ASIAN ALPINE E-NEWS
Issue No.48 March 2019

Contents“The Mekong River – Descents and Explorations of Headwaters”
Masayuki Kitamura, Tokyo University of Agriculture

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Page 2 ～31

MASAYUKI KITAMURA
Translated, supplemented and edited by Tom Nakamura

The Mekong River – Descents and Explorations of Headwaters

Part 1 - The first descents
A history of the first descent of the Mekong River basin began with a record of the Earth
Science Expedition led by Pete Winn, USA. A party of Pete Winn first descended the
Yanbi River, a tributary of the Mekong River in Yunnan Province, to Man Wan in 1994.
The Earth Science Expedition (hereinafter described as ESE) has extensively been
exploring untrodden rivers and challenging first descents in west China under theleadership of a most potential member, Pete Winn. He is a geologist and also an expert
of river rafting with years of experiences as a river guide in the Colorado River andother rivers. Pete and his colleagues planned and prepared descents in China since
1980s. For the purpose, in the beginning they chose a Chinese partner, The Center forInternational Science Exchanges, China Academy of Sciences (hereinafter described as
CISE).

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Even nowadays the same situation remains as before.

Because of bureaucracy ofChinese administration in 1980s and 1990s, they requested much money and energy
was spent for obtaining a permit for river descent in China as in case of a climbing
permit for mountains. The reason is that the upper streams of the Asian great rivers
such as Yangtze, Mekong and Salween flow through remote borderlands of Tibet which
are not opened to foreigners. Presumably, therefore, ESE first attempted a river in
Yunnan which was comparatively easy for access and required less permit fee. The
highlight of the first descent is a moment to enter unknown and raging rapids where“how treacherous and dangerous” is unforeseeable. The thrilling excitement would
strongly attract those who challenge the descent.

Once the descent starts, it is

impossible to return on the way. A blind curve of deep gorge where no scout can bemade is particularly dreadful.
The most important items for planning are detailed topographical maps. The best one
is a topographical map of 1:100,000 made by the mapping department of the Chinese
People’s Liberation Army (hereinafter described as PLA map).

However, they arestrictly confidential to foreigners. Therefore, we availed ourselves of TPC 1:500,000
maps (USA Defense Mapping Agency) and 1: 1,500,000 geographical maps before theRussian topographical maps 1:200,000 made in 1970s appeared in the market in 1995.
Currently Google Earth and Google maps are helpful and accumulated information kept
from Google on the data base of the similar type of rivers suggests and gives us a hint as
to possibility and location of rapids.

Section 1 – from the Headwaters to Qamdo(Qinghai Province to Tibetan Autonomous Region)
1. In September, 1999, a joint party led by Masayuki Kitamura from Tokyo Universityof Agriculture (hereinafter described as TUA) and China Sciences International Travel
Service, Chinese Academy of Sciences (hereinafter described as CSITS) succeeded in thefirst descent from Yeyonsongdou 4800m in the headwaters, the true source of the
Mekong, to Qamdo 3200m by inflatable kayak and 4.8m rafting boat in 19 days.
Distance of the descent was 560km and height difference was 1600m respectively.
2. ESE/CISE led by Pete Winn made the second descent from Yeyonsongdou to Zadoi
only one day later.

The both parties had no prior communication between them.

Pete’s party discovered a 7m high water fall in the uppermost Mekong at a point 50km
upstream from Zadoi (N33 03 30, E95 04 08). The American named “Snow Leopard

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Fall” for this fall as they saw the animal there. TUA/CSITS discovered 12m highJatarungga fall, the second highest fall in the Mekong, in the downstream from
Nangchen (N33 07 20, E96 36 23).
3.

In 2003, a Russian team, Moscow Institute of Technology led by Alexander

Selvachev first descended about 250km of Dze Qu, a largest tributary to Za Qu by a 5m
cataraft.

They reached Qamdo continuing the descent of the Za Qu after the

confluence.
4. In 2004, Mekong First Descent Project (hereinafter described as MFDP) led byMichael O’shea descended the whole section upstream of Zadoi (third descent).
5. In 2005, a Japanese party of Yoshiharu Sekino and TV crew descended 150km from
Yeyongsongdou by inflatable kayaks.

Section 2 – From Qamdo to Yanjing(Southern Tibetan Autonomous Region to the border with Yunnan Province)
1. In April 2004, a joint expedition of four countries made the first descent of Section
from Qamdo to Yanjing. The party comprised of the following team of 13 members:
USA----------ESE led by Pete Winn
Australia---ESE, Ralf Buckly
China--------China Scientific Exploration Association led by Liu Li
Japan--------TUA led by Masayuki Kitamura
This section is a most difficult part in the Mekong. In many places the river forms
deep and formidable gorges, where it is scarcely possible to find an escape route. The
Grade is Class V +. The original plan was finally reach Yanjing. But they encounteredcontinuous rapids, fiercer than expected, near Xilong 2900m at about 136km
downstream from Qamdo (N30 20.625 E97 46.835) and the plan was forcibly
abandoned.
2. In 2004, MFDP led by Michael O’shea completed the first descent of this section to
Yanjing by kayak.
3. In 2008, The Last Descent led by Travis Winn descended the same section by kayak.
Travis joined the 2004 joint expedition.

