OnCUE Journal, 2(2), pp. 133-144

Research Digest
Second Language Teacher Motivation:
An Exploration into Classroom Strategies
Nancy LeeThe University of Tokyo
Abstract
Motivational research has been carried out extensively in the fieldof second language (L2) learning and teaching. However, despite
the popularity of this topic, it has often centered on the students andissues related to the teacher have been overlooked (Dörnyei, 2001b).
Second language teacher motivation can be defined as the teachers’
enthusiasm to teach the second language that has positive influenceson students’ motivation and language learning. Teacher motivation canbe influenced by a combination of intrinsic and extrinsic factors. This
paper introduces four motivational strategies for teachers; improving
student motivation, commitment to the teaching profession, maintaining
positive student relationship, and participating in professional
development. Through investigating the motivational issues of theteacher, it presents an alternative paradigm for understanding second
language and teaching.
SLA分野において動機づけ研究が広く行われている。しかし、これらの研究は学習者に焦点を当て、教える側に関する研究が少ない(Dörnyei,2001b)。教師の動機づけは第二言語を教えるための熱意
Nancy Shzh-chen Lee teaches in the Department of English, College of Arts andScience at the University of Tokyo. She holds an MA in foreign language andeducation from Kyoto University. Her main research interests are student and teacher
motivation. Her other research interests include English academic writing for L2
learners and language policy.
Lee, N. (2008). Second language teacher motivation: An exploration into classroom
strategies. OnCUE Journal, 2(2), 133-144. Copyright © 2008 Nancy Lee. OnCUE
Journal, ISSN 1882-0220, is available at http://jaltcue-sig.org one year after
publication date.

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Lee, “Second Language Teacher Motivation: An Exploration...”であり、学習者の学習動機に大きな影響を与えている。教師の動機づけは内発的な要素や外発的な要素から影響を受けている。教師の動機付けを向上するため、以下の四つのストラテジーが挙げられた：学習者動機づけの向上、仕事への積極的な態度、学生と良い関係の維持や継続的な研修への参加。教師の動機づけ問題を明らかにすることによって、新たな観点から第二言語教育を理解することができると考えられる。

Introduction
Motivation is a widely researched area in second language (L2)learning and teaching relating to learners’ enthusiasm, commitment,
and persistence toward the learning of target languages. Motivation
can be used to explain reasons behind learners’ decisions for learning
the target language, including how successful they will be, and their
willingness to maintain the activity (Dörnyei, 2001a). Therefore, it isconsidered to have an important role in determining the success or
failure of language learning and teaching.
Currently, a lot of motivation research is about the language learners
especially strategies for improving learner motivation. However,
Dörnyei (2001b) argues that no strategies can be employed successfullyin the classroom without the presence of motivated teachers. Teacher
enthusiasm and commitment have been acknowledged to beimportant factors of student learning. However, despite the repeatedacknowledgement, research conducted on teacher motivation has
been limited (Dörnyei, 2001a; Dörnyei, 2001b; Malmberg, 2006).
This paper will examine L2 teacher motivation. First, it conceptualizes
second language teacher motivation. Second, it investigates factors ofteacher motivation and looks at some elements for university teachers.
Third, it defines the teacher and student motivation relationship. Lastly,
it introduces strategies for improving teacher motivation. It is hopedthat this study on teacher motivation will bring new insights to theunderstanding of L2 learning and teaching.

Motivational Theory in Second Language Teaching and
Learning
Motivation is a complex concept, interpreted broadly acrossdifferent fields. In the area of second language learning and teaching,the interpretation of motivation has also varied widely according todifferent theorists. McDonough (1986) defines motivation as the134

