EUROPEAN
STATE OF THE

CLIMATESUMMARY 2023

Copernicus Climate Change Service
European State of the Climate | 2023

EUROPEAN STATE OF THE CLIMATE - SUMMARY 2023

Introduction

The climate crisis is the biggest challenge of ourgeneration. The cost of climate action may seem
high, but the cost of inaction is much higher.
As this report shows, we need to leverage scienceto provide solutions for the good of society.

European Stateof the Climate 2023

Celeste Saulo

The Copernicus Climate Change Service(C3S) provides climate monitoring for the
globe, Europe and the Arctic; the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO) is
the UN authoritative organisation thatcollates, monitors and predicts weather,climate and water resources, and provides
related services at national, regionaland global scales through its 193
Members, the National Meteorologicaland H­ ydrolo­gical Services. This year, C3S
and the WMO have released a joint reporton the European State of the Climate(ESOTC) in 2023. This provides descriptions and analysis of climate conditionsand variations from across the Earthsystem, key events and their impacts, anda discussion of climate policy and action
with a focus on human health. The ESOTC
also includes updates on the long-term
evolution of key Climate Indicators.

Secretary-General, WMO

Since the 1980s, Europe has been
warming twice as fast as the global
average, becoming the fastest-warming
continent on Earth. This is due to ­s­eve­ralfactors, including the proportion ofEuropean land in the Arctic, which is thefastest-warming region on Earth, and tochanges in atmospheric circulation thatfavour more frequent summer heatwaves.

In 2023, Europe witnessed the largest wildfire ever recorded,
one of the wettest years, severe marine heatwaves andwidespread devastating flooding. Temperatures continue toincrease, making our data ever more vital in preparing for the
impacts of climate change.

Glaciers are melting and there arechanges in the pattern of precipitation.
An increase in extreme rainfall isleading to catastrophic events, such as
the widespread flooding seen in Italy,
Greece, Slovenia, Norway and Sweden
in 2023. Meanwhile, southern Europe
is seeing widespread droughts.
The frequency and severity of extreme
events are increasing.

Carlo Buontempo
Director, C3S

Explore thecomplete ESOTC
The complete report is available online at:

Throughout the report you will find symbols that indicate thetypes of data and the reference period used for each section.
More information on these are in About the report.

climate.copernicus.eu/esotc/2023

Reference
periodMore information on the risks that Europe is facing can be found in
the European Environment Agency’s Climate Risk Assessment.

In situ

Satellites

Model-based
estimates

Reanalysis

C3S is implemented by the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) with funding from the European Union.

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EUROPEAN STATE OF THE CLIMATE - SUMMARY 2023

3

Europein 2023

This section maps key events that occurred during 2023
and discusses the evolution of climate variables acrossthe Earth system. Beginning with a focus on variables forwhich the data cover the larger WMO Regional Association
VI (Europe) domain, the discussion then extends to the fullrange of variables across the C3S Europe domain.
Find out more

The three warmest years onrecord for Europe have all
occurred since 2020, and theten warmest since 2007.

It was a year of contrasts acrossEurope, with extreme heatwaves
and large wildfires, alongside
flooding and drought.
Credit: European Union, Copernicus Sentinel-2 imagery

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EUROPEAN STATE OF THE CLIMATE - SUMMARY 2023

Interactive map*According to preliminary estimates for 2023 from theInternational Disaster Database. Estimates of the impactsof heatwaves in 2023 are not yet available.

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EUROPEAN STATE OF THE CLIMATE - SUMMARY 2023

Berkeley Earth (1900–2023)
GISTEMP (1900–2023)
NOAAGlobalTemp (1900–2023)
JRA-55 (1958–2023)

WMO Regional Association
VI (Europe) domain

C3S Europe domain

HadCRUT5 (1900–2023)
ERA5 (1979–2023)

1°C

0.5
C

M

C

Y

C

CM

M

MY

Y

CY

CM

CMY

MY

K

M

CY

Y

CMY

K

CM

0

MY

CY

CMY

K

ESOTC 2023 is jointly produced by C3S and the WMO. C3S supports the adaptation ­and mitigation policies of the European Union by providing consistent and authoritative
information about climate change, while the WMO Regional Office for Europe serves its
50 Member States, covering Europe, Greenland, the South Caucasus and part of the
Middle East. They therefore cover overlapping geographical domains, indicated on themaps above. The size and climatic zones of each domain differs, so variations in the­statistics are expected. The ESOTC makes use of a wide range of datasets, for which
geographical coverage varies. Selected key variables are discussed for both domains
where it is useful to highlight differing statistics; not all variables are presented for the
WMO domain. The domain used for each section is indicated by the C3S and WMO logos.

−0.5

−1

−1.5

−2
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

Anomalies in annual surface air temperature (°C) for European land
(WMO RA VI Europe domain)
Data source: HadCRUT5, NOAAGlobalTemp, GISTEMP, Berkeley Earth, JRA-55, ERA5 • Credit: WMO

Surface air temperature anomalies in 2023
Data: ERA5 Reference period: 1991-2020 Credit: C3S/ECMWF

Temperature

4°C
32023 was the joint warmest year on record, with 2020, for the WMO RA VI(Europe) domain

2
1

At 1.0°C above average, and 2.6°C above the pre-industrial level, Europe (WMO RA VI)
saw its joint-warmest year on record in 2023. Almost the entire region had above-­average ­temperatures for the year as a whole, except for Scandinavia, Iceland andsoutheastern Greenland. The most-above-average temperatures were in the European
Arctic. Autumn was the second warmest on record for the region; September was exceptionally warm across much of continental Europe, while November saw temperatures up to
6°C above average in the eastern parts of the region, and in the European Arctic.

0
1
2
3
4

Reference period

1991-2020

Average surface air temperature anomalies (°C) in 2023
Data source: ERA5 • Credit: C3S/ECMWFINTRODUCTIONEUROPEIN 2023

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EUROPEAN STATE OF THE CLIMATE - SUMMARY 2023

Atmospheric circulation

Precipitation

A persistent circulation pattern brought storms and flooding

Precipitation was 7% above average for the year as a whole

The large-scale movement of air, and associated changes in air pressure, redistributes
thermal energy and moisture. It drives weather patterns, which shape many climate­variables, and can itself be influenced by climate change.

Precipitation is a key component of the water cycle and essential for life. It is importantfor sectors such as food production and transport, and can be a precursor to floods
or droughts.

From February to May 2023, higher-than-average air pressure anomalies over the Iberian
Peninsula led to a prolonged drought.

During 2023, Europe as a whole was around 7% wetter than average. Depending on
the dataset, it was the wettest or third wettest year on record.

In June, there was below-average air pressure over Greenland and the Mediterranean
and above-average air pressure across northern Europe, with the opposite pattern in July.

It was drier-than-average in countries to the west of the Black Sea, and across thesouthern Iberian Peninsula, where dry conditions occurred from February to April.

