Exogenous and Indigenous Factors
in the Formation of Early States in Central Vietnam

Exogenous and Indigenous Factors
in the Formation of Early States in Central Vietnam
Lam Thi My Dung
Associate Professor, University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Vietnam National University, Vietnam

Abstract
During recent decades there have been important achievements in archaeological studies of Central Vietnam. The achievements in excavations and research results on the transitional period from Late Prehistory to Early History, c. 500 BC to c.
AD 300, on the late Sa Huynh culture and the early period of Cham culture are especially noteworthy.
Based on these archaeological finds and discoveries contemporary Vietnamese archaeologists are investigating the
dynamic cultural contacts of this area with the external world and the strong acculturation between exogenous and indigenous factors which led to the establishment of early states in this region. Due to qualitative and critical changes a numberof local cultural features disappeared, while the forms and behavioral patterns of a new cultural structure appeared to replace the old elements.
This essay will address the following subjects:
1. The archaeological sequences in Central Vietnam during the period from 500BC to AD 300;
2. Social changes reflected in archaeological sites and artifacts especially in the archaeological materials which evidence thetransitional phase from late Sa Huynh culture to early Cham culture.
3. This presentation will also cover the so-called Sinicization and Indianization of the area and the impact of indigenous elements on the formation process of early states in Central Vietnam.

I. Introduction

Over the last decade or so several attempts have been
made to come to grips with the problem of how and whenTransition to the history - some theoretical and practical issues

the early states of Southeast Asia first developed. Most of thein case of Southeast Asia

prominent essays have focused largely or exclusively upon
the first states of the mainland The maritime region has

Ten centuries before and after Christ (from 500 BC to AD

been less well served, due partly to the paucity and intrac-500) was the time of critical socio-political transformations

tability of the data and partly to the fact that most scholars

in Southeast Asia mainland, it is important to focus on thedealing to produce adequate descriptions of the states of theemergence of early states in some huge deltas and along thelater first millennium A.D., well after the first states were1

sea coast .
State formation in Southeast Asia: Some theoretical issues

1

founded2.
Theoretical discussions of the origins and the nature ofHigham Ch., The Archaeology of Mainland Southeast Asia. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1989; Stark Miriam T. 1998, The Tran-sition to History in the Mekong Delta: A View from Cambodia. International Journal of Historical Archaeology, Vol.2, No.3: 175-203.http://
www.seacrchc.org/media/pdfiles/ChamBook.pdf; Stark. M và Sovath. B 2001, Recent Research on the Emergence of Early Historic States
in Cambodia’s Lower Mekong Delta. Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association 21(5): 85-98
2

J.Wisseman Christie, State formation in the early maritime Southeast Asia; A consideration of the theories and the data, Bijdragen tot deTaal-, land-en Volkenkunde 151 (1995), no:2, Leiden, 235

51

Lâm Thị Mỹ Dungthe early state have been more prominent among scholars

other hand, due its historical complexity, this part of Viet-working in SEA areas, including Heine - Geldern’s essay

nam also is related to the SEA mainland (i.e. with China andon religious basis of state and kingship; Wittfogel’s modelNorthern Vietnam).

of Oriental Despotism, the Nagara state polity; Tambiah’s
model “galactic polity”; Wolters’s Mandala…

II. The archaeological sequences in Central

State formation in Southeast Asia - “[The secondary state

Vietnam during the period from 500BC toformation in which] the transition was often abrupt, as a

AD 300chiefdom or ranked society was propelled into statehood

From West to East, Central Vietnam could be composed

through direct or indirect contact with a previously existingof mountainous - forestall, river- deltaic, coastal and islandstate”3.
There are two main groups of opinions related to the

topographies.
Generally speaking it is the long and narrow topography,

raisons and forces for the emergence and evolution of state
structures in the area.

which is bounded with the mountain range in the West andi. The first one had stressed on exogenous components

with the see in the East. Such specific ecological and envi-

such as long - distance trade; Interactions with China,ronmental conditions contributed to the formation of the

India and propaganda of religions and thoughts...

typical and symbolic features in the socio-cultural structure

ii. The second one had focused on indigenous compo-

of Central Vietnam. Each cultural region of Central Viet-nents such as population growth or population rate:

nam was corresponded to one big river delta. These regions

Need and control of water management...

were divided and related each other by the passes.

