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Volume 7, lssue 2

Feature Article I
Theory into Practice: How Can We Apply Automaticity Theory to theEnglish Language Curriculum?
Fumiko Yoshimura
Kyushu Institute of Information Sciences
Introduction
Currently the emphasis of language instruction has beenshifting from one of knowledge acquisition to that ofcommunicative usage. One of the most typical dilemmas
English instructors face, however, is that even if we giveour students significant amounts of time in the classroom
to use English in communicative activities, they still do
not acquire the proficiency levels we might expect tojustiff such activities. What might be missing in theprocess of our instruction and practice activities?
In tryrng to answer this questiorq in this article I will
introduce the concept of automaticity theory and explain
how we can apply the theory to actual English language
courses in institutional settings in Japan. This application, I contend, can help to ensure that our language
leamers can coordinate individual skills in more complex
tasks. The importance of incorporating integrative tasks
and true proficiency tests in the curriculum will be
stressed.

Automaticity Theory
Automaticity theory attempts to explain how peopleacquire skills as a function of the automacity of theoperating processes. Schneiderand Fisk (1933) explain
the mechanisms of skill acquisition in terms of contrasting
automatic and controlled types of cognitive and memory
processing:Automatic processing is a fast, parallel, fairly
effortless process which is not limited by short-term
memory capaclty, is not under direct subject control,
and performs welldeveloped skilled behaviors.
Automatic processing typically develops whensubjects deal with the stimulus consistently overmany trials....Controlled processing is characterized
as a slow, generally serial, effortful, capaclty
limited, subject controlled processing mode thatmust be used to deal \Mith novel or inconsistent
information. (p. 120)
Schneider and Fisk (1983) show how practice changes

controlled processing into automatic processing. According to them, automatic productions are modular and willdevelop when the component proc€sses are consistent.
This modular procesing system can be hierarchical, withthe same module being one part of many different skills.
The assumption is that there is an upper limit to humanattention span. Practice, however, can make automatic
productions relatively free of limited memory resources;
thus there is no necessary limit to the number of automatic processes which can be active at the same time.
Moreover, practice makes productions autonomous,
reducing direct conscious control ofthe subject. This is a
crucial poirit on which it can be said that good and poor
learners divide. Automaticity which has been acquired inthis way makes it possible to process different stimuli atdifferent stages simultaneously, as in a complex production line.

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ON CUE_ .:t .

stick it out with some practice tasks until stages ofautomaticity have been reached. After practicing distinct
skills until a fluency with them has been reached, learners
then need to practice them in more integrative, less framed
tasks. In so doing they will also learn how to balance
their attention span; their cognitive and memory resourc€scan be more efficiently shared out to t}re various integrated parts of increasingly complex tasks.

Taking this into consideration, we need to restructure thewhole curriculum to incorporate language training
adapted to the ixsociative stage of Anderson's (1995)
model. Figure 2 above demonstrates a model of structur- ing the formal language curriculum with an application of
the theory of automaticity

First in creating a curriculum, the goals of our instructionneeds to be defined. This means that we need to define&e characteristics of spontaneous communication which
is at the autonomous stage of language acquisition.
Secondly, what is involved in spontaneous communication
should be analyzed and broken into its distinct elements.
Each element should be taught so that learners canunderstand it and have enough opportunities to practice it
until they can use it without alotting conscious effort.

Employing communicative games and activities are good
because they are fun and create situations where meaningis negotiated and exchanged. The true challenge for
language instructors, however, is how to orchestrate theneeds at different levels and come up with a curriculum
which helps learners to develop automaticity graduallyand sy'stematically. This includes filling the discrepancy
bstween the overall goal of a language course and thegoals of the individual lessons.
In developing a motor skill such as driving or playing
sports, the most emphasized stage is not during but after
individual items or activities are practiced. After learning
basic skills, practice is given for larger units composed ol
the smaller isolated skills already leamed. The units ofpractice get larger and larger until leamers attain the goalof proficiency. ln language learning, incorporating
integrative tasks is important because it gives learners
opportunities to use distinct skills in less-framed, more
complex tasks. Showing a clear goal is important as wellin order to motivate learners to practice the same underlying skills over and over. The next section introduces alanguage curriculum w,hich sucessfrrlly incorporates thetheory of automaticity.

Applyrng Automaticity Theory to LT and LL:
A Case Study
I participated in the following process in curriculum
development when I wirs an instructor of JFL at an
American university. Every time the JFL curriculum was
re-evaluated and revised, il was done by starting with goal
setting-that is, what it was felt that students needed to beable to do at the end of each quarter. For example, in thevery first quarter, the goal was to be able to introduce
themselves and talk about their lives briefly. In thesecond quarter, the goal was to be able to talk about theirfriends. In the third quarter, the goal was to be able todescribe different places. The main goal was then broken
into sub-goals and projected into individual lesson plans.
Another important aspect was finding the right methods tomeasure ifthe desired goal had been attained by thestudents.

The overall structure of the courses was as follows: In thefirst year, each grammar point was introduced individually. A brief explanation was presented and students were
given opporfunities to use the point in classroom activities. The rationale was that it is very important to Iearn
basic structures well eno'lgh to create building blocks towhich other structures can be added, thereby creating ausable store of Japanese language in the minds of thelearners. This initial empbasis ongramnrar points,
however, shifted to an ryhasis on the content of communication as the levels went up. Thus, class activities

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Volume 7, lssue 2

ON GUEtures in the questions. After receiving feedback from the
instructor, students were asked to re'organize their lists ofquestions based on a likely, imagined flow of conversa-tion. They then practicde asking and answering thequestions until they had acquired a natural speed andproficiency.

(2) Next, students used their questions to interview
students who were native Japanese speakers. In theinterview, students had opportunities to use the language
they had studied for communicative purposes. Because

the language elements were already prepared and practiced well enough, they could allocate more attention andmental resourc€s to the content of the conversation andeven experience the enjoyrnent of real communication.