From October to December, a persistent west-to-east circulation across the North Atlantic
Ocean and Europe brought storm activity, with higher-than-average precipitation andrelated flooding.

A region between western Europe and Ukraine was wetter than average from October
to December, whereas most of Fennoscandia was drier than average in November
and December.

During the same period, there was lower-than-average air pressure over Scandinavia,
associated with cooler-than-average surface air temperatures.
Reference period

Reference period

1991-2020

1991-2020

80 metres

50

60

40

20

20

10

0

0
-10

-20

-20
-30

-40

-40

-60

-50

-80

Anomalies in 850 hPa geopotential height (m) and wind vectors at 850hPa,
in October to December 2023

Annual precipitation anomalies (%) in 2023
Data source: ERA5 • Credit: C3S/ECMWF

Data source: ERA5 • Credit: C3S/ECMWFINTRODUCTIONEUROPEIN 2023

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Anomaly (% of 1991–2020 average)

30

40

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EUROPEAN STATE OF THE CLIMATE - SUMMARY 2023

Sea surface temperature

Ocean colour

The average sea surface temperature for the European ocean was
the warmest on record

Ocean colour can be used to monitor ocean health and water quality

Sea surface temperatures (SSTs) can be used to understand the role of the ocean in
shaping the weather and climate. Marine heatwaves can have significant impacts on
ocean ecosystems and biodiversity.

Chlorophyll a (Chl a) is a photosynthetic pigment present in phytoplankton. These­microscopic plant-like marine organisms at the base of the food chain are a carbon sink
and an important indicator of ocean health. Levels of Chl a can be investigated throughmeasuring ocean colour.

For 2023, the average SST for the European ocean was the warmest on record, at 0.55°C
above average. Parts of the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean also saw theirwarmest annual average SST on record. The northeastern Atlantic around Europe saw
well-above-­average SSTs from May to October, with exceptional conditions in June, whentemperatures reached 1.76°C above average. This is the largest monthly anomaly onrecord. Marine heatwaves occurred throughout summer (see P9).

During April, Chl a was generally below average, by around 60–80%, in an area west of
the Iberian Peninsula. Meanwhile, the Atlantic Ocean north of the United Kingdom, andthe Norwegian Sea, saw anomalies of up to 200–500% above average. In May, higher
than average Chl a concentrations were seen in central parts of the Mediterranean Sea,
expanding to cover much of the basin in June, with anomalies generally 50–100%
above average.

Reference period

Reference period

1991-2020

1998-2020

Ranking of sea surface temperatures in 2023

Anomalies in chlorophyll a concentration in April 2023
Warmest%

2nd warmest

200

3rd warmest

160

Warmerthan avg

120(ranking 4 to 14)

80
40

Near
average0(ranking 15 to 29)-20

Coolerthan avg-40(ranking 30 to 41)-60

3rd coolest-80

2nd coolest-100

CoolestRanking of the annual average sea surface temperatures in 2023

Anomalies in chlorophyll a concentration (%) in April 2023

Data source: ESA SST CCI Analysis v3.0 • Credit: ESACCI/EOCIS/UKMCAS and C3S/ECMWFINTRODUCTIONEUROPEIN 2023

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Data source: C3S Ocean Colour v6.0 • Credit: C3S/ECMWF/Brockmann Consult

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EUROPEAN STATE OF THE CLIMATE - SUMMARY 2023

Temperature

Thermal stress

It was the second-warmest year on record for Europe

There were a record number of days with ‘extreme heat stress’

The three warmest years on record for Europe have all occurred since 2020, and theten warmest since 2007. At 1.02–1.12°C above average, and 2.48–2.58°C above thepre-­industrial level, 2023 was the second-warmest year on record for Europe. It was
0.13–0.17°C cooler than the previous warmest year on record, in 2020.

Health is affected by extreme temperatures. This can be estimated through ‘thermal
comfort’ or ‘thermal stress’ indices that represent the effect of the ­environment on thehuman body. The Universal Thermal Climate Index takes into account temperature,humidity, wind speed, sunshine and heat emitted by the surroundings, and how thehuman body responds to different thermal ­environments. It has ten different categories ofheat and cold stress, with units of degrees Celsius representing a ‘feels-like’ temperature.

For most of Europe, 2023 was amongst the top 10 warmest years on record. Much ofsoutheastern Europe, and parts of western and central Europe, saw their warmest year
on record.
Temperatures in Europe were above average for 11 months of the year, and September
was the warmest on record.

Across Europe, there is an increasing number of days during which heat stress is
experienced, and a decreasing number of days with cold stress. 2023 reached a record
number of days with ‘extreme heat stress’, which is equivalent to a ‘feels like’ temperature of more than 46°C. Summer also saw the largest area of Europe affected by atleast ‘strong heat stress’ of any day on record, with 13% of the continent, and 41% ofsouthern Europe, experiencing ‘strong’, ‘very strong’ or ‘extreme heat stress’ on 23 July.

Reference period

Ranking1991-2020of annual average surface air temperatures in 2023
Data: E-OBS • Credit: KNMI/C3S/ECMWF

40%

Warmeston record
2nd warmest
3rd

2023

C

4th

M

5th

CM

6th
7th

30

Y

MY

CY

2022

20

CMY

Min - max range(1950-2021)

K

8th

10

9th
10th
Lower
than 10th

0

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Ranking of annual average surface air temperatures in 2023

Area (% of total) of southern Europe affected by 'strong', 'very strong' or 'extreme
heat stress' for each day of June to September 2023 compared to 1950–2022

Data source: E-OBS • Credit: C3S/ECMWF/KNMI

Data source: ERA5-HEAT • Credit: C3S/ECMWFINTRODUCTIONEUROPEIN 2023

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EUROPEAN STATE OF THE CLIMATE - SUMMARY 2023

Marine heatwaves

Wildfires

Sea surface temperatures reached 5.5°C above average

The largest wildfire ever recorded in the European Union

Marine heatwaves are prolonged periods of extremely high temperatures in the seasand ocean. They can have significant and sometimes devastating impacts on ocean­ecosystems and biodiversity. Marine heatwaves can also have socio-economic impacts.

Wildfires are influenced by a range of factors, including vegetation type, moisture andwind. They are a natural phenomenon, but can result in habitat destruction and air
quality deterioration. In recent summers, Europe has seen more and larger fires, and alonger fire season.

Warmer-than-average sea surface temperatures (SSTs) during the year were associatedwith marine heatwaves during the summer in parts of Europe and across large sectors of
the wider North Atlantic Ocean.

For most of 2023, fire danger for Europe as a whole was above average. Summer saw acontrast in fire danger between northern and southern areas, with high levels at the startof the season in northern Europe and later in southwestern Europe. There were large firesin Portugal, Spain, Italy and especially Greece, which saw the largest wildfire everrecorded in the European Union (EU), at around 96,000 ha.

