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Indigenous Peoples in Canada:
Diverse Histories and Modern Issues
Alan D. McMillan

Introduction
Canadians celebrated the 150th birthday of their nation in 2017. Confederationin 1867 involved the formal union of three British colonies to bring Canada into
being. Over time, additional portions of British North America were incorporated
into the Canadian state, resulting in the modern national borders. Of course, theIndigenous peoples of those lands have a much more ancient history, extending backat least 13,000 years and possibly considerably more. Archaeological research andIndigenous oral histories both document this lengthy occupation. When Europeans
first arrived, all of this vast land had long been settled. A legacy of colonialism
means that many of Canada̓s Indigenous peoples feel that they have little to
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negotiation of Indigenous rights and title within traditional homelands and withreconciliation following a history of colonialism. This paper briefly examines
Indigenous diversity within Canada and summarizes some of the major issues
shared by all such groups, before turning to Canada̓s western province, British
Columbia, for more detailed examples.

Canada’s Diverse Indigenous Peoples

Canada̓VFRQVWLWXWLRQVSHFLÀHVWKUHH͆Aboriginal Peoples͇㸫 Indians, Inuit, and Métis 㸫
although the preferred collective term today is͆Indigenous.͇The word͆Indian͇israrely used in Canada today, being almost entirely supplanted with͆First Nations͇
as a much more accurate and appropriate term.͆Indian͇remains only in a legal
context, such as in the provisions of the Indian Act. This is by far the largest and–1–most diverse category of Indigenous peoples, inhabiting all the regions of Canada
except the far north. Almost a million people are legally recognized as͆Indians͇
by the Canadian government,(1) consisting almost entirely of those registered as
members of individual First Nations. The Inuit, once known to some as͆Eskimos,͇
are a separate people whose traditional territories extend across the Arctic region
in the far north, from Alaska to Greenland and Labrador. Many Canadian Inuit
today live in the self-governing territory of Nunavut, in the central Arctic. Unlike
the others, who have an ancient history in Canada, the Métis emerged as traders
and bison hunters on the open plains during the historic fur trade period, largely
through intermarriage between European men and First Nations women. Althoughlacking the land base and historic treaties of most First Nations, the Métis havedistinct legal rights through their constitutional recognition as Indigenous People.
This paper is restricted to the largest category, the First Nations of Canada.
The term͆ First Nations ͇acknowledges that many separate independent
Indigenous groups occupied this vast territory. This diversity is particularly evident
in the numerous Indigenous languages. Perhaps 53 distinct languages, some inwidely varying dialects, were spoken in Canada at first contact with Europeans.
5HODWHGODQJXDJHVFDQEHFODVVLÀHGLQWRIDPLOLHVRIZKLFKWKHUHDUHLQ&DQDGD(2)Some language families, such as Algonkian, encompass multiple separate languages
spread across much of the country, while others are isolates, restricted to small
areas. For example, the language of the Haida people, spoken only on the islands
offshore from northern British Columba, is unrelated to any other language in theworld.
Canada̓s vast lands contain a wide range of different environments, from northern
forests and tundra to warmer southern lands where crops could be grown. Diverse
First Nations developed very different cultures and economies in these different
environments. Northern hunters of the Subarctic lived in small mobile bands whilepursuing a variety of game animals. The people of the Plains developed a way oflife highly focused on hunting bison, living in easily moveable tipis while following
the herds. In southern Ontario, the Iroquoian peoples grew maize (corn), beans,and squash while living in large palisaded villages of bark-covered longhouses. The
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wooden houses and marked social distinctions, including hereditary chiefs. Even
within these very different examples, considerable linguistic and cultural variability
existed.

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Today there are over 600 First Nations in Canada,(3) varying greatly in population
size, historic background, reserve size, and modern economy. Although some havesubstantial populations, many are very small. Some smaller related groups haveformed tribal councils for greater political and economic power while retaining
their independent status. At the national level, all groups are represented by the
Assembly of First Nations. However, this organization must contend with internal
differences and competing interests, separating treaty and non-treaty groups,
reserve and urban populations, and communities within different provinces andterritories. Most important negotiations take place directly between the federal
government and individual First Nations.

