the areea perpendiicular to thee crack also increase duue to thehiigher diffussivity. Bassed on this results, thee truss modeel can posssibly apply with theotther numerical simulatiion like RB
BSM for sim
mulation of chloridecpennetration inn cracked
cooncrete.
4.. CONCLUUSIONS
Frrom the reesults of siimulation iinvestigatingg the influ
uence of eaach parameeter andsimmulation ofo chloride penetrationn through single craccked specim
men, the fo
ollowing
coonclusion arre made.
(11) The simuulation results give a ssame tenden
ncy with the analyticall solution ofo Fick’snd
2 law.
(22) The finenness of meshing and tim
me step interval relate to the accuuracy of sim
mulation.
The moree fineness meshingmandd smaller tim
me step interval providede the better trend ofchloride ion
i penetrattion profile s. Howeverr, too small meshing siize results ini highercalculatioon time andd memory uusage. Hencce, in this sttudy the moodel is geneerally set
the time step intervaal equal to 1 hour perr step, and averageameeshing size equal to
An investigation on the influence of some parameters in simulation of chloride ion penetrationin concreteon truss
networkmodel of som
Annbased
investigatio
on on
the inffluenceme parameteers in simulation of chlorride ion peneetration 571
in concrete baased on truss network moodel

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2.5×2.5mm2, because the setting of meshing size and time step interval smaller than
this value do not show significantly different in simulation results.
(3) Chloride penetration profile from the random meshing arrangement gives a similar
trend with regular mesh and the analytical solution of Fick’s 2nd law by error
function solution.
(4) From the simulation of chloride penetration through single crack model and therandom meshing element arrangement, these show the possibility in adaptation of
the truss network model with another numerical simulation which can predict crack
width directly, namely, RBSM model (K.Nagai et al., 2004) that can calculate thefracture of the structure correctly. Then, the simulation of chloride penetration intocracked concrete can be performed, consequently.
REFFERENCES
Djerbi, A., Bonnet, S., Khelidj, A. and Baroghel-Bouny, V., 2008. Influence oftraversing crack on chloride diffusion into concrete. Cement and Concrete Research,
877-883.
Dousti, A., Rashetnia, R., Ahmadi, B., and Shekarchi, M. 2013. Influence of exposure
temperature on chloride diffusion in concretes incorporating silica fume or naturalzeolite. Construction and Building Materials 49, 393–399.
Frederiksen, J. M., Mejlbro, L., and Nilssom, L-O., 2008. Fick’s 2nd law-Complete
solutions for chloride ingress into concrete-with focus on time dependent diffusivity andboundary condition, Report TVBM-3146 Lund2008.
Lewis, R. W., Nithiarasu, P., and Seetharamu, K. N., 2004. Fundamentals of the finite
element method for heat and fluid flow. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Nagai, K., Sato, Y., and Ueda, T., 2004. Mesoscopic simulation of failure of mortar andconcrete by 2D RBSM. Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology 11, 359-374.
Nagai, K., Sato, Y., and Ueda, T., 2005. Mesoscopic simulation of failure of mortar andconcrete by 3D RBSM. Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology 11, 385-402.
Nakamura, H., Srisoros, W., Yashiro, R., and Kunieda. M., 2006. Time-dependent
structural analysis considering mass transfer to evaluate deterioration process of RC
structures. Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology 4, 147-158.
Poulsen, E., and Mejlbro, L., 2006. Diffusion of chloride in concrete: theory andapplication, Taylor & Francis, New York.
Šavija, B., Pacheco, J., and Schlangen, E., 2013. Lattice modeling of chloride diffusion
in sound and cracked concrete. Cement & Concrete Composites 42, 30–40.
Srisoros, W., Nakamura, H., Yashiro, R., and Kunieda, M., 2007. Analysis of crack
propagation due to thermal stress in concrete considering solidified constitutive
model. Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology 5, 99-112.
Wang, L., Soda, M., and Ueda, T., 2008. Simulation of chloride diffusivity for cracked
concrete cased on RBSM and truss network model. Journal of Advanced Concrete
Technology 6, 143-155.
Wang, L., Soda, M., and Ueda, T., 2011. Mesoscale modelling of the chloride diffusionin cracks and cracked concrete. Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology 9, 241-249.

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Quan T. NGUYEN1, Ngoc B. NGUYEN2
1
Project Management and Law Division,
Faculty of Construction Economics and Management,
National University of Civil Engineering, Vietnam
nguyenquan.nuce@gmail.com
2
Faculty of Construction Economics and Management,
National University of Civil Engineering, Vietnam
ABSTRACT
Reusing material is a measure for resource-saving which is considered important insustainable development as well as in sustainable construction management worldwide.
This approach leads to the reduction in the amount of construction waste, energy andraw materials, and then contributes to sustainable construction as well as sustainable
development. In Vietnam, in history, re-using demolition materials in new houses was
already applied by Vietnamese people long time ago when they built their own homes inorder to reduce cost, but the practice was spontaneous and has not been consideredwidely as important. Aiming to explore the current practice of re-using construction
materials in the construction industry in Vietnam, a survey has been conducted withrespondents from academic institutions and the industry. The paper points out that thispractice can be found in a variety of types of construction projects, but is most popularwith private houses. The materials to be commonly reused are limited to materials suchas steel and metal, brick and aggregate and wooden materials. The rate of using thosematerials is relatively low in projects, mostly below 10%. The paper then presents threegroups of solutions for promoting and developing this practice to a wider application. It
is believed that the local and governmental authorities need to act first, then otherstakeholders in construction will follow.
Keywords: sustainable construction, reusable materials, construction material reuse,reclaimed construction materials, construction demolition
1. INTRODUCTION
Reusing material, together with reducing and recycling, is an important strategy forsustainable development as well as sustainable construction. Long time ago, in Vietnam,
people spontaneously used spare material and demolition material in building new
houses. Recently, with commitment from the Government for dissemination andimplementation of sustainable development in which sustainable construction is a key
pillar, the reduction of energy and natural resources used for construction activities has
become more and more important. Since construction waste is considered a serious
problem in large cities (Begum et al., 2006), in recent times emerged the importance ofconstruction waste minimization, which includes several approaches such as reduction,
reuse and recycle of materials. Among the three approaches, reuse is considered to be573

November
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Yangon,MyanmarNovember
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reduction of the amount of new materials to be used (NSCC, 2007) as well as theamount of waste. Using exploratory approach, this research paper investigates thecurrent practice of construction material reuse in Vietnam based on the results from asurvey with construction practitioners. The concerning aspects include material types
and sources, reuse percentages, suppliers for reused materials as well as solutions forpromoting the reuse of materials in the construction industry in Vietnam.
2. REUSING CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AS AN APPROACH INSUSTAINABLE CONSTRUCTION WORLDWIDE
2.1 Construction materials and waste
Construction materials are solids and fluids which comprise facilities in construction.
The most frequently used materials include steel, aggregate, concrete, masonry, asphalt,
and wood, then aluminum, glass, plastics, and fiber-reinforced composites (Mamlouk
and Zaniewski, 2011). Waste is defined as “an object” that currently “no longer has any
beneficial use” (NSCC, 2007). Construction materials may become waste if they are thesurplus or rejected materials delivered to the sites or results of the demolition of existing
structures. This type of construction waste contributes to the huge amount of solid wastethat large cities need to deal with. However, since they are still in the original form orjust need a slightly process to be back in their original form, it is advised to try reusing
them until they have no value instead of disposing them after they have been used once
(NSCC, 2007).
2.2 Reuse, reduce and recycle
Reduce, reuse and recycle are three processes that are advised to be used in a
professional environmental project plan (PMI, 2007). These approaches are concernedwith better resource efficiency in different ways. Reduce means the elimination of waste
generation if it is possible, by reducing the amount of materials brought to sites in thefirst place. Reuse is defined as “making use of materials in their original state on thesame site or at other sites”. Recycle is considered as “turning materials into new
products for other purposes” (NSCC, 2007). Though all of these can contribute tofurther reducing the demand on natural resources, they are only three of six levels in
waste management (in order of increasing priority): disposal, process, recycle, reuse,
reduce and prevent.
3. RESEARCH APPROACH
In order to understand the practice of construction material reuse in Vietnam, a survey
with a convenient approach for respondent recruitment was conducted. The
questionnaire was designed and converted into a Google form, then the link to the form
was sent to online professional construction networks. The printed questionnaires werealso distributed to potential respondents using “snowball” method. Only respondents
that have experienced or observed projects with construction materials reused wererecruited. 173 questionnaires had been filled and sent back, among which there are 150

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good completed ones that have been interpreted and analyzed. Respondents completed
these 150 questionnaires come from a variety of job positions in the constructionindustry, from organizations as investors, contractors, consultants and even training
institutions.
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 Origin and sources of construction materials for reuse
There are three major sources for supplying reused construction materials forconstruction projects in Vietnam, as the survey results reveal: the demolition contractors,
the waste traders, and self-provision. Table 1 demonstrates the sources of reused
construction materials in terms of suppliers in the survey respondents’ construction
projects. The figures shows that, most of projects that reused construction materials
procure material for reusing from demolition contractors (70.67%), about a half ofthem used the reused construction materials that they have generated, while just a thirdof them buy from waste traders. The reasons behind the choice could be explained byfurther analysis with the respondents’ perception of quality of this type of material.
Table 1: Suppliers for reused construction materials
Suppliers for reused construction materials
Demolition contractors
Waste traders
Self-provision

Total of choices
106
50
75

%
70.67%
33.33%
50.00%In terms of the origin of this type of material, nearly 80% of the projects mentioned in
the survey used reused materials from demolished construction projects. More than
three quarter of the projects tried to make use of the surplus materials due to exceedingorder or materials being considered as wastage in normal conditions. Greater than a halfof the projects (61.33%) accept materials collected from the demolition job of
unaccepted components on the same site. Figures from this table cross-explain why
most of the projects mentioned in the surveyed have bought construction materials forreuse from demolition contractors and there are a half of them could have reusedmaterials generated be themselves on sites.
Table 2: Suppliers for reused construction materials
Origin of reused construction materials
Total of choices
Materials from demolished construction projects
119
Materials collected from demolition of92
unaccepted components on the same site
Surplus/wasted materials on the same site
114
Others9%79.33%
61.33%
76.00%
6.00%

There are several major types of materials to be reused in the surveyed projects, as in
Table 3. According to the respondents, the most popular material to be reused is steel ormetal, with nearly 90% of the projects having used. This is understandable because steel
and rebar can be used for many activities and structured on sites, especially if there is a
The current practice of construction material reuse in Vietnam
The current practice of construction material reuse in Vietnam575

November
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Yangon,MyanmarNovember
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Yangon,Myanmarwelding machine. The next popular material is brick and aggregate. This type ofmaterial need no or very little processing job to be used again, it explains the figures.
Wooden materials can also be easily reclaimed in lots of construction activities, like infalsework for structures or even to be burnt for heat or fire. That is why nearly two-thirdof the projects has experienced reusing wooden materials. Surprisingly, there are 24 out
of 150 respondents claimed that they have observed projects reusing concretemortar/masonry mortar. It is not easy to re-use concrete/masonry mortar due to the factthat this type of material become hard very fast and have limited use in hard form. The
project management team may need a contingency plan to use the surplus concretemortar right away when the ordered volume seems not to be used all for the currently
executing components.
Table 3: Types of materials to be reused
Types of materials to be reused
Steel and metal materials
Brick and aggregate
Concrete/masonry mortar
Wood
Plastic
Finishing materials

Total of choices
113
103
24
97
2
2

%
88.67%
68.67%
16.00%
64.67%
1.33%
1.33%

According to the survey results, the reuse of construction materials has been observed inseveral types of construction projects, such as private houses, high-rise/multi-story
buildings, infrastructure and industrial projects. Among those types of projects, privatehouses have been mentioned the most, with 71.33% (Table 4). In history, Vietnamese
people had often made use of reusable construction materials for their houses for costsavings, and the modern citizens now have inherited this good tradition. In addition,
quality is not very difficult to control in private houses; that is why householders allow
the use of this type of material more easily.
Table 4: Types of projects reusing reused construction materials
Types of projects
Private houses
High-rise/multi-story buildings
Infrastructure projects
Industrial projects