He is a son of Pete Winn.

Based ondescriptions by MFDF, the 2008 team is not convinced that O'shea kayaked this sectionof river.

5Section 3 – From Yanjing to near Dali
(Tibetan Autonomous Region to Yunnan Province)
This section is easy to access as there is a vehicle road from Yanjing to Yong Bao Bridge(near Dali) along the Mekong River though the road is partly away from the river.
There is a famous hot springs resort on the river bank in Yanjing. A road from Yanjing
to Deqen is the Yunnan-Tibet Highway and many tourists visit Deqen to have amagnificent view of Meili Snow Mountains. The river Grade is mainly Class III – IV
and this part must be the best section for commercial rafting.
1. In October 2002, TUA led by Masayuki Kitamura made the first descent from theborder 2154m of Tibetan Autonomous Region and Yunnan Province to Baijixun 1678m
by4.8m cataraft and rafting boat.

Distance of descent was 230km and height

difference was 600m respectively. They made long and short portages eight times enroute. They could successfully pass through the first half of “Moon Gorge”, which isone of the narrowest gorges in the Mekong and now a sightseeing spot because of its
breathtaking landscape of natural wonder, but they had to make a portage for theremaining second half.
2. In December 2002, an American party of river guides led by Jim Norton made thecomplete descent of this section.
3. In 2004, MFDP led by Michael O’Shea made the first descent from Baijixun 1678m
to Yong Bao Bridge 1255m by kayak. Distance of descent was 265km and height
difference was 423m respectively.
4. In 2005, Mt Sobek led by Jim Norton, a commercial expedition company, organizeda tour.
5. In 2005, TUA led by Masayuki Kitamura descended the same part as above from
Baijixun to Yong Bao Bridge.

Section 4 – From near Dali to the Border(Southwest part of Yunnan Provice)
There is no vehicle road along the downstream from Yong Ping (west of Dali) in thesouthwest part of Yunnan Province.

Therefore, Take-in and Take-out points arebridges or towns. In this section many dams have been being constructed in the mainstream of the Mekong River. The dam first constructed is Man Wan Dam.

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From Yong Bao Bridge to Man Wan:
1. In October 1995, ESE and CISE made the first descent from Yong Bao Bridge to
Man Wan by two 4.8m catarafts, a two man paddle cataraft and two kayaks. Thissection has rapids of four Grade Class V and many Grade Class III – IV located in the
upstream of Jihong (Rainbow) Bridge, an oldest iron-bridge in China, which is told tohave been crossed by Marco Polo.

These Class V rapids were formed by a hugelandslide in 1988 (or 1986?) delete - date known from other sources). Local people callthese rapids as Mahuangou (means leech channel), but Pete Winn named as Dragon
Teeth Rapids that is one of the most famous rapids in the Mekong River.
2. In 2004, MFDP made descent led by Michael O’shea.
3. In 2005, TUA made descent led by Masayuki Kitamura.
4. In 2006, The Last Descent made descent led by Travis Winn to Xiao Wan.
From Man Wan Dam to Jinggu-Lincang Bridge (Jinlinqiao)
1. In April – May, 1997, ESE/CISE led by Pete Winn made the first ascent of thissection. They are the only party to have descended this part before Dachaoshan Dam
was constructed in 2001.
2. In 2004, MFDP made descent led by Michael O’shea.
3. In 2005, TUA made descent led by Masayuki Kitamura
From Jinggu-Lincang Bridge to a local port (N23 03 45, E100 08 41)
1. In 2004, MFDP led be Michael O’shea made the first descent of this section. They
met three rapids of Grade Class V + en route.
2. In 2005, TUA made descent led by Masayuki Kitamura

Chinese Rafters and Kayakers
Reports on the first descents of the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang) and Yellow River(Huang He) made by Chinese in 1980s were published in Chinese. Since no records ondescent of the Mekong River by Chinese were found, research was made to investigate
the fact about the Chinese accomplishments. Questions and enquiries were sent toChinese rafters, explorers and Chinese Academy of Science. With the result, certain
reliable records were gathered.

