Research Digest
Substantive Scale Development: How to
Design, Administer, and Verify a Likert Scale
Questionnaire for a Research Project+H]PK6JRLY[;La\RH*VYWVYH[PVU
Abstract
3HUN\HNLYLZLHYJOLYZMHJL[OL[HZRVMJYLH[PUNHUPUZ[Y\TLU[JHWHISLVM HJ[\HSS` NH[OLYPUN [OL PUMVYTH[PVU [OH[ [OL` ^HU[ [V HUHS`aL HUKYLWVY[VU;OPZWHWLYL_WSHPUZOV^[VJVUK\J[YLZLHYJOI`YLWVY[PUN[OL H\[OVY»Z KL]LSVWTLU[ WPSV[PUN HKTPUPZ[YH[PVU HUK HUHS`ZPZ VM H
Z\IZ[HU[P]L ZJHSL Z\Y]L` MVY YLZLHYJO W\YWVZLZ ( Z\IZ[HU[P]L ZJHSL\ZLZX\LZ[PVUZHUKHZJHSLZ`Z[LTLNH3PRLY[ZJHSL[VNH[OLYKH[H
MVY HUHS`ZPZ;OPZ WHWLY MVSSV^Z [OL V\[SPUL VM H YLZLHYJO WHWLY HUK[OL ZLJ[PVUZ HYL L_WSHPULK \ZPUN [OL H\[OVY»Z V^U YLZLHYJO WYVQLJ[[V TLHZ\YL Z[\KLU[ 5$ PU[YPUZPJ HUKVY L_[YPUZPJ TV[P]H[PVU,_WSVYH[VY`MHJ[VYHUHS`ZPZJVUÄYTLK[OLZ[\KLU[Z[LUKLK[VHKOLYL[V
VULVY[OLV[OLYTV[P]H[PVUHS[`WL;OLH\[OVYOVWLZ[OH[YLHKLYZ^PSSNHPUHU\UKLYZ[HUKPUNVM[OLYLZLHYJOWYVJLZZPUJS\KPUNRL`[LYTZHUKKLÄUP[PVUZHUKWYVJLLK^P[ONYLH[LYJVUÄKLUJL[VKLZPNU[OLPYV^UYLZLHYJOWYVQLJ[ZHUKZOHYL[OLPYYLZ\S[Z^P[O[OLNYLH[LYJVTT\UP[`
PU[LYLZ[LKPUSHUN\HNLSLHYUPUNHUKYLZLHYJO

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HUZ^LYLK!/V^[VMVYT\SH[LHO`WV[OLZPZ&/V^[V^YP[LX\LZ[PVUZHUK

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HUZ^LYZZ\JOHZHS^H`ZZVTL[PTLZUL]LYL[J;OLYLHYLTVYL[OHUHKVaLUKPMMLYLU[ZJHSL[`WLZ(SYLJR :L[[SL"OV^L]LYZVTL[PTLZHZPTWSL@LZ5VX\LZ[PVU^PSSZ\MÄJL:[VUL
>OH[ HYL NVVK ZV\YJLZ VM PUMVYTH[PVU [V YLHK ILMVYL KLZPNUPUN
[OL Z\Y]L`& 5V[ VUS` HYL [OL Z[H[PZ[PJHS TL[OVKZ X\P[L JVTWSPJH[LK
HUK PU[PTPKH[PUN I\[ [OL [LYTPUVSVN` P[ZLSM JHU IL KPMÄJ\S[ [VJVTWYLOLUK;OLYLMVYLILMVYLILNPUUPUNOH]LHJSLHYNVHS-VY[OPZ
YLZLHYJOWYVQLJ[0^HU[LK[VYLZLHYJO1HWHULZLZ[\KLU[TV[P]H[PVU
 [OLPY WLKHNVNPJHS HJ[P]P[` WYLMLYLUJLZ HUK  [OL YLSH[PVUZOPWZ
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JHUTHRL[OLKPMMLYLUJLPUSHUKPUNHQVIVYUV[4J*HZSHUK 7VVSL" 4J*YVZ[PL  ;OLYL HYL THU` QV\YUHSZ [V JOVVZL MYVT^P[OPU1(3;>LOH]L6U*<,1V\YUHS;OL1(3;*(331V\YUHS[OL1(3;
/VRRHPKV1V\YUHS;OL3HUN\HNL;LHJOLY[OL1(3;1V\YUHSHUKTVYL(JHYLM\SYLHKPUNVM[OLPYYLZWLJ[P]LZ\ITPZZPVUZN\PKLSPULZ^PSSOLSWNL[[OLYLZLHYJO^YP[L\WZ[HY[LKVU[OLYPNO[MVV[Ockert