Total of choices
107
64
62
65

%
71.33%
42.67%
41.33%
43.33%

Other types of construction projects attract nearly the same number of choice regarding
the use of reused construction materials. The percentages are rather high, more than
40%, promising a new market for this type of material in the near future.
Another aspect that needs to be investigated is the percentage of reused materials in a
typical construction project (Table 5). About one fourth of the projects have employedapproximately 10-29% reused materials. This rather high percentage is explained by thehigh rate of private houses being observed and reported in the survey. However, thesurvey results show that the rate of reused material in total amount of material used for576

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a project is mostly less than 10% with more than one fifth of projects in the survey haveused very limited amount of 3% and less.
Table 5: The rate of reused materials in projects
Percentage of reused material
from total amount of material<3%3- less than 10%
10 – 29%
30 – 49%
50% and greater
Unanswered

Total of choices

%

33
55
40
8
10
4

22.00%
36.67%
26.67%
5.33%
6.67%
2.67%

When being asked about the quality of reused materials in comparison to new materials,
most of the respondents (82%) agreed that this type of material is relatively low quality
than the new ones. Only 27 respondents (18%) argued that the two types have the samelevel of quality. The figures explain that in most cases (66.67%), this type of material
was used for unimportant structures in the projects. Though there are 43 respondents
admitted that they have observed this type of material to be used for main projectcomponents, this can be explained by the number of observes in private houses in thesurvey, as shown in Table 4. The reasons the respondents have revealed for the state of
low quality for reused materials include: being deformed, being mixed with othersubstance, being affected/corroded by the environment, incorrect processing and having
no suitable equipment or technology to convert back to the original state, etc. That is tosay, reused materials in construction have been recognized widely, but considered low
quality and are only suitable for certain types of projects and components.
5. PROPOSED SOLUTIONS FOR
MATERIAL REUSE IN VIETNAMPROMOTING

CONSTRUCTION

Respondents who are not for the use of reused construction materials agreed on threemajor barriers as reasons for this practice as shown in Table 6. That is to say, theconsumers’ perception of low quality of this type of material is the greatest barrier thatpeople have to overcome. The next, as being very popular in Vietnam, is legal andregulation issues.
Table 6: Reasons for not using reused construction materials
Reasons
Legal issues in construction processes
No relevant regulations
Worry on quality
OthersTotal of choices
23
38
95
7

%
15.33%
25.33%
63.33%
4.67%

In order to promote the larger use of reusable construction materials, several solutions
have been nominated by the survey respondents. The solutions can be grouped into thefollowing categories:
The current practice of construction material reuse in Vietnam
The current practice of construction material reuse in Vietnam577

November
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Yangon,MyanmarNovember
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Yangon,Myanmar(1) Solutions on quality assurance of reusable materials: developing specific regulations,standards and guidance for classification and preservation of this type of materials,
establishing quality tracking, controlling and accrediting systems to ensure that this typeof materials is legally accepted and properly used in construction projects;(2) Solutions on developing markets for reusable materials: propagating the benefits ofusing this type of materials to investors, contractors, construction-related students andthe whole society in terms of sustainable development, setting up mechanism forestablishing collection and distribution points, professional traders, connecting different
geographical areas and construction stakeholders to widen the markets(3) Solutions on enhancing the reusability of wasted materials: developing specificstandards and specification for designing using this type of materials, investing on
suitable technologies for demolition to minimize the negative impacts to materials,
conducting research to apply new materials that are more durable, have higher quality
and suitable for multi-use.
That is to say, almost all of the proposed solutions need the involvement of the local andcentral authorities. Other stakeholders in construction do not seem to recognize theirroles in maximizing the reuse of construction material. Therefore, the first step should
be taken is to carry out campaign on establishing and developing markets for reusable
materials (group 2 above) in order to get stakeholders in construction involved inpromoting the reuse of this type of materials. Then, the stakeholders in turn will put
pressure back to the local and governmental authorities to get them enable and develop
the markets. Other groups of solutions then will be applied gradually.
6. CONCLUSIONSThe construction market in Vietnam has accepted the reuse of construction material
from demolition and even construction waste but reusable, since long time ago.
However, only some popular types are made use in construction projects but for somespecific component and structures, though the application can be found in a variety of
projects. Apart from private houses where the households could make full decision on
everything, including the type of material used, in other types of projects, theregulations on quality assurance limit the use of this type of materials. Therefore, thereuse of this type of material only limited in several popular and easily-reusing types ofmaterials such as steel and metal, brick and aggregate and wood. The rate of using thosematerials is low, less than 10% in most of the case. In order to develop the use of thistype of material to support sustainable construction and sustainable development of thecountry, it is firstly the job of local and governmental authorities to establish anddevelop markets for this type of material, then get other construction stakeholders in.
Other stakeholders then will automatically play their necessary roles for promotion of
construction material reuse for the country.

REFERENCES
Begum, R. A., Siwar, C., Pereira, J. J., and Jaafar, A. H., 2006. A benefit–cost analysis
on the economic feasibility of construction waste minimisation: the case of Malaysia.
Resources, Conservation and Recycling 48, 86-98.
Mamlouk, J. P. and Zaniewski, M. S., 2010. Materials for civil and construction

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engineers. New Jersey, Upper Saddle River: Pearson Prentice Hall.
NSCC (2007). Reduce, Reuse, Recycle Managing your waste. London.
PMI (2007). Construction Extension to the PMBOK Guide Third Edition, Newtown
Square, Pennsylvania: Project Management Institute, Inc.

The current practice of construction material reuse in Vietnam
The current practice of construction material reuse in Vietnam579

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580

New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

Toshiya CHIBA1 and Yoshitaka KATO2
1
Master student, Department of Civil Engineering,
Graduate School of Science and Technology, Tokyo University of Science, Japantoshiya1350@gmail.com
2
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
Faculty of Science and Technology, Tokyo University of Science, Japan
ABSTRACT
Deterioration mechanisms of concrete structures, such as salt damage, alkali-aggregate
reaction and drying shrinkage, are closely related to the water present in the concrete.
It is believed that clarifying the water movement in concrete can contribute to more
precise prediction of the deterioration of concrete structure, and thus understanding thebasic nature of water transport is very important. In this study, the saturation
distribution in concrete was estimated using the moisture diffusion coefficient obtained
from the water and moisture absorption test with varying levels of initial saturation of
the mortar. The results of the water absorption test showed that the moisture diffusion
coefficient as the gas phase is small in the low-saturation region, but the moisturediffusion coefficient as the liquid phase is large in the high-saturation region. Then it
was possible to reproduce more accurately the saturation distribution in the mortar bysetting appropriately the saturation boundary of the low-saturation region and the highsaturation region.
Keywords: water movement, saturation, moisture diffusion coefficient, mass transfer
1. INTRODUCTION
Reinforced concrete structures are widely used for infrastructure, but it is necessary to
improve the durability of both new and existing structures. It is known that the
durability of a concrete structure is closely related to the water content of its concrete.
For example, the alkali aggregate reaction is a chemical reaction between alkalihydroxide in the pore solution with reactive aggregate. The gel formed by this reaction
expands upon absorbing water and causes cracking of the concrete and rebars breakage.
Consequently, the durability of concrete structures is greatly affected by the alkali
aggregate reaction (Sekino, 2009), and hence the water content within the concreteinternal affects the speed of deterioration. It has also been reported that the watercontent of concrete affects the speed of neutralization and that moisture around therebars greatly affects the corrosion mechanism (Yamamoto, 2001). In order toquantitatively grasp the deterioration of concrete structures, it is important tounderstand the water movement properties of the concrete.
Regarding past studies on water movement in concrete, many studies have elucidated
the shrinkage due to drying (Sakata, 1981; Kobayashi, 1995; Akita, 1994). Most studies
have focused on the movement of water vapor inside the concrete. However, actual581

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmarstructures in the environment are affected by drying, moisture absorption and water
absorption, so it is necessary to consider the combined liquid phase and vapor phasewater movement inside the concrete.
Akita et al. experimentally studied water movement in the drying process, moistureabsorption process and water absorption process (Akita, 1990). They modeled the water
movement as a diffusion phenomenon, and confirmed that it can be expressed as the
diffusion of water vapor in the moisture absorption process and drying process.
However, it was reported a large difference between the analytical and experimental
values in the water absorption process. In practice, in the water absorption process, thediffusion phenomenon caused by the movement of water vapor in the gas phase and thatcaused by water movement in the liquid phase by capillary force are complexly mixed
and so cannot be easily represented. Therefore it is necessary to consider the water
movement of the water absorption process in greater detail.
Many studies on water movement in concrete used specimens in the absolutely dry stateby oven drying at 105ºC before conducting experiments on water absorption andmoisture absorption. However, actual concrete structures are not in the absolutely dry
state because the surrounding environment is repeatedly undergoing drying, moistureabsorption and water absorption. So, in order to accurately predict water movement
inside a concrete structure, it is necessary to understand the water movement inconsideration of the water content of the concrete before the water and moistureabsorption test.
In this study, water and moisture absorption tests were conducted using specimens inwhich the water content had been adjusted in order to examine the effect of initialsaturation on water movement in concrete. By using non-linear analysis of onedimensional and experimental results, the diffusion coefficient and the analytical valuesof saturation distribution were collected, and the method of calculating the diffusion
coefficient taking into account the boundary saturation and the water content of a mortar
specimen was examined.
2. EXPERIMENTAL OUTLINE
2.1 Material and specimens
The cement used in this study was ordinary Portland cement (symbol C, density 3.15
g/cm3). The aggregate used was Yamanashi Fujikawa river sand (symbol S, density
2.61 g/cm3). The mix proportion is shown in Table 1. The prepared specimens wererectangular columns (4 × 4 × 16 cm).
Table 1: Mortar mix proportions

582

W/C(%)

S/C

50

2.3

(kg/m3)W
CS
254
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2.2 Water and moisture absorption test
The specimens were demolded and cured for 91 days in water to allow hydration toadvance sufficiently. Then, the specimens were sealed with tape on the four sides except
for one face for water and moisture absorption. In this study, with reference to themethod of Maruyama et al., mortar specimens were cut using a precision cutter asshown in Fig. 1 at intervals of 7.5 mm, 10 mm, and 30 mm before starting the test
(Maruyama 2011). Then, by combining them, the water and moisture absorption test
was started. The absolutely dry weight of the specimens cut by the precision cutter were
measured and the saturation of each element was also measured. The degree ofsaturation of the mortar specimen was adjusted so as to approach 0% (A), 25% (B),
50% (C) and 75% (D). The saturation of each element of the specimen adjusted for
initial saturation are shown in Fig. 2. The figure shows that the measured and set
saturation generally matched.

Exposed face
Exposed face Cut surface Seal

Figure 1: Sample preparation

Figure 2: Adjustment of the initial

The situation of the water absorption test after adjusting the saturation in mortar isshown in Fig. 3. The mass of each element was measured at 2 hours, 6 hours, 1 day, 3days, 7 days and 14 days from the start of water absorption using an electronic balancewith an accuracy of 0.0001 g. In a similar way, the moisture test was conducted after
adjusting the initial saturation. Then, the mass of the specimens placed in a highhumidity environment was measured at 3 days, 7 days, and 14 days. The high-humidity
environment was created by constant condensation in a sealed vessel filled with water.
The saturation (Ri) of each element was determined by Equation (1).
Ri (%)

W i W i ( dry )W i ( sat ) W i ( dry )

100
(1)

Where Wi (sat) is the saturation weight of the specimen (g), Wi (dry) is the absolutely dry
weight of the specimen (g), Wi is the weight of specimen after the test (g).

