Feature Article
Japanese Female College Students’Fulfillment of Basic Psychological
Needs in the English Classroom
Olya Yazawa
Showa Women’s University
Teachers all around the world have a responsibility to create a supportive learning
environment to increase students’ autonomous motivation. The purpose of this study was to
examine the effect of perceived teachers’ support of students’ self-determined motivation.
The study was conducted with 350 female college students in Japan. The findings suggestthat female Japanese university students perceive their native English-speaking teachersof English (NESTs) to provide greater support for their basic psychological needs thanJapanese English teachers ( JTEs). The greatest perception gap was in the fulfillment of thestudents’ need for relatedness. The findings demonstrate that in Japan, the students feel more
emotionally safe and related to peers and teachers in NESTs’ classrooms. Additionally, highcorrelation of all three needs satisfaction (autonomy, competence, relatedness) with NESTs
and self-determination of the participants illustrates the significance of needs satisfaction
to motivational processes in the Japanese education settings. A short list of autonomysupportive teaching strategies was compiled based on the students’ feedback in order tobuild a more autonomy-supportive teacher-learner relationship.
日本の英語教師は、世界中どこであれ、学生の自律的な動機を高めるために、協力的な学習環境を作る責任がある。本稿の目的は、学生の自己決定的動機に対するに影響する教師の支援についての対する学生の認識の影響を調べることである。この調査は日本の女子大学生350人を対象に実施された。この調査結果によるとは、日本の女子大学生が、日本人の英語教師（LJTEs）よりも、英語母語話者英語教師外国人英語教師（NESTsFTE）の方が基本的な心理的欲求をより強くサポートしていると認識している事がを示唆されした。最大の認識の差ギャップは、学生のが「関係性」を欲求の充足必要としていることに関して見られであった。調査結果
は、日本人女子学生がは、NESTsFTEの講義授業において、より感情的に安心感を抱いている認識することを示した。さらに、NESTsFTEの授業講義における3三つの心理的欲求（自律性、有能性、関係性）の満足度と自己決定的動機には高い相32

Female Students’ Fulfillment of Basic Psychological Needs, OnCUE 14(1), pages 32-59
関関係が確認された。た為、つまり、日本の教育現場における動機づけプロセスにおけ対する3三つの心理的欲求充足の重要性がを示唆されるするものである。より効果的に自律性を支援することができる教師・学習者の関係性を構築するため、学生のフィードバックを基に自律性を促す教授ストラテジーをいくつか提案する。

English language education in Japan has been constantly criticized for its
failure to cultivate sufficient communicative English abilities in students amid
ongoing globalization of the country. Schools are advised (MEXT, 2003) toassist improvement of their staff`s teaching with a special focus on students’motivation, interest, and attitude for autonomous learning. In fact,
English learning motivation has been a major research topic in Japan overthe past ten years… . However, Japanese students are not showing increased
language skills and do not seem to be highly motivated to learn English
despite the country’s current emphasis on English education… (Yazawa,
2019, p. 33).
Learner autonomy is defined as an ability to take charge of one’s learning(Holec, 1981) and is considered an essential motivational factor for learning aforeign language. There are many ways teachers can support students’ autonomy
and motivation in the classroom. The teacher’s attitude, behavior, teaching style,and identity are all seen as influential factors (Oxford & Shearin, 1994; Peirce,
1995; Dörnyei, 2001, 2005; Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011). It seems important toexamine to what degree autonomy-supportive Japanese students perceive theirEnglish language teachers, and what kind of teaching practices may positively
influence the perception of being autonomy-supportive to the students in the
English classroom in Japan.
Self-Determination Theory of Motivation and Students’
Psychological Needs
The self-determination theory of motivation (SDT) is one of the cognitive
theoretical frameworks employed in contemporary research on language learning
motivation abroad and in the Japanese context (Hiromori, 2006; Yashima et al.,2009). The theory states that all people are innately autonomously motivated tolearn (Deci & Ryan, 2002) and that motivation explicitly relates to the learner’s
33