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Notable information that two Chinese rafters had already attempted on descent of the
Mekong River in June of 1987 became available. One of them is Tai Su Bo who joined
the TUA expedition to north Yunnan in 2002 and the other is Song Yipin who was amember of the international team in 2004. They took in at Man Wan using a bamboo
raft of 2m x 9m size made by local villagers. They descended three days but theirbamboo raft was broken at large rapids a bit upstream of Jinggu-Lincang Bridge andsaved swimming to the river bank. The rapids are presumed to be “No Exit Rabbit” ofGrade Class V. Regretfully no photos as evidence remained, but their explanations,severally reported, are considered to be trusted.
Song Yipin who operates a rafting company is reported to have made the following threedescents of the Mekong before the above attempt by bamboo raft.
1. In 1990, his team descended 400km from Man Wan to Guanlei, a town in the border,
by rubber boat in about seven days. (Seven days would be too short. It must havetaken more than seven days, (or this account is not credible.)
2. 1n 1999, he planned and organized a tour to descend eight major rivers in Yunnan
Province such as Nu Jiang (Upper Salween), Jinsha Jiang (River of Golden Sand, Upper
Yangtze) and Hong Jiang. No detailed sections of the descents are unknown (Kita - hemay have planned this, but did not complete them).
3. In November, 2001, a Chinese team of four members including Song Yiping made adescent from Yanjing of southeast Tibet to Gongguoqiao in west Yunnan by China-maderubber boat in 10 days. But their record was rather ambiguous in many parts. SongYiping has not published any official report on his expeditions. (Kita, my Chinese
friends do not believe he did this).
As for the tributaries, in August of 1997, a Chinese rafting team led by Na Ming Huidescended the Xiao Hei He in southwest Yunnan by paddle raft carrying eight persons.
In 1998, they also descended the Zhu Jiang which is the largest river in southern
Yunnan. In October, 2006, Na Ming Hui and Wang Dong Li descended the Wei Yuan
Jiang near Puer, a famous place for Chinese tea “Pu’ercha”.
It is regrettable that many of Chinese rafters don’t write records and consequently they
publish no reports of their expeditions. In future when their detailed records were
issued, a chronicle of the first descents would have to be re-written

Part 2 – Explorations of Headwaters and True Source8A brief history of the exploration―1866 to 1894
After the death of Henri Mouhot, a discoverer of Angkor Wat, who had first led a French
expedition to the Upper Mekong in 1866, Doudart de Lagree of French Navy took overMouhot’s post. The newly appointed leader crossed the border to Yunnan Province ofChina and further continued their march northeastward to the Upper Yangtze on theway to head for Tali Fu together with Francis Garnier, a famous explorer of Northwest
Yunnan. The same tragedy fell on Lagree too. He died of a disease at Hui-tse in 1868,
while Garnier could arrive at Tali Fu being helped by a missionary, M. Leiguilcher.
1868 was a notable year for the chronicle. In this year no less than three attempts
from three points were made to penetrate the obscurities of the unknown region. One
was by Lagree’s party which had started from Saigon; a second was by Mr. T.T. Cooperfrom Sichuan to East Tibet; the third by an English party of Major Sladen from Bhamo(Burma) on the Irrawaddy River. A great effort of the Lagree’s expedition had been the
exploration of the Mekong, which they ascended and surveyed from the delta, as far as apoint of latitude 22°00’.

From there they traveled through Southern Yunnan andreached the provincial capital, Yunnan Fu (Kunming) at the end of 1867, the first timein my knowledge (this is optional) that any European traveler (not being a missionary
priest) since Marco Polo visited in 1283.
In July 1890, the French Government entrusted Dutreuil de Rhins, who had been a
distinguished explorer to Congo, Indo-China and Central Asia as well, with a scientificmission to Upper Asia. In October of the same year Fernand Grenard was appointed tothe mission. The small party calmly left Paris on February 19, 1891. It was a start ofthe long journey over three years across the Caucasus, Russian Turkestan, Chinese
Turkestan, Karakoram Pass to Ladakh, again back to Chinese Turkestan, Taklimakan
Desert, Kun Lun and then desolate Changtang high plateau towards Lhasa of theirdestination from the northwest. Three months of the uninviting hardship to struggle
against a desolate wilderness of the northern Tibet brought the travelers to Nam Co
Lake (Tengri Nor), and here they were but a week’s march to Lhasa. After Bonvalot,
they were the first Europeans to touch the shores of the lake since the day of Huc.
However the officials of the Lhasa deputation stopped them to further proceed to Lhasa.
So they turned northward as Bower, Littledale, Rockhill, and Bonvalot had to turn, andas far as Nakchu-ka they were following the usual Mongol pilgrim and caravan routebound for the Chinese frontier at Sining Fu (Xining).
In early March of 1894, from Nagchu de Rhins and Grenard left the direct pilgrim roadand struck into the northern trade route between Lhasa and Batang, eastward. But