In June, the Atlantic Ocean west of Ireland and around the United Kingdom was
impacted by a marine heatwave that was classified as ‘extreme’ and, in some areas,‘beyond extreme’, with SSTs as much as 5°C above average. July and August saw marine
heatwaves in the Mediterranean Sea, with SSTs reaching 5.5°C above average in someareas, or up to ‘extreme’ conditions.

Emissions were above average in July, associated with the large fires in Greece, but at or
below average for the rest of the year.
In total, the wildfire season saw the fourth largest burnt area on record in the EU with a
total of around 500,000 ha.

Reference period

1991-2020

Reference period

Wildfires: 1991–2020, Emissions: 2003–2019

250,000 ha

CM

200,000

Y

M

Y
C

Y

M

150,000

Min-max(2006–2023)

Y

MY

CM

K

MY

CY

2023

100,000

CMY

K

50,000Jan
2023

Daily sea surface temperature anomalies (°C) in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean from 1980
to 2023 (Left) • Daily sea surface temperature anomalies (°C) on 21 June 2023 (Right)

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Weekly wildfire burnt areas (ha) in EU countries in 2023
Data source: EFFIS • Credit: EFFIS/CEMS/C3S/ECMWF

Data source: ESA SST CCI Analysis v3.0 • Credit: ESACCI/EOCIS/UKMCAS and C3S/ECMWFINTRODUCTION

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EUROPEAN STATE OF THE CLIMATE - SUMMARY 2023

Europe’s contrasting summer
Summer 2023 was not the warmest on record, but saw
conditions that were, at times, extreme. There were c­ ontrasts
in temperature and precipitation across the continent andfrom one month to the next. The ‘extended summer’(June to September) saw heatwaves, wildfires, droughts
and flooding.

aﬀected by‘strong’,of southern ‘very strong’
Europeor ‘extreme’heat stressin July 2023

41%

5000 km2

the same size as
London, Paris andBerlin combined,
burnt during the 2023
wildﬁre season

Northwestern Europe saw its warmest June on record, while
Mediterranean areas saw well-above-­average precipitation
for the month. In July, this pattern was almost reversed. In
August, southern Europe saw warmer-than-­averagetemperatures, and September was the warmest on record
for Europe as a whole. Both August and September also
saw severe flood events (see P12).

Greece, Jul–Aug 2023

960 km2

twice the size of Athens
the largest wildﬁreever recorded in theEuropean Union

Much of Europe was impacted by heatwaves during theextended summer, with high temperatures during both the
day and night. At the peak of a heatwave in July, 41% ofsouthern Europe was affected by at least ‘strong heatstress’, with potential for health impacts.
By the end of August, large parts of southern Europe,
especially the Iberian Peninsula, ­experienced precipitation
deficits that induced drought. By late September, most of
the Iberian Peninsula had recovered, but parts of eastern
Europe transitioned to extreme drought conditions.
Wildfires were also observed across Europe, mostly
coinciding with droughts.

Reference period

1991-2020

Burnt area
Data source: European Forest Fire Information System, ERA5
Credit: EFFIS/CEMS/C3S/ECMWFINTRODUCTIONEUROPEIN 2023≥5000 haARCTICIN 2023

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EUROPEAN STATE OF THE CLIMATE - SUMMARY 2023

Precipitation

Soil moisture

Northwestern Europe saw a higher number ofwet days than average
During 2023, most of Europe was wetter than average; around
7% for the year as a whole. The year was the second to fourthwettest year on record, depending on the dataset used.
There was significant variability in precipitation throughout
the year and across the continent.
The Netherlands, northwestern Germany, Denmark, Slovenia,
eastern central Greece, western Türkiye, and parts of southwestern Russia and Ukraine experienced particularly wet conditions. Eastern and southern parts of the Iberian Peninsula,
southern France, countries to the west of the Black Sea, andwestern Russia saw drier-than-average conditions.
The number of days in 2023 where accumulated precipitation
was at least 1 mm was also higher than average acrossmost of northwestern Europe.

River flow

Periods of significant drought and extreme flooding

In December, river flows were the highest on record

Soil moisture is a key environmental and hydrological variable
that is involved in the exchange of water and heat between
the land surface and the atmosphere. It affects vegetation
growth along with the formation of precipitation and runoff,with consequences for agricultural yield, flooding and drought.

For Europe as a whole, river flow was generally aroundaverage. It was slightly lower than average in February, June,
July and October, and slightly higher than average in January,
April and August. Drought conditions were seen in somerivers, such as the Ebro, which saw near-record low flows inMay, and the Po, which saw below-average flows throughout
the year, and near-record low flows from February to April.

Soil moisture was drier than average across Europe forthe year as a whole. From February to May, the Iberian
Peninsula saw a period of drought; between March and May,
most parts of the area saw their driest conditions on record.
From November to December the majority of Europe hadwetter-than-average soil moisture conditions, in part due tostorms. This anomalous soil moisture also contributed toflooding events later in the year.

Reference period

In November, river flow for Europe as a whole became muchhigher than average and in December was the highest on
record, with ‘exceptionally high’ flow in almost a quarter ofthe European river network. Record or near-record high riverflows were seen in major river basins due to a series ofstorms between October and December.

Reference period

1991-2020
Anomalies in thenumber of wet days in 2023

Reference period

1991-2020
Anomalies
in soil moisture in 2023

1991-2020
Anomalies in monthly average river flow across Europe in December 2023

Data: ERA5-Land Reference period: 1991-2020 Credit: C3S/ECMWF

Data: ERA5 Reference period: 1991-2020 Credit: C3S/ECMWF

Data: EFAS Credit: CEMS/C3S/ECMWF

Exceptionally low

20

40

15

20
10
0

10
5
0

10

5

20

Below average

AverageAbove average

Notably high Exceptionally highAnomaly (% of 1991-2020 average)

30

Anomaly (number from 1991-2020 average)50

Notably low

10

30

15

40

20

50

Anomalies in the number of wet days in 2023

Anomalies (%) in soil moisture in 2023

Anomalies in monthly average river flow in December 2023

Data source: ERA5 • Credit: C3S/ECMWF

Data source: ERA5-Land • Credit: C3S/ECMWF

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Flooding

One third

Around 1.6 million people were affectedby flooding in Europe in 2023
In May, 23 rivers in Italy burst their banks,with floods covering an area of around 540
km2. Around 36,000 people were displaced,with 15 fatalities.

of rivers in Europe
exceeded the ‘high’ﬂood threshold

River network

16% exceeded‘Severe’ ﬂood threshold‘High’ ﬂood thresholdthe ‘severe’ ﬂood
thresholdIn August, flooding affected two thirds ofSlovenia, with record-high flows at 31 stations.
Around 1.5 million people were affected, with
8000 people evacuated and six fatalities.
Norway and Sweden were also affected byflooding in August. In Norway, a hydroelectric
power plant on the Glomma partially collapsed,leading to further flooding. More than 5000
people were displaced.