Effect of initial water content in mortar on water and moisture absorption of mortar
Effect of initial water content in mortar on water and moisture absorption of mortar

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Yangon,Myanmar

Water absorption
surface

Figure 3: Water absorption test
3. ANALYSIS METHOD
In this study, it is considered that water movement can be expressed by the nonlinear
diffusion equation of one-dimensional by using Equation (2).
R
t

DR

R

(2)

Where D(R) is the diffusion coefficient (cm2/day), R is the saturation of the specimen.
The diffusion coefficient (D(R)) can be expressed as Equation (3) used to Boltzmann
variable ( ) shown in Equation (4).
DR

R2

2

R R R 2 Re

dR

x

(3)
(4)

2 t

Where is the Boltzmann variable (cm/s1/2), x is the distance from the surface (cm), t is
the period of moisture absorption and water absorption (day) R2 is the any degrees ofsaturation (%) Re is the initial saturation (%).
In order to use the Equation (3), it is necessary to obtain an approximate expression by
the regression relationship between R and . In this study, a hyperbolic Equation (5)was used with reference to the method of Akita et al..

R 100

f

a /(

b) 2

(5)

Where a, b, and f are factors used by the approximate expression.

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4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Fig. 4 shows the results of the moisture absorption test using the specimens adjusted forthe initial saturation. Considering the difference of initial saturation, it is confirmed thatwater movement occurred in specimen A, B and C, which was in the absolutely dry
state. Water movement in the gas phase can be considered as a diffusion phenomenon of
simple water vapor. So it is considered that the moisture movement increased withgreater difference in the water content of the mortar inside and the external environment.
The results of the water absorption test are shown in Fig. 5. Comparing A, B, and C, thehigher the initial saturation of specimens, the more the saturated elements tend to be in
an area away from the water absorption surface. It can be seen that the water absorption
progresses. It is considered that the water absorption progresses by the initial saturation
because the intermolecular force of water molecules is activated. However, the trend in
D was not observed, as explained later.
In accordance with the analysis method described in Chapter 3, the diffusion coefficient
was calculated from the measurement results of Fig. 4. The relationship of the diffusion
coefficient and saturation is shown in Fig. 6. The diffusion coefficient of low initialsaturation is larger than that of high initial saturation immediately after starting eachmoisture absorption test. The diffusion coefficient of initial saturation 75% was not
calculated because the moisture transfer could not be observed.
Similarly, the relationship of saturation with diffusion coefficient using the water
absorption test results in Fig. 5 is shown in Fig. 7. In this study, the diffusion coefficient
was calculated according to the analysis method of Akita et al. (Akita, 1990). Unlike therelationship of diffusion coefficient and saturation in the moisture absorption test, therelationship of D-R changes depending on the number of days of water absorption. Thismeans that the water movement cannot be expressed as the diffusion. However, it ispossible to consider the physical phenomenon of the water absorption process, by
focusing on the saturation when the diffusion coefficient increases rapidly in Fig. 7.
Saturation when the diffusion coefficient changes rapidly shows the boundary of theslow movement by water vapor in the low-saturation region and rapid movement byliquid water in the high-saturation region. In this study, this is referred to as boundary
saturation. The boundary saturation of Fig. 7 is obtained from the approximate
expression of the relationship of saturation and Boltzmann variable. Looking at theresults of Fig. 7, boundary saturation when the diffusion coefficient sharply rises is low
in the short-term water absorption time of 2 h and 6 h. This is considered to be due torapid movement of liquid water by capillary force. The value of the diffusion coefficientin D is small compared to A, B, and C, and confirming that the movement of the water
is low. It is considered that the driving force of the water movement is reduced becauseof the difference in the internal saturation and the saturation near the surface is small. It
is believed that if the initial saturation state is too high, there is action to slow down thewater absorption, because the driving force of the water movement is reduced.

Effect of initial water content in mortar on water and moisture absorption of mortar
Effect of initial water content in mortar on water and moisture absorption of mortar

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Yangon,MyanmarFigure 4: Results of moisture absorption test

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Figure 5: Results of water absorption test

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0%

2

25%

50%

1.5
1
0.5
0
0

50

100

Saturation [%]Figure 6: Relationship of D-R of moisture absorption test

[%]
2h

6h

1day

3day

7day

14day

Figure 7: Relationship of D-R of water absorption test
A comparison of the experimental values with the analysis values calculated by using
the diffusion coefficients obtained from the results of Fig. 7 - A are shown in Fig. 8. In
the analysis, the diffusion coefficient obtained for each water absorption day was used.
For example, when calculating the analysis value up to 1 day from the start of water
absorption, the analyzed data is calculated using the diffusion coefficients obtained fromthe experimental results of 0–2 h, 2 h–6 h, and 6 h to 1 day. The analytical values of
non-initial water absorption are higher than the experimental values.
In this study, the analytical values were not calculated appropriately. Perhaps thesaturation boundary used to approximate the experimental values was not appropriate. It
is considered from the experimental value to be a smooth gradient change point.

Effect of initial
content
mortarinonmortar
water onandwatermoisture
absorptionof mortarof mortar
Effect waterof initialwaterincontent
and moistureabsorption

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November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarHowever, the cause is suspected to be because of using the intersection of theapproximate expression. The movement of liquid water by capillary phenomenon
dominates immediately after starting the water absorption test. As the number of days ofwater absorption progresses, water vapor diffusion occurs from the front of themeniscus. It is considered that the form of water movement gradually changes, and thatboundary saturation also continuously changes.

100
80
60
40
20
0
0

5

10

15

Figure 8: Comparison with the analytical value with the experimental value
The saturation boundary at a particular time was calculated by inverse analysis fromexperimental values such as in Fig. 9. The time-dependent temporal change of thesaturation boundary was considered. The temporal change of the boundary saturation
obtained when calculating the analysis values in Fig. 9 is shown in Fig. 10. A
significant difference in the initial saturation was not observed, but the saturation
boundary was smaller with fewer water absorption days. Equation (6) is an approximate
expression of the relationship between water absorption in days and boundary saturation
obtained by inverse analysis in Fig. 10.

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Figure 9: Comparison with the experimental value with the analytical value considering
the saturation boundary

Figure 10: Relationship of water absorption days and boundary saturation
Rb

1.53
100
t

(6)

Where Rb is the boundary saturation (%), t is the water absorption days (day).
It is considered that the movement of liquid water by capillary force was prominent
when the boundary saturation was small and reduced over time. Temporal change of theboundary saturation is different from the result of Akita et al. (Akita, 1990). But, in thisstudy, the data of the initial water absorption was used, and it is observed that the rapid
movement of liquid water by capillary force occurred.

Effect of initial water content in mortar on water and moisture absorption of mortar
Effect of initial water content in mortar on water and moisture absorption of mortar

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5. CONCLUSIONS
The results of this study are summarized as follows.
1) Water absorption tests using mortar specimens with adjusted initial saturation
showed that the initial saturation affects the speed of moisture and water
absorption.
2) As a result of using the boundary saturation obtained by inverse analysis from theexperimental values, it was found that the boundary saturation increases overtime. It is considered that the movement of liquid water by capillary force affects
the initial water absorption. Thereafter, the action of capillary force becomes
weaker and water absorption slows down.
REFERENCES
Akita, H., Fujiwara, T., and Osaka, Y., 1990. Water movement mortar due to drying andwetting, Proceedings of the Japan Society of Civil Engineers 13.
Akita, H., Fujiwara, T., and Osaka, Y., 1994. An analytical method of moisture transfer
within concrete due to drying, Journal of Materials, Concrete Structures and Pavements
23, 101-110.
Kobayashi, T., Yamada, K., and Yamamoto, T., 1995. Fundamental study on
development of drying shrinkage and strength due to water movement in concrete,
Japan Concrete Institute 17, 633-638.
Maruyama, I., Igarashi, G., and Kishi, N., 2011. Fundamental study on water transfer inPortland Cement past, Journal of Structural and Construction Engineering 76, 17371744.
Sakata, K., and Kuramoto, O., 1981. A study on the water diffusion and shrinkage inconcrete by drying. Proceedings of the Japan Society of Civil Engineers 312, 142-145.
Sekino, K., Tsuyuki, N., and Yoshimoto, M., 2009. Study on inhibitor of alkaliaggregate reaction, Cement Science and Concrete Technology 63, 408-413.
Yamamoto, K., Ikasa, H., Koga, I., and Masuda, Y., 2001. An experimental study on
effects of the moisture condition of concrete on steel corrosion, Japan Concrete Institute23, 535-540.

590

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Safetyof Megain Asia

Iuko TSUWA1 and Mikio KOSHIHARA2
Engineer, The Japanese Association for Conservationof Architectural Monument, Japantsuwa@bunkenkyo.or.jp
2
Professor, Institute of Industrial Science, the University of Tokyo, Japan
1

ABSTRACT
Traditional timber structures such as temples and shrines in Japan are preserved
and utilized actively and used by general public. Thus even traditional buildings
need sufficient aseismic performance. Many traditional timber buildings are built
by the knowledge and experiences of carpenters. However we need toquantitatively evaluate the earthquake-resistant performance of traditional timber
structures in order to understand their seismic capacity. Recently researches
about the evaluation of seismic capacities in traditional frames or structuralelements are increasing. However it is not clarified how a whole frame isevaluated with the existing evaluation method about seismic elements. In addition,
it is not sufficiently clear how seismic elements behave in a whole frame. In thispaper, we developed three dimensional models of some kinds of traditional timber
frames including Kumimono used in temple and shrines and conducted theparametric dynamic analysis focused on the combination way of seismic elements.
The purpose of this paper is to examine the dynamic characteristics of seismic
elements in a whole traditional timber frame.
Keywords: traditional timber structure, Kumimono, earthquake response analysis,
non-linear dynamic behavior
1. INTRODUCTION
We conducted shaking table tests with three kinds of specimens as shown in
Figure 1. The picture in Figure 1 shows Specimen 2 on a shaking table. The wall
stiffness of Specimen 1, 2, 3 became higher in this order, in order to understandthe effectiveness of wall stiffness on vibration characteristics. The details of theexperimental method were presented in USMACA 2011, 2013. In this paper, we
improved an analysis model based on shaking table test results. The model wasdeveloped with the springs of earthquake resistant elements. We also madeimprovements in modelling of restoring force characteristics of each structuralelement. Parametric analysis was conducted in which a column base condition andthe strength of a wall was changed. The analysis results were compared withexperimental results. The effectiveness of each structural element on the seismic
behavior of a whole frame was discussed.

591

November
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anoi,
Vietnam
m

3060
1260

900

900
Tosh
hi-hijiki
Kummimono
D
Daiwa
Co
olumn

300

Mud wall

3
300
Koshi-nuki

Mud wallJi--nukiSpecimenn1Specimen 2

Vertical LoaddSpecimenPlywwood wall

Load cell
Shhaking table

Specimen 3
Figure 1: Expperiment in a previous researchr
2. AN
NALYSIS MODELM
2.1 O
OutlineWe developed three-dimeensional annalysis moddel. Each seismicseleement was
modeeled as rotaation, shear or compresssion and tension spring
gs as shownn in Figure
2. M
Modeled elemments weree the rotatioon spring ofo column, thet rotationn spring ofcolum
mn-Nuki joiints, the sheear spring oof walls, shear and com
mpression aand tension
sprinngs of Kumiimono. It waas assumed that a colum
mn base weent up.

