Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission
technical series

89

Ship-based Repeat
Hydrography: A Strategy
for a Sustained Global
Programme

IOCCP Report No. 17
ICPO Publication No. 142

UNESCO

Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission
technical series

89
Ship-based Repeat
Hydrography: A Strategy
for a Sustained Global
Programme
A Community White Paper developed by
the Global Ocean Ship-based Repeat
Hydrographic Investigations Panel for the
OceanObs ’09 Conference, Venice, Italy,
21–25 September 2009

UNESCO 2009

The designations employed and the presentationof the material in this publication do not imply theexpression of any opinion whatsoever on the partof the Secretariats of UNESCO and IOC
concerning the legal status of any country or
territory, or its authorities, or concerning thedelimitation of the frontiers of any country or
territory.

For bibliographic purposes, this document should be cited as follows:
Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO and the International CLIVAR Project
Office. Hood, M. (ed.), Ship-based Repeat Hydrography: A Strategy for a Sustained Global
Programme. (IOC Technical Series, 89. IOCCP Reports, 17. ICPO Publication 142.)
UNESCO, 2009. (English)© UNESCO 2009
Electronic only
(IOC/2009/TS/89)

Ship-based Repeat Hydrography

IOC Technical Series No.89
Page (i)Table of Contents
page
Executive Summary ................................................................................................................................. (iii)
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................. (iv)
1.

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1

2.

Scientific Objectives and Rationale ................................................................................................. 3

3.

4.

2.1

Understanding the controls and distribution of naturaland anthropogenic carbon and biogeochemistry in the ocean interior ................................ 4

2.2

Understanding ocean changes below 2 km and their contributions
to global heat and sea-level budgets ................................................................................. 10

2.3

Understanding the variability in water masses, ventilation, and pathways ........................ 11

2.4

Quantifying transports ....................................................................................................... 13

2.5

Evaluating ocean models .................................................................................................. 15

2.6

Providing a platform for testing new shipboard sensors and providing
an opportunity to deploy and evaluate other platforms...................................................... 17

2.7

Underway measurements ................................................................................................. 17

Strategy ......................................................................................................................................... 19
3.1

Temporal and spatial sampling ....................................................................................... 19

3.2Core variables ................................................................................................................. 20

3.3

Sustained repeat lines .................................................................................................... 22

3.4

Quality assurance practices ............................................................................................ 23

Data Management, Sharing, and Product Development .............................................................. 24
4.1

Data sharing and release policy ........................................................................................ 24

4.2

Data assembly and archive centers .................................................................................. 24

4.3

Data products and joint synthesis activities ....................................................................... 27

4.4

Development of an international communication and coordination forum ......................... 28

References ............................................................................................................................................... 30

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IOC Technical Series No. 89
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Executive Summary
Ship-based hydrography is the only method for obtaining high-quality measurements with high spatial
and vertical resolution of a suite of physical, chemical, and biological parameters over the full ocean
water column, and in areas of the ocean inaccessible to other platforms. Global hydrographic surveys
have been carried out approximately every decade since the 1970s through research programs such as
GEOSECS, TTO/SAVE, WOCE / JGOFS, and CLIVAR. It is time to consider how future surveys canbuild on these foundations to create a coordinated network of sustained ship-based hydrographic
sections that will become an integral component of the ocean observing system.
This white paper provides scientific justification and guidelines for the development of a regular andcoordinated global survey. Two types of surveys are required to meet scientific objectives: (1) a global
decadal survey conducted such that each full ocean basin is observed over an approximately synoptic
time-period (< 3 years), and (2) a sub-set of the decadal survey lines sampled at high-frequency (repeats
every 2-3 years). Given the end date of the present sampling programs, a coordinated global survey
should begin before 2012 to maintain continuity.
While it is essential to maintain a repeat hydrography program firmly linked to national, regional andinternational research programs, some elements of coordination and implementation could benefit from amore pro-active oversight structure. These include the development of a sustained international
coordination body for an interdisciplinary repeat hydrography program that is independent of any single
time-limited research program (for example, following the model of Argo or OceanSITES); and a single,
international information and communications forum to facilitate field program planning, to set
experimental standards and methods, and to underpin data sharing / synthesis activities, includinginternational data management activities.
Thirteen countries currently participate in the global repeat hydrographic program. The cost of repeat
hydrographic sections currently implemented is estimated to be approximately US $10 Million dollars per
year. New resources will be required for maintenance of lines, upgrading of the data assembly center
network, joint synthesis activities, and international coordination activities.

IOC Technical Series No. 89
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Ship-based Repeat Hydrography

Acknowledgments
This document was developed by the Global Ocean Ship-based Hydrographic Investigations Panel (GOSHIP) as a community white paper for the OceanObs ’09 Conference, Venice, Italy, 21-25 September
2009. The short version was published as part of the OceanObs ’09 Proceedings. This document
presents the strategy in its entirety. GO-SHIP is co-sponsored by the IOC-SCOR International Ocean
Carbon Coordination Project (IOCCP) and the WCRP Climate Variability and Predictability Program(CLIVAR), in collaboration with Argo, OceanSITES, IMBER, and SOLAS. GO-SHIP Panel members
who co-authored this document are: Masao Fukasawa (Japan), Nicolas Gruber (Switzerland), Maria
Hood (France), Gregory C. Johnson (USA), Arne Körtzinger (Germany), Christopher Sabine (USA),
Bernadette Sloyan (Australia), Kate Stansfield (UK), and Toste Tanhua (Germany). Maria Hood, GOSHIP project coordinator, served as corresponding author and editor.
As a community white paper, this document benefited from the input of numerous contributing authors
without whom this work would not be complete. Contributors include: Michio Aoyama (Japan), Molly
Baringer (USA), John Bullister (USA), Patrick Caldwell (USA), Craig Carlson (USA), Howard Cattle (UK),
Teresa Chereskin (USA), Stuart Cunningham (UK), Scott Doney (USA), Richard Feely (USA), Rana Fine
(USA), Eric Firing (USA), John Gould (UK), Dennis Hansell (USA), David Hydes (UK), William Jenkins(USA), Terry Joyce (USA), Ikuo Kaneko (Japan), Alex Kozyr (USA), William Landing (USA), Pascale
Lherminier (France), Trevor McDougall (Australia), Alison Macdonald (USA), Chris Measures (USA),
Akihiko Murata (Japan), Are Olsen (Norway), Fiz Perez (Spain), Benjamin Pfeil (Norway), Paul Quay
(USA), Keith Rodgers (USA), Shawn Smith (USA), Reiner Steinfeldt (Germany), Venetia Stuart(Canada), Jim Swift (USA), Andreas Thurnherr (USA), Bronte Tilbrook (Australia), Rik Wanninkhof(USA), Robert Weller (USA), and James Yoder (USA).
The Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research (SCOR) and IOC would like to acknowledge major
financial support from the U.S. National Science Foundation provided for the International Ocean Carbon
Coordination Project through a grant to UNESCO-IOC (OCE-0715161) and a grant to the SCOR (OCE0608600) for the IOCCP.

Ship-based Repeat Hydrography

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1. Introduction
Despite numerous technological advances over the last several decades, ship-based hydrography
remains the only method for obtaining high-quality, high spatial and vertical resolution measurements ofa suite of physical, chemical, and biological parameters over the full water column.
Ship-based hydrography is essential for documenting ocean changes throughout the water column,
especially for the deep ocean below 2 km (52% of global ocean volume not sampled by profiling floats).
Hydrographic measurements are needed to
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reduce uncertainties in global freshwater, heat, and sea-level budgets,
determine the distributions and controls of natural and anthropogenic carbon (both organic andinorganic),
determine ocean ventilation and circulation pathways and rates using chemical tracers,
determine the variability and controls in water mass properties and ventilation,
determine the significance of a wide range of biogeochemically and ecologically important
properties in the ocean interior, andaugment the historical database of full water column observations necessary for the study of longtimescale changes.

These results will be critical for evaluating ocean models and providing data constraints for state
estimation, assimilation and inverse models. In addition, ship-based hydrographic measurements
provide a standard for validating new autonomous sensors and a reference/calibration dataset for otherobserving system elements (in particular Argo profiling floats, expendable bathythermographs andgliders). Hydrography cruises also provide cost-effective access to remote ocean areas for the
deployment of these instruments.
The first attempt at a global hydrographic survey took place during the International Geophysical Year
(1957-1958), but only in the Atlantic was a systematic high-quality survey conducted (King et al., 2001).
The Geochemical Ocean Sections Study (GEOSECS) did provide hydrographic surveys in all threemajor ocean basins (Atlantic 1972-73, Pacific 1973-74, and Indian 1977-78), but focused on thechemistry and did not provide high-resolution land-to-land transects. It was not until the decade of the
1990s that the World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE) conducted an extensive survey ofhydrographic properties and circulation in the global ocean in an effort to develop a global picture ofocean transport that was as synoptic as possible. In collaboration with the WOCE global survey, theJoint Global Ocean Flux Study (JGOFS) ensured that carbon measurements were made on a majority of
the cruises. The WOCE/JGOFS effort led to numerous scientific advances in understanding the physicaland biogeochemical state of the global ocean, including
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computation of a globally consistent picture of meridional heat, freshwater, oxygen and nutrienttransport (Ganachaud 2003a; Ganachaud and Wunsch, 2002, 2003) with associated estimates ofdivergence and air-sea exchange, and a comprehensive analysis of the errors involved (Ganachaud,
2003b),
quantification of the temporal variations of oxygen from biology, ventilation, and circulation (Deutsch
et al., 2005; Deutsch et al., 2006),
characterization from the spatial patterns of alkalinity of the production and dissolution of calcium
carbonate (Sarmiento et al., 2002) and the impact of anthropogenic CO2 on ocean acidification(Feely et al., 2004; Orr et al., 2005)
determination of the global-scale inventory of anthropogenic CO2 in the ocean (Sabine et al., 2004),
which is providing unprecedented constraints on the global re-distribution of anthropogenic CO2 (seee.g.IPCC, 2007),IOC Technical Series No. 89
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Ship-based Repeat Hydrography

development of constraints on ocean centennial and decadal time-scale ventilation from natural andbomb-radiocarbon (Matsumoto et al., 2004), and documentation of ventilation pathways returning
deep-water to the upper ocean using 3He (Dutay et al., 2004),
estimation of oceanic denitrification and nitrogen fixation rates (Gruber and Sarmiento, 1997; Howell
et al., 1997; Deutsch et al., 2001),
construction of the first large-scale data set of full-depth diapycnal diffusivities covering all major
ocean basins (Kunze et al., 2006),
development and application of inverse methods that estimate the exchange fluxes of natural andanthropogenic carbon between the atmosphere and the ocean (Mikaloff-Fletcher et al., 2006, 2007),
development of assimilating basin and global-scale models bringing insight to our understanding of
3-dimensional time-varying ocean circulation and its impact on property budgets and their variability(Mazloff 2008; Douglass et al., 2008; Baehr et al., 2008; Wunsch and Heimbach, 2006; Stammer etal., 2002),
determination of regional (e. g. Orsi et al. 1999) and global-scale oceanic inventories (e. g. Willey etal., 2004) and distribution of CFCs, which has provided a means to determine water-mass formation
rates and the oceanic uptake of anthropogenic CO2 (e.g. McNeil et al., 2003; Waugh et al., 2006),
andthe first accurate estimates of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in the ocean and its transport (Hansell
and Carlson, 2001; Hansell et al., 2004).

While WOCE and JGOFS were successful in answering many first-order questions about large-scaleocean circulation and carbon inventories, their results also raised many new questions concerning ocean
variability, controls on carbon and tracer inventories and distributions and long-term secular trends
associated with climate change, oceanic CO2 uptake and ocean acidification. These programs confirmedthat the ocean exhibits significant interannual variability on top of the expected smooth decadal trend as
part of patterns of global change, complicating efforts to detect and attribute human influences on theocean. WOCE and JGOFS, along with many other studies conducted over the last two decades,suggests that the effect of climate forcing on the ocean may be substantial, but is poorly understood, andthat the next generation of hydrographic surveys would need to be designed to examine the drivers andimpacts of this variability, in concert with modelling and assimilation activities.
An international conference entitled “The Ocean Observing System for Climate” (or OceanObs’99) set
the initial scientific and implementation framework for post-WOCE hydrography (see, e.g., Fine et al.,1999). Recognizing the need to focus research on climate variability as well as on the documentation oftrends from anthropogenic forcing, it was decided to incorporate a program of repeat hydrography in the
15-year international Climate Variability and Predictability Study (CLIVAR). This first global repeat
survey of a select subset of WOCE hydrographic sections is scheduled to be completed in 2012 and thefield program is presently 75% completed.
Preliminary results show significant changes in water mass distributions and biogeochemical properties
over the last decade, influenced by both secular changes (e.g., anthropogenic CO2 invasion) and natural
climate mode variability such as the North Atlantic Oscillation, the Pacific Decadal Oscillation and theSouthern Annular Mode. Some recent research highlights on interannual variability include
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documentation of substantial changes in the oceanic inorganic carbon content, driven by both theuptake of anthropogenic CO2 and natural variability
evidence of large-scale changes in oceanic oxygen concentrations
near global-scale warming of abyssal waters of Antarctic origin, and freshening of these waters indeep basins adjacent to Antarctica
freshening of the Atlantic waters
equatorward penetration of CFCs from high-latitude sources filling the deep and abyssal basins
on time scales of decades, allowing estimates of water mass formation rates, andShip-based Repeat Hydrography•

IOC Technical Series No.89
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evidence of reduction in downstream primary productivity brought on by strong convection andmode water formation.

