Short Research Papers

Have Smartphone Will Travel:

Study Abroad In The Age Of Mobile
Technology
Daniel J. Mills
Ritsumeikan University
Paul T. Johnson
Woosong University and University of St. Andrews
The researchers investigated Japanese students’ perceptions and usage of mobile devices(i.e., smartphones, MP3 players, e-book readers, tablets, and portable game consoles) for
informal English-language learning before and after a study-abroad experience. A survey
instrument was used to collect responses from 31 undergraduate and graduate students
at four universities. Responses on the Dimensions of Mobile-Assisted Language Learning(MALL) scale, which examined personalization, authenticity, and connectivity, showedthat the means of the total scale and subscales all increased following study abroad, but
significant changes were only found in the total scale and personalization subscale. Changes
were also observed in usage of mobile devices, time spent learning, and the activities inwhich participants engaged. Furthermore, participants’ purpose shifted from self-directed
learning to incidental learning after study abroad.
海外留学経験の前後で日本人学生のインフォーマル英語学習のためのモバイ
ル機器（例えばスマートフォン、MP3プレーヤー、電子書籍リーダー、タブレット、
ポータブルゲーム機）に対する態度と使用について調査した。アンケート調査は
日本の４つの大学の大学生と大学院生、合計31人から回答を得た。パーソナル化（Personalization）、真正性（Authenticity）、連結性（Connectivity）を考察する
Dimensions of MALLスケールの回答では、全体スケールと部分スケールのすべて
で留学後の中央値が上昇した。しかし、統計的有意性は、全体スケールとパーソ
ナル化・部分スケールでのみ確認された。モバイル機器を使った学習時間や人と71

Mills & Johnsonのつながりのための活動に関しては変化も見られた。さらに、留学後のモバイル機
器の使用目的は、自己学習から偶発的学習へと移行した。

A study-abroad experience is often seen as a great opportunity for informal
language practice. Students are thought to experience immersive, out-of-classlanguage, something not usually available (Reinders & Benson, 2017). But
even while participating in study-abroad programs, many students find that themost practice of their L2 still takes place in the language classroom (Cotterall &Reinders, 2001; Goodwin-Jones, 2016). This suggests the idea that one of themore important benefits of study-abroad programs is not a change in physicalspace but an increase in digital space. Unlike in-person contact with people
abroad, which is severely limited once the student returns to their home country,
digital interactions can continue with few barriers. These interactions mighttake the form of communication facilitated by technology with individuals andgroups that the students have formed social relationships. There may also be anincrease in consumption of English-language media once back in their homecountry, such as TV shows and music, to which they were exposed during theirperiod of study abroad.
Language learning takes place beyond the classroom (LBC) (Reinders &Benson, 2017). Isbell (2018) went so far as to state, “It is fairly uncontroversial
to claim that most language learning occurs outside the classroom” (p. 82).
Benson (2011) noted that, “there is no strong reason to suppose that out-ofclass learning is any less effective than classroom learning” (p. 8). Benson (2011)
further observed that when language learning and teaching take place beyond
the classroom, the locus of control is autonomous, independent, and selfregulated—words not often heard in the EFL classroom. Goodwin-Jones (2019)
described the choice of materials and methods available to those participating
in informal language learning as “nearly unlimited” (p. 10). Use of technology
in language learning may also foster motivation in L2 learners (Honarzad &Rassaei, 2019).
Informal contexts can be viewed as working in conjunction with formal
contexts (Cotterall & Reinders, 2001; Benson, 2011; Reinders & Benson, 2017).
72

