FORMATION OF NOMAD SOCIETIES IN ANCIENT EURASIA― RESEARCH BY COMPARATIVE ARCHAEOLOGY ―ユーラシア地域における古代遊牧社会形成の比較考古学
Katsuhiko Ohnuma (Institute for Cultural Studies of Ancient Iraq,
Kokushikan University)
Introduction
1. Purpose of the research
The archaeological excavations which the members of the present research participated innorth-east Syria in 2005 to 2012 focused on the Bronze Age sites in the Bishri Mountains along
the Middle Euphrates.
The sites which were excavated consisted of three kinds under different
geomorphological conditions: 1) settlement sites along the River Euphrates, 2)
grave-complexes near the settlement sites and 3) cairn graves on the Bishri Plateau
desert.
This series excavations that were parallely undertaken aimed to grasp the real
picture of the development of the nomadic societies in the region; through examining
the change of the number of settlements and graves, the change of sites scale and thesituation of sites dispersion.
On the bases of archaeological evidences that were yielded by the parallel
excavations, we could present a hypothetical view that the Amorite societies in the
Bishri region occasionally changed their subsistence ways by means of intra-society
separation into agriculturists and animal herders and their re-union in accordance tothe changes of the natural and/or social environments.
Were the developmental processes of the nomadic societies the same between
West Asia, where the animal domestication first appeared, and Central Asia where
the domestication seems to have secondarily reached as the marginal zones from
West Asia?
In Central Asia, not many evidence-rich field research has been carried out, only
hypothetical models having been proposed.
One of the two major hypotheses advocates that the nomadic groups of thenorthern shores of the Black Sea migrated to Central Asia in the 4th to the 2nd
Millennia B. C. 1）.
The another hypothesis advocates that the hunter-gatherers or agriculturists ofCentral Asia in the 4th to the 2nd Millennia B. C. themselves changed theirsubsistence means to nomadism2).
Needless to say, these two hypotheses have to be re-examined by further research.
In order to answer the questions above, we planned the present research whichaims to comparatively examine the developmental processes of the nomad societies ofWest Asia and Central Asia, and further of East Asia, taking into a consideration thegeographical setting of Kyrgyzstan which borders West Asia in its western part andChina in the south-western part by the Tian Shan Mountains.
2. Background of the research
Up to date, the nomadic societies have been considered as the opponents against
the urban societies, pulling triggers to destroy them.
It is well known, for example, that the third dynasty of Ur of the 2nd Millennium－ 69 －