These results illustrate the importance of repeated global surveys for interpreting and attributing changes
to physical and dynamical mechanisms operating on a variety of time scales. As this CLIVAR
hydrography program comes to an end, it is clear that the global repeat survey approach is very effectiveat quantifying variability and trends of a large suite of physical and biogeochemical parameters.
Integration of ship-based repeat hydrography with other observing system elements, such as the Argo
profiling float program, Ship of Opportunity Program, Volunteer Observing Ship Program, time-series
stations and satellite remote sensing that provide complementary scales of information, is required forthe accurate monitoring of ocean change and variability. A comprehensive ocean observing system, in
conjunction with synthesis and numerical models, is vital to understand the drivers of global climatechange and variability
It is time to consider how future global ship-based hydrography can build on the foundations establishedby the global surveys of GEOSECS, WOCE, JGOFS, and CLIVAR. The IOCCP and CLIVAR, in
collaboration with the Integrated Marine Biogeochemistry and Ecosystem Research Project (IMBER) andthe Surface Ocean-Lower Atmosphere Study (SOLAS), developed the Global Ocean Ship-based
Hydrographic Investigations Panel (GO-SHIP) to bring together interests from physical hydrography,
carbon, biogeochemistry, Argo, OceanSITES, and other users and collectors of survey data. The Panelis tasked to develop guidelines and a general strategy for the development of a globally coordinatednetwork of sustained ship-based hydrographic sections that will become an integral component of theocean observing system.
While it is essential to maintain a repeat hydrography program firmly linked to national, regional andglobal research programs, some elements of coordination and implementation could benefit from a moreproactive oversight structure, including the development of•••a sustained international coordination body and scientific steering committee for
integrated/interdisciplinary repeat hydrography that is independent of any specific time-limited
research program (for example, following the model of Argo or OceanSITES)a single, international information and communications forum to facilitate field program planning,
agreements on standards and methods, and data sharing/synthesis activities, andcoordinated international data management and data synthesis activities.

The following sections outline the scientific objectives and rationale for a repeat ship-based hydrographic
program (Section 2), the temporal and spatial sampling strategy to achieve those objectives (Section 3),
and the recommended data management, data sharing and product development (Section 4).

2. Scientific Objectives and Rationale
The principal scientific objectives for a sustained repeat ship-based hydrography program have two
closely linked components: (1) understanding and documenting the large-scale ocean water property
distributions, their changes, and drivers of those changes, and (2) addressing questions of a future
ocean that will increase in dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC), become more acidic and more stratified,and experience changes in circulation and ventilation processes due to global warming, altered water
cycle and sea-ice. An observation program must be designed in light of these expected changes (andpotential surprises) and the way in which they will interact with natural ocean variability.

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2.1

Ship-based Repeat Hydrography

Understanding the controls and distribution of naturaland anthropogenic carbon and biogeochemistry in the ocean interior

Inorganic carbon and anthropogenic carbon
Recent results from the repeat hydrography cruises show that anthropogenic CO2 is continuing toaccumulate in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans (e.g. Tanhua et al., 2006, 2007; Sabine et al.,2008; Murata et al., 2007, 2008). Thus far the anthropogenic CO2 accumulations generally agree withthe estimated long-term storage patterns of Sabine et al. (2004) with the largest inventories associatedwith regions where water masses are being formed and moving into the ocean interior. However, therepeat hydrography sections completed so far have shown that there are important regional differencesin total carbon storage and the global repeat survey is not yet finished. Results in both the Pacific andAtlantic oceans have shown that circulation changes can have a significant impact on the net totalchange in carbon inventory on decadal time scales. In some cases these changes may enhance theregional storage of carbon and in other cases they may decrease the uptake resulting from risingatmospheric CO2. In the Northwestern Atlantic, the reduction of deep water formation led to a decreaseof the inventory of anthropogenic carbon by 9% over the period from 1997 to 2003 (Steinfeldt et al.,2009). Using measured changes in the 13C/12C of DIC in the North Atlantic between 1993 and 2003,
Quay et al. (2007) estimated that about half of the anthropogenic CO2 accumulation in the North Atlantic
was the result of northward advection of surface waters. The effect of varying circulation on the total DIC
change is estimated to be greater than 10 µmol kg–1 in the North Pacific, accounting for as much as 80%of the total DIC change in that region (Sabine et al., 2008).
It is not clear from repeat hydrography measurements alone whether these dynamic variations reflect
processes acting on seasonal, interannual, or decadal time scales (Doney et al., 2009a). The potential
importance of relatively high-frequency dynamic variations is in full evidence in the tropical Indian Ocean,
where seasonal variations in the thermocline circulation can drive changes in the natural carbon
inventories of 10 moles C m-2 over 6 months (Rodgers et al., 2009). As additional cruises are completed
the full picture of the decadal storage will be developed.
Emerging issues and implications for sampling: Improved understanding of the decadal scale variations
in CO2 accumulation requires continuation of global decadal repeat- hydrography, and additionally,frequent repeats in active areas, such as the North Atlantic, Southern and North Pacific oceans, with
sub-annual sampling in some regions to better distinguish between anthropogenic and natural CO2variability (Levine et al., 2008; Perez et al., 2008). Because circulation and biological changes can vary
in response to local or regional climate forcing on time scales that are not yet fully understood, it iscritical to continue to monitor the changes in carbon inventories and how they interact with the long-term
increases in anthropogenic CO2 and climate. Monitoring this variability and attributing changes to drivers
requires a simultaneous suite of observations of physical parameters, nutrients, O2, carbon, multiple
tracers, and isotopes. If we are to understand the migration of anthropogenic CO2 from the atmosphere
into the ocean, radiocarbon and other tracers such as 13C, tritium - 3He, and CFCs are criticalmeasurements and should be core variables of the next decade of hydrography (see also Section 2.3 fora discussion of tracers).
Of all the transient tracers commonly used for oceanographic investigation, radiocarbon has the longest
measurement history, dating back to the late 1940s. Data from the 1940s and 1950s are not as accurate
as modern measurements; however, they are adequate for many applications. Since GEOSECS in the
1970s radiocarbon has routinely been measured to 4o/oo or better. During the 1960s the natural or
background ocean (and atmosphere) radiocarbon concentrations were strongly influenced byatmospheric testing of nuclear weapons. Due mostly to ocean uptake, the atmospheric radiocarbon
concentration history resembles an extremely strong spike with an exponentially decaying tail which hasleveled off in recent years as it nears background levels. In the years since the 1970s, by re-measuring
the thermocline radiocarbon distribution, we have been able to document the spike movement throughShip-based Repeat Hydrography

IOC Technical Series No. 89
Page 5those waters. Since the bomb spike was so large, following the changes in the thermocline are easy andunambiguous with modern analysis methods.
Figure 1 below shows three approximately decadal "change sections" for P16 in the eastern Pacific. In
addition to thermocline ventilation issues, the natural radiocarbon distribution in the deep andintermediate waters has been and continues to be one of the more valuable measurements for thedetermination of ventilation rates in deep and abyssal waters. Integration of the oceanic bombcomponent (Key et al., 2004, Peacock, 2004), using the relatively complete WOCE data provided themost accurate estimates of global air-sea gas exchange rates for CO2 (Sweeney et al., 2007).

Figure 1. ∆14C change in o/oo over three hydrographic programs spanning approximately 3 decades on line P16 in the eastern
Pacific. Change is calculated as a simple difference, with red indicating an increase and blue a decrease. Pre-bomb values
were estimated using the potential alkalinity method of Rubin and Key (2002). Anything larger than 6 o/oo is significant. (Robert
Key, Princeton University, unpublished data.)

The 13C/12C of DIC is also a well-used tracer of the ocean’s carbon cycle in both the modern and paleoocean. One important application with climatic importance is the use of 13C/12C to track the accumulationof anthropogenic CO2 in the ocean (e.g., Quay et al., 2003). This application is based on the observationthat the 13C/12C of CO2 produced by fossil fuel combustion is substantially lower (by ~20 o/oo) than the
13
C/12C of atmospheric CO2. As a result, when anthropogenic CO2 is absorbed by the ocean, the 13C/12C
of the ocean DIC decreases. Therefore, by measuring the rate of the 13C/12C decrease, one can estimate
the rate of anthropogenic CO2 build-up in the ocean. One advantage of using 13C/12C to track the buildup of anthropogenic CO2 in the ocean is its higher signal-to- noise ratio than for the DIC change itself.
Continued measurements of the decadal change in the 13C/12C of DIC in the ocean will provide estimatesof oceanic CO2 uptake rates that complement rates estimated from measuring the ocean DIC change.

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Dissolved organic carbon and export flux
The ocean pool of dissolved organic matter contains 662 Pg carbon (Hansell et al., submitted), an
inventory similar in magnitude to that of CO2 in the atmosphere. Small perturbations in the source/sinkmechanisms of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) could impact the exchange of carbon between theocean and atmosphere. Prior to the DOC surveys conducted as part of the CLIVAR Repeat
Hydrography program, our knowledge of DOC biogeochemistry on the global scale was limited to a few
high-precision measurements scattered widely across ocean basins (Hansell and Carlson, 1998;
Hansell, 2002). The recent surveys have resulted in unprecedented resolution and insights on the
distribution and dynamics of DOC. Highly resolved DOC concentration gradients in the deep ocean
trace the flow of the thermohaline circulation, allowing characterization of the deep water masses by their
DOC signatures. DOC removal rates in the deep ocean are very slow (Carlson et al., in press), as
evidenced by removal in the Pacific at a few nmol kg-1 y-1 (Hansell et al., submitted). This low rate ofremoval is thought to be due to the low bioavailability of the residual dissolved organic matter, but it now
appears that the low deep ocean temperatures serve to restrict biological mineralization of DOC as well
(Carlson et al., in press). An eventual warming of the deep sea may result in accelerated removal of themost biologically recalcitrant DOC.
Emerging Issues and implications for sampling: DOC export represents a significant component of thebiological pump in regions that undergo deep convective mixing (Copin-Montégut and Avril, 1993,
Carlson et al., 1994) or ventilation of intermediate waters (Hansell et al. 2002). DOC undergoes net
export to depths greater than 100 m at approx. 1.8 Pg C yr-1, or 20% of global export production fromsinking particles (Hansell, 2002). Of particular interest is how a change in ocean stratification will affectthe role of DOC in the biological pump. Will DOC export become more or less important relative toparticulate organic carbon (POC) export as ocean stratification changes? Will changes in ocean
stratification affect the inventory of carbon sequestered in the dissolved organic phase and what will be
the direction and magnitude of such a change? With the first-ever global ocean survey of DOC in
progress, the community is poised to examine decadal variability of the dissolved organic as well as the
inorganic carbon pools within the oceanic water column. The key questions described above can only
truly be addressed with continued repeat hydrographic sections.
Ocean acidification
Ocean acidification is another impact of increasing CO2 in the atmosphere, and is also a topic for which
global surveys are urgently needed. CO2 is a weak acid, and reacts with seawater to form carbonic acid
(H2CO3) when it dissolves in the ocean. H2CO3 dissociates to form a hydrogen ion (H+) and a bicarbonate ion (HCO3-). Some H+ ions react with carbonate ions (CO32-) to produce more HCO3- ions.
From this series of reactions, CO2 uptake by the ocean causes increases in H+ (decreases in pH) anddecreases in CO32-. These changes impact a large range of biogeochemical and ecological processes in
the ocean (Doney et al., 2009b). One of the impacts is a decrease of saturation state of calcium
carbonate (CaCO3), which is unfavorable for CaCO3-secreting species. Decreases of the saturation state
are already reported in open ocean (Feely et al., 2002; Sabine et al., 2002; Sarma et al., 2002).
Emerging issues and implications for sampling: Spatial and temporal variability of the calcium carbonate
saturation state is related not only to CO2 storage in the ocean interior, but also to ocean circulation,
temperature and biology (Feely et al., 2004). Thus basin-scale coverage by repeat hydrography and theocean carbon observing network for ocean acidification will provide the required information to determine
the chemical changes that are occurring in the oceans and to model their ecological impacts (e.g., see
OceanObs09 Community White Paper by Feely et al.).
Nutrients
Nutrient observations, important in their own right because of their relation to biogeochemical cycles, canbe used as a vital component of circulation estimation (Robbins and Toole, 1997), and are also used insome anthropogenic carbon derivations as well as multi-parameter regressions of less well sampledproperties (e.g. Holfort et al., 1998; Gruber et al., 1996).