While the early works have focused on the exogenous

The period from 500BC to AD 300 in Central Vietnam

elements regardless of economical, political or religious in

was the time of existence of Sa Huynh culture and the emer-

the terms of Indianization, Sinization and Hinduization...,gence of several polities like early state. This period could be

the recent researchers highlighted the important role ofdivided into two phases:

the political economy and cultural foundations of the local

I. The first phase: from 500 BC to AD 100 - Sa Huynh
early iron age culturecommunities in the establishment of the states or the idea of4

combining both two tendencies .

ii. The second phase: from AD 100 to AD 500 (Early
Champa period). It was the time of different contacts
and acculturations depended on the historical process.

Central Vietnam: SEA Mainland or SEA Islands?
From prehistoric time onwards, in one hand, Central

III. The cultural achievements of the Sa Huynh

Vietnam is closely related to the maritime SEA due its geo-

communities

cultural position. Its territory based on separate river valley
systems flowing from the central Truong Son Mountains ofVietnam to the Eastern Sea (South China Sea) in the east,
the economy of prehistoric and historic communities beyond an agricultural, fishing and forestry base and largely
centered on the coastal trade with outside worlds. In the

The communities of Sa Huynh5 culture were settled in all
topographic terrains of Central Vietnam with main achievements as follow:•

Extended the intraregional, interregional exchange

3

Kipp R.S., and Schortman E. M., The Political Impact of Trade in Chiefdoms, American Anthropologist, 1989, 91-2: 371.

4

It is worthy to note here the point of view of Wolters: “I believe that the time is now promising for a re-examination of the passage ofSoutheast Asia from prehistory to proto-history in terms of continuities rather than of discontinuities. But I am especially anxious to indicate the origins of the early political systems that furnish the appropriate background to later tendencies in Southeast Asian intra-regional
relations” (Wolters. O. W, History, Culture, and Region in Southeast Asian Perspectives, Revised Edition, SEAP, Cornell Southeast Asian
Program Publications, 2004, 26)

52

Exogenous and Indigenous Factors
in the Formation of Early States in Central Vietnam
networks; Extending the trade links (directly or in-and contacts not only economic but political and cultural

directly) into the seas of maritime Southeast Asia,

in nature. The dynamic extension of the size and scale of Sa

stimulating the development of iron working…Trade

Huynh communities in compare with pre-Sa Huynh andappears to have been the key to economic growth andthe dimensions of the cemeteries and differentiations oftrade In SEA waters seems to have been information-

graves goods were increased gradually from early to late pe-

maximizing rather than information - minimizing

riods evidenced the increasing and extending of natural and- that is, it carried a substantial baggage of informa-social resources exploitation. All these have contributed totion and ideas along with material commodities.

accumulating of wealth and power which led to the devel-

This suggests that the carriers of most of this trade

opment of social complexity.

members of maritime Southeast Asia communities
6

•

•

•

The craft production: It is important to recognize dimen-

rather than outsiders .

sions and scale of specialization and centralization of craft

Increased the production and using the metal tools,

production by using the found artifacts both from habita-

weapons (mainly the iron tools) Increasing use oftion and cemetery sites. The pottery and iron artifacts un-

metal contributed to a general shift in the economic

recovered in Sa Huynh cultural sites evidenced the pottery

and social structure of the local communities.

and iron crafts have been organized and produced on theDeveloped and improved the agriculture (rice - cul-large scale and with the standardization of the form, deco-

tivation and cultivation of other plants which wereration and style In one hand the strong increase of goods

appropriated to the environmental conditions andconsumption of the Sa Huynh communities led to extension

temperature);

and complication of inner-regional and interregional ex-

Exploited the natural resources from forest and sea

change networks. In other hand the strong and fast increase

for trading and development of craft productions.

of social complexity played main role in the existence ofAll these activities led to many big results and to thenumerous imported goods. The graves which contained theradical changes in social and economic life.

artifacts from China, India and North Vietnam ... were distributed both in North and South areas of Sa Huynh culture.