Yazawa

sense of autonomy in the classroom (Dickenson, 1995).
According to the SDT, there are three distinct types of motivation—
amotivation, controlled, and autonomous—moreover, there are different
processes that regulate each type of motivation. From the least self-determined
to the highly self-determined, regulations which control these motivations aredefined as follows. For the state of amotivation, in which students have no desire
or intention to do the task, there is no regulation of the behavior. Regulationof controlled motivation may be external (directed by external rewards andpunishment) or introjected (driven by shame or approval seeking). Autonomous
motivation is tied to regulation that is identified (maintained by conscious
valuing of the activity), integrated (directed by full awareness and internalizationof values), or intrinsic (driven by pure interest) (Figure 1).
According to the SDT, individuals are more internally motivated when
the following three universal psychological needs are satisfied: autonomy,competence, and relatedness. When these needs are satisfied, students feel
psychologically happier and more motivated to learn the subject (Deci & Ryan,
2002). Let us now consider in detail how the learning environment can influencethese three basic needs. The first is the need for autonomy. External events
that contribute to the experience of the internal locus of causality strengthen aperson’s autonomous motivation for an activity. Events that lead the person to
the feeling that some external factors are the main cause and regulator of theiractivity contribute to the weakening of autonomous motivation (Deci & Ryan,

Figure 1. SDT Continuum.
34Female Students’ Fulfillment of Basic Psychological Needs, OnCUE 14(1), pages 32-59

2008). The need for autonomy is undermined when a person is placed understrict control by other people (or a situation), for example, through the threatof punishment or alternatively rewards in the form of grades, bonuses, prizes,
as well as competition and deadlines (Deci & Ryan, 2008). In order to support
students’ autonomy, teachers should consider the students’ voices and opinions
about the learning process and provide choices of material and learning style, tobe informative rather than controlling (Yazawa, 2019).
The second basic psychological need concerns another critical factor
affecting autonomous motivation: the need to be competent. Competence
here can be defined as the desire and belief to be effective, to challenge andmaster skills in the process of learning (Deci & Ryan, 2002). External events
will enhance the autonomous motivation of the individual if they lead to anincrease in the person’s perception of their competence, while events leading
to the perception of a lack of competence will weaken it. For example, successin a classroom activity or positive feedback corresponding to the actual goodresults in solving problems usually leads to the person experiencing competence,
and accordingly contributes to the strengthening of autonomous motivation(Henderlong & Lepper, 2002). On the contrary, constant negative feedbackin the form of criticisms emphasizing failures and incompetence can lead to adecrease in autonomous motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2016). Sensitive mentoring
and affirmative feedback from teachers can enhance the sense of competence(Filak & Sheldon, 2003).
Finally, the third need, which is important for the functioning of autonomous
motivation, is a need for good relations with other people (relatedness).
This need includes establishing reliable and satisfying relationships based on
affection and feelings of acceptance (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Although support forautonomy and competence is extremely important for enhancing autonomous
motivation, the third factor regarding the quality of human relationships also
makes an important contribution. Teachers can support this need by respecting
students and showing genuine, positive emotions towards them (Baumeister &Leary, 1995, Niemiec & Ryan, 2009).

35

Yazawa

Within the frame of SDT, teacher behavior is an important external force
influencing students’ psychological needs fulfillment. The student perceptionof a teacher’s support lies anywhere along the motivational continuum of SDT(Figure 1) ranging from highly autonomy-supportive to extremely controlling(Yazawa, 2019; Reeve, 2016; Reeve et al., 2018). Research findings also suggestthat a teacher’s autonomy support is more strongly correlated with autonomous
motivation than the support of a learner’s parents, for example (Gillet et al.,2012).
Additional Constructs to Include in SDT Research in Japanese
Educational Settings
Learners. The consensus among researchers is that autonomous motivation
declines with age in children and adolescents but steadily increases after theage of approximately 15 years old (Gottfried, Marcoulides, Gottfried, Oliver,& Guerin, 2007; Gillet et al., 2012). Developmental theorists also suggest thatperception of autonomy increases with age (Erickson, 1963; Piaget 1965).
Therefore, one of the current study’s objectives was to compare the nature of the
SDT and fulfillment of psychological needs satisfaction between students ofearlier and later college years to see whether age or educational ranking (being a
freshman, junior, or senior) plays a role in the level of their needs satisfaction andmotivation to learn English.
Teachers. Medgyes (1994) defined two distinctively different groups ofEnglish language teachers: native English-speaking teachers (NESTs) and nonnative English-speaking teachers (NNESTs). In a similar way, teachers in Japan
have been addressed regardless of their actual nationality as either NESTs or
Japanese teachers of English ( JTEs) (Houghton & Rivers, 2013). Despite theon-going debate about appropriateness of these terms (Holliday, 2005; Kubota,2009), they are widely used in Japan and recognized by both employers andstudents.
Many researchers in the educational field have stated that students perceive
NESTs as more understanding and supportive of autonomy (Gurkan & Yuksel,
2012; Utsunluoglu, 2007; Cook, 1999; Medgyes, 1994; Kasai, et al., 2011;36