B. C. of southern Mesoptamia was destroyed by the Semitic nomads, and the nomadic
Huns of East-Central Asia and the Qin/Han dynasties of China were struggling eachother around the beginning of the Christian era.
The views to oppose the nomadic societies against the urban societies, however,were created by the latter who invented inscribed letters.
As just mentioned, the members of the present research undertook series ofarchaeological excavations and field research in 2005 to 2012 in the regions aroundthe Bishri Mountains near the city of Raqqa, north-east Syria. These series ofresearch were carried out to know how the “Amorite nomadic societies” of the regions
were leading their lives in the period around 2000 B. C. (Grant-in-Aid for Scientific
Research on Priority Area (2005-2009) from the MEXT, Japan “Formation of Tribal
Communities in the Bishri Mountains, Middle Euphrates” (General Director:
Katsuhiko Ohnuma) and Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (2010-2012) from thePromotion and Mutual Aid Corporation for Private Schools of Japan “Developmentsof Nomadic Societies in the Middle Euphrates, Syria” (Director: Katsuhiko Ohnuma).
After the series of excavations and research, several fruitful results were
produced, which strongly suggested that the “Amorite” people in the Bishri
Mountains around 2000 B. C. were 1) practicing agriculture and sheep herding at thesame time, 2) flexible enough to separate their societies into agriculturists, nomads
and citizens and to re-unite them in accordance to external causes such as thechanges of climate, and 3) commerce mediators at trading posts along rivers3).
These results not only demonstrated the variations of the founders of thecity-based civilizations of West Asia, but also showed that the research of thedevelopments of nomadic societies would be also valid to clarify the developments ofhuman societies on the whole.
The results yielded by the research in Syria, therefore, led us to plan a project inthe Eurasian arid region, wider than West Asia and including both West Asia andCentral Asia, and to select Kyrgyzstan as the region for a comparative research,taking advantage of our thus-far accumulated field-work experiences in West Asia
(see the publication4）edited by Ohnuma for the results of the preliminary research)(Fig. 1).
3. Significance of the research
The present research is significant as described below.
First of all, it is a comparative research based on archaeology, using the original
data which we have so far accumulated in West Asia. Nowadays, regions forarchaeological research are highly specialized and too much sub-divided, but thepresent research covers the large part of Eurasia from West Asia to Central Asia.
Such an occasion to cover several regions for a common research theme is very rare,featuring the present research to be highly significant.
Secondly, the present research has a potential to contribute not only to thearchaeology of West Asia and Central Asia, but also to the archaeology of East Asia,
including the clarification of the ancient Japanese history. Most probably, the nomad
societies of Central Asia which had emerged until the beginning of the second
Millennium B. C. greatly influenced upon the formation of the Eraly Dynasties ofChina, which also had emerged until that time. In concrete terms, all of the wheat,bronze objects and horse-chariots of the Chinese Early dynastic period can bearchaeologically traced as the inflows from West Asia and/or Central Asia.
And thirdly, the present research which traces cultural flows between West Asia
and East Asia in the past, taking into a consideration the formation of the nomad－ 70 －

societies of West and Central Asia, will contribute to the expression of future images
for Japan to coexist and cooperate in the 21st century Asia. In other words, we canview that the ancient Japanese society, which undoubtedly was established by thestrong influences from the Chinese civilization, accepted several cultural elementsfrom West Asia and Cental Asia by way of the Silk Road. How were the bases of thepolitical, economic and cultural relations between Japan and Asian countries formedin West Asia and Central Asia? This question may be answered by the present
research, and academic suggestions for the future continuation of the present state ofrelations with Asian countries may be presented.

Fig.1 Map: Arid regions of Eurasia

Plans of the research activities
The northern part of the Tian Shan Mountains in the eastern part of Kyrgyz,
where the present research is undertaken, is the natural barrier bordering China,
and most probably was the terminal point of the inflow of the animal domesticationfrom West Asia.
The research in this region, therefore, is ideal for a comparative research of thedevelopmental processes of the animal domestication in its original region and themarginal regions which received it.
At the same time, the animal domestication of East Asia is within the scope of thiscomparative research, for Kyrgyz is located at the contact point of West/Central Asia
and East Asia.
In these views, the members of the present research, Ohnuma (Director of theresearch), Yasuyoshi Okada (Professor, Institute for Cultural Studies of Ancient Iraq,
Kokushikan University) and Shogo Kume (Associate fellow, Japan Center forInternational cooperation in Conservation, National Research Institute for Cultural
Properties, Tokyo) carry out sites surveys and excavations in Kyrgyz and analize theobjects obtained from the surveys/excavations to clarify the natures and dates of thesites.
Results of the research
From 2nd to 18th of July of 2013, Ohnuma and Kume visited Kyrgyz to－ 71 －

participate in the archaeological excavations at the site of Aigyrzhal 2 in the Narynvalley (Figs.2 to 5) directed by Professor Aida Abdykanova of the American
University of Central Asia.