9subsequently they made a long detour to regain the direct route to Xining, on the way ofwhich they traveled through the source of the Mekong River. They explored a part of theupper Salween River and, having crossed Tangglha range, they found themselves on amarshy plateau crossed by the Dam Chu, the longest branch of the Yangtze River.
They made what was, from the geographical point of view, the most interesting
discovery in their journey, but it resulted in the misfortune of a fatal accident that deRhins was brutally murdered by local Khambas near Jyekundo.
On April 8 they entered from the Yangtze River basin into the Mekong River basin.
Grenard described “At nine o’clock in the morning, we had the satisfaction, in crossing
the Zanag Lungmug La, to achieve one of the objects which we had set ourselves toaccomplish. From this pass, which is 16,760 feet high, runs the Lungmug Chu,
westernmost of the source of the Mekong. The joys of discovery, which are enough tomake any good explorer forget the sufferings of a journey were increased two-fold for us
by the fact that this humble stream of water, now motionless under ice, but soon to flow
over mountains and plains to French territory, ---------------.“ in his book TIBET; TheCountry and Inhabitants (Hutchinson, London 1904). They followed the Lungmug
Chu down to Zanag (Current Chinese name: Zanaqu river), one of the two main
headwaters of the Upper Mekong and rather hastily congratulated themselves forhaving discovered the source of the great river. The head of Lungmug Chu which, theyclaimed, they had reached first was not exactly the true source of the Mekong. (Thispart was written by Tamotsu Nakamura)

The Mekong River and Chinese attempts
The Mekong River originates in the Tangglha mountains of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau,
and flows down from north to south through Qinghai Province, Tibetan Autonomous
Region, Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam to the South China Sea westof Ho Chi Minh City. The Mekong is the largest international river in the Indo-China
Peninsula. According to the latest definition of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, thename of the Mekong River varies in the four stages as under:(1) Mekong------------------- The lower stream in Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand andVietnam to the river mouth.
(2) Lancang Jiang-----------The middle and lower stream from Qamdo (Chamdo) to theborder between China and Myanmar/Laos.
(3) Za Qu (Dza Chu)---------The upper stream- the upper Mekong - from the river sources10

to Qamdo.
(4) Zayaqu (Dza Kar)------The upper stream of the northernmost source to Ganasongdou
which is a confluence with Zanaqu.
(5) Zanaqu (Dza Nak)-----The upper stream of the westernmost source to Ganasongdou.
“Za” of Za Qu means rock piece, rock wall and rocky mountain in Tibetan language, and“Qu” means river. In English “Rock River” is sometimes used for Za Qu. A specialistof The Heritage Conservator of Yushu Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture explains that Za
Qu means “river coming from rocky mountain or river flowing through rocky mountain”.
As Za Qu separates into many tributaries in the upstream of Zadoi, Chinese
geographers call this area as “Source Area”. In farther upstream Za Qu separates into
two major tributaries of Zayaqu (white rock river in Tibetan) and Zanaqu (black rockriver).
The source of the Mekong River was first reported to the western countries on February
1993 issue of National Geographic (Vol. 183 No. 2) after the Peoples Republic of China
had started. Michael Yamashita and Thomas O’nell sent their article to the National
Geographic. However the source which they reached was not geographical true source,
but “Spiritual Source” that was worshiped by local Tibetan people. They themselves
recognized this and wrote to the said journal.
In those days, the geographical true source had not been yet discovered. The Chinese
Academy of Sciences (hereinafter described as CAS) organized a professional task force“The Comprehensive Scientific Expedition to the Qinghai-Xizang (Tibet) Plateau” in1973 – 1980 to make an overall scientific research mainly in the Tibetan Autonomous
Region.

However research was scarcely conducted in the headwaters basin of the

Mekong River. After new China was born, the only following research was made in
Zadoi County where there are the headwaters.
1964/67: The Northwest Plateau Institute of Biology, CAS, undertook the first researchof grassland.
1969:

The provincial (Qinghai) government and Zadoi County government conductedsurvey of grassland.

1970:

The Northwest Plateau Institute of Biology surveyed grassland of Yushu
Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Qinghai, to which Zadoi County belonged.

1986:

The government of Yushu Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Qinghai, conducted
research of agricultural resources in Zadoi County.

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1987:A Tibetan, Ga Ma Tu Ga, an officer of the Heritage Conservator of Yushu
Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Qinghai, surveyed on foot from theheadwaters of Zana Qu to the border.

In search of the true source – 1994
In summer of 1994, TUA and CSITS jointly organized a team “Expedition to the
Headwaters” to discover the true geographical source of the Mekong River. Before theexpedition started, a joint partner Zhou Changjin of the Commission for Integrated
Survey of Natural Resources, CAS (hereinafter described as CISNR) measured both the
Zayaqu and Zanaqu on the PLA map 1: 100,000 in advance and estimated as follows.
Zayaqu---------River length: 93.3km and area of river basin: 2,560km2
Zanaqu---------River length: 91.7km and area of river basin: 1,983km2
The length of the two rivers was almost the same. No significant difference was seenfrom the topographical map. Therefore flowing water volume must have a key factor
for comparison of the two rivers. On September 2, 1994, the expedition team started acaravan from Moyun, the remotest village in the upper Mekong.