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IOC Technical Series No. 89
Page 7In the North Pacific Ocean along 24˚N, slight increases in silicate concentration were observed aroundthe density of the central mode water where apparent oxygen utilization increased by up to 6 µmol kg-1
from 1985 to 2005 (Kouketsu et al., 2009). In the entire Pacific Ocean, the rate of change in silicate
concentration has varied by ± 0.4 µmol kg-1 y-1 from the 1990s to 2000s based on a analysis of 7
WOCE/CLIVAR cruises within the areas of LCDW pathway (Aoyama et al., 2009) which is consistent
with recently reported warming of a few mK in the deep waters in the North Pacific Ocean (Fukasawa etal., 2004; Kawano et al., 2006). It is clear from intercomparison exercises between laboratories (e.g.
Aoyama et al., 2009) that there are large biases in reported nutrient values. This is also confirmed incomparisons of deep water samples between oceanographic cruises, where large biases in the reported
values are found (e.g. Johnson et al., 2001; Gouretski and Jancke, 2001). The size of the biases innutrient concentration are of the same magnitude as, or often significantly larger than, temporal changes
in concentrations or ratios between nutrients, making the detection of trends extremely difficult. For
instance, Pahlow and Riebesell (2000) found increasing N:P ratios in the North Atlantic possibly
indicating shifts in the Redfield ratios, a result that might be compromised by systematic biases in the
nutrient data (Zhang et al., 2000).
Emerging issues and implications for sampling: The comparability and traceability of nutrient data in the
global oceans are fundamental issues in marine science, and particularly for studies of global change.
However, as pointed out in the IPCC 4th Assessment Report, large regional changes in nutrient ratios
have been observed with no consistent patterns, which may be the result of systematic analytical offsets
over time or between laboratories for deep ocean nutrient observations. Nutrient values tend to be highin old waters, where the anthropogenic carbon signal is small. Therefore, even a relatively small bias innutrient data can bias the estimated anthropogenic carbon significantly in a region where theanthropogenic carbon concentration is normally low. Even if the absolute difference in anthropogenic
carbon is small, there is a large volume of low anthropogenic carbon/high nutrient waters in the world
oceans. Thus, biased nutrient data will make a noticeable difference to the carbon inventory calculations
obtained from methods that rely on nutrient data. The international community is working to develop
certified reference materials and protocols for high-quality nutrient measurements. This effort is essential
for resolving discrepancies in open ocean nutrient changes as well as reducing the uncertainty inestimates of anthropogenic CO2 uptake. For any future hydrographic survey, the use of nutrient
reference materials should be mandatory, even if the standards are not yet perfect. Both the Global
Ocean Data Analysis Project (GLODAP) and the Carbon in the Atlantic Program (CARINA) have madethis point clear.
OxygenAs a consequence of increased stratification due to global warming and changes in ocean biology due towarming, increased CO2 concentration and decreased pH, climate and biogeochemical models predict a
decline in oceanic oxygen concentrations (e.g. Bopp et al., 2002; Oeschlies et al., 2008). These changes
have important direct implications for biology, and trigger feedback mechanisms on nutrient (nitrate) andcarbon cycling, such as increased extent of oxygen minimum zones, increased de-nitrification, andpossibly reduced export production in the photic zone. However, a series of complex feedback loops areat work, including changes in circulation and nitrogen fixation. Oxygen changes observed from repeat
hydrography have shown the extent of variability in upper ocean biogeochemistry, including decreases inocean oxygen content associated with mode and intermediate waters in the mid and high latitudes of the
Pacific (Emerson et al. 2004, Sabine et al 2008); North Atlantic (Johnson and Gruber, 2007, Garcia etal., 1998), and South Indian oceans (Bindoff and McDougal, 2000); and even lower concentrations ofoxygen in, and larger extent of, oxygen minimum zones (Stramma et al., 2008). However, decadal
sampling does not provide sufficient information about the full temporal and spatial scope of oxygenchanges and their drivers. Addition of O2 sensors on Argo floats is being tested to address this problem.
Changes in the ocean oxygen inventory will also affect estimates of the land-ocean anthropogenic CO2
partitioning that are based on observations of relative changes of the O2 and CO2 concentrations in theatmosphere (Keeling and Garcia, 2002).

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Emerging issues and implications for sampling: Even though the upper ocean oxygen content can, in
principle, be monitored by Argo floats equipped with oxygen sensors, potential drift and bias of thesesensors should be monitored by comparison with ship based observations. Further, the only currently
available method for monitoring changes in oxygen over large areas of the deep ocean is via ship-based
repeat hydrography with high-quality oxygen measurements. Careful monitoring of changes in oxygen
concentrations will allow for evaluation of oxygen sensitive tipping points, with possible wide-spreadconsequences for fisheries and ecosystems.
Pigments and bio-optical measurements
Bio-optical data obtained through repeat hydrography can provide information on the distribution ofvarious phytoplankton types on a global scale. Such information is essential to evaluate how different
phytoplankton types respond to a change in climate, or to changes in the environment, such as ocean
acidification. The information would also be useful in models designed to study associated impacts onelemental cycles. Satellite ocean-colour data provide a wealth of information on phytoplankton
concentrations and distributions, but globally distributed data for ground-truth are essential tocomplement this information. The data from repeat hydrography can be used to test and calibrate
satellite ocean-colour measurements from different sensors, and the development and improvement ofregional algorithms for satellite-derived estimates of phytoplankton biomass and primary production.
Ocean-colour data is also used to estimate particulate organic carbon, particulate inorganic carbon, andchlorophyll-a concentration, which are linked to carbon cycling, both in the ocean interior and between
the surface ocean and atmosphere.
To quantify the underwater light environment and to obtain better estimates of phytoplankton standing
stocks and production (and thus carbon flux), it is desirable to measure a comprehensive suite of biooptical parameters, including pigment concentrations, on future hydrographic cruises. The 2003
JAMSTEC Blue EArth Global Expedition (BEAGLE) circumpolar cruise in the Southern Hemisphererevealed unexpected features in the distribution of Prochlorococcus ecotypes. Repeat hydrography is an
essential platform for these observations because global repeat coverage is required to understand theglobal distribution patterns of phytoplankton species and their variations with time. Many areas of the
global ocean are completely unsampled; where measurements do exist, there are not many seasonal
comparisons.
Emerging issues and implications for sampling: Ideally, POC, phytoplankton pigments and absorption,and number and size of phytoplankton and other microbial cells by flow cytometry should be measured
at all sampling stations as a vertical profile down to the 1% light level. Photosynthetic available radiation(PAR) measurements should be included on rosette systems with Niskin-type sampler bottles coupledwith a conductivity-temperature-depth sensor package (i.e, CTD/rosette) where practicable, andirradiance should be measured at specific wavelengths. Fluorometers are currently pressure-rated down
to 6,000 m; however, technological advances are required to develop other sensors (e.g. PAR sensors)that are pressure-rated for deep casts. Repeating the hydrographic cruises in different seasons would
also be highly desirable.
Trace elements and isotopes
The limited availability of the micronutrient iron (Fe) in the upper waters of the ocean is a key control on
biological production in several remote high nutrient - low chlorophyll (HNLC) ocean regions, due to thelimited supply of Fe-containing atmospheric dust to the surface waters in these regions. Thus,
successful models of the biological pump need to accurately reproduce the distribution of dissolved Fe insurface waters and its supply to the open ocean from the partial dissolution of continental mineral dust.
The importance of the transport and partial dissolution of continental mineral dust as a major source ofdissolved iron to surface waters is now well established (see review by Jickells et al., 2005). The
importance of understanding and quantifying this process is underscored by the coincidence of HNLC
regions of the ocean with regions that are believed to receive extremely low amounts of aerosol
deposition. The importance of understanding atmospheric dust fluxes is further strengthened by the large

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Page 9increases in the transport of aeolian material recorded in sediments and ice cores during glacial maxima(De Angelis et al., 1987; Kumar et al., 1995; Laj et al., 1997). The presumed enhanced flux of Fe tosurface waters during these periods and the consequent effect on surface productivity provide a potential
link between orbitally induced climatic variations and the lower atmospheric CO2 levels observed during
these periods. Recent work has suggested that human-produced aerosols exhibit higher fractional Fe
solubility than mineral dust, and that this component of the atmospheric aerosol load is sure to increase
with global population growth (Sedwick et al., 2007).
Until recently, the time-intensive sampling methodology required to obtain water samples for traceelement determinations free of contamination artifacts had precluded the inclusion of this kind ofsampling as part of large-scale hydrography programs. Development of a trace element-clean samplingrosette system for the CLIVAR repeat hydrography program (Measures et al., 2008a) has allowed aparallel sampling program to be conducted over the last 6 years in the upper 1,000m as part of the
CLIVAR program. High-resolution sampling along the CLIVAR hydrography cruise tracks is providing afirst-order data set of the availability of the micronutrient Fe and the aerosol deposition tracer, Aluminum,
which will be used as ground-truth for these models. Initial results indicate that high-resolution samplingis identifying previously unrecognized regions of preferential atmospheric deposition as well as a close
connection between the deposition patterns and Fe availability (Measures et al., 2008b).
Methods for shipboard collection of aerosol and rainfall samples are now well established (Baker et al.,2006a,b; Buck et al., 2006). These samples can be analyzed for soluble and residual Fe and a large
suite of biogeochemically important trace elements and isotopes. These data can then be used toconstrain and calibrate dust transport and deposition models, in particular for trace elements andisotopes such as dissolved Al and Manganese (Mn), which both serve as tracers of atmosphericdeposition, and for dissolved Fe, which has significant implications for biological productivity and carbon
fluxes from the photic zone. The aerosol and rainfall sampling systems are deployed forward of thebridge on all ships, and do not interfere with the normal hydrographic operations. They typically require
one person to operate the equipment and collect and process the samples that are collected on a daily(24-hour) basis.
Emerging issues and implications for sampling: The demonstration of the feasibility of these sampling
approaches and results they have obtained have been instrumental in developing a new geochemicallydriven sampling program GEOTRACES. This multi-PI, international program aims to build a frameworkof understanding about the distribution of a large number of important trace elements and isotopes (TEI)
that can be used to identify sources and quantify fluxes of these materials throughout the ocean. The
GEOTRACES program seeks this information throughout the water column and utilizes the interpretative
power of multiple TEIs to constrain our understanding of contemporary processes to build a frameworkthat will enable a detailed interpretation of the paleoceanographic record. The sampling volumes
required to characterize multiple TEI and the number of personnel required to make specialized
shipboard determinations requires a stand-alone program, with cruise tracks attuned to biogeochemicalrather than zonal and meridional gradients. However, the adoption by GEOTRACES of the same highquality hydrographic protocols used by repeat hydrography will ensure a synergy between the programsand ensure that the data sets produced can provide information in regions not visited by repeat
hydrography programs. While characterizing the core TEI of the GEOTRACES program does not
require the spatial or temporal resolution of the hydrography programs, certain subset parameters would
benefit from inclusion in future high-frequency repeat sections. In particular, this is likely for parametersthat can be used to deduce atmospheric mineral dust deposition to the surface ocean. Not only arethese deposition processes highly variable temporally and spatially in the contemporary ocean, they arealso likely to vary with climatically induced changes in rainfall patterns, leading to variations in thedelivery of micronutrients to important regions of the open ocean.

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2.2

Ship-based Repeat Hydrography

Understanding ocean changes below 2 kilometers
and their contributions to global heat budget and sea-level budgets

The global network of Argo profiling floats samples the physical characteristics of the upper 2 km of the
global ocean, half the global ocean volume. Ship-based repeat hydrographic sections are an essential,
and in most regions the only, observing element for the study of changes in deep and bottom water
formation rates and properties, their signatures as they spread out from formation regions, and forproviding detailed basin-scale points of comparison for global circulation models. Sections occupied
during CLIVAR, when compared to those taken during WOCE, reveal substantial variability in many
regions, and subtle but measurable variability in others. For instance, a section repeated yearly acrossthe Labrador Sea provides a rich data set for analyses of variations in the components of North Atlantic
Deep Water, such as the Labrador Sea Water, the Iceland-Scotland Overflow Water, and the Denmark
Straits Overflow Water (e.g. Yashayaev, 2007). Repeat sections show how these signals spreadthroughout the North Atlantic. Decadal variations in Labrador Sea Water properties can be traced to20°W in an analysis of data from the CLIVAR/CO2 reoccupation of WHP Section A16N in 2003 alongwith three previous occupations (Johnson et al., 2005). North Atlantic Deep Water property variations
have been traced to 24°N in an analysis of repeat section data along this section (Cunningham andAlderson, 2007) and have also been traced southward to 16°N (Steinfeldt et al., 2007).
However, deep variability evident in repeat hydrographic sections is not by any means limited to theNorth Atlantic Deep Water. Warming abyssal ocean temperatures linked to Antarctic Bottom Water
sources appear to be widespread in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific oceans. Deep and bottom warming
has been detected over the past several decades in the Weddell Sea (Robertson et al., 2002; Fahrbach
et al., 2004). Downstream of this region, statistically significant warming has been detected in thebottom waters of the all western basins of the South Atlantic Ocean (Figure 2, Johnson and Doney,2006) and warming signals appear to extend into the abyssal western North Atlantic (Johnson et al.,2008b). This warming is apparent throughout the Pacific Ocean (Kawano et al., 2006; Johnson et al.
2007), even to the rather surprising location of 47°N in the Pacific Ocean (Fukasawa et al. 2004).
Freshening of these bottom waters is apparent closer to their source, such as the Australian-Antarctic
Basin (Rintoul, 2007; Johnson et al., 2008a). This freshening may be linked to freshening in the source
regions such as the Adelie Land and the Ross Sea (Jacobs et al., 2002). The freshening observed in thisbasin, combined with the warming approaching 0.1°C over 12 years, accounts for about 5 cm of stericsea level rise below 2 km (Johnson et al. 2008a). Finally, in addition to suggesting global changes in thethermohaline circulation, the warming (and freshening) observed in the abyss could play a non-trivial rolein global heat budgets and sea level rise (Johnson et al., 2007; 2008a).
Emerging issues and implications for sampling: The abyssal freshening near Antarctica and near global
abyssal warming observed in recent decades, as well as water property variability in the North Atlantic
limb of the meridional overturning circulation, demonstrate a requirement for future global samplingof the ocean below the current 2 km depth limit of Argo. What is the ongoing contribution of the abyssal
ocean to the global heat and freshwater budgets? Will the heat and freshwater apparently being
sequestered in the abyssal regions ventilated from Antarctica continue to build, or will the recentchanges reverse? How will changes in the properties of North Atlantic Deep Water propagate
throughout the rest of the ocean? The continued repeat hydrographic sections proposed here will
provide a very accurate, high-quality observational backbone for answering these and otherquestions, likely augmented by complementary arrays of moored instruments, and perhaps deeper
profiling floats.

