COVER FEATURE ADVANCES IN LEARNING TECHNOLOGIESInterdisciplinary Education
for Design Innovation
Toru Ishida, Tetsuo Sawaragi, Kumiyo Nakakoji, and Takushi Sogo, Kyoto University

A design education program must unite traditionallysiloed disciplines, spanning rigid academic boundaries
from engineering to social sciences. Work to establish
the Kyoto University Design School had to meet thesechallenges in promoting interdisciplinary cooperationand provides a solid model for others to build on.

Scientific communities across the globe arebeing pressed to solve an array of daunting
problems, such as global warming, disaster mitigation, and energy and food scarcity.
These problems exceed the abilities of any one discipline, which means that experts from diverse fields
must work together to provide a range of problem-­solving perspectives. For example, in determining thecause of a collision, a mechanical engineer might surmise that the vehicle’s engine was at fault, a computerscientist might deduce that the vehicle’s control system was the main problem, an architect might point topoor urban design as the main contributor, a psychologist might propose that the driver was inattentive,

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CO M PUTE R P U B LISHED BY THE IEEE COMP UTER SOCIE T Yand a management specialist might speculate that thedriver suffered from overwork. In this way, problems
are attacked with an assortment of strategies for preventing similar scenarios. This collaboration of multiple disciplines also ensures that problem solving moves
ahead: if a challenge stymies experts in one discipline,
those in other disciplines can continue the work of
evolving solutions.
But interdisciplinary collaboration is not a familiar
problem-solving model. In the simple traffic accident
example, contributions are likely to converge reasonably into some solution that addresses the multiple concerns: car, driver, city planning, and work conditions.
However, on challenging problems faced by society as
a whole, experts have widely varying ideas on what thefocus should be. These divergent views and interpretations become a serious barrier to interdisciplinary collaboration. Thus, any grand-challenge project must cultivate not only its own expertise in a specific domain,
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but also broaden its understandingof the issues by examining perspectives on the same challenge in otherdisciplines.
Design education and research is an
emerging mechanism for implementing an interdisciplinary approach.
Over the last decade or so, universities have established many specialized design departments, such asmechanical, systems, environmental,
and architectural. Kyoto University is
attempting to unite these into a design
school that links domain-dependent
design education and domain-independent design. We are continuing torefine the school on the basis of lessons
learned about design’s evolving natureand to create a common understanding of vocabularies and curricula fordesign education. We are already seeing many similar efforts worldwide,and hope that creators of design education and research programs can share
their experiences openly.

WHAT IS DESIGN?

Before we could establish the design
school as an interdisciplinary centerof study and research, we had to clarify what we meant by “design.” Wefound this definition particularly
useful: “a specification of an object,manifested by an agent, intended toaccomplish goals, in a particular environment, using a set of primitive components, satisfying a set of requirements, subject to constraints.”1

Interpreting the definition

This definition is sufficiently abstractthat each domain can easily apply its
own interpretation. Computer scientists, for example, are likely to associate this definition with optimization
problems. If the design problem’s goals,
constraints, and requirements can beformally specified, then optimization
algorithms and high-performance computing could be applied to the search forsolutions. As long as a problem can beformalized, this interpretation works.
However, “design” is already shiftingits focus to the much more expansive
universe of societal systems and architectures made up of organizations andcommunities. Issues in this context
cannot be approached as simple optimization problems. For example, architects often interpret this definition in amore social way. Urban design projects
might require convening a stakeholders workshop to determine all the community requirements, which might
represent many social concerns. Thus,
the project’s boundaries become fuzzier. Once a problem moves out of formalization’s clear limits, the most suitable computational theory and methodfor dealing with it are not obvious.
An example is Japan’s mission
to redesign cities and communities
after the 2011 East Japan earthquake
brought into sharp focus the needto equip communities and protect
them against future natural disasters. The process of problem solving(how to design) inevitably involves
the process of problem identification(what to design). Since society canbe abstracted at various levels, themodels for expressing problems canhave many layers. Consequently, theproblem-solving process can flow up
and down among the model’s different layers. For example, a project toimprove a city’s transportation network entails changes to the existing
bus routes, which triggers the additional challenge of gaining residents’consent. This, in turn, requires sharing a vision of the city’s design. In thissense, design is not only about solving
problems in the here and now, but also

about answering questions on how toshape society for the future.