Fig.2 Naryn heights

Fig.3 Naryn valleyFig.4 Excavations at
Aigyrzhal 2 (1)Fig.5 Excavations at
Aigyrzhal 2 (2)Eight charred specimens unearthed during the excavations were dated by the C14
method and yielded the values which are described in the following paragraphs forthe research results of the Epi-Palaeolithic/Neolithic and Bronze Age periods. Also, 9charred specimens of wooden materials were analized for species identification.
1 Results of the Palaeolithic research
Around 200,000 years ago, the archaic Homo sapiens who were the proto-type of
the authentic Homo sapiens, the direct ancestors of modern humans, emerged in the
African continent, and some 80,000 years ago they reached the eastern world such as
the Iranian plateau and Indo/Pakistan by way of Palestine and/or the Persian Gulf5).
Around 50,000 to 40,000 years ago, the authentic Homo sapiens in the IranianPlateau and the Indo/Pakistan region who had fully developed into the modern
humans moved to the west to West Asia and Europe, to the north to Caucasia andCentral Asia, and to the east to East Asia6）.
This is the scenario agreed nowadays upon the emergence and dispersal ofmodern humans.
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During the stay in Kyrgyz in July of 2013, Ohnuma studied the Palaeolithic
materials of Kyrgyz to know what features characterize the Palaeolithic industries of
the country.
The most noteworthy Palaeolithic site is Ak-Olon which is located on a fan-like
topography at the mountain hill at the western shore of the lake of Ishiku in thenorth-eastern part of Kyrgyz. A vast number of chertish rocks are exposed at theoutcrops at this factory site, and countless large cores and flakes are distributed nearand distant from the outcrops (Figs.6, 7, 8).
The cores and flakes found at this factory site, one of the largest in Central Asia,
are highly characterized by the Middle Palaeolithiic technology such as the Levallois
methods of flake, blade and point types, most probably dated to the final stage of the
Middle Palaeolithic period, 60,000 to 50,000 thousands years B. P. , and are similar
to the contemporary materials of West Asia. They are different, however, from thematerials in the eastern world such as China and the Japanese islands.

Fig.6 General view ofthe Middle
Palaeolithiic factory
site of Ak-Olon

Fig.7 Out-crop of raw
material chert at

Ak-OlonFig.8 Core foundat Ak-Olon

There is a possibility that these artifacts were made by the authentic Homosapiens, and it is hoped that more detailed techno-typological analyses will clarify thelineage of the artifacts and the human type who made them.
The research of the Palaeolithic sites of Kyrgyz including Ak-Olon will contributea great deal to answering the important questions such as the possibility of arrival of
the archaic Homo sapiens into Central Asia in the Middle Palaeolithic period after
their departure from Africa and the relations between the Middle Palaeolithic
materials and the Homo Neanderthal people who undoubtedly lived in many places ofCentral Asia in the Middle Palaeolithic period.
2 Results of the Epi-Palaeolithic/Neolithic research
As previously described, we participated in the archaeological excavations at thesite of Aigyrzhal 2 from 2nd to 18th of July of 2013, which yielded
Epi-Palaeolithic/Neolithic and Bronze Age layers.
Described below is the outline of the excavations and a brief description of the
Epi-Palaeolithic/Neolithic layer.
The site of Aigyrzhal 2 is located on the left bank of the river of Naryn runningfrom the east to the west in the Tian Shan Mountains in Kyrgyz (Figs. 2 and 3). The
river of Naryn is a branch of the river of Syr Darya which flows into the Aral Sea.
The hight around the site of Aigyrzhal 2 is over 2,000m above the sea level.
The site is a mound, oval in outline in the direction from the east to west, and280m in the longer (east to west) axis, 79m in the shorter (north to south) axis, and－ 73 －