Have Smartphone Will Travel, OCJSI 3, pages 71-89

As technology continues to evolve, our understanding of LBC must evolve with
it. LBC can now be thought of as either physically or digitally outside of theclassroom; for example, by accessing the internet through mobile technology, aspace with many undocumented settings for LBC (Reinders & Benson, 2017).
Changing views on the role of social networking sites (SNSs) and education
are leading to a focus on their educational benefits. Hamat and Hasan (2019), in
their study of Malaysian university students’ use of SNSs for language learning,found that 99.7% of students surveyed (n = 6,085) used SNSs to practiceEnglish outside of the classroom, and 97.4% believed that use of SNSs helped
them improve their English. On a five-point Likert scale, ranging from “Nothelpful at all” to “Extremely helpful,” their students perceived the use of SNSs as
being “Very helpful” in strengthening writing, communication, vocabulary, andreading (mode = 4), but not for grammar (mode = 2 [“Slightly helpful”]) andlistening and speaking (mode = 1 [“Not helpful at all”]).
With many of today’s students being digital natives (Prensky, 2001a),
an opportunity has arisen for instructors to teach in a way that is familiar tothe students, namely, through the use of mobile-assisted learning (MALL).
Indeed, it seems that not only do students learn differently, but that their brainsthemselves develop in a way that matches their learning preferences (Prensky,
2001b). Failure to take this into consideration may lead to instructors spending
more time accusing their students of having short attention spans and lesstime producing engaging, meaningful content tailor-made for this new kindof student (Prensky, 2001b). New content for 21st century students can bedelivered where they spend their time, that is, on their phones.
According to the Japanese Ministry of Communication’s (MIC, 2018) data
regarding access to mobile devices, 95.7% of families in Japan have access to one
or more mobile devices. The most prevalent device was the mobile phone ofwhich 79.2% were smartphones. Data regarding access to other mobile devices
among Japanese households were as follows: tablets (40.1%) and MP3 players(14.2%). Information regarding e-readers and portable game consoles was not
specifically identified in the MIC white paper, but home game consoles andother mobile devices were owned by over 30% and 6.9% of Japanese households,
73Mills & Johnson

respectively.
In their extensive meta-analysis on the integration of mobile devices
and student learning performance, Sung et al. (2016) suggested the use ofmobile devices in education as a way of bridging formal and informal learning
contexts. In their study of mlearning scaffolding and bridging of formal andinformal contexts, Lim Abdullah et al. (2013) quoted a students’ reflection on
the autonomy afforded by their methods, “You are given the trust to handle
what you need to learn. I feel like my own boss” (p. 229). Today’s internetenabled smartphones allow for EFL students to engage directly with other
English speakers (Forsythe, 2013; Honarzad & Rassaei, 2019), solving the
problem of access. MALL provides learners with opportunities for familiar,
authentic environments in which to engage with their L2 (Shadiev et al., 2020),
opportunities which can occur at a time, pace, and place of the students’ choosing(Honarzad & Rassaei, 2019).
Sung et al. (2016) noted that the computing power, portability, wirelesscommunication, and context sensitivity tools make “one-to-one computing
a learning tool of great potential in both traditional classrooms and outdoor
informal learning” (p. 252). Their meta-study of the literature found that
“69.95% of learners using a mobile device performed significantly better in
dependent variables related with cognitive achievement than those not using
mobile devices” (p. 257), and that “learning with mobiles is significantly more
effective than traditional teaching methods that only use pen-and-paper or
desktop computers” (p. 257). Additionally, they observed that inquiry-oriented
learning was the most effective type studied, and informal learning environments
were more effective than formal. Mills (2016) noted several advantages thatcomputer-assisted language learning (CALL) may offer to Japanese learners ofEnglish, including, “unlimited access to authentic content, learning resources,
and communication opportunities in the target language” (p. 3). Mills also
highlighted that because interactions can often be anonymous, learners may
be willing to take more risks, which may lead to a decrease in foreign-language
anxiety and an increase in willingness to communicate in the target language.
So, rather than cede all learning to out-of-the-classroom environments,
74

Have Smartphone Will Travel, OCJSI 3, pages 71-89

instructors should try and link in-class and out-of-class learning to better bolster
both (Reinders & Benson, 2017). And a great tool to link these environments isthe ubiquitous smartphone.
The purpose of this research was to ascertain how Japanese university
students’ perceptions towards informal MALL and usage of mobile devices
for self-directed and incidental learning changed following a study-abroad
experience. To this end, two research questions were posed:
1. What are Japanese university students’ perceptions of mobile devices
for informal English-language learning before and after a study-abroad
experience?
2. What are Japanese university students’ usage of mobile devices for
informal English- language learning before and after a study abroad
experience?