From making to nurturing

The Science Council of Japan’s 2003
proposal for artifact design (with artifact being an abstraction) and production pointed out the need to expand
the design process from making products to projects that involve understanding and nurturing relationships and environments.2 This shift
is particularly noticeable in mechanical engineering and architecture, inwhich the emphasis is moving fromthe technology per se to designinguser experiences. At the same time,in computer science, the traditional
concern of how to implement complex logic is giving way to exploration
in how to link hardware and software
elements to social functions.3

DESIGN STUDIES EVOLUTION

Surprisingly, design began to evolvefrom the act of identifying and resolving problems as far back as the 1960s.
In 1969, Herbert A. Simon, an innovative thinker in economics, decision
making, and AI, wrote
Most of the complexity of [people’s]behavior may be drawn from theirenvironment, from their search forgood designs. If I have made mycase, then we can conclude that,in large part, the proper study ofmankind is the science of design,
not only as the professional component of a technical education
but as a core discipline for every
liberally educated person. 4
Just a year later, Tadao Umesao of
Kyoto University shared the following
view in his “Designers in an Information Industry Society” lecture:
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ADVANCES IN LEARNING TECHNOLOGIESThe methods of developing
substances and materials havetremendously evolved over theyears. And, we now have accessto all the energy we need. Against
this backdrop, our top challenge
is the question of design, or how
we should combine these methods of development and sources ofenergy. It seems that designers inthis information industry era are,or will become, nexuses of all theessential elements of industry. 5
Both men recognized early on that
information and design industries
would converge—a remarkable insightin an era when universities had justlaunched large computer centers.
As time passed, design as a social
problem-solving industry became hampered by strong global constraints ontechnology, culture, economy, and politics. These constraints produced dependencies that have grown into complexly intertwined problem networks.
Discontinuing the use of nuclear power
will likely accelerate fossil-fuel consumption, for example, and increasing
bioethanol production will likely cause
grain prices to rise. Due to these interlocking constraints, the task of designing society’s systems and architectures
has ceased being a simple optimization
problem and instead has become a control problem dealing with intricatelyintertwined networks. In this new environment, design studies are uniquely
positioned to apply the latest theories ofmodern science and technology.

ESTABLISHEDDESIGN SCHOOLSThe interdisciplinary nature of design
schools makes it difficult to pigeonhole them within the typical university’s organizational structure of
46

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segmented disciplines. Not only is thedesign school concept still nascent,but each discipline has established
its own design theories and methods. Thus, a design school must be aninterdisciplinary institution, yet befully grounded in many discrete disciplines. There are a range of approaches
in implementing this vision. Typically,
though, design schools emerge from
specific disciplines—computer science,architecture, mechanical engineering,and so on—and then grow toward aninterdisciplinary model of education
and research.

Stanford University

The Hasso Plattner Institute of Design,
also known as d.school, opened at
Stanford University in 2004. Starting from mechanical engineeringand computer science, it offers a variety of workshops and courses thatemphasize hands-on design practice.
Although d.school is neither a graduate school nor an academic department and has no specific student
cadre or degree, it is still connected to
Stanford’s established disciplines. For
example, members of the mechanical engineering faculty participate ind.school, and students that want tojoin its program enroll through thatdepartment. Prominent faculty members in d.school also work at IDEO, adesign firm that is garnering attention
for its efforts to translate design thinking into business,6 although the twoorganizations are independent.

Harvard University

Harvard University’s Graduate Schoolof Design, established in 1936, combines
architecture, urban planning, and landscape architecture. As such, it has a more
confined scope than recently createddesign schools. Harvard’s collaborative

master in design engineering is probably a closer fit. The program, jointly
developed in 2016 by the Graduate
School of Design and the John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied
Sciences, pursues interdisciplinary
education and research with the goalof making design a nexus for technology, society, and the environment.

Delft University of Technology

The Netherlands’ Delft University ofTechnology’s Faculty of Industrial
Design Engineering has been a vibrantcenter of interdisciplinary education
and research since its inception in 1969.
Led by its own staff of instructors representing disciplines such as psychology,
mechanical engineering, and computerscience, the school strives to maintaina balance between domain-dependentand domain-­independent design whilebuilding a design model that combinessocial desirability, technological feasibility, and commercial viability.