Female Students’ Fulfillment of Basic Psychological Needs, OnCUE 14(1), pages 32-59

Yazawa, 2019). According to Littrell (2006) and Willis and Yamamura (2002)
regarding the Confucianism value-based nature of the educational system
in Japan, JTEs are usually perceived by their students as authoritarian andsuperior in the English classroom. Japanese teachers still tend to rely on teachercentered lectures, which may thwart students’ need for autonomy (Braine, 2010;
Murahata, 2001; Nakai, 2003; Gorsuch, 2000; Inomori, 2012; Shibata, 2008).
Prior research also showed that collectivist views in East Asian cultures makeit easier for students to become autonomously motivated when their need for
relatedness is satisfied, rather than being dependent on the need for autonomy(Bao & Lam, 2008).
Speaking the students’ first language and sharing strong cultural values
such as mimamoru (observing and caring) and omoiyari (empathy), the author
suggests that JTEs probably better satisfy the need for relatedness, which requires
empathy and interpersonal understanding. Conversely, NESTs are probably
better in satisfying the autonomy need, and such satisfaction or frustration canbe attributed to different teaching styles and practices associated with these twogroups of teachers ( Johnston, Aliponga, Koshiyama, Ries, & Rush, 2014).
Several studies conducted in the last two decades have investigated therelationship between autonomous motivation and academic achievements
in Japanese educational settings. Nishimura et al. (2011) showed that themore autonomous regulation style Japanese students in pre-tertiary settings
experienced, the higher were their academic achievements. Tanaka and Yamauchi(2012) and Okada (2010) in their study of college students also showedthat autonomous motivation positively correlated with students’ academic
performances. There have been several studies done in Japan exploring students’
perceptions of different types of teachers (Saito, 2014; Johnston, Aliponga,
Koshiyama, Ries, & Rush, 2014).
However, there have not been any studies done in this country comparing
how different teachers affect the student satisfaction of basic psychologicalneeds of autonomy, competence and relatedness in Japanese educationalsettings (Yazawa, 2019, p. 36).
In addition, nobody has shown how satisfaction of these needs is connected37

Yazawato their autonomous motivation.
Based on the above findings, the current study investigated whether teachers’
support of the basic psychological needs would have a direct influence on thelevels of participants’ self-determined motivation. As more support is afforded tothe students, the higher their autonomous motivation is expected to be. Finally,
this study sought to learn whether autonomous motivation would increase withage of the students. The main objectives of the study are to analyze the nature ofself-determined English learning motivation among non-English major female
college students and to analyze the perceived support of the basic psychologicalneeds from different groups of teachers among students of different years. The
last objective is to examine in detail the teaching styles of different groups ofteachers in order to find the origins of such perceptions among the students.

Methods

The study was conducted in a private women’s university in Tokyo, Japan. Foreign
and Japanese teachers employed there are often assigned to teach the same courses
in pairs, using the same textbooks but teach individually on different days of theweek. Freshmen (N = 123), sophomore (N = 130), and junior students (N =125) from the Business Department were asked to participate in this study at theend of the first semester (spring) 2018. The foreign teachers were from Australia,
Canada, England, Russia, and the United States.
The 5-point Likert scale questionnaire used in this study was a modified
version of the new motivational scale designed by Agawa and Takeuchi (2016).
Their questionnaire was reported to have higher validity and reliability than the
one developed by Hiromori (2006) that had previously been widely used. The
first part of the questionnaire addressing participants’ basic psychological needs
fulfillment was modified to elicit students’ views on JTEs and NESTs separately,
without referring to any particular current teacher, in an effort to access theirneeds satisfaction based on previous experience back to junior high school. The
needs scale had 24 items instead of the original 12 (12 questions about NESTs
and 12 identical questions about JTEs, Appendix A). The second part of thequestionnaire accessing students’ motivation was not changed from the original38