Methods

In order to collect the data, the researchers posted an open call on social media(private Facebook group) to educators who taught at Japanese universities andhad students who had recently experienced study abroad. Three professors/
educators agreed to distribute the research instrument in their classes. A link
was provided, and they shared it with their students on their courses’ learning
management system. Data was collected over a one-week period in the springsemester. The educators were instructed to inform their students that participation
was voluntary and anonymous and would not affect their grade in the class. A
description of the research as well as the rights of participants was included in
the instrument.
The population included students from four universities in Japan. Two of theuniversities were private institutions, while the other two were public. The firstis a private women’s university with two campuses located in western Japan. In
2019, it had 6,538 students enrolled in undergraduate and graduate programsand 836 faculty members. This university reports that there are over 40 studyabroad programs available to its students. The second private university was aco-educational institution located in eastern Japan. The student population in75

Mills & Johnson

2019 was 27,404, and the number of faculty was 1,789. This university offers
59 study-abroad programs to its students to 20 countries. The first of the public
universities is located in Honshu. The student population and faculty at thisuniversity were 3,813 and 250, respectively; in 2019, 75% of students who
graduated in that year participated in study abroad. The second public university
was extremely small but located in Tokyo. There were only 211 students who
attended in 2019; they were taught by 56 faculty members. This university offers
five study-abroad programs.
Thirty-one students chose to complete the survey. The majority of them werefemale (87.1%). They ranged in age between 20 and 24 (M = 21.22). All but
one of the students was of Japanese nationality. Over 90% of the participants
were studying at one of the two private universities and were in their fourthyear of undergraduate study, but one student was in their third year, and two
were graduate students. One of the participants was not enrolled in a Japanese
university at the time but was auditing a class at one of the universities where
the research took place. Most participants (n = 26) studied abroad in either
Canada or the United States, and one participant studied in both. The rest of theparticipants studied in Australia (n = 2), the United Kingdom (n = 1), or Russia(n = 1). The period of study abroad was between 1 and 12 months (M = 9.62
months, SD = 3.06).
A questionnaire was used to collect data via Google Forms. The instrument
consisted of four sections: (1) Dimensions of MALL usage, (2) Frequency of
informal MALL usage of devices and activities, (3) demographics, and (4) an
open-ended question. Sections one and two asked participants to provide
two responses for each item: one response which corresponded with theirperceptions and/or actions before studying abroad and one after their studyabroad experience.
The Dimensions of MALL instrument was developed by Lai and Zheng(2017). The researchers asked for and received permission to adapt and translate
the instrument. The scale consists of 16 items divided into three categories:(1) personalization, (2) authenticity, and (3) connectivity. An exploratory
factor analysis showed that these three dimensions accounted for 62.2% of the76

Have Smartphone Will Travel, OCJSI 3, pages 71-89

respondent’s variance in out-of-class MALL usage (Lai & Zheng, 2017). Each
item in the instrument utilized a six-point Likert scale with 1 corresponding
with “strongly disagree” and 6 indicating “strongly agree.”
The Frequency of Informal MALL Usage was developed by one of theauthors based on previous research (Patten, et al., 2006; Cheung & Hew,
2009; Santos & Ali, 2011) and his experience as a university professor in Japan.
Participants were asked how often they engaged in a variety of informal learning
activities (i.e., watching movies, listening to music, using learning applications,etc.) and employed certain mobile devices for these activities. For this study,
mobile devices referred to smartphones, MP3 players, e-book readers, tablets,and portable game consoles. Responses were recorded using a five-point Likert
scale with the responses of (1) never, (2) rarely, (3) occasionally, (4) frequently,
and (5) very frequently. In addition, this section included a number of multiplechoice and open-ended questions pertaining to mobile device ownership,
time spent engaging in informal study, and whether that study was performed
consciously or unconsciously.
The third section of the survey instrument consisted of seven demographics
questions: (1) age, (2) nationality, (3) gender, (4) university, (5) class standing(year), (6) location of study abroad, and (7) length of study abroad.
The fourth and final section of the survey contained one open-ended
question. Here, participants were asked to explain how their use of mobile device
for informal language learning changed due to their study-abroad experience.
A native speaker of Japanese with a high proficiency of English and a
graduate degree in education translated the survey instrument and responses. A
panel of two other native Japanese speakers with similar qualifications reviewed
the first translation and gave feedback to the first translator. The instrument
was adjusted based on these suggestions. Reliability coefficients were calculated
for the Dimensions of MALL and Frequency of Informal MALL Usage scales.
Table 1 outlines the Cronbach’s alpha for each pre- and post-study-abroad scaleand subscale.
After data collection was complete, the researchers transferred theinformation to a worksheet in IBM SPSS Statistics version 25. Responses to77Mills & Johnson
Table 1
Reliability coefficients for Dimensions of MALL and Informal MALL Usage Scale
SourcePre-study abroad