They measured

flowing water volume of the two rivers on September 4. The result was as follows.
Zayaqu---------Average current speed: 1.089m/sec Average water depth: 0.72m
Average water flow: 54.6m3/sec
Zanaqu---------Average current speed: 1.067m/sec Average water depth: 0.33m
Average water flow: 10.49m3/sec
This implied and proved that the Zayaqu was the main stream of the Mekong River, andthey marched up the Zayaqu. On September 12 they reached a terminus of glacier at
5160m (N33 42 41, E94 41 37) which fed water to Lasagongma, the geographical sourceof the longest headwaters.

They got to know, for the first time, the name of

Lasagongma at the meeting with research workers of CAS after they had returned to
Beijing.
Also in 1994, before TUA party entered Moyun, a Japanese photographer, Kenji Aoyagi,
had visited a spiritual source of Zanaqu called Zhanahuohuo Zhouchi.

Thereafter

many Japanese photographers, mountaineers and explorers have entered the source ofthe Menkong River.

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Franco – British expedition
Coincidently in the same year when TUA and CSITS joint party reached thegeographical source, the Franco-British expedition led by a Michel Peissel discovered ariver source (N33 16 32, E93 52 56) 4795m at Rupsa-La Pass, one of the headwaters of
Zanaqu. An explorer – Tibetologist Michel Peissel FRGS accompanied by DR. Jaques
Falck and the Hon. Sebastian Guinness reached the source on September 17, 1994.
(Peissel’s book: The Barbarians – Discovery of the Source of the Mekong in Tibet, also avideo: The Source of The Mekong (Smithsonian Expeditions). The Rup-sa Pass is on asaddle which links the Drug-di and Sag-ri ranges which frame the last 40km of thecourse of the Zaqu. The Rup-sa Pass marks the watershed between the Mekong and theYangste River system.

The Royal Geographical Society (RGS) recognized Peissel’s

expedition (The Geographical Journal, Vol. 161, Part 2, page 235-236 The Record, July
1995). The RGS recognition caused confusion.
Over the past century a dozen expeditions failed to reach source of the Mekong. 1894
the French explorer Dutireuil de Rhins was assassinated by Tibetan Khambas just twomonths after having erroneously recorded the source of the Mekong to be that of theLung-Mog (Lungmug of Grenard) river, a tributary on the right bank of the Zanaqu.
There is no other record or claim of the source having been reached by other foreigners.
Of the early explorers who traveled the region, Kozloff, Teichman and Rockhill neverreached the source.
The source of the Mekong is located in the very inner heartland of the highest and mostinhospitable portion of the central Asian highlands, hundreds of kilometres from any
settlement. The region was part of the far-flung realm of the kings of Nangchen, thehome of 200,000 Khamba nomads who still live today a life very similar to that of theirearliest ancestors. Nomadic mounted warriors, these Nangchen Khambas are divided
into 25 semi-independent tribes who ferociously opposed the Chinese takeover. (Thispart was written by Tamotsu Nakamura)

Surveys and explorations in 1999
In 1999, the following two Chinese parties entered the headwaters to confirm anddecide the true source of the Mekong River.
Dr. Liu Shaochuang (Institute of Remote Sensing Applications, CAS) party

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With sponsorship and financial support of the CAS and other institutions they madesurvey of the headwaters of the Mekiong making use of remote sensing and geographic
information systems. Dr. Liu arrived at Zadoi County on June 15, 1999 and surveyed
Zhanahuohuo Zhouchi, Zanarigen of the Zanaqu river system and Zaxiqiwa, Jufu Shan,
Lasagongma, etc. of the Zayaqu river system.

Dr. Liu published reports such as“Interpretation of Headwaters of Lancang Jiang (Mekong) River by 3S Integration
Technique, p68 – 70, No. 2, 1999 GEOINFORMATION SCIENCE. His conclusion was
as follows.
“The headwaters of Zayaqu are those of the Mekong River. The headwaters are in Jify
Shan 5552m (N33 45 35, E94 41 12) which is on the boundary of Zhidoi County andZadoi County. Water supply source to the headwaters is one of snow basins in Zhidoi
County. This source is located 6km away from a glacier terminus (N33 42 39, E94 4137) in the headwaters of Lasagongma, which many surveyors recognize to be theheadwaters of the Mekong. China People’s Daily of October 27, 2002 reported that theoverall river length of the Mekong measured by remote sensing is 4,909km and that of
Lancang Jiang in the Chinese territory is 2,198km”.
China Association for Scientific Expedition party (hereinafter described as CASE)
A team to quest for the headwaters was organized by seven members of CISNR, eight
members from China Central Television and other media companies, etc.

