Vol.14 No.1 July 2011

Post-earthquake Aid Operations and the Role of Citizens Hiroshi Kunita
Now that May has begun, it has been two months since the Great East
Japan Earthquake. By the time the same length of time had passed
following the Great Hanshin Earthquake in 1995, there were already
30,000 temporary houses built, more than 60% of the required numberof such houses, and the removal of the debris was progressing steadily.
On this occasion, however, there are almost 10,000 people still missing
and more than 110,000 people still having to live in evacuation shelters.
The affected area faces a number of significant challenges which must
be overcome before it can move forward towards anything that can truly
be described as “recovery.” These challenges include the physical andmental exhaustion and malnutrition of evacuees, the huge mounds of
discarded debris, and the unpredictable situation at the Fukushima
Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant. The magnitude of damage caused by apost-earthquake tsunami on this unprecedented scale is quite enormous.
Personally, I have many acquaintances who were affected by theearthquake and tsunami. My parents-in-law have evacuated, leaving
their cars and precious possessions along with everything else, and are
now living in a public apartment in Ehime Prefecture. A farmer couple
who were living in the vicinity of the nuclear power plant and fromwhom I always received help with my job, were forced to leave theirland and the produce they had managed with great care, and have foundrefuge in another town in Fukushima Prefecture without any prospect ofresuming farming. A family who used to cultivate dried seaweed in
Miyagi Prefecture had most of their fishing tools swept away along with
their boat, and their workshop damaged. The gravity of the damage toeach of the affected people, not to mention those who lost their own
lives or who lost loved ones, can never be measured in figures.
On the following morning of the earthquake on March 11, our NGO“Peace Winds Japan” (PWJ) carried out an on-site investigation of the areaby helicopter. We decided to base our initial aid activities in the coastal
city of Kesennuma City, Miyagi Prefecture, and soon dispatched an
operation team and relief supplies. I myself left Onomichi, Hiroshima
Prefecture, in a car packed with relief supplies, and drove all the way
through Tokyo and Niigata before arriving in Kesennuma at midnight on
the 15th where it was snowing. I still cannot forget the horrified feeling
I had when I was driving into towns and suddenly found the panoramaof collapsed houses and mounds of debris stretching out in front of me.
The first thing we did in Kesennuma was distribute relief supplies
as we usually do in similar operations carried out abroad. The delay of
supply distribution immediately following the earthquake was aparticularly serious problem as the affected area was so extensive andfuel soon became scarce. Each day PWJ continued to deliver food, blankets,stoves, hygine goods and other items to evacuation shelters in and around
Kesennuma which were transported from the Tokyo Metropolitan Area.
These relief supplies included goods that were donated by corporations.
We transported gasoline and kerosene from as far afield as Mie andYamanashi Prefectures with the help of other volunteers. The amount ofgoods that we delivered over a period of one month exceeded 100 tons.
The vistas that I witnessed in the affected area were nothing shortof “catastrophic.” They were absolutely incomparable, in terms of bothscale and scope, to any of the quake-hit places that I have visited, suchas the Hanshin-Awaji area (struck in the 1995 earthquake in Japan), andin Turkey, Pakistan, Indonesia and other places. Particularly in
Rikuzentakata City, Iwate Prefecture, and Minamisanriku Town,
Miyagi Prefecture, almost the entire central areas of these places had
been swept away, and they looked like devastated, deserted lands inwhich the pre-earthquake scenery was quite unimaginable.
At an evacuation shelter in Kesennuma which we made our base,
there was no telephone network, so we made one of our three satellite
mobile phones available to the evacuees. People stood in a long queue
every day as the shelter accommodated many evacuees, including thoseof Chinese, Indonesian and other nationalities who were working in
local seafood processing factories. I couldn’t help shedding tears when I
heard their happy voices when they were at long last able to inform theirrelatives in their home countries that they were safe.
We at PWJ have been continuing a variety of relief activities inaccordance with constantly changing conditions and local needs in theaffected area. In evacuation
shelters we built bathfacilities from scrap
materials in cooperation
with local people. Oncepeople started moving into temporary houses, incollaboration with local
governments and aid groups
we supplied commodities
such as kitchen utensils,
bed linen, futons andSelf-Defense Force members search for missing
clothes to the residents. We people in the midst of debris in Rikuzentakata
have also been creating City, Iwate Prefecture. (April 10) Photo by PWJ
opportunities for art andsports activities for children, and providing free bus transport services forpeople to go shopping or to hospitals. When I went to the affected area
for the second time in early April, I myself initiated a “movie-viewing
caravan” for children, visiting approximately 20 evacuation shelters.
The recent earthquake brought in an unprecedented amount ofmoney in the form of donations in the immediate aftermath of the disaster,and this heightened the momentum for aiding the affected area and its
people right across the country. In fact there is a significant number ofNGOs, like ourselves, who have rich experience in carrying out aid
activities abroad, and also groups which specialize in post-earthquake
aid that were established nationwide following the 1995 Great Hanshin
Earthquake. The potential power of citizens is also of great significancein supporting the affected people, as represented by the participation ofmany individual volunteers and aid provided by corporations.
However, there are still a number of issues which need to be solvedin order for these various citizen activities to be utilized most effectively.
The most important issue is the lack of a mechanism which can oversee
the whole situation and strategically and efficiently coordinate theactivities of national and local governments, the Self-Defense Forces,
corporations, medical institutions, NPOs and volunteers.
When carrying out relief activities abroad, the United Nations
assumes the role of overall coordinator, gathering information at regularmeetings of the related parties in particular areas or fields, in order toensure that there is no vacuum or duplication of specific activities. Japanneeds this kind of mechanism to facilitate fast and efficient disaster relief
through the systematic coordination of public and private activities.
In the affected area, fully-fledged efforts for recovery will be initiatedat some point in the future which will require knowledge and creative ideas
for the revitalization of local industries and communities. To support
recently resumed local economic activities, we at PWJ are cooperatingwith local fisheries’ cooperatives and chambers of commerce, and havebegun supplying equipment and vehicles which fishers and shops require
to resume their work. For farmers who have been seriously affected byfalse rumors about radioactive contamination from the accident at thenuclear power plant in Fukushima, we are planning to establish sales
networks through which they will be able to sell their agricultural products.
It is likely that it will take several years before the affected area
fully recapture its pre-earthquake vigor. What is crucial now is for us
not to lose our interest, and to continue to support the affected people
over the long term, while gathering accurate information regarding what
they actually need. Furthermore, this effort should not be left solely to
the government, and a wide variety of imaginative ideas and action on
the part of citizens will also be indispensable.
The year 1995 when the Great Hanshin Earthquake occurred isreferred to as the “First Year of Volunteering” in Japan since it is said
that active volunteering which was joined by a total of one million people
following the earthquake pushed forward the enactment of the Law toPromote Specific Nonprofit Activities. With this in mind, following all
the post-earthquake relief activities and the active participation of citizens,one wonders what the year 2011 will be remembered for. This remains
to be seen.
(Written on May 12, 2011)
Head of the Onomichi Office, Peace Winds Japan (NGO)Visit HPI’s website at http://www.hiroshima-cu.ac.jp/modules/peace̲e/index.php