The extension of living space - The Sa Huynh culture sites

It has been suggested that trade (especially long - distancehave discovered in all topographical terrains with various

trade) has had important role in process of state formation

environments. In recent time the number of unearthed sites- luxury goods, particularly those of an exotic nature havein the big river deltas was increased strongly. This discovery

a greater impact on the local political economy. The Dong

expressed the existence of large living spaces which wereSon, Han bronze and Indian beads circulating amongst

corresponded to chiefdom of big scale or alliance of chief-elites in Central Vietnam during the last few centuries BC

doms. In the studies of the Sa Huynh chiefdoms the model

may, in fact, mark the beginnings of a phase of rapid politi-

7

made by Bronson is useful . Among the communities livingin the various eco - cultural nets there were closely relations

cal transition.
The contrary impact of the status (or rank) goods was

5 Sa Huynh culture: The Early Iron Age Archaeological Culture in Central Vietnam - The notable characteristic of the Sahuynh culture is
its mortuary tradition with burial jars. In general, the Sahuynh sites reveal a considerable use of iron and decorative items made from glass,semi-precious and precious stone such as agate, carnelian, rock crystal, amethyst, and nephrite. The sphere of the Sahuynh culture was
extended from Thua Thien- Hue province down to Dong Nai Delta. The sites (cemeteries and occupation sites) are located on sand dunes
extending along the shore or along the rivers in the alluvial plains. A quite big number of Sahuynh sites is distributed on the highland andmountainous area.
6 J.Wisseman Christie, State formation in the early maritime Southeast Asia; A consideration of the theories and the data, Bijdragen tot deTaal-, land-en Volkenkunde 151 (1995), no:2, Leiden, 277
7 Bronson Bennet, Exchange at the upstream and downstream ends: Notes towards a Functional Model of the Coastal States in SEA. In
Hutterer K.C., (ed.), Economic Exchange and Social Interactions in SEA, Papers on Michigan South and Southeast Asia. Số 13. Ann Arbor,
1977, 39-52.

53

Lâm Thị Mỹ Dung

their role in impulse of social hierarchical differentiation
inside the chiefdom and especially among the chiefdom
network. The imported good and its techno-cultural idea
were contributed to certain structural transformations ineach craft and in the craft system. All those things createdthe critical changes in the searching and exploitation of
resources, in the organization of production, in the ways of
distribution and re-distribution of needful and exotic goods
inside the chiefdom and among the chiefdom network. The
most prominent transformation in the mental aspect of
culture was the transition in burial rites from the small jar

Map 1

burials sparsely distributed in pre-Sa Huynh habitation sites
to the special big jar burials with various forms which weretreme inner social evolution and strong impacts of exog-

densely concentrated in the separate cemeteries in Sa Huynh

enous influences.

culture. Based on the spatial organization in each cemetery

Over 100 Sa Huynh sites and a dozens Early Cham sites

and comparative ethnological materials, it was thought thatwere discovered and studies in Central Vietnam. It is worth

each village cemetery was divided into different parts andnoting that the Cham sites located closely to the area of Sa

each part was the burial place for one clan or extended fam-

Huynh sites, and in many cases, the Cham cultural layer or

ily.

at least the Cham artifacts were found above the Sa Huynh

The archaeological materials have evidenced the large

cemeteries. The end of the Sa Huynh cultural phase coin-scale and strong dimensions of Sa Huynh culture power.

cided with the beginning of Cham culture. The location ofIts power was not second to any early iron age cultures in

Cham sites overlaps with that of Sa Huynh sites. But we can-South East Asia. Sa Huynh culture achievements contrib-

not explain this simply as the continuous cultural develop-

uted basically to the emergence of the states in the firstment from Sa Huynh to Cham. We do recognize the coinci-

8

centuries AD .

dence of dates, or that of location, but there are divergences
in many aspects of material culture between Sa Huynh and

IV. The nature and evolution of cultures fromAD 100 to AD 300

Cham (map 1).
There are differences in the nature of the sites. The Sa
Huynh sites are mostly cemeteries. Cham sites are varied in

Spatial Distribution of Sa Huynh and Cham Sites and the Con-nature and include occupation sites, port sites and citadel

nections between the Sites

sites. The differences in the nature and function of Sa Huynh
and Cham sites produces the differences of the features and

The burial rite with the big jar as sarcophagus which was

artifacts brought to light during excavations.

typical for Sa Huynh culture declined generally in AD 100

The results of excavations of some Cham sites have also

although its variations still existed until AD 200, 300 inyielded substantial information regarding the ritual, eco-Southern area of Sa Huynh culture. From AD 100 onwards

nomic and political activities of the people.