(3) The sets of questions were practiced still further inorder to prepare for the oral proficiency tests. Learners
practiced these questions first on their ou'n and thenpracticed them with:N nuny partners as possible in aclass. In practicing with different classmates, students
learned how to modiry whatthey had prepared dependingon the par[re/s particular response. They also leamed
skills to keep the conversation going. Difficulties in
csrrying on coversations during the practice motivatedstudents to practice Japanese even further.
(a) Based onthe interviews they had had with the native
speaker of Japanese, students were asked to write acomposition. Students wrote two or three drafts per
paper otr average. For each draft, instructors gave
feedback about the content the language. Because thesyntactic complexity and the variety of sentence structure
were already controlled at the time the questions were
wTifien and checked instructors were more concerned
wi& the appropriateness of the language use at this stage.
Typically, instructors underlined the mistakes andexplained the kind of mistakes that had been made-such
as particle, word choice, verb fonrg etc. It was ttre
stude,nt's responsibiliry* to figure out how to correct the
mistakes they had made based on the hints they hadreceived from their instructor.

(5) Sometimes students were asked to present theircompositions to their classmates.
Other Activities
Other extracurricular activities such as the Conversation

Hour, the Convenation Parhrer Program, the JapaneseStudy Abroad Program, etc., contributed to the creationof an environment conducive for students to use thelanguage they had leamed. With the Conversation Hour
actMty, students got the opportunities to chat with native
speakers of Japanese in a more relaxed aunosphere.
Through the Conversation Parhrer Program, students met
their Japanese conversation parhrer on a one-to-one basis.
Students experienced studyt"g Japanese language andculture in Japan through the Japanese Study Abroad
Program.

Thus, in this JFL progranL much emphasis was placed on
supporting and developing the associative stage which
precedes true autonomy. The curriculum was structured
so that students could gradually shift from isolated items
to true communication. At the heart of the curriculum, it
is worth restating, lay the integrative tasks and oral
proficiency tests.
Conclusion
Automaticity theory and how to apply it to the development of a FL curriculum have been introduc€d. The caseof a JFL curriculum rvhich I experienced at an American
university demonstrates how to apply the theory to realsituations. There are two crucial elements needed to fill
the discrepancy between the goal of mastery and the
beginning level of highly structured activities that practiceisolated skills. These elements are (1) the use of less.
frune4 integrative tasks and (2) the oral proficiency
tests. Employing communicative activities for individual
skills at low proficiency levels does not guarartee leamers
will go on to synthesize the orchestration of skills needed
for more varie{ complex tasks. Automaticrty theoryshows us the importance of training at the associative
stage and gives insights about instructional procedure.
References
Anderson" J.R. (1995). Developing Expertise. In J.R.
Anderson @.), Cognitive psychologt and its implicafions (4th ed.) $tp.272-304). New York: W.H.
Freeman.

&Schnneider, W.
Fish A.D. (1983). Attentional theory
and mechanisms for skilled performance. In RA.
Magtll (EA.), Memory and control of action (pp. I 19143). New York: North-Holland.

Whitaker, H.. (1983). Towards a brain model ofautomatization: A short essay. In R.A. Magiil (Ed.),
Memory and control of action $ry. D4Al4). New
York: North- Holland.

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Z ansslVolume 7, lssue 2

ON CUEc) Items that they tend to confi.rse or make mistakes upon
Pre-lDuring taslc:

Post-task:

Rared #l(0); Rated #4(11) Ratd #1(3) ; Rated #4(1)d) Items that will help the leamers complete the lessontask more efficientlv
Pre-/During task:
Rated #1(5); Rated

Post-task#4(a) Rated #L(7) ; Rated #4(0)Q4. What kind of vocabulary-based tasks or activities doyou do most?
a) None. I use it mainly to help students complete thetaslc/understand a text

Pre-/During task (9)Post-task: (0)b) Items are notated by students and used in future vocab.
quizzes

PrelDuring task (5)Post-task (3)c) Regular recycling of items both productively andpassively in future activities and texts
PrelDuring task: (2)Post-task: (6)Patterns Revealed
These responses clearly indicate that those teachers who

introduce vocabulary items primarily before doing a task
tend to a) have less total lesson time taken up rvith

vocabulary work, b) highlight mainly those items expected to be'unkno$n'to learners and, c) do fewer

follow-up tasks. What this seems to indicate is that those
who tpnd to pre-teach vocabulary treat it primarily as an
aid to completing a task such that vocabulary learning
becomes subjugated to that task, an instrument tor+,ards amore immediate pedagogical end. As a result, it is not
surprisrng ttrat the pre-teaching of vocabulary may end up

providing little more than meaning pegs for'unknownbr'difficult' items, translations or brief explanations ofwhich are expected to allow learners to succeed incompleting the task.
When pre-teaching vocabulary, Ianguage items are
generally decontextualized. This means that lexicallylight'function'items plus those that serve textual or interper_
sonal purposes are often ignored in favor of lexicallydense words, since their meanings tend to be more
discrete
and isolatable even when divorced from context. At thispoint, one may start to wonder if such decontextualized
0eaching may be a main causeof common lexical errors made by Japanese learners ofEnglisb given ttre widespread problem of over+xtension
due to use of a decoding methodology alone (such as oneto-one translations from L2 to Ll).
In this questionable paradigm, the utility of vocabulary
study is based upon a search for word meanings, notlexical usage. Little thought is thus given to the long-term
utility or range of items, the focus instead being placedheavily upon semantic or paradigmatic properties (often
closely related to'dictionary meanings'). As a result it
appears that learner interaction with such items appears
to be limited to an Ll translation and, perhaps, aneventual list-type notation in a student notebook.
Moreover, learners are apt to become passive participantsin the acquisition process of tlese items as the teacher has
chosen them" given them their 'canonical' interpretations
and provided their immediate utility, often a formulaic
insertion of a translation into a text. f,earners interact
with these items only in as much as they will soon comeacross them in the text and apply a translation formula asa me:ms to completing the task. Beyond task completion,
there is little or no motivation for leamers to retain these
items in a more general or holistic marmer. And even if
they do happen to retain tlem, items of little utility or
range but great lexical density may well be given undue
weight in the leamer's lexicon.
On the other hand, those teachers who focused upon posttask vocabulary tedching display'ed a much greater senseof stimulating or challenging the leamers'holistic language system. By encountering the items initially within atext, Iearners become more aware of how these items
function within text, context providing hing not only formeaning but also for usage. By negotiating these items not
merely as translated dictionary headwords, but as'organisms' within some living, meaningfirl discourse,
learners develop a deeper understanding about the wider
properties of an item, not merely a'meaning'. If we accept
that a language item can generally be understood more
fully when a context has been provided, it makes more
sense to allow leamers to negotiate the items in context bythemselves before providing any decodings. In this sense,
in post-task teaching, learners are encoding themselveswith the item's lexical properties before the teacher refines
this understanding with a decoding strategy.
Post-task teaching advocates were also clearly aware thatvocabulary leaming cannot and should not be limited tothe mere translation of words. For learners to truly
understand an item (as opposed to merely recognizing