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]HYPHISL(]HYPHISLPZ[OLX\HU[PÄLKTLHUZ[VTLHZ\YLHUVIZLY]HISLJOHYHJ[LYPZ[PJ VM H WOLUVTLUVU =VLSRLY L[ HS  -VY L_HTWSLP[LT U\TILY Ä]L VU H X\LZ[PVUUHPYL HKTPUPZ[LYLK [V VUL O\UKYLKZ[\KLU[Z ^PSS OH]L H [V[HS VM VUL O\UKYLK YLZWVUZLZ TLHZ\YPUN [OL
[HYNL[JVUZ[Y\J[;OLZLYLZWVUZLZHYLHSSJVTWPSLKHUKHUHS`aLK\ZPUN
HU`U\TILYVMZ[H[PZ[PJHSTL[OVKZHUK[OLYLZ\S[PZ[OL]HYPHISLMVYP[LTÄ]LZ\JOHZ[OLH]LYHNLKLYP]LKMYVT[OLYLZWVUZLZMYVTHSSVM[OL
WHY[PJPWHU[Z-YVT[OLUVU[OLYLZLHYJOTH`ZPTWS`YLMLY[V]HYPHISLÄ]LMVY[OLUV^U\TLYPJHSS`VWLYH[PVUHSPaLKKH[HMYVTZ\Y]L`X\LZ[PVUÄ]LMVYTVYLPUMVYTH[PVUWSLHZLZLL)YV^UWW

Before Scale Construction: Background Reading-PYZ[KLJPKLVUHUHYLHPUV\YÄLSK[OH[PZPU[LYLZ[PUN5L_[ILNPUYLHKPUN [OL YLSL]HU[ SP[LYH[\YL ;OL SP[LYH[\YL YL]PL^ ZLY]LZ [OYLLW\YWVZLZ  [V ZLL PM [OL YLZLHYJO X\LZ[PVUZ OH]L HSYLHK` ILLU
HUZ^LYLK  [V WYV]PKL [OL YLHKLY ^P[O [OL ULJLZZHY` IHJRNYV\UKJVUJLW[ZHUKOV^[OPZWYPVYYLZLHYJOZ\WWVY[Z[OLWYLZLU[YLZLHYJOLUKLH]VY/V^OHZ[OL^VYRKVULI`V[OLYYLZLHYJOLYZSLHK\W[V[OL
YLZLHYJOX\LZ[PVUZ&;OLZ\Y]L`\ZLKHZHUL_HTWSLMVY[OPZHY[PJSL^HZ
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Research Questions and Hypotheses
4\JOYLZLHYJOVUTV[P]H[PVUVM,:3SLHYULYZOHZILLUYLWVY[LKVU
WHY[PJ\SHYS`MVY-YLUJO*HUHKPHUSLHYULYZ.HYKULY 3HTILY[  ";YLTISH` .HYKULY "5VLSZL[HS9LNHYKPUNL_[YPUZPJPU[YPUZPJ HUK HTV[P]H[PVU \UTV[P]H[LK TV[P]H[PVUHS VYPLU[H[PVUZ VM
[OLZL SLHYULYZ L_WLY[Z NLULYHSS` HJJLW[ [OH[ [OLZL JVUZ[Y\J[Z HYL UV[JH[LNVYPJHSS` KPMMLYLU[ I\[ YH[OLY L_PZ[ HSVUN H JVU[PU\\T VM ZLSMKL[LYTPUH[PVU+LJP 9`HU"5VLSZL[HS9LZLHYJOI`
9`HUHUK*VUULSS  JP[LKPU+LJP 9`HUW[LZ[LKMVY¸KPMMLYLU[[`WLZVMTV[P]H[PVU^P[O[OLPYKPZ[PUJ[WYVWLY[PLZ¹[VJVUÄYT[OH[[OL`KVPUKLLK¸SPLHSVUNHJVU[PU\\TVMYLSH[P]LH\[VUVT`¹:PUJL[OPZUV[PVUJV\SKOLSW\ZSLHYUTVYLHIV\[V\YSLHYULYZHZWLVWSL[OPZ
[OLVY`OHZ[YLTLUKV\Z]HS\LMVYLK\JH[VYZ0U[YPN\LK0^HU[LK[VRUV^PM[OLTV[P]H[PVUVMZ[\KLU[ZPUT`JSHZZLZJV\SKILKP]PKLKIL[^LLUHU
PU[YPUZPJHUKHUL_[YPUZPJTV[P]H[PVUHSVYPLU[H[PVUHUK^YV[LP[LTZ[OH[HYLOVWLK[VILVULVY[OLV[OLYZLL(WWLUKP_"6JRLY["