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energy and willingness to learn with an interest and enjoyment as wellas incentives and benefits of knowing the language. The following aresome ideas about the role of motivation by other well-acknowledged
theorists, focusing on language learners:
1. “Motivation is probably the most important characteristicthat students bring to a learning task. Motivation, or the will
to learn…” (O’Malley and Chamot, 1990, p. 160).
2. “More highly motivated learners use a significantly greater
range of appropriate strategies than do less motivatedlearners. Motivation is related to language learning
purpose…” (Oxford, 1990, p. 13).
3. “Social context leads to attitudes which appear in thelearner as motivation…” (Spolsky, 1989, p. 28).
4. “Motivation in the present context refers to the combinationof effort plus desire to achieve the goal of learning thelanguage plus favorable attitudes toward learning thelanguage.” (Gardner, 1985, p. 10).
Conceptualizing Second Language Teacher Motivation
According to Dörnyei, second language teacher motivation can be
defined as teachers’ enthusiasm and commitment to teach a second
language (2001b). Teachers are more satisfied if their needs are met, andan increase in satisfaction increases teacher motivation (Frase, 1992).
Teacher motivation can be conceptualized from two perspectives.
First, teaching is one type of human behavior. According to thisperspective, teaching is no more complex than other human behaviors.
Motivation is the reason for engaging in a specific human behavior andit refers to the initiation, direction, intensity, and persistence of such
behaviors. These reasons range from basic needs such as desires forfood or objects, to achieving goals and certain states of minds. The
second perspective refers to teaching as a specific professional activity(Romano, 2006). According to this view, teachers have certain uniquemotivational characteristics which are different from other professions(Dörnyei, 2001b). This paper falls in between the two perspectives.
It perceives teaching to be similar to other human behaviors yet it
also recognizes teaching to be a special activity influenced by needs
specifically related to the teaching profession.