Figure 2: Analysis modelm592

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2.1 Modelling of structural elements
We set each restoring force characteristic of seismic springs based on shaking
table tests and previous researches. Table 1 shows the characteristics. We modeled
the hysteresis curves of Koshinuki-column joints, Kumimono and mud walls fromthe results of shaking table tsets. A Jinuki-column joint was set by a previous
theory of Inayaama, 1992. The restoring force characteristic of plywood wall was
determined by the shear force of surface bars and nails as shown in the previous
research of Murakami et al, 2006. The characteristic of Koshi-nuki joints was
improved in this time and was different with our previous paper. We also madeimprovements in the spring model of a column base. We show the details next.
A column has a resistance force to rocking because columns have a large diameterin this experiment. Therefore we set a rotation spring at the column base. In
addition, the uplift of column was also seen at the column base in some tests ofSpecimen 3. On the other hand, the column base did not go up in the tests ofSpecimen 1 and 2. In our previous research, we individually set the column
condition in analysis. However the specification of a column base was same inevery specimen. The column put on a base stone. There was a wooden dowel
between a column and base stone. Therefore any specimen could go up at acolumn base. For this reason, the analysis model of every specimen needs to havea same condition at a column base. The uplift of a column base and a rotation
spring by rocking were included in every specimen.
Next we consider the restoring force characteristic of a column. The property is
usually defined by previous researches of Ban 1942 and Kawai, 1972 as shown in
Figure 4. The characteristic includes an effect called the p- effect. It is aphenomenon that vertical loads act in a direction increasing horizontal
displacement in association with the increase of displacement. An analysis soft
called Wallstat used in our research has the p- effect contributing to a wholebuilding in an analysis. Accordingly the p- effect is counted doubly when we use
the property of previous researches (AIJ 2013). Therefore we used the restoring
force characteristic as shown in Figure 5 (b). The characteristic was calculated bysubtracting the p- effect from the original property as shown in Figure 5. The
hysteresis characteristic was nonlinear elastic. Additionally the fluctuation ofvertical loads was also included in a simulation.
2.2 Verification of analysis model
2.2.1 Analysis method
The input wave of each specimen was an acceleration wave on a shaking table
gained from the experimental results inputting the wave of level 2 provided by
Building Center of Japan. Figure 6 shows the original wave. The maximum
acceleration of the original wave was 355.66 gal. Viscous damping factor was
2.0 % of a stiffness-proportional damping. We used an improved analysis soft
called wallstat ver2.0.1 (Nakagawa, 2010).

Influence of eachseismic
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Table 1: Some comments on tables
Element

Restoring force characteristic

Koshinuki-column joint
ColumnModel 3

Koshinuki

Model 2

Specimen 1
Model 1
Specimen 2
Model 2
Specimen 3
Model 3Model 1

Jinuki-column joint

Shear
force

ColumnJinuki

Deformation
anlgle (rad.)

Kumimono

Analysis model

Mud wall

Mud wall11 [kN]
Upper wall
10
9
Lower wall
8
All
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
(rad.)
0[rad.]
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1

Plywood wall

(kN)

30
20
10
0
0.2

Plywood
wall

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
10

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2
(rad.)

20
30

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Column
n
Dowel
Stone
S

Figure 4: The
T specificcation of a columncbasee in all speccimens(a) The characteeristic of aprevious reseearch(b) The charracteristic of thisresearch(cc) p- effectt

Figuure 5: Analy
ysis model

Figuree 6: Originaal input wav
veInfluence of each seismmic element oon the dynammic behavior ofo traditionaal timber frammes
Influence of each seismic element on the dynamic behavior of traditional timber frames595

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2.2.2 Comparison with experimental results
We compared the analysis results to shaking table test ones. The load
displacement relationship of whole frames in all specimens was described in
Figure 8. Analysis results almost corresponded with experimental results in any
specimen. The maximum horizontal displacement and shear force at the top of aframe were almost same.
(kN) 15
10
5
0
200

100

5

0

100

200
(mm)

Analysis
Experiment

10
15Specimen 120(kN) 30

(kN)

15

20

10

10

5

0

0
200

100

5

0

100

200
(mm)

10

200

100

10

0

100

200
(mm)

20

15

30

20

Specimen 2

Specimen 3

Figure 7: The relationship between load and displacement of all specimens
3. PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS
3.1 The influence of columns base condition
In the experiment of Specimen 3, a column base went up. However in theexperiment of the other specimens, specimen 1 and 2, the uplift of a column basewas no seen. In this paragraph, we consider the difference of seismic behavior
depending on the condition of a column base.
We made a model (Model A) changed the condition of a column base inSpecimen 3. We assumed that a column base in the analysis model of Specimen 3
did not go up. The other condition of analysis models was same. The analysis
model of Specimen 3 calls Model 3.
The analysis results of Model A were compared with ones of Model 3. Figure 8
shows the relationships between load and displacement about a whole frame andKumimono. The displacement of a whole frame in Model A was smaller thanModel 3. The maximum load of Model A was larger than Model 3. The shear
displacement of Kumimono in both models was almost same. Figure 9 described596

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the seismiic behavior at the maxiimum horizzontal displaacement of a top in a frame.
fr
The seismmic behaviorr was a diffeerent tenden
ncy in both specimens. In Model A,
A theparts of KumimonoK
deformedd
byy shearing independen
ntly of a waall frame. On
O theother handd, Kumimon
no deformedd with a walll frame in ModelM3.
(kN) 4040 (kN)

20

20

0
200

100

0

100

200
(mm)

20

Moddel 33
Casee A40

Whole frame

0
3

2

1

0
20
40

1

2

3
(mm)

Case A
Model 33

Kumimonno

Figuree 8: The relaationship beetween loadd and displaccement of aall specimen
ns

Case
C A

Model 3Figuree 9: The relaationship beetween loadd and displaccement of aall specimenns
3.2 The innfluence of wall strenggth
In the expperiment of Specimen 22, the collap
pse of mud walls was oobserved annd theshear force of the whole fraame in Sp
pecimen 2 decreasedd around 50mm
5
deformatioon. In this paragraph,pw
we analyzeed with the model haviing high strength
mud wallss in order to examine the influen
nce of the wall
w strengthh on the seeismic
behavior ofo a frame.. The anallysis modell of Specim
men 2 show
ws Model 2. The
model of thist new anaalysis calls Case B.
The horizoontal displaacement of a frame top in Case B became sm
maller than ModelM
2 as show
wn in . It alm
most halvedd. The displlacement off Kumimonoo in Case B waslarger thann Model 2.. The form of the loadd displacem
ment relationnship of Caase B
was swolllen. The rootation anggle at a Ko
oshinuki collumn joint in Case B was
smaller than Model 2 as shown iin Figure 10
0.

Influence of eachseismic
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16 (kN)
14
12
10
8
6
4

Model
2( 2
Case
B( B
Case

2
0
0

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

)
)
(rad.)
0.1

Figure 10: The restoring force characteristic of a mud wall
20 (kN)15

20 (kN)
15

10

10

5

5
0

0
200

100

5 0

100

10

200

5

(mm)
Model22
Case
CaseB B

10
15
20

5 0

5

10

(mm)
CaseB B
Case
Model2 2

15
20

10

Figure 11: The restoring force characteristic of a mud wall
2 (kNm)

L

1
0
0.15

0.1

0.05

0
1
2

0.05

0.1

0.15

(rad.)
2 2
Model
CaseB B
Case

Figure 12: The restoring force characteristic of a mud wall
4. CONCLUSIONS
The analysis model of three kinds of timber frames was improved. We examinedthe effect of a column base condition and the strength of a wall on the seismic
behavior of frames.
When the uplift of a column base is not allowed like the case of Case A, the shear
resistant force of a wall was effective. The shear deformation of a whole frame
became smaller. When mud walls have high strength like Case B, the tendency ofseismic behavior was similar to Case A. The horizontal displacement of a wholeframe in Case B became smaller compared to Model 2. On the other hand, one of598

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ICUS Report 78

Kumimono was larger in the case of Case B. It can be seen that the shear
deformation at the parts of Kumimono become larger when the shear force of apart of frame under Kumimono is high.
REFERENCES
AIJ, 2013, AIJ Standard for the structural calculation of traditional woodenbuildings by the calculation method of response and limit strength, pp.71 (inJapanese).
Ban, S., 1942. A study on the determination of the stability about main hall
structures, Vol. 3: a mechanical study on the Japanese Traditional Frame, 1, thestability restoring force of a column. Papers of annual meeting of Architectural
Institute of Japan, March, 252-258 (in Japanese).
Inayama, M., 1991. The theory of compression perpendicular to the grain in woodand its application, Dissertation of the University of Tokyo (in Japanese).
Kawai, N., 1992. A study on the structural stability of traditional timber structures,
Report of the Building Center of Japan, March (in Japanese).
Murakami, M., and Inayama, M., 2006. Formulae to predict the elastic and plastic
behaviour of sheathed walls with any nailing arrangement pattern, Journal ofstructural and construction engineering 519, 87-94 (in Japanese).
Nakagawa, T., and Ohta, M., 2010. Collapsing process simulations of timber
structures under dynamic loading III: Numerical simulations of the real size
wooden houses. Journal of Wood Science 56, 284-292.
Tsuwa, I., 2014. The difference of seismic behavior by the combination way ofearthquake resistant elements in traditional timber buildings, - an example of fifth
storied pagoda-, Dissertation of the University of Tokyo (in Japanese).
Tsuwa, I., and Koshihara, M., 2009. Shaking table tests of traditional timber
frames including Kumimono - Modeling of horizontal resistance force -, USMCA
2009.
Tsuwa, I., and Koshihara, M., 2011. A study on the effect of wall stiffness on thevibration characteristics of traditional timber frames including Kumimono,
USMCA 2011.
Tsuwa, I., and Koshihara, M., 2011. Modeling and earthquake response analysisof traditional timber frames including Kumimono, USMCA 2103.

Influence of eachseismic
element
on thedynamic
behaviorof behavior
traditionalframesInfluenceof eachseismic
element
on thedynamic
of timbertraditionaltimber frames599

November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

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Nozomu SOMEYA1 and Yoshitaka KATO2
Doctoral Student, Department of Civil Engineering,
Graduate School of Science and Technology, Tokyo University of Science, Japansomeya0910@yahoo.co.jp
2
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
Faculty of Science and Technology, Tokyo University of Science, Japan
1

ABSTRACTIn this study, corrosion of steel reinforcement (rebar) was induced in concrete withvarying chloride ion concentrations and varying material permeability, and the effect ofheterogeneous chloride ion exposure on the rebar corrosion was examined. When thechloride ion concentrations in the two halves of the specimen were 10% and 0%, thecorrosion current density in the portion with 10% tended to increase and becamearound 2.0 A/cm2, whereas in the portion with 0% the corrosion current density
became around 0.8 A/cm2. For the corrosion reaction, the 10% portion became theanode and the 0% portion became the cathode. The results also confirmed the tendency
of localized corrosion in the rebar under the heterogeneous exposure.
Keywords: corrosion, heterogeneous, chloride ion concentrations, varying material
permeability
1. INTRODUCTION
Patching repair of polymer cement mortar (hereafter PCM) is used to repair reinforced
concrete structures that have deteriorated due to chloride induced corrosion. In this case,the half-cell potential of the unrepaired part is lower than that of the repaired part,
because the potential in the patched area is noble (cathode) with a lower chloride ion
concentration and the not-patched area is less noble (anode). As a result, a corrosion
circuit current occurs again owing to the difference in potential between the patchedarea and not-patched area. Re-deterioration within the not-patched area around thepatched area is known to occur in existing structures1) (see Fig. 1).
Macrocell corrosion generally causes severe corrosion, and so has a major influence on
structures. In order to measure the actual macrocell corrosion current passing throughsteel bars, a segmented steel bar is used2). However, the existing structures are shuntedwith other rebars, and so it is difficult to measure only the electric current of the point
where macrocell corrosion occurs.
In this study, the macrocell corrosion of steel rebar was induced in concrete withvarying chloride ion concentrations and varying material permeability, and the effect of601

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmarheterogeneous chloride ion exposure on the rebar macrocell corrosion was examined byelectrochemical measurements.