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Figure 2. Potential temperature differences (red warm, blue cold) of the 2005 – 1989 occupations of A16S meridional section
sampling the western basins of the South Atlantic. Mean isotherms from the two cruises are contoured (black lines) at 0.5°C
intervals below 5°C, and 5°C intervals above. Note the warming of cold waters throughout the Scotia Sea (south of 53°S), andthe warming of bottom waters deeper than about 3500 dbar throughout the Argentine and Brazil Basins to the north. Figure
follows Johnson and Doney (2006).

2.3

Understanding the variability in water masses, ventilation, and pathways

Substantial variability in temperature, salinity, oxygen concentration and apparent oxygen utilization(AOU) has been detected in many regions of the ocean by comparing CLIVAR repeat sections withthose of WOCE and older sections (Rintoul and England, 2002, Bryden et al. 2003, Emerson et al.,
2004; Feely et. al., 2005; Garcia et al., 2005; McDonagh, et al., 2005; Boyer et al., 2007; Johnson and
Gruber, 2007; Talley, 2008). These changes are amplified in the upper ocean (0-1500m) and in regionsof local water mass formation.
In the North Atlantic, the water mass property variability is observed in several tracers and foundthroughout the water column. The water mass property changes appear to be related to variations in airsea forcing, the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), the advective time scales for the subpolar andsubtropical gyres and the deep western boundary currents. Reoccupation of WOCE sections as part of
the CLIVAR/CO2 surveys has demonstrated the relatively rapid equatorward progression of CFCs fromhigh- latitude sources into the deep and abyssal waters of the world’s oceans. Figure 2, below, shows across-section of the Deep Western Boundary Current at the northern and southern extremes. There are
relatively high concentrations of CFC-11 in two cores coincident with Upper NADW and Lower NADW.
UNADW consists of Upper and classical Labrador Sea Water. The largest concentration increases areassociated with UNADW and observed in the offshore Gulf Stream recirculation (35-40oN).
The CFC concentrations have been used to estimate rates of formation for many water masses. Orsi etal. (1999) inferred a formation rate for AABW of 8 Sv. Smethie and Fine (2001) estimated NADW
components, and LeBel et al. (2008) estimated the North Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation of
19.6 ± 4 Sv for the period 1970-97. In addition, using data from the subpolar region, Kieke et al. (2006)
estimate formation rates for ULSW and LSW for the period 1997-2003. They find temporal switching
between ULSW and CLSW in terms of strength of formation rates (for review of LSW formation rates see
Haine et al., 2008). Using a variety of nutrients and tracers including SF6, Tanhua et al. (2008) conclude
that there is also temporal switching in percentage of LNADW component at the Denmark Strait sill
between 1997 and 2002.

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Figure 3. Black contours of CFC-11 in pmol/kg along A20 (53W) in 2003, with neutral density contours added in green.
Superimposed are color contours showing differences in CFC-11 concentrations between the 2003 and 1997 occupation of thesection (figure courtesy of Fine and Smethie).

In the North Pacific, property variability has also been linked to changes in gyre circulation and watermass ventilation rates in the formation regions. Repeat measurements of transient tracers in the North
Pacific have been used to improve estimates of mixing in models (Sonnerup et al., 2008), and indicate areduction of ventilation in the North Pacific subpolar gyre (Mecking et al., 2006).
The recent completions of the southern hemisphere CLIVAR sections are now also revealing interesting
trends in upper-ocean properties in the south Pacific, Indian and Southern oceans (Talley et. al., 2008).
In the Southern Hemisphere, subtropical basin property changes in the upper 1000m of the watercolumn appear to be related to the Southern Annular Mode (SAM) variability and the southward trend of
the westerly winds maximum (Roemmich et al., 2007). The large-scale atmospheric variability impacts
the circulation of all the southern hemisphere subtropical gyres and the water mass formation regions
north of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current and subtropical gyres. CFC concentration along a section in
the Indian Ocean from the equator to Antarctica shows increasing CFC concentrations towards thebottom and southward in the abyssal basins south of the South Indian Ridge (45oS). The distribution of
the CFC-12 concentration maxima broadly mirrors the observed abyssal warming and freshening foundin the Southern Ocean abyssal basins.
Emerging issues and implications for sampling: The contemporaneous sampling of a full suite of ocean
tracers by the repeat hydrography program has shown us the importance of repeated decadalmeasurements for the comprehensive detection and monitoring of ocean water mass changes. CFCs,
SF6, carbon isotopes, and tritium-helium should be core measurements of the repeat hydrography
program, with the understanding that it may not be necessary to measure these tracers on all stations.
SF6 will be an increasingly important tracer because atmospheric CFC abundances are no longer
increasing with time, making it difficult to use them to investigate the ventilation of recently formed water
masses. Tritium can give additional age information for deep waters (e.g., Huhn et al., 2008a). Because
the surface concentration of tritium varies regionally, mixing of water masses of different origin
complicates the interpretation, but this regional contrast may be useful in combination with otherventilation tracers. The tritium-helium age has also been used for dating shallow and intermediate water
masses (e.g., Jenkins, 1998). As the tritium transient decays, the resolution of this technique is reduced,
but it still has value in the Northern Hemisphere. Separation of the tritiogenic component from thevolcanic helium-3 in the Southern Hemisphere and in deeper waters can also limit this method in certain
areas. In general, the interpretation of tracer ages (whether tritium-helium,14C,CFCs, or SF6 derived)
must be done within the context of transit time distributions and appropriately constructed models. Eachtracer convolves with ocean ventilation and transport processes in unique ways and therefore

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contributes complementary information. Thus there is value in coordinating tracer measurements on
sections.
Helium-3 on its own can be used for investigating upwelling (Klein and Rhein, 2004) or the ventilation ofwater masses that are high in natural helium-3. Helium-4 and neon are high in ice shelf waters and may
be used for investigating AABW formation mechanisms (Huhn et al., 2008b). In addition, noble gases
offer some potential for characterizing ice-water interactions (Hood et al., 1998; Postlethwaite et al.,2005). Because it is produced in situ, the accumulation of helium-3 produced by the decay of bombtritium within the oceanic thermocline, particularly in the northern hemisphere, provides information
complementary to the "ventilation tracers" such as tritium, CFCs and radiocarbon. For example, it has
been used to diagnose decade time scale changes in water mass ventilation in marginal seas (e.g.,
Jenkins, 2008). The coupling between this helium-3 and its parent (tritium) makes it a useful diagnosticof the effective Peclet number of ocean ventilation (Jenkins, 1998), or within the context of transit time
distributions, the ratio of the second to first moments. The efflux of tritiugenic helium-3 from thethermocline (or of volcanic helium-3 from the abyssal waters) provides another important diagnostic, as it
traces the return pathway of remineralized nutrients to the euphotic zone, providing a "flux gauge" toestimate regional-scale new production rates (e.g., Jenkins and Doney, 2003) and their possible
variations (Jenkins, 2008).
It has also become clear that many changes are driven by sub-decadal scale variability. Variations
associated with climate modes can be expected to drive natural variability in ocean biogeochemistry(e.g., Jenkins, 2008), and Rodgers et al. (2009) have recently shown that it is also important to consider
the potential impact of Rossby Waves on ocean biogeochemistry. An understanding of the underlying
processes controlling the higher frequency variations will be critical to reducing the uncertainties, and it
will be critical to link both decadal and high-frequency hydrographic data with observations from otherplatforms, including time-series stations and the Argo program. In addition, the close correspondence
between satellite-derived sea-surface height variations and DIC inventories in the Indian Ocean offers a
way by which remote sensing measurements may help reduce uncertainty in the detection ofanthropogenic changes by identifying the component of the measured changes that are due to naturalvariability in ocean circulation.
2.4

Quantifying transports

Full-depth, trans-oceanic hydrographic sections provide the necessary data for estimates of oceantransports of heat, freshwater, and other properties on basin to global scales (Fu, 1981; Wunsch et al.,1983). Obtaining these estimates globally and improving them (albeit from a mostly steady-state
circulation perspective) was a major goal driving the WOCE global hydrographic survey. Related goals
included obtaining water mass formation rate and flow path estimates. More recently, work has focusedon assessing temporal variability of transports and inventories of seawater properties, including carbon
system and other biogeochemical parameters (see section 2.3 for additional information).
While the vertical shear of the component of horizontal velocity perpendicular to each station pair of ahydrographic section is straightforward to calculate from geostrophy, determining the absolute velocity
field to sufficient accuracy for transport estimates is more problematic. Shipboard and lowered Acoustic
Doppler Current Profiler (SADCP and LADCP) data are complementary to hydrographic measurements.
The combination of all three provides the best constraints on measured transports. Both LADCP and
SADCP data can be used to reference geostrophic current estimates and to quantify ageostrophic flow,
but they have different strengths and weaknesses. SADCP sampling (continuous between stations)matches the geostrophic calculation (which is an average between stations), but covers only the upper
part of the water column. LADCP sampling (full-depth profiles on station) does not match thegeostrophic calculation in the horizontal, but it provides an accurate measurement of the barotropic
velocity at each station. LADCP data can resolve complex velocity structure near bottom topography,
and near the equator where synoptic geostrophic calculations are useless. Both methods provide

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context for the hydrography by showing the along-track as well as the cross-track components of thesynoptic velocity field.
ADCP measurements have contributed to our understanding of ocean transports and processes on awide variety of scales. Analysis of SADCP has revealed the deep penetration of wind-driven
ageostrophic flow at low latitudes (with implications for meridional heat and other property fluxes) in all
three major oceans (Chereskin and Roemmich, 1991; Wijffels et al., 1995; Chereskin et al., 1997), withthe largest influence in the Indian Ocean, due to the seasonal monsoons (Chereskin et al., 2002).
Decadal variability in large-scale atmospheric forcing, such as indicated by variations in the SAM, implies
variability in the Ekman transport on similar time scales. Direct estimates are essential in resolving the
Ekman contribution to property transports, constraining relative transport estimates, and providing direct
estimates of boundary current transports (e.g. Beal et al., 2003). In addition, the absence of a level of no
motion (the tendency of the near-bottom flow to resemble a weaker version of the shallow currents) has
been demonstrated in many high-latitude regions such as the Subantarctic Front in the Pacific (Donohue
et al., 2001) and the Bering Sea (Chen and Firing, 2006). ADCP measurements have also revealed
previously unsuspected currents, leading to substantial revision of basin-wide meridional transportestimates (Beal and Bryden, 1999; Donohue et al., 2000). Aided by bottom tracking, LADCP
measurements have revealed in detail the bottom-intensified outflows from the Weddell Sea (Gordon etal., 2001). Diffusivities inferred from lowered ADCP shear and CTD strain profiles (Sloyan 2005; Kunze
et al., 2006) can provide additional constraints for models.
LADCP and SADCP data help to constrain transport estimates, but adjustments are still necessary to
overcome noise and temporal aliasing and to balance mass or other constraints. The ocean box inverse
method (Wunsch, 1978) allows adjustments to the velocity field subject to dynamical, mass balance,
property transport, and other constraints. Application to single sections has led to insights into basinwide transports including nutrients and carbon (e.g. Bryden et al., 1991; Robbins and Bryden, 1994;
Macdonald et al., 2003), with coast-to-coast sections enabling various constraints such as mass or salt
conservation (Tsimplis et al., 1998; Lherminier et al., 2007) to be applied to adjust measured velocities,
such as from vessel-mounted ADCPs (Saunders and King, 1995) or lowered ADCPs (Joyce et al.,2001). Schott et al. (2006), and Dengler et al. (2006) provide examples how ADCP data from repeat
hydrography sections can be combined with mooring data to infer the transport of the Deep Western
Boundary Current and its variability.
Analysis of multiple zonal, and sometimes combined zonal and meridional sections has yielded basin
and regional estimates of property transport, divergence, mixing and air-sea flux with estimates of
uncertainty (e.g. Holfort et al., 1998; Sloyan and Rintoul, 2000; Ganachaud and Wunsch, 2002, 2003;
Alvarez et al., 2002). The careful analysis of global hydrography and circulation (including the WOCE
transects) by Reid (1994, 1997, 2003) has also provided basin-scale meridional-vertical overturn (Talley,
2003; Talley et al., 2003) and freshwater transport (Talley, 2008) estimates.
However, temporal aliasing of hydrographic sections introduces error into any steady-state analysis(e.g., Thurnherr and Speer, 2004). Ocean data assimilation, in which an ocean general circulation
model and oceanographic data are brought to consistency with error estimates, addresses this problem(e.g. Yu and Malanotte-Rizzoli, 1998; Stammer et al., 2002). The Global Ocean Data Assimilation
Experiment (GODAE) has fostered substantial progress in this regard. ECCO (Kohl et al., 2007) and K7(Masuda et. al., 2006) are two examples of recent efforts. Both assimilate Argo and hydrographic datafrom WOCE and CLIVAR, as well as reanalysis surface flux products.
Shifts in the meridional overturning circulation (MOC) have been hypothesized to be key processes intriggering past abrupt climate changes (e.g., Broecker, 1998), and are predicted for the future (see the
4th Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). A regional array at 26.5°N in
the North Atlantic (Cunningham et al., 2007; Kanzow et al., 2007) has been monitoring the strength andvertical structure of the Atlantic MOC since 2004, where the mid-ocean flow is monitored by an array ofShip-based Repeat Hydrography

