Feature Article

Content Learning and Identity
Development

Sean Eric Kil Patrick Gay
Ritsumeikan University
This paper explores the intersections between identity formation, content-focused learning,and second language acquisition. In acquiring a second or foreign language, there is an aspectof identity formation that will accompany the experience. This paper examines the broadfoundation of identity studies, then goes on to explore how to promote the developmentof identity in the EFL classroom. This aligns within the theoretical framework of identityfocused language acquisition. It is important for educators to understand the concept ofidentity formation. Furthermore, educators must address issues with material to makethem accessible to all students, not just students considered normal. Finally, it is necessary
to understand the range of goals that define students’ imagined future-selves in order toprepare content that meets the needs of that self and associate that content with English.
In doing so, teachers change their role from leader to guide, and we guide students to their
imagined future identities. Content-oriented language development is a powerful tool for
helping students to develop their identities through language. In particular, content andlanguage integrated learning has demonstrated a compatibility with L2 identity formation.
It effectively ties together academic and professional goals related to the content of thecoursework, which is tied to the language.

Identity

Definitions matter. This is particularly important when dealing with identity,
as what identity is and how it defines us are important and specific aspects ofpsychology, sociology, and pedagogy. Because people do not stay within a single
social context, identity is complex. The concept of a monolithic identity is nolonger sustainable, as people move from one group to another, or within one
group over time; identities shift (Scheibe, 1995). This requires our definition to114

Content Learning and Identity Development, OnCUE Journal, 10(2), pages 114-129

be flexible enough to allow for the reality of identity as it is. Identity is a functionof how we are perceived by society, and how we perceive ourselves within society(Gay, 2013). Thus the final element of the definition needs to include aspects of
taken identity as well as imposed identity. Within feminism, identity is perceived
as a dual narrative: the narratives we tell about ourselves and the narratives others
tell about us (Benhabib, 1999). Identity is the complex and fluid balance of how
we define ourselves and are defined by others in a social context.
That social context necessarily involves power relationships. Researchers
from within their own cultures focus on empowerment and power dynamics(e.g., Umera-Okeke, 2016). Understanding where one stands in terms of identity
can be mapped out in terms of power dynamics between different social groups.
One manner in which this power imbalance is enforced is through the concept of
the normal. The “normal” is considered generalizable and empowered, whereasthat which is not “normal” is “queer” and becomes disenfranchised (King, 2008).
While heteronormativity is a concept from within LGBT identity studies, it has
broad implications. Furthermore, heteronormativity in English education exists
at all levels, even in elementary schools (Barozzi & Ojeda, 2016). Thus, the very
way in which identity is presented in textbooks and class materials needs to bequestioned. One of the most prominent examples of this imbalance is withingendered discourse. It is important to address differences in gendered discourse
expression because to do otherwise would feed into the patriarchal norm, to thedetriment of both men and women (Tannen, 1990). Therefore, it is important tohave a range of female and male voices.
Language is an important aspect of identity, as we define and express ouridentities through our language. Identity is expressed through interpersonal
interaction and language use (Gee, 1996). The act of discourse, therefore, is“an on-going project of self-authoring” (Menard-Warwick, 2005, p. 270). In
addition, identity is an essential aspect of the classroom. When considering ourstudents, it is important to understand that they have a broad range of identities
and that it is important to use a broader range of intended goals when designing
curricula (Chang, 2016). Therefore we need a broad range of models within thecourse narrative.
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Intersectionality

There are rich discourses within feminist, LGBT, and minority cultures research
about the formation and importance of identity. The differences in approach
between these fields allow for a broader perspective of how identity can beconsidered. It is, however, important to understand these concepts in a holisticmanner through intersectionality.
Because identity is complex, it requires a different framework forunderstanding. That framework is intersectionality. Intersectionality examines
identity from a holistic perspective, rather than focusing on race, gender,
sexual orientation, socioeconomic status or any other identity marker in vacuo.
The concept of intersectionality arose in the 1980s, particularly among black
feminists. The study of feminism tended to exclude minorities, while minority
studies excluded women which erased black women’s experiences in America(hooks, 1981). The theory was further developed in the field of legal studies,
wherein those at an intersection of protected, or special, classes were not given
sufficient consideration in legal proceedings (Crenshaw, 1989). The study ofintersectionality continues to develop (e.g., Anthias, 2011). However, there
needs to be a greater understanding of intersectionality within the EFL field ofstudy and practice.
Acceptance of intersectionality does not simply mean accepting thevalidity of feminist, LGBT, and cultural critiques. Intersectionality requires
an understanding that there are a broad range of identity markers that need
to be addressed in a holistic and inclusive manner. This requires the inclusionof a range of identities and an understanding of the cumulative implicationsof different forms of marginalization. This is also important as we address thedevelopment of identities within our students.