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Lee, “Second Language Teacher Motivation: An Exploration...”Factors of Second Language Teacher Motivation
Teacher motivation can be influenced by a combination of intrinsic
and extrinsic factors (Dörnyei, 2001b; Papanastasiou & Zembylas,2006). Intrinsic factors are closely related to teachers’ work content
whereas extrinsic factors are concerned with contextual factors thatlay between teachers and the work place (Ciani, Summers, & Easter,2007).
Intrinsic factors
Teaching is closely related to intrinsic motivation, including factors
such as achievement, recognition for achievement, work interests,
growth and advancement, and teacher autonomy. Most important ofall, teaching is associated with teachers’ internal desire to educate
people such as imparting knowledge and values. It is believed thatmany teachers join the profession because of their internal desire to
become teachers. For these teachers, intrinsic rewards of teaching area satisfying aspect of their profession. These rewards can be divided
into two categories: (a) rewards from the educational process itself,and (b) rewards from the subject matter ((Dörnyei, 2001b). The
first source of intrinsic motivation relates to teachers’ enjoyment inworking with students. The witnessing of students’ improvement andpositive behavior contributes to the growth of teacher motivation. The
second source relates to teachers’ respect and value of the subject theyteach. For example, university teachers who understand and value theimportance of English are more likely to integrate new information
into their teaching and thereby increase their own level of professional
skills and knowledge.
Intrinsic motivation relates to three basic human needs; autonomy,competence, and relatedness (Deci & Ryan, 1985). To fulfill theseneeds, teachers need to experience class autonomy, a sense ofaccomplishment in teaching as well as feeling connected to thestudents, other teachers and the administration staff. Among these threeneeds, autonomy has been considered to have the strongest influenceon teacher motivation (Benson, 2000). Definitions of autonomous
influences can be categorized into three groups. First, autonomy
allows teachers the “freedom of control from others” (Benson, 2000).
Second, it provides opportunities for teachers “to engage in selfdirected teaching” (Little, 1995). Third, autonomy allows teachers theopportunity to be engaged in self-directed professional development.
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Teachers need to be involved in lifelong learning to feel confident andcompetent about their profession. This third interpretation of teacher
motivation concerning professional development will be discussed
later in the strategies section of this paper.
Teachers become intrinsically motivated when they have thecapacity, freedom, and responsibility to make choices for their own
teaching (Aoki, 1999). The more teachers perceive themselves tobe autonomous in the classroom, the more motivated they become(Benson, 2000). Autonomy encourages teachers to be in a continual
state of discovery to find better solutions to answer questions andsolve problems regarding teaching. Competent teachers tend to be
more intrinsically motivated about teaching. Conversely, intrinsic
motivation also increases teachers’ needs for wanting to becomecompetent. Motivated teachers are more likely to spend time on
professional development and consequently become more competentand motivated as they pursue this aim. Additionally, teachers needto feel they are a part of the school community. For example, native
English-speaking teachers in Japan may face certain barriers such ascommunicating with the administration or attending faculty meetings
due to a lack of Japanese ability.
Extrinsic factors
Regardless of how intrinsically motivated teachers are, their feelings
toward teaching are likely to change by their physical and social
surroundings. Contextual influences can be divided into two categories:(a) macro-contextual influences, and (b) micro-contextual influences(Dörnyei, 2001b). Macro influences are related to all members ofsociety. They range from parents to politicians, and also people on thestreets. On the other hand, micro influences are teacher specific andrelate to the physical teaching environment. Some micro influences
are listed below:
1. School’s general climate and norms
2. Class size, resources and facilities
3. Collegial relations
4. Definition of the teacher’s role by other teachers andauthorities
5. General expectations regarding students’ potential
6. School’s reward and feedback system
7. School’s leadership and decision-making structure(Dörnyei, 2001b, p. 161)
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Lee, “Second Language Teacher Motivation: An Exploration...”Teacher motivation can also be influenced by institutional policies.
It is believed that teachers become more motivated when they agreewith policies of their university. For example, at universities where thecurriculum focus is on the enhancement of students’ TOEIC scores,
teachers have a higher tendency to become frustrated if they perceive
their curriculum focus to be different than that of the university
administration. Therefore, too many university policies can stymie theintrinsic motivation of teachers (Dörynei, 2001b).
The relationship between administration personnel and teachers also
influences teacher motivation. Teachers become more motivated when
they find their working climate to be more positive and supportive.
Positive collegial relationship is another determining factor of teacher
motivation (Henson, 2001). Collegial collaboration allows teachers
more opportunity to interact with other teachers, to communicativesocially and academically. It reduces isolation and increases
professional satisfaction.
The working condition factors include both physical and psychologicalelements. Teachers become motivated if they can work in a safe andcomfortable physical environment. For example, the provision ofa private research room or lounges provides a comfortable working
environment for teachers. From the psychological aspect, teachers
can become unmotivated because of inadequate career support. For
example, many current native English-speaking university lecturers are
employed on fixed-term contracts with limited promotion and selfadvancement opportunities. English (1992) further argues that teachers
become motivated if they work under desirable financial conditions.
However, as Frase (1992) reported, financial compensation has beena debatable issue in teacher motivation. An increase in salary does notnecessarily lead to an increase in teacher motivation. Rather, Frase andEnglish both argue that teacher motivation is the result of a combinationof these factors.

Teacher Motivation in Change
Teacher motivation can change over time as teachers mature anddevelop (English, 1992). Therefore, motivational factors also change
accordingly throughout different stages of teachers’ professional
careers. According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (1954), there are fivedegrees of human needs: physiology, safety, the social aspect of loveand belonging, self-esteem, and self-actualization. The first four levels
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are called deficiency needs and are associated with extrinsic factors or
lower level intrinsic factors. The last level is a growth need associatedwith intrinsic psychological needs. Teachers’ lower level needs must
be met first before their higher level needs are fulfilled. As teachers
mature, they become less responsive to lower level deficiency needs
and more responsive to intrinsic psychological motivators (English,1992).
The Teacher-Student Motivational Relationship
Teacher motivation influences student motivation and vice versa(Malmberg, 2006). Therefore, teachers need to motivate themselvesin order to motivate and receive similar positive influences from theirstudents. Teachers also become intrinsically motivated when they canwitness the improvement of their students’ English learning. From seeing
students’ improvement, teachers become more satisfied and confident
in their teaching. According to Dörynei’s survey on language teachers(2001a), teachers believe their own behaviors to be the most important
motivational tool for students. For second language teachers, it is vitalfor them to be enthusiastic toward the target language and also possess
the ability to demonstrate their enthusiasm to students to help increase
their motivational level. Furthermore, teachers need to identify andshare with students their reasons for being interested in L2 acquisition.
Teachers need to express their feelings toward the importance of L2
learning by demonstrating the practical usages of English. This can bedone by using authentic teaching materials in class, introducing upto-date world news and topics, and encouraging cultural exchanges ofstudents with students from other countries.
The teacher-student motivational relationship can be analyzed under
the following three headings: (a) enthusiasm, b) commitments andexpectations, and c) student relationship (Dörnyei, 2001b). Students
can usually discern if their teachers are passionate about their teaching.
Therefore, if a language teacher does not like his/her job, students arelikely to sense this feeling and can be affected by their unmotivatedteachers. Teachers need to have reasonable yet high expectations of
their students (Dörnyei, 2001a). Students perform better and become
more motivated when they are expected to do so. This cause and effectrelationship is called the “Pygmalion effect” or the “teacher-expectancy
effect” (Dörnyei, 2001a, p. 35). However, these expectations need tobe moderate and individualized. It is important for teachers to have139