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moored instruments along the section. The basic principle of the array is to estimate the zonallyintegrated geostrophic profile of northward velocity on a daily basis from time-series measurements oftemperature, salinity and meridional velocity throughout the water column at the eastern and westernboundaries and on either side of the mid-Atlantic Ridge. Hydrographic sections at 5-year intervals are a
key component of the monitoring strategy providing independent estimates of the array and the basinwide property distributions necessary for flux studies (Jayne and Marotzke, 2001). It is envisioned toextend this type of monitoring to other key latitudes in the Atlantic and hydrographic sections will becentral to monitoring strategies there.
Hydrographic sections are at present the only direct measurements monitoring global changes in deep
ocean transports and properties like a possible decadal slow-down in the southern ocean limb of the
MOC suggested in the North Pacific (Kouketsu et al., 2009) and North Atlantic (Johnson et al., 2008b).
Combination of the data with improved assimilative ocean models should help to detect any future shifts.
We require a set of benchmark observations of the MOC that can provide the necessary full depth,
continent-to-continent dynamical constraints for verifying assimilations, coupled climate model hindcasts
and for ocean initialization for climate forecasts.
Emerging issues and implications for future sampling: From the WOCE and CLIVAR surveys, we havelearned that observed changes in ocean circulation and transport are not driven simply by anthropogenic
forcing but also by natural interannual variations or long-period oscillations. It may require many surveys
over many decades to detect these trends with confidence. Where we have 50-year data sets, weobserve oscillations rather than trends; for example, the 25-year freshening/salting of Indian Mode
Waters. Annual and sub-annual time series in key regions will provide critical links to the repeat
hydrography program.
To accurately calculate the horizontal density gradients, the spatial variation of the composition ofseawater needs to be taken into account. This is now possible using the new Thermodynamic Equationof Seawater – 2010 (TEOS-10). In June 2009 the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC)of UNESCO endorsed TEOS-10, which provides accurate algorithms for calculating density, potential
enthalpy (i.e., “heat content”) and many other thermodynamic properties of seawater. As of June 2009,
TEOS-10 has superseded the 1980 UNESCO / ICES / SCOR / IAPSO / Equation of State. The newalgorithms are served from the Web site www.TEOS-10.org. Part of the new thermodynamic treatment
of seawater involves adopting a new salinity variable, Absolute Salinity. It is important to note that while
Absolute Salinity is now the approved salinity variable for publishing in marine science, it is Practical
Salinity (PSS-78) that must be reported to national databases. This is because Practical Salinity is themeasured salinity variable (rather than being a calculated variable), and it is very important to maintaincontinuity in what is stored in databases. This way of handling salinity is analogous to the present
handling for temperature; in situ temperature is measured and reported to national data centers, but
research and publishing use a different temperature variable, namely potential temperature or (withTEOS-10) conservative temperature.
The algorithm that calculates Absolute Salinity from knowledge of the Practical Salinity and the spatial
location should be refined on the basis of more ocean measurements. The collection of between 20 and
100 seawater samples from each long repeat hydrography section would, over several years, build up avaluable database for this purpose.
2.5

Evaluating ocean models

Ocean general circulation models (OGCMs) and coupled climate models are being used to assess thepast, present and future state of the ocean. These models are increasing steadily in their complexity andresolution, as well as the number of processes that they represent. In recent decades, it has becomecommon practice to couple biogeochemical and ecological models to the physical components of the
OGCMs and climate models in order to investigate the coupling between systems. Although based onIOC Technical Series No. 89
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fundamental equations of physics and chemistry, these models need to make several assumptions andsimplifications in order to be able to solve these equations numerically. Key issues involving
uncertainties in surface forcing (momentum, heat, and freshwater) and sub-gridscale dynamics such as
diapycnal and mesoscale mixing. The problems are even more significant for biogeochemistry andecology, which are not well constrained from basic principles. As a result, all models require careful
evaluation with observations before they can be used with confidence to assess past or future states ofthe ocean system.
Interior ocean observations of temperature, salinity, and density, together with satellite measurements ofsea-surface height, have been indispensable as metrics for assessing the quality of ocean generalcirculation models (see e.g., Pilot Ocean Model Intercomparison Project; Sloyan and Kamenkovich,
2007; Doney et al., 2007). But these constraints alone are not necessarily sufficient to clearly distinguishamong different model solutions. Gnanadesikan (1999) showed, for example, that even models with very
similar density structures can have vastly different rates of ocean circulation. Only tracers that containage information, such as CFCs, radiocarbon, or tritium-helium, can be used to assess which of thesesolutions are more realistic. The impact of such constraints on the model-based estimation of theoceanic uptake of anthropogenic CO2 was demonstrated by Matsumoto et al. (2004), who showed that
only a handful of the OGCMs that participated in the Ocean Carbon Cycle Model Intercomparison
Project (OCMIP) were able to simultaneously model (within the uncertainties of the data) the oceaninterior distribution of CFCs and radiocarbon. The models that were consistent with that constraint had amuch narrower range of simulated uptake of anthropogenic CO2 than the whole range of models,suggesting that multiple tracer constraints are essential for model validation.
Ocean interior observations of nutrients, inorganic carbon, oxygen, and other biogeochemically relevant
chemicals have also proven to be invaluable constraints to evaluate coupled physical, biogeochemical,
and ecological models (e.g. Najjar et al., 2007). It is decidedly difficult for such models to simultaneously
fit all observations, and Najjar et al. (2007) demonstrated, for example, that the models that fit the interior
ocean distribution of radiocarbon relatively well, were generally also more consistent with the distributionof other tracers.
Ocean interior observations are an important source of information for the evaluation of ocean models,
especially when these models include biogeochemical and ecological components. While the focus in
the past has been on the evaluation of the mean state of the ocean, one can expect that ocean interior
observations will be used increasingly to also evaluate changes in the model simulated state throughtime; for example, are models able to simulate the response of the ocean interior distribution to importantchanges in surface forcing, such as forcing associated with long-term trends in the Southern Annular
Modes (e.g. Lovenduski et al., 2008).
Emerging issues and implications for sampling: Ocean interior observations, particularly tracers that
contain age information, are critical for evaluating OGCMs. As these models grow in complexity andinclude ecosystem components, the full suite of carbon and biogeochemical measurements will beneeded. Bottom and deep-water production are not yet sufficiently realistic in ocean data assimilation tounchain the models from restoration to climatology in the deep ocean (Macdonald et al., 2009). As
progress is made on improving models, repeat hydrographic measurements will become increasingly
useful to assimilation analyses. Since repeat hydrography at present provides the only global samplingof the bottom half of the ocean, and the only global subsurface biogeochemical measurements, it will be
required to constrain the assimilated deep transports of heat and freshwater, as well as those ofbiogeochemical properties throughout the water column.

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Providing a platform for testing new shipboard sensors
and providing an opportunity to deploy and evaluate other platforms

The repeat hydrographic program offers a unique platform for testing new instrument design andprovides the highest quality data streams available for intercomparison and calibration.
The Argo float program routinely uses the high-quality salinity data from repeat hydrographic sections,carefully calibrated with collected water samples and standard seawater, to provide a reference for the
CTD data from Argo floats, and are heavily relied upon in the delayed-mode quality control of Argo floats(e.g. Wong et al., 2003). This calibration using the repeat hydrographic salinity data stream is essential
because these floats only undergo calibrations prior to deployment and are often operating in the field foryears.
Temperature data from repeat hydrography are used systematically to test instruments such as theexpendable bathythermograph (XBT) deployed on merchant vessels as part of the Ship of Opportunity
Program (SOOP) (Goni et al., 2010). Through comparison with high-quality data, Wijffels et al. (2008)
and Gouretski and Koltermann (2007) note a systematic bias in XBT observations, suggestive of a fallrate error in the XBTs. Testing for the possible mechanisms behind fall-rate errors has already begun
on recent repeat hydrography cruises (e.g., along P18 and P15S). The global coverage and availabilityof high-quality intercomparison data are invaluable to determine if manufacturing changes in instrument
systems are introducing erroneous trends or signals.
The continuing development of new sensors and instruments provides opportunities to extend the suiteof parameters measured by the repeat-hydrography program. For example, full-depth un-tethered
microstructure profilers that have recently become commercially available can be deployed with
CTD/LADCP packages to obtain simultaneous profiles of hydrography, velocity and rate of kineticenergy dissipation and diapycnal diffusivity, while requiring only modestly increased on-station times(e.g., St. Laurent and Thurnherr, 2007). The coverage of the repeat hydrography program could thus
allow quick and efficient collection of a near-global data set of mixing in the ocean.
In addition to providing a high-quality platform to calibrate and test new instrumentation, the repeat
hydrographic sections, designed for global coverage, often cross portions of the ocean that are
infrequently visited by other vessels. This fact alone has resulted in this program becoming a major
source for deployments of autonomous instrumentation aiming for global coverage, most notably Argo
floats and surface drifters. Without these cruises, Argo floats and drifters would either have to charter
dedicated ships (aircraft) - a more costly proposition - or tolerate gaps in their global array.
2.7

Underway measurements

Repeat hydrographic cruises are unique in their spatial extent, spanning basins, and in their coverage ofdata-sparse regions. The ships offer the opportunity to use platforms with power, laboratory space, andmarine technicians and scientists who can attend measuring systems. Further, these cruises will haveassociated cruise documentation and data archiving, so that the quality and permanence of surface
observations will garner attention and increase their use in cross-disciplinary applications. Although thecurrent system of Data Assembly Centers (DACs) (see section 4) does collect some underway data in asystematic manner, the DACs are not appropriately resourced to handle the full suite of underway
variables currently measured on research cruises. This will be a major goal for the next decade ofhydrography.
Typical atmospheric underway measurements include winds, humidity, air temperature, pressure, andprecipitation, radiation measurements including direct solar (shortwave) and downwelling longwave (fromclouds and sky). Occasionally vessels deploy net, ultraviolet, and photosynthetically active radiation(PAR) and skin temperature sensors. Ocean measurements from continuous water sampling systems

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include sea surface temperature, salinity, and in some cases fluorescence and dissolved oxygen.
Additional underway measurements may include atmospheric and oceanic pCO2 (Schuster et al., 2010),
total inorganic carbon and noble gases, direct fluxes (Fairall et al., 2010), radiative SST, currents (fromSADCPs), and bathymetry. See Smith et al. (2010) for a complete overview.
Underway measurements from the hydrographic survey can complement the underway network oncommercial ships (see Goni et al., 2010) in several areas outlined below.
Climate quality surface meteorology and air-sea fluxes of heat, freshwater, momentum
High quality in-situ observations of surface meteorology and the air-sea fluxes of heat, freshwater, andmomentum have high value, and commercial vessels are beginning to measure gas and particle fluxes
in a more routine way, which could also benefit from validation by research cruises. Such observations
are needed for algorithm development and, if delivered in real-time, could be used to validate fields used
to specify the surface forcing of the ocean, including the surface fields from Numerical Weather
Prediction (NWP) models, from Atmospheric General Circulation Models (AGCMs), from remote sensing,and from blended products. They may also be used as independent, high-quality in situ observations toanchor and/or gauge the accuracy of these fields.
A number of observing programs have evolved over the past decade that focus on automated systems
for oceanic and atmospheric measurements (Smith et al., 2010). To date, these programs have focusedon data collection and standardization of quality control, instrument exposure, and metadata. Many
underway measurements focus on air-sea fluxes and these activities are described in Fairall et al.
(2010). It is worth noting that efforts are being made to consider the flow distortion by the hulls andsuperstructure of the research vessels and that these have been accompanied by efforts to use
additional portable meteorological and flux systems to guide improvements to the placement of sensors
and research vessels and thus in the quality of the data. With such ongoing attention to the performanceof underway systems on the research vessels conducting the repeat hydrographic lines, there is thepromise of high observational quality.
This quality can be further ensured by making use of the fact that the research vessels have long-lived
installations where there is merit in dedicating time to the proper cabling, both to deliver power tosensors as well as to collect data. With the availability of power, active ventilation of air/humidity sensors
should be implemented. Active ventilation and heating, as needed to cope with icing and/or dew, shouldbe implemented on incoming shortwave and longwave sensors. If possible, radiation sensors should beroll-stabilized. Automated surface wave observations (e.g., from ship-borne wave records or wave
radars) would enhance the utility of the surface meteorological and air-sea flux sensors.
Where repeat hydrographic cruises go to regions with either very low winds speeds (less than 3 m/s) or
high wind speeds (greater than 15 m/s), consideration should be given in planning these cruises toinclude a research group able to make turbulent flux measurements. These high-value data fromundersampled wind regimes will allow refinement of flux methods.
Underway oceanographic and meteorological sampling
Thermosalinographs should be operated and attended to maintain quality, including annual factory
calibrations following established international protocols (Smith et al., 2010; Fairall et al., 2010).
Underway fluorescence should also be measured. Underway ADCP sampling yields velocity profiles in
the upper ocean (100-1000m, depending on the instrument type used). Where possible, consideration
should be given to use tethered XCTDs, XBTs, and/or similar techniques to obtain the thermohaline
structure of the upper ocean to accompany the underway ADCP data. This will not only quantify thedepth and spatial variability of the mixed layer but can also be used to yield information on verticalmixing near the sea surface. As sampling methods advance, underway sampling should consider
sampling of DMS (dimethyl sulfide), total inorganic carbon, total alkalinity, pH (Wang et al. 2007), andO2/Ar by mass spectrometry (Cassar et al., 2009).