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Volume 7, lssue 2

ON CUE

Special Feature
A Videotaped Discourse Analysis Approach to Teaching
I ntercultural Com m un ication
Susan Steinbach[.Iniversity of California - Davis
Several well-known simulations such as BARNGA ot
BaFa BaFa offer participants a chance to step intoanother world, to be confronted by confirsion or conflict,
to lose a sense of homebase or internalized rules, and tonegotiate meaning with'others who hold different values.

Introduction
Mary approaches can be used in teaching interculturalcommunication as a content course. I propose doing sothrough the lens of discourse analysis and through thelens of a video camera.

Discourse Analysis and the Camera's Eye
Let's begin with discourse analysis. One of the corefeatures of any cultural study is the pattern of communication used within that culture. These patterns manifest
themselves in sociolinguistic features such as tum taking,intemrpting, pausing, back channeling, hesitating,overlapping, and changes of topic. To capture these
distinguishing traits in an authentic way, the use of thecamera or the audiotape is paramount. A teacher ciur use
a filmed or an audiotaped conversation to illustrate andisolate discret€ discourse functions such as back channelulg

Keying In on Discourse Features

This experiential process is tremendously enhanced by theuse of videotaping rvhich affords the facilitator concrete
points ofreference during the debriefing process. Students
who watch theirtehavior on video after such a simulation
are able to make profound connections about the ways
they see the world. They are able to see "outside of thebox" or outside of the culture in which they have been
operating. This is the moment of "ah-hah!"-type revelation
caught on videotape.
For example, after conducting the BARNGA simulation (acard game) with an ESL class of mixed intemational
students, I asked them to write down a list of the emotions
they felt during the game. Then they wrote down a list of
coping techniques they used to survive the game. On the
day following the simulatioq the students viewed themselves on videotape with great interes! laughter andsurprise. They were able to add more items to the lists
they had written the day before and talk about what
happened to them.

ln Japanese, frequent back channeling (called aizuchi) is a
critical function in maintaining a conversation through theuse of appropriate sounds, syllables, words, or phrases in
response to anotlrcr speaker. The same is true in English
wttich uses phrases like "[ see," "Go orq" 'You're kidding!* and *uh-huh" to maintain the smooth flow in a
The lists of emotions included: confusion, anger, irritaconversation. Teaching such skills to language learners
tion, uncertainty, resignation, amusement, and so on. The
begins with keen observation of video or audioexamples
list of coping skills included items such as: patience,of authentic speech, then mimicking or recre€fing thesesurrendering, insisteirce on one's opinion, inventing newmodeled forms on their own. A Japanese student ofrules, hitting others, seeking out an authority or a referee
English would not sound tremendously skilled in converto intervene, persuading others, laughing nervously, andsations with native speakers of English ifthey could not
so on. It's one thing to experience these emotions firsthandinclude some level of back channeling. Likewise, thein a simulation and another to watch oneself coping withreverse is true for a'gaijin'leaming Japanese.
these emotions a day later. The power of the camera in theclassroom: What a tremendous teaching tool!
The ability to key in on discrete firnctions in discourse canbe amplified by the use of the video camera. Students canReferences
watch a playback of authentic speech sevenal times to
BARNGA: A simulation game on calnral clashes,familiarize themselves with discourse patterns, then even(manual: Barbara Steinwachs, game design: Sivasailam
reenact the scene.The video camera can also be used as a
Thiagarajan), Yarmout[ Maine: Intercultural Press,
key tool to selflinsight in experiential learning in
field
the

of intercultural communication.

l.oCastro, Virginia. (1987). Aizuchi: A Japanese conversational routine. Discourse Across Cultures, d, by Larry
E. Smith. (Pp. l0l-113). New york prentice llall.
10

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3nc Nozansq'leunp^

ON CUE

Volume 7, lssue 2

designed for other purposes. This often results in any or

all ofthe following:- Little or no open floor space, making many potential

activities physically impossible. In some of t}e classrooms where I teach part-time classes, there is so little
room that it is not possible for the teacher to move aroundthe room to see what the students are doing. This meansthat there can be absolutely no individual feedback on
activities from the teacher.

- Seats and desks are often fixed to the floor, making it
difficult or impossible to use small group activities.
Frequently, there are long, narrow desks seating tlree orfour students.
- The furniture in the room can not be rearranged because

in preparation for the college entrance exams and will
have little, if any, effect on the students ability to actually
use the language or understand rt. (Mitors' Note: thelow hour totals for classroom study given by Mr.
Adomson dffirfrom bothMonbusho's own much higher

fgures and the similarly higherfndings of many otherresearchers in the feld).
- College students (non-English majors) will usually haveless than 150 hours of English classes during their four

years. The Opical student will then have had between 750

and 1350 hours ofEnglish study, the exact figure depending on their enrollment in juku classes and private
lessons.

This figure is actually misleadingly large. Most of thisother teachers complain about the noise.

class time will have been spent listening to a teacher- Often lectures being given in Japanese in other rooms

improving scores on the college entrance tests. One study

lecture in Japanese and much ofthe work will be aimed at

can be clearly hear4 causing students to have problems

at a famous Japanese university showed that the sfudents
actually lost English ability during their required coruse.
In order to evaluate this study time and put it inCI proper

hearing and concentrating on English.
- Posters and othsr materials can not be placed in theroong making the use of peripheral learning methods
impossible.

perspective, it must be compared with the figure of 5000
hours which is ofteir cited as the time needed to master alanguage. Even accepting the figures at face value, the- Students must remain in the classroom throughout theq/pical student will have studied less than one quart€r of
the time required for mastery.

scheduled class period, preventing them from practicing
the use ofthe language outside the classroom (a psycho-(7) Assumption that any native speaker is qualified to belogical necessity for optimal language acquisition).

a teacher.