Impact of Contact and Colonization

Through their early contact with arrivals from Europe, beginning in the 16th
century along the east coast, Indigenous peoples were exposed to new diseases thattook a terrible toll, greatly reducing populations. Outsiders settled across large
portions of Indigenous lands, disrupting traditional ways of life. Participation in the
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changes. Colonial governments, and later the early federal government, sought todevelop policies to deal with these reduced populations while opening up most of theland for non-Indigenous settlement and commerce.
Following Canadian Confederation, all͆Indians͇became wards of the federal
government, to be administered directly from Ottawa. This separated them from allother Canadians, who receive most of their services from the provinces. When the
Indian Act was passed in 1876, First Nations people became the only Canadians
to be governed under special federal legislation. Although revised many times
over the years, many aspects of First Nations lives are still governed by this 19th
century legislation. From the beginning, it created a division between those whoare registered with the federal government as͆status Indians͇and others who
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has made recent efforts to͆decolonize͇this system and transfer powers to theindividual First Nations, no agreement has yet been reached on the future of the
Indian Act.

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After Confederation, small pockets of land known as͆Indian reserves͇were laidout across the country for the exclusive use of First Nations, although title andcontrol remained with the federal government. Agents appointed by the government
to administer the reserves sought to suppress traditional practices and integrateFirst Nations into Euro-Canadian ways of life. Missionaries, intent on converting
Indigenous people to Christianity, advocated similar programs of cultural change.
Together, the Canadian government and various Christian denominations
established the residential schools, which removed Indigenous children from theirfamilies and cultural roots to forcefully promote Christian, Euro-Canadian values
and practices. Residential schools, which persisted in many areas until relatively
recently, were a major factor in the loss of languages and culture. Only three
Indigenous languages in Canada are considered healthy today,(4) while all the rest
are endangered, with some nearing extinction. Persistent social problems in somecommunities, including family violence, alcohol and drug abuse, and high suicide
rates, are also part of the sad legacy of the residential schools.
Some First Nations reserves today are located near major urban centres orin other locations suitable for economic development. In such fortunate cases,
communities operate a wide range of businesses to provide a financial base andemployment opportunities. Many other reserves, however, particularly across thenorth, are isolated, lack road access, and provide few economic possibilities. These
are often characterized by poverty, poor housing, and lack of services. Althoughreserve populations continue to increase, many people have moved to the cities
to seek employment and a better standard of living. Today, almost half the First
Nations population lives off-reserve, most in urban centres. In some Canadian cities,
particularly in the prairie provinces of Saskatchewan and Manitoba, Indigenous
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agencies are set up primarily to deal directly with elected councils on the reserves,
tensions can exist with the urban segment of the population.
Following Confederation, Canada entered into a series of treaties with First
Nations. The need to open the land to new arrivals for agriculture and settlement
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surrender of Indigenous title to the land in return for reserves and other small
benefits. Although the federal government was largely concerned with removing
Indigenous claims to the land, First Nations saw these treaties as recognition of
their sovereign status and want that spirit of the treaties maintained. More recently,–4–

a series of agreements across Canada̓s north, beginning with the James Bay and
1RUWKHUQ4XHEHF$JUHHPHQWLQKDVEHHQÀQDOL]HGEHWZHHQ,QGLJHQRXVSHRSOHVand the Canadian government. Although they also include surrender of Indigenous
title to the land, these more modern treaties involve substantial compensation, alarge land base, and provisions for self-government in their territories. However,large areas of Canada, including most of the east and west coasts, remain without
any agreements between government and Indigenous peoples, ensuring continuinglegal and political battles.