Female Students’ Fulfillment of Basic Psychological Needs, OnCUE 14(1), pages 32-59

and had 20 items describing intrinsic (six items), identified (six items), external(three items) regulations and amotivation (five items). The students were asked
to use their smartphones to access an online version of the questionnaire andrespond to statements using a 5-point Likert Scale, selecting from “not true atall”, “not true”, “cannot say”, “true”, and “very much true”. The statements were in
Japanese and randomly ordered for each student.
The last part of the questionnaire consisted of two narrative frames andaimed at finding out the cause of students’ different perceptions of the teachers:“Compared to Japanese teachers, native English-speaking teachers do thefollowing more often in their classes:...”, and “Compared to native Englishspeaking teachers, Japanese teachers do the following more often in their classes.”
All statements and answers were in Japanese and were translated by the author.
The data derived from the motivational and psychological needs parts of thequestionnaire were analyzed with SPSS software.

Results
Quantitative Results
The results indicate that the participants had experienced a highly self-determined(autonomous) type of motivation to study English (Table 1). Identification isreported as the strongest motivational regulation (M = 4.1274), with intrinsic
regulation following second (M = 3.5388), external third (M = 2.8122), andamotivation scoring the lowest (M = 1.9101) (Yazawa, 2019).
Table 1
Likert-scored Motivational Items
N

Mean

SD

Std. Error Mean

Identified

378

4.1274.63994.03291

External

378

2.8122.87183.04484

Amotivation

378

1.9101.75564.03887Intrinsic

378

3.5388.76253.0392239

Yazawa

Different types of motivation were integrated into a Self-Determination
Index (SDI) by assigning a weight of +2 to intrinsic, +1 to identified, -1
to external, and -2 to amotivation (Grolnick & Ryan, 1987; Vallerand &Bissonnette, 1992). An SDI of 4.5726 was subsequently calculated. The positive
SDI of 4.5726 in this study was above 0; therefore, the students can be definedas very self-determined. Autonomous motivation was calculated as an average
between intrinsic and identified regulations and was 3.8331 versus controlled
motivation at 2.8122, which manifested itself in external regulation (Yazawa,2019).
A T-test analysis of means was used to determine whether the students’fulfillment of the three psychological needs was different in classes with NESTs
or JTEs. The results indicate that all three basic psychological needs are better
satisfied in classes with NESTs than with JTEs. The need for autonomy showedsatisfaction levels of 3.8196 for NESTs and 3.4576 for JTEs (Table 2). The
need for competence was satisfied at 3.6401 and 3.2596, respectively (Table3). Finally, the need for relatedness surprisingly scored 4.0980 and 3.4071,
respectively, resulting in the biggest gap between students’ perceptions of NESTs
and JTEs (Table 4). A p-value of <0.000 for all the results indicates a high levelof significance for the difference (Yazawa, 2019).
Pearson correlation analysis was conducted to find out if the perceived
psychological needs support from different groups of teachers had any correlation
with the motivational items (Table 5). Howitt and Cramer (2008) suggest that acorrelation between to variables more than .3 is a moderate/medium correlation.
The results showed that all but one needs satisfaction (autonomy, competence,
relatedness) in classes with NESTs had a significant positive correlation withautonomous motivation (intrinsic and identified regulations). They all showednegative correlation with controlled motivation (external regulation), but theabsolute values were less than .3 (-.216, -.266, -.218, respectively). At the sametime, satisfaction of only one psychological need in classes with JTEs, theautonomy need, had a direct correlation with all motivational items. The level ofcompetence with JTEs had a slight correlation with intrinsic regulation (.255)
and even less with identified regulation (.137) but no correlation with controlled40Female Students’ Fulfillment of Basic Psychological Needs, OnCUE 14(1), pages 32-59

Table 2
Independent Sample T-test for Autonomy Need
Test Value = 0

t

df

Sig.
(2-tailed)

Mean
Difference

95% ConfidenceInterval of the
Difference
Lower

Upper

With NESTs

128.878376.000

3.819633.7614

3.8779With JTEs

118.275361.000

3.457643.40023.5151

Table 3
Independent Sample t-test for Competence Need
Test Value = 0

t

df

Sig.
(2-tailed)