some 11m higher than the terraces of the river of Naryn.
Judging from the deposition of soils, it is supposed that the base of the moundused to be a part of the sands in the river of Naryn; alternating deposition of gravel
bed-rock, sandy soil and clay associated with river actions being recognizable.
The excavational works were undertaken in the trench established at the easternedge of the mound, where rather many lithic artifacts had been distributed (Fig. 5).
The cultural layer which contained the objects of the Epi-Palaeolithic or the
Neolithic period was 100 to 135cm deep from the mound surface. Because this layer
is essentially composed of sand, it is most probable that the bank of the river ofNaryn was nearer to the site than today.
The main structure is the trace of a hearth, some 30cm in dimameter (Fig. 9). The
surroundings of the hearth are often turned red due to the influence by heat, andmany microlithics were unearthed around it (Fig. 10). Although very small inquantity, potsherds and animal bones were also unearthed.
The microlithic tradition in Central Asia continued up to the Bronze Age period7）,
and it is impossible to determine this layer by means of lithic artifacts alone. Thus,
we dated the charred specimens from this layer by the C14 method and obtained
three calibrated values of 12,000 to 11,000 cal. B.C.
These values can be placed in the framework of the Epi-Palaeolithic period inCentral Asia established so far8）, but it seems impossible to restrict these values tothe Epi-Palaeolithic period alone.
Though the possibility of intrusion of the potsherds of the upper layers into thislayer can not be excluded, it is rather possible to date this layer with potsherds to the
Neolithic period, if taking into consideration that the world oldest Neolithic
industries with pottery have been unearthed in North-East Asia such as China,
Japan and Siberia9）.
In connection with the chronological problem mentioned above, thepalaeo-zoological/botanical and palaeo-environmental information was necessary toreconstruct the subsistence activities at the time concerned, and we analized thethree charred wooden specimens for species identification.
This analysis resulted in the identification of the two specimens to be broad-leaftree（Syringa reticulata (Oleaceae)）and unidentifiable broad-leaf tree.
In order to confirm the extension of the Epi-Palaeolithic/Neolithic layer within the
mound, we set a test trench on the slope at the northern edge of the mound facing theriver of Naryn. No objects were unearthed from this test trench, but a hearth-likespot with concentration of the traces of charcoal was found on the top of thealternating deposition of sandy soil and clay, some 120cm below the surface (Fig. 11).

Fig.9 Hearth unearthedin the excavation
trenchFig.10 Microliths
unearthed fromthe excavation
trench－ 74 －