First Nations in British Columbia

The First Nations of British Columbia, particularly along the west coast, share in
most of the historic developments that have affected Indigenous people across thecountry, yet are in many ways distinct. This is the area of greatest linguistic andpolitical diversity in Canada. Almost 200 separate First Nations live in the province,a third of the total for all of Canada (although they tend to be smaller than the
Canadian average).(5) About 32 Indigenous languages, in eight distinct language
families, were spoken, often only in very small areas.(6) A few individual languages,
such as Haida and Kutenai, have no known relatives. Many communities today aremaking concerted efforts to revitalize their languages, all of which are endangered,through educational programs. English, however, has become the dominant or
exclusive language on reserves throughout the province.
The west coast had the densest population of any region in Canada prior tothe historic epidemics. Large villages once stood in favoured locations all along
the coast and inland along the major salmon rivers. Large plank-covered houses
sheltered several related families and also included slaves owned by the housechief. Prominent monumental artworks, in northern villages including the famed
totem poles, displayed the crests owned by the house chief that identified his
family and its history. Household utensils, such as carved wooden feast dishes
and storage boxes, might also be embellished with animal images that were thecrests of the chief. Today many are proudly displayed in museums around theworld.
Along the beach in front of the houses were the large, sea-going canoes. These–5–elegant seaworthy craft, fashioned from the large cedar trees of the coastal
rainforest, were essential to a way of life based on the sea. They ranged from small
fishing canoes to large trading or voyaging vessels. Almost all travel was by sea
as people moved around their rugged homelands, or set out on lengthy voyages toattend feasts in distant villages or to raid their enemies.
Although the social structure differed considerably along the coast, these societies
were hierarchical, with hereditary chiefs holding power and coordinating village
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through ceremonies. Great quantities of goods were distributed to guests at events
generally known today as potlatches. Chiefs provided lavish feasts, ensuring theirguests received great quantities of food. High-ranking visitors, often from distantvillages, were presented with valuable gifts, but all in attendance shared in a
general distribution of payments for being witnesses to the host chief̓s wealth andhis claims to hereditary rights. A common feature of such public events involved
performances of masked dancers representing supernatural beings. This brought
the spiritual world into the human realm and enlivened the long dark winter days.
.HHSLQJWLPHZLWKWKHEHDWRIDSODQNGUXPVNLOOHGGDQFHUVVZLUOHGDURXQGWKHÀUHwith beaks clacking, whistles blowing, and the masks occasionally opening to reveal
an inner being, thus showing the supernatural presence through transformation.
The masks and regalia used in these dance performances are some of the finest
treasures of Indigenous art in Canada today.
These complex cultures and large populations were supported by a richabundance of resources from the land, rivers, and sea. Salmon, halibut, herring, andDZLGHUDQJHRIRWKHUÀVKZHUHWDNHQLQJUHDWQXPEHUV6HDOVDQGVHDOLRQVZHUH
hunted, with one group, the Nuu-chah-nulth, venturing out onto the open ocean inpursuit of whales. Clams, mussels, and various other intertidal foods were collected,
as were a wide range of berries, roots, and other plant foods. Large quantities weredried or otherwise preserved to last through the lean winter months. Enough food
had to be stored not to just survive through the winter but to be able to feast guests
on ceremonial occasions. Chiefs coordinated the economic activities, which involved
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berry patches were carefully tended to increase yields and ensure future supplies.
Contact with outsiders was much later on the west coast than in the east,
beginning only in the late 18th century. Particularly notable was the arrival of the
British expedition under Captain James Cook at Nootka Sound in 1778. In the–6–following decades, ships from several European nations and the newly established
United States of America converged on the coast, many in pursuit of a lucrative furtrade focused on the soft pelts of the sea otter. Chiefs eagerly participated in thistrade as there were significant gains for them as well. However, as elsewhere in
North America, new diseases brought by the outsiders swept through Indigenous
villages, killing large numbers. Over the next century, successive waves of epidemics
greatly reduced the coastal populations, with groups such as the Haida suffering
losses that may have reached 90 percent.(7) As settlers displaced Indigenous groups
from the most productive lands, government agents and missionaries launchedsuch programs of assimilation as the residential school system, removing children
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houses with their totem poles were discontinued in favour of Western-style single
family homes, with no indications of ranking or other social distinctions. In 1884,
potlatches were made illegal under the Indian Act, undermining the power of chiefs
and the traditional social system. This legal assault on Indigenous ceremonies
stayed in effect until the Indian Act was revised in 1951.
In recent decades, there has been a great resurgence of traditional dances andceremonies. Potlatches once again feature prominently in village social life along
the coast. Some communities have constructed traditional-style͆big houses͇to holdsuch events. Several villages have demanded return of the potlatch treasures that
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house and display them.(8) They have also negotiated with major outside museums
to repatriate important Indigenous items to the communities where they were
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in their own ceremonies and for sale to outside museums and collectors.
One aspect in which British Columbia differs from most of Canada is in the lackof historic treaties. Except for a few small colonial treaties on Vancouver Island anda broad federal treaty that extends into the northeast corner, much of the province
was never legally surrendered by Indigenous people. This has become a major
issue in recent decades, with some groups pursuing their claims through lengthy
and expensive legal cases. Most, however, are negotiating with the governments ofCanada and British Columbia though a treaty commission. The process is slow andonly a few final treaties have been achieved, although many others are ongoing.
The completed agreements vary considerably but involve withdrawal from theIndian Act and establishment of Indigenous self-governments, with responsibility–7–for education, health services, economic development, and social and cultural
programs within the First Nation. New centres of Indigenous government havebeen constructed in some communities. These final agreements also provide for)LUVW1DWLRQODQGVDQGÀQDQFLDOFRPSHQVDWLRQIRUODQGVORVWIURPWKHLUWUDGLWLRQDO
territory. They may also include the return of Indigenous heritage objects removed
from the communities in the past, both for on-reserve museums and for use inrevived ceremonial life.