1What We Must Know Now:
Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant Accident and Radiation Protection
Mamoru Terauchi(Faculty of Information Sciences, Hiroshima City University)

Kaede Terauchi(Institute for Molecular Science, National Institutes of Natural Sciences)
On May 6, 2011, the day on which Japanese Prime Minister Naoto
Kan made an official request to suspend the Hamaoka Nuclear
Power Plant (nuclear power plant: NPP) contrary to the policy of the
Minister of Economy, Trade and Industry stated the previous day,various reactions were observed around the world. In South Korea,
in the face of the accident at the Fukushima Daiichi NPP, thegovernment announced new precautions against floods at all NPPs
in operation, in order to prevent hydrogen explosions. German
Chancellor Angela Merkel, following the remarkable victory of theGreen Party in recent local elections, began seeking a complete
turnabout in her legislation to extend the operation of NPPs there,
legislation which had been adopted in the previous year. Meanwhile
President Obama of the United States spoke at a wind turbine
manufacturer on April 6 and made it clear that the US will continue
to rely on NPPs, setting the goal of generating 80% of the US
energy from such renewable resources as wind, solar, natural gas,clean coal and nuclear energy by 2035.
With all these kaleidoscopic circumstances currently
surrounding nuclear power generation around the world, what must
be done with NPPs, and what facts must we be aware of? This
article discusses what we must know now.

The mechanism of nuclear power plants, and an
overview of the accident at the Fukushima Nuclear
Power Plant
The basic mechanism of an NPP is as follows:
1. Heat is generated by a controlled nuclear chain reaction;
2. High-temperature steam is produced by utilizing the heat fromthe nuclear chain reaction;
3. The turbine, connected to a power generator, is driven by thesteam.
If the first step above is achieved by the combustion of fossil fuel,the mechanism is called thermal power generation, whereas withsolar heat, it is solar power generation.
Natural uranium contains 0.7% uranium-235 (U-235), which
can sustain fission chain reaction. Commercial nuclear reactors inJapan utilize low-enriched uranium (LEU), which has aconcentration of U-235 of 3 to 5%. Uranium oxide ceramic made of
LEU is formed into pellets and arranged into fuel rods of zirconium
alloys, and these fuel rods are gathered in bundles and arranged inorder inside nuclear reactors. In between the fuel rods are placed
control rods that contain chemical elements, such as boron andcadmium, which can absorb neutrons without fissioning themselves.
The fuel rods and control rods are then placed in water. Water itself
has three functions: a coolant for the fuel rods, a moderator ofneutrons, and a source of steam for driving the turbine.

Contents
2

When the control rods are pulled out of the fuel rod assemblies,
fast neutrons emitted from a neutron source collide with oxygen andhydrogen in the water, lose their velocity (i.e. are moderated), andare turned into thermal neutrons. The thermal neutrons are absorbedby the fuel, causing the nuclear fission of U-235. During this nuclear
fission, fast neutrons are produced which are also moderated by thewater and turned into thermal neutrons. These thermal neutrons are
similarly absorbed by the fuel, causing further nuclear fission.
Therefore, the nuclear chain reaction within reactors consists of two
steps: fast neutrons produced by nuclear reactions are moderated andturned into thermal neutrons which can cause nuclear fission; thenthese thermal neutrons induce further nuclear fission. The heatproduced during this process is utilized for producing hightemperature steam. When nuclear chain reactions occur constantly
and the amount of thermal neutrons remains stable in a nuclear
reactor, it achieves a critical state.
If the water around the fuel rods happens to drain off, fastneutrons cannot be sufficiently moderated, producing less thermal
neutrons than required for sustaining a nuclear chain reaction. Thenthe reactor core cannot go critical, thus suspending the operation of
the nuclear reactor. Therefore the assertion is often made that thisnegative feedback mechanism should keep nuclear reactors safe
from thermal runaway.
What has become clear following the recent accident at Fukushima
is the significance of the influence of “decay heat.” Immediately
after the earthquake, the control rods were completely inserted in allof the nuclear reactors that had been in operation, therefore the selfsustaining chain reactions were over. At this point, no further nuclear
fission of U-235 occurred. Nevertheless there were plenty of fission
products that were not stable. Therefore, even after the terminationof the self-sustaining chain reaction in the reactors, the fuel rods
continued to generate heat through the radioactive decay of the nuclear
fission products. This radioactive decay and consequent heatgeneration is a natural phenomenon, and does not require any
moderator whereas the nuclear chain reaction of U-235 inevitably needs
thermal neutrons. With the decrease of the coolant water level, the fuelrods were exposed and their temperatures increased significantly.
Zirconium from the fuel rods reacted with steam to produce hydrogenmolecule, and the rods themselves were damaged and began emitting
nuclear fission products such as iodine-131 and cesium-137 that aresupposed to be confined inside the rods. The hydrogen explosions that
occurred at the Nos. 1, 2 and 3 reactors at Fukushima Daiichi NPP
indicate that there must be “cracks” somewhere in the piping system
extending from the pressure vessel, where hydrogen and nuclear fission
products have likely leaked out. (The decrease in the coolant waterlevel coincides with the presence of cracks.) According to the reportpublished by the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry, the peakground acceleration of the recent earthquake as measured at the
Fukushima Daiichi NPP was smaller than that of the 2007 earthquake
as measured at the Kashiwazaki-Kariwa NPP (in Niigata Prefecture)
where no subsequent radioactive leakage was observed. This may
suggest that it is worth investigating why the cracks have formed thisPost-earthquake Aid Operations and the Role of Citizens
Hiroshi Kunita ……………………………………………………………… 1
Things We Should Know About Now: Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant Accident and Radiation Protection
Mamoru Terauchi and Kaede Terauchi …………………… 2-3
The Global Hibakusha Project
Robert Jacobs ………………………………………………………………………………………… 4-5
Revolutions in the Arab World and Their Implications in East Asia
Sung Chull Kim ………………………………………………… 6
The Sinking of the Cheonan and East Asian Community Debates: North Korea’s Place in the Region
Mikyoung Kim ……………… 7
New HPI Website Launched / Diary ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 8
HIROSHIMA RESEARCH NEWS Vol.14 No.1, July 2011