Total

members were 18. Zhou Changjin who joined the 1994 TUA/CAS team was a potential
member and played most important role in the expedition. This team was financially
supported by Dexiang Business Group of Tianjin Municipality (the team hereinafter
described as CASE/DBG). They worked hard to decide the true source and headwatersof the Mekong River taking advantages of study and observation of water system,
geological features, glaciers and GPS, GIS and remote sensing system. Their extensive
study and survey led to the conclusion that the Zayaqu was the true source of the
Mekong from a view point of river length, area of river basin and volume of flowing
water, etc. and it originated at Guozongmucha Shan 5514m of Lasagongma in Zaqing
Cheng, Zadoi County, Yushu Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Qinghai Province, China.
A glacier terminus of Guozongmucha Shan was located at 5224m (N33 42 31 and E94 4144) in Lasagongma and glacier surface area was 0.67km2.

Which is the correct true source, after all?

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Kitamura’s 1994 TUA/CSITS expedition recorded a location of the geographical sourcein Lasagongma as N33 42 41 and E94 41 37 at 5160m, which is a little bit different fromthat of the above 1999 CASE/DBG survey. A point decided by two parties for the true
source is in a terminus of the same glacier as it is evident on the photos. Presumably
one of the reasons of the difference is due to an accuracy of GPS (in five years accuracyof GPS must be improved). The other reason would be the difference of a point formeasurement. Glaciers in Qinghai-Tibet Plateau have been receding and wilting everyyear.

A glacier terminus has been affected accordingly.

If a location of glacierterminus had not been uniform, a point of the measurement must have been changed.
In 2007, Kitamura raised this question to his old friend, Zhou Changjin, in Beijing. He
replied frankly as follows.
“As Mr. Kitamura points out, GPS and receding of glacier might explain thecontradiction in records of the two expeditions in 1994 and 1999. For the record in
1999, however, Guan Zhihua, a deputy leader, used GPS not in a glacier terminus but ina source of small stream flowing near the glacier.

Therefore a point of his

measurement was slightly away from the glacier terminus, although to my personalunderstanding, the location of the true source must be at the glacier terminus.”
The next question was the different conclusions between the two expeditions of Dr. Liu
Shaochuang and CASE/DBG in 1999. The main factor rested with difference in river
length to the headwaters. Dr. Liu measured river length of the two tributaries fromconfluence, Yeyonsongdou, to the headwaters, as follows.
1. Yeyonsongdou to Jify Shan: Guyong and Pudigao valleys----------------------------23.64km
2. Yeyonsongdou to Guozongmucha Shan (Lasagongma): Gaoshanguxi-------------21.5km
The above figure showed that river length of the headwaters to Jify Shan was longer by
2.1km than that of the headwaters to Guozongmucha Shan. This was a base for Dr.
Liu to conclude Jify Shan to be the true source of the Mekong River.
On the other hand, Zhou Changjin group’s measurement was different from Dr. Liu, as
follows.
1. Yeyonsongdou to Jify Shan: Guyong – Pudigao------------------------------------------21.6km
2. Yeyonsongdou to Guozongmucha Shan: Lasagongma – Gaoshanguxi------------22.57km
On the contrary to Dr. Liu’s survey, Zhou’s figure told the former was shorter by 0.97km
than the latter.

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Criteria for determination and Controversy
The both teams analyzed satellite imagery making of remote sensing technology, but nosame figures were obtained. Kitamura questioned the reason to Zhou Changjin, who
responded that “time of photographing of satellite images and measurement
system/method must have resulted in the difference.” Kitamura further questioned toboth of Zhou Changjin and Dr. Liu about the basis and criteria for their determinationof the [True Source].
1. Criteria of Zhou Changjin and CASE/DBG team: Overall study on river length,
flowing water volume, area of river basin and river flowing direction, etc. led to thedetermination of the true source.
2. Criteria of Dr. Liu, an expert of remote sensing: Only river length was taken into
consideration.
Dr. Liu explained his view as a scientist. “The reason why he applied only river lengthfor determining the true source was that accuracy of the satellite imagery has improved
prominently.