Norway and Sweden, August 2023
Storm Hans brings widespread ﬂooding

Germany, December 2023
Heavy rainfall led to some locations receiving rainfall amountsof 170 to 218% higher than average for the period

Greece, Bulgaria and Türkiye saw record-breaking rainfall and flooding in September. Greece
had a flooded area of approximately 700 km2.
In some places, the equivalent of a year’s worthof rain fell in one day. At least 17 people losttheir lives in Greece, eight lives were lost in
Türkiye and four in Bulgaria. The storm went on
to impact Libya, where flooding and dam bursts
resulted in at least 4700 fatalities. Around 8000
people were missing as of mid-December 2023.

Slovenia, August 2023
Record-breaking rainfall aﬀects two thirds of the country
Italy, May 2023
Storm Minerva led to widespread ﬂooding

In December, widespread flooding impacted
northwestern Europe. River flow averaged
across the European river network for themonth was the highest on record.
Reference period

1991-2020

Greece, September 2023
Storm Daniel brings the equivalent of an average year’s
worth of rain in less than a day in some locations

Data source: EFAS • Credit: CEMS/C3S/ECMWFINTRODUCTION

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Renewable energy resources

Anomalies in potential for energy generation in 2023
Onshore wind
Onshore wind

A record proportion of electricity generation by renewables

Solar photovoltaic
Solar photovoltaic

24%
16%
8%
0%
−8%
−16%
−24%

In 2023, a record proportion of actual electricity generation in Europe was from r­enewablesources, at 43%, compared to 36% in 2022.
Climate-driven electricity demand was above average in southern Europe, due to coolingrequired during exceptional summer temperatures, and in Scandinavia, where cooler-­
than-average temperatures in several months led to increased demand for heating.
For the year as a whole, potential for solar photovoltaic power generation was below
average in northwestern and central Europe, and above average in southwestern andsouthern Europe, and Fennoscandia. Potential for run-of-river hydropower generation wasabove average across much of Europe, linked to above-average precipitation and river flow.
Increased storm activity from October to December resulted in above-average potential
for wind power production.

Run-of-river hydropower
Run-of-river hydropower

Capacity factor

tor
Capacity factor

13

Capacity factor
15%
15%
10%
10%
5%
5%
0%
0%
−5%
−5%
−10%
−10%
−15%
−15%

6%
4%
2%
0%
−2%
−4%
−6%

No data

No data

Anomalies (%) in potential electricity generation (capacity factor) in 2023 from: onshore wind (left),
solar PV (centre), run-of-river hydropower (right)
Data source: C3S Climate and Energy Indicators for Europe • Credit: C3S/ECMWF

Reference period

1991-2020

Clouds and solar radiation
C

M

Surface solar radiation was above average

Y

Cloud cover and sunshine duration are climate variables of relevance to many
sectors, as well as to society. In 2023, surface solar radiation and sunshine duration
across Europe as a whole were above average, while cloud cover was below average.
CM

MY

CY

CMY

September had the most pronounced anomalies in sunshine duration, surface
solar radiation and cloud cover average across Europe. The largest local anomalies,
however, were in April, May and June. In April, positive surface solar radiation­
anomalies of around 50% occurred across the Iberian Peninsula, while a largepart of eastern Europe saw negative anomalies of around 50%.
K

INTRODUCTION

Reference period

Anomalies (%) in annual solar radiation for European land (Left) • Anomalies (%) in solar radiation for 2023 (Right)

1991-2020

Data source: CM SAF SARAH-3 CDR and ICDR • Credit: DWD/EUMETSAT/C3S/ECMWFEUROPEIN 2023

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Snow

Glaciers

Fewer days with snow than average across much of Europe

Glaciers in the Alps have lost 10% of their volume in two years

Snow plays an important role in the climate, and changes in snow cover can impact
other aspects of the Earth system, such as glaciers, river flow, ­f looding and droughts.

Changes in glacier mass are directly linked to climate change and therefore are important for climate monitoring. Since the mid-19th century, glaciers around the globe havebeen experiencing mass loss, and the European Alps is one of the regions where glaciers
are shrinking the most.

In 2023, much of Europe experienced fewer days with snow than average. Many
locations in Fennoscandia, however, saw a near-average or higher-­t han-average
number of days with snow.
With some exceptions, Europe generally saw a well-below-average number of days
with snow during winter, and a near-average or below-average number during spring.
In the Alps in winter, just three locations saw more days with snow than average,
while most saw far fewer than average.

In 2023, glaciers in all parts of Europe saw a net loss of ice. Following record ice loss in
2022, it was another exceptional year of loss in the Alps, due to below-average winteraccumulation and strong summer melt. Over these two years, glaciers in the Alps lostaround 10% of their volume.

Reference period

1991-2020

Anomaly
40 days

Mass change
30
20
10
5
-5
-10
-20
-30
-40

Anomalies in the number of snow days during winter (December 2022 to February 2023)
Locations with a close-to-average (within ± five days) number of snow days are not shown

Mass change of glaciers across Europe in 2023
Annual mass change values are given in the unit ‘metre water equivalent (m w.e.)’

Data source: ECA&D • Credit: C3S/ECMWF/KNMI

Data source: WGMS • Credit: WGMSINTRODUCTIONEUROPEIN 2023

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15

EUROPEAN STATE OF THE CLIMATE - SUMMARY 2023

Annual glacier mass change

Glaciers−2Year (1976–2023)

2

Central Europe
Iceland
Greenland periphery
Scandinavia

Since 1976,

Glaciers in

850 km3

all European
regions saw a
net loss of iceof glacier ice in Europe*
has been lost

Svalbard and Mayen
Caucasus
Data source: WGMS. Data in metre water equivalent (m w.e.)**in 2023

From 2022 to 2023
glaciers in the Alps lostaround 10%of their volume*European glaciers including central Europe, Scandinavia, Iceland, the Caucasus,
Svalbard and Jan Mayen. Total excludes peripheral glaciers in Greenland.
**One metre water equivalent corresponds to 1.1 m of ice thickness.

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Arcticin 2023

The Arctic section provides an
overview of key climate eventsin high northern latitudes.
Find out more

In recent decades,
the Arctic has been warming
around three times fasterthan the planet as a whole.

The region encompassing the
Barents Sea and Svalbard
has been one of the fastestwarming places on Earth.

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EUROPEAN STATE OF THE CLIMATE - SUMMARY 2023

Arctic temperature

Arctic wildfires

Warmest summer on record for Svalbard
Since the 1990s, the Arctic has been warming at a rate well
above that of the global average. For Arctic land, 2023 was
the fifth warmest year on record. The five warmest years
on record for Arctic land have all occurred since 2016.
Svalbard is one of the fastest-warming places on Earth.
In 2023, the average summer temperature was thehighest on record, linked in part to below-average sea
ice and above-average sea surface temperatures.
In Greenland, below-average temperatures in May andJune led to delayed onset of the ice sheet melt season.
In July and August, however, heatwaves led to
substantial summer melt and greater-than-averageannual ice loss, despite the late start to the melt season.