the social landscape changed critically because of the ex-

8

The Sa Huynh Culture with its extensive and primarily coastal distribution and many external contacts formed just such a socio-cultural

type (pasisir societies) and which later though strong commercial contacts with China to the north, the Philippines islands to the east andto India to the west, morphed into the several early historic Champa polities and later converted to Islam (Ian Glover, Sa Huynh – A Sociocultural Type, An attempt to develop an interpretative framework for a late prehistoric society drawing on archaeology, ethnography andanalogy, the Paper Presented at 19th IPPA Congress, Hanoi, 2009)54

Exogenous and Indigenous Factors
in the Formation of Early States in Central Vietnam
The Chronology of the Cham Excavated Sites

dynamic and strong cultural, economic and political contacts and interactions with outside worlds, especially with

Based on recent archaeological data, we tried to outline
the evolutional process of culture in Central Vietnam dur9

China.
The first using of brick was evidenced in the pebble base-ing the period from AD 1 to AD 700, 800 . It could be gen-ment found at Hoàn Châu 2000 excavated pit in Trà Kiệueralized as follows:site which belonged to the earliest sub - period of ovoid jar11

The early period - from the mid and end AD 1 to end AD
3. This period could be divided into two subs - periods.

led us to pose the question of initial chronology of brickproduction and using in Central Vietnam. This evidence

a. The earliest sub - period, from mid AD 1 to mid AD

helped to define the brick production began at the end AD

2. The key - artifacts were ovoid shaped jar and tile with

1. However, this so early date did not consider with othercloth impression. In the pottery it was recognized somematerials. It is also to note that bricks in Central Vietnam

traditions which heritage from Sa Huynh culture. The

during the first half of I millennium were quite different

predominant feature in pottery production was the in-from the bricks in North Vietnam although both areas havetroduction of new pottery technology which came frombeen influenced of Eastern Han brick making technology.

Eastern Han. Some wooden constructions with tile roof
were found. The vestiges of this sub - period were uncov-

The late period - from the beginning AD 400 to AD
700,800 onwards

ered in several sites such as:
1. Quang Tri

Assemblages of artifacts

2. Hue3. Đà Nẵng city - Vườn Đình - Khuê Bắc site;
4. Quảng Nam province – Hoi An, Gò Cấm (200BC to10

end ò AD 100) and Trà Kiệu site;
5. Quảng Ngãi province - Lý Sơn Island.

Radical changes occurred in the assemblages of artifacts
between Sa Huynh and Cham cultures
Pottery
In comparison with Sa Huynh pottery (mostly fromb. The succeed sub - period from mid AD 2 to end AD

graves), the pottery found in Cham sites seem to be simpler

3. Generally speaking this period was the continuous

in decoration, but varied in material and potting techniques.

development of the earliest sub - period, however ovoid

From AD 100, a new technique for pottery making was in-

jar and tile with cloth impression suddenly disappeared.

troduced in Central Vietnam (higher fired stamped ware). It

The coarse and fine pottery existed at the same time withis important to focus on the appearance of fine clay pottery

appropriate functional forms, fine pottery was increasing

and new forms of pottery such as egg-shaped jars, pedestal

gradually.

cups, kendis (spouted vessels), and tiles with textile impres-

The artifact assemblage of this early period reflected the

9

sion.

Lâm Thị Mỹ Dung 2008, Nghiên cứu quá trình chuyển biến từ sơ sử sang sơ kỳ lịch sử ở miền Trung Trung bộ và Nam Trung bộ ViệtNam. Đề tài NCKH trọng điểm, ĐHQG, mã số QGTĐ.06.07. Tư liệu khoa Lịch sử và Tư liệu Bảo tàng Nhân học, trường ĐHKHXH &NV. Hà Nội (Research on Transitional Process from Protohistory into History in Central Vietnam. Research Project QGTĐ 06.07, Vietnam
National University, Hanoi.)
10

Archaeological studies in Go Cam site provided the materials evidenced the continuity in pottery making between Sa Huynh and Early