(6) Insufficient time devoted to language study.

There is little to say about this other than that it is wrong.
The questions should be, What will the teacher candidates(a) Frequency ofclasses:

do in the classroom? What methodologies are they able toapply? What beliefs do they hold about language learningand teaching in general? How well will thev mesh with theother faculty'members? Will they cooperate with theCollege-level classes seldom exceed three 90-minuteclasses a week. My research has shown that less ttran
about 4 hours per week of classes is unlikely to result in
student progress. Therefore, the average student's
progress is likely to be direcfly related to the amountofcurriculum?

out-of-class studythat is done. (See discussion of
shrdents'attitudes toward ,enshu' classes in point (1)(a)above.)(8) Poor quality information to administrators anddecision makers.

O) Total time allotted to language study:

Administrators and decision makers generally have such a
low level of understanding about language teaching ttrat
they are unable be separate the comments of trained
professional teachers from those of unqualified individu_als (often unqualified native speakers). They frqquently- Drring their six years ofjunior and senior highschool,students have about 100 hours of English a year foratotal ofabout 600 hours (note that here, too, ttre effect of
the classes is reducd because of large class size,
focus
on gfiurunar translation, and the minimal amountof
English that is used in many classes). During this period
Inany students spend an additional 2 or 3 hours
a week atl prep school (uLu) studying English for another 100
hours or so a ysr, but these clasies usually focus
onmemoriei4g obscure, and often incorrect, individual
items

determine which information CI believe on tirc basis of

personal relations with the individual. This frequently

pylts in the acceptance of wrong or poor quali6,
information for program evaluafion, whichexacerbates
the other problems.

12

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3n9 NOZ anssl ,!Z aunlo^

Volume 7, lssue 2

ON CUE(b) Equipment:
F4uipment such as LLs are frequently purchased by theadministration for advertising purposes with little thought
as to how they would be used or how their use would
affect the curriculum. The features on such equipment areoften selected purely on the recommendation of the
manufacturers and salespeople/consultants, again withlittle or consideration of its actual use. Another problem
that often arises is that, after equipment with a specificnumber of seats is installed, class size is increased beyond
capacity.

(c) Lack of maintenance:
There is a surprising lack of maintenance, particularly
preventive maintenance. Students are ofte:t allowed free,unsupervised acc€ss to buildings and equipment. Repairs
and maintenance are not considered until things stopogy. Howwer, their fluency and frctual cultural knowledge contribute to the decision makers acceptance oftheirviews on language education. The administrators do notrealizethat such people are frequently people who learned
the language in spite of the system, not because of it.

Conclusion

If we consider the above list (plus many other factors thatsomeone might wish to add), we u'ill soon come to theconclusionthat most ofthese problems do not seem
inevitable or insolvable. The question arises as to why thesituation has not been corrected. I believe that the answers
lie in many of the same factors that limit the effectivenessof language programs.

While conditions obviously differ from school to school,
one of ttre key factors seems to be tlrat administrators do
not listen to the experienced teachers who have theanswers. One reason this group of professional teachersfunctioning.

has not been able to establish its credibility is that they(d) Equipment incompatibilitl' :are forced by short t€rm contracts to move frequently,
never having sufficient time to build improved prograrns.

Because procurement is done by differeirt groups atdifferent times (usually not involving the users, at least
not a useful level), new equipment is often incompatible
with older equipment.

Another re:xon is that their own suc,cess is limited by thefactors listed above; their results are better but not
sufficiently so that the administrators will change theirtendency to simply listen to the people that they are
comfortable with. I might add that many of these untrained, inexperienced people, for reasons of their own,
claim to be knowledgeable and offer solutions thatfrequently mesh well with the faolty presuppositions ofunrvitting administrators.

(12) t ack ofa stable, fixed yearly schedule.
Most university administrations do not seem to appreciate
the need for fixing the schedule so that content can bescheduled on a rational basis. Frequently classes arecancelled with no warning Many teachers eventually grve

up trying to prepare an integrated, comprehensive plan forthe semester's lessons, greatly reducing the effectivenessof their classes.

(13) Poor lapanese language ability.

In closing, I offer the pessimistic view that the situation isunlikely to change in the near future. There arc too manystrong factors supporting the status quo. Sometime inthe
next c€ntury there will be a general revision in the entire
idea of college education and, hopefully, language classes
will change along with the university. There is, however,
one r:ry of hope. According to a Japanese TV news
broadcast, carpentry is now the most popular futureoccupation for students surveyed in grades one tlrroughtwelve. It is possible that shocking news such as thisabout student expectations in the educational system maybe the impetus for changes that will come sooner rather
than later.

- Most professional teachers have made a commifinent toteaching, not to living in a particular country or learning a
specific language. These teachers frequently move fromcountry to country. For many, the short term contracts
offered in Japan, accelerate this process. Thus manyteachers do not acquire speaking or listening skills infapanese, let alone reading and writing ability. Thismeans that these teachers frequently have communication
problems when dealing with decision makers. AIso crosscultural differences in views on what constitutes a goodeducation further exacerbate the misunderstandings.