Questionnaire Construction
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+VUV[\ZL¸HUK¹¸VY¹VYSPZ[ZVMPUZ[HUJLZW-\Y[OLYTVYLPU;LHJOPUNHUKYLZLHYJOPUNTV[P]H[PVU+YU`LPSPZ[ZZL]LYHSP[LTZMYVTOPZYLZLHYJOWYV]PKPUNH^LHS[OVMPKLHZ-VSSV^PUN
[OLHK]PJLHIV]L0ILNHU^YP[PUN[OLZ\Y]L`P[LTZMVSSV^PUNHSSVM[OL
HIV]LN\PKLSPULZ
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Z[H[PZ[PJHSWYVJLK\YLWYV]PKLZNYV\WPUNZVMZPTPSHYX\LZ[PVUYLZWVUZLZ
[V [LZ[ MVY WVZZPISL YLSH[PVUZOPWZ IL[^LLU ZWLJPÄJ ]HYPHISLZ -PUKPUN
YLSH[PVUZOPWZ IL[^LLU ]HYPHISLZ ^P[O MHJ[VY HUHS`ZPZ OLSWZ JYLH[L H
Z[YVUNLYHUKTVYL]HSPKPUZ[Y\TLU[HM[LYYLTV]PUNP[LTZ[OH[KVUV[¸Ä[ PU¹ -PYZ[ Z[HY[ ^P[O TVYL X\LZ[PVUZ [OHU TH` IL ULJLZZHY` HUKKPZJHYK[OVZL[OH[KVU»[JVYYLSH[L^LSS^P[OLHJOV[OLY>VYRPUN^P[O
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TLHZ\YLPU[YPUZPJTV[P]H[PVUHUK[OLSH[[LYLPNO[L_[YPUZPJTV[P]H[PVUZSurvey Organization and Item Selection/V^T\JOPUMVYTH[PVUZOV\SKIL^YP[[LUVU[OLX\LZ[PVUUHPYL&0[»Z

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YLZWVUKLU[Z WLYJLP]L H KPMMLYLUJL PU [OL [^V ZLJ[PVUZ HUK PUKPJH[L
HUZ^LYZKPMMLYLU[S`[OHUPM[OLP[LTZ^LYLHYYHUNLKYHUKVTS`[OPZ^V\SKYLZ\S[PUHYLZWVUZLIPHZ;OPZVJJ\YZ^OLU[OLHUZ^LYZNP]LUKVUV[YLÅLJ[[OLZ[\KLU[Z»[Y\LILSPLMZHZHYLZ\S[VM[OL^VYKPUNVYVYKLYPUNVMX\LZ[PVUZ;OLYLMVYLJHYLZOV\SKIL[HRLU[VH]VPKWYLZLU[PUN[OL
X\LZ[PVUZPUHTHUULY[OH[OHZH¸WH[[LYU¹PUVYKLY[VH]VPKJVSSLJ[PUN
IPHZLK KH[H .LUKHSS  /VLR   -VY [OPZ YLHZVU [OL ZP_[LLU
X\LZ[PVUZZOV\SKILHYYHUNLKYHUKVTS`VU[OLHJ[\HSZ\Y]L`