Arctic ocean

Carbon emissions from sub-Arctic and Arctic regions
were the second highest on record

Sea ice extent in the Arctic remained lower than
average for most of the year

As Earth’s climate continues to warm, and with the Arctic
warming more rapidly than the global average, conditions
at high northern latitudes are becoming more conducive
to wildfires.

Sea ice covers between around 25% (September) and 75%(March) of the area north of the Arctic Circle. Arctic sea ice
extent remained lower than average during most of 2023,
particularly from January to March and from August to October.

In 2023, the Arctic and sub-Arctic saw high levels of wildfire
activity, and the second-highest carbon emissions on record.
The majority of high-latitude wildfires occurred in Canada
between May and September, contributing to the highest
total annual emissions for the western Arctic on record. In
July, the prevailing weather conditions transported smokefrom Canadian wildfires to Greenland, possibly contributing
to a significant melt event by darkening the ice surface.

At its annual maximum in March, sea ice extent was 4%
below average, ranking fifth lowest on record. At its
minimum in September, it ranked sixth lowest, at 18%
below average.

Reference period

Reference period

1991-2020
Anomalies in surface air temperature in 2023

Reference period

1991-2020
Wildfires and anomalies in soil moisture in June to August 2023

%

°C
5
3
2
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-2

Sea ice concentrations were most below average in the Barents
Sea in January and February, and on the Pacific side of the
Arctic Ocean from August to October. In the Greenland Sea,
however, concentrations of 10 to 20% above average wereobserved from March to June and September to December.
1991-2020
Sea ice concentration in the Arctic in September 2023
%

30
24
18
12
6
0
-6
-12
-18
-24
-30

95
85
75
65
55
45
35

Wildfire radiative
power (W/m2)
1 10
10 50
50 100>100-3-51991 2020
ice edge

25
15

Anomalies in surface air temperature in 2023

Wildfires and anomalies (%) in soil moisture in June to August 2023

Monthly average sea ice concentration (%) in September 2023

Data source: ERA5 • Credit: C3S/ECMWF

Data sources: ERA5-Land soil moisture and CAMS GFAS v1.2 wildfire data
Credit: C3S/ECMWF/CAMS

Data source: OSI SAF Global Sea Ice Concentration v3.0; C3S Sea Ice Edge v3.0

The orange line represents the median sea ice edge for 1991–2020
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EUROPEAN STATE OF THE CLIMATE - SUMMARY 2023

Global surface air temperature anomalies

Globe in 2023
Additional information about the
global climate during 2023 canbe found in the WMO State of
the Global Climate in 2023,
and the C3S 2023 Global
Climate Highlights.

2023

0.8
Temperature anomaly (ºC)

The global context is provided
by C3S Climate Indicators.

1.2

GHG
2023
2020s
2010s
2000s
1990s
1980s
1970s
1960s
1950s
1940s

0.4
0

-0.4
-0.8
-1.2

All other years
since 1940
Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Greenhouse gases

Atmospheric concentrations of the greenhousegases carbon dioxide and methane continued toincrease, reaching record levels, and were theirhighest in at least hundreds of thousands ofyears. The annual increase in methane wassignificantly higher than the average annual
increase during the 2010s, while the annual
increase in carbon dioxide was similar toprevious years.

Dec

Glaciers
Sea surface
temperature

Temperature
Globally, it was the warmest year
on record. Each month from June
to December was warmer than thecorresponding month in any previous
year, and September saw the largest
monthly temperature anomaly onrecord, at 0.93°C above average. It
was the first year in which every day
exceeded 1°C above the pre-industrial
level. Nearly half the days were morethan 1.5°C above the pre-industrial
level, and two days were, for the
first time, more than 2°C warmer.

Sea surface temperatures (SSTs) werepersistently high, reaching record
levels for each month from April to
December, and breaking daily records.
A transition from La Niña* to El Niño**
conditions, and high temperatures inmost ocean basins, in particular the
North Atlantic, played an importantrole in the record-breaking SSTs.
Marine heatwaves were seen aroundthe globe.

Ocean heat content
The global ocean heat content was the highest
on record. The transition from La Niña* to El
Niño**, and conditions in the Indian Ocean,contributed to an increase in global upper
ocean heat content from 2022 to 2023.

Sea ice
Sea level
Data available for the first six months of theyear show a continuing rise in global mean sea
level, reaching a new record high. The rate ofrise is accelerating.

*La Niña – Cooler than average conditions in central and eastern areas of the tropical Pacific.
**El Niño – Warmer than average conditions in central and eastern areas of the tropical Pacific.

Glaciers around the globe saw a new record
annual loss of ice, at around 600 gigatonnesof water. This is 100 gigatonnes more than any
other year on record, and equivalent to almost
five times the amount of ice contained in all theglaciers in central Europe. Estimates indicate that
this ice loss has contributed 1.7 mm to sea level
rise; the largest annual contribution on record.

Antarctic sea ice extent reached record low
values for the time of year in eight months
and an all-time minimum in February. Arctic
sea ice extent at its annual peak in Marchranked fifth lowest on record, and at its
minimum in September was sixth lowest.

1 gigatonne (Gt) = 1,000,000,000 tonnes • 1 gigatonne (Gt) = 1 km3 of water, or 1.1 km3 of ice

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EUROPEAN STATE OF THE CLIMATE - SUMMARY 2023

The number of adverse healthimpacts related to extreme weather
and climate events is rising.

Climate Policy
and Action
This section focuses on climate
policy and action in the healthsector. The impact of extreme
weather and climate events onhuman health, and the importanceof climate services for the healthsector, are highlighted.
Climate change impacts health in various
ways. It can exacerbate existing p­ roblems likedisease and death from heatwaves, wildfires,storms and floods.
It also increases the prevalence of non-­communicable diseases, such as mental
health disorders, while indirect effects
include changes in air quality, and foodand water security.

Find out more

In July 2023, for the first time in history, the climate crisis andrelated extreme weather events were declared a public healthemergency by the World Health Organization Europe regional office.

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EUROPEAN STATE OF THE CLIMATE - SUMMARY 2023

The impact of extreme weather and climate events on human healthHeat-related deaths have increased in 94% of European regions

Fewer than a quarter of European Parties to the Paris Agreement
have integrated health into their adaptation strategies

Since 1970, extreme heat has been the leading cause of weather- and climate-related
deaths in Europe. 23 of the 30 most severe heatwaves have occurred since 2000, and fivein the last three years. Between 55,000 and 72,000 deaths due to heatwaves were­estimated in each summer of 2003, 2010 and 2022. An estimate for 2023 is not yet available. In the World Health Organization’s European Region, heat-­related mortality has increased
by around 30% in the past 20 years. Between 2000 and 2020, heat-related deaths are estimated to have increased in 94% of the European regions ­monitored. The effect of heat on
human health is more pronounced in cities.