Note: Mr. Adamson brings up a variety of interesting
points with regards to this very controversial, and very
impoltant, issue. Other considerations which Mr.
Adamson does not touch upon are questions about thetraining (including induction and professional development) received and methodologt used by the majority ofJapanese teachers of English (who, in turn, are respon-- At the college level, the untrained, inexperienced
teachers frequently are people who have made an
educational commitnent to Japan. They have studied thelanguage and society of Japan" not FL teaching methodol-

14

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3NO NOz ansq 'l aunlo^

Volume 7, lssue 2

ON CUE

Pros and Cons of the Activity
First and foremost, the activity gets the students speaking
right away. It has enough structure tlrat ttre shrdents
wont be intimidate{ but it also has urough flexibility toallow shrdents to express themselves and interact' Rather
than a simple transactional exchange of information, thequestions allow the students to €Nryage in meaningfulinteractional conversation. In additiorL the question sheets
allow students to practice all four language skills:
listening, speaking, readhg and writing. The sheets also
work very well as a lead-in to the rest of the lesson for theday. If you are working with a grammar+ased curriculum and you ire planning to teach indirect question
formation in your lesson, give the students a pair question
activity with indirect questions and introduce the concept
to them inductively before proceeding to the main part or
the lesson. This way, vihen you get into the explanation of
the grammar, they will have already encountered the forrt
and will have used it in real communication.

effective. If the questions are interesting and entertaining,
the activity can not only be effective pedagogically' but
also quite enjoyable.
References

Brown, G. & Yule, G. (1983). Teaching the spolcen
language: An approach based on the analysis ofcowersational English. Canrbridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Nunan, D., & Lamb, C. (1996). The self-directedteacher. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

t
I

Pica, T., Lincoln-Porter, F., Paninos, D., & Linnell, J.
(1996). L,anguage learners' interaction: How does it
address the input, outpu! and feedback needs oflanguage learners? TESO L Quarte rly, 30( I ), 5 9-84.

Richards, J. (1990). The language teaching matrix.
Cambridge: Canrbridge University Press.

Appendix: A sample set of questions sheets on thegrammar point "have you ever...?

On the other hand, if you are worki4g with a cont€ntbased curriculum,.these sheets ctm serve as an introductim to a content area. If your syllabus contains a unit on

the envirmment shests that contain questions about the- environment c€m serve as a lead-in to the main part of thePartner A

lesson. A fi"at beirefit of using pair question sheets istlut the sheets themselves are quite easy to produce. It
doesnt take long to type up ten questions and print themout on two sheets of paper.

Flave you ever ...?

Onthe minus side, there are certainly some shrde,nts who
feel stange speaking with their peers in a language
than theirThis may lead to very short answers (sbrtinteractional exchanges only), and consequently lessinteraction inthe TL, or in some cases responses infu

- Past tense- Past participle
travel traveled traveled -> Flave vou ever traveled toLl.

In English, when we use the expression "have you
ever...?" we use the past participle form of the verb. For
example, for "travel" and "seo":
Present te,nse

dbrEurope?
see saw seenLl.
A more complex issue is that of $'hsther input from other
NNSs can slow and/or harm stude,nts'linguisticdevelop--> Flave vou ever sgen aber;r?

DIRECTIONS: Ask your partrer the questions below. If
your partner :urswers

me,nt. One study has shown that NNS-NNS interactions
provide fewer opportunities to negotiate meaning than
NS-NNS interactions, and contain "less quantitatively
rich data* (Pica, Lincoln-Porter, Paninos & Linnell, 1996,
p. 80). Neverttreless, it is encouraging to note that thesame study showed that "participation in communication
tasks wilh other lanrers is not linguisticalty harmful"(p.80).

"yes" to a question, ask a follow-up question to continue
the conversation.

For example:

A: Flave you ever beento an amusement park?
B:Yes.

Conclusion

A: Wheir did you go? OR Who did you go with? OR
Did you like it? etc....

If you are looking for a way to get your students warmed
up and focused on learning FWlish rigbt at the beginningl. llave you ever ridden in an airplane? (ride, rode,of class, I have found pair question shests to be Erite

ridden)

16

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3n3 NOz ansq '/ eunlon

Volume 7, lssue 2

ON CUE

respond?" questions to more involved "Try to use thesame word stmcture but in a new sentsnce" requests'
Another possibility is to have each studentwork on anespecially problematic pronunciation issue (e'g', E N sd

/r/ sounds differelrtiation) and have them attempt to"improve" their performance in this particular area'

Rationale (important for selling it to your boss):
To attract apatlretic local kids, I have found it necessarl
to use the appropriate bait. By enticing them withsomething 'lfuo'i Qike watching videos), I find thatswirching the focus to a more "educational" lesson then'becomes much easier. In short, the students enjoy it' t
enjoy it, and it is fun and "educational."
PS. It also saves you from getting chalk dust up your nose
during those hay-feverish spring months.

News Special
JALT 9g Election Coverage: Questions and Answers with the Candidates
compiled and Edited by charles Jannuzi for oN caE and ELT Nens
if -vou know any JALT members who do not get ON

Introduction:
This year four of the key offices of JALT at the national
level are up for election. Interestingly, there are morecandidates than usual, and the offices of president andvice president are contested.

CW, be sure to direct them where to go. TTIANKS'SLATE OF CANDIDATES:
National President:

ThomSimmons

In the past, vot€ counts in JALT elections have tended to
be rather low. However, as cnrcial issues concerning- finances, membership,

Jill Robbins

and the very continued existence of

National Vice President:

JALT loom, the editors of ON CW would like toencourage you to participate as much tN you can in thisyear's elections. In other words, read the official statements from each candidate in the pages of the JALT
monthly rrtagazine, The Languoge Teacher, atbnd the"M€et the Candidates" session at IALT 99, and above all,tear out the prepaid post4ge postcard found in the Ifte
Language Teacher magazine and exercise your right to
VOTE!

Tadashi Ishida

Kimiyo Tanaka
Amy Yamashiro

National Membership Chair:

Joseph Tomei

National Recording Secretary: Amy Hau,leyWith the thought in mind of encouraging you to vote inthis year's elections, ON CW is skipping its usual
section of news, event announcements and calls for papers
and is instead providing additional coverage ofthe
candidates and issues. (Ihe third issue of ON CW for1999 will have a very complete section of news, event
announcements, and calls for papers to get you caught
up.)

TIIE QUESTIONS WE ASKED:
Question 1:

JALT is a major language teaching organization in Japan.
Could y'ou please tell us what you feel to be your mostimportant accomplishment in language education here in
Japan?

Question 2:

We put a set of questions to all seven candidates fornational office and are happy to say that five of them
responded. What follows in this report is: tlle slate ofcandidates (who is running for what), the set of questions
we put to them, and a biography and set of answers fromthe five candidates who chose to respond. These questions and answers and other election coverage will also
appear atthe ELT Nms website <www.eltrews.sest), so

What do you feel is your most important accomplishment
in JALT, at any level (chapter, SIG, national) ?