Fig.11 Hearth
confirmed in thetest trench

The C14 dating applied to one charred specimen from this hearth-like spot yielded
the same value as those from the excavation trench at the eastern edge of the mound.
Similarly, the species analysis for this charred specimen resulted to its identification
to be broad-leaf tree（Salix (Salicaceae)）.
The C14 values for the specimens from the two trences that are highly consistentstrongly demonstrate that the inhabitants of this mound of the Epi-Palaeolithic or
Neolithic period exploited the most area of the mound for their activity space, though
the way of the exploitation at the test trench area with very few tools and/or weapons
was different.
It is possible, for example, that daily constant activity was difficult to exercise at
the test trench area immediately facing the river of Naryn and that only sporadic
activities were carried out there without making and using lithic artifacts.
Furthermore, the results of the species identification demonstared that all of theanalized specimens from the two trenches belonged to broad-leaf tree. Although thenumber of the analized specimens is very limited and the appreciation of the results
should wait for further increace of analysis specimens, the results, altogether withother means for palaeo-environmental reconstruction, can make basic data toreconstruct the environment around the site in the Epi-Palaeolithic or Neolithic
period.
The preliminary results of the excavations at the two trenches are to contribute a
great deal to the proposal of a new theme which will deepen the content of thepresent research, in addition to a possibility of discovering the oldest pottery in theregion of the Tian Shan Mountains.
The theme to be pursued hereafter is the neolithization process, that is thetransition from hunting/gathering economy to food-producing economy prior to theformation of the nomad societies which dramatically developed in the Bronze Ageperiod.
Was the neolithization in the region of the Tian Shan Mountains the type of West
Asia and West Central Asia called “Neolithic package” which was based on the
animal domestication and plant cultivation?
Was it of the type of North-East Asia which progressed through collective resource
exploitation by hunting, fishing and collecting with the usage of pottery10）?
Or, was it of an independent type which progressed in accordance to the highlandenvironment particular to the region of the Tian Shan Mountains?
Exact temporal and spatial placement of the pottery and lithic artifacts from
Aigyrzhal 2 is first necessary to see the real picture of the history prior to theformation of the nomad societies in the research region, as is detailed examination of
the subsitence activities at the site in the Epi-Palaeolithic or Neolithic period bymeans of through palaeo-zoological and -botanical analyses.
At the same time, sites distribution survey to clarify the temporal change of thesubsistence activities such as the exact timing of the reception of domesticatedanimals and cultivated plants is vitally important, as is the confirmation of the sites
bridging in time between the Epi-Palaeolithic/Neolithic layer and the Bronze Agelayer of Aigyrzhal 2.
3 Results of the Bronze Age research
The Bronze Age cultural layer which yielded a stone-piled structure was 50 to 130
cm below the surface. This structure is made by piling gravels, 30 to 40 cm in size, up
to the height of some 80cm. Although the whole shape of the structure can not be
observed due to the destruction, it is shaped a circle, some 120cm in diameter (Fig.
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12). Only very few potsherds and animal bones were unearthed except for sporadic
stones.
Made under the stone-piled structure is a pit, from which vertebrae of large
mammals such as cattle and horse were unearthed (Fig. 13).
We dated the charred wooden specimens and fragments of animal bones from thislayer including the pit, and obtained four calibrated C14 values of 1,900 to 1,500 cal.
B.C.. These values fit the date of the late Bronze Age in the Central Asian
chronological framework11）.
The similar stone-piled structures are reported from the Bronze Age site of
Ulaan-Uushig I of Mongolia, of which the stone-piled structures were constructedwith skulls and vertebrae of horses. These Mongolian stone-piled structures were
aimed for ritual to offer horse bones in funeral, for they were allocated around amajor stone-piled grave12）.
In the regions surrounding Kyrgyzstan, there are many stone-piled structures ofthe late to final Bronze Age period, such as the Andronovo culture of the 2nd
Millennium B.C. and the medieval Turkic period of the 6th to 8th century A.D..
It is most probable, therefore, that the stone-piled structure of Aigyrzhal 2 (Fig.
14）functioned as the funeral ritual place like the stone-piled graves of the late to
final Bronze Age period in the surrounding regions.

Fig.12 Stone-piled
structure unearthedfrom the trench at
the eastern edge ofthe moundFig.13 Vertebrae
unearthed fromthe pit under thestone-piled
structure

Fig.14 Stone-piled
grave on the
mound surface

The animal bones from this Bonze Age layer are now under study by one of ourmembers. And, the species analysis for the charred wooden specimens has resulted totheir identification to be broad-leaf tree （ Salix (Salicaceae): 1 specimen ） andneedle-leaf tree（Pinus (Pinaceae): 1 specimen）.
It should be admitted, however, that the basic data to reconstruct the subsistence
activities and environment of the Bronze Age period are not sufficient, though
increasing.
In order to accomplish the present research which aims to clarify the processes ofthe formation of nomad societies, we need detailed reconstruction of the Bronze Age
subsistence activities through research concentrated on well-preserved graves andsettlements as well as through analyses of findings.
The stratigraphy of Aigyrzhal 2 in the trenches where we excavated so far shows atime blank of some 10,000 years between the Epi-Palaeolithic/Neolithic and lateBronze Age layers.
Judging from this limited evidence, the scenario of the formation of the nomad
societies in the research region can be the arrival of the Andronovo groups from otherregions13）.
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Does this scenario really reflect the true picture?
The clarification of the processes of the nomad societies in the research region by
further research can answer this question, clarifying the nature of the Bronze Agelayer, and can present evidences concerning the continuity or break between the
Epi-Palaeolithic/Neolithic layer and the Bronze Age layer on the regional scale.
Conclusion
Through the participation in the archaeological excavations at the site of