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It would be valuable to use repeat hydrography surveys to sample the lower atmosphere in data-sparse
regions. Smith et al. (2010) address the interest to develop and/or improve underway sensors for cloud
identification, waves (Swail et al., 2010), shipboard radar (for wave parameters and precipitation), andsurface radiation.
Carbon dioxide
Surface pCO2 measurements from hydrographic cruises can serve as reference data sincemeasurements are made in a controlled environment with comparison to other carbon parameters.
High-quality surface pCO2 measurements, when combined with other surface and sub-surface
parameters, can improve mechanistic understanding of processes controlling surface CO2. As withsurface meteorological fluxes, hydrographic cruises cover regions of the ocean never sampled bycommercial vessels or moorings, and can add invaluable insights and constraints on surface CO2variability. Hydrographic cruises also offer a unique platform for the development of robust andautomated sensors for other carbon system parameters. The lack of such sensors is currently a major
limitation in developing an adequate observing capacity for surface CO2, air-sea CO2 flux, and ocean
acidification (Schuster et al., 2010).

3. Strategy
3.1

Temporal and spatial sampling

In developing an integrated and interdisciplinary framework for ship-based repeat hydrography, it isimportant to consider the time scales of variability of the phenomena under investigation. For example,
repeat occupations at decadal intervals are mostly appropriate for the characterization of the uptake oftransient tracers, such as bomb radiocarbon, as these inventories are expected to change smoothly withtime. For the detection of changes in the anthropogenic carbon inventories, one is challenged by two
opposing constraints. One the one hand, the limits for the detection of changes in anthropogenic CO2 are
8-10 years for most regions (see Levine et al., 2008), so that a decadal repeat frequency seems
adequate. On the other hand, changes in the natural carbon cycle occur on shorter temporal intervals,
requiring higher frequency sampling. Since both (natural and anthropogenic) signals are present in themeasured dissolved inorganic carbon fields, one would therefore infer a need for higher frequency
sampling. However, the availability of ancillary observations, such as sea-surface height, may
substantially relax this requirement, so that an approximate decadal repeat frequency could be sufficientfor determining the changes in the oceanic inventory of anthropogenic CO2. A more detailed
assessment requires a dedicated sampling study. For other goals, a decadal survey is clearly lessappropriate. For example, the quantification of transport changes requires higher frequency samplingsince it is known to have substantial interannual variability. While the Argo program will resolve some ofthese issues for physical variables in the upper 2 km, it does not currently sample deeper than 2 km or inareas with ice cover. Another factor is the need for approximate synopticity on basin scales and theconstraint that cruises are carried out on a rolling basis, based either on funding cycles, ship schedules,
or a deliberate strategy of trying to carry out several cruises each year in order to capture special events
that might occur. A high-frequency survey in addition to the decadal survey would be effective to reducethe biases in some regions, such as the western boundaries, where the basin-scale dynamic response
signals are strong, and high-latitude areas where property concentrations/inventories are affected byshort-term climate variations through water mass formation.
Taking into account these considerations, two types of surveys are presently required to meet scientificobjectives: (1) decadal surveys and (2) a sub-set of the decadal survey lines sampled at high frequency(repeats every 2-3 years), ideally, repeats of lines sampled in the past decade. To capture the change
within a quarter or shorter period of the decadal time scale, the decadal repeat survey requires full basin

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synopticity over a < 3 year period (beginning in 2012). Both surveys should be initiated no later than
2012 to ensure continuity following the termination of the current CLIVAR survey.
This level of synopticity may become less necessary as assimilation techniques develop, but is currently
necessary to distinguish between spatial and temporal variability. The Argo program provides a crucial
complement to hydrographic section data, a synergy that has not yet been fully exploited. With thelogistical difficulties of obtaining large-scale synoptic snapshots of basin dynamics and properties, it isimperative to develop methods of normalizing section data to a common year, and in some cases, over
10-year scales, without introducing significant biases. These techniques do not yet exist, and use ofhigh-frequency Argo data and data assimilation methods will be increasingly important to develop therequired methods.
The survey to begin in 2012 will take into consideration the sampling schedule carried out during the
CLIVAR program in order to ensure decadal repeat frequency for each basin as much as possible. For
example, the Atlantic was sampled most densely between 2003-2005, the Pacific between 2005-2007,
and the Indian in 2007-2009, implying that the first post-CLIVAR survey should start with the Atlantic
from 2012-2014, the Pacific from 2015-2017, and the Indian from 2017-2019.
Spatial sampling should follow past surveys, with major efforts carried out in the Atlantic, Pacific, andIndian oceans, with the Southern Ocean integrated as part of the other basins. The Arctic is of increasing
importance and should be emphasized, either as a separate effort or a coordinated effort from Atlantic
and Pacific basin efforts.
Ideally, sections should extend from coast to coast, or coast to ice, follow standard WOCE lines withsmall modifications as necessary for territorial waters, ice coverage, etc., and maintain the standard
WOCE sampling strategy.
Horizontal resolution:• Physical measurements: nominal 30 nautical mile spacing with higher resolution in regions ofsteep topography and boundary currents.
• Carbon measurements: carbon and tracers at 60 nautical miles or better.
Vertical resolution: full water column.
It is also recognized that several open-ocean hydrographic programs exist that do not meet the sampling
resolution criteria outlined by the GO-SHIP Panel or are one-time hydrographic surveys with nocommitment for repeats. As with the WOCE programme, which was composed of both repeat sections
and one-time surveys, the GO-SHIP Panel recommends that all hydrographic sections meeting minimum
criteria (see below) be included as part of the global hydrographic program. Broad participation in thehydrography program will facilitate standardization of methods, data management and sharing, andintegration of all appropriate ocean interior data in data synthesis activities.
3.2

Core variables

For the decadal survey, the core program lines should measure temperature, salinity, and pressure oxygen, phosphate, silicate, and separate measurements of NO2 and NO3 if possible; otherwise, NO2+ NO3 (with clear reporting of what was measured) at least 2 carbon parameters (e.g., DIC, Alkalinity, pCO2, pH), where DIC and Alkalinity are thepreferred pair, but spectrophotometric pH is a useful 3rd parameter because of high measurement
precision and growing interest in ocean acidification.

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carbon isotopes (13C, 14C), chlorofluorocarbon tracers (CFC-11 and/or 12) and SF6; tritium andhelium-3 should also be measured on key sections, including meridional sections P10, P16, P18,
I06S, I08, I10, A16, A22, A20, and zonal sections I05, P06, P04, and A24).
shipboard and lowered ADCPSalinity and oxygen should also be measured on every bottle. Also recommended are organic carbon
parameters (POC, DOC) and underway surface measurements (including pCO2, pigments, and related
biological parameters at the surface). By 2012, microstructure measurements from profilers may also be
considered for routine application during the next decade of hydrography. A certain subset of traceelements and isotopes should be included in future high-frequency repeat sections, particularly forparameters to deduce atmospheric mineral dust deposition to the surface ocean in key areas.
For bio-opical measurements, GO-SHIP endorses the recommendations of the International OceanColour Coordination Group, including the following parameters:
Instruments to be added to a profiling CTD:
• Fluorometer to measure chlorophyll fluorescence• Transmissometers and/or light-scattering sensors and nephelometers to measure particle
beam attenuation coefficient• PAR sensor (where possible)
Water samples collected for the following measurements:•
Chlorophyll-a (Turner Fluorometer)•
HPLC pigments•
Phytoplankton absorption•
CDOM (desirable measurement)•
Flow cytometry
Many of the above samples can be stored in liquid nitrogen for later analysis back in the laboratory.
On deck measurements:• Continuous recording of incoming photosynthetically-active radiation (PAR), using a PAR
sensor with a data logger (automatic).
• Measurements of spectral reflectance using a hyperspectral hand-held radiometer.
Several ancillary observations should be made whenever possible. The repeat hydrographic ships
should make surface meteorological observations, following the guiding principles of the WOCE
hydrographic program described in the handbook by Bradley and Fairall (2006). The observations
should include wind speed and direction (relative to the ship and corrected to absolute), air temperatureand humidity, sea surface temperature, rainfall, barometric pressure, incoming shortwave radiation, andincoming longwave radiation. Several bio-optical measurements are also highly desirable, including
profiling underwater spectral-radiometer measurements and photosynthesis-irradiance experiments.
It is also suggested that each cruise should collect between 20 and 100 seawater samples (150ml plastic
bottles) for the direct measurement of density in the laboratory, in order that the effect of the spatial
variation in the composition of seawater can be estimated. The 150ml bottles would be sent to alaboratory where their density (at the laboratory temperature and pressure) would be measured with avibrating tube densimeter along with the sample’s Practical Salinity. The same laboratory procedure
would be applied to some ampoules of standard seawater as a check on the laboratory procedure andas a check of the stability of the standard seawater ampoules.
For the high-frequency/other sustained repeat lines, T, S, O2, and nutrients should be measured as theminimum core variables, as well as any other variables useful for understanding subdecadal-scaleIOC Technical Series No. 89
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variability. The target vertical spacing for these lines can be selected according to the water masses
under investigation. However, during the decadal survey period in each ocean basin, the high-frequency
lines should be carried out using the same specifications as the decadal survey in order to construct a
uniform data set over the whole basin.
For one-time or non-core survey lines, sections should be open-ocean, adhere to the data sharing policy(below), and follow the criteria for high frequency lines.
3.3

Sustained repeat lines

The table and map below outlines the repeat sections felt to be most critical for the decadal survey (solidlines, black text) and the high-frequency repeat lines (dashed lines, red text). Many of the lines, both
decadal and high-frequency, represent sections that already have on-going national commitments for
implementation. Several of the lines represent sections that are important for science goals, although
may not be possible owing to problems with territorial waters or ship resources. The lines shown here
are the minimum thought required for a global periodic survey. Additional lines would help to meet manyother program goals.
The program design calls for zonal sections at mid-latitudes in all the major ocean basins, locations
where the ocean transports of heat and carbon are near their maximum. Zonal lines in the sub-polar
regions and the tropics are designed to capture maximum freshwater transport by the ocean. The
meridional lines, at least one through each set of ocean basins, are ideal for inventory studies of ocean
properties such as heat and CO2. Sections also cross the Antarctic Circumpolar Current at various
chokepoints around the globe to facilitate studies of inter-ocean transports, including both limbs of themeridional overturning circulation. In addition, sections around Antarctica and in the northern North
Atlantic Ocean allow monitoring of outflows of bottom and deep water just downstream of their formation
regions, as well as upwelling of warm deep waters that may be critical to understanding changes in thecryosphere. Finally, some Arctic sampling is essential, as recent changes there are dramatic.
Atlantic
A22 and A20

Pacific
P01

IndianI09 N and I08 S

A16 N and S
A13.5
A21
A01W

P02
P04
P13 (maybe 14)
P09 / P10

I09 S
I07N
I05
I06S

AR07E (A01E)
A24N / A05

P06
SO4P (modified /Ross Sea)
P15 S (Equator to 67
S when possible)
P18
P16 N and S

I03
I10 (if possible)

A02
A10
A12 / SRO4 (Weddell
Sea line)
A25 (OVIDE)

ArcticBarrow to Svalbard
line (done on the
Healy and Oden in
2005)
75 N
RUSALCA
Davis Straits
Barrow Straits andNares Straits

S04I to I09S (needs toconnect to S4P)
I01 W and E

SR03
P14N (Aleutians andup)

Table 1. Recommended hydrographic sections for the sustained decadal survey (black text) and high-frequency repeat lines(red text).