Mean
Difference

95% ConfidenceInterval of the
Difference
Lower

Upper

With NESTs

87.825262.000

3.64005

3.55843.7217

With JTEs

86.246252.000

3.25955

3.1851

3.3340

Table 4
Independent Sample t-test for Relatedness Need
Test Value = 0

t

df

Sig.
(2-tailed)

Mean
Difference

95% ConfidenceInterval of the
Difference
Lower

Upper

With NESTs

111.031261.000

4.097964.02534.1706

With JTEs

85.858252.000

3.407113.32903.485341

Yazawa

Table 5
Correlation of the SDI with Need Satisfaction
Need satisfaction

SDI

Competence with NESTs

Autonomy with NESTs

Relatedness with NESTs

Autonomy with JTEs

Competence with JTEs

Relatedness with JTEs

Correlation.433**

Significance.000

Correlation.398**

Significance.000

Correlation.353**

Significance.000

Correlation.258**

Significance.000

Correlation.200**

Significance.001

Correlation.089

Significance.156**p <.001

motivation (external regulation, -.120). Finally, the fulfillment of the need for
relatedness that students perceived in classes with JTEs did not affect theirmotivation at all.
The SDI was used to determine a hierarchy of correlations between students’motivation to learn English and the satisfaction of their basic psychologicalneeds. The most significant positive correlation with the students’ SDI has
satisfaction of the need for competence with NESTs, followed by fulfilmentof the need for autonomy, and then relatedness in classes with NESTs (Table
5). A lesser correlation was found between SDI and satisfaction of the need forautonomy in classes with JTEs, followed by the need for competence.
Correlation analysis was used to determine whether there was, if any,42

Female Students’ Fulfillment of Basic Psychological Needs, OnCUE 14(1), pages 32-59

correlation between student college year and motivational items (Table 6).
The level of self-determined motivation did not differ much between students
of different years. The older students had relatively the same levels of intrinsic,
identified, external motivations, and amotivation, compared to younger
students. However, student college year had a negative correlation with needs
satisfaction with foreign teachers (Table 6). All three psychological needs ofautonomy (-.169), competence (-.159), and relatedness (-.210) were significantly
less satisfied with NESTs in students in later college years. For Japanese teachers,
Table 6
Correlation Analysis of Need Satisfaction, Students’ College Year, and Motivational
items
Need
satisfaction

SDI

TOEIC

CY

College Year
(CY)

Pearson.568**

1.0

Sig.

.000

Autonomy w
NESTs

Pearson

.012

Sig.

Autonomy w
JTEs

Intrinsic Identified External Amotivation
.019

-.003

.011

-.038

.711

.959

.835

.465

-.169**.414**.321**-.216**-.295**

.846

.001

.000

.000

.000

.000

Pearson

-.045

-.033

.269**.204**-.159**-.181**

Sig.

.487

.527

.000

.000

.002

.001

Competence
w NESTs

Pearson.006-.159**.432**.317**-.266**-.327**

Sig.

.935

.010

.000

.000

.000

.000

Competence
w JTEsPearson-.175*-.135*.255**

.137*

-.120

-.103

Sig.

.014

.033

.000

.029

.058

.104

Relatedness w
NESTs

Pearson-.059-.210**.263**.316**-.218**-.326**

Sig.

.406

.001

.000

.000

.000

.000

Relatedness w
JTEs

Pearson

-.109

-.006

.080

.099

-.067

-.055

Sig.