Post-study abroad

Dimensions of MALL

.901

.919

Personalization

.811

.869

Authenticity

.720

.808

Connectivity

.903

.902

Informal MALL Usage

.811

.632

the open-ended questions were organized in a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet.
Frequencies were calculated for all items and negatively worded items wererecoded. Descriptive statistics were computed for all items as well as theDimensions of MALL scale and subscales and the Informal MALL Usage scale.
Paired t-tests were used to determine if responses to the scale items before andafter study abroad were significantly different. The open-ended responses before
and after study abroad were examined by creating categories and organizing theinformation based on these themes ( Johnson & Christensen, 2012).

Results
Research Question 1: Perceptions Before and After Study
AbroadPersonalization. Data is shown in Table 2. Prior to studying abroad, 90.3% ofparticipants agreed with the statement “Mobile devices help me comprehendand use the target language whenever and wherever I need it.” Participants also
indicated strong agreement with items 2 (83.9%), “Mobile devices enable me
to learn the language at any time and any place” and item 7 (87.1%), “Mobile
devices increase my autonomous learning of the language.” The item with thelowest percentage of “agree” responses was 1 (54.8%), “Mobile learning gives
immediate support to my language learning.” After study abroad, the highest
number of “agree” responses were seen with items 4 (93.5%) and 7 (90.3%).
78

Have Smartphone Will Travel, OCJSI 3, pages 71-89
Table 2Means and Standard Deviation of Personalization Items Before and After Study Abroad
Item

Before

After

M

SD

M

SD

1. Mobile learning gives immediate support to my language
learning.

3.81

1.33

4.42

1.46

2. Mobile devices enable me to learn the language at any
time and any place.

4.71

1.10

4.87

1.20

3. Mobile devices help me comprehend and use the target
language whenever and wherever I need it.

4.94

.96

5.03

.983

4. Mobile devices enable me to have self-paced,
personalized language learning outside the classroom.

4.65

1.23

5.10

.944

5. Mobile learning is a flexible method of learning, as it canbe done anytime, anywhere.

4.45

1.34

4.84

1.19

6. Mobile devices help extend my language learning
experience beyond the language class.

4.32

1.25

4.77

1.12

7. Mobile devices increase my autonomous learning of thelanguage

4.52

1.26

5.10

.98

8. Mobile devices provide opportunities to act
independently in learning the target language

4.55

1.23

4.87

1.09

These items were concerned with the use of mobile devices to provide self-paced
and personalized learning experiences and increase autonomy.
Authenticity. Responses to items in the authenticity sub-scale showed lessagreement than personalization (Table 3). The highest rated item before study
abroad pertained to the authenticity of experience when using mobile devices
for language learning; however, only a small majority of participants expressed
agreement with this sentiment (54.8%). Less than 50% of respondents believedthat mobile devices increased participation in target language social communities
and increased the authenticity of learning materials. The lowest rated item79Mills & Johnson
Table 3Means and Standard Deviation of Authenticity Items Before and After Study Abroad.
Item

Before

After

M

SD

M

SD

9. Mobile devices make my language learning experience
more authentic.

3.61

1.23

3.97

1.602

10. Mobile devices enhance my willingness to participate insocial events hosted in the target language.

3.23

1.43

3.52

1.26

11. Mobile devices increase my participation in target
language social communities.

3.77

1.45

4.48

1.41

12. Mobile devices enhance the authenticity of my language
learning resources and activities

3.77

1.26

3.77

1.36

(38.7% agreement) was 10. After a study-abroad experience, participants’agreement with items in this construct increased slightly. All items showed over
50% agreement with the statements. The most agreement was seen with items 9
and 11.
Connectivity. Responses to the connectivity sub-scale were more positive
than those of authenticity (Table 4). The most positive responses were seen prior
to study abroad with item 16 (61.3%), “Mobile devices enhance my connection
with the target language community.” A majority of participants also agreed thatmobile devices can enhance their interaction with others in English (58.1%).
However, they were less positive that mobile devices increased connection with
their peer language learners (45.2%). Following the study-abroad experience,agreement with the connectivity subscale increased to over 60% in all items. The
highest agreement was seen with items 13 and 16.
Dimensions of MALL Scale and Subscales. An increase in mean value wasseen in all subscales and the total scale after the study-abroad experience. Paired
t-tests were used to determine if responses to the Dimensions of MALL items
before and after study abroad were significantly different. The results indicatedthat the Dimensions of MALL total scale mean was significantly higher after80

Have Smartphone Will Travel, OCJSI 3, pages 71-89
Table 4Means and Standard Deviation of Connectivity Items Before and After Study Abroad
Item

Before

After

M

SD

M

SD

13. Mobile devices enhance my interaction with others in
the target language.

4.10

1.45

4.55

1.69

14. 1Mobile devices enhance my connection with peer
learners of the target language.