Figure 1: Macrocell corrosion
2. EXPERIMENTAL
2.1 Specimens
Corrosion of steel rebar was induced in concrete with varying chloride ion
concentrations and varying material permeabilities, and the effect of heterogeneous
chloride ion exposure on the rebar corrosion was examined. Concrete was made withordinary Portland cement (density: 3.15 g/cm3, Blaine fineness: 3320 cm2/g). The fineaggregate was river sand (density: 2.64 g/cm3, fineness modulus: 2.75) while the coarse
aggregate was crushed sandstone with Gmax of 20 mm (density: 2.72 g/cm3, finenessmodulus: 6.61).
The concrete mix proportion is shown in Table 1. The slump of fresh concrete was
10±2.5 cm and the air content was 4.5±1.5%. The PCM was made with premixed
polymer cement mortar and water, using 25 kg of premixed polymer cement mortar and3.5 kg of water. The chloride ion concentrations in the specimen were 0% and 10% by
weight of water (chloride ion concentration of concrete unit volume 0 and 16.5 kg/m3).
The steel rebar (SS400) was 16 mm in diameter and 250 mm in length, and theembedded area of the electrode was 125.6 cm2. The rebars were integrated electricallythrough connection with lead wires.
The specimen is illustrated in Fig. 2. Corrosion of steel rebars was induced in concretewith the chloride ion concentration in the two halves of the specimen being either 10%
or 0% (hereafter NaCl 0–10%) and the material permeability in the two halves of thespecimen was OPC or PCM (hereafter OPC-PCM). Specimens including steel rebar
prisms of 100×100×400 mm with a concrete cover of 20 mm were prepared. The
specimens were demolded and cured for 14 days in water, then coated with epoxy resin
except for the surface to be exposed to the immersion solution.
The specimens with chloride ion concentrations were cured for 14 days in NaCl 10%
water. The specimens were exposed to 14 cycles of wet-dry exposure, consisting ofsubmersion in NaCl 10% water for 3 days followed by drying for 4 days per cycle.

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Table 1: Concrete mix proportions
W/C
(%)
60

100

s/a
(%)
45

W
165

kg/m3
C
S
275 835

NaCl-0% and NaCl-10%
or PCM and OPC

100
400

Unit(mm)

AE
(C*%)
0.35

G
1051

Ad
(C*%)
0.3

Counter electrode

50

0%
10%
-Center-Center
NaCl-0%
NaCl-10%
CenterMeasurement points

Figure 2: Test specimens
PCM
P/G

Referenceelectrode

PCM
OPC OPC-Center-Center
CenterFigure 4: Measurement points

Counter
electrodeFigure 3: Measuring device
2.2 Measurement
Potentiometric titration, potential and polarization curves were measured. Stainless steelof 100×50 mm was used as a counter-electrode. The ionic contact with Ag/AgCl (SSE)
used as a reference electrode. Measurements were conducted using a potentiogalvanostat (P/G) and FRA, as shown in Fig. 3. Location and abbreviation of themeasurement points are shown in Fig.4.
(1) Potentiometric titration
The total amount of chloride ions contained in the concrete samples was measured bypotentiometric titration according to JIS A.1154. The concrete samples were collectedfrom mortar at varying distances from the exposure, up to 40 mm, using the drill
method every 5 mm.
(2) Half-cell potential
The half-cell potential was measured at the time of measuring the polarization curve.
(3) Polarization curves
The scan was started at the half-cell potential to the cathodic limit, and was conductedin the anodic direction until reaching the anodic limit. In addition, the polarization curve
excluding the resistance of the concrete was obtained by considering the decrease involtage. As a results, the cathodic curve and anodic curve were obtained.
The relationship between electric current and voltage for the anode and cathode can be
expressed by Equation (1). Then, the coefficients in Equation (1) were calculated using
Effect of heterogeneity on the corrosion of rebar embedded in concreteYour paper title

603

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmarthe measurement results. The corrosion current can be obtained from the point ofintersection of the two lines.

a b log i(1)

Where, : Overvoltage (mV), i: Current density ( A/cm2), a, b: Fixed number peculiar
to an electrode reaction, (mV) (mV/decade),
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIOn
3.1 Total chloride ion concentration
The measurement results of the total chloride ion concentration in W/C = 60%, OPC,
and 14 cycles of wet-dry exposure are shown in Fig. 5. When looking at the region of
20 mm, the chloride ion concentration was 2.07 kg/m3. The Clim of W/C = 60% in thisexperiment is 1.6 kg/m3, following the 2012 JSCE Standard Specification for Concrete
Structures4). This result suggests that corrosion occurred in the concrete cover of 20 mm.
20
15
10
5
0

0

10

20

30

40

50

Distance from the surface (mm)Figure 5: Chloride penetration profiles in concrete
3.2 Half-cell potential
Figures 6 and 7 show the evolution of the half-cell potential. Figure 6 shows that NaCl
0–10% shifted to slightly less noble in the range of 500 to 600 mV. After 10 cycles,
stable potential readings were close to 400 mV. This study focused on the stablepotential values below 500 mV after about 8 cycles. From the ASTM Standard Test
Method5) (E230 mV vs. SSE), it is thought that the corrosion of rebars has aprobability of more than 90%.

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NaCl-10%
Center
NaCl-0%

0
-200
-400
-600
-800

0

5

10

15

Cycle

Figure 6: Half-cell potential (NaCl 0-10%)
Figure 7 shows the results for the evolution of half-cell potential looking at OPC-PCM.
In this figure, the experimental results show that the OPC-PCM shifted to slightly lessnoble in the range of 300 to 400 mV. From the ASTM Standard Test Method5) (E230 mV vs. SSE), it is thought that the corrosion of rebars has a probability of morethan 90%.
OPC
Center
PCM

0
-200
-400
-600
-800

0

5

10

15

Cycle

Figure 7: Half-cell potential (OPC-PCM)
Figure 8 shows the results of the half-cell potentials for the locations of themeasurement points after 14 cycles. The half-cell potential of NaCl 0–10% of themeasurement point locations of 250 mm and 350 mm was 395 mV and 427 mV. The
half-cell potential difference became around 30 mV. It is thought that NaCl 10% at themeasurement point location of 350 mm presents a more negative half-cell potential thanthe passive measurement points and therefore corrosion of rebars is expected. The halfcell potential difference between maximum and minimum in the case of OPC-PCM wasaround 40 mV. And the half-cell potential at the center part shows the most negativevalue. This result confirmed that the corrosion of steel rebars was induced in concretewith varying chloride ion concentrations and varying material permeability, but it isdifficult to judge the corrosion point.

Effect of heterogeneity on the corrosion of rebar embedded in concreteYour paper title

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2014,
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NaCl-250 -0%

NaCl10%

PCM

OPC

-300
-350
-400
-450

0

50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Mesurement points mm

Figure 8: Half-cell potential NaCl 0-10% OPC-PCM 14cycle
3.3 The corrosion current density
Next, from the half-cell potential results, the stable potential values after about 8 cycles
are considered. Figures 9 and 10 show the results of the evolution of corrosion current
density. Figure 8 shows that the corrosion current density of NaCl-0% remained in therange of 0.8–2.0 A/cm2. However, the corrosion current density of 10%-Center
increased and decreased and reached 4.2 A/cm2. The corrosion current density 0%Center and 10%-Center at cycle 14 were 2.0 A/cm2 and 0.8 A/cm2, respectively.
Regarding the corrosion reaction, the NaCl-10% and the 0%-Center at 14 cycle became
the anode and the cathode. The results also confirmed the tendency of localized
corrosion in the rebars under heterogeneous exposure. From CBE6) (1.0 A/cm2
corrosion current density), it is thought that the corrosion of rebars was severe.
NaCl-0%Center
NaCl-10%5.0

0% - Center
10% - Center

4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0

6

8

10

12

Cycle

14

16

Figure 9: Corrosion current density (NaCl-0%)
Figure 10 shows the OPC-PCM when the corrosion current density became around 1.3
A/cm2. The OPC-Center at 14 cycle of the corrosion current density became around
1.2 A/cm2. This result suggests that for concrete with Cl-, the maximum value ofmacrocell corrosion was located in the joint and its surrounding. Because the differenceof the corrosion current density was small, it is necessary to perform further
measurements in future.

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PCM
PCM - Center
Center
OPC - Center
OPC

2

5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0

6

8

10

12

14

Cycle

Figure 10” Corrosion current density (OPC-PCM)
Figure 11 shows the results of the corrosion current density at the locations ofmeasurement points after the 14th cycle. When the chloride ion concentrations in thetwo halves of the specimen were 10% and 0%, the corrosion current density of the
portion with 0% (50 mm) was around 0.8 A/cm2. The corrosion current density of the
portion at 150 mm and 250 mm was around 2.0 A/cm2. The results also confirmed thetendency of localized corrosion at the joint and its surrounding. The difference incorrosion current density of OPC-PCM was around 1.1 A/cm2. It followed that
corrosion progressed near the edge part. The results also confirmed the tendency of
localized corrosion in the rebars under heterogeneous exposure.
2.5

NaCl-0%2

PCM

NaCl-10%
OPC

1.5
1
0.5
0

0

50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Mesurement points mm

Figure 11: Corrosion current density
NaCl 0-10% OPC-PCM 14cycle
4. CONCLUSION
In this study, corrosion of steel rebars was induced in concrete with varying chloride ion
concentrations and varying material permeability, and the effect of exposure toheterogeneous chloride ions on rebar corrosion was examined.
(1) The potential difference of NaCl 0-10% and OPC-PCM was around 30 to 40 mV.
This result confirmed that corrosion of steel rebar was induced in concrete withvarying chloride ion concentrations and varying material permeability, it wasdifficult to judge the corrosion point.
(2) When the chloride ion concentrations in the two halves of the specimen were 10%
and 0%, the corrosion current density in the portion with 10% tended to increase
Effect of heterogeneity on the corrosion of rebar embedded in concreteYour paper title

607

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmarand became around 2.0 A/cm2, whereas that in the portion with 0% becamearound 0.8 A/cm2. For the corrosion reaction, the 10% portion became the anodeand the 0% portion became the cathode. The results also confirmed the tendency of
localized corrosion in the rebar under heterogeneous exposure.
REFERENCES
ASTM C 876-91, Reapproved 1999. Standard test method for half-cell potentials of
uncoated reinforcing steel in concrete, Annual Book of ASTM Standards Vol.03.02, 457462.
CBE Bulletin No. 243, 1998. Strategies for testing and assessment of concrete
structures affected by reinforcement corrosion.
Japan Society of Civil Engineers (JSCE). 2012. Standard specifications for concrete
structures -2012, Design.
Katsuya, T. Takehiro, M. Manabu, I., and Toshiharu, K., 2012. Study on repaired
concrete by electrochemical Inspection under marine environment for 10 years.
Proceeding of the Japan Concrete Institute 34, 1750-1755 (in Japanese).
Shigeyoshi, N. Nobuaki, O. Atsurou, M., and Shinichi, M., 1996. The experimental
study on corrosion mechanism of reinforced concrete at local repair part. Proceeding ofJapan Society of Civil Engineers (JSCE) V-32, 109-119 (in Japanese).
Shiro, H. 2012. Electrochemistry for surface engineers. Maruzen Shuppan (in Japanese).