time at Fukushima. These “cracks” were hardly reported on by the media.

less than 0.1 Sv, whether by a single acute exposure or by
cumulative exposures, nor on internal exposures to α or β ray.

Radiation protection and Hiroshima
The property of certain types of atomic nuclei to emit ionizing
radiation is called radioactivity. It is a natural phenomenon and not
artificial. There are three types of ionizing radiation that can beobserved on earth: (1) charged particles such as α rays (a nucleus ofhelium-4), β rays (electrons or positrons), heavy particle beams (formedical use or experiments of high energy physics), and μ particles
or muon (cosmic ray-created, with a short lifespan of ≦2.2ms); (2)neutron beams with no electric charges; and (3) γ rays, including Xrays, which are high-energy electromagnetic waves.
The charged radiation (α rays, β rays and heavy particle
beams) are more likely to react with materials, and easily lose theirenergy. This is because each atom that composes materials consistsof a positively-charged atomic nucleus and negatively-charged
electron(s). In contrast, the uncharged radiation (neutron beams andγ rays) are less likely to react with other materials, thus, losing lessenergy during interactions. Therefore, once it is emitted, it isdifficult to be blocked. In order to block radiation from radioactive
isotopes, conditions vary depending on the type of radiation:
α ray: a sheet of paper of 0.1 mm of thickness
β ray: aluminum of a few millimeters of thickness
γ ray: lead of at least several centimeters of thickness
As to the effects on the human body, charged radiation sourcesmust be treated to avoid internal radiation exposure (e.g. iodine131 induces the development of thyroid cancer), while uncharged
radiation is the cause of external radiation exposures (e.g. “Little
Boy” and “Fat Man”).
A becquerel (Bq) is a unit of radioactivity, and 1 Bq is definedas the activity of a quantity of radioactive material in which one
nucleus decays per second. A sievert (Sv), on the other hand, is theunit of dose equivalent radiation on the human body, and 1 Sv isdefined as a unit of energy (1 J) per unit of mass (kilogram). Pleasekeep in mind that the dose equivalent in Sv does not specify thetypes of radiation (α, β or γ) or atomic nucleus. As discussed earlier,different types of radiation react with materials in different
manners, therefore, it is critical for the purpose of radiation
protection to recognize what type of atomic nucleus is present
and what type of radiation it emits. In this respect, satisfactory
analysis cannot be derived from the investigation data of radiationlevels that the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology has been publishing on a daily basis.
The 1990 recommendations issued by the International
Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) is based on datacollected from hibakusha from Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The typesof radiation from the A-bombs dropped on the two cities thatreached to the ground were γ rays and neutron beams, and therecommendations take into account only a single acute high-dose
external exposure and not internal exposures by α and/or β rays. In
reality, however, those who were exposed to radiation by entering
the cities soon after the bombings or by being hit by “black rain”
suffered acute radiation diseases similar to those developed in those
who directly experienced the atomic bombings: these people musthave inhaled and/or taken in radioactive fallout that was composedof unfissioned U-235 and plutonium-239 (α ray sources) andnuclear fission products (mostly β ray sources). It is obvious that asignificant amount of intake of α and β ray sources will causeinternal exposures, leading to radiation diseases. Nevertheless, such
effects have not been quantified. The 2006 BEIR VII report also
takes into account the biological effects of a single acute external
exposure to γ rays of 0.1 Sv or more only, based on the datacollected from hibakusha from Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In short,there is no satisfactory and quantified data on low-dose exposures ofAdvantages and disadvantages of nuclear power
plantsThe main “disadvantage” of NPPs is unquestionably the issue ofradioactive waste, including the NPPs themselves. As radioactivity
is one of the very characteristics of nature that cannot be artificiallyeliminated, radioactive waste needs to be maintained under strict
controls for a very long period of time.
There are two factors regarding the “advantages”:- The “Megatons-to-Megawatts” program
Highly-enriched uranium extracted from dismantled “LittleBoy”-type bombs in Russia is transported to the US where it ismixed with depleted uranium to produce LEU for use atcommercial nuclear reactors for power generation.
- “Plutonium Disposition”
Plutonium extracted from dismantled “Fat Man”-type atomic
bombs / hydrogen bombs is mixed with depleted uranium toproduce MOX fuel for use at commercial nuclear reactors for
power generation.
From the perspective of the abolition of nuclear weapons andnuclear non-proliferation, nuclear materials extracted fromdismantled nuclear weapons (specifically highly-enriched uranium
and high-purity plutonium) need to be totally and safely utilized
in a peaceful manner: nuclear power plants satisfy this need.