Champa (Nguyễn Kim Dung 2007. Di chỉ Gò Cấm và Trà Kiệu trong quá trình chuyển biến sơ sử-sơ kỳ lịch sử ở miền Trung Việt Nam.
Bài tham dự Hội thảo khoa học của Đề tài QGTĐ, mã số QGTDD. 06.07 Hà Nội tháng 11 năm 2007. (Go Cam site and Tra Kieu Citadel
Complex in the Transitional Process from Protohistory to History in Central Vietnam, the paper presented at the conference of research
project QGTĐ 06.07, Vietnam National University, Hanoi.)11Nguyễn Kim Dung 2007. Di chỉ Gò Cấm và Trà Kiệu trong quá trình chuyển biến sơ sử-sơ kỳ lịch sử ở miền Trung Việt Nam. Bài thamdự Hội thảo khoa học của Đề tài QGTĐ, mã số QGTDD. 06.07 Hà Nội tháng 11 năm 2007 (Go Cam site and Tra Kieu Citadel Complex in
the Transitional Process from Protohistory to History in Central Vietnam, the paper presented at the conference of research project QGTĐ06.07, Vietnam National University, Hanoi.

55

Lâm Thị Mỹ Dung

Excavated Cham sites (map 2)
Number

Site

Cultural layer

beginning AD 4

Upper

AD 4 to AD 9, 10

Along with local coarse and fine pottery was theimported one such as Six Dynasties and Tang
pottery, Islamic pottery. Habitation site.
Bricks were appeared in the lowest layer? The
pottery was similar to the pottery from the lower
and upper layers of Trà Kiệu site.

End AD 1 toHậu Xá I - Habitation site
(Hoi An)2Đồng Nà habitation site
(Hoi An)One cultural
Layer

Beginning AD 2
to AD 43

Cẩm Phô site (Hoi An)

One cultural
Layer

Beginning AD 2
to AD 4

Habitation site

The lowest layer
belonged to
Sa Huỳnh culture

From c. 3 BC to
beginning of c.1 BC

Belonged to the habitation site Thôn Tư which
was dated to the Sa Huỳnh cultureGò Cấm layer

From mid AD c.1
to beginning AD c.2

4Gò Cấm site

Lower

5

6

7

56

Cultural features
The lowest layer contained coarse pottery which
was similar to Sa Huỳnh - early Cham coarse
pottery, Han hard stamp pottery (Eastern Han).
Some pottery types imitated Han bronze artifacts.
Habitation site and Sacred site.

Bellow
1

Date

End AD c.1
to end AD c

Trà Kiệu Citadel Complex

Upper

AD c. 4-7
and beyond

Lower- early
habitation site

Beginning AD c. 2
to beginning AD c. 4

Cổ Luỹ - Phú Thọ
Citadel Complex

Thành HồCitadel Complex

The upper layer
which contained twoarchitectural levels

AD c.4 to AD c.7

The early
habitation layer

Beginning AD c.2
to beginning AD c.4

Citadel and
AD c.4-7-16 (?)
architectural vestiges

Tile with cloth impression, ovoid jar. Coarse
pottery which was inherited Sa Huỳnh coarse
pottery. The Eastern Han artifacts, Southern
Asian pottery. The control point or headquartersof Jinan prefecture?
Lowest layer - layer contained ovoid jars. The
first wooden constructions with tile with cloth
impression. The coarse pottery which evidenced
the continuity from Sahuynh coarse pottery.
Appearing of new forms of pottery.
Habitation place
Appearing of new kind of tile – tile made byusing the mould, brick and earthen architecturaldetails. Cham coarse and fine pottery. Habitation
place, Citadel. Political, religious andadministrative center
Habitation place without architectural vestiges.
The coarse pottery which was bearing thesimilarities with coarse pottery from the lower
layer of Tra Kieu
this layer has not contained the ovoid jar and tile
with cloth impression.
The early architectural level contained
brick and tile which are similar to the these fromthe upper layer of Tra Kieu
The late architectural level has the end -tile withhuman face. Habitation place, citadel, politicaland administrative center
Bearing the similarities with the early habitation
layer of Cổ Luỹ - Phú Thọ
Bearing the similarities with the upper layers of
Trà Kiệu and Cổ Luỹ-Phú Thọ and beyond.
Habitation place, citadel, political andadministrative center.