Aalto University

Finland’s Aalto University is an interdisciplinary hub of education andresearch that was founded in 2010
from merging three universities—
one specializing in engineering, one
focusing on art, and one emphasizing economics. Aalto’s design activities center on healthcare, aging society, global warming, and other areas
with grand challenges. Because of its
founders’ belief that such challenges
cannot be solved by universities alone,
Aalto strongly emphasizes partnerships with industry.

SCOPING CURRICULUM

Because of its interdisciplinary nature,a design school cannot rely on traditional curriculum models. Rather,as Figure 1 shows, domain-­dependent
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Method

TheoryKnowledge

ActionDesign methodology

Process

ObjectMeta level
General design theory

General design method
Object level

design theory, method, and practicemust combine with the same elements but in a domain-­
independent
context. For example, in computer science, domain-dependent design theory would include computational theory, method courses would include
software engineering, and practicewould involve programming exercises.
Domain-independent design courses
would focus on the design of artifacts,
information, organization and community, and other societal elements
as well as on design methodology—
courses that examine the concept, philosophy, and history of design. In thissense, “domain-independent” has twomeanings: general and quintessential.
Even if a framework such as thatin Figure 1 can be used to systemize
curricula, many graduate students
will lack the motivation to study
design along with their chosen field.
Their reasoning might go something
like this: I understand that societal
problems are complex, but why can’t
experts from the relevant disciplines
become a project team that is tasked
to solve them? I’d be better off studying project management, not design,
wouldn’t I?
The answer to that question is “no”
for two reasons. First, research thatsignificantly impacts society is typically produced from a nexus of disciplines. Computer science innovation
often occurs at the borders of otherdisciplines. Google’s ad auction, forexample, was invented at the borderof computer science and economics.
Studying design equips students withknowledge and skills that broaden
the horizons of their degree research.
Second, studying fields outside a chosen discipline involves more than learning research achievements; it requires
understanding the methodologies andDomain design theory

Domain design method

Domain design practiceGeneral design practice

FIGURE 1. Framework to characterize a design school curriculum. Traditional domain-­dependent courses include design theory, method, and practice (white), which focuseson creating products. These must ultimately merge with domain-independent theory,
method, and practice (blue), which is more concerned with design as applied to societal
elements and with understanding design as a concept.

processes that enabled them. If, forexample, computer scientists and psychologists are going to work together,each group needs to know the research
processes that the other uses. Universities can provide an ideal environment
for such multidisciplinary learning.

KYOTO UNIVERSITYDESIGN SCHOOLIn April 2013, Kyoto University launched
the collaborative graduate programin design, which is more familiarlyreferred to as the Kyoto University
Design School, an integrated five-year
doctoral program aimed at cultivating
people who can design social systems
and architectures through collaboration with experts from diverse fields.
The program seeks to nurture students into experts who can bring aboutchanges in society by educating themin design as a lingua franca that unites
people across disciplines.
As Figure 2 shows, the program isfounded on five disciplines in four graduate schools: informatics, mechanicalengineering, architecture, management, and psychology. Informatics,
mechanical engineering, and architecture comprise what has become
accepted as a design school’s core. We
included management and psychology

to establish the link between technologies and societies. Design applications
do not target only these five areas, ofcourse, but address far-reaching challenges in environmental, healthcare,and disaster management, among
many others. The Kyoto University
Design School’s logo is three plus signs,
underlining the goal of producing
people with “+ shaped” confidence—
those in different disciplines who areconnected through design education(design.kyoto-u.ac.jp).

Coursework

The curriculum consists of coursework and PhD research. The coursework comprises general design anddomain design courses (major) to betaken in the first half of the program
followed by domain design courses(minor) to be taken in the second half.
The general design courses include›› design methodology, which discusses what design is;›› general design theory, which

explores the basis of interdisciplinary design, including designof artifacts, information, organizations and communities; and›› general design method, which
covers field-analysis techniques
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47ADVANCES IN LEARNING TECHNOLOGIES“ + shaped” people
Write doctoral dissertation under supervision of multidisciplinary advisors
Approx.
100
weeks

Leading project(PhD research)
Severalweeks tomonthsField internship andresearch internshipOpen innovation
practice

Approx.
10
weeks

Take qualifying examination
Approx.
5
courses

Domain design courses

General design courses

Field-based learning
Problem-based learning

Approx.
5
courses

Approx.
1
week

Broad-scale design collaboration

Study in preparatory course and then join regular course after certain period
Architecture(Graduate Schoolof Engineering)