The Fukushima accident as a “man-made disaster”“Unexpected” is a word that has been frequently found in media
reports of the recent Great East Japan Earthquake. Nevertheless, theauthors hold that this word does not apply to the case of the
Fukushima Daiichi NPP. Even before the earthquake, if not before
the construction of the plant, it had been known that there had been ahuge tsunami disaster, later named the Jogan Tsunami, of a far moregigantic scale than assumed within the emergency policy applied tothe plant. There was also a simulation analysis conducted in 1981,
regarding a possible temperature surge within the pressure vessel inthe event that the external electricity is completely cut off.
Prior to the recent accident at Fukushima, there had been only
two incidents at a nuclear power plant of a significant scale: at Three
Mile Island in the US in 1979, and at Chernobyl in the former USSRin 1986. Moreover, the causes of these two accidents are different
from that of the present Fukushima disaster. Today we travel in
airplanes, or we operate steam engines and thermal power plants
quite safely, partly because of all the lessons and improvements
learned from various past incidents. Therefore, considering thegradual nature of “technological progresses,” the idea that the
Fukushima accident can be seen as “unexpected” might not be
unreasonable. Nevertheless we must also remember that there
was no one whose health was affected by radiation exposure
when, on December 2, 1942, Enrico Fermi succeeded in a test
operation of the first-ever nuclear reactor, CP-1, making it
critical by the artificially controlled nuclear chain reactions of
U-235 (artificially keeping its self-sustained chain reaction). (Infact, the first fatal accident caused by radiation exposure occurred in
the US only after the atomic bombings in Hiroshima and Nagasaki.)This indicates that even at the time when available facilities wereincomparably more primitive than today, people succeeded inprotecting themselves from invisible radiation by taking prudent
precautions. The authors believe that this past accomplishment
should illustrate more clearly that the accident at the Fukushima
Daiichi NPP deserves to be called a “man-made disaster.”(Written on May 9, 2011)
Visit HPI’s website at http://www.hiroshima-cu.ac.jp/modules/peace̲e/index.php

3

The Global Hibakusha Project
Robert Jacobs
In Hiroshima and Nagasaki, what the first hibakusha endured isunimaginable: they remain the only people to have survived a direct
attack by nuclear weapons. Their history, and the continuing energy
and witness that they bring to the cause of nuclear abolition, areexamples that inspire people all around the world. However, while
the hibakusha of Hiroshima and Nagasaki are the only humans who
have survived a nuclear attack, millions more around the world havesuffered from exposure to significant amounts of ionizing radiation.
Most of these are victims of exposures due to nuclear weapon
testing, especially during the era of atmospheric nuclear testing(1945-1963). Others received their exposures as a result of nuclear
power plants, especially those who suffer from the catastrophic
accident at Chernobyl, and sadly now Fukushima. Additionally,
untold numbers have been exposed to radiation through the wartime
use of depleted uranium (DU) weapons by the United States in
Bosnia, Afghanistan, Iraq, and possibly in Libya.

World Hibakusha
There have been over 2,000 nuclear weapon tests on earth –– in our
oceans, in our air, in our ground. Weapons have been tested in North
America, Asia, Europe, Africa, Australia, and throughout the Pacific
Ocean. Countless people have been exposed by nuclear weapon
testing to ionizing radiation that has affected their health, and thewell-being of their families and communities. Nuclear weapon
testing has typically been conducted in areas where the local
population is politically powerless and socially marginalized. Often
there is a colonial component, in which a nuclear weapon state tests
their weapons in the colonial reaches of their military holdings, farfrom populations of their own ethnicity, and their own land. (Thenotable exception to this is the testing by the United States in
Nevada, where over 1,000 of the tests have taken place, although
there are arguments regarding the marginal status of the local
communities there as well.) Often the indigenous communities inthese test sites experience multiple abuses: their removal and often
permanent dislocation from their traditional lands; exposure toionizing radiation; contamination of food sources such as land used
for planting and herding, and seas used for fishing; inadequate
information about exposure histories and ongoing contaminations; acomplete lack of compensation for health and land losses, or thedenial of medical care. Because of the isolation of thesecommunities, the hibakusha living there often have little awarenessthat there are other communities in the world that have experienced
similar traumas. They tend to define their experiences in isolation,
reinforcing their political powerlessness.
The impact of these exposures are most importantly assessed
and understood epidemiologically. Most hibakusha have lost family
members and neighbors, and often their own thyroid glands tocancer. They live in constant fear of emerging cancers. This projectworks to broaden our understanding of hibakusha by examining thesocial and cultural impact of radiation exposures on families andcommunities, which are generally much less visible than the healthaffects.
Hibakusha communities are scattered all around the world. The
communities with the largest impact from nuclear weapon testing
lived near the sites at which nuclear weapons were tested in the open
atmosphere. In 1963 the United States and the former Soviet Union
signed the Partial Test Ban Treaty, which ended testing in theatmosphere, and moved the tests underground. Communities that

4

HIROSHIMA RESEARCH NEWS Vol.14 No.1, July 2011

experienced underground nuclear testing also suffered fromexposures to ionizing radiation, although in lesser amounts thanwere those exposed to atmospheric testing. However, they
nonetheless experienced many of the social and cultural effects, suchas displacement from traditional lands. The United States conductedalmost all of its nuclear testing in two sites, Nevada and the
Marshall Islands. To spare Americans from the very worst
exposures to radiation, the United States tested all of its
thermonuclear weapons (H-bombs) in the Marshall Islands, resulting
in the long-term contamination of many atolls, four of which have
had their populations evacuated and relocated onto other atolls. The
former Soviet Union tested in many places, but primarily near
Semipalatinsk (present day Semey) in East Kazakhstan. These areas
suffer the most catastrophic legacies of nuclear testing. People who
lived in these areas have suffered devastating social and culturaleffects in addition to the blows to their health. The United Kingdom
tested weapons in Australia; the French tested weapons in Algeria
and on several islands in the South Pacific; the Chinese have tested
weapons in the Lop Nur area of Western China near communities of
the Uighur people, a marginalized Muslim community; India andPakistan as well as Israel have also tested nuclear weapons, andmost recently North Korea. Besides the hibakusha created by all ofthese nuclear weapon tests, countless communities have been
exposed to ionizing radiation from uranium mining, nuclear weapon
production, and nuclear power plants. The use of DU weapons by
the United States in its wars since the 1990s has also sickened
people and communities whose lives and land will forever bechanged because of radiation exposures and contaminations.