Role of Non-Indigenous Academics

Although treaty negotiations and economic development are directed andcontrolled by First Nations councils, they may draw on the expertise of nonIndigenous specialists, including anthropologists and archaeologists. For example, I
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documents demonstrating traditional use of claimed lands for treaty negotiations.
But my most extensive experience has been in directing archaeological researchwith several Nuu-chah-nulth First Nations on western Vancouver Island. This has
been cooperative work, often involving First Nations funding, with the community
directly involved in all decision making. We have investigated a number of ancient,but no longer occupied, village sites, extending their history back in time as much
as 5,000 years. People from the communities, including groups of students, madeup part of the excavation teams. Each season an excursion was organized to allow
community members to see the results of research where their ancestors once lived.
There are a number of reasons why First Nations would support such projects.
Archaeology and Indigenous traditions are complementary approaches tounderstanding their past. Oral histories tell of culture heroes and great events
while archaeology adds details on everyday life and gives scientific evidence fortime depth. Archaeological information has proved useful in documenting past land
use for treaty negotiations and court cases. In preparation for self-government,
First Nations are interested in such information for educational programs and to
take over management of their heritage sites. One First Nation, with a recently
completed treaty, is looking for suitable economic development projects, including
cultural tourism, to support their new government. They are organizing tours into–8–

one of their heritage sites that still has standing wooden remains from the large
traditional houses. This site is too fragile for large-scale archaeological research so
we excavated at another village site nearby to provide information and objects forinterpretation programs and a future community museum.
A neighbouring First Nation, still in the treaty process, is seeking to reassert
themselves in their core territory, which is now part of a National Park. Indigenous
history had long been neglected in park interpretation programs, which focusedinstead on the natural beauty and wildlife, conveying the idea of͆wilderness͇
to park visitors. Rather than͆wilderness,͇to the Nuu-chah-nulth this is their
homeland and they want their story told, as well as to re-establish traditional useof the park area. We excavated at a large village that in their oral traditions wastheir creation place and the home of famous whaling ancestors. Deep archaeologicaldeposits showed thousands of years of Indigenous presence and abundant evidence
RIDQFLHQWZKDOLQJSUDFWLFHVVXSSRUWLQJDQGFRQÀUPLQJWKHRUDOKLVWRULHV)ROORZLQJour research, the park moved its campground to protect this location and a newly
FDUYHGSROHUHSUHVHQWLQJWKHÀUVWDQFHVWRUZKRFDPHLQWREHLQJWKHUHZDVHUHFWHG
to honour Nuu-chah-nulth heritage. The recent marriage of one of my colleagues
provided an opportunity for renewed Nuu-chah-nulth use of this important location,
allowing the masked dancers to once again emerge from the forest to the sound of
WKHGUXPVSHUKDSVIRUWKHÀUVWWLPHLQFHQWXULHV