Exogenous and Indigenous Factors
in the Formation of Early States in Central Vietnam
silver jewellery and ornaments became more popular, butagate, carnelian, and nephrite beads became rare; the Lingling O and two animal headed earrings, trademarks of the
Sa Huynh culture, totally disappeared.
Other Artifacts
We do not have much information from the archaeological sites to evidence the evolution of metal and stone implements over this period; only by looking at private collections can we recognize great changes in the making and useof stone and metal tools.
Cultural shifts
In comparison with the previous Sa Huynh culture, the
Early Cham and Cham artifact assemblages reflect the greatchanges in material, manufacturing techniques and forms.
According to us, there two main groups of factors (innerand outer), which caused these shifts.
On the one hand, it is important to note the continuous
cultural processes, especially in some domestic aspects suchpottery making, subsistence patterns…, and on the other
Map 2

hand, we have to focus on the cultural changes over thistime. The new forms of settlement patterns and artifacts de-We can recognize during the first millennium three maingroups of pottery based on differences in fabric, surface
12

treatment, vessel-forming techniques, style and function .
st

rived from new social structures and newly acquired functions.
New social functions provide the opportunities and abili-

1. The 1 group includes the domestic wares, locally madeties for the development of quantitative and qualitativeand relatively low-fired. This group evidenced somelevels of organization of production and distribution. These

common features with the Sa huynh pottery.

changes influenced the selection of imported items. Thend

2. The 2 group consists of the locally made earthenware,changes occurring in artifact assemblages and site structure

but under the influence of the new technique from theled us to recognize tendencies and preferences in the ways

North (i.e. Northern Vietnam or China). Some pottery

people interacted with the outside world over this millen-

forms seem to originate from the West.

nium long period.

rd

3. The 3 group presents the high-fired, stamped, glazed
and unglazed Han pottery and probably some imported

Nature of Cultural Interactions

pottery from the West. These earthenwares were foundin site belonging to the early and middle phases as defined above.

For the first phase, the connections with Han China
played an important role in the establishment of new social
structure. Influence from China penetrate the Sa Huynh

12

Ornaments

culture13 and became stronger in the beginning of the firstIndo-Pacific glass beads are found in abundance. Gold,millennium AD; it was caused by various factors, among

Lam Thị My Dzung, Do gom thien nien ky I CN o Mien Trung Vietnam (The pottery in the I st millennium AD in Central Vietnam),Khao co hoc, no.1, Hanoi (in Vietnamese), 50-70.

57

Lâm Thị Mỹ Dungwhich the political factor is most significant14. In this same

Obviously, all early kingdoms were based on the Hindu

time, we can not ignore the influence from India, but theconception of royalty, but never did they become Indian

connection with India seems to be weaker than that withcolonies. Up to now, Vietnamese archaeologists are of the

China. The material culture of this phase also reflects some

opinion that much of the available data supports the thirdfeatures which were inherited from the earlier Sa Huynh

point of view. We suggest that trade with China and India

culture.

played and important role, but it was never the principal

During the second phase, one is witness to the increase‘cause’ of the emergence of early states. State power wasof complexity in the connections with the outside world, in

an important addition, but not the result of the successfulcomparison with the first phase. One must also emphasize

development of trade with external world. I argue that thethe strength of the influence from India and the multiple

spread of goods and culture from India and China reflectedconnections with Insular Southeast Asia. All these factors

the grafting of Indian and Chinese commerce onto a pre-brought about radical transformations in various facets ofexisting infrastructure of Southeast Asian networks. Such

Cham societies.

an explanation implies that earlier phases of development
in various areas of Southeast Asia were characterized by in-

V. Sinicization and Indianization of the area
and the impact of indigenous elements on
the formation process of early states in Central Vietnam.

digenous processes of trade expansion and increasing social
stratification15.
Of course, we are now far from the final solution ofproblems, concerned statehood of Southeast Asia. However, we must further our researches not only on material
remains because of “The people of proto-historic South-

Some Opinions about Sinicization, Indianization and theireast Asia retained, I suggest, much more than vestiges ofSocial Impacts

earlier behavior, though their behavior would not havebeen identical in every locality. But their cultures are

There are three groups of scholarly opinions about theunlikely to be entirely illuminated by artifacts recovered

process of so-called Indinization (and Sinicization), whichfrom graves or by Chinese evidence of commercial ex-

for more than a millennium, beginning from the earlychanges in the proto-historic period. Tools and trade rep-

centuries of the Common Era, was accomplished time andresent only fraction of a social system”16.

again by Brahmin priers, Buddhist monks, scholars and artisans who were introduced into Southeast Asia indigenous

The Earliest Archaeological Artifacts from China and India insocieties by Indian merchants. They emphasize:

Central Vietnam

i. Southeast Asian Initiatives;
ii. Colonization theories;iii. The idea of a mutual sharing process in the evolution of Indianized statecraft in Southeast Asia.