Lee, “Second Language Teacher Motivation: An Exploration...”a good relationship with students. English teachers who succeed inestablishing relationships of trust and respect are more likely to inspire
their students in academic matters. Ideal teachers are ones who areeasy to talk to and approachable. They need to show a professional
attitude and win student respect by being knowledgeable about English
learning and teaching.
L2 Teacher Motivation Strategies
Teachers become unmotivated when they are frustrated, disaffected
or simply not interested in teaching. According to Dörnyei (2001b),
this can be the result of (a) a stressful working environment, (b) limited
autonomy due to set curricula and institutional constraints, and (c)insufficient self-efficacy due to inappropriate training. Dörnyei (2001b)calls for the attention of teacher motivation on the improvement oflanguage teaching. According to Dörnyei, effective motivational
strategies for language teachers are: (a) improving student motivation,(b) increasing teacher commitment, (c) maintaining trustworthy andpositive student relationships, and (d) participating in professional
development (2001b).
Improving Student Motivation through Teacher Commitment
Student motivation is the primary incentive for teacher enthusiasm.
As discussed in the above sections, teacher motivation and student
motivation are highly intertwined. Teachers should encourage students’motivation in order to receive similar positive influences. There is awide range of literature on student motivational strategies. However,those strategies will not be discussed in this paper.
Student motivation can also be improved by teacher commitment.
Teachers need to express commitment toward student learning by
utilizing strategies that make for successful teaching such as:
1. Offering concrete assistance
2. Offering to meet students individually to explain things
3. Responding immediately if help is requested
4. Correcting tests and papers promptly,
5. Sending learners copies of relevant interesting articles
6. Arranging extracurricular opportunities
7. Encouraging extra assignments
8. Showing concerns when things are not going well(Dörnyei, 2001b)
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However, it becomes more difficult for teachers who do not see theirstudents regularly outside class time to demonstrate their commitment.
Teachers need to assure their students that teachers are approachable
both inside and outside of the classrooms.
Maintaining Positive and Trustworthy Student Relationships
Maintaining a positive relationship with students is another strategy
for teachers to improve motivation. For teachers to maintain thisrelationship, they need to have: (a) acceptance toward their students,(b) ability to listen and pay attention and (c) availability for personal
contacts and consultations (Dörnyei, 2001b). Teachers need to accept
students’ differences. For example, freshmen students entering university
have different English learning backgrounds along with different
levels of English abilities. Teachers need to accept this difference andincorporate it into lesson planning.
Teachers also need to have the ability to listen when students haveproblems or questions. This listening ability should not be language
dependent: Both native and non-native teachers need to create
interactive classroom environments where students feel comfortable toapproach their lecturers. Teachers need to pay attention to students andchanges in the classroom by observing students weekly and keeping
teaching logs. After-class student consultation is also important for
maintaining positive teacher-student relationships. Teachers need to
set up consultation times and provide students with contact details.
However, teachers need to avoid a relationship that may turn into an
over-personal one.