.132

.921

.205

.115

.288

.384

**p <.001

43

Yazawa

only need for competence scored lower results (-.135), while autonomy andrelatedness were equally satisfied at the same level as with the first-year students(Yazawa, 2019).
Qualitative Results
In the third part of the questionnaire, the students were asked to compare NESTs
and JTEs by asking students what each of these types of teachers does morethan the other. The answers were assigned the following tags: (a) personality,
which defines students’ comments about positively or negatively perceived traitsof teachers’ character; and (b) teaching style, assigned to the comments aboutteaching techniques and methods NESTs or JTEs tend to use in their classrooms
according to the student’s previous experience.
Teacher personality has been previously proven to predict students’motivation. For example, openness to experience and agreeableness is associatedwith autonomy-supporting teaching (Reeve et al., 2018). However, to assign
certain personality traits to one group of teachers or another according to theirnative language or nationality does not seem appropriate or right in the present
context. Therefore, in this article, the author will only examine the students’answers describing differences in teaching style of JTEs and NESTs.
When the students described teaching style of NESTs (Appendix B),
they commonly mentioned that foreign teachers provide a cozy and exciting
atmosphere, which directly links to the satisfaction of the need for relatedness.
They wrote that NESTs use various group and pair activities, accentuate
communicative learning, respect students’ opinions, and take into consideration
their viewpoints (need for autonomy) (Yazawa, 2019).
When describing JTEs (Appendix C), the students tended to mention
easiness of communication and Japanese language ability of the teachers. Many
students stated they felt secure and at ease in classes with JTEs. One can argue
that this approachability and easiness in communication should be enoughto satisfy the need for relatedness. However, in the present case, the students
described the friendly environment and peer relationships as more need fulfillingthan easiness of communication through their first language use. One of the44Female Students’ Fulfillment of Basic Psychological Needs, OnCUE 14(1), pages 32-59

descriptive comments was as follows: “壁がある感じ” (I feel there is a wall between
us [and JTEs].)
Many students also described lessons with JTEs as test-oriented and filledwith drills and lectures, for example “they prefer passive students,” “there aremany drills,” “they evaluate our performance by testing,” and “they talk too
much, and lecture too much.” Such comments demonstrate that students may
feel a threat to their sense of autonomy in classes with JTEs more often than inclasses with NESTs.

Discussion and Conclusion

For many learners in Japan, English as a global language is a necessity, a tool theyneed to acquire to achieve various extrinsic goals, such as better job opportunities.
Therefore, the main force pushing Japanese students to learn English is usually
extrinsically fueled. Reeve et al. (2002) reported that the fulfillment of therelatedness need is vital for the development of self-determined motivation in
intrinsically uninteresting settings. Other researchers have claimed that thecollectivist nature of East Asian cultures makes it easier for students to get
motivated when their need for relatedness is satisfied (Bao & Lam, 2008, Caleon
et al, 2016).
The satisfaction of the relatedness need does not seem to come from classes
with JTEs; this was considerably lower than with NESTS and appeared to haveno correlation to the students’ motivation at all. One of the other reasons why
JTEs were perceived as less needs supporting in this study may stem from thereported traditional nature of their teaching styles. Many students wrote thatthey find that Japanese teachers talk more and listen less in their classes. Students
voiced their desire to be listened to, have opportunities to talk, and express theiropinions freely: things they find themselves not commonly doing in classes with
JTEs.
Unfortunately, older students in this study, though demonstrating increased
English proficiency levels (judging by the TOEIC scores), at the same time
showed unchanged autonomous motivation and frustration with their needs
support (well-being), especially in classes with NESTs. This was another45

Yazawa

unexpected result, contradicting prior research findings which showed that
autonomous motivation increases with age in young adults after 15 years old(Gillet et al., 2012).
At the same time, research also shows is that a perception of autonomy
support tends to decrease as a function of age, but not the motivation itself(Gillet et al., 2012). On the one hand, it is possible that teachers do provide lesssupport in later college years, as they consider their students “old enough” totake control of their studies. On the other hand, it is more logical to assume thatteachers do behave the same, but it is students’ expectations of autonomy support
that increase with age; and the same environment does not seem as autonomysupportive for them as before (Eccles, 1993). The author speculates here that, if
the older students in the present research were provided more support and had
their psychological needs satisfied better than in their first year, such mediatingroles of their English teachers would probably contribute to an increase in theirautonomous motivation and possibly even to an increase in grades.
The students in this study appeared to have high self-determined motivation.
However, to energize the action and to provide the pathway to success, asupportive learning environment is also highly important. Teachers have a
responsibility to help students to sustain and develop further their motivation
by satisfying their basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence, andrelatedness.
The following teaching strategies are suggested to all professionals in the fieldof English education in Japan in order to build a more autonomy-supportive
teacher-learner relationship:
1. Whenever possible, allow students to express their ideas and opinions.
2. Create opportunities for students to talk; be a patient listener.
3. When using tests, emphasize their usefulness for students’ future goals
and aspirations; provide rationale.
4. Ensure sufficient time for group work and communicative activities in asafe, supporting environment.
The results of this study showed that there is a direct link between highautonomous motivation and the satisfaction of the basic psychological needs46