3.81

1.38

4.10

1.51

15. Mobile devices connect me with speakers of thelanguage.

3.58

1.36

4.03

1.50

16. Mobile devices enhance my connection with the target
language community.

3.81

1.38

4.13

1.48

study abroad (M = 4.47, SD = .89) than before (M = 4.10, SD = .82), t(30) =-2.36, p = .02. The mean for the subscale of personalization was also significantly
greater post study abroad (M = 4.87, SD = .81) than pre study abroad (M =4.49, SD = .79), t(30) = -2.34, p = .02. Figure 1 shows the mean values of eachdimension ranked in order as well as the means of the total scale.
Research Question 2: Usage Before and After Study Abroad
Before study abroad, 25.8% of participants studied informally using mobile
devices for more than six hours a week. After the study-abroad experience, over
45% of participants reported spending more than six hours a week learning
English with their mobile phones. Figure 2 shows the hours spent engaging in
informal MALL before and after study abroad.
The researchers also observed a change in whether or not they engaged inconscious (self-directed) or unconscious (incidental) learning. Prior to study
abroad, only 45.2% of participants stated that they engaged in unconscious
study activities, such as watching movies and listening to music in English orcommunicating with English speaking friends on social media. After study
abroad, unconscious learning accounted for 80.6% of their usage. This change
was also evident in the open-ended responses of participants. One respondent81

Mills & Johnson

Figure 1. Perceptions towards informal mobile-assisted English-language learning before and after
a study-abroad experience.

Figure 2. Hours spent engaging in informal mobile-assisted English-language learning before andafter a study abroad experience.

wrote:“I use same devices as before my study abroad but the purpose of using themhas changed. Before, I used mobile devices for the purpose of studying English,
but after, I used them for entertainment and just part of daily life without the82

Have Smartphone Will Travel, OCJSI 3, pages 71-89

intention of learning English.”
Another explained:“Before study abroad, I read English articles though SNS or watched movies
to improve my English skill. After study abroad, I read articles and watchedmovies without the intention of learning, but actually, with the same feeling as
when I read and watch in Japanese.”
Mobile phones were the most used devices for informal MALL, while
portable game consoles were the least frequently used. Although the usage ofmobile phones and portable game devices remained unchanged after the studyabroad experience, there was a decrease in usage of MP3 players by 3.2% and
an increase in e-readers by 9.7% and tablets by 6.5%. A visual representation ofthese changes can be seen in Figure 3.
Finally, usage was significantly higher after a study-abroad experience (M= 3.37, SD = .54) than before (M = 3.00, SD = .76), t(30) = -3.31, p < .01.
In addition, the types of activities that the participants engaged in for informal
learning changed. The researchers observed the greatest increases after study
abroad in usage of English language websites, video (e.g., YouTube), news, andSNSs. Smaller increases were seen with learning applications, music, audio (e.g.,
podcasts), and movies/TV. Figures 4 and 5 show the frequency of usage of each

Figure 3. Usage of informal mobile-assisted English-language learning devices before and after astudy abroad experience.

83Mills & Johnson

Figure 4. Engagement in informal mobile-assisted English-language learning activities before astudy abroad experience.

Figure 5. Engagement in informal mobile-assisted English-language learning activities after astudy abroad experience.

activity before and after study abroad.