Pedagogical implications

A key aspect of EFL pedagogy is that students are developing an L2 identity.
“We cannot make assumptions about what their languages will mean to bilingualand multilingual individuals, or what a language will evoke or encode. It is clear,
however, that an individual’s languages encode different power relations and116

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that individuals experience themselves differently as they translate themselves
between their languages” (Burck, 2011, p. 376). Language is an aspect of who
we are at a core level. It is essential to our definition of identity, which is why
students need to be agents. Many of the issues addressed in different fields ofidentity studies stem from the imposition of identity. By making the classroom anagent of imposition, teachers discourage the development of identity.
The following sections help to clarify how teachers can develop classrooms
wherein students can act as agents of identity development. These tools
incorporate aspects of material choice and development as well as thedevelopment of student autonomy. These sections explore a range of available
tools that can help promote identity development in a range of contexts.
Awareness. It is important for educators to be aware of the concept ofidentity formation. “Educators must develop awareness of ELs’ ability to adopt
identities that serve them well in various environments” (Byfield, Shelby-Caffey,
Bacon, & Shen, 2016, p. 43). Identity formation is different from redefining one’s
identity; identity formation is building a new system of self-definition adjacent
to concurrent identities. Of particular interest is the focus on the dynamic ofrejection of one’s culture of origin and assimilation into one’s adopted culture
within cultural identity studies; “the terrible choice that so many students inthe world are asked to make between working in solidarity with their people
or taking advantage of modern education and the individual opportunities
it affords” (MacPherson, 2005, p. 598). This underlying premise is especiallyproblematic in this article as MacPherson acknowledges that the goal is the“liberation from all fixed or prescribed identities” (2005, p. 604). Traversing thisfalse dichotomy and addressing the formation of identity in a specific rather thana broad cultural complex is the challenge we face as language educators.
Good language learners appear to be able to work outside their own culture;
this is not to say that they adopt their second language (SL) or foreign language(FL) culture while rejecting their own, but that they are able to work in acontext distinct from the context of the culture in which they were raised. For
the purpose of language education, this means that culture has to be defined interms of the specific content of the course and the context of the lesson. This
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narrow definition is necessary to promote engagement outside of one’s own
culture without pursuing the rejection/assimilation dynamic. In addition,
educators need to work on developing this ability in order to promote the ability
to transcend culture.
There are many ways in which the ability to transcend cultural can bepromoted. One is through the use of non-scripted role play activities. Role
play activities are a tool to allow students to develop other perspectives. That is
why they can play a key role in transcending culture. Going one step beyond,extended role playing games, like Dungeons and Dragons, can also be powerfultools in developing this skill. In this case, however, you need to consider bothadministrative and student perspectives of the activities before moving forward.
While I have not been in an educational setting wherein this was a classroom
option, I have used it in a self-access learning center (SALC) setting. I utilized
a simplified set of rules that de-emphasized the use of dice, but promoted thestory-telling aspect of the role playing game (RPG), and used a variety of settings
primarily which were mostly contemporary. The reason I made this choice was tofocus more on student creativity. Creativity is fundamental to the developmentof expression, and by allowing students the freedom to express a creativelyformed other identity outside of ethical judgement, students can develop theability to step outside of their own cultural context. One of the drawbacks of
the SALC setting for RPGs is that each session has to be accessible to students
who have not engaged in prior sessions. This requires an episodic approach tothe story. On the other hand, this adjustment allows for more exploration, whichgave students more control and promoted creativity.
A different approach is to use timed writing activities as a tool for criticalthinking (CT) development. To be specific, to promote CT development withtimed writing activities, a teacher must identify topics that are broadly agreed
upon by the class and have the students write papers that oppose that view. I
call this approach, defending the indefensible. This approach can be taken fora variety of writing styles. For descriptive writing, an essay about a pet octopus
would force students to consider a non-normative pet. For business letter
writing, asking students to write a letter of complaint to Apple, suggesting118