Teacher Professional Development
Sometimes the best motivational strategy is simply for teachers to
improve their quality of teaching (Dörnyei, 2001a). There are two
important reasons for teacher professional development. First, student
motivation decreases if instructors have limited subject knowledge
and skills or use unclear instructions. A decrease in student motivation
subsequently results in a decrease of teacher motivation. Therefore,
it is important for teachers to participate in continuous professional
development. Second, professional development increases teacher
motivation because it helps teachers feel competent about themselves
and their work (Malmberg, 2006).
Richards (1998) stressed professional development as the fundamental
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Lee, “Second Language Teacher Motivation: An Exploration...”issue in second language learning and teaching. However, there is no
general consensus on what knowledge, skills or concepts should be
included in professional development programs for language teachers.
Different programs are influenced by different institutional policies.They canalso be influenced by teaching theories such as the behaviorist, cognitivedevelopmental, information-processing or the social-psychologicaltheories and implement different content accordingly. This is especially true
for universities in Japan as there are no shared policies on developmental
programs for teachers. Universities can encourage their teachers toward
lifelong learning by providing research fund reimbursements for joining
academic societies and promotion opportunities. Some universities
such as the University of Queensland offer professional developmentin the form of in-house developmental programs for their teaching staff(http://www.tedi.uq.edu.au/sdh/index.asp). These programs range fromintroducing new teachers to university teaching, to the improvementof teaching strategies and promotion opportunities. Programs for newteachers at University of Queensland cover principles of student learningand provide student support strategies in a range of contexts. Some of the
topics offered in the new teacher programs are: (a) the design of learning
activities, (b) support and feedback on learning progress, (c) preparing
students for assessment, (d) assessing student learning, and (e) evaluationof teaching effectiveness. Best of all, the participation in developmental
programs for university teachers is usually voluntary.

Conclusion
Teacher motivation is an important area of second language learningand teaching. It is the enthusiasm and commitment for language teachers
to teach the target language. Due to close teacher-student relationships,
positive teacher motivation encourages students’ motivation and theirsecond language learning. Teacher level of enthusiasm can be shapedby a combination of intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Among the different
intrinsic factors, teacher autonomy is predominant. It allows teachers thecapacity and responsibility to make choices and stimulates teachers to
improve themselves by looking for solutions to questions and problems.
This paper introduced four strategies for improving teacher motivation:(a) improving student motivation, (b) increasing teacher commitment,(c) maintaining positive student relationships, and (d) participating incontinuous professional development. The improvement of student
motivation is the most direct strategy for teachers because teacher
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motivation and student motivation are often intertwined. For example,
higher teacher motivation improves student motivation. Consequently,
improved student motivation can increase teacher motivation and thisrelationship continues in a cyclic process. Student motivation can beachieved by teachers expressing a higher level of commitment to students
such as: (a) offering concrete assistance and individual consultations,(b) responding and giving immediate feedbacks (c) providing additional
learning opportunities, and (d) showing concerns toward students.
Teachers can maintain positive relationships with students by accepting
their differences and being readily available for contact when necessary.
Professional development is the last yet most effective strategy discussed
in this paper. It develops teachers’ skills and knowledge for the classroom
as well as encourages teachers to become competent and motivated intheir profession.
There are several shortcomings in this paper. Firstly, a discussion
about the disparity between teacher and institutional perceptions and its
influences on teacher motivation was neglected. Secondly, a further inquiry
into the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic teacher motivation wasneeded to expand the discussion of teacher motivation. Lastly, a separate
examination of strategies for improving intrinsic and extrinsic teacher
motivation was not achieved. In order to grasp a clearer picture of howteacher motivation can be improved for the area of language learningand teaching, the author intends to examine the above three topics in thenext stage of her research. It is believed that an improvement in teacher
motivation will improve the teaching and learning of second language.
Students would be able to engage in better language learning experiences
and be benefited from the improvement of their teachers.

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