Parties to the Paris Agreement, which aims to limit the global average temperature
increase to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels and pursue efforts to limit theincrease to 1.5°C, make commitments of policies and measures in the form of nationallydetermined contributions (NDCs).

The frequency, intensity and duration of heatwaves will continue to increase, with serious
consequences for public health. The combined effects of climate change, urbanisation and
Top 30 severe heatwaves in Europe (1950–2023)
population ageing is likely to significantly exacerbate heat-­related impacts. Current heatwaveof a circle is proportional to the area affected by the corresponding heatwave.
interventionsThewillsizesoon
be insufficient to deal with the expected heat-­related health burden.
Select one to find out more information. A logarithmic scale is used on both axes.
Average
14 temperature
anomaly (°C)

The NDCs submitted by European countries have prominently emphasised mitigation
efforts, but few have included adaptation. Only 12 of the 50 European Parties analysed haveintegrated
health into their adaptation
strategies
Climate-sensitive
healthrisksand 11 made reference to climate-­sensitive health risks. Only five highlighted injury and mortality from extreme weather
Percentage of European countries that refer to climate-sensitive health risks orevents andvector-borne
diseasesdeterminedas their climate
healthrisk areasof concern,and just
outcomesin their nationallycontributions(NDCs)
under theParisfour Parties
highlighted heat-related illnesses.
Agreement
0%
Injury and mortality from extreme
weather events

Ranking of severity
1 to 10 ●●●●●●●●●●
Below 10 ●12

Jul–Aug 201033 days, 10.5°C

Jul–Aug 2003

10%

Vector-borne diseases

Aug 1972

13 5 days, 12.5°C

11

10%
10%

Jun 2021

Heat-related illness

8%

Impacts on health care facilities

8%

Malnutrition and food-borne
diseases

8%

Waterborne diseases and otherwater-related health impacts

6%

Airborne and respiratory illnesses

6%10

Aug 2023
9

Noncommunicable diseases

4%

Mental and psychosocial health4%2%

Zoonoses
Jul 2001

Duration (days)
5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Percentage of European Member countries that refer to climate-sensitive health risks or
outcomes in their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement

40

Topare30
most
heatwavesintemperature
Europe (1950–2023)
definedas severe
periods whenthe maximum
exceeded the 98th
Heatwaves
percentile of the 1961–1990
and exceededa period of three or
The size of referencea circle isperiod,
proportional
to the28°C,
areaforaffected
more days.

Based on the 50 Member countries whose NDCs were reviewed.

Percentages are based on the 50 Member countries whose NDCs were reviewed

Data source: Adapted from WMO based on data from the WHO Review of Health in NDCs andSource: Adaptedfrom WMO
based Healthon data
the ofWorld
HealthOrganization
Long-term
Strategies:
at fromthe Heartthe Paris
Agreement,
2023 (WHO)Data source: DWD • Credit: DWD/C3S/ECMWFINTRODUCTIONEUROPEIN 2023

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EUROPEAN STATE OF THE CLIMATE - SUMMARY 2023

Enhancing climate resilience in the health sector
Tailored climate services for the health sector are effective
in increasing resilience, but not widely provided

Health adaptation can build on established health systeminfrastructures, but progress has been limited

Climate services are vital for safeguarding lives. Of the WMO’s 50 European Member
Countries, 78% provide data services for the health sector, but only 28% provide climate
prediction services to the sector. Despite 62% indicating that they provide ­t ailored­products for the health sector, the majority are not yet customised to capture thesector’s needs.

Opportunities to implement health adaptation options are increasing. Health adaptation
can build on, and integrate into, established health system infrastructures. These­
infrastructures differ significantly between countries, as do existing capacities to deal
with climate-related events. Progress has been limited, particularly due to low societalpressure, confidence in existing health systems, and lack of awareness of links between
health and climate change.

The level of service provision to the health sector by National Meteorological andHydrological Services has been assessed on a scale of one to six. On this scale, where
one corresponds to ‘initial engagement’ and six to ‘full engagement’, the WMO’s RA VI
region (Europe) achieved an average score of 3.3.
Data from the WHO for 20 European countries reveal that 10 of them have ­implemented
a health surveillance system, integrating meteorological information t­ ailored formonitoring heat-related illnesses.

Increasing the role of governments in facilitating knowledge sharing, allocating financial
resources, and creating knowledge and policy programmes on climate and health could
all bring benefits. Increasing overall investment in public healthcare systems improves
their capacity to respond to climate-related extreme events and will ensure wider­societal benefits.
Heat HealthClimate
Action Plans(HHAPs)include early
warning
andsector
response
services
provided
to thehealthinsystems and are
effective adaptation
Europe options for extreme heat. Out of 27 WHO European Member
Countries surveyed,
17 havea fully-operational
heat-healthwarningsystemas partServices provided
by National
Meteorological and Hydrological
Servicesin the WMO
RA
VI European regionof their HHAPs.
Provided

Not provided

No data

Data services
78%

12%

10%

Climate monitoring
64%

24%

12%

Climate analysis and diagnostic
62%

22%

16%

Tailored products
62%

24%

14%

Climate change projections
48%

38%

14%

Climate predictions
28%

58%

14%

Climate services provided to the health sector by National Meteorological andHydrological Services in the WMO RA VI region (Europe)
Data source: WMO Climate Services Dashboard
Percentages are based on the 50 European Members

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EUROPEAN STATE OF THE CLIMATE - SUMMARY 2023

Trends in

Climate Indicators
Climate Indicators show the long-term
evolution of several key variables that areused to assess the global and regional
trends of our changing climate.

Greenhouse gas concentrations

Sea level

Find out more

GHG
GHG

Greenhouse gas ﬂuxes

Glaciers

Ocean heat content

Sea ice

Sea surface temperature

Temperature

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EUROPEAN STATE OF THE CLIMATE - SUMMARY 2023

Increasing
temperatures overland and ocean

The Paris Agreement aims to hold the increase in global average temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels,and preferably below 1.5°C. The five-yearly Global Stocktake assesses the collective progress in the implementation of theParis Agreement. The first was completed at the end of 2023.
Monitoring surface air and sea surface temperatures globally and regionally ­contributes to the Stocktake. Global averagevalues for these variables have increased significantly since the pre-industrial era, by around 1.3°C* and 0.9°C, respectively.

Global average temperature:
increase above 1850-1900 reference period
Temperature

ERA5

GISTEMP

Berkeley Earth

JRA-3Q

HadCRUT5

Sea surface
temperature

NOAAGlobalTemp

1.4°C

0.2

Global average sea surface temperature(SST) has increased by around 0.9°C since
the late 1800s. A key modulator of global
SSTs on interannual timescales is the El
Niño Southern Oscillation, which sees
periods of warmer (El Niño) or cooler (LaNiña) than average conditions in thecentral and eastern tropical Pacific. Thesechanges in SST influence circulation patterns
and surface air temperatures around theglobe. 2023 marked a shift to El Niño
following three years of La Niña.