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that their iPhone is broken because they cannot update to Android 6.0 would
be useful. There is a broad range of argumentative topics that can be assessed
related to the topics within the textbook or in the news. The foundation of
empowerment education is development of the critical faculty (Freire, 1973).
The critical faculty is about the ability to make sound rational judgements, which
require the examination of alternatives. Thus this type of activity promotes theempowerment of students through the development of the critical faculty, while
also promoting the transcending of their current identity by forcing them to see
the world through an opinion other than their own.
The tools developed through role play activities and defend the indefensible
writing are both linguistic and identity-focused. By asking students to workoutside their perspective, teachers can develop the skill of CT, which can aid
them in SL or FL identity development.
As teachers becoming aware of language learning as identity formation, it isalso important to consider idealized future identities. Teachers often approach a
specific class with assumptions as to what their students’ goals are. In a university,
students will be moving into professional or graduate school scenarios; however,a student may choose to seek a more domestic situation or even a period ofpartial or full unemployment following university. Students enter the classroom
with a broad range of goals and social identities (Chang, 2016). I had a student
in one of my presentation classes. The student was assigned to present on issues
related to a minority through random selection. I talked to this student about
being willing to be open about their Ainu identity and talking about Ainu inJapan. By facilitating openness the student was able to better identify with the
project and thus make the project more meaningful and productive. Some ofthose social identities will be a foundation for future identities, whereas thegoals of students help define the identity they would like to formulate. It is easy
in narrowly designed classes to define the path; however, with many classroom
scenarios it is difficult to imagine the scope of possible futures the students haveimagined for themselves. Initially, teachers will need to prepare materials thathave a broad range of representation. This also means that there needs to be arange of representation within the scope of different groups. In moving forward,
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teachers will either need to do an analysis, similar to a needs analysis, to identify
what identities need greater representation to promote student engagement.
In more autonomous classrooms, teacher guidance towards finding diverse
sources is essential. It is generally better to focus on representation within thematerials and content, rather than trying to force diverse representation throughassessment tools.
It is also important to limit the range specifically so that the material canbe meaningfully associated with those future identities. This is why autonomy
or student analysis is a key aspect of the identity-focused language classroom.
Unfortunately, that is not always possible. In situations where the materials arelimited, it is key to avoid stereotypes and have a range of voices that represent a
range of gender, sexual, and ethnic identities. It is also sometimes useful to userole models of good language learners. Good language learners each have theirown story; however, they represent a realistic and meaningful possible future-self
for students. Role models can be represented through guest visits, anecdotes, ormaterial representation.
Imagined communities. One of the key concepts in dealing withidentity development in EFL conditions is imagined communities. Imaginedcommunities are the conceptual idea of what the society should be that function
implicitly or explicitly within schools (Kanno, 2003). In the EFL context, thedialogues and course content define what is acceptable and normal. In defining
the community that speaks English, the school plays an important role inwhether the community is one which is enticing to students.
Ideally, the imagined communities of English language speakers should havea broad range of participants and be inclusive of different ways of thinking andbeing. The reality, however, is that imagined communities are often too limited(Harrison, 2011). It is especially important to consider the role of imaginedcommunities for intersectionally marginalized individuals. By incorporating a
range of role models within the text, this problem can be prevented. Teachers
need to consider not only representation from a broad range of groups, but alsoa range of ideas within members of those groups. Furthermore, it is important
to consider individuals that represent the intersections of various groups; people
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can be women and members of ethnic minorities and LGBT. In addition, it isimportant to offer a range of ideas within various groups. No group is a monolith,
and that diversity needs to be shown through materials that avoid stereotypes.
On the same line as imagined communities, giving students opportunities tointeract in English language using communities can be beneficial. While this isdifficult in the EFL setting, it is possible through the use of virtual communities.
In virtual communities, learners can establish their identity through meaningful
and personal interactions (Byfield, Shelby-Caffey, Bacon, & Shen, 2016). The
use of virtual communities allows students to interact in real time, while also
having access to online support resources. In certain situations, this can be done
within the classroom. Guiding students through Second Life, an online open (nogoals) multiplayer experience can be done within the classroom. This platform
provides a platform for student creativity similar to RPGs while also promoting
the ability to transcend their culture through real-time immersion in anotherculture. However, the key value is that it can be continued outside the classroom.
Other tools, such as internet video telephony, can allow face-to-faceencounters across great distances. While this type of activity does not allow thedegree of creativity and immersion seen in Second Life, it is more real in that
it is closer to our everyday experience. Internet video telephony can be difficult
to schedule depending on the region you are coordinating with. A colleagueof mine used this tool in a program that coordinated interpersonal exchange
between a university in Japan and a university in the Middle East. The ability
to develop interpersonal relationships, perceive other cultures, and form acommunity between the two universities made this a valuable activity despite
the issues around scheduling the internet video telephony sessions.
These activities open an international door to students. By scaffolding theearly interactions within these environments, teachers can prepare students
to be safe (protecting of their own boundaries while being considerate of theboundaries of others) and active participants. This scaffolding, when properly
facilitated, can also help with the process of student self-motivation towards
making students agents of their own language and identity development.