Case Study: The Marshallese
Immediately after World War II the United States was eager togather information about its new super-weapon. In July of 1946, lessthan a year after the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, theUnited States tested two nuclear weapons in the Marshall Islands.
The US military was particularly interested to study the effects ofnuclear weapons on naval ships and underwater. They decided totest the weapons in the middle of Bikini Atoll. (Bikini is a typicalround coral atoll with no elevation.) The Bikinians were given 24
hours to gather their belongings before they were forcibly removed
and taken to live on neighboring atolls and islands. Two weapons
were tested at Bikini contaminating the atoll with high levels ofradiation. The Bikinians, who had been told that they could return totheir homes after the testing and cleanup, slowly began to realizethat they were not going back to their homes. During the next 17
years the United States tested more and larger nuclear weapons at
Bikini Atoll and at Eniwetok Atoll, including dozens of high yieldthermonuclear weapons. The radiation load borne by these andsurrounding atolls was horrendous.
The Bravo Test (1954) in particular wrecked much more
destruction than just the hole blasted into Bikini Atoll (separating
the land into two and giving birth to the name of the two-piecebathing suit). Bravo tested the first deliverable thermonuclear
weapon built by the United States. The test yielded a far larger
explosion than weapon designers had intended and the resultant
fallout contaminated several downwind atolls, most notably
Rongelap. American radiation monitors visited the atoll later thatday and realized that the levels of contamination were dangerously
high, but left without informing any of the Rongelapese. They

returned three days later and declared that all the inhabitants had toevacuate immediately. Residents had less than an hour to gather
their valuables before boarding the US naval vessels. Many
remember wondering if they would ever return to their homes. The
US military attempted to clean up the radiation from Rongelap andbring the evacuees back to their homes. In 1957, three years later,
they declared the atoll “clean and safe” and returned theRongelapese. But the atoll was only partly “clean and safe,” andresidents were told that they should not eat the fish caught off theatoll, or travel to the northern end of the atoll. Over time many
Rongelapese became sick and many died of cancer. They asked theUntited States and the international community to come to their aid,
but they were ignored. Finally, in 1985 the boat, the Rainbow
Warrior, belonging to the environmental group Greenpeace arrived
at Rongelap and in three trips evacuated all of the residents a second
time to other atolls. In fact, after completing this mission and later
docking in New Zealand, the Rainbow Warrior was blown up by the
French secret service to keep it from disrupting French nuclear
testing in the South Pacific.
For the Marshallese, land is of primary importance. Atolls havevery little livable and tillable land: Rongelap has only 8 square milesof land. With land ownership come many rights. (Incidentally, landis passed down matrilineally in the Marshall Islands.) Displacementfrom their atoll (for three generations now), their continuing healthproblems, and the disconnection from their traditional lifestyle anddiet, have burdened the Rongelapese and their descendants
considerably. And this year they face yet a new challenge. The US
government has again “cleaned up” Rongelap, building houses, aschool, a community center, and other infrastructure. The
Rongelapese will have to decide whether to return to Rongelap. Thisdecision will engage deep
longings to be “home”; for somea home they have never been to.
Their decision will also stir theirunderstandable mistrust andwounds from past betrayals.
Should they trust that their atoll
is “clean and safe”? Should they Residents of Bikini being
removed from their homes byrisk their health again? What the US military in 1946.
would you do?

Project Goals
There are several components to the work being done through the
Global Hibakusha Project. The first is to gather oral histories ofhibakusha (first-, second- and third-generation hibakusha) and toaccess the existing oral history records. However, the primary goalof the project is to empower and link the disparate hibakusha
communities. We believe that if the isolation of the hibakusha
communities can be bridged, a dialogue can emerge between thesecommunities –– a dialogue that will have positive and potentiallyliberating effects. The first effect is for hibakusha to understand thatthey are part of a global community of people who have had very
similar experiences and who face very similar challenges. This
understanding –– that many other people in the world can relate totheir experiences, and even share many of them –– is both sad (toknow others suffer), and liberating (to alleviate the sense ofotherness and isolation). Another goal is to establish a dialogue
about political tactics and compensation strategies. One group of
hibakusha may have been able to legally establish particular healtheffects as related to their exposures, while another community may
not. An awareness of the successes and strategies of disparate
communities fighting essentially the same legal battles with separate
governments can provide tools that can assist hibakusha
communities in establishing and asserting their rights.

Additionally, a key goal of the project is to engage younger,
third- and even fourth-generation hibakusha with their family andcommunity histories. Many younger people assume that their elders’exposure to radiation is separate from their own experiences. Thismay come from defining the experience strictly as related to healthissues. However, when a teen that has grown up with a marginal
status because their family is dispossessed of their traditional lands,
that teen has been very much shaped by their hibakusha experience.
We will seek to facilitate the production by younger hibakusha ofcreative cultural pieces about their lives and heritage. This, forexample, could take the form of conducting a video interview with
their elders, which many young, and even impoverished people can
now do because of cell phone technology. That interview can thenbe emailed into a central digital database. We want to encourage
young hibakusha to produce artwork, music and any manner ofcreative expression that they choose, with the goal of sharing it withthe youth of other hibakusha communities.

Outcomes
The Global Hibakusha Project is designed to have many blossoms.
Though there will be a book based on scholarly analysis, as well as
several journal articles and conference panels, the project aims at
having a felt impact in the hibakusha communities and not just in
the academic community.
A key outcome of this project will be the creation of an online
space intended to be a resource and –– just as importantly –– acommunication tool for hibakusha communities. The website will
have both public and restricted areas. The public areas will list
resources and contain public testimony, artwork, and information
about hibakusha communities meant to spread their stories to thewhole world. By presenting information about many far-flung
hibakusha communities, our goal is to help people to see thehibakusha experience from a global, rather than a national,
perspective. The private sections will be strictly for the use of the
hibakusha. As we work to gather stories and artwork in hibakusha
communities, we make it clear to each contributor that they are theowners of the material. We will never publish them, online or inacademic publications, without the express consent of the creator.
We recognize that some of this material will be meant only for othermembers of the same community, or for hibakusha from otheraffected communities. We want to facilitate that dialogue, protect
their privacy, and honor their wishes. We will work to have thematerial on the webpages translated into the languages used by eachof the hibakusha communities, so that stories from Maralinga,
Australia, can reach people in Semey, Kazakhstan, and stories from
Palau in the South Pacific can be understood in Hiroshima andNagasaki.
The use or testing of nuclear weapons, and nuclear power, have
had many effects in the world, and none as misunderstood as theisolating veil that is thrown over a community once it suffers theinvisible threat of radiation. The Global Hibakusha Project isworking to remove the barriers of isolation that have long separated
hibakusha communities from each other. We hope that as the voicesof the hibakusha of the world join into a chorus, the lessons firsttaught in Hiroshima and Nagasaki will echo from pole to pole.
The Global Hibakusha Project is the work of Dr. Robert Jacobs ofthe Hiroshima Peace Institute and Dr. Mick Broderick of Murdoch
University in Perth, Australia. The project is generously supported
by funds from the Special Academic Research Grant for Peace Studies
from Hiroshima City University, and the Grant-in-Aid for Scientific
Research from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science.