Female Students’ Fulfillment of Basic Psychological Needs, OnCUE 14(1), pages 32-59(healthier well-being). Autonomous motivation is also positively correlated tohigher English language proficiency.
In conclusion, the combination of quantitative and qualitative resultsof this study once again supports the belief that motivation is complex andmultifaceted, and it demonstrates that there are still many things to explore in
Japanese educational settings. The biggest limitation of this study is the monogender nature of the sample respondents, and that there were only business major
students surveyed. The perception of needs satisfaction from different groups ofteachers can vary according to such student-related factors as age, gender, major,
experience of study abroad, and many more.
Finally, the current issues in the native-speakerism debate call for the needto redefine language teacher nomenclature of “native” versus “non-native”;
thus, further research in this field should look at different groups that are notdefined as such but who are instead perceived as effective and ineffective by
their students. The author hopes that this study will help to understand betterthe student-teacher relationship and English learning motivation in Japan andserve as a foundation for further explorations and discoveries in motivational
psychology.

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Braine, G. (2010). Nonnative speaker English teachers: Research, pedagogy andprofessional growth. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amr028
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Author bio

Olya Yazawa has been an EFL teacher in Japan for over a decade. Currently she is
an associate professor at Showa Women’s University, Business Design Department.
Her research interests are the Self-Determination Theory and Directed Motivational
Currents. o-yazawa@swu.ac.jp
Received: March 16, 2019
Accepted: April 14, 2021

52

Female Students’ Fulfillment of Basic Psychological Needs, OnCUE 14(1), pages 32-59

Appendix A

Student survey questions. Autonomy need scale items modified for this study:
English Translation
I think my English instructor’s demeanor (NESTs or JTEs separately) makes it
easy for students to ask questions.
My English instructor explains the value and/or meaning of activities andassignments.
I think my English instructor respects our opinions about class.
I think my English instructor understands students’ feelings.
My English instructor supports us in learning English.
My instructor considers students’ viewpoints in class.
Motivational items used unchanged from the original questionnaire
1. I study English because I think it will be useful in various situations.
2. I study English because a lack of mastery of English can get me in trouble
in the future.
3. I simply don’t want to study English anymore.
4. I don’t understand why I need to study English.
5. If I did not need to learn English, I would not.
6. I study English because listening to someone speaking English makes me
feel good.
7. I study English because speaking the language makes me feel good.
8. I study English because I like to get exposed to English itself.
9. I feel that learning English is a waste of time.
10. I study English because I get stimulated by learning English.
11. I see no point in learning English.
12. I study English because I want to become a person who can use English.
13. I study English because I get feeling of satisfaction when finding out new
things.
14. I study English out of necessity to pass exams.
15. I study English because I feel happy when I understand something that I
did not before.
53

Yazawa

16. The reason why I study English is that I think English ability will benefit
my growth.
17. I don’t understand the purpose of learning English.
18. English is important for my future.
19. I study English because it is an important subject for my career path.
20. I study English because I am told to do so.

54Female Students’ Fulfillment of Basic Psychological Needs, OnCUE 14(1), pages 32-59

Appendix B
Most Common Answers Describing Teaching Styles of NESTs
日本語で伝え方を考える。授業内(NESTs) think about how tocommunicate with us in Japanese. I
feel the difference between different
teachers is in their enthusiasm/vibe.
I have to be quiet with a Japaneseteacher, but I like (NESTs) English
teachers because I can cheerfully
speak with them.

でのテンションの差を感じる。日
本の先生だと静かに受けないとい
けないが、英語の先生は話しながらワイワイできるので好きです。

日本語では簡単なことも英

When it’s in Japanese, it’s easy, butwhen I have to hear explanations
in English, I am challenged but
feel satisfaction when I finally
understand.

語の説明だと難しく感じるので理解出来ると嬉しい

意見を尊重してくれる(NESTs) respect our opinions.

雰囲気を盛り上げて、やる気I think that they are good atmaking the atmosphere exciting andmotivating.

にさせるのが上手いと思うより日本語ではなく英語を話

I try to speak English more thanJapanese in their classes (because
they can’t speak Japanese).