Could you give us a statement of how you define the roleof the position you are standing for?

18

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3nc NoVolume 7, lgsug ?

ON CUE

work tqgetlrer to make JALT a su@ess in ttrc 21st

Robbins Answer 7:

cenhrry.

I thirk that this may happen, if JALT follows the trend inmodern society to allow gr€ater personal choice andspecially tailored services by organizations.

Robbins Answer 4:
As JALT president my mission will be (l) to work toward
improving communication between mernbers and withother professional organizations, (2) tfr give current
mernbers compelling rsxons to stay in JALT, and (3) tomake membership more appeallng to a wider variety ofteachers. These goals are measurable in that membershipnumbers can be analyzed according to the level taught andre,newal status can be tracked. Our joint activities withother professional organizations will be evidenced byincreased opportuilties for JALT members to take part inthe conferences and meet the members of those otganrza-

tions.

Robbins Answer E:

I don't want to propose a specific plan for changing themembership options at this time. But I do think SIGs are
an increasingly important aspect of JALT.

II. Candidate Name and Contact Information:
KIMIYO TANAKA:
kim@cc. matsuyama-u. ac jP
http ://cc.matsuyama-u.ac ip/-kir/
http //cc. matsuyama-u. ac jp / -ktnl:

Matsuyama-JAlT-Newslett er. htrnl

Robbins Answer 5:

JALT national officers should n'ork on these specificPosition standing for:budget oontrol measures:

JALT NATIONAL VICE PRESIDENT(l) Creating rev€,lrue through advertising by commercial

TeachingAffork Position and Title:

and associate members. Officers are becoming arvare oflnstructor of Japanese as a second language (JSL) at

the many opportunities for generating new revenues, suchas selling adveaising space on the JALT websites

Ehime University, Forergn Student Center (1992-Present)(2) Saving nroney by moving toward electronic communications and means of reporting that eliminate the current
focus on paper and postal communications. For example
web-based'submission of reports would provide a
feasible, cheap alternative to mailed reports that take up
volunteers'time and JALTs money for stamps.

Position(s) in JALT:
Matsuyama Chapter Past President and its Newsletter and
Web Site/Flomepage Editor

JALT member of 16 y'ears

JALT 94 Conference Site Co-chair,(3) Mainaining awareness arnong all facsts of JALT thatour purpose is to serve our members*by providing thehighest possible quality of service we will ensure loyalty

Standing Committee Me,rnber on Employment Practice
Four-Corners Tour Assistant Coordinatorand consistent membership levels.

Chapter President 1996-1997

Robbins Answer 6:

Tanaka Answer 1:(l) Provide options that suit teachers at'a wider variety ofI think that it is a pity that the Japanese govemment does
not have a concrete policy for Japanese language education, but I have tried to maintain sound policy andpractices in JSL (such as the direct met}od). I havecontinued to teach forergn students to undersknd and use
communicative Japanese, as well as to appreciate the richculture of the Japanese people.

educational levels; i.e., publications that are more tailoredto their needs.

(2) Make it easier to begin and continue membership
through automatic debiting of accounts, just as manyother organizations do.

(3) As I stated above; by providing the highest possible
quallty of service we will ensure loyalty and,consistent

My present and past work and living experiences reflectmultilingual and multicultural skills that I hope willcontinue to serve JALT well, including: JSL instructor at
Ehime University, English l;anguage Instructor at
Nichibei English lnstitute; interpreter for the governor of

membership levels.

20

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VolumeT.'lssue 2

ON CUE

Yamashiro Answer 3:
The role of Vice President has two primary componeirts'
One aspect entails being able to work and communicate
with the President in a near symbiotic relationship, suchthat the President's vision (e.g., to reinvigorate JALT) andconcrete goals (e.g. to obtain status as a non-profit
organization) can.be achieved. The other aspect deals
with issues concerning leadership capabilities andRggional conference organizers, we can raise money for

IALT National by offering attractive exhibitor packages
to JAtTs commercial and associate members.
(2) Making use of electronic telecommunications to savemoney andtime for intra-JALT communication andreporturg. By taking adrantagB of the widespread use ofcomputer technolqgy and the high{ech eirpertise of JALTCALL mwtbers, JALT could create website reporting for

initiative as well as adrdnistrative experie'nce working in
offices. I have ample experience chairing meetings andorganizing mini-conferences. As the administrative
assistant for an NPO Re-training Progranq I had to create
data bases and archives, prepare pubhcrty and mass
mailings, and leam how to maintain an efficient work-

Chapter and SIG Officers, and the JALT Cennal Office
could monitor requests for materials without incurring
postal costs.

place.

diverse munbership, so that teachers can meet otherteachers who share their passion for teaching.

Yamashiro Answer 4:(l) Making JALT Executive Board Meetings moreaccessible to new delegates (both for native speakers ofEnglish and for Japanese members): JALT has a long,colorful history and an alphabet soup full of acronyms.
fu a native speaker conversant with procedure, I could
keep up with the discussion and motions, but I knew

Yamashiro Answer 6:(1) JALT needs to to provide more open forums for its

The growing popularity of the Regional, Chapter/SlG,
and SIG mini-conferences is due in part to the multidimensional nature ofteaching. For example, a single
teacher may be interested in teaching children, CALL, andcommunicative language teaching.

(2) Take advantage of automatic debitiag of accounts to

many of the other new representatives were often feelingconfused and frustrated. From my experience in teachingand setting up a school-wide Model Unit€d Nations forregular high school students (240 participants), I haveexperie,nce in training new delegates to use parliamentary
procedure in little or no time.

facilitate the process ofjoining and renewing, so that we
do not have the amrual drop in membership due toforgefring or being late in paying the dues.

(2) futing backthe vitality and synergy within JALT:
Many of our hard-working volunteers tend to feel burned
out and under-appreciated. From my experience as acoordinator and an editor, I know the value of nurturing
talent and bolstering the flagging spttits of volunteers. As
an MA TESOL graduate from the "touchy, feely" school(the School for lnternational Training) and a doctoralcandidate in education (Temple University Japan), I canappreciate both humanistic and rational approaches toadvertising arrangerneds.

teaching, learning, and getturg the job done.

want.