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Figure 4. Recommended hydrographic sections for the sustained decadal survey (solid lines) and high-frequency repeat lines(dashed lines).

3.4

Quality assurance practices

To detect statistically significant decadal changes in any property field requires high- quality data. Not
only are high precision and accuracy necessary, but also knowledge of the uncertainty in the reported
numbers. As part of the GO-SHIP effort to reach the highest possible data quality, the 1994 WOCE
hydrographic program manual is being revised and should be published in early-2010. These references
will provide details of best practice for each of the variables to ensure comparability of measurement
programs. Similarly, the use of certified reference materials (CRMs) is very helpful in improving data
quality and should be used as frequently as necessary to reach the highest possible data quality. For
alkalinity and DIC the use of CRMs is now a common practice that has increased the quality ofmeasurements significantly. Much effort is being put into the development of CRMs for nutrients(Aoyama et al., 2009). Efforts to provide CRMs for other parameters, such as oxygen and pH are
underway. Using these materials on all repeat hydrography cruises will solve a key problem by enabling
the relative accuracy of the measurements to be maintained between cruises.

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4. Data Management, Sharing, and Product Development
The general strategy proposed for data management is to better support and coordinate the existingdata assembly and archive centers, to develop new tools and centers to manage the increasing variety
of properties observed on hydrographic lines, to coordinate data management activities with those of theoperational programs such as Argo and OceanSITES, and to improve technology and data policies torelease data in a more timely manner.
It is also proposed to develop a single international information center for repeat ship-based hydrographythat will serve as a central communication and coordination forum and include a portal or directory to thedata assembly centers.
4.1

Data sharing and release policy

While it is important to protect individual scientific interests and investment of effort by investigators,
evolving towards a more operational system will be essential for justifying a sustained program withnational funding support, and closer coordination with the operational programs may require somechanges to data-release practices. For example, in the next-generation hydrographic program, it may bepossible to implement real-time or near real-time CTD data release using Argo technology. Near realtime data release of underway carbon and other semi-automated biogeochemistry measurements may
also be possible through closer coordination with the Global Ocean Surface Underway Data Project(GOSUD) and the Shipboard Automated Meteorological and Oceanographic System (SAMOS)
programs, which have developed a data management system for real-time surface temperature andsalinity data from research ships.
At present, the GO-SHIP panel recommends the following data-release guidelines:•••

Preliminary dataset released within 6 weeks (e.g., all data measured on the ship)
6 months for final physical data
1 year for final data of all other variables (except for isotopes or tracers with shoreside analysis
where 1 year is difficult).

The relatively rapid release of data is motivated by their usefulness for climate studies, which are ofincreasing societal importance. Some countries are already following these guidelines. However, tofacilitate rapid release of data by all participants, a system should be developed to appropriately
recognize the efforts of data contributors. While having data contributors participate in synthesis
activities for co-authorship could resolve some issues of ownership, ultimately the international researchcommunity needs to evolve to the point that data are released as soon as possible without waiting for a
2-3 year synthesis activity. Establishing community-wide practices to standardize how to appropriately
acknowledge data contributors may help some participants to accelerate their current data-releasepractices. One solution that should be adopted immediately is to publish the Final Cruise Reports in thejournal Earth System Science Data (ESSD) with all participating PIs as authors.
4.2

Data assembly and archive centers

Several data centers currently provide data management services for particular types of hydrography
data. However, to meet the needs of a sustained global program, data assembly centers will need
dedicated staff time and new funding, and will need to be increasingly integrated with the data
management systems for other sustained programs such as Argo and OceanSITES. The challenges ofsuch integration, both operationally and financially, should not be underestimated, but without this levelof support for the data centers, a globally coordinated hydrography program with regular deliverables will
not be possible.

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The list below provides information about the mandate of each DAC during the CLIVAR program.
1. CTD and bottle data
CLIVAR and Carbon Hydrographic Data OfficePrincipal Contact: Jim Swift, Director
Email: jswift@ucsd.edu
Web site: http://cchdo.ucsd.edu/index.html
Responsibilities : The fundamental role of the CCHDO at the University of California San Diego
Scripps Institution of Oceanography is to ensure that WOCE Hydrographic Program data,
CLIVAR repeat hydrography data, global ocean carbon hydrographic data, and other similar
CTD/hydrographic data and their associated documentation are prepared and made available forboth immediate use and a long service life. The CTD, hydrographic, and tracer data used inlarge-scale ocean circulation studies are brought together, verified, corrected for content andformat errors, assembled with relevant documentation, and carefully prepared for dissemination
and archive. CDIAC carries out all data management functions for CO2-related data and the
CCHDO handles these functions for the CTD, hydrographic, and tracer data. The CCHDO
merges into its data files the latest versions of the CO2-related data as received from CDIAC.
2. Discrete Carbon Data
Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center - Ocean CO2 (World Data Center for Atmospheric
Trace Gases)
Principle Contact: Alex Kozyr
Email: kozyra@ornl.gov
Web site: http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/oceans/home.html
Data: http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/oceans/RepeatSections/clivar_introd.html
Responsibilities: Since 1993, CDIAC has been serving the ocean scientific community as thecentral repository for the carbon dioxide data measured on the WOCE/JGOFS cruises. CDIAC
receives WOCE hydrographic and tracer data from the WHPO. Thus all US and most foreign
WOCE hydrographic, chemical and carbon data are available now through the CDIAC Ocean
data web page. Most of the data at CDIAC are available as published and electronic Numeric
Data Packages (NDPs). The CDIAC_WOCE Ocean Data View (ODV) Collection that includes all
WOCE sections with CO2 measurements as well as hydrographic and nutrient measurements is
now available through the CDIAC Web site. CDIAC communicates frequently with the scientificmeasurement groups and individual PIs. This has helped CDIAC build the largest atmosphericand oceanic carbon data sets in the world, with the highest quality data. As the new carbon datameasurements will be measured by groups on the repeat hydrographic sections, CDIAC is readyto continue its support to the CCHDO in CO2 data processing and archival. CDIAC and the
CCHDO cooperate closely: CDIAC receives many CO2-related data files directly, and also somefrom the CCHDO. CDIAC carries out all data management functions for CO2-related data and the
WHPO handles these functions for the CTD, hydrographic, and tracer data. The WHPO merges
into its data files the latest versions of the CO2-related data as received from CDIAC. CDIAC
uses the latest versions of the hydrographic data in its files. The CCHDO is the primary providerof hydrographic data to NODC/WDC-A. Both facilities distribute data in formats agreed to be theiruser communities.
3. Shipboard ADCP
ADCP Data Archive at the Japan Oceanographic Data Centre (JODC), Japan
Principal Contact: Yoshiharu Nagaya
Email: ynagaya@jodc.go.jp
Web site: http://www.jodc.go.jp/goin/clivar.htm

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Data: http://jdoss1.jodc.go.jp/cgi-bin/2001/feti_vector
Responsibilities: Shipboard ADCP data. The ADCP Data Archive at the JODC, together with the
Hawaii Joint Archive for Shipboard ADCP, is co-responsible in seeking out CLIVAR principle
investigators and data contacts for calibrated and quality-controlled shipboard ADCP datasets.
andHawaii Joint Archive for Shipboard ADCP, USA
Principal Contact: Patrick Caldwell
Email: Patrick.Caldwell@noaa.gov
Web site: http://ilikai.soest.hawaii.edu/sadcp/clivar.html
Data: http://ilikai.soest.hawaii.edu/sadcp/main_inv.html
Responsibilities: Shipboard ADCP data. The Hawaii Joint Archive for Shipboard ADCP, together
with the ADCP Data Archive at the JODC, is co-responsible in seeking out CLIVAR principle
investigators and data contacts for calibrated and quality-controlled shipboard ADCP datasets.
4. Lowered ADCPLADCP Data Assembly Centre, LDEO, USA
Principal Contact: Eric Firing, University of Hawaii
Email: efiring@hawaii.edu
Web site: http://currents.soest.hawaii.edu/clivar/ladcp
Data:
http://kage.ldeo.columbia.edu/SOURCES/.LDEO/.ClimateGroup/.PO/.LADCP/
Responsibilities: Lowered ADCP data from CLIVAR cruises (currently only US cruises using
LDEO processing software). Discussions are on-going to determine if the US NODC could
manage national and international LADCP data.
5. Surface Meteorology
Surface Marine Meteorological Data Assembly Center, COAPS, FSU
Principal Contact: Shawn R. Smith
Email: smith@coaps.fsu.edu
Web site: http://www.coaps.fsu.edu/RVSMDC/CLIVAR/
Data: http://www.coaps.fsu.edu/RVSMDC/html/data.shtml
Responsibilities: The CLIVAR Surface Marine Meteorology Data Assembly Center (DAC) isestablished at the Center for Ocean-Atmospheric Prediction Studies on the campus of Florida
State University. The mission of the DAC is to collect, quality control, distribute, and assurearchival of underway surface meteorological observations from CLIVAR hydrographic cruises.
Additional surface meteorology data will be accepted from CLIVAR-sponsored experiments in themarine environment. Data will be accepted from any hydrographic program willing to provide theirdata to the DAC. This data center will accept data submissions from research vessels andmoored buoys from continuously sampling automated weather systems. Resource limitations
only allow the DAC to redistribute data from CLIVAR hydrographic cruises in the native format
received from the chief scientist or vessel operator. No reformatting or quality assessment iscurrently supported. The exception is data received from vessels that contribute to the Shipboard
Automated Meteorological and Oceanographic System (SAMOS) initiative (Smith et al., 2010)that happen to be conducting a repeat hydrographic cruise.
6. Underway Data
The Global Ocean Surface Underway Data Pilot Project (GOSUD)
Principal Contact: Robert Keeley and Loic Petit de la Villeon

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Email: Robert.keeley@dfo-mpo.gc.ca and Loic.Petit.De.La.villeon@ifremer.fr
Web site: http://www.ifremer.fr/gosud/
Responsibilities: GOSUD works to collect, process, archive and disseminate, in real time anddelayed mode, sea surface salinity and other variables collected underway by research and shipsof opportunity. The GOSUD project works closely with SAMOS (see also Surface Meteorological
data, above). The SAMOS initiative is working to improve access to calibrated, quality-controlled,
surface marine meteorological data collected in-situ by automated instrumentation on research
vessels (primarily) and merchant ships. GOSUD focuses on the collection, quality evaluation, anddistribution of near-surface ocean parameters (salinity and sea temperature) from vessels. At
present, the system is operational for temperature and salinity on 17 research vessels, and the
GOSUD/SAMOS group is working with the International Ocean Carbon Coordination Project todetermine how to include ocean and surface carbon measurements in the system.
Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center - Ocean CO2 (World Data Center for Atmospheric
Trace Gases)
Principle Contact: Alex Kozyr
Email: kozyra@ornl.gov
Web site: http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/oceans/global_pco2.html
Responsibilities: CDIAC Ocean CO2 is managing all underway carbon data from hydrographic
research ships. The data are simply archived and disseminated as received. The Surface
Ocean CO2 Atlas (SOCAT) project (data compilation carried out by the Bjerknes Centre for
Climate Research, Norway) has compiled all publicly available surface CO2 data from 1968 to
2007 into a common format dataset composed of more than 2100 cruises from 14 countries, with
7 million measurements of various carbon parameters. The SOCAT dataset is currently
undergoing 2nd level quality control and will be published in 2009. It is intended that thiscompilation will be regularly updated to include all new surface pCO2 data. In the future, realtime or near real-time data may be linked with the GOSUD/SAMOS project.
4.3

Data products and joint synthesis activities

Development of international synthesis activities must address new realities of working within theframework of a sustained observation program that has no “sunset clause”, but which will have arequirement to produce scientific products on a time scale that is much shorter than the traditional 10year approach carried out by global research programs in the past. The repeat hydrography program
will need to continually justify its value through publications and data products, and while analyses ofindividual and small groups of investigators will play a valuable role in this regard, development of amechanism for data syntheses should also help to address these needs.
Data syntheses activities should be driven by the science. Data syntheses are only successful when
there is a clear science issue to be resolved through standardizing and merging of basin- and globalscale datasets. Ship-based repeat hydrography data will increasingly be synthesized with data fromother platforms and models to address specific scientific issues, which requires a bottom-up science
approach rather than a top-down data management approach. It should be noted that synthesis
activities will require additional funding to support data quality control, compilation, and PI meetings. It
will also require the development of standing synthesis groups that meet regularly, both in basin groups
and across basins. To ensure that these groups are implemented on a regular and rolling basis, it will be
important for them to be managed through a sustained global coordination effort or program rather thana time-limited research program.
Data syntheses have typically been carried out starting with a basin approach since this is a convenientscale to define many scientific issues. Basin groups developed in WOCE/JGOFS and CLIVAR alreadyexists for most areas. Building on this approach, GO-SHIP recommends 4 groups:

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Atlantic (including the Arctic)
Pacific
IndianSouthern Ocean