Concluding Comments

Like other Indigenous peoples in Canada, the First Nations of the west coast
seek to assert greater control over their own economies and lands, establishing new
arrangements with Canada. Some are achieving self-government through treaties
or separate negotiations. They seek to re-establish traditional cultural practices
and to restore their endangered languages. Considerable progress has been made.
As a result of a British Columbia land claim case, courts now consider oral histories
presented by Indigenous knowledge keepers on an equal basis with testimony
from Western experts such as historians and anthropologists.(9) An annual canoe
festival draws large crowds from Indigenous communities along the British
Columbia and Washington coasts to celebrate and revitalize the traditional canoe–9–culture. First Nations councils regularly reach substantial economic agreementswith governments and industries regarding any impacts on their traditional lands.
Small and moderate-sized businesses run by Indigenous people are commonplace.
First Nations art permeates Canadian life. The Justice Minister in the federal
government is a First Nations woman from coastal British Columbia, while other
Indigenous people serve as elected members of both the Canadian and British
Columbian governments. Despite this, many remain frustrated with legal and
EXUHDXFUDWLFEDUULHUVWRVHOIVXIÀFLHQF\'HVSLWHPDMRUHFRQRPLFVXFFHVVHVIRUVRPH
communities, others, particularly in isolated locations, are still plagued with social
problems and poverty. Canada̓s commitment to reconciliation with First Nations
on its 150th birthday has had some success, but will remain a work in progress forsome time yet.
Notes
(1) The͆registered Indian͇SRSXODWLRQFRQVLVWLQJRIWKRVHRIÀFLDOO\HQUROOHGZLWKthe federal government, was 936,225 on December 31, 2014 (Indigenous andNorthern Affairs Canada, Statistics and Measurement Directorate (hereafter
cited as Statistics), Registered Indian Population by Sex and Residence 2014).
(2) See, for example, Alan D. McMillan and Eldon Yellowhorn, First Peoples in
Canada (Vancouver: Douglas and McIntyre, 2004), 5-9.
(3) There were 617͆ Indian bands ͇under the federal system in Canada as ofDecember 31, 2014 (Statistics, Registered Indian Population by Sex and Residence2014).
(4) The three Indigenous languages considered͆ healthy ͇are Inuktitut (thelanguage of the Inuit), Cree, and Ojibwa.
(5) British Columbia has 198͆Indian bands,͇although this number omits the Taku
River Tlingit in northern British Columbia, which is administered as a Yukon
First Nation (Statistics, Registered Indian Population by Sex and Residence2014).
(6) See, for example, Robert J. Muckle, The First Nations of British Columbia: An
Anthropological Overview (3rd edition) (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2014).
(7) Robert T. Boyd, The Coming of the Spirit of Pestilence: Introduced Infectious
Diseases and Population Decline among Northwest Coast Indians, 1774-1874(Vancouver: UBC Press, 1999), 264.
(8) Two examples are the Kwakwaka̓wakw communities of Alert Bay and Cape
Mudge. Ceremonial items confiscated following a large potlatch in 1921 werereturned by several major Canadian institutions after construction of museumsin the villages in 1979 and 1980. See Gloria Cranmer Webster,͆Kwakiutl Since
1980,͇in Wayne Suttles, ed., Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 7:
Northwest Coast (Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1990), 387-390.

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(9) Delgamuukw v. British Columbia, Supreme Court of Canada, 1997.

(Simon Fraser University)– 11 –