Yamashiro Answer 5:

Yamashiro Answer 8:(l) Generate revenue through regional mini-conferences.

While I recognize the growing importance of SIGs within
JALT, I believe that, fusg we need to focus on ensuring
JALTs overall fiscal and organizational health. We'need
to support both Chapters and SIGs to continue providing
attractive progratns and services to rstain old menrbers
and to recruit new ones.

(3) JALT will need to seek mutually beneficial arrangement with commercial and associare members, such as byoffering specral discurns to JALT members and creative

Yamashiro Answer 7:
Althouglr a certain percentage will b€ needed in thegeneral firnds, I believe mce the technology permits it,
and once the Executive Board bas decided the baseline
membership privileges, ev€,mrally it will be possible toallow individual members to direct this "discretionary"
dues amount for the particular membership options theyln.the past, National JALT Conferences were guaranteedmoney-makers because they were held at university sites
free of charge. A long-terrn plan could include oreative
combinations of a universrty site, a community hall, andhotel conference rooms to help reduce the costs of the
National JALT Conferences. Inthe short ternq considering the growing popularity of mini-conferenc€s each year,with some long term planning on the part of the SIG and

To argue for changing the status of SIGs (i.e. put thsm onequat standing witb chapters and rsmove the additional
1500 yen dues) would necessitate changes to the constitu22

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Volume 7, lssue 2

ON CUE

Tomei Answer 6:

Position(s) in JALT:I think that we have to develop the SIGs as an effectivemeans of bringing in members. This would tie in with areexamination of the grant structure' I also think that wittl
the JALT WWW domafuu we can organize and link up
web sites to bring people in from the web. I also think that

National Financial Steering Committee Chair; Shizuoka
Chapter President; and National

we should develop more projects and presentations on alower, sub-chapter level sothat new JALT members canenter part of a smaller group that will work to retain
them.

Tomei Answer 7:

A lot of dedicated JALT people bave worked on amembership 'mef,iu', but have not been able to'bring it topass. The problem with a membership menu is that some
options might not be able to be funded at their curr€'rtlevels and will then disappear, possibly resulting in a loss
to JALT mernbership. Though I think a meinbership menu
is possiblg with less disruption and a bstter impact onmembership numbers we should aim for briaging down
the membership fee. I propose that we set out a two year
perid where we willtake st€ps to get a large portion of
the membership'synchronized' (i.e. memberships startingin the same month) and develop partial renewals so that
we need not refund monies.

Tomei Answer 8:

I believe that all groups within JALT should have an
equal chance at dweloping programs that could (1) bnng
in members or (2) provide services to their members that
JALT would be particularly suited for. My own idea is

Chapter Delegate for the Executive Board Meetings

Hawley Answer l:

My greatest contribution to language education in Japanis the energy and the passion that I have for my students
and for language education itself in Japan. Research andpublications are important, but I believe that at the coreof any great instructor is the portrayal of their true
passion for their field of expertise. For me, this portrayalis the way that I carry myself on a daily basis in front of
my students and colleagues. It is my energy and passionthat has driven me into becoming a teacher and willcontinue to drive me for years to come.

Hawley Answer 2:
My most important contribution to JALT is my ability towork well with many people throughout JALT to put
together a balanced budget. In putting together this year's
budget I had to contact many people involved with
spe'nding JALTs money. This required being rather strictin some cases, but in the en{ I think that I earned therespect of many people in regards to the budget. This
respect has helped me to maintain closer contact with all
people involved in the budga throughout the year so tlnt
the Finance Team knows exactly where the money isgorng.

Hawley Answer 3:that we provide chapters and SIGs with a minimum
operating budget and pool the rest of the money into a
ftnd that could be utilized when chapters, groups withinchapters, or SIGs present a proposal. Chapters would
have the first chance at the money for the current year.
Then, the funding procsss would be opened up to SIGs
and sub-groups within a chapter.

As with FSC Chair, as National Recording Secretary, I
will have to be in contact wiftr nrany people throughout
JALT to obtain the necessary reports and news that I
must compile, edit and distribute to all JALT members.
Taking notes at national-level meetings is not all there is
to being Recording Secretary'-gefting out the news ofwhat is happening in JALT is the most important thing. I
plan to make accurate and informed reports to the JALTNews column of the Ianguage Teacher maganne so as tobring a well informed JALT into 2000.

V. Candidate Name and Contact Information

AMY E. TIAWI,EY<shortone@gol.com>

Hawley Answer 4:

Position Standing For:As Recording Secretary, I rvant to continue to reach all
members of JALT with national news so that members
can make well informed decisions. Many people in JALT
feel that they don't know what is going on and I hope to

NATIONAL RECORDING SECRETARY
TeachingAilork Position rnd Title:

reach people through e-mail, the Lamguage Teacher , andthe JALT Executive Newslet0er. This, of course, isalready being done, but I plan to continue to do it at the

Junior/senior high school English instructor at Shizuoka
Futaba Gakuen

24

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Volume 7, lssue 2

ON CUE

Cyberpipeline: SPecial RePort
Y2KfMillennium Bug SuPPortCharles Jannuzi

Fukui University
Introduction

The procedure for checking out your BIOS is this:In place of the normal education-related linla, I thought it
might be of some use to review the Y2K issue well before
the fateful day and suggest some WWW links where you
can get support if you do have a computer hardware
and/or software conflict problem. In the third issue of
ON CW for 1999, the yearcnd issug I will return to thesubject of links useful to tertiary language educators witha look at on-line communities (e.g. free home pages, webbased discussion lists, etc.).

(l) figure out which type and version of BIOS your PC isusing-you can se€ this info. on the screen when you bootup irefore the OS takes over; (2) find the website of thecompany that makes your BIOS and check there if they
are waming of anypossible Y2K compliance problems
and BIOS updates to fix the problerns; (3) if you can't
find your company and info. about your BIOS there, try afirmware manufrcfirrer like Micro Firmware<htp://www.firmware.com>, as they may well haveadditionat information and a product to help you.