Discussion

Participants’ agreement that mobile devices help extend learning beyond thewalls of the traditional classroom echoes work by scholars on the expanding84

Have Smartphone Will Travel, OCJSI 3, pages 71-89

nature of informal learning (Reinders & Benson, 2017; Isbell, 2018; GoodwinJones, 2019; Honarzard & Rassaei, 2019). The participants’ views on mobile
devices should help motivate instructors to embrace this change, integrating
formal and informal learning through the use of mobile technology (Cotterall& Reinders, 2001; Sung et al., 2016). Students’ perceived increase in autonomy
and independence is in line with other findings (Benson, 2011; Lim Abdullah etal., 2013).
The difference in agreement levels between authenticity and connectivity
is unexpected, given their similarity and the many affordances for authenticity
discussed in the literature (Forsythe, 2013; Mills, 2016; Shadiev et al., 2020).
This could be due to changing views on the use of mobile phones for education.
While White and Mills (2011, 2014) noted that their students at a Japanese
university did not view their smartphones as educational tools, smartphones
have become more convenient and affordable since then. Perhaps as students
become more comfortable with their phones as educational devices, which thehigh level of agreement under personalization implies (Figure 1), they will findtheir engagement on mobile devices more authentic.
The data regarding engagement following a study-abroad program (Figure5) reinforces the fact that students were utilizing English to consume authentic
content rather than simply engaging in self-directed study of the language. In
particular, it was interesting to see that the study-abroad experience led to greateruse of social networking sites in English. It has been proposed that SNSs arevaluable to language learners because they provide a space to experience thetarget language in an informal and authentic environment as well as a way forstudy-abroad students to maintain social connections that were establishedduring their trip (Kitano et al., 2019). These results also showed a change fromprevious research in informal MALL that indicated SNSs to be an underutilized
resource in the target language, despite the fact that almost 80% of Japanese
between the ages of 20 to 29 use such sites in their native language (MIC, 2018).
The results of the inferential analysis showed that study abroad had a positiveand significant effect on participants’ attitudes towards and usage of mobile
devices for informal language learning. However, it was interesting that only the85Mills & Johnson

total Dimensions of MALL scale and subscale of personalization significantly
increased after study abroad. The response to the usage items in this study clearly
indicated that the participants were engaging in more incidental learning where
they were using English as a means to enjoy entertainment or get information
rather than purposely studying the language. Usage of social media in English
also increased after study abroad, which was assumed to be for the purpose of
keeping in contact with people they met during their trip. The fact that the
responses to the subscales of authenticity and connectivity did not increasesignificantly after study abroad, but actual usage of mobile devices for these
purposes did, seems to suggest a disconnect between participants’ perceptions
and practice.

Conclusion

The purpose of this study was to determine how Japanese university students’
perceptions towards and usage of mobile devices for informal English-language
learning changed following a study-abroad experience. The results showed thatparticipants’ responses to the Dimension of MALL scale increased for the total
scale and all subscales after returning from study abroad. However, only the
total scale and the subscale of personalization showed a significant differencein the mean in the post-trip survey. The researchers also observed an increase in
responses regarding usage including the time with which students engaged in
informal MALL as well as the device and activities they chose. Furthermore, amajority of students had shifted from self-directed study of English with theirmobile devices to incidental study once they had completed their study abroad
experience. Finally, a significant difference was found between the pre- and postsurvey means for the total MALL Usage scale.
While the researchers endeavored to create a study that could be extrapolated
to the larger population of Japanese undergraduate and graduate students
studying abroad, there were several limitations that must be noted. First, a
relatively small sample size was used for the study. For this reason, incidental
statistics should be viewed as preliminary. In addition, there is a possibility of selfselection bias in the study because the participants were all volunteers. Finally,86

Have Smartphone Will Travel, OCJSI 3, pages 71-89

the responses gathered in this study were done so at one point in time after the
study-abroad experience. This means that participants needed to self-reportwhat they remembered to be their perceptions and usage of informal MALL
before their trip. Future research needs to be done with a larger randomized
sample of individuals, and data should be collected before, during, and after the
study-abroad experience. It is the hope of the researchers, however, that the study
presented here does identify key issues pertaining to informal language study
following a study-abroad experience and will serve as a springboard from which
future studies can be conceived.

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Author Bios

Daniel J. Mills is an associate professor of English as a Foreign Language in the
Economics Faculty of Ritsumeikan University, Japan. He holds an MSEd in TESOL
and an EdD in Instructional Technology. His research interests include informal
learning, autonomy, mobile-assisted language learning, and technology acceptance.
danieljmillsedd@gmail.com
Paul Johnson teaches EFL at Woosong University, Korea. He is working on his
MSc TESOL with Technology for Teaching at the University of St. Andrews.
ajwoodsum@gmail.com
Received: September 17, 2020
Accepted: November 12, 2021

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