Since 1850—1900, an increase insurface air temperature of around

0.0

Five SST datasets covering 1980-2023.

Globe

−0.2

In recent decades, temperatures over land
have risen around twice as fast as thoseover the ocean. Europe is the fastest
warming of all the WMO regions, at around
twice as fast as the global average.
Temperatures over the Arctic have risen
more rapidly than those over most of therest of the globe, with an estimatedwarming of around 3°C since the 1970s.

1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4

Based on ERA5. Values for Europe,
WMO RA VI and the Arctic are overland only.

+1.3°C
Arctic+3.3°C

Europe+2.3°C1860

WMO RA VI

1880

1900

1920

1940

1960

1980

2000

2020

Data: ERA5
(C3S/ECMWF),
JRA-3Q (JMA),increase
GISTEMPv4(NASA),
HadCRUT5reference(Met Officeperiod
HadleyGlobalaverage temperature:above
1850-1900
Centre), NOAAGlobalTempv6 (NOAA) and Berkeley Earth • Credit: C3S/ECMWF+2.5°C

Centred running 60-month periods.

Since 1980, an increase in
SST of around

Extrapolar+0.6°C

Data source: Six temperature datasets covering all or part of 1850-2023 • Credit: C3S/ECMWFWMO RA VI*(Latest five-year averages)+1.1°CINTRODUCTIONEUROPEIN 2023

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60°S–60°N

23

EUROPEAN STATE OF THE CLIMATE - SUMMARY 2023

The ocean is
impacted byand regulating
our climate
The ocean plays a crucial role in­regulating Earth’s climate; it absorbs
and stores up to 90% of the excess heatthat is associated with human-induced
greenhouse gas emissions.
Large-scale circulation within the ocean
redistributes this heat from low to mid
and high latitudes, and from the surface
to deeper layers. The balance between
heat absorption and release results invariations in ocean heat content.
Change in mean sea level is an essential
indicator of our evolving climate. It
reflects both the thermal expansion of
the ocean in response to its warming
and the increase in ocean mass due tothe melting of ice sheets and glaciers.

Ocean heat
content

Sea level
Since 1993, there has been a rise in global
mean sea level of around 10.3 cm. Sea levelis also rising more quickly, with the past 10
years seeing an increase of 4.3 mm per year
compared to 2.1 mm per year between 1993
and 2003. Regionally, there can be variation.
For example, across Europe, sea levelchanges differ between the open oceanand coastal areas due to various oceanicand geophysical processes.
January 1993 to June 2023.

Long-term trends in ocean heat content
indicate that most of the heat gain is­happening in the upper 700 m of the ocean.
This heat is slowly being transferred to the
700–2000 m layer. Even small changes intemperature correspond to large changes
in energy, due to the immense volume ofthe ocean.

Since 1993, an increase of

Global+0.22°C
Northeastern Atlantic+0.04°C

Anomalies in the heat content of the global ocean
Reference period

Data at different1993-2022
depth ranges
0 to 2000 m
0.6 GJ/m²

Since 1993, an average
sea level increase of around

0 to 700 m

0.4

Global0 to 300 m+3.4 mm0.2

Europe0+2–4 mm

700 to 2000 m−0.2(per year)

−0.4

−0.6

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

2010

2015

2020

Anomalies(GJ/m ) in the heat content of the global ocean
Data: ORAS5 • Credit:
ECMWF/C3S
2

Data source: ORAS5 • Credit: ECMWF/C3S

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EUROPEAN STATE OF THE CLIMATE - SUMMARY 2023

Greenhousegases driving
climate change

Greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere trap heat close to Earth’s surface.
As concentrations increase, the near-surface temperature is also rising, with significant
impacts. Human activities lead to the emission of GHGs in various ways, including the
combustion of fossil fuels for energy, deforestation, the use of fertilisers in­agriculture, livestock farming, and the decomposition of organic material in landfills.
Of all the long-lived GHGs that are emitted by human activities, carbon dioxide (CO2),methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) have the largest impact on the climate.

Greenhouse gas concentrations

GHG

The amount of a gas contained in a certain volume of air.

In 2023, the annual average concentrations of greenhouse gases were

Atmospheric concentrations of the two most important
anthropogenic greenhouse gases, carbon dioxide (CO2)and methane (CH 4), continued to increase in 2023,
reaching record levels.

CO2

CH4

419 ppm

1902 ppb

GHG

Greenhouse gas
fluxesThe net difference between the amountof a gas added to the atmosphere byemissions from various ‘sources’ andthe amount taken up by various ‘sinks’.
Estimated net surface fluxes of CO2, CH4
and N2O have been increasing during
recent decades. Only around half ofanthropogenic emissions of CO2 havebeen absorbed by land vegetationand oceans.
 O2: 1979–2022
C
CH4: 1979–2022
N2O: 1996–2021

Concentrations (column-averaged mixing ratios) for CO2 andCH4 covering 2003–2023, averaged over the whole atmosphericcolumn and for 60°S–60°N

Carbon dioxide concentration (monthly average)

12-month average

420 ppm

Methane concentration (monthly average)

12-month average1900 ppb

410

CO2

1850

+5000 TgC

400
1800

CH4

390

Seasonal variability

380

370

Over the last decade, net fluxes ofgreenhouse gases at Earth’s surface
of around

2005

2010

2015

2020

1700

+420 TgC

Seasonal variability

1750

N2O
2005

2010

2015

2020

Global atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH 4)
Data source: C3S/Obs4MIPs (v4.5) consolidated (2003–2022) and CAMS preliminary near real-time data (2023) GOSAT-2 (CO2) and GOSAT (CH4) records
Credit: C3S/CAMS/ECMWF/University of Bremen/SRON+16 TgN(per year)

ppm: parts per million, ppb: parts per billion, 1 teragram (Tg) = 1,000,000,000,000 (1012) grams

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EUROPEAN STATE OF THE CLIMATE - SUMMARY 2023

The cryospherein a changing
climate
The cryosphere encompasses allparts of the Earth system wherewater is in solid form, including ice
sheets, glaciers, snow cover,permafrost and sea ice.
The cryosphere and the climate
exert a strong influence on eachother. Due to its high reflectivity,changes in the ­cryosphere impact
the amount of solar energy taken
up by the planet’s surface, andconsequently temperatures.
As temperatures rise, vast
amounts of water stored on land,
in glaciers and ice sheets, melt,
which contributes to global sea
level rise. The changing
cryosphere therefore has manyfurther environmental andsocietal implications.

Glaciers

Sea iceIce sheets

Globally, around 220,000 glaciers cover an
area of approximately 700,000 km2. Bothglobally and across Europe, glaciers haveseen a substantial and prolonged loss of
ice mass since the mid-19th century.
Globally, an average of about 14 m reduction
in ice thickness has been observed sincesatellite records began in 1976, and glaciers
have contributed about 1 mm per year to
global mean sea level rise during the last
decade. In 2023, this reached a high of 1.7
mm due to record global glacier mass loss.