Rating Scale Formats and Representative Samples>OLU\ZPUNH3PRLY[ZJHSLJVUZPKLY^OH[RPUKVM3PRLY[ZJHSL^PSS^VYRILZ[6YPNPUHSS`KLZPNULKI`9LUZPZ3PRLY[ [OPZZJHSL\Z\HSS`JVUZPZ[ZVMMV\YÄ]LZP_VYZL]LUWVPU[Z/V^L]LY[OLYLHYLHK]HU[HNLZHUKKPZHK]HU[HNLZ[VUV[VUS`[OLU\TILYVMJOVPJLZI\[HSZV^OL[OLYVYUV[[OLU\TILYVMWVPU[ZPZVKKVYL]LU-VYL_HTWSL[OLHK]HU[HNL
VM HU L]LUS` U\TILYLK ZJHSL PZ [OH[ P[ YLTV]LZ [OL UL\[YHS HUZ^LY
VW[PVU^OPJO^V\SK[LSS\ZUV[OPUNYLNHYKPUNHWVZP[P]LVYULNH[P]L
H[[P[\KL[V^HYK[OLZ\Y]L`X\LZ[PVUVYZ[H[LTLU[:[VUL
0[PZULJLZZHY`[V]PL^[OLP[LTMYVT[OLWLYZWLJ[P]LVMHYLZWVUKLU[HUK [OL YLZWVUZLZ MYVT [OL WPSV[ [LZ[PUN Z[HNL ULLK [V IL L_HTPULKJHYLM\SS` 0M [OL P[LT PZ LHZPS` HUZ^LYLK ^P[O H KPJOV[VTV\Z VW[PVU[OLUHZPTWSL@LZ5VVW[PVUZOV\SKILH]HPSHISLPUZ[LHK-VYL_HTWSL
PM [OL HUZ^LYZ JVU]LYNL VU  UL]LY VY  HS^H`Z [OLU [OL V[OLY
VW[PVUZVM[OLTPKKSLHUKULLKUV[ILTHKLH]HPSHISLZPUJL[OL`^V\SK`PLSKSP[[SLHUHS`[PJHS]HS\L0[»ZILZ[UV[[VJVUZ[Y\J[HSHYNLU\TILYVMX\LZ[PVUZHUKHZZ\TLMYVT[OLZ[HY[[OH[L]LY`P[LT^PSSÄ[PU[VHZ[HUKHYKÄ]LVYZL]LUWVPU[ZJHSL:[VUL;OPZYLX\PYLZJHYLM\SHUHS`ZPZ[V\UKLYZ[HUK[OL\UKLYS`PUNP[LTKH[H[OH[JVTWVZLOckert[OL]HYPHISLKH[H-\Y[OLYTVYL :[VUL ZH`Z YH[PUN ZJHSLZ ZOV\SK MVSSV^ H NYHKLKYLZWVUZLMVYTH[Z\JOHZUL]LYZVTL[PTLZMYLX\LU[S`HS^H`Z"VYUVULZVTL H SV[ HUK HSS>OPSL [OPZ TH` ZLLT LHZ` [OL [LYTZ \ZLK JHUHJ[\HSS` IL HTIPN\V\Z! ^OH[ PZ [OL KPMMLYLUJL PU TLHUPUN IL[^LLU
\Z\HSS`HUKMYLX\LU[S`&+V[OL[LYTZUVULHUKHS^H`ZTLHUHIZVS\[LS`
HUK ^P[OV\[ L_JLW[PVU& ;OL TLHUPUN ^PSS KPMMLY HJJVYKPUN [V OV^
LHJOWHY[PJPWHU[\ZLZ[OL[LYTZPUL]LY`KH`SPML;OLYLMVYLJHYLT\Z[IL NP]LU [V THRL YH[PUN ZJHSLZ JHU IL THKL [OH[ ZVSPJP[ PUMVYTH[PVU
^P[OV\[JVUM\ZPVU:[VUL-PUHSS`KLWLUKPUNVU[OLHUHS`[PJHSTL[OVK\ZLK[VZPM[[OYV\NO[OLKH[H^OH[PZHTPUPT\TU\TILYVMYLZWVUKLU[ZULJLZZHY`[VOH]LHYLWYLZLU[H[P]LZHTWSL&4VZ[L_WLY[Z
HNYLL [OH[ [^LU[` YHUKVTS` ZLSLJ[LK Z\Y]L`Z WLY  WV[LU[PHSYLZWVUKLU[ZHYLHJJLW[HISL)YV^UZ\NNLZ[ZHZILPUNZ\MÄJPLU[)YV^U

Methods
Pilot testing;OLZ\Y]L`ZOV\SKILWPSV[[LZ[LK^P[OHZTHSSZHTWSLNYV\WILMVYL\ZPUNP[MVYYLZLHYJOW\YWVZLZ(ZRPUNUH[P]LZWLHRLYZ5:[VYL]PL^[OL X\LZ[PVUZ ÄYZ[ ^PSS HZZ\YL [OH[ [OL PUZ[Y\TLU[ P[LTZ THRL ZLUZL[V `V\Y WLLYZ" [OLYLMVYL HZR JVSSLHN\LZ [V YL]PL^ [OL X\LZ[PVUUHPYLP[LTZILMVYLOHUK(U`HTIPN\P[PLZPU[OLPUZ[Y\J[PVUZZOV\SKILMV\UK
K\YPUN[OLWPSV[WOHZLHUKJVYYLJ[LK9LZLHYJOLYZTH`HSZV^VUKLY!
>OH[HIV\[[YHUZSH[PUN[OLZ\Y]L`PU[V[OLYLZWVUKLU[Z»TV[OLY[VUN\L3& 6Y ZOV\SK [OL P[LTZ IL ^YP[[LU PU IV[O [OL ZLJVUK SHUN\HNL3 HUK [OL 3& LN ,UNSPZO HUK 1HWHULZL /V^ JHU YLZLHYJOLYZOHUKSLPZZ\LZVMSV^3WYVÄJPLUJ`&*LY[HPUS`P[PZHNVVKPKLH[VHZR
HZTHSSYLWYLZLU[H[P]LZHTWSLNYV\WVMUVUUH[P]LZWLHRLYZ55:[V
JOLJR [OL PUZ[Y\TLU[ MVY JSHYP[`(U` WYVISLT HYLHZ [OH[ HYL KPMÄJ\S[