Associate Professor at HPIVisit HPI’s website at http://www.hiroshima-cu.ac.jp/modules/peace̲e/index.php

5Revolutions in the Arab World and Their Implications in East Asia
Sung Chull Kim
The wave of anti-government demonstrations in North Africa andthe Middle East has been drawing our attention to another cornerof the world, East Asia, and particularly to China and North Korea.
The series of mass demonstrations first began in Tunisia following
the suicide of a poor, young fruit-store owner, Mohammed Bouazizi,
who set himself on fire on December 17, 2010. The suicide sparked
mass protests against corruption and oppression by government
officials, and in turn the protests resulted in the ousting of President
Ben Ali one month after Bouazizi’s martyrdom. From the dawn of
this year, demonstrations have spread throughout the Arab world:in Algeria, Oman, Egypt, Yemen, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait,
Iraq, Bahrain, Iran, Libya, Morocco, Lebanon and Syria. The targetsof the protesters’ anger, the forms of their resistance and the
responses of the respective repressive regimes differ from country
to country. As a consequence, the impacts of the demonstrations also
vary from one another. (For the major consequences, see below.)- Tunisia: On January 17, 2011, President Zine El Abidine Ben
Ali was ousted.
- Egypt: On February 11, President Hosni Mubarak was ousted.
- Bahrain: On March 16, two ministers, four upper house members
and twelve judges resigned.
- Libya: On March 17, in response to the dictator Muammar
el-Qaddafi’s brutality, the UNSC adopted Resolution
1973 which permitted military intervention by Westerncountries.
- Kuwait: On March 31, the cabinet led by Prime Minister Shaikh
Nasser Al Mohammad Al Sabah resigned.
- Yemen: On April 23, President Ali Abdullah Saleh, accepting
mediation from the Gulf Cooperation Council.
It is noteworthy that the demonstrators succeeded in ousting
dictators only in Tunisia and Egypt; however, the situations in othercountries are different. It is not incidental that Tunisia became thefirst country in which demonstrators ousted the 23-year dictatorshipled by Ben Ali. More than any other Arab country, Tunisia has had
real potential for a democratic transition due to the empowermentof women. The power of women expanded owing to compulsory
women’s education, which is unusual in Muslim society. Women’s
education has led Tunisian society to avoid the greatest defect ofIslam that “repressive homes pave the way for repressive
governments,” to use Bernard Lewis’s phrase. Furthermore, a rapid
increase in the number of mobile phone users made revolution
possible in Tunisia. The number of mobile phone users increased
five times in the past seven years, from two million people in 2003
to ten million in 2010. This figure represents one mobile phone perperson in the country. Information technology has also created aninterface between mobile phones, the Internet, and social media
such as Twitter and Facebook. This development made possible
the rapid spread of breaking news and the ensuing massdemonstrations from one place to another, and in turn it is highly
likely to have contributed to relieving fear which is a barrier thathas made it difficult for people to resist their repressive rulers.
On the other hand, one may not expect that this chain of
revolutions will immediately bring about a sequential politicaltransition across the Arab world. The mass demonstrations and theresultant fall of dictators will not automatically guarantee regime
transition. The causes of the mass demonstrations such as
corruption, strict control and oppression are triggers, but they inthemselves do not produce sufficient conditions for transition. In
Egypt, the future of politics seems to be depending on what kind of
future roles the military and the Muslim Brotherhood will play.
The situations in other countries remain unpredictable. The
6