Mechanical Eng. Informatics(Graduate School (Graduate Schoolof Engineering)of Informatics)

Management(Graduate Schoolof Management)

Psychology(Graduate Schoolof Education)

Pass entrance exam of desired graduate school

FIGURE 2. Kyoto University’s collaborative graduate program in design. Five disciplines make up the program’s core, but discipline crossovers and extensions are part ofthe program. Students incorporate design courses (purple) and design practices (blue)
into their chosen major. Coursework and projects are augmented with field-based andproblem-based learning experiences. As students pass through each academic milestone(black) using design as a lingua franca to connect to those from different disciplines, they
move closer to becoming “+ shaped” experts who can work together to change the world.

such as ethnography, data ana­
lysis, and simulation as well as
methods of composing designand design processes.
The first half of the doctoral stud­ies also includes courses on fieldbased learning (FBL) to hone skills
in identifying real-world problems
and problem-­based learning (PBL) to
discover ways of finding solutions
to real-world issues. Most topics aredeveloped from actual problems cho­sen by faculty members, such as how
to expand the use of renewable energy
or how to reactivate a shrinking ruralarea. These challenges give students
the full measure of a real problem.
The second half of the doctoral
studies consists of courses in which
students work on full-scale, hands-on
design challenges with experts from48

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At the end of the program, students
complete interdisciplinary projects andwrite their dissertation in their own
department under the guidance ofmultidisciplinary advisors.

other fields. The open innovation
practice involves taking on real-world
problems posed by business sectors,
and elevates students from budding
specialists to the role of facilitators
who manage teams of domain special­ists. The field internship, which brings
educational resources to bear on realissues, is the most challenging learn­ing experience. Multidisciplinary stu­
dent teams travel to locations acrossJapan or in other countries to work on
solving local problems.
These practical applications become
more difficult as program participa­tion progresses. Third-year students
assigned to a field internship in Indone­
sia were confident that they could suc­cessfully complete the work involved
because of the experience they accrued
from the program’s incrementally chal­lenging hands-on practices.

In addition to regular courses, the pro­gram offers learning experiences in dif­ferent environments and cultural set­tings. Immediately after the 2011 East
Japan earthquake (and prior to form­
ing its design school), Kyoto University
established the Summer Design School,
shown in Figure 3, a three-day event thatgives students the opportunity to col­laborate with participants from otheruniversities, government, and indus­
try. The 2016 Summer Design School
featured nearly 30 workshops and had
more than 350 participants, including
both students and instructors.
One of the event’s strongest benefits
is that activities are outside the tradi­tional instructor−student dichotomy.
Instead, there is nearly a one-to-one
ratio of instructors to students. Thismodel promotes mutual learning
experiences in which participants col­laboratively identify the problems totackle. Industry provides a third of theworkshop topics, adding the dimen­sion of industry−academia crossover tothe students’ educational experience.

Design Innovation Consortium

Recognizing the need to work withbusiness and government agencies,
universities have established various
frameworks for joint research proj­
ects, and when everyone understands
and agrees on what the project needs,
these frameworks serve their purpose.
However, most projects require at least
some initial exploration, which calls
for discussions among the partici­
pating experts. Such discussions can
W W W.CO M P U T E R .O R G /CO M P U T E Rsometimes be at odds, yet to guarantee the sustainability of education,
universities must pursue collaborative projects. For these projects, which
can involve businesses, governmental agencies, and other universities
and research institutes, existing joint
research frameworks are insufficient.
Participants often have different purposes and operations, yet consensus
is required to work together effectively on the issues. Rather than having different sides negotiate for every
project, Kyoto University decided toform an organization that operates
under a comprehensive agreement forcollaboration.
The Design Innovation Consortium, launched in March 2014, istasked with jointly researching themost effective ways to develop needed
skills in graduate students (primarily) and company personnel. The consortium, which had approximately 60
corporate members as of March 2017,is a hub for sharing the design theories
and methods developed in universities
and the real-world challenges faced byindustry and government.
Member companies supply fellows—­
experts strongly motivated to participate
in design activities—to work alongsidefaculty and students in design projects and establish long-term collaborative relationships. Serving as mentors to the students, these fellows offer
advice on how to translate university
research achievements into forms thatserve society. Exposure to the fellows’extensive knowledge and experience
helps students to better understandthe diverse career paths.