:\IZ[HU[P]L:JHSL+L]LSVWTLU[6U*<,1V\YUHSWHNLZ [VJVTWYLOLUKZOV\SKILJVYYLJ[LKHUKYLJOLJRLK.YPMMLLHZ

^HZKVULMVY[OPZL_HTWSLZ\Y]L`

Students;OLZ[\KLU[Z5$^OV[VVR[OPZZ\Y]L`^LYLTLTILYZVMT`
*VTT\UPJH[PVU0JSHZZPUHWYP]H[L\UP]LYZP[`PU1HWHU;OPZTLHUZ[OL`
HYLHZHTWSLVMJVU]LUPLUJLHUK[OLYLZ\S[ZTH`UV[ILHWWSPJHISL[V[OLNLULYHSWVW\SH[PVUVM1HWHULZL\UP]LYZP[`Z[\KLU[Z)YV^U
/V^L]LYHWWYV_PTH[LS`  VM[OLYLZWVUKLU[Z^LYLTHSLHUK[OL
YLZ\S[Z TH` IL NLULYHSPaLK [V [OLPY WLLYZ HS[OV\NO NLUKLY ^HZ UV[JVUZPKLYLK ^OLU HUHS`aPUN [OL YLZ\S[Z 7HY[PJPWH[PVU ^HZ ]VS\U[HY`
HUVU`TV\ZHUKOHKUVPUÅ\LUJLVUZ[\KLU[NYHKLZ;OLYLMVYL[LHJOLY
IPHZ HUK L_[LYUHS ]HSPKP[` ZLL ILSV^ ^LYL LSPTPUH[LK HZ ULNH[P]LPUÅ\LUJLZ ZPUJL [OL YLZWVUKLU[Z ^LYL HSS T` Z[\KLU[Z PU [OL ZHTLLU]PYVUTLU[Statistical Analysis;OL:[H[PZ[PJZ7HJRHNLMVY[OL:VJPHS:JPLUJLZ]LYZPVU:7::
^HZ \ZLK MVY KH[H HUHS`ZPZ *HSJ\SH[PUN [OL H]LYHNL [OL TLHU
KL[LYTPUPUN[OLTVZ[MYLX\LU[YLZWVUZL[OLTVKLHUKKL[LYTPUPUN[OLJLU[YHSJ\[VMMWVPU[[OLTLKPHUHYLJVTTVUS`\ZLKWYVJLZZPUNTL[OVKZ)YV^U;OLZLHYL[OLZPTWSLZ[TL[OVKZVMYLWVY[PUN
KH[H+LWLUKPUNVU^OH[PUMVYTH[PVU[OLYLZLHYJOLY^PZOLZ[VYLWVY[[OLYL HYL TVYL ZVWOPZ[PJH[LK WYVJLK\YLZ Z\JO HZ MHJ[VY HUHS`ZPZ ZLL
ILSV^>OLUWYV]PKPUN[OLPUMVYTH[PVUVU[OLU\TILYVMYLZWVUKLU[Z\ZL5MVYU\TILYVMYLZWVUKLU[Z"\ZL:+MVYZ[HUKHYKKL]PH[PVU"HUK
MVYTLHUTVKLVYTLKPHUJSLHYS`PUKPJH[L^P[OHU4MVYQ\Z[VULVM
[OL[OYLLVY^YP[LV\[[OL^VYKV[OLY^PZL2HJOPNHU 

