Science Council of Asia

19th Science Councilof AsiaConference(2019), SpecialIssue 2020

Journal of the
Myanmar Academy of Arts and Science
ISSN 2520-0186, LCCN 2003-323143

Special Issue
2020

19th Science Council of Asia Conference
3-5 December, 2019, Nay Pyi Taw

RESEARCH AND INNOVATIONFOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN ASIA
SUB-THEME I
Revitalize Asian Partnershipfor Achieving Sustainable Development

Journal of the
Myanmar Academy of Arts and Science
ISSN 2520-0186, LCCN 2003-323143

Special Issue
2020

19th Science Council of Asia Conference
3-5 December, 2019, Nay Pyi Taw

SUB-THEME I
Revitalize Asian Partnership for Achieving
Sustainable Development

Journal of the
Myanmar Academy of Arts and Science
ISSN 2520-0186

Special Issue
2020

Edition
2020, 400 Copies

Copyright
Ministry of Education

Published by
Dr Aung Min (00322) Chairman, Journal Publication Committee,
Myanmar Academy of Arts and Science

ISSN 2520-0186
ICCN 2003-323143

Printed by
U Win Aung (00171), Manager
Universities Press, Yangon, Myanmar

FOREWORD
We would like to thank His Excellency Dr. Myo Thein Gyi, Hon’ble Union Minister for
Education, for delivering the inaugural address at the Opening Ceremony of the 19th Science
Council of Asia Conference, and for the support His Excellency had given for holding thisinternational conference, for the first time, in Myanmar. We are also indebted to express ourheartfelt gratitude to His Excellency Dr Wang Xi, Vice Minister, Ministry of Science and Technology
of China, President, Science Council of Asia, and Vice President, China Association for Science andTechnology (CAST) for his presence at this opening ceremony. We would also like to extend our
gratitude to Professor Dr Hiroshi YOSHINO, the Secretary General/Treasurer of SCA. Special thanks
would go to Dr Juichi Yamagiwa, the President of SCJ and to all distinguished guests and scholars
from SCA member academies who, in one way or the other, contributed to the success of thisconference.
MAAS owes its apology to all participants for the delay in producing the papers presented at
SCA-19 Conference. The responsibility of opinions, statements, comments, etc. expressed in thepapers lie with those of the authors. The views expressed in the papers presented at the conference
did not reflect that of MAAS.

Dr Thet Lwin
President, Myanmar Academy of Arts and ScienceContents
Lists of Contributors
MessagesPage

A

Dr Myo Thein Gyi, Minister, Ministry of Educationi

B

Dr Wang Xi, President, Science Council of Asia

ii

C

Dr Thet Lwin, President of Myanmar Academy of Arts and Science

iii

D

Professor Hiroshi YOSHINO, Secretary General/ Treasure of SCAiv

The innovation of housebuilding industry in Japan

1

Papers1Prof. Kazunobu Minami
2

Mold and Dampness in Unplanned Urban Houses in the Hot and Humid Climate

9of Indonesia
Dr. Tetsu Kubota
3

Retail Site Location in Dagon Myothit (North) Township using GIS

19

Dr Khin Mi Mi Win
4

Geospatial Analysis of Solid Waste Management in Bago City, Myanmar

27

Dr Khin Khin Htay
5

Establishment of Sustainable Port Criteria in Myanmar

35

Dr Mee Mee Soe
6

Effective Control of Hybrid Solar-Hydro Renewable Energy System

43

Daw Wut Hmone Oo
7

Applying High Performance Seismic Structures to All Asian Countries

51

Dr Tsutomu KOMURO
8

Analysis of Some Heavy Metals Concentrations in Muscle Tissue of Three Fish

59

Species and Environs, Thanlwin River Segment of Mon State
Daw Yee Yee Win
9Analysis of Elemental Concentration in Kye Pe (Plukenetia Voluilis L.) Samples

69

by Using WDXRF Technique
Dr Khin Shwe Tint
10

Importance of Soil Moisture Balance and Soil Texture in Yields of

75

Crop:
A Case Study of Thayetlaypin Village Tract in Magway Township
Dr Myo Myo Htay

11

Operation Models of Mini-Grid in Myanmar: The case of Shan State
Professor Kensuke YAMAGUCHI83

Messages
12

Page
Health risk Assessment of Soil and Water pollution near public dug wells along89

Shwe -Ta -Chaung Creek in Mandalay City
Dr Aye Myat Mon
13

Health Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals via Consumption of Vegetables