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Influence of magnesium ion and sulfate ion
on Chloride Permeability of Concrete
Keigo HORI1 and Yoshitaka KATO2
Master Student, Department of Civil Engineering,
Graduate School of Science and Technology, Tokyo University of Science, Japanj7613618@ed.tus.ac.jp
2
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
Faculty of Science and Technology, Tokyo University of Science, Japan
1

ABSTRACTIn this study, the effect of seawater ions on the chloride permeability of concrete wasexperimentally studied by focusing on SO42- and Mg2+ during immersion in sulfate
solutions containing NaCl and MgCl2. The results of chloride ion penetration tests
showed that chloride penetration was suppressed in all solutions except NaCl solution.
The specimens were immersed in a solution containing a large amount of Mg2+, andsuppression of chloride ion penetration due to the formation of brucite suggested thatup to 56 days immersion, however, the suppressive effect tended to be reduced at 126
days of immersion. When it was immersed in a solution containing SO4 2-, chloride ion
permeability was reduced due to the influence of the void filled with gypsum dihydrate.
Keywords: chloride permeability, sulfate attack, magnesium ion, amount of calcium
hydroxide
1. INTRODUCTION
Japan is an island country surrounded by the sea, and therefore many concrete structures
are in environments where salt damage may occur due to the penetration of chloride
ions from seawater. It is necessary to consider the durability of these concrete structures
against salt damage. To evaluate durability, it is important to understand the penetrationof chloride ions into concrete (Taketo and Yoshitaka, 2007).
Many studies on the penetration of chloride ions in concrete have focused on only
chloride ions (Yuji, 2001). However, the seawater contains various ions such as Mg2+
and SO42-, so it is necessary to consider the effects of these ions on the penetration ofchloride ions.
Coexisting ions in seawater cause an electric effect and deterioration of hardened
cement paste, which means that Mg2+ and SO42- react with CH or C-S-H, and generatebrucite and gypsum dihydrate (Yoshida, 2010). Moreover, in natural diffusion, sincechloride ions moves together with positive ions, if the diffusion velocity of a cation islarger, the diffusion velocity of chloride ions will also become large (Matsuda, 2005).
To examine the effect of sulfate attack on chloride ion permeability, previous studies
used a solution prepared by adding (MgSO4, Na2SO4, CaSO4, K2SO4) sulfate and NaCl,and performing an immersion test. The solution except CaSO4 caused penetration of609

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmarchloride ions to be promoted compared with NaCl. It is believed that this is due tosulfate attack, but it is not possible to prove this phenomenon.
This study examined the effects of ions in seawater on the chloride ion permeability ofhardened cement paste by immersion tests. Using the distribution of chloride ion
concentration obtained from these tests, and the effect of ions in seawater on thechloride permeability was experimentally studied.

Figure 1: Example of salt damage
2. EXPERIMENTAL OUTLINE
2.1 Material and Specimens
Cement used in the experiment is ordinary Portland cement (symbol C, density 3.15
g/cm3). Aggregates used in the experiment are river sand of Yamanashi Fujikawa
production (symbol S, density 2.60 g/cm3) and crushed stone of Chichibu, Saitama
Prefecture production (symbol G, density 2.72 g/cm3). The mix proportion is shown in
Table 1. Specimen was column specimens with ĳ10 × 12.5cm (see Figure 2).
Table 1: Concrete mix mixture proportion
W/C(%)
50

W
175(kg/m3)CS
G
350 795 1001

Ad
2.10

7mm㽢5

ĳ10cm

Penetration
surface
12.5cmFigure 2: Specimen shape and size

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2.2 Experimental conditions
The specimens were cured for 28 days in water after demolding of specimen, and were
coated with epoxy resin except the surface to be exposed to the immersion solution. The
specimens were then immersed in NaCl aqueous solution or one of five kinds of mixed
solution for 28, 56 or 126 days. Many studies have examined the influence of ions in
sea water on hardened cement and the diffusion of chloride ions. Cations such as Na+
and Mg2+ affect the diffusion coefficient of chloride ions (Kondo, 1974). The depth towhich Mg permeated was defined as the “deterioration depth”, and it has beensuggested that the depth could be used as an index of the deterioration of concrete(Yamaji, 2007). Therefore, in order to grasp the influence of seawater ions on thechloride permeability of concrete, we focused on Na+, Mg2+, Cl-, and SO42-. Five kindsof solution were created by combining these; the kind of solution and the concentrationof each ion are shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Each ion concentration in the mixed solution
NaCl(A)
MgCl2(B)NaCl+Na2SO4(C)NaCl+MgSO4(D)
MgCl2+MgSO4(E)
Artificial seawater(F)

Cl-

1.90

Na+
1.90
2.09
1.90
1.62

Mg2+
0.95
0.10
1.04
0.19

SO420.10

2.3 Potentiometric titration
An amount of total chloride ion and soluble chloride ion contained in the concrete
sample were measured by the potentiometric titration according to JCI-SC4. Concrete
sample was collected from part of mortar that the distance from the surface of exposureis the region 0–7mm, 7–14mm, 14–21mm, 21–28 mm and 28–35mm. Cutting image ofa specimen is shown in Fig. 2.
2.4 TG-DTA
The specimens were immersed in the various solutions and differential thermal analysis(TG-DTA) measurements were performed, and CH and gypsum dihydrate were
quantitatively analyzed. It was quantified that the gypsum dihydrate changed weightfrom 130 to 160°C, and CH from 450 to 500°C. In order to eliminate the influence of
the aggregate, cement paste of the same water-cement ratio was used for the samples.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
3.1 Total chloride ion concentration
The results of measuring total chloride ion concentration after immersion for 126 daysin each solution are shown in Fig. 3. The chloride ion concentration in the region of 0–7
mm is larger in the order of NaCl, MgCl2+MgSO4, MgCl2. In the other solutions(artificial seawater, NaCl+Na2SO4, NaCl+MgSO4), chloride ion penetration was small.
In the region of 7–14 mm, penetration of NaCl+MgSO4 was larger than that of MgCl2;
Influence of magnesium ion and sulfate ion on Chloride Permeability of Concrete
Influence of magnesium ion and sulfate ion on chloride permeability of concrete611

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,Myanmarthe result differed from that in the surface layer. Next, in the region of 14–21 mm,
MgCl2+MgSO4 exceeded NaCl, but it was not a significant difference compared withthe other solutions. By using the chloride ion concentration distribution shown in Fig. 3,
the apparent diffusion coefficient (Da) and surface chloride ion concentration (C0) were
calculated from a theoretical solution of the diffusion equation of Fick under thecondition of constant surface concentration. From the result, the number of years up to
the limit concentration (Clim) that causes steel corrosion was estimated, and the ease ofpenetration of chloride ions was compared. Clim in OPC50 of this experiment was 1.9
kg/m3, which complies with the Standard Specification for Concrete Structures of 2012.
The number of years taken to reach Clim in 5 cm cover concrete was calculated, and theresults were as shown in Table 3. NaCl, MgCl2, and MgCl2+MgSO4 reached Clim earlier
than the other solutions.

Chloride ion concentration䠄kg/m3)

12

NaCl

10

MgCl΃

8

NaCl+Na΃SO΅

6NaCl+MgSO΅
MgCl΃+MgSO΅

4

ேᕤᾏỈ
2
0
0

7

14

21

28

35

Distance from the surface(mm)Figures 3: Chloride ion concentration distribution (immersion age = 126 days)
Table 3: Calculation result
Kinds of immersion
solution
NaCl
MgCl2
NaCl+Na2SO4
NaCl+MgSO4
MgCl2+MgSO4
Artificial seawater

612

DiffusioncoefficientDa(cm2/year)
1.84
2.07
2.18
3.15
2.47
1.27

Surface chloride
ion concentration
C0(kg/m3)
15.8
8.62
1.37
4.72
9.12
3.54

Times
(year)
2.82
4.03
343
5.67
3.20
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3.2 TG-DTA
Figure 4 shows an example of differential thermal analysis using cement paste. The
sample specimen was immersed for 91 days in MgCl2+MgSO4. The thermal change
curve and the weight change curve are shown in Fig. 4. The peak of 130–160°C of thethermal change curve was considered to be due to drying of gypsum dihydrate. Calcium
hydroxide was dehydrated at 450–500ºC, and its chemical reaction was as shown inEquation (1). The weight loss measured by TG-DTA was due to dehydration from CH,
so the measured weight loss was considered as the amount of CH.
Ca(OH)2ЍCaO+H2O               (2)The specimens subjected to differential thermal gravimetric analysis were NaCl (A),
MgCl2 (B), MgCl+MgSO4 (E), Artificial seawater (F), and fresh water.

Heat change curve

Weight change curve

Figure 4: Example of differential thermal analysis
3.2.1 Changes in the amount of CH
The amount of CH per cement paste is shown in Fig. 5. Figure 5 (a) shows the amountof CH after immersion for 28 days; there was no significant change in the amount of
CH in any solutions. When immersed for 56 days (Fig. 5(b)), MgCl2+MgSO4 (E) andartificial seawater (F) showed small amounts of CH compared with the other solutions.
When immersed for 126 days (Fig. 5(c)), MgCl2 (B) and MgCl2+MgSO4 (E) showedvery small values. Next, the variation over time in the amount of CH for each solution
was examined. The variation over time when immersed in MgCl2 (B) is shown in Fig. 5(d). When immersed for 91 days, the amount of CH decreased, and the quantity per
cement paste was 3.7%. In MgCl2+MgSO4 (Fig. 5(e)), similarly, the amount of CH
decreased over time, and was about 4.8% at 91 days. The change in time of artificial
seawater (F) (Fig. 5(f)) could not be checked.

Influence of magnesium ion and sulfate ion on Chloride Permeability of Concrete
Influence of magnesium ion and sulfate ion on chloride permeability of concrete

613

E

F

18
15
12
9
6
3
0

28

Amount of CH(%)

Amount of CH(%)(a) Materials age
28 days

91

A

E

F

(b) Materials age
56 days

Amount of CH(%)

B

18
15
12
9
6
3
0

G

18
15
12
9
6
3
0

18
15
12
9
6
3
0

18
15
12
9
6
3
0

28

56

B

E

28

56

F

G

(c) )Materials age
91 days91

91(f) artificial seawater(e) MgCl΃+MgSO΅(d) MgCl΃

A

Amount of CH(%)

18
15
12
9
6
3
0

Amount of CH(%)

Amount of CH(%)

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarFigure 5: Amount of CH per cement paste

24
20
16
12
8
4
0

Amount ofgypsum(%)

Amount ofgypsum(%)

3.2.2 Changes in the amount of gypsum dihydrate
The amount of gypsum dihydrate per cement paste is shown in Fig. 6. The result for
immersion for 91 days is shown in Fig. 6 (a).The average value of gypsum dihydrate in
all cases is about 18%, amount of gypsum dihydrate of MgCl2+MgSO4 (E) is about 22%,
showing larger values than the other solutions. The variation over time when immersed
in MgCl2+MgSO4 (E) is shown in Fig. 6 (b). The amount of gypsum dihydrateincreased with increase of immersion period.

A

B

E

F

(a) ᮦ㱋91᪥

G

24
20
16
12
8
4
0

28

56

(b)MgClЇ+MgSOЉ

91

Figure 6: Amount of gypsum dihydrate per cement paste
3.3 Influence of ions in seawater
Using the result of chloride ion concentration and TG-DTA, each solution wascompared in terms of the influence of ions in seawater. NaCl was compared with MgCl2
in order to consider the influence of cations (Fig. 7). To consider the influence of the614

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amount of Mg2+, NaCl+Na2SO4, NaCl+MgSO4, and MgCl2+MgSO4 were compared(Fig. 8). To consider the influence of SO42-, NaCl and NaCl+Na2SO4 were compared(Fig. 9).
From the result of Fig. 7, the amount of chloride ion penetration of NaCl was large. To
maintain the electro-neutral condition, the same number of cations moved when thechloride ions diffused due to the concentration gradient. If the diffusion coefficient of
cations is low, the penetration of chloride ions is suppressed by the electric field(Matsuda, 2005). The diffusion coefficient of Mg2+ is smaller than that of Na+, and so
suppression the penetration of chloride ions. From Fig. 8, the amount of penetrated
chloride ions increased with the increase in the amount of Mg2+. As the reason for this,ion penetration suppression effect has been demonstrated in the generation of brucite by
the action of Mg2+ in the early stages, but the increase of gypsum dihydrate and thedisappearance of CH progresses over time, affecting the pore structure. It can besurmised that the amount of chloride ion penetration increased due to the reduction of
the suppressive effect.
Figure 9 shows that the penetration of chloride ions was suppressed with the solution
containing SO42-. From the measurement results of TG-DTA, the amount of gypsum
dihydrate increased over time in the case of the solution containing SO42- (Fig. 6(e)).
The resulting volume expansion is expected to have a void filling effect in the initialstage, thus suppressing the chloride ion penetration of a solution containing SO42-.
Chloride ion concentration䠄kg/m3)

12
NaCl

10
8

MgClЇ

6
4
2
0
0

7
14
21
28
Distance from the surface(mm)35Figure 7: Influence of cation

Influence of magnesium ion and sulfate ion on Chloride Permeability of Concrete
Influence of magnesium ion and sulfate ion on chloride permeability of concrete615

November
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Chlorideionconcentration䠄kg/m3)

12
NaCl+NaЇSOЉ

10
8

NaCl+MgSOЉ

6

MgClЇ+MgSOЉ

4
2
0
0

7
14
21
28
Distance from the surface(mm)35Figure 8: Influence of amount of Mg2+

Chlorideionconcentration䠄kg/m3)

12
10

NaCl

8
NaCl+NaЇSOЉ

6
4
2
0
0

7

14

21

28

Distance from the surface(mm)35Figure 9: Influence of SO42Regarding the two kinds of solution, NaCl and MgCl2+MgSO4, which showed quick
penetration of chloride ions, the variation over time of chloride ion concentration isshown in Fig. 10 (NaCl) and Fig. 11 (MgCl2+MgSO4). With these solutions, the amountof penetration of chloride ions increases rapidly between 56 days and 126 days of
immersion. For these two solutions, the calculation results of C0, Da, and T are shown in
Table 4. T in NaCl indicates a relatively small value at all immersion periods, but
indicates a large value until 56 days in MgCl2+MgSO4, and was smaller at 126 days.
There are two reasons why T increased to 56 days of age. One is the effect of ion
penetration suppression by brucite, and the other is the void filling effect due to thegeneration of gypsum dihydrate. However, it can be inferred that the amount of chloride
ion penetration is increased by the reduction of suppressive effect to 126 days of
immersion.