Factor Analysis
0UVYKLY[VÄUK\UKLYS`PUNYLSH[PVUZOPWZIL[^LLU[OL]HYPHISLZHOckertT\S[P]HYPH[LZ[H[PZ[PJHSJHSJ\SH[PVURUV^UHZMHJ[VYHUHS`ZPZJHUIL\ZLK,_WSVYH[VY`MHJ[VYHUHS`ZPZJHUHUZ^LY[OLX\LZ[PVU¸>PSS[OL]HYPHISLZ
Ä[ [VNL[OLY HZ O`WV[OLZPaLK&¹ 5\UHU  " )YV^U  -HJ[VY
HUHS`ZPZ ^PSS VYNHUPaL [OL YLZWVUZLZ PU ]HYPHISL NYV\WZ HUK HUHS`ZPZ
VM[OLZLNYV\WZ^PSS`PLSK[OLHUZ^LY;OLZ\Y]L`MVY[OPZWYVQLJ[^HZ
JYLH[LK^P[O[OLO`WV[OLZPZ[OH[[OLÄYZ[LPNO[P[LTZTLHZ\YLPU[YPUZPJ
TV[P]H[PVUHUK[OLZLJVUKLPNO[TLHZ\YLL_[YPUZPJTV[P]H[PVU0KLHSS`[OL` ZOV\SK ¸JS\Z[LY [VNL[OLY¹ PU [^V ZL[Z VM LPNO[;OLZL ¸JS\Z[LYZ¹
HYL YLMLYYLK [V HZ ¸MHJ[VYZ¹ HUK [OL H\[OVY NL[Z [V UHTL [OLT;OL
YLZWVUZLZJS\Z[LYLK[VNL[OLYUPJLS`HZOVWLKZLL6JRLY["
-VY H ZPTWSL L_WSHUH[PVU VM MHJ[VY HUHS`ZPZ HUK OV^ P[ ^VYRZ WSLHZL]PZP[!#O[[W!^^^QHUKHVYN^VYRZOVWMHJ[VY HUHS`ZPZMHJ[VYPUKL_O[T%Reliability(ZPTWVY[HU[HZ[OL]HSPKP[`VM[OLPUZ[Y\TLU[PZ[OLYLSPHIPSP[`+VLZ
[OL PUZ[Y\TLU[ TLHZ\YL ^OH[ P[ W\YWVY[Z [V TLHZ\YL PU H JVUZPZ[LU[THUULYH[KPMMLYLU[[PTLZ&)YV^U "".YPMMLL0UV[OLY^VYKZ KV KPMMLYLU[ NYV\WZ VM WLYZVUZ ^OV HUZ^LY [OL Z\Y]L` NP]LZPTPSHYYLZWVUZLZ&;V[LZ[[OLYLSPHIPSP[`VM[OLPUZ[Y\TLU[[OLYLZLHYJOLY\ZLZ [OL ZWSP[OHSM TL[OVK RUV^U HZ *YVUIHJO»Z HSWOH JVLMÄJPLU[ VM
YLSPHIPSP[`MVYTVYLPUMVYTH[PVUZLL)YV^U

Validity(JJVYKPUN[V)YV^U " "HUK5\UHU [OLYL
HYL ZL]LYHS [`WLZ VM ]HSPKP[` HUK ^H`Z [V [LZ[ [OLT>L ^PSS SVVR H[[OL [OYLL TVZ[ JVTTVUS` YLMLYYLK [V [`WLZ OLYL! PU[LYUHS ]HSPKP[`YLMLYZ [V ^OL[OLY VY UV[ [OL X\LZ[PVUUHPYL PZ PU MHJ[ TLHZ\YPUN ^OH[P[JSHPTZ[VTLHZ\YL"L_[LYUHS]HSPKP[`YLMLYZ[V^OL[OLYVYUV[[OVZLWLYZVUZ[HRPUN[OLZ\Y]L`I`HUZ^LYPUN[OLX\LZ[PVUUHPYLKPKZV\UKLYZPTPSHYJVUKP[PVUZ"ÄUHSS`)YV^UL_WSHPUZJVUZ[Y\J[]HSPKP[`HZ


:\IZ[HU[P]L:JHSL+L]LSVWTLU[6U*<,1V\YUHSWHNLZ [OL¸KLNYLL[V^OPJO[OLZ\Y]L`JHUILZOV^UL_WLYPTLU[HSS`[VIL
TLHZ\YPUN^OH[L]LYJVUZ[Y\J[`V\HYL[Y`PUN[VTLHZ\YL¹W