Content. Cognitive content engagement (CCE) is an important theory to
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understand in shifting towards a content- oriented language teaching approach.
CCE addresses the role of content in the language classroom; this theory posits
that a key factor in language acquisition is meaningful engagement with thecontent (McLaughlin et al., 2005). While there are several theories related toengagement, this theory’s focus on the primacy of content significantly moves
the theoretical pedagogical framework forward. As such, this theory works
well with the model of language learning as identity formation. Students need
content that can be suitably applied to an imagined future-self. This content
then becomes engaging and meaningful to the learner. While there are manyfactors associated with CCE such as level of difficulty, novelty, and accessibility;
the ability of students to associate the content with their developing identities isarguably the key factor.
CCE feeds into the content and language integrated learning (CLIL) model.
CLIL is effective at connecting linguistic and personal development goals(Fodor & Lugossy, 2016). This allows students to connect English competency
with their personal development as students, professionals, and individuals.
The integration of language and content benefits both language and content.
Content-orientation allows the language program to integrate into students’broader field of study. By being part of the broader program, it gives English
classes more weight than if they are viewed as stand-alone external requirements.
In addition, by engaging in the content through English, the students gain accessto a broader range of resources and opportunities. At the same time, CLIL
promotes a path towards identity development.
English course content is often disconnected from students’ othercoursework. This creates the illusion of separation. In order for English courses tobe truly effective, they need to focus on integrating into the broader coursework.
On the other hand, it is also important to explore areas that are outside thepresupposed goals of the department. Not every student will go to graduate
school or a career in a Japanese company. Providing content for students that fits
the presupposed goals, while also providing a range of content outside of thosegoals, is essential to a strong language classroom. At the same time, the content
must be integrated with the language skills that students will need to fulfil their
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goals. By providing a core that is strongly linked to the department, while also
having sufficient content outside of that core is the goal of an identity-focusedclassroom.
Some of this process is about knowing your students. By speaking with yourstudents about their future goals and plans, you can tailor examples to fit their
imagined future-selves. On the other hand, this is not always possible, especiallywith larger class sizes. In these situations, it is important that you include models
that do not match presuppositions into the coursework. This may be simple
identity inclusion: female, transgender, or racially diverse models. However,it may also mean bringing up issues that are usually avoided, such as having afemale speaker correct an interlocutor when the interlocutor uses “boyfriend”
rather than “girlfriend” when inviting the female speaker and the female speaker’s
significant other to an event. Finally, there is a need to support a variety of
scenarios in role-plays or dialogues. Having every role-play or dialogue fit into
the company or graduate school model is not only boring, it also isolates students
with divergent future-selves.
Focus. Developing the focus of a content-oriented program requires anunderstanding of the future goals of students. Identity formation in EFL is best
supported by programs where the content matches the future-self conceived
by the students. The material needs to be of a sufficient level to be engaging
to students at their level of development within the subject. At the same time,the material needs to be novel. In universities, the novelty of subject matter
requires continual and open negotiation with the departments associated withthe language program. This allows the language courses to fit within the broader
context of the curriculum.
One area where CLIL courses tend to fit well in curricula is research. Courses
teaching students about researching, presenting, and writing are useful forstudents. Scaffolded research paper writing is especially interesting, as it allows
students to select content that fits their own personal interest. This is an area
wherein CLIL often ties into project-based learning (PBL). CLIL often requiresa degree of autonomy; PBL emphasizes this aspect of CLIL and can be used
to create a broader structure for the integration of language and content with
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identity as the focus. In addition, students who are looking at careers in research
will need to write research papers in English. Therefore, it fits ideally into thestudents’ imagined future-selves. Students going into business can benefit frompresentation courses wherein they do research to prepare for their presentations.
This is a skill that many students will need in the future, and being able to present
in English gives them an advantage in the job market.
Another area of focus that can often fit within a broader curriculum is theteaching of foundational principles. In the course I helped design at Ritsumeikan
University, I organized the content around the scientific method and helped withthe development of a section on the engineering process. Students do not cover
this content in their other science and engineering coursework. As such, somestudents did not have sufficient understanding of the foundational concepts ofthese fields. The English program was asked to develop coursework to address
this need. This allowed the English program to help address shortcomings of the
program and better integrate into the broader curricula. The integration of the
English program into the broader curricula allowed it to be more aligned withstudents’ future-selves by attaching the language to an area of interest wherein
they are already attempting to develop an imagined future-self.
The theoretical frameworks for the scientific method and engineering
process were too philosophical to fit within the students’ other courses. However,these theoretical frameworks are the foundation of all the other courseworkthat students need to complete. These theoretical frameworks can be addressed
without a lab, and provide source material that can be associated with linguistic
concepts. In the course we developed, the link that can be drawn between
independent/dependent clauses and independent/dependent variables allowed
students to integrate linguistic devices with content material in a unique manner.
Language is the manner in which we perceive the world within a conceptual
framework. Independent can affect dependent clauses in the same way thatindependent can affect dependent variables. This is tying the tool of perception
with the tool of conception; in other words, it is a link between their imagined
future linguistic self and their imagined future academic/professional self.
Every field is based within a conceptual foundation. While understanding124