Windows Computing is Possibly Y2K Chdlenged

The following is a list ofthe most cornmon BIOS manufacturers with links:

Ifyou do Wintel computing (Win 3.>q Win 98/95, WinNT) or use popular Microsoft applications such as MS
Office, Y2K problems could affect you. Eve,n if you doApplellVlac computing, you could be affected if you arehooked up to Win NT networks at your school or business.

Ami
fuutekAwardFirst Test

Gigabyte http://www.giga-byte.com

A simple test you can do to start checking if you do haveIntel
htp://www.intel.com
Phoenix htp://www.award.com(now part of Award)
Soyo htg://www.soyo.com.tw

a possible conflict looming is to run your PC's clock
fonnard. The fastest wayto do this is double-click on thetime at the lower right corner of yourWindows scresl
and roll the date forward (from Win 3.x you have to startup the Clock applet).

htp//www.megatrends.com
http:/lwww.asus.com.tw

hp://www.award.com

Supermicro htp://www.supermicro.com

A more thorough but practical set of procedures is this:First, put ihe clock forward to 11:59 p.m. (that's 2359 on

Sources of Software for Y2K Tests

a 24-hour clock), 3l December 1999. Then let the system
run for a couple of minutes and see if the rollover to 2000

It is possible to get software to run on your PC to checkyour system out. Some you can download for free overthe Internet. For example, there is Y2KTEST', which
you oanget from Micro Firmware at:goes smoothly. Next, set the clock to l1:59 p.m., 31

December 2000 to make sure your syst€m rolls oversmoothly to the year 2001. The last check is to reboot thePC with the date at I January 2001. If the cbanges take,then so far so good. Don't forget to reset your time backto the current one when you are all finished.

ftp ://ftp.firmware .c,omly2Uy2ldst.e>reSome software is betler than others, checking not justsoftware but hardware as well for conflic*. There arealso packages of software and hardware which claim tofix Y2K conflicts once discovered. If you care to searchout your own frcsware or sharewrare for diaguosis andrepalr, great places to start are:Possible BIOS Conflicts

BIOS stands for "Basic Input Output System". It is notyour operating systenL but without it you couldnt run
your PC. Probably the older tlre version of BIOS you areusing, the more chance of a possible Y2K conflict.

htp://www.download.com (search with Y2K as your
term)

26

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Volume 7, lssue 2

ON GUE

Charfes Jannuzi, Pubticrtions Co-Chair/ON CW Co'

Bern Mulvey, Publications Co-Chairl0N CaE
Co-editor
Fukui University, College of Educatioq Bunkyo 3-9'1,
Fukui-shi 910-8507
Tel: 0776-23-0500 (w)Fax: 0776-27-8521 (w)E-mail: mulvey@edu00.f+du.fukui-u.acjp

editorAddress and tel: same as Mulvey above

Fax: A776-27-7102 (h)E-mail: jannuzi@edu00.f<du.fukui-u.ac jp
jannuzi@hctnail.mm

JALT 99 Presentations of Interest to CUE SIG Members
Compiled and Submitted by Jill Robbins, Kwansei Gakuin University
Saturday 2:00 PM 2:45 PM 204 Greenfield Readability
Formulas for EFL
Saturday 4:15 PM 6:00 PM 202 Nlen, et al Promoting
Classroom Research in an Institution

Saturday 4:15 PM 6:fi1 PM 2(D Mulvey, et al Content
Courses: Technolory and Innovation CUE SIG

Forum
Saturday 5:15 PM 6:00 PM 204 Townsend Utilizing
Japanese in an English classroom
Saturday 6:15 PM 7:00 PM 204 Chapple Film, CriticalThinking and language Development.
Saturday 6:15 PM 7:fi) PM 2(D Mackenzie CUE

Green Dome Maebashi, Gunma, the site of the
JALT 99 International Conference, 8-11 October

AGM
Sunday 9:15 AM 10:00 AM 202CogenTask-basedI€arning for Language Classrooms

Here is a list of presentations at JALT 99 that might
be ofinterest to college and university educators:

Sunday 9:15 AM 10:00 AM 204 Davidson An EFL

Salurday 9:15 AM 10:00 AM 802 Stewart Critical
Writing in Academic Writing Classes

Critical Thinking/Essay Writing Course
Sunday 9:15 AM 10:00 AM 501 On The Essay-Easily
Misunderstood, Commonly Mistaught

Saturday 9:15 AM 10:00 AM 103 Hansford Coping

Effectively with Student Absences

Sunday l0:15 AM 1l:00 AM 308 Bayne Content-Based

Saturday 1l:15 AM 12:00 PM 202 MacNeill CommuniW
Discovery in an EFL Environment

L,earning with lower Level L,earners

Saturday I 1:15 AM 12:00 PM 204 Numoto Word Lists

Sunday l1:15 AM 12:00 PM DOME Yasui Teachine
English in Thailand

for EFL Nursing Majors

Sunday 1:00 PM l:45 PM 501 Miyazato UniversityLevel Team Teaching - Is It Effective?

Saturday I l:15 AM 12:00 PM 205 yamashina Intercul-

tural Understanding in University Reading

Sunday 3:15 PM 4:00 PM 301 Howard TeachinsChildren About Japan: A Pen-Pal Project

Saturday l:00 PM 1:45 PM 202 Swanson Day One:Setting the Stage

Sunday 3:15 PM 4:00 PM 30? Chen Teaching English
Based on Cooperative l,earning

Saturday l:00 PM 1:45 PM 204 Widi& et al Ll and.L2
Academic Reading Practices: Similar or Different?

Sunday 4:15 PM 6:00 PM 203 Golliher, et al Exploring
the Possibilities of a Cognitive Apprenticeship Approach

Saturday 2:00 pM 2:45 pM 202 Welker I Flave a Theme:

A Student-Centered Content Course

28

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IOUN ADYDBTISEIIEilT COUI.I) GO HEND AilI}
BEACA trUNI}BNI}S OT LTilGUAGE EDUCATOBS
TEACtrING AT TilE POSTSDCONDABY I,EYEI.
THBOUGNOUT JAPAN.
CONTACT US TODAY TO SDD ABOUT PtIICIilG

YOUB AII.
<JAN il AZ,I@A OT ilAI I.. C O il >OB
<ilUIVEY@EDUOO. tr.EI)U. FUKUI.U.AC.JP>

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