そうと試みることができる(日本語では助けてくれないから)

全て英語なので分かりにくいところも

Although it is difficult to understandthem because their classes are all in
English, I feel support from NESTs,
because they correct me using simple
words with a personal approach.

あるが、簡単な言葉に直したり個人的に教えてくれるのでまだ助かってる。

55

Yazawa
教科書以外の内容が多い。

There are many lessons based not
only on the textbook.

質問しづらい。

It is hard to ask them questions.

新鮮なトピックを教えてくれること、自分と異なる視点を持ってること

They use newest topics in English,
and have a different perspective fromus.

ペアワークが多い。

There is a lot of pair work.

授業の雰囲気を明るくしてくれる。

They brighten up the atmosphere of
the lesson. While some teachers may
think that students are somewhat
noisy, NESTs support noisiness in agood way.

多少騒がしくても意見していると考えて、良いと捉えてくれる。

(NESTs) listen to the opinions of
the students and play catch balls ofquestions and engage in small talkwith us.

学生の意見に耳を傾けて、それに対して質問や会話のキャッチボールをしてくれる(NESTs) listen to our opinions andprovide support for any opinion.

意見を聞いてくれ、どんな意見にも肯定から入ってくれる56

Female Students’ Fulfillment of Basic Psychological Needs, OnCUE 14(1), pages 32-59

Appendix C
Most Common Answers Describing Teaching Styles of NESTs
They do not teach communication.

コミュニケーションをしながら英語を学べない。
やりにくい感があるかも

I do not feel motivated.

壁がある感じI have a feeling that there is a wall
between us.

人によるけど、楽しく学べない。

It depends on people, but they are
not fun.

日本語で分からないことを聞ける。質問しやすい

I can ask them what I do notunderstand in Japanese. (It is) Easy
to ask questions.

課題多い

They give many drills.

日本人の英語の学習のつまづきやすいところをよくわかっている

They know well the best way forJapanese to learn English.

座学が多い。

They provide a lot of lectures.

日本語が混じりがち。

They mix English with Japanese
when they talk.

英語が日本人英語になっ

Their English is Japanese English. It
is not useful for me.

ている。為にならない。

They tell us their real-life experiencesin foreign countries.

実体験の外国での生活を話してくれる57

Yazawa
たまに日本語での説明があるのでわ

Sometimes they give an explanationin Japanese, so it is easy tounderstand. However, because I am
not good at speaking English andbecause I am not good at raisinghands, I do not like it because I do
not feel confident enough to ask aquestion.

かりやすい。ただ挙手制の授業では、英語が苦手なので自信がなく中々上げられないので私は好きではない。

話せなくても伝わるといThere is a sense of security that I will
be understood even if I cannot talkproperly.

う安心感がある。

人によるが淡々と授業をThere is a feeling that some of them
are indifferent in the classroom.

こなしている感がある
日本人の先生は英語を話していてJapanese teachers are still Japaneseeven when they are speaking English,
so sometimes I have a feeling likethey speak Japanese English, which isliterally translated Japanese.

もやはり日本人なので日本語英語
みたいな感じで日本語をそのまま英語に直訳しました感がすごい

わからない場合、日本語でIf you do not understand, they will
provide supplementary explanationin Japanese.

補足の説明をしてくれる。

自分で話すことが多い。

They talk a lot.

質問しやすい、日本人の学生

I think that it is easier to ask themquestions, and they understandJapanese students better.

をより理解してくれてると思う

私語を慎めという、授業通りの展開

They don’t want to listen to us; itfeels like a lecture.
58

Female Students’ Fulfillment of Basic Psychological Needs, OnCUE 14(1), pages 32-59

ストが多い。テストで評価をしている

JTEs tell us answers soon. There
are many tests. The evaluation is bytesting.

話す機会が少ない

I have less opportunity to speak.

受動的な生徒を好む

They prefer passive students.

わかりやすく教えてくれる

They talk to us in an easy-tounderstand way.

大事な連絡の時わかりやすい

When they convey important
information, it is easier tounderstand.

日本語が通じるから少し安心する

I feel a little safe because I cancommunicate in Japanese.

少し授業内容の目的がわか

Sometimes I do not understand the
purpose of the lesson.

日本人 答えをすぐ教えてくれる。テ

らないことがあります。

59