DESIGN SCHOOLEVALUATION

Although the Kyoto University Design
School has not yet seen its first-year

FIGURE 3. Collaboration at the Summer Design School. The three-day event, sponsoredby the Kyoto University Design School, provides students with the opportunity to experience design collaboration with specialists from university faculties and companies.

students reach their fifth year, it isalready making an impression on various stakeholders. To measure reactions
to the school, we surveyed all third-year
students and on the basis of the survey
developed a design innovator index.

Student survey

We distributed a questionnaire toeleven students that covered seven
topics: collaboration with people fromdifferent fields, project and meeting
facilitation, global collaboration, effective communication, effective presentation, design knowledge and methods application, and research focus
enlargement.
Of the eleven students surveyed,seven responded that they had developed skills to collaborate with people
from other fields and six felt that they
had the skills to facilitate projects. Fivestudents thought they had learned
how to globally collaborate and effectively communicate and had developed
knowledge about design and design
methods application. In contrast, sevenstudents thought they still needed
to work on making effective presentations and enlarging their research
focus, but they were confident that theywould have both these skills by the program’s end.
Comments like these were typicalon the questionnaire: “I learned how
tough it is to facilitate and about ways tobridge different opinions” and “I gained
the confidence to produce meaningful

results in collaboration with people
from different cultural backgrounds
and areas of expertise by gradually
expanding discussion with an openminded approach.” Figure 4’s journeymaps illustrate two students’ paths tofind dissertation topics for their PhD
research. Students started with interests in relatively narrow research areas,
freely used the interdisciplinary opportunities provided as part of the curricula, and settled on themes that wereboth attractive in their disciplines andconnected to social issues.

Design innovator index

The design innovator index, whichassesses learning quality at the Kyoto
University Design School, was createdfrom empirical data to identify theskill set that excellent design innovators possess. Figure 5 shows the index
and the skill set, which is structured
in four areas for a total of 24 competency milestones. The areas, originallydefined by the UK’s Researcher Development Framework,7 are regarded ascore competencies to be nurtured astransferable skills.
We use the index to assess the students at the beginning of a course,when they take qualifying exams in
the third year, and when doctoral work
is complete. The ratios in Figure 5 arebased on 15 students at admission and
13 students thereafter. Through theseassessments, students clearly understand the key knowledge, behaviors,
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49

ADVANCES IN LEARNING TECHNOLOGIES
Student H (3rd year)

Student N (3rd year)
PhD research: Cultural value of interpersonal services

PhD research: Programming language for loT and robots
Wanted to incorporate
dynamic variables into theprogramming language

Shifted back to qualitative
analysis combined withquantitative analysis

3 weeks at Aalto
University and 6 weeks at
Palo Alto Research Center

3rd yearTook Strategic
Communication seminar

Master thesis: Analysis of reputations in restaurant review site
Started feeling I could
bring together different
disciplines and tried
quantitative analysis
Took FBL/PBL
as often as 6 times

Became familiar
with arts andcultureInteracted withpsychology/informatics
students

Seemed a relatively
small community inqualitative analysis

1 week at University of Potsdam
2 weeks at Aalto and Delft
Universities

Master thesis: Context-oriented language type systems
Jointly organized aworkshop withTama Art University
2nd year

Attended design schoolin Hong Kong/Okinawa

Lost my way,
started to wander
Ended up playing
lead role in a skitpresentation that
didn’t fit my type

Chose “robots and society”(mechanical engineering) and“learning commons” (education)
for FBL/PBL topics

Seemed very
theoretical but not
too bad

1st yearStart with ethnomethodology in a management laboratory

Studied domain design
courses in mechanicalengineering as minor

Start with type theory in an informatics laboratory

FIGURE 4. Journey map for two Kyoto University Design School students deciding on a dissertation topic. The green bubbles represent the students’ comments and thought processes through their three years, the orange ovals represent learning opportunities thestudents took, and the gray bars represent the students’ research and academic milestones. Both students eventually chose a topic thatwas highly suitable for their respective majors but also connected to social issues. FBL: field-based learning; IoT: Internet of Things;
PBL: problem-based learning.

and attributes that they will learn incoursework and collaborations andthat are in demand by a wide rangeof employers. In Figure 5, the radar
chart for employers plots the ratios ofindustry and government employersthat strongly or moderately expect
each competence to be fostered by
the students during the course study
to the total number of respondents.
The increasing student ratio for competency milestones is evidence thatstudents steadily gain confidence intheir abilities and eventually surpass the ratio of employers who desirethese competencies.