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12

NaCl

Chloride ion concentration䠄kg/m3)

10

28 days8

56 days6

126 days

4
2
0
0

7
14
21
28
35
Distance from the surface(mm)Figure 10: Chloride concentration distribution (NaCl)

Chloride ion concentration䠄kg/m3)

12

MgCl΃+MgSO΅

1028 days8

56 days6

126 days

4
2
0
0

7
14
21
28
35
Distance from the surface(mm)Figure 11: Chloride concentration distribution (MgCl2+MgSO4)
Table 4: Calculation results of C0, Da, and T
C0(NaCl)
C0(MgCl2+MgSO4)
Da(NaCl)
Da(MgCl2+MgSO4)
T(NaCl)T(MgCl2+MgSO4)

28 days
10.5
3.39
2.48
1.98
2.80
18.6

56 days
11.2
3.26
1.22
1.47
5.45
28.2

126 days
15.8
9.12
1.84
2.47
2.82
3.20

Influence Influenceof magnesium
ion and sulfate
on Chloride
Permeabilityof Concreteof magnesium
ion andion
sulfateion on chloride
permeabilityof concrete617

November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

November 2014, Yangon, Myanmar

4. CONCLUSIONSThe chloride ion penetration properties of specimens immersed in various solutions
were examined, and the following results were obtained.
1) With all solutions other than NaCl solution, penetration of chloride ion was
suppressed. A strong suppressive effect was demonstrated with the solution
containing SO42-. The solution containing a large amount of Mg2+ showed reduced
suppression effect from 56 to 126 days of immersion.
2) Mg2+ and SO42- reacted with the cement hydrate, and these reactions caused theformation of gypsum dihydrate and consumption of CH.
In future, the impact on cement hydrate and electrical effects of ions in seawater should
be examined.
REFERENCES
Chiba, T., Mita, K., and Kato, Y., 2013. Influence of coexistent ions in seawater on thechloride permeability of concrete, New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities
in Asia, No.34.
Hidetoshi, E., 1988. Study on protection against corrosion and corrosion of rebar inconcrete using the artificial seawater. Japan Concrete Institute 10, 499-504.
Kazusuke, K., 2011 Deterioration diagnosis method of the concrete structure by coring,Morikita Shuppan (in Japanese).
Kouki, M., 2005. Influence of cations on the diffusion of chloride ions in the mortar.
Japan Society of Civil Engineers 28, 2.
Natsuki, Y., 2010. Deterioration of concrete due to crystal formation of sodium
sulphate, Tokyo Institute of Technology dissertation.
Renichi, K., 1974. Ion diffusion of hardened cement paste, Cement technology annual
report, 58-61.
Taketo, U., and Yoshitaka, K., 2007. Materials design of concrete structures. Ohmsha(in Japanese).
Toru, Y., 2007. A study on the degradation index and simple deterioration situation of
concrete that has been immersed in seawater for long term, Port and Airport ResearchInstitute Technical Report, No.1150.
Yuji, T., 2001. Experiments on the chloride ion penetration mechanism of cement paste.
Japan Concrete Institute 23, 505-510.

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Progressive collapse analysis of reinforced
concrete frame buildings
Su Wint YEE
Ph.D Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Yangon Technological University
suwintyeeko@gmail.com
ABSTRACTThe reinforced concrete frame buildings with simple geometry are considered to study
progressive collapse analysis for the fact that these buildings are remarkably more than
the total number of steel structures in Yangon City, Myanmar. The progressive collapseof a building is initiated when one or more critical load carrying members are removed
by man-made or natural hazards. It is a situation where local failure of a primarystructural component leads to the collapse of adjoining members, which in turn leads toadditional collapse. Hence, the extent of total damage is disproportionate to theoriginal cause. Although historical data indicate that the risk of progressive collapse inbuildings is very low, loss of life and severe injuries would be significant when a fully
occupied multi-story building sustains a large partial or total collapse. The nonlinear
static analysis (pushdown analysis) by Sap2000 software simulation is used to capture
initial yielding and gradual progressive plastic behavior of elements and overallbuilding response under column removal excitations in this study. According tolimitations in GSA guidelines, the structure damaged by the removal of structuralmembers will be analyzed to state the condition that it can survive or not from theprogressive collapse due to a hazard condition. A three-story reinforced concrete frame
is analyzed with and without flooring and also a six-story without flooring is considered.
Then analysis results, significant deflections and progressive collapse assessment ofthese frames are presented for various progressive collapse cases. The study of theperformance and collapse of a structure for abnormal loading conditions of natural or
man-made hazard would help to improve design consideration and planning fordisaster preparedness, mitigation and resilience of infrastructures in a city.
Keywords: progressive collapse, reinforced concrete, Sap2000, pushdown analysis,
GSA guidelines.
1. INTRODUCTION
The design philosophy of structures subjected to abnormal loads is to prevent or
mitigate damage, not necessarily to avoid the collapse initiation from specific cause.
Whereas resistance to progressive collapse is primarily an issue of gravity load-carrying
capacity, the design of elements (beams, columns) also depends on demands fromseismic or wind actions. For structural members, the larger load-bearing capacity due tomore severe gravity load actions considered in design, the higher capacity to prevent
progressive collapse.

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Progressive collapse is defined as a situation where local failure of a primary structuralcomponent leads to the collapse of adjoining members, which in turn leads to additional
collapse. Thus, “progressive collapse” is an incremental type of failure where in the
total damage is out of proportion to the initial cause.
The concept of progressive collapse can be illustrated by the famous 1968 collapse of
the Ronan Point apartment building (Fig. 1). The structure was a 22-story precast
concrete, bearing wall building. A gas explosion in a corner kitchen on the 18th floor
blew out the exterior wall panel and failure of the corner bay of the building propagatedupward to the roof and downward almost to ground level. Thus, although the entire
building did not collapse, the extent of failure was disproportionate to the initial damage.
Immediately following the Ronan Point collapse, some countries, such as the U.K. andCanada adopted some form of regulatory standards to address prevention of progressive
collapse. In the 1980s, design standards in the U.S. began to incorporate requirements
for “general structural integrity” to provide nominal resistance to progressive collapse.
The General Services Administration (GSA) of United States of America published“Progressive Collapse Analysis and Design Guidelines for New Federal Office
Buildings and Major Modernization Project” in 2000. The method discussed in the GSA
publication is normally used for buildings 10 stories above grade and less, but can beapplied to taller buildings.

Figure 1: Ronan Point collapse: a gas explosion on the 18th floor resulted in a
progressive collapse

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2. METHODOLOGY AND MODEL DEVELOPMENT
2.1 Progressive Collapse Assessment According to GSA Guidelines
2.1.1 Exterior Considerationa) Case one: Analyze for the instantaneous loss of a column for one floor above
grade (1 story) located at the corner of the building.
b) Case two: Analyze for the instantaneous loss of a column for one floor above
grade (1 story) located at or near the middle of the short side of the building.
c) Case three: Analyze for the instantaneous loss of a column for one floor above
grade (1 story) located at or near the middle of the long side of the building.

Case (2)Case (1)Case (3)Figure 2: Plan view of exterior consideration for progressive collapse analysis
2.1.1 Interior Considerationa) Case four: Analyze for the instantaneous loss of a column that extends from thefloor of the underground parking area or uncontrolled public ground floor area tothe next floor (1 story). The column considered should be interior to theperimeter column lines.

Case (4)Figure 3: Plan view of interior consideration for progressive collapse analysis

Progressive
collapse analysis
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concrete framebuildings
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2.2 Pushdown Analysis
Steps for creation model in pushover analysis arei. The basic model is analyzed and designed under normal design load condition
without pushdown data.
ii. Define properties and acceptance criteria for the hinges. Default hinge properties
are based on average values from ATC 40 and FEMA 356.
iii. Locate the hinges on the model.
iv. Define the pushdown load cases. Typically, the first pushover load case is used
to apply gravity load and then subsequent lateral pushover load cases are
specified to start from the final conditions of the gravity pushover. In this study,
2DL + 0.5LL will be applied vertically with force control for progressive
collapse analysis.
v.
Run the static nonlinear pushdown analysis.
vi. Review the pushdown displaced shape and sequence of hinge formation on
step-by-step. Hinges appear when they yield and are color coded based on theirstate.
vii. Joint displacements, frame member forces and state at each step can be obtained
for selected elements.
2.3 Input Data for Analysis
f’c = 2500 psi & fy = 40000psi
Beam Size = B9x12
Column Size = C12x12
Unit weight of concrete = 150 pcf
4-1/2inch thick Brick wall = 50 psf
Superimposed Dead Load on floor = 20 psf
Typical Floor Live Load =40 psf
Normal load combination = 1.4 DL + 1.7LL
Abnormal load combination = 2DL + 0.5LL
Column Spacing = 12ft

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Figure 4: Three-story reinforced concrete frame model

Figure 5: Six-story reinforced concrete frame model
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Significant Displacements
The significant displacements of joints which are above the removed column are almost
same and severe for all floors. They are shown in Figure 6, Figure 7 and Figure 8 foreach step of analysis and cases of the frames.

Progressive
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reinforced
concrete framebuildings
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concreteframe buildings623

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarFigure 6: Significant deflections of a joint for four cases in three-story frame without
flooring
0.7

Displacement(inch)

0.6
0.5
CASE1

0.4

CASE2

0.3

CASE3

0.2

CASE4

0.1
0
0.1





624

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1

Load
FactorFigure 7: Significant deflections of a joint for four cases in three-story frame withflooring

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Figure 8: Significant deflections of a joint for four cases in six-story frame without
flooring

Figure 9: Comparison of significant deflections of a joint for only case (1) in three andsix-story frames without flooring
3.2 Number of hinges
The numbers of hinges in each step of analysis for three-story frame without flooringand six-story frame without flooring are shown in Figure 10 and Figure 11. Only yieldhinges are found in the analysis for all cases in three-story frame with flooring.