95

Dr Me Me Nyunt
14

PC-Based Ultrasound Object Detection System

103

Dr Aung Naing Oo
15

Green Synthesis and Characterization of Chitosan-Copper Nanoparticle Used as

109

Antimicrobial and Antitumor Activities
Dr Aung Than Htwe
16

Determination of Ion Occupation Model in Spinel Lettice117

Dr Aye Aye Thant17

A Study on Structural Properties and Biological Response of HAP/ β-TCP

125

Dr Nay Win Tun
18

Characterization & Morphological Analysis of Nanostructured Material Images

131by Image Processing
Dr Khin Khin Win
19

Formation of Calcium Hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) Nanorods for CO2 Adsorption

137

Dr Nwe Ni Hlaing
20

The Updated Probabilistic Seismic Models 2018 for Mitigation of Seismic Risks in

145

Myanmar
Dr Myo Thant
21

Seismic Microzonation at Taungthaman area Mandalay Region

153

Dr Pyi Soe Thein
22

Adsorptive Removal of Color from Textile Effluent Using Agricultural Wastes as
Adsorbents
Nwe Nwe Aung

159

Message

It is a great pleasure and inspiring experience to host the 19 th Science Council of
Asia Conference, held with the theme "Research and Innovation for Sustainable
Development in Asia" in Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar.
This conference is particularly timely as all Member States are unanimously
supporting research and innovation to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs) of the United Nations 2030 Agenda.
A comprehensive range of the conference sessions reflects a very topical agenda
as it provides a wonderful platform and opportunity for several experts, academia,
scholars and researchers to exchange their break-through ideas, profound knowledge
and invaluable experiences.
I sincerely hope this conference will help to identify ways to bring forward thetransformative sustainability agenda and better align research and innovation policies
with the SDGs, as set out in the United Nations Agenda 2030 for sustainable
development.
To all delegates, I would like to suggest that we adopt innovation in science,technology, engineering and mathematics as integral elements of the strategies for
SDGs. I would like to request you to produce action-oriented outcomes of theconference and keep supporting research and innovation for sustainable development in
Asia.
Before I conclude, I wish all delegates and participants an enjoyable stay in
Myanmar.
Thank you.
Dr Myo Thein Gyi
Union Minister for Education, Myanmar

Message

It is my great pleasure to welcome you all on behalf of Science Council of Asia(SCA) to the 19th

SCA conference that brings together experts of scientific organizations to discuss " Research andInnovation for Sustainable Development in Asia". I thank all the local conference hosts in Myanmar andthe SCA Secretariat. Thanks to their excellent effort, the SCA19 is organized jointly and successfully.
To a large extent, Asia's rapid economic development and subsequently booming consumption
have prompted critical challenge for environment sustainability. Recently, Oxford Dictionaries andCambridge Dictionary have named "climate emergency" and "upcycling" as their Word of the Year 2019,respectively. Change is necessary.
The 2030 Agenda, adopted at the United Nations Sustainable Development Summit in September
2015, positioned Science, Technology and Innovation as key means of implementation of the SDGs. Alsowith a new perspective of economic growth, there is a clear shift towards appreciating the adoption ofsustainability standards, which has a positive correlation with increased profit as demand for productswith sustainable credentials grows.
Many Asian countries have signed up to the SDGs, made growing commitment to address poverty,
clean energy and pollution. New science and technology achievements have been applied to solve specificissues, new approaches have been used towards more sustainable activities.
SCA provides such a collaborative platform for member organizations to promote scientificexchange and cooperation, and to reach mutual understanding. We will continue to play a central role toface the common challenges for sustainable development in Asia and lead to a bright future.
Wishing you all a fruitful and joyful stay in Nay Pyi Taw and looking forward to your active
participation in the Conference.
With best regards,

Prof. Dr. WANG Xi
President, Science Council of Asia

Message

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) came to an end in December 2015; certain agenda of
MDGs had been left unfinished. In 2015, UN General Assembly adopted the post 2015 Development Agenda
and set Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The 2030 Global Development Agenda came into effect onst

1 January, 2016 with the prospect of covering the five aspects: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace andProsperity. The approach to SDGs can be initiated through a different angle. For instance, People: End
Poverty and Hunger in all forms and ensure dignity and equality; Planet: Protect our planet's natural
resources and climate for future generations; Peace:

Foster peaceful, just and inclusive societies;

Prosperity: Ensure prosperous and fulfilling lives in harmony with nature.
Living beings inherited the earth, the only planet in the solar system, in which all known life forms
can flourish. Human beings are the most intelligent species on earth. Throughout history, they try tochange their environment to suit their needs and satisfy their desires. Among the continents, Asia happens
to be the most populous region in the world. China and India, each with one billion plus population, haveemerged as economic powers. Japan, Korea, Taiwan, and ASEAN TEN too witnessed economic growth.
Inventions and innovations contributed to industrial revolutions. The fourth forthcoming inventions of IT
and AI are expected to change traditional modes of manufacturing, transportation and urban amenities.
st