A decade ago it was difficult to measure river length exactly, andtherefore they must take into account such factors as flowing water volume and area ofriver basin for the determination. Now as we can measure accurate river length, weshould apply only river length. I insist on [length], as I am an expert of survey workand mapping.” He further responded to Kitamura’s question. “Errors of the current
remote sensing are about 5/1,000, that is to say, 3 – 5km for 1,000km. An error of thetotal river length 6,300km of Chang Jiang (the Yangtze River) would be 15 – 20km andin case of the 4049m Mekong River an error would be 5 – 10km. Errors are attributed
to software, mode and system of analysis, time of photographing and photographers’
skill.”A monograph of Dr. Liu’s work including field research in 1999 and 2002 was publishedon the following journals in English.
1) Pinpointing Source of Mekong and Measuring its Length through Analysis ofSatellite Imagery and Field Investigations, Geo-spatial Information Science 10 (1):51-56.
2) A journal of Mekong River Commission: Catch and Culture Volume 13, No. 1.
Kitamura had an interview also with Tao Baoxiang, who was a key person to haveestablished the conservation area of the sources of three rivers; Chang Jiang (Yangtze),
Lancang Jiang (Mekong) and Huang He (Yellow River). He was a deputy leader of the
CASE/DBG expedition in 1994 and joined in many expeditions. He formerly belonged

16

to Commission for Integrated Survey of Natural Resources, CAS and at present he isworking in CISE.
Tao Baoxing mentioned “Guozongmucha Shan is a name of this mountain called by local
Tibetan. Name in Chinese letter was applied and appeared on the map after the 1999
expedition. The state mapping agency and local government jointly discuss and thendecide name of place in China. Guozongmucha Shan was officially named after suchgo-through procedure and formality. This name will often appear on the map from now
on.

Regarding the true source of the Mekong, many scientists recognizedGuozongmucha Shan as the true source. Overall judgments are essential for taking
any decision on an important issue.

Glaciers of our true source of the Mekong,

Guozongmucha Shan, are located in the water system of the Mekong River. On thecontrary,
Almost all glaciers of Dr. Liu’s true source, Jify Shan, belong to the water system of
Chang Jiang (Yangtze) and only some of them cross the watershed to the Mekong side.
From this view point, specialists of water system geography are negative for the true
source of Jify Shan. Since these glaciers are of small surface area, they would be soon
wilted and faded out because of global warming.”
If a monograph on the true source, Guozongmucha Shan, being authorized by the
Chinese Government had been written in English and dispatched to the international
institutions such as the Mekong River Commission for the Mekong, Guozongmucha
Shan would have been widely recognized as the true headwaters in foreign countries.
It is regrettable that information solely on Jify Shan was sent abroad in English andJify Shan became known as the true source of the Mekong.

Parties having reached the headwaters after 1999
Many adventurers and explorers had an eye on the headwaters of Zayaqu even after
1999.

The new comers recorded new discoveries.

The previous rrevious parties

started their caravans from Moyun in Zanaqu, a remotest town in the upper Mekong.
But in August, 2003, John Pilkington from United Kingdom made an approach via
Zaqen to the upper stream passing newly finished road, and afterwards this route has
been beingused for access to the headwaters.
John Pilkington visited two headwaters, Jify Shan and Guozongmucha Shan and foundsome mistakes in the names given by the previous expeditions in 1994 and 1999. He
pointed out that a creek [Lasagongma] which was named by Chinese researchers
according to local herdsmen must be [Lasaawuma] and [Lasagongma] was a tributary17

coming down from the east face of Jify Shan. However, the PLA topographical map of
1:100,000 describes [Lasagongma] for [Lasawuma]. Therefore, no amendment of thename will be paid an attention for the time being.
In April 2004, two groups entered Guozongmucha Shan. One was Team Kiwi-SPARK
Hillary Expedition led by Rosalind Wood from New Zealand to descend from theheadwaters to Indo-China Sea on foot and by mountain bikes and rafting. The otherwas a team of Mekong First Descent led Michael O’shea from Australia to trace from theheadwaters to Indo-China Sea by kayaks. In the same year, a mountaineering party
led by Shinichi Abe from Niigata Mountaineering Federation of Japan made the first
ascent of Qiajajima I 5930m on July 31. This peak was the highest unclimbed peak in
the headwaters of the Mekong.
In August 2006, Yoshiharu Sekino, a Japanese explorer accompanied by TV crews madean attempt on descending from the headwaters to the sea on foot, by mountain bikes
and canoes, etc. They stood atop the summit 5514m of Guozongmucha Shan above a
glacier of Lasagongma at 11:30am on August 23 and descended a part of Za Qu.

The last challenge to the true source
In May, 2007, China Exploration and Research Society, Hong Kong, led by Wang How
Man sent their team to locate and determine the true source, whether Guozongmucha
Shan or Jify Shan. Prior to the departure, by using remote sensing technology Martin
Ruzek, an earth system scientist from USA, measured the river length of both
tributaries to the headwaters of Guozongmucha Shan and Jify Shan, which had
remained a most controversial issue on the true source of the Mekong. A record of new
measurement of the river length was as follow.
First record
1. Yeyonsongdou to Jify Shan: Guyong – Pudigao -----------------------------------------19.39km
2. Yeyonsongdou to Guozongmucha Shan: Lasagongma – Gaoshanguxi-------------21.7km
This record disproved Dr. Liu’s conclusion as it showed that the river length to
Guozongmuha Shan was longer by 2.31km than that to Jify (Jifu) Shan.
Carrying the above record for reference, they reached the headwaters of Guozongmucha
Shan.