Progressive collapse analysis of reinforced concrete frame buildings
Progressive collapse analysis of reinforced concrete frame buildings625

November
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarNovember
2014,
Yangon,MyanmarFigure 10: Number of hinges for three-story without flooring cases (1, 2, 3 & 4)

Figure 11: Number of hinges for six-story without flooring cases (1, 2, 3 & 4)
3.3 Discussion
In pushover analysis, the full load combination is applied as specified. The load
combination is known and the structure is expected to be able to support the load in theelastic range and hence, force control is used in this progressive collapse analysis.
Displacement control should be used for applying lateral load to the structure inconsidering earthquake, or for any case where the magnitude of the applied load is notknown in advance, or when the structure can be expected to lose strength or become

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unstable. In the analysis with displacement control, pushover curve of monitored
displacement and base shear of the global response of the structure can be obtained but
not in the analysis with force control.
Ductile behavior of the frame is found in models with floor while non-ductile failure
occurs in models without flooring. Although the amount of deflections are nearly same,the amount of load at which failure occurs are different for case (1) in three and six
story frames without flooring. In the three story frame without floor, collapse hinges arefound in half of the total load while nearly four fifth of the total load in the six story
frame. Moreover, no collapse hinges are found in the cases except case (1) for six story
frame without flooring.
4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The corner column removal case is the most severe case among the three exterior
columns considered and the second is the middle column removal in the short direction.
There is a great difference in comparing frames with and without floor. Progressive
collapse potential in frames with slab is much less than that without slab floor.
Therefore, horizontal tie force and distribution of gravity load are important inconsidering progressive collapse of the frame. Moreover, the more the numbers of story,
the less deflection values and progressive collapse potential of the reinforced concrete
frames.
For further study, high-rise reinforced concrete frames with various widths to heightratios should also be analyzed and designed considering progressive collapse potential.
REFERENCES
Applied Technology Council ATC-40, Seismic evaluation and retrofit of concretebuilding, Volume 1, California 94065.
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), Pre-standard and commentary forthe seismic rehabilitation of buildings, Building Seismic Safety Council, Washington,
D.C.
Habibullahand, A., and Pyle, S., 1998. Practical Three Dimensional Nonlinear Static
Pushover Analysis, Structure Magazine.
National Institute of Standards and Technology, Technology Administration, U.S.
Department of Commerce, Best practices for reducing the potential for progressive
collapse in buildings.
Nilson, A.H. and Winter, G., 1997. Design of Concrete Structure, 12th edition, McGraw
Hill Co. Inc..
The U.S. General Services Administration, Progressive Collapse Analysis and Design
Guidelines for New Federal Office Buildings and Major Modernization Projects, 2003.
Rajendra R. Joshi and Abhay A. Kulkarni, Progressive Collapse Assessment ofStructure.
Sarosh H., Lodi Aslam, F., Khan, M. R. A., and SelimGunay, M., A Practical Guide to
Nonlinear Static Analysis of Reinforced Concrete Buildings with Masonry Infill Walls.
Shankar Nair, R. Progressive Collapse Basics.

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New Technologies for Urban Safety of Mega Cities in Asia

1

Zar Phyu TUN
Ph.D Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Yangon Technological University
zptmmn@gmail.com

ABSTRACTThis paper presents experimental study on ordinary Portland cement concrete
replacement by using pozzolanic materials. Materials used in experiments are Hlaing
river sand, Myan aung river stones, elephant cement, normal water and natural
pozzolan from Pupa. In this paper, physical properties of cement, fine aggregate andcoarse aggregate that are used in concrete mix design were tested. Specific gravity test,
consistency test and setting time test of cement and compressive strength test of cement
mortar were carried out. Then specific gravity test, unit weight test and seieve analysis
tests were carried out for both fine and coarse aggregate. After that mix design forvarious proportion of conventional concrete were calculated according to ACI 211 andtrial tests were made. Depending on compressive strength results, the appropriate
concrete mix designs for conventional concrete were selected. Finally, pozzolanicmaterials were replaced by changing the percentage of cement content and select themix proportion that gains target strength with the most cement replacement.
Keywords: compressive strength, pozzolanic materials, mix design, conventional
concrete, cement replacement.
1. INTRODUCTION
When Portland cement is produced there is a significant amount of CO2 emitted fromthe calcination of limestone. If the amount of CO2 emitted can be reduced a system isconsidered to be “more green”. Less cement in concrete would make concrete “moregreen”. One method to reduce the amount of cement in concrete is to use a pozzolan(Dunstan, 2011). Pozzolan is a siliceous or siliceous and aluminous material that initself possesses little or no cementitious value but that will, in finely divided from and in
the presence of moisture, chemically react with calcium hydroxide (lime) at ordinary
temperatures to form compounds having cementitious properties (ACI). Pozzolans are
effective at lowering the mortar’s heat of hydration, which improve its workability anddurability. They can also improve concrete and mortar resistance to both sulfate attack
and alkali-silica reaction (ASR), which makes it beneficial to use in large concrete
projects such as bridges and dams (Gibbons, 1997; Tsimas et al., 2005; Hossain andMol, 2011), as well as in the restoration of historic and monumental masonry structures
as a restoration mortar (Moropoulou et al., 1998).The results presented in this paper
form part of an investigation of locally available natural pozzolanic material for thedevelopment of green concrete.

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2. METHODOLOGY
2.1 Materials
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) complies with the requirements of the ASTM C 150
and the natural pozzolan used in this investigation was compared with the requirementsof natural pozzolan (Class N) outlined in ASTM C 618. The chemical and physicalproperties of OPC and natural pozzolan are given in Table 1. Table 2 presents thecomparison of local natural pozzolan with Class N of ASTM C 618. It can be seen thatthe total content of silicon, aluminum and iron oxides are 77.3, which is higher than theminimum requirement prescribed in ASTM C 618 of Class N. Sulfur trioxide and loss
on ignition are much lower than the upper limit of ASTM. It is evident that the local
natural pozzolan conforms with the requirements of ASTM C 618 and, hence, can beused as a partial replacement for the production of concrete. Grading limit of fine andcoarse aggregates were in accordance with ASTM C33. Both the fine and coarse
aggregates were air-dried before use. The water used in mixing looked clean and freefrom any visible impurities.
Table 1: Chemical and physical analysis of OPC and natural pozzolan
Chemical constituent
SiO2 (%)
Al2O3 (%)
Fe2O3 (%)
CaO (%)
MgO (%)
SO3 (%)
Loss on ignition ((%)
Fineness- Blaine(cm2/g)

OPC
23.58
4.35
4.35
63.21
1.51
1.28
0.97

Natural pozzolan
52.39
16.49
8.42
10.65
6.34
0.34
2.26
3500-4100

Table 2: Comparison of local natural pozzolan with Class N of ASTM C 618
Description

Silicon dioxide (SiO2),
aluminum oxide (Al2O3)
and iron oxide (Fe2O3)
Sulfur trioxide (SO3)
Available alkalies
Loss on ignition ((%)

Composition (%)
Local natural pozzolan
Requirements as per
ASTM for Class N
77.3
Min. 70.00

0.34
Nail
2.26

Max. 4.00
Max. 1.5
Max. 10.00

2.2 Test procedures
Mixing was done in revolving drum mixer in accordance with ASTM C192.
Compressive strength was measured using 150mm cubes in accordance with BS 1881.

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The slump test was carried out in accordance to ASTM C143. Demoulding was done
after 24 hours and the specimens immersed in a curing tank to cure for strength gain.
Curing improves both the physical and mechanical properties of concrete. The
compressive strengths were determined by crushing concrete cubes at 3,7,14 and 28
days of curing. Before crushing, the concrete cubes were removed from the curing tankand placed in open air in the laboratory for about two hours. The results presented here
are the average of three tests. Six different mixes were used for selecting the control mixof grade 35. The control mix was produced using OPC only as binder and then thenatural pozzolan replacements were selected at 10%, 15%, 20%, 25% and 30% as apartial cement replacement by weight of cement content. The details of mix propotions
are shown in Table 3and 4.
Table 3: Concrete mix details
Cement
(kg)
11.63
9.56
9.21
8.78
8.34
7.9

G35 I
G35 II
G35 IIIG35 IV
G35 V
G35 VI

Coarseaggregate (kg)
22.38
22.38
22.38
22.38
22.38
22.38

Fine aggregate
(kg)
12.57
14.3
17.73
17.84
19.28
20.03

Water
(kg)
4.5
4.5
3.6
4.4
4.3
4.7

Table 4: Concrete mix details with pozzolan replacement
Percentage
replacement
(%)
0
10
15
20
25
30
35

Cement(kg)

Pozzolan
(kg)

11.63
10.46
9.88
9.3
8.72
8.14
7.56

0
1.16
1.88
2.33
2.91
3.76
4.07

CoarseAggregate
(kg)
22.38
22.38
22.38
22.38
22.38
22.38
22.38

Fine
Aggregate
(kg)
12.57
12.57
12.57
12.57
12.57
12.57
12.57

Water
(kg)
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Slump test and compressive strength of OPC concrete
The results of slump test are presented in Table 5. The variations of compressive
strength of OPC are presented in Table 6 and Fig 1. According to slump test results, it
falls within a range of 25mm and 100mm, specified by ACI. As shown in Figure 1, themaximum compressive strengths for 3-days (31.34 MPa), 14-days (39.42 MPa) and 28days (43.09 MPa) can be seen at G35 I and maximum 7-days strength (32.78 MPa) canbe seen at G35 II. According to ACI 318-11, the required cube compressive strength forExperimental
study on ordinary
portland portland
cement concrete
replacement
by using by
pozzolanicmaterials
Experimental
study on ordinary
cement concrete
replacement
using pozzolanicmaterials

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Grade 35 is 43 MPa and thus Grade 35 I was chosen as control mix for pozzolanic
replacement.
Table 5: Slump test result of OPC concrete

Slump (mm)

G35 I
50

Grade
G35 IIIG35 IV25
25

G35 II
87.5

G35 V
25

G35 VI25

Table 6: Compressive strength of OPC concrete (MPa)Age attesting
3-days7-days14-days28-days

G35 I

G35 II

G35 IIIG35 IV

G35 V

G35 VI

31.34
31.84
39.42
43.09

28.09
32.78
37.76
37.17

21.00
27.58
30.25
32.57

25.42
28.16
27.16
28.68

19.06
24.73
26.57
29.26

12.82
18.48
22.05
23.95

Figure 1: Variations of compressive strength of OPC
Table 5: Slump test result of pozzolan replacement concrete
Percentage replacement (%)
Slump (mm)

0
50

10
43

15
40

20
38

25
34

30
33

35
30

From the results of Table 5, it can be seen when the replacement of pozzolan increases,
the slump of concrete decreases. Since the quality of water remains the same for all
mixes, the water demand increases with the pozzolan replacement increases and thus
decreases the slump.

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Table 6: Compressive strength of pozzolan replacement concrete (MPa)Age attesting
3-days031.34

Percentage replacement (%)
10
15
20
25
30.86
31.57
33.79
27.81

30
25.34

5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONSThe natural pozzolan conforms to the requirements of ASTM C618 and can be
designated as class N. From this research, it can be seen as the replacement of pozzolan
increases, the slump of concrete decreases.
REFERENCES
American Concrete Institute (ACI), 2010, Farmington Hills, Michigan.
Dunstan, E. R. Jr., 2011. How does pozzolanic reaction make concrete “Green”. Worldof Coal Ash (WOCA), May 9-12, 2011 Denver, CO, USA.
Gibbons, P., 1997. Pozzolans for lime mortars, The Conservation and Repair of
Ecclesiastical Buildings. Available online:
http://www.buildingconservation.com/articles/pozzo/pozzo.htm.
Hossain, K. M. A., and Mol, L. 2011. Some engineering properties of stabilized clayeysoils incorporating natural pozzolans and industrial wastes, Construction and Building
Materials 25, 3495-3501, 2011.
Moropoulou, A., Maravelaki-Kalaitzaki, P., Borboudakis, M., Bakolas, A., Michailidis,
P., and Chronopoulos, M., 1998. Historic mortars technologies in Crete and guidelines
for compatible restoration mortars. Journal of the European Study Group on Physical,
Chemical, Biological and Mathematical Techniques Applied to Archaeology 55, 55-72.
Tsimas, S., and Moutsatsou-Tsima, A., 2005. High-calcium fly ash as the fourth
constituent in concrete: Problems, solutions and perspectives. Cement and Concrete
Composites 27, 231-237, 2005.

Experimental study on ordinary portland cement concrete replacement by using pozzolanic
Experimental
study on ordinary portland cement concrete replacement by using pozzolanic materials
materials

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