Conclusions(Z .YPMMLL  OHZ UV[LK ]HSPKH[PVU VM H Z\Y]L` PUZ[Y\TLU[YLX\PYLZTVU[OZPMUV[`LHYZILMVYLHKTPUPZ[LYPUNP[MVYYLZLHYJOYLZ\S[Z
0[ PZ H ZWLJPHSPaLK I\ZPULZZ HUK ZOV\SK UV[ IL [HRLU SPNO[S` 5\UHU /V^L]LY[OLKLKPJH[LKW\YZ\P[VMWYVVM[VHO`WV[OLZPZYLTHPUZ
H ^VY[O` NVHS HUK WYV]PKLZ [OL MV\UKH[PVU MVY NYV^[O HUK SLHYUPUN
PU V\Y ÄLSK HUK Z[H[PZ[PJHS HUHS`ZPZ JHU OLSW L]LU [OVZL VM \Z ^OVHYLUV]PJLZNHPUHIL[[LY\UKLYZ[HUKPUNVMSHUN\HNLSLHYULYZ6JRLY[:PUJLNL[[PUNW\ISPZOLKYLTHPUZH]P[HSULLKMVYTVZ[LK\JH[VYZ
[OLYLPZUVIL[[LY[PTL[VZ[HY[[OHU[OLWYLZLU[.VVKS\JR

Acknowledgement;OL H\[OVY [OHURZ [OL JVS\TU LKP[VY 1VL -HSV\[ MVY OPZ WYVMLZZPVUHSLUJV\YHNLTLU[ HUK WYVTW[ MLLKIHJR PU IYPUNPUN [OPZ THU\ZJYPW[ [V
W\ISPJH[PVU"HUK+H]PK*HYSZVUHUK-YLK*HYY\[OMVY[OLPYMYPLUKZOPWHUKWYVVMYLHKPUN[OLVYPNPUHSTHU\ZJYPW[

*

*

*

+H]PK6JRLY[^HZIVYUPU4PJOPNHU<:(/PZYLZLHYJOPU[LYLZ[ZYHUNL
MYVT Z[\KLU[ TV[P]H[PVUHS VYPLU[H[PVU SLHYUPUN Z[YH[LNPLZ HUK [OLPYYLSH[PVUZOPWZIL[^LLUZWLJPÄJJSHZZYVVTHJ[P]P[PLZLP[OLY[YHKP[PVUHSVY[HZRIHZLK[VLK\JH[PVUHSZ`Z[LTKL]LSVWTLU[/LOHZHK\HSTHQVY)( PU 7VSP[PJHS ;OLVY` HUK *VUZ[P[\[PVUHS +LTVJYHJ` 7;*+ HUK,HZ[(ZPHU:[\KPLZ1HWHULZLMYVT1HTLZ4HKPZVU*VSSLNL4PJOPNHU
:[H[L<UP]LYZP[`HUKH4,KMYVT;LTWSL<UP]LYZP[`1HWHU/LJHUILJVU[HJ[LKH[KH]PKVJRLY['NTHPSJVTOckert

References(SYLJR73 :L[[SL9);OLZ\Y]L`YLZLHYJOOHUKIVVR
5L^@VYR!4JNYH^/PSS)YV^U1+.LULYHSPaHIPSP[`MYVTZLJVUKSHUN\HNLYLZLHYJOZHTWSLZ:OPRLU
)YV^U1+<ZPUNZ\Y]L`ZPUSHUN\HNLWYVNYHTZ*HTIYPKNL!
*HTIYPKNL<UP]LYZP[`7YLZZ)YV^U1+ ;LZ[PUNPUSHUN\HNLWYVNYHTZ<WWLY:HKKSL
9P]LY5L^1LYZL`!7YLU[PJL/HSS9LNLU[Z)YV^U1+ <UKLYZ[HUKPUNYLZLHYJOPUZLJVUKSHUN\HNL
SLHYUPUN*HTIYPKNL!*HTIYPKNL<UP]LYZP[`7YLZZ+LJP,3 9`HU946]LY]PL^VMZLSMKL[LYTPUH[PVU
[OLVY`!(UVYNHUPZTPJKPHSLJ[PJHSWLYZWLJ[P]L0U,3+LJP 9
49`HU,KZ/HUKIVVRVMZLSMKL[LYTPUH[PVUYLZLHYJO5L^@VYR!<UP]LYZP[`VM9VJOLZ[LY7YLZZ+YU`LPA;LHJOPUNHUKYLZLHYJOPUNTV[P]H[PVU3VUKVU!
7LHYZVU,:3
.HYKULY9* 3HTILY[>,  4V[P]H[PVUHS]HYPHISLZPUZLJVUKSHUN\HNLHJX\PZP[PVU*HUHKPHU1V\YUHSVM7Z`JOVSVN`
.LUKHSS7 /VLR1 (X\LZ[PVUVM^VYKPUN4HYRL[PUN)\SSL[PU9L[YPL]LK-LIY\HY` MYVTO[[W!
THYRL[PUNI\SSL[PUTHZZL`HJUa=4)F=F(F.LUKHSSWKM.YPMMLL+;
8\LZ[PVUUHPYLJVUZ[Y\J[PVUHUKJSHZZYVVTYLZLHYJO;OL3HUN\HNL;LHJOLY9L[YPL]LK+LJLTILY
MYVTO[[W!^^^QHS[W\ISPJH[PVUZVYN[S[HY[PJSLZ
NYPMMLL
2HJOPNHU:2 4\S[P]HYPH[LZ[H[PZ[PJHSHUHS`ZPZ!(JVUJLW[\HS
PU[YVK\J[PVU5L^@VYR!9HKP\Z7YLZZ
3PRLY[9 ([LJOUPX\LMVY[OLTLHZ\YLTLU[VMH[[P[\KL(YJOP]LZVM7Z`JOVSVN`
4J*HZSHUK7 7VVSL);OLWLYZVU[OLWHJRHNL[OLWYLZLU[H[PVU!3LZZVUZMYVTHYLJLU[QVIO\U[;OL3HUN\HNL
;LHJOLY9L[YPL]LK+LJLTILYMYVT^^^QHS[W\ISPJH[PVUZVYN[S[HY[PJSLZTJJHZSHUK