Aigyrzhal 2 in July of 2013 and the post-excavational C14 dating and species

identification for the charred wooden materials, we could clarify several aspects ofthe Epi-Palaeolithic/Neolithic and Bronze Age periods in the northern foothills of the
Tian Shan Mountains.
Except for potsherds, the Epi-Palaeolithic/Neolithic and Bronze Age objects
unearthed from the excavations are lithic artifacts as daily-use tools and/or weapons,rather than the tools for agriculture, consisting of micro-blades and scrapers andknives made on them, which are considered to have been used as butchering tools orsegments to be inserted into organic shafts of composite tools for hunting such as
projectile points.
The reason for this biased existence of the tool types may be that the land of
Kyrgyz itself is on the highland and has been always favourable for hunting activities
ever since the remote past including the Epi-Palaeolithic, Neolithic and Bronze Ageperiods.
The subsistence activities of the Bronze Age period are under study now and its
clarification should wait for further research.
Although we have not yielded any archaeological evidence for the time between
the Epi-Palaeolithic/Neolithic and Bronze Age periods, it is highly probable that theprocess of the introduction of animal domestication and plant cultivation into the
Tian Shan Mountains was not the result of the inflow of the “Neolithic package” ofWest Asia.
Thus, it can be suggested at least that the West Asian scenario, in which thenomad societies developed themselves through modification of their subsistence ways
by means of intra-society separation into agriculturists and animal herders and theirre-union in accordance to the natural and/or social environmental changes, can not bedirectly applied to Central Asia.
In order to answer this suggestive question, we need to carry out archaeologicalexcavations or soundings at the village sites of the Neolithic and Bronze Age periods.
At the same time, we need to re-examine the two hypotheses advocated so far thatthe 4th to 2nd Millennia B. C. nomad groups of the Black Sea regions reachedCentral Asia and that the hunter-gatherers or agriculturists of Central Asia changed
their subsistence means to nomadism.
Kyrgyzstan is rich in archaeological sites of various periods, such as the Middle
Palaeolithic period when the archaic Homo sapiens is supposed to have reachedCentral Asia by way of West Asia after their Out of Africa, the Epi-Palaeolithic
period when the hunter-gatherers started to change their mobile ways of subsitence
to settled ones, the Neolithic period when the domestication of animals and crops isthought to have reached from West Asia, and the Bronze Age and historical periods
when the nomad societies might have developed dramatically.
Essentially being based on the results of the present research, we will undertake a
4-years archaeological project with excavations and field research (Grant-in-Aid for－ 77 －

Scientific Research (B) (2013-2016), JSPS, Japan “Formation of Nomadic Societies inAncient Eurasia: A Comparative Study” (Director: Katsuhiko Ohnuma)).
It is possible, therefore, to clarify in more details several themes as below throughthe project to continue until 2016.
1) How the archaic Homo sapiens appeared in Central Asia.
2) Relations with West Asia and East Asia in the Epi-Palaeolithic and Neolithic
periods.
3) Formation processes of the horse-riding nomad societies peculiar to CentralAsia.
4) How the technologies of metal working, animal domestication and plantcultivation in Central Asia were related to West Asia and East Asia.
5) How the Huns and the Turkics, who played important roles in the Eurasianhistory, appeared in Central Asia.
These themes are important to reconsider the history of West Asia and Central
Asia, as well as that of East Asia including Japan.
Acknowledgements

The present paper is the report of the research which was carried out with 100%
support from the Grant-in-Aid for the Asian History Research Aid Projects for 2012 of
JFE 21st Century Foundation, and we heartfeltly express our gratitudes to thefoundation. Our sincerest gratitudes are due to Professor Aida Abdykanova of theAmerican University of Central Asia, Dr. Temirlan Charginov of the Kyrgyz National
University and Professor Kubatbek Tabaldiev of the Kirgizstan-Turkey Manas
University, who always give us kind and useful advices in all of the aspects of thepresent research.
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