Based on recent synthesis activities that were conducive to both science and contributing to thedevelopment of a continuously growing global synthesis (e.g., the Carbon in the Atlantic Project, theGlobal Ocean Data Analysis Project, the North Pacific Synthesis Project), GO-SHIP proposes a 3-step
approach for basin syntheses that brings together interdisciplinary science, the data synthesis activity,interpretation, and product development:
1. For each basin, develop a science workshop to bring together observations, models, and ideas
around a particular science issue that sets the framework for the data synthesis activity. Theseissues will evolve over time with the science and with the state of the observing system, and may
include topics such as the value of adding new biogeochemical sensors to profiling floats, looking
at what we know about decadal variability, comparisons between observations and models, orusing models to evaluate interpolation methods and to bridge the considerable spatial andtemporal gaps between repeat lines. This would involve (and may be led by) existing global orregional research programs, where appropriate.
2. From these basin-scale workshops, develop a list of the collaborative projects to be carried out toaddress the science issues, and establish a working group that will carry out the necessary datasynthesis activities. Technical coordination groups such as the IOCCP, the Ocean Observations
Panel for Climate (OOPC), the North Pacific Marine Science Organization (PICES) Carbon andClimate Group (Pacific), and research program-based groups such as CarboOcean (Atlantic),
and the CLIVAR Basin Panels could provide support for these activities.
3. Hold smaller follow-up workshops to present results and outline product development, including
scientific journal articles (e.g., papers contributing to a special issue of a journal) as well as
publication and release of the data synthesis and merging these data with the global dataset.
This 3-step procedure for each basin should take no more than 2-3 years from first workshop to final
product delivery to be able to show continued progress and justification of the continued program. A
process like this would provide flexibility for science issues to evolve over time and foster integration
among a wide range of communities (physics, biogeochemistry, observationalists, modelers, etc.).
Moreover, it would also provide a more sustained and continual framework for producing coordinatedbasin- and global- scale data products on a regular basis. It should be noted, however, that new
resources would need to be found to support the working groups and workshops, as well as data
handling.
4.4

Development of an international communication and coordination forum

Having up-to-date and comprehensive information is crucial to plan, implement, and coordinate globalhydrography. At present, there are several Web sites providing information about particular aspects ofship-based repeat hydrography.
What is lacking is a common international information andcommunications forum to facilitate field program planning, agreements on standards and methods, anddata sharing/synthesis activities.
GO-SHIP recommends the development of a single Web site that will serve as a central communicationand coordination forum for both physical and carbon/biogeochemistry aspects of ship-based repeat
hydrography. Along with the site, an email list should be developed to improve communication among
the various groups. A Web site will be developed jointly by CLIVAR and the IOCCP for community
review and launch in late 2009. Elements of the site will include:Ship-based Repeat Hydrography

•
•
•
•
•
•
•

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Cruise plans (maps, tables, contact information)
Data directory
Hydrography Manual
Reference Documents (data policies, national / global research program strategies, etc.)
Summary of synthesis activities and research programs
CalendarNews / Bulletin Board

The sponsors of GO-SHIP are committed to working with the international community to develop asustained coordination activity and to seek endorsement from appropriate international andintergovernmental organizations for repeat hydrography to become a recognized part of the global
observing system.
The sponsors of GO-SHIP are committed to working with the international community to develop asustained coordination activity and to seek endorsement from appropriate international andintergovernmental organizations for repeat hydrography to become a recognized part of the global
observing system.

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Title
Manual on International Oceanographic Data Exchange. 1965
Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (Five years of work). 1966
Radio Communication Requirements of Oceanography. 1967
Manual on International Oceanographic Data Exchange - Second revised
edition. 1967
Legal Problems Associated with Ocean Data Acquisition Systems (ODAS).
1969
Perspectives in Oceanography, 1968
Comprehensive Outline of the Scope of the Long-term and Expanded
Programme of Oceanic Exploration and Research. 1970
IGOSS (Integrated Global Ocean Station System) - General Plan
Implementation Programme for Phase I. 1971
Manual on International Oceanographic Data Exchange - Third Revised
Edition. 1973
Bruun Memorial Lectures, 1971
Bruun Memorial Lectures, 1973
Oceanographic Products and Methods of Analysis and Prediction. 1977
International Decade of Ocean Exploration (IDOE), 1971-1980. 1974
A Comprehensive Plan for the Global Investigation of Pollution in
the Marine Environment and Baseline Study Guidelines. 1976
Bruun Memorial Lectures, 1975 - Co-operative Study of the Kuroshio
and Adjacent Regions. 1976
Integrated Ocean Global Station System (IGOSS) General Planand Implementation Programme 1977-1982. 1977
Oceanographic Components of the Global Atmospheric Research
Programme (GARP) . 1977
Global Ocean Pollution: An Overview. 1977
Bruun Memorial Lectures - The Importance and Applicationof Satellite and Remotely Sensed Data to Oceanography. 1977
A Focus for Ocean Research: The Intergovernmental Oceanographic
Commission - History, Functions, Achievements. 1979
Bruun Memorial Lectures, 1979: Marine Environment and Ocean Resources.
1986
Scientific Report of the Interealibration Exercise of the
IOC-WMO-UNEP Pilot Project on Monitoring Background Levelsof Selected Pollutants in Open Ocean Waters. 1982
Operational Sea-Level Stations. 1983
Time-Series of Ocean Measurements. Vol.1. 1983
A Framework for the Implementation of the Comprehensive Planfor the Global Investigation of Pollution in the Marine Environment. 1984
The Determination of Polychlorinated Biphenyls in Open-ocean Waters. 1984
Ocean Observing System Development Programme. 1984
Bruun Memorial Lectures, 1982: Ocean Science for the Year 2000. 1984
Catalogue of Tide Gauges in the Pacific. 1985
Time-Series of Ocean Measurements. Vol. 2. 1984
Time-Series of Ocean Measurements. Vol. 3. 1986
Summary of Radiometric Ages from the Pacific. 1987
Time-Series of Ocean Measurements. Vol. 4. 1988
Bruun Memorial Lectures, 1987: Recent Advances in Selected Areas of Ocean
Sciences in the Regions of the Caribbean, Indian Ocean and the Western
Pacific. 1988

Languages(out of stock)(out of stock)(out of stock)(out of stock)(out of stock)(out of stock)(out of stock)(out of stock)(out of stock)
E, F, S, R
(out of stock)
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E, F, S, R
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E, F, S, R
(out of stock)(out of stock)(out of stock)(out of stock)
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(out of stock)
E, F, S, R
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E onlyE, F, S, R
E, F, S, R
E onlyE onlyE onlyE onlyE onlyComposite
E, F, S(continued)

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Title
Global Sea-Level Observing System (GLOSS) Implementation Plan. 1990
Bruun Memorial Lectures 1989: Impact of New Technology on Marine
Scientific Research. 1991
Tsunami Glossary - A Glossary of Terms and Acronyms Used in the
Tsunami Literature. 1991
The Oceans and Climate: A Guide to Present Needs. 1991
Bruun Memorial Lectures, 1991: Modelling and Prediction in Marine Science.
1992
Oceanic Interdecadal Climate Variability. 1992
Marine Debris: Solid Waste Management Action for the Wider Caribbean.
1994
Calculation of New Depth Equations for Expendable Bathymerographs Using a
Temperature-Error-Free Method (Application to Sippican/TSK T-7, T-6 and T4 XBTS. 1994
IGOSS Plan and Implementation Programme 1996-2003. 1996
Design and Implementation of some Harmful Algal Monitoring Systems. 1996
Use of Standards and Reference Materials in the Measurement of ChlorinatedHydrocarbon Residues. 1996
Equatorial Segment of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. 1996
Peace in the Oceans: Ocean Governance and the Agenda for Peace; theProceedings of Pacem in Maribus XXIII, Costa Rica, 1995. 1997
Neotectonics and fluid flow through seafloor sediments in the Eastern
Mediterranean and Black Seas - Parts I and II. 1997
Global Temperature Salinity Profile Programme: Overview and Future. 1998
Global Sea-Level Observing System (GLOSS) Implementation Plan-1997.
1997
L'état actuel de 1'exploitation des pêcheries maritimes au Cameroun et leurgestion intégrée dans la sous-région du Golfe de Guinée (cancelled)
Cold water carbonate mounds and sediment transport on the Northeast Atlantic
Margin. 1998
The Baltic Floating University: Training Through Research in the Baltic,
Barents and White Seas - 1997. 1998
Geological Processes on the Northeast Atlantic Margin (8th training-throughresearch cruise, June-August 1998). 1999
Bruun Memorial Lectures, 1999: Ocean Predictability. 2000
Multidisciplinary Study of Geological Processes on the North East Atlantic andWestern Mediterranean Margins (9th training-through-research cruise, JuneJuly 1999). 2000
Ad hoc Benthic Indicator Group - Results of Initial Planning Meeting, Paris,
France, 6-9 December 1999. 2000
Bruun Memorial Lectures, 2001: Operational Oceanography – a perspectivefrom the private sector. 2001
Monitoring and Management Strategies for Harmful Algal Blooms in Coastal
Waters. 2001
Interdisciplinary Approaches to Geoscience on the North East Atlantic Marginand Mid-Atlantic Ridge (10th training-through-research cruise, July-August2000). 2001
Forecasting Ocean Science? Pros and Cons, Potsdam Lecture, 1999. 2002
Geological Processes in the Mediterranean and Black Seas and North East
Atlantic (11th training-through-research cruise, July- September 2001). 2002
Improved Global Bathymetry – Final Report of SCOR Working Group 107.
2002
R. Revelle Memorial Lecture, 2006: Global Sea Levels, Past, Present
and Future. 2007

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69

70
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74
75
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79
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81
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83.

Title

Bruun Memorial Lectures, 2003: Gas Hydrates – a potential source ofenergy from the oceans. 2003
Bruun Memorial Lectures, 2003: Energy from the Sea: the potential andrealities of Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC). 2003
Interdisciplinary Geoscience Research on the North East Atlantic Margin,
Mediterranean Sea and Mid-Atlantic Ridge (12th training-through-researchcruise, June-August 2002). 2003
Interdisciplinary Studies of North Atlantic and Labrador Sea Margin
Architecture and Sedimentary Processes (13th training-through-research cruise,
July-September 2003). 2004
Biodiversity and Distribution of the Megafauna / Biodiversité et distribution dela mégafaune. 2006
Vol.1 The polymetallic nodule ecosystem of the Eastern Equatorial Pacific
Ocean / Ecosystème de nodules polymétalliques de l’océan Pacifique
Est équatorial
Vol.2 Annotated photographic Atlas of the echinoderms of the ClarionClipperton fracture zone / Atlas photographique annoté deséchinodermes de la zone de fractures de Clarion et de Clipperton
Interdisciplinary geoscience studies of the Gulf of Cadiz and Western
Mediterranean Basin (14th training-through-research cruise, July-September2004). 2006
Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning and Mitigation System, IOTWS.
Implementation Plan, July-August 2006. 2006
Deep-water Cold Seeps, Sedimentary Environments and Ecosystems of theBlack and Tyrrhenian Seas and the Gulf of Cadiz (15th training-throughresearch cruise, June–August 2005). 2007
Implementation Plan for the Tsunami Early Warning and Mitigation System in
the North-Eastern Atlantic, the Mediterranean and Connected Seas
(NEAMTWS), 2007–2011. 2007 (electronic only)
Bruun Memorial Lectures, 2005: The Ecology and Oceanography of Harmful
Algal Blooms – Multidisciplinary approaches to research and management.
2007
National Ocean Policy. The Basic Texts from: Australia, Brazil, Canada,
China, Colombia, Japan, Norway, Portugal, Russian Federation, United Statesof America. (Also Law of Sea Dossier 1). 2008
Deep-water Depositional Systems and Cold Seeps of the Western
Mediterranean, Gulf of Cadiz and Norwegian Continental margins (16thtraining-through-research cruise, May–July 2006). 2008
Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning and Mitigation System (IOTWS) – 12
September 2007 Indian Ocean Tsunami Event. Post-Event Assessment of
IOTWS Performance. 2008
Tsunami and Other Coastal Hazards Warning System for the Caribbean and
Adjacent Regions (CARIBE EWS) – Implementation Plan 2008. 2008
Filling Gaps in Large Marine Ecosystem Nitrogen Loadings Forecast for 64
LMEs – GEF/LME global project Promoting Ecosystem-based Approaches toFisheries Conservation and Large Marine Ecosystems. 2008
Models of the World’s Large Marine Ecosystems. GEF/LME Global Project
Promoting Ecosystem-based Approaches to Fisheries Conservation and Large
Marine Ecosystems. 2008
Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning and Mitigation System (IOTWS) –Implementation Plan for Regional Tsunami Watch Providers (RTWP). 2008
Exercise Pacific Wave 08 – A Pacific-wide Tsunami Warning andCommunication Exercise, 28–30 October 2008. 2008
Under preparation

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No.
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85.
86
87.
88.
89.

Title
Global Open Oceans and Deep Seabed (GOODS) Bio-geographic
Classification. 2009
Tsunami Glossary
Pacific Tsunami Warning System (PTWS) Implementation Plan
(under preparation)
Operational Users Guide for the Pacific Tsunami Warning and Mitigation
System (PTWS) – January 2009. 2009
Exercise Indian Ocean Wave 2009 (IOWave09) – An Indian Ocean-wide
Tsunami Warning and Communication Exercise – 14 October 2009. 2009
Ship-based Repeat Hydrography: A Strategy for a Sustained Global
Programme. 2009

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