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that foundation is beneficial to students, it is often omitted from the regularcoursework. This offers an opportunity for language programs to integratewith their associated departments. In cases where the connection between
the language and the concepts can be made explicit, such as with clauses andvariables, it can become a powerful tool to connect the linguistic and academic/
professional future-selves. The connection to an imagined future-self thatstudents are already developing should promote the development of an Englishspeaking identity.
On the other hand, many English classes are not directly connectedwith a department. For this type of coursework, it is possible to promote thedevelopment of an English-speaking identity through a focus on culture or
popular culture. Courses designed around literature provide a great deal of
input for students while also giving the students an imagined community withineach book. The same can be said of comics, movies, or modern short novels.
By associating English with entertainment that is already engaging to students,
the teacher can help promote an imaginary future-self that can enjoy a broader
range of popular culture in English. The key factor is for the teacher to be open
to the students’ interests rather than simply pushing stories, movies, or television
programs that are of interest to the teacher but students can not relate to.

CLIL and identity

CLIL is a form of language education that juxtaposes dual purposes, language andcontent. This gives students the opportunity to craft their L2 identity in relation
to the content. Because content is often positioned within a culture, CLIL
engages students with that cultural content that helps them develop cultural orintercultural identities (Sudhoff, 2010). Those identities allow the students to beagents. However, the content of CLIL is often not just culture, but professionalor academic skills. In this way, students can simultaneously develop linguistic
and professional/academic skills (Fodor & Lugossy, 2016). This simultaneousdevelopment allows students to develop their identity in a manner that is more
effective than other forms of language education.
A large part of identity is the assigning of meaning. CLIL allows students
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to shift the learning focus from mistakes to meaning (Fodor & Lugossy, 2016).
Meaning that is relevant to an imagined future identity allow students agency
in building that identity through engagement in the class. By allowing a degreeof autonomy, through research and projects, the CLIL classroom can become
even more effective at helping students develop their agency. And, in developing
agency, students move towards the realization of the imagined future identity, an
identity that is integrated with both the content and language of the courseworkthat the student is involved in.

Conclusion

The ultimate goal of language education is to produce students that can use
the language. To do this, we have to accept that language is a quintessential
aspect of identity. We develop and demonstrate our identity through discourse.
Therefore, it is essential that we reconsider our role as educators; we are guides.
We are helping students develop L2 identities. The most effective tool for helping
students to develop identities is the use of CLIL. However, in utilizing CLIL,
we need to take an identity-focused language acquisition approach to language
learning. Students are creating a second or foreign language identity when they
are learning. By accepting that reality and providing broad enough contexts toallow all students to find their niche, we teachers can better meet the goal ofdeveloping those identities.
CLIL works because people develop identities over time. Identities areformed through choosing a narrative, and enacting that narrative throughdiscourse. The reason that CLIL fits this concept is because it effectively ties
the content-related academic and professional goals to language. In doing so,
the students develop an imagined future-self that is connected to goals related
to both the content and the language. The language becomes a meaningful
aspect of their imagined future identities. Over time, the students move closer
to and develop those imagined future identities. In this conceptual framework,
educators act as guides. Educators need to act as guides because an important
aspect of developing identity is the claiming of agency. Students provided withmeaningful and engaging content, linguistic support, and guided agency can
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develop their identity. It is difficult for some educators to accept the role ofidentity-focused language acquisition guide; however, by accepting our role asguides for identity formation, educators can become more effective, and students
can benefit from this shift in perspective.

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Author Bio

Sean Gay has a PhD in Health Sciences and an MS in TESOL; he was a lecturer at
Ritsumeikan University and is currently a lecturer at Kwansei Gakuin University.
He has worked to incorporate content-oriented aspects in language classes and has
focused his research on the optimization of university programs. seanekpg@gmail.
com
Received: January 12, 2017
Accepted: September 26, 2017129