HIROSHIMA RESEARCH NEWS Vol.14 No.1, July 2011

ramifications of the armed struggles in Libya will continue to
unfold, and Libyan migrants will likely continue to suffer
hardships due to European countries’ unwillingness to allow thementry. Civilian casualties in Syria caused by governmental
repression have already reached several hundred; furthermore,
President Bashar Assad still receives a certain degree of domestic
support. The political situation in Yemen, even following Saleh’s
conditional resignation, remains unpredictable.
Despite the divergence of developments across the Arabworld, the magnitude of the mass demonstrations was huge. As aconsequence, observers have instinctively looked to see if there
will be reverberations of the mass demonstrations in the Arab worldin China and North Korea. The increasing use of information
technology in China and North Korea has drawn the particularattention of observers; however, thus far it has not contributed
significantly to a spill-over effect from the revolutions in the Arabworld. In China, the rate of mobile phone usage is around 64%,
which is much lower than that of Tunisia, slightly lower than thatof Iran, and the same as in Lebanon. North Korean usage rate is as
low as 1.7%, which is an incomparably low figure. More
importantly, the effect of the interface between mobile phones andthe Internet is strictly censored in both countries. The Chinese
government, which already tightly controlled the Internet, has
further strengthened its control since Liu Xiaobo won the 2010Nobel Peace Prize and demonstrations spread throughout the Arabworld. North Koreans use their mobile phones mostly forcommercial purposes in the area bordering northeastern China.
Whereas North Korean mobile phone users consider them a useful
tool for accessing information from the outside, most North
Koreans are still in a deep sleep regarding what has been going onin the Arab world.
As to the possible impact of the revolutions in the Arab world
on East Asia, the dynamics of civil society will become one of themost important variables. As demonstrated in the post-communist
transition in Eastern Europe, there were divergent paths dependingon the role played by civil society. Empowered labor in Poland
and the expanded power of intellectuals in Czechoslovakia’s
underground resistance, even before popular uprisings took placein these countries, paved the way for faster and relatively smootherregime transition. In contrast, most of the former republics of theSoviet Union, whose independence benefitted from the synergetic
effect of the Eastern European transition, underwent ups anddowns, and eventually witnessed the reemergence of repressive
regimes. The independent governments of Armenia, Azerbaijan,
Belarus, Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan either undermined an alreadyweak civil society or mobilized security forces to brutally repress it.
Conversely, the Chinese case shows a gradual developmentof civil society. The citizens movement, which began withgovernmental supervision at the beginning of the new millennium,
is becoming more organized in order to protect civil rights, as wellas to expand rights in environmental issues and improve working
conditions. People who lived in the era of reform transformed theirdiscontent about politics into hard work which resulted ineconomic development, and in turn they themselves benefited
from the results. Now the young generations who have grown up
amidst the socio-economic changes are more independent and aremaking demands about their rights. The governmental control oflabor rights in particular will probably become a source of themost grudging discontent. Furthermore, the rapidly expanding useof information technology will render the new generation and civilsociety even more organized and empowered.
Professor at HPIThe Sinking of the Cheonan andEast Asian Community Debates:
North Korea’s Place in the Region
North Korea never ceases to be exciting and excitable. It is locatedat the center of the East Asian region in both the literal andfigurative senses, linking continental China and oceanic Japan, andsharing borders with China, Russia and South Korea. Recently, aseries of violent incidents has made the region ever moreunpredictable, and North Korea lies at the epicenter of thissituation. Portrayals of a rapidly changing East Asia (e.g. China’srise, Japan’s decline, the US as an Asian and/or Pacific country,
and South Korea as a medium power) have given way to concern
over the region’s propensity for violence. Following the sinking of
the Cheonan on March 26, 2010, North Korea shelled theYeonpyeong island, along the Northern Limit Line (NLL) on
November 23, 2010. In between these events, Japan and China
clashed over the Senkaku (Diaoyu in Chinese) islands in
September. With such danger lurking within, how sustainable are
the East Asian Community debates?
The East Asian region has been rattled by the sinking of theship. The South Korean corvette of the 2nd fleet, PCC-722
Cheonan, sank while conducting a mission in the vicinity of theNorthern Limit Line on March 26, 2010. The Sea Patrol along thewestern sea line of the ROK was soon dispatched, and rescued 58
out of 104 crew members. Among the 46 missing crew members,
40 were reported to have perished, while 6 were still missing as ofApril 24, 2010. The ROK Ministry of Defense organized a
Civilian-Military Joint Investigation Group consisting of 25
experts from 12 Korean civilian agencies, 22 military experts, 3
advisors recommended by the ROK National Assembly, and 24
multinational experts from the United States, Australia, the United
Kingdom and Sweden. On May 20, the team issued reports
implicating the DPRK in the attack.
The responses of governments in the region have ranged
widely from direct accusation to cautious ambivalence. The wide
spectrum of reactions to this alleged North Korean belligerence
sheds an instructive light on the ongoing East Asian Community
debates. “Community,” as a concept different from “association,”
often assumes a shared cultural ethos among members who seek todefend and promote their common interests and values. It is not
surprising that the debates over community in East Asia have been
largely oblivious to the regime of Kim Jong-il. Community
discourse, with its assumptions of shared values and goals, has yet
to address the dangers lurking within. Then how can the East
Asian Community sustain itself amidst the waywardness of North
Korea? This paper argues that the North Korean regime
simultaneously consolidates and divides the community, as seen in
the aftermath of the Cheonan incident. The North Korean factor
needs to be taken into consideration in order for there to be viablecommunity debates.
Efforts to situate North Korea in East Asian Community
debates entail ideational considerations formed through one state’s
repeated interactions with reference groups from significant otherstates. The self-image of a state, the manifestation of a cognitive
framework, influences the shaping of national interests, preferences
and foreign policy behavior. The “politics of labeling and framing,”along with strategic calculations, designate North Korea’s place in
East Asia. As a nation-state within the international system
understands others’ perceptions of itself, so it reacts to those others
accordingly. North Korea is no exception to this.

Mikyoung Kim

The Cheonan incident is a tragic case in terms of testing thevalidity of norm-based East Asian Community discourse. Violence
within the community, a disruptive element, consolidates domestic
interests over the ideational construction of an internationalsociety. Internal violence deepens the divisions of pre-existing
rivalry by reopening old wounds and reviving competition between
states. Consequently, it can enhance the power of parties that cancontrol the perpetrators of violence. The Cheonan incident,
therefore, has chilled the romanticized prospects for a communal
vision, pushing it back to a Cold War-like modality. The incident
has reminded the community that realpolitik supersedes normative
rhetoric.
North Korea is indeed a part of Northeast Asia, but its
isolation makes a systemic study of the nation much more difficult
in comparison to other countries. Nevertheless, North Korea is an
East Asian nation, sharing a Confucian cultural tradition,
geographical proximity, historical memory, linguistic affinity, andracial similarity with other states in the region. The DPRK’s
dynastic socialist government, however, makes its regional
membership a challenge. The DPRK’s circumstances surrounding
the Cheonan incident are a telling case in point. How do thesimilarities and differences across the region shape the community
discourse?
A most self-serving response to the Cheonan incident would
be to quote the cliché “time will tell.” There is no question thattime will tell in this increasingly democratizing world, where pastwrongs and hidden truths are eventually unearthed under the brightgaze of historical fact-finding efforts. The US Freedom ofInformation Act and its Japanese equivalent are legally bound to
shed light on this incident 25 years from now. The South Korean
eyewitnesses will survive to testify about what they saw on March
26, 2010. However, the lingering question is what should be donein the meantime: what does the Cheonan incident mean for the
East Asian Community?
Regional reactions to the incident demonstrated dramatic
divisions among the member states. Apart from geographicalproximity, other binding elements such as shared worldview,
ethos, mutual identification and common ideational values were
notably lacking. Amid rising concerns and anticipations, the future
trajectory of East Asian Community debates remains to be seen.
The (re-)constructed narratives surrounding the violence within thecommunity show more room for pessimistic predictions than rosy
wishful thinking.
The sunken Cheonan reminds us of two unspoken mishaps:
the dismissal of North Korea as a legitimate party to the discourse,
and the potent adverse effects of inter-community violence. The
multilayered readings of the Cheonan incident alert us to what wehave refused to see, and why. The unfolding saga of the past year
has carried with it a self-reflexive momentum. The stories ofJapan, South Korea and North Korea reveal the hidden intentionsof each stakeholder. The sunken Cheonan, therefore, is instructive
for its unsolved mysteries.
The community debates project the region as one integral
unit, amid rapid shifts within its socio-political and economic
landscapes. North Korea, an accused perpetrator, occupies a
crucial place in the East Asian Community.
Associate Professor at HPIVisit HPI’s website at http://www.hiroshima-cu.ac.jp/modules/peace̲e/index.php