T

he Kyoto University Design
School is evolving, but establishing design studies as an
academic field will require three
key actions. The first is to create
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COMPUTER an abstraction of domain-dependent
design theories and methods, andtheir transition to other fields. The
second is to articulate objectives forthe abstracted design methodologies
so that domain-­dependent design theories and methods can be instantiated.
Finally, there must be a thorough investigation of the underlying concepts indesign studies and the creation of aninter­d isciplinary vocabulary. A single
university cannot implement theseactions successfully. Rather, there
must be an influx of feedback fromand involvement of faculty members
involved in design studies worldwide.
Often, science and engineering aretreated as contrasts, with the notionthat science is for understanding theessence of phenomena and engineering is for creating technologies that
benefit society. However, engineeringresearchers do more than that and soshould be viewed as creating a cycle ofscience and engineering. At the sametime, design has been considered as anelement of engineering that leads tothe development of technologies thatserve society. In today’s world of complexly intertwined problems, however,design should not be thought of as
merely the applied stage of engineering. Instead, researchers should takeup the academic challenge of establishing the realm of design studies
and generating a cycle of science, engineering, and design.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank students, faculty members,
and administration staff at Kyoto University Design School for their discussions
and are particularly grateful to Professor
Emeritus Teruyuki Monnai for sharing his
W W W.CO M P U T E R .O R G /CO M P U T E R

Competency milestone
1
2
3

Governance
24

1

23

Intelligence

4
5

2

6
3

7

22

4

21

8
5

9

20

6

19

7

18

8
17

9

10
11
12
13
14
15

10

16
15

11
14

13

12

16
17

Personality

18

At admission

At start of 2nd year

19
20

At start of 3rd year

Employers’ goal

Engagement

21
22
23
24

Recognizes significance of own and related subject areas in a
wider social context
Accesses and collects appropriate sources of relevant data fromobservation
Recognizes and validates basic research questions tobe addressed
Has core knowledge and basic understanding of key concepts
Evaluates the impact and outcomes of own research activities
linking with real world affairs
Creates ideas and approaches by investigating and seeking
information within own research area
Critically analyzes and evaluates existing products
and social systems
Develops awareness of the impact of research on wider
society and vice versa
Demonstrates self-discipline and motivation for own
research
Recognizes boundaries of own knowledge and develops
awareness of need to gain support
Develops international contacts and networks to engage withand understand other cultures
Acts with professional integrity and honesty in defending ideas
Builds collaborative relationships to share understanding
with a range of colleagues
Actively participates in and contributes to collaborations andexternal relationships
Articulates ideas clearly and effectively to a diverse
and nonspecialist variety of audiences
Appreciates and works with diversity and difference inmulticultural contexts
Demonstrates initiative and competence in leading people
engaged in group activities
Understands leadership in team environments to effectively
achieve mutual goals
Motivates and encourages team members
Coaches team members and helps them clarify their roles
and responsibilities
Actively engages in knowledge exchange with team membersof different disciplines in both public and business sectors
Develops understanding of own research under a broader
context and draws up long-term plans
Applies effective project management
Grasps funding processes by writing own research proposal
and managing own grant

FIGURE 5. Design innovator index. The index is used to measure students’ progress in four areas—intelligence, personality, engagement, and governance—in terms of competency milestones achieved. At admission and the start of their second and third years, students
are asked to rate their confidence in achieving the 24 competency milestones. The wheel shows the ratio of the students checking
affirmative with strong confidence and affirmative with moderate confidence to the number of students enrolled. By the third year, most
students had more confidence than potential employers expected.

knowledge and advice. The work describedin this article was supported by the Program for Leading Graduate Schools of the
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports,
Science and Technology, Japan.

REFERENCES
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for a Formal Definition of the Design
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Engineering: A Ten-Year Perspective, K.
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Design and Production in the 21stCentury, Science Council of Japan,
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3. T. Winograd, Bringing Design to Software, ACM Press, 1996.
4. H.A. Simon, Sciences of the Artificial,
3rd ed., MIT Press, 1996.

5. T. Umesao, “Designers in Information Industry Society,” Anthology ofWorks by Tadao Umesao, C. Koronsha,ed., vol. 14, Information and Civilization, 1970.
6. B.M. Katz, Make It New: The Historyof Silicon Valley Design, MIT Press,
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