Arctic sea ice extent has declined markedly
since records began. The decline is largest
around the annual minimum in September,with widespread retreat across the region. In
addition to the decline in Arctic sea ice extent,
the proportion of multiyear ice has decreased
while the proportion of first-year ice has
increased. In the Antarctic, sea ice extent
shows no clear long-term trend, despite
reaching successive all-time minima in
February 2022 and 2023.

Earth’s polar ice sheets cover most ofGreenland and Antarctica, and store about
68% of the planet’s freshwater resources. If
the ice sheets were to melt entirely, theywould raise global mean sea level by 7.4 ±0.05 m for the Greenland Ice Sheet and 57.9
± 0.9 m for the Antarctic Ice Sheet. Since the1970s, melting of these ice sheets hascaused sea level to rise by almost 3 cm. It isestimated that for every centimetre of sea
level rise, around six million people aroundthe planet are exposed to coastal flooding.
The rate of ice loss has increased by aroundthree times (Antarctica) to five times(Greenland) since the 1980s.

Since 1976,
a loss of glacier ice of around

Since the 1980s,
a loss of sea ice of around

Since the 1970s,
a loss of ice sheet of around

GlobalArctic (September)

Greenland

8200 km3

2.6 million km2

5467 Gt

EuropeAntarctic

Antarctica

850 km3

No long-term trend

4790 Gt

1972–2022

1979–2022

Ice loss for Europe does not include
peripheral glaciers in Greenland.

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EUROPEAN STATE OF THE CLIMATE - SUMMARY 2023

About the report

The data behind the ESOTC 2023 and the Climate Indicators

Contributors
The ESOTC’s findings are based on­e xpertise from across the C3S and WMO
communities, as well as other Copernicus
services and external partners.
The sections are authored by C3S, the
WMO and data providers from institutions across Europe, and edited by the
C3S team.
This report is reviewed by colleagues
across the Copernicus network, the WMO,WMO ET-CMA and representatives fromnational meteorological and hydrologicalservices.
The EU Copernicus Services:
C3S, CAMS, CEMS, CMEMS, CLMS.
International organisations andinitiatives: ECMWF, EC JRC, EEA, ESA,EUMETSAT SAF Network, GCOS, WHO
Regional Office for Europe, WMO andthe WMO RA VI RCC Network.

INTRODUCTIONEUROPEIN 2023

European national and regional
meteorological and hydrologicalservices: DMI (Denmark), DWD(Germany), National Observatory of Athens(Greece), ASTA (Luxembourg), KNMI (theNetherlands), MET Norway, Météo-France,
Meteo Romania, and the Met Office(United Kingdom), alongside expert
review and indirect contributions frommany others.

The ESOTC 2023 relies extensively on
datasets provided operationally and in near­real-time by the Copernicus Services, to givean overview of 2023 in the long-term context.
The operational data are freely accessible via
data catalogues such as the C3S Climate
Data Store (CDS). These operational data
­services build on extensive research anddevelopment undertaken by institutions
across Europe and the rest of the world.
Explore the full ESOTC online to download
the data shown in this summary.

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For near-real time updates of key climate
variables see Climate Pulse.

Averages

Universities and researchorganisations: ENVEO, EODC, TU Wien
(Austria), GEUS (Denmark), CEA/LSCE, CLS,
CNES, LEGOS and RTE (France), AWI,
Brockmann Consult and University ofBremen (Germany), Inside Climate Service(Italy), SRON, Rabobank, TNO VanderSat
and VU Amsterdam (the Netherlands),
NILU (Norway), Barcelona Supercomputing
Centre (Spain), Umeå University (Sweden),
University of Zurich and WGMS
(Switzerland), University of Northumbria,
University of Reading and WEMC
(United Kingdom).

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Climate Indicators provide the long-term
context for the globe, Europe and the Arctic,
and build on datasets and estimates which
are brought together to provide a comprehensive
multi-source reference, based on data from
Copernicus and from other monitoring­activities. Where data do not yet fully cover
the reporting period, the most up to date
information is included.

Throughout the report, use of the word 'average' refers to the mean.

Reference periods
By comparing 2023 against the average for a reference period, we can see how the year
fits within a longer-term context. Generally, the reference period used is 1991–2020, butwhere less extensive data records are available, other periods may be used, as indicatedby this symbol. Some variables are compared to the pre-industrial level, for which thereference period used is 1850–1900.

CLIMATE POLICYAND ACTION

In situ

Model-based estimates

Measurements from an instrument
located at the point of interest,
such as a land station, at sea orin an aeroplane.

Using the laws of physics andstatistics to build large-scalemodels of environmental indicators.

Satellites

Reanalysis

Providing information about Earth’s
surface and its atmosphere fromspaceborne orbit.

Using a combination of observations
and computer models to recreate
historical climate conditions.

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climate.copernicus.eu

ecmwf.int

wmo.int#CopernicusClimate#ECMWF#WMO

doi.org/10.24381/bs9v-8c66

About usCopernicus Services implemented by ECMWF
Vital environmental information fora changing world
The European Centre for Medium-Range Weather
Forecasts (ECMWF) has been entrusted by theEuropean Commission to implement two of the six
services of the Copernicus programme: theCopernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) andthe Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service(CAMS). In addition, ECMWF provides support to
the Copernicus Emergency Management
Service (CEMS).
To meet the challenge of global climate change,
accurate, reliable and timely data are key. The
Copernicus Services at ECMWF routinely monitor
data on a global scale, including a wide range ofclimate variables and indicators from across the
Earth system.

INTRODUCTIONEUROPEIN 2023

World Meteorological Organisation (WMO)

The Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S)
The C3S mission is to support adaptationand mitigation policies of the European
Union by ­providing consistent and authoritative
information about climate change. C3S
adds value to e­ nvironmental measurements
by providing free access to quality-­assured,
traceable data and applications, all day, everyday. We offer c­ onsistent information on the
climate anywhere in the world, and support
policymakers, businesses and citizens in
preparing for future climate change impacts.

WMO regional office for Europe
and RCC network

The WMO is the United Nations
system's authoritative voice on the stateand behaviour of Earth's atmosphere, its
interaction with the land and oceans, theweather and climate it produces and theresulting distribution of water resources.

The Regional Office for Europe is responsible
for achieving the WMO's long-term goals andstrategic objectives for the 50 WMO Regional
Association VI (Europe) Member Countries.

As weather, climate and the water cycle
know no national boundaries, international
cooperation at a global scale is essential
for the development of meteorology andoperational hydrology as well as to reap
the benefits from their application.
The WMO provides the framework for suchinternational cooperation for its 193 Member
States and Territories, and plays a leadingrole in international efforts to monitor andprotect the climate and the environment.

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Regional Climate Centres are operational entitiesof the Global Framework for Climate Services’
Climate Services Information System. They serve
the members of the WMO through their respective National Meteorological and Hydrological
Services (NMHSs), supporting NMHSs inmeeting their national climate-related duties.

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