:\IZ[HU[P]L:JHSL+L]LSVWTLU[6U*<,1V\YUHSWHNLZ 

4J*YVZ[PL17LYPZOPUN[VW\ISPZO!(UHUHS`ZPZVM[OL
HJHKLTPJW\ISPZOPUNWYVJLZZ6U*\L1V\YUHS 
9L[YPL]LK-LIY\HY` MYVTQHS[J\LZPNVYNUVKL
5VLSZ2(7LSSL[PLY3.*StTLU[9 =HSSLYHUK91>O`
HYL`V\SLHYUPUNHZLJVUKSHUN\HNL&4V[P]H[PVUHSVYPLU[H[PVUZHUKZLSMKL[LYTPUH[PVU[OLVY`3HUN\HNL3LHYUPUN
5\UHU+ 9LZLHYJOTL[OVKZPUSHUN\HNLSLHYUPUN*HTIYPKNL!*HTIYPKNL<UP]LYZP[`7YLZZ
6JRLY[+:[H[PZ[PJHSHUHS`ZPZVMHUVUSPULZ\Y]L`
X\LZ[PVUUHPYLVMZ[\KLU[TV[P]H[PVUHUKJSHZZYVVTHJ[P]P[`WYLMLYLUJLZ7HWLYWYLZLU[LKH[[OL1\ULTLL[PUNVM[OL:OPUZO\*OHW[LYVM[OL1HWHU(ZZVJPH[PVUMVY3HUN\HNL;LHJOPUN1(3;4H[Z\TV[V1HWHU
6JRLY[+:WYPUN*VTW\[LYHZZPZ[LKSLHYUPUNHIV\[SHUN\HNL
SLHYULYZ»SLHYUPUNZ[`SLZ0(;,-3*(339L]PL^6JRLY[+:[\KLU[TV[P]H[PVUHUKWLKHNVNPJHSHJ[P]P[`WYLMLYLUJLZ9L[YPL]LK4HYJOMYVTO[[W!QHS[W\ISPJH[PVUZVYNHYJOP]LWYVJLLKPUNZ,WKM
7LKOHa\Y,1 :JOTLSRPU37 4LHZ\YLTLU[KLZPNUHUK
HUHS`ZPZ!(UPU[LNYH[LKHWWYVHJO5L^@VYR!3H^YLUJL,YSIH\T
9`HU94 +LJP,3:LSMKL[LYTPUH[PVU[OLVY`HUK[OL
MHJPSP[H[PVUVMPU[YPUZPJTV[P]H[PVUZVJPHSKL]LSVWTLU[HUK^LSS
ILPUN(TLYPJHU7Z`JOVSVNPZ[:[VUL4:\IZ[HU[H[P]LZJHSLJVUZ[Y\J[PVU1V\YUHSVM(WWSPLK
4LHZ\YLTLU[ 
;YLTISH`7- .HYKULY9* ,_WHUKPUN[OLTV[P]H[PVU
JVUZ[Y\J[PUSHUN\HNLSLHYUPUN4VKLYU3HUN\HNL1V\YUHS 
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Sample Survey>OH[PZ`V\YH[[P[\KL[V^HYKSLHYUPUN,UNSPZO&*PYJSL[OLU\TILYVM[OL
HUZ^LY[OH[ILZ[TH[JOLZ`V\YVWPUPVU!
$Z[YVUNS`KPZHNYLL$KPZHNYLL$UL\[YHS$HNYLL$Z[YVUNS`HNYLL
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