After finishing the expedition, Martin Ruzek again measured the location

making use of higher resolution satellite image, as follws.
Second record

18

1. Yeyonsongdou to Jify Shan: Guyong – Pudigao------------------------------------------22.49km
2. Yeyonsongdou to Guozongmucha Shan: Lasagongma – Gaoshanguxi------------21.83km
On the contrary to the first record, the river length to the headwaters of Guozongmucha
was shorter by 0.66km than that to Jify Shan. This second measurement proved Dr.
Liu’s conclusion.
Difference in measurement appeared because the higher resolution of satellite imagery
made it possible to see more details of many Q-shaped meandering small streams from
Yeyonzongdou to Jify San: Guyon – Pudigao, which resulted in counting the longer river
length. On the other hand, river streams from Yeyonsongduo to Guozongmucha Shan:
Lasagongma – Gaoshanzuxi had less meandering, and the second record remained thesame as the first record. According to their observation streams from Yeyonsongdou to
Guozongmucha had more flowing water volume, was wider and straight. Streams
from Yeyonsongdou to Jify Shan had less flowing water volume and was meandering.
In general, a river incline becomes the smaller and flowing water volume is the less,river would be the longer as its stream becomes the more meandering. Therefore, tosimply apply only river length for criteria to determine the true river source would
hardly be accepted. In 2009, China Exploration and Research Society has a plan tosend again an expedition for further investigation.

Acknowledgment
I would like to express my foremost thanks Pete Winn (USA), Dr. Martin Ruzek (USA),
Michael O’shea (Australia), Dr. Kaaren Mathias (New Zealand), Tao Baoxiang (China),
Zhou Changjin (China), Dr.Liu Shaochuang (China), Na Ming Hui (China), Wang How
Man (Hong Kong), John Pilkington (United Kingdom), Ian Walker (United Kingdom),Alexander Selvachev (Russia), Tamotsu Nakamura (Japan) for supporting myexpeditions, providing information and images collection, and helping enhancement of
this article. .

Reference on the Japanese Alpine News
1. Vol. 1 October 2001 Masayuki Kitamura Discovery & First Descent of Mekong

Headwaters
2. Vol. 2 April 2002 Pete Winn Final Determination of the Source of the Mekong River19

3. Vol. 3 May 2003 Masayuki Kitamura First Descent of the Upper Mekong River
4. Vol. 6 May 2005 Masayuki Kitamura and Pete Winn First Descent of the Mekong
5. Vol. 7 May 2006 Masayuki Kitamura The Descent of the Mekong River

Photo Gallery

Guozongmucha Shan glacier of Lasagongma, Qinghai Province（TUA/CSITS, 1994）

A view of the source area of Mekong River (Martin Ruzek, CERS, 2007)20

Guozongmucha Shan glacier of Lasagongma, Qinghai Province（TUA/CSITS, 1994）

TUA/CSITS measuring flowing water volume in Ganasonduo（TUA/CSITS, 1994）

21

Jify Shan 5552m (N33 45 35), Qinghai Province（Liu Shaochuang, 1999）

Searching for the longest tributary, Qinghai Province（Liu Shaochuang, 1999）

22

The first descent of upper Mekong river in Qinghai Province（TUA/CSITS, 1996）

The first descent of upper Mekong river, in Qinghai Province（TUA/CSITS, 1996）

23

The first descent of upper Mekong river in Qinghai Province（TUA/CSITS, 1996）

The second biggest fall in Mekong river, Qinghai Province（TUA/CSITS, 1996）

24

The descent of upper Mekong river in Tibetan Autonomous Region（The Last Descent, 2008）

The first descent of Mekong river in Northwest Yunnnan（TUA/CSITS, 2002）

25

The first descent of Moon Gorge in Northwest Yunnnan（TUA/CSITS, 2002）

26

The descent of upper Mekong river in West Yunnnan（TUA, 2005）

The descent of upper Mekong river in Southwest Yunnnan（TUA, 2005）

27

The first descent of Ganbei Rapids in West Yunnan（ESE, 1995）

The first descent of Dragons Teeth Rapids in West Yunnan（ESE, 1995）

28

The first descent of No Exit Rapids in West Yunnan（ESE, 1997）

The first descent of No Exit Rapids in West Yunnan（ESE, 1997）

29

The first descent – School pupils visited camp – in West Yunnan (ESE, 1997)30