7New HPI website launched
The website of the Hiroshima Peace Institute has been renewed on April 1.
Englishhttp://www.hiroshima-cu.ac.jp/modules/peace_e/index.php

Japanese

http://www.hiroshima-cu.ac.jp/modules/peace_j/index.php

March 1 ‒ June 30, 2011

◆Feb.-Jun.
Mikyoung Kim serves as secretary of the organizing
committee for the international conference “Human Rights, War andPeace after the Cold War,” co-organized by the Korea Associationof International Studies and the International Political Science
Association, to be held in June in Seoul, Korea.
◆Mar. 13 HPI Vice-President Kazumi Mizumoto gives lecture“What to Learn from Cambodia and How?: Some Advice from My
Experience” at a review session of the Study Tour to Cambodia
organized by the Hiroshima International Center (HIC), held at HIC.
◆Mar. 15 Mizumoto attends the annual meeting of the Advisory
Research Group of the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum, held at
the International Conference Center Hiroshima.
◆Mar. 19 Mikyoung Kim chairs, serves as a panel discussant, andpresents paper “The Middlemen Genre: An Analysis of NorthernSettlers’ Narratives in South Korea,” at a panel session “Memory
Project: Historical Justice and Reconciliation in East Asia,” during
the annual convention of the International Studies Association, heldin Montreal, Canada.
◆Mar. 24 Mikyoung Kim presents paper “The Border-man Genre:
The Northern Settlers’ Narrative in South Korea” at the Halle
Institute, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, US.
◆Mar. 25 Mizumoto serves as the Vice-Chair at the 5th meeting of
the Exhibition Review Committee of the Hiroshima Peace
Memorial Museum, held at the museum. ▽Mikyoung Kim presents
paper “The Cheonan Sinking and Its Implications for East Asian
Community Debates” at the Center for the Study of Global Issues,
the University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, US.
◆Mar. 28 Mikyoung Kim presents paper “The Current Crisis inJapan: A View from the Hiroshima Peace Institute” at the Halle
Institute, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, US. ▽Mikyoung Kim
presents paper “North Korean Refugee Issues and Korean-American
Communities” at the Association of Inter-Korea Reconciliation andCooperation (Atlanta Charter) in Doraville, Georgia, US.
◆Apr. 3 Sung Chull Kim attends a joint conference co-organizedby the Association for Asian Studies and the International
Convention of Asia Scholars, and presents paper “Japan’s Repatriationof Korean Residents and the US Involvement,” held in Honolulu,
Hawaii, US. ▽Mikyoung Kim presents paper “Commemorating the
Dark Past: The Atomic Bomb Dome and Hiroshima History
Movement” at a panel session “War, Memory, and Japanese
National Identity Construction over Time and Space,” during a joint
conference co-organized by the Association for Asian Studies andthe International Convention of Asia Scholars, held in Honolulu,
Hawaii, US.
◆Apr. 11 Mizumoto participates in the screening board for basic
exhibition design proposals for the Hiroshima Peace Memorial
Museum, held at the museum.
◆Apr. 15 Mizumoto attends a preparatory meeting for “Building
an International Peace Hub in Hiroshima,” organized by Hiroshima
Prefecture, held at the HIC.

HIROSHIMA RESEARCH NEWS
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8◆Apr. 23 Robert Jacobs presents paper “Atomic Pawns: Preparing
American Troops for the Nuclear War in the 1950s” during a national
conference co-organized by the Popular Culture Association and theAmerican Culture Association, held in San Antonio, Texas, US.
◆May 1 Mikyoung Kim is appointed as a member of theAdvisory Council on Democratic and Peaceful Unification of the
Republic of Korea for the period of May 2011-April 2013.
◆May 7 Mizumoto gives lecture “The Meaning of Studying theHiroshima Experience” at the Hiroshima Peace Forum organized by
the Hiroshima Peace Culture Foundation and other groups, held atthe Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum.
◆May 18 Mizumoto attends the 1st meeting of the Drafting
Committee of the Peace Education Program organized by theHiroshima Municipal Board of Education, held at HPI.
◆May 23 Jacobs presents paper “Irradiated Zombie Soldiers:
Strategic Options for American Battle Commanders Whose Troops
Have Been Exposed to Lethal Radiation,” during the global conference“War and Peace: Probing the Boundaries,” held in Warsaw, Poland.
◆May 26-29 Robert Jacobs and Makiko Takemoto present papers,
respectively entitled “Domesticating Hiroshima in America: From
Military Target to Childlike Victims in Need of Help, American
Depictions of the Victims of the Hiroshima Bombing in the Early
Cold War” and “Japanese Discourse on ‘Hiroshima and Auschwitz’
and ‘Overcoming the Past,’” during the international conference“Images of Rupture in Civilization between East and West: The
Iconography of Auschwitz and Hiroshima in Eastern European Arts
and Media,” held at Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany.
◆May 29 Mizumoto gives lecture “The Raison d’Être of Hiroshima
in the International Community” at the training program in
Hiroshima of the 63rd Japan-America Student Conference (JASC),
held at the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum.
◆Jun. 13 Mizumoto serves as the Vice-Chair at the 1st meeting of
the Exhibition Review Committee of the Hiroshima Peace Memorial
Museum, held at the museum. ▽Mizumoto attends the 1st plenary
meeting of the Cambodia Reconstruction Support Project, coorganized by Hiroshima Prefecture and JICA, held at the Hiroshima
Prefectural Office.
◆Jun. 16 Mizumoto attends the 2nd meeting of the Drafting
Committee of the Peace Education Program organized by theHiroshima Municipal Board of Education, held at HPI. ▽Mikyoung
Kim presents paper “North Korean Human Rights Debate in East
Asia” at the international conference “Human Rights, War andPeace after the Cold War,” co-organized by the Korean Associationof International Studies and the International Political Science
Association, held in Seoul, Korea.
◆Jun. 24 Mizumoto gives special lecture “The Current State andTasks of Peace Research” at a training program for Level II
Certified Nursing Administrators organized by the Hiroshima
Nursing Association, held at the association.

Vol.14 No.1（July 25, 2011）

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