13

According to researchers, exogenous objects can be divided into 3 groups: 1) Objects which were directly imported
exogenously; 2) Objects which were produced using foreign

Lam Thi My Dzung, Sa Huynh Regional and Inter-Regional Interactions in the Thu Bon Valley, Quang Nam Province, Central Vietnam,

Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association 29, 2009, 68-75.
14

Lam Thi My Dzung, Mot so y kien xung quanh van de giao luu va tiep bien trong van hoa Sa Huynh (Some opinions about the relation-

ships with the outside world of Sa Huynh culture). The paper presented at the Conference on ‘The Relationships and Acculturations in Sa
Huynh Culture’, Institute of Archaeology, Hanoi, September (in Vietnamese).
15

Lam Thi My Dzung, Sa Huynh Regional and Inter-Regional Interactions in the Thu Bon Valley, Quang Nam Province, Central Vietnam,

Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association 29, 2009, 68-75.
16Wolters. O. W, History, Culture, and Region in Southeast Asian Perspectives, Revised Edition, SEAP, Cornell Southeast Asian Program

Publications, 2004, 25.

58

Exogenous and Indigenous Factors
in the Formation of Early States in Central Vietnam
technology and 3) Objects which were produced locally,17

and beads with animal shape (lion, bird, tiger…). At several

copying the shape of foreign objects . Objects which werecemeteries in Quang Nam provinces and Ho Chi Minh City,

made on foreign orders can be classified as group 1). Be-

carnelian beads in shape of bird, tiger, and etched beads

sides, there were locally produced object but were made by

were found as grave goods. Carnelian lion and tiger beads

foreign workers using foreign technology for the demand ofare a reference to Buddha as Sakyasimha (Lion of the Sakya

18

the local society, etc .

Clan), and it is highly probable that the lion bead from

However, given the current research conditions, it is diffi-

Thailand, as well as similar ones (tiger, bird or deer) fromcult to clearly distinguish Han products or Han-styled prod-

Vietnam, Myanmar, Thailand are early Buddhist icons, anducts into groups within Sa Huynh and Early Cham cultures.

as such probably the earliest witness to Buddhist ideas andMost objects/artifacts originating from Western and East-

values yet recognized in Southeast Asia19.

ern Han (China) and India were discovered in Sa Huynh

The pottery imported from South India appeared verysites were bronze artifacts such as tripod, bowls, plates,

early in Central Vietnam. It was evidenced in the early

pots, coins, beads etc. which were considered as the objects

Cham sites such as Tra Kieu and Go Cam sites in Quang

which displayed clearly status (i.e.” status goods” or “status

Nam province20.

markers”), General speaking, these contacts and exchanges
between Sa Huynh people and outside world mainly had an

VI. Some conclusions

economic basis and the nature of these relationships is multilateral and equal.

So, through the unique process of acculturation, theBut in early Cham sites, the artifacts which were origi-

ethnically different Southeast Asian peoples absorbed thenated from the North (including China and Northern Viet-

Chinese and Indian cultural elements and adapted them tonam) closely related to masonry technique, citadel building,their own particular needs. The superimposition of Indian

pottery making… So, the connections with Chinese Han

culture never derived from a policy of political subjugation

played most important role in the establishment of new so-

nor to economic exploitation; rather the very process signi-

cial structure and those influences from China which were

fied a peaceful outlook and a cooperative approach.

seen in the Sahuynh culture became stronger in the begin-

In summary, based on the archaeological and historical an-ning of the I millennium AD. The relationships with outside

nals, one could apply the following cultural sequences forworld intensified in many aspects, and due to many reasonsthe period 500 BC to AD 500:

including political, cultural, economic…

1. The Proto-historic period – Sa Huynh culture. This cul-

A great number of carnelian and agate beads of Indian

ture ends around the beginning of the second centu-

origin, which were found in the Iron Age sites in Thailand,ry AD. But in some areas, especially in the southern

Myanmar, and Vietnam: in particular, specific etched beads

part, the Sa Huynh culture only declined about AD

17

Hà Văn Tấn, “Óc Eo - Những yếu tố nội sinh và ngoại sinh”, In trong Văn hóa Óc Eo và các văn hóa đồng bằng sông Cửu Long, Sở

VHTT An Giang xuất bản, Long Xuyên, 1984, tr. 230 (Indigenous and Exogenous Elements , Proceedings of Conference Oc Eo Culture
and the Ancient Cultures in Mekong Lower Delta, Provincial Office of Culture and Information, An Giang, Long Xuyen province, 1984).
18

According to Beline Berenice, there were Indian workers who came to work in SEA to produce jewelries there. According to Nguyen

Kim Dung (Institute of Archaeology, Vietnam), until now there has not been evidence for the local production of carnelian jewelries, butthere were plenty of evidence in archaeological sites for the local production of glass jewelries.
19

Glover. I., Recent Archaeological Evidences for Early Maritime Contacts Between India and Southeast Asia. In H.P.Ray and J.F. Salled(eds), Tradition and Archaeology: Early Maritime Contacts in the Indian Ocean, Neww Delhi: Manohar, 1994, 160; Lam Thị My Dzung ,Sa Huynh Regional and Inter-Regional Interactions in the Thu Bon Valley, Quang Nam Province, Central Vietnam, Bulletin of the IndoPacific Prehistory Association 29, 2009, 68-75.
20Nguyen Kim Dung, Di chi Go Cam va con duong tiep bien van hoa sau Sa Huynh khu vuc Tra Kieu (Go Cam site and the ways of cul-tural acculturation epi- Sa Huynh in Tra Kieu area, Khao co hoc, no.6. Hanoi (in Vietnamese), 41, fig.1.3

59

Lâm Thị Mỹ Dung

200 or 300, with some transformations in both burialtion from Linyi to Champa (i.e., the relationshiprites and grave goods.

between Linyi and similar polities, and Champa). In

2. The period from the end of first century AD to the end ofseveral cases, the interpretation of the historical an-

the second or third centuries AD: The Ancient Chamnals finds no match in the archaeological evidence.

or early Cham periods is characterized by multi-

From the archaeological point of view, it is impor-cultural interactions with the outside world, amongtant to note that the differences in archaeologicalwhich the strongest connections were with the Chi-records between the above-mentioned phases during

nese cultural sphere. These connections began in thethe period from AD 100 to 500 are smaller than the

final phase of Sa Huynh culture and increased during

previous Sa Huynh culture.

the Eastern Han period. According to the ancient annals, the sphere of Sa Huynh culture belonged to Ji-

We tend to accept the idea that the Linyi and Linyi-

nan district (Quan Nhat Nam) of Eastern Han China.

like polities of Central Vietnam from AD 100 to 500

Cultural shifts are easily recognizable, particularly

were established on the local bases but under strong Han

the total changes in burial rites and ceremonies (butChinese influence (in fact, the formation of these early statescremation as the mean of the dead burial is still continu-

reflected the reaction of the local communities fighting againsting). The jar burials and their associated grave goods

the Chinese domination)22. The impact and influence ofdisappeared and these shifts were reflected in the ap-

Indic civilization increased around AD 400 and 500, andpearance of new cultural patterns. Therefore, some

Champa appeared on the historical scene around AD

people suggest naming this period as pre-Linyi Pe-

600. The archaeological materials do not bring evidence

riod (Tien Lam Ap).

for such a radical change or the replacement of Linyi by

3. The beginning of the third century AD – The Linyi stateChampa. On the contrary, one can observe continuities

and similar states along Central Vietnam: This isin the development of material culture between these pe-an intensive process of state formation. The appear-

riods. It is recognized both in the sites and in the artifact

ance of the earliest Cham citadels. As evidenced byassemblages.

the vestiges found in the lower layer of Tra Kieu, theupper layer of Co Luy – Phu Tho and the Ho cita-

REFERENCES

21

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cultural interaction with India and Southeast Asia
Islands became most important.
4. From the AD 500 onwards, the term Champa occurred:
There are some gaps in the evolution of these phases,
particularly in the transition stage from Sa Huynh to

21

Higham Ch., The Archaeology of Mainland Southeast Asia. Cambridge
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Stark Miriam T. 1998. The Transition to History in the Mekong Delta:
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61