In 21 century, research across various countries in Asia highlight inter-linkages between natural
resources and sustainable development goals along with the impact of climate change. The human society
is seeking ways to safeguard human's wellbeing and to guarantee the sustainable use of resources. At thesame time, it also tries to conserve the environment from natural calamities like floods, earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, drought, etc. so that our future generations will be inherited with green and peacefulenvironment.
I, on behalf of Myanmar Academy of Arts and Science, would like to express my deep appreciation
to all those involved in making the conference a success. Special mention needs to be made to SCJ which
co-hosted the SCA19 conference with MAAS for their guidance, support, co-operation and coordination.
We fervently believe that the conference will provide our guests a cordial atmosphere for sharing
experiences and exchanging views. The deliberations from this conference are expected to bring into light,
effective means and ways for resolving common issues people are currently facing in Asia and elsewhere.

Dr. Thet Lwin
President of MAAS

Message

I am pleased to announce that the 19th Science Council of Asia (SCA) Conference is held in Nay
Pyi Taw, Myanmar. First of all, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Myanmar Academy of Arts
and Science (MAAS) for its enormous efforts to prepare for this Conference. I also would like to express my
deep appreciation to Member Organizations and SCA Secretariat for their cooperation and contribution inorganizing this Conference and all the people who support it.
th

The theme of the 19 SCA Conference is “Research and Innovation for Sustainable Developmentin Asia”. As you might already know, the purpose of SCA established in 2000 is “to facilitate scientificcooperation in Asia towards the progress in science and sustainable development of the region”. With thispurpose, SCA has contributed to society through the collaboration with academies in the region. Under
such circumstances, “Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development” with the 17
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and 169 targets was adopted at the UN General Assembly in 2015.
Since then, the efforts to realize the sustainable development in which a key principle is “no one will beleft behind” have started at global level. We must continuously and collaboratively address a wide range
of issues facing us since they are so challenging in the sense that human beings have never experienced
them before.
th

The 19 SCA Conference is held for 3 days and nearly 180 presentations (oral and poster) arescheduled. I am delighted to know that we have received many applications exceeding our expectation. It
indicates a high level of interest in this Conference’s theme, “Research and Innovation for Sustainable
Development in Asia”. In the Conference, there are four (4) sub-themes that are discussed in theirrespective sessions. The main theme and sub-themes of the Conference have been carefully selected inorder to inspire scholars and researchers in Asia to undertake interdisciplinary researches in partnership tocontribute to the realization of the 17 SDGs.
This Conference is an advantageous opportunity to build a network of scholars in and outside thecountry. I am sure that there would be abundant outstanding discussions at this Conference.
Professor Hiroshi Yoshino
Secretary General / Treasure of SCA

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

The Innovation of Housebuilding Industry in Japan
Kazunobu Minami1

Abstract
Following my paper “Adaptable Infill for the Durable and Sustainable Japanese Housing”
presented at the last year SCA Conference, the author continues the analysis of the innovationsin Japanese house building and construction industry. Recent developments in housing
technology has been promoting the longer life for housing and has reduced the material
consumption and its environmental impacts. The adaptable infill system preserves building
longer by changing its fit out according to the changes of lifestyles of the resident. The numberof skilled construction workers in Japan is predicted to fall significantly in the near future. We
are conducting the research and development in order to use less manpower for the site works.
The use of robots on site works and the use of Artificial Intelligence and BIM in the process ofdesign, building permission, on site construction and maintenance are the main research agenda
for the expected innovation of our industry.
This paper analysis the characteristics of the past innovations in Japan and examines the
key factors to foster the future innovations. The tradition of the collaborative relation among thegovernment, academia and industry in Japan will be the most effective way to promote new
innovation in the housebuilding and construction industry.
Keywords: Innovation, House building industry, Robot, AI, BIM

1.

Introduction

In the previous paper “Adaptable Infill for the Durable and Sustainable Japanese
Housing [1]” presented at the last year SCA Conference, the author pointed that the continuous
research and development of adaptable housing in Japan from KEP, CHS (Century Housing
System), KSI (Kodan Skelton Infill) to the establishment of the long fife housing law and therecent development of the zero slope gray water drainage system by the collaboration of thegovernment, private companies and research institutions have been one of the most essential
forces for the development of adaptable and sustainable housing in Japan. Based on this, theauthor tries to find out the necessary collaboration among public and privates sectors for the
future innovation of housebuilding and building industries.
2.

Methods

Sections 3-1 and 3-2 in this paper are summaries based on references [2] ~ [8] previously
presented by the author. Section 3-3 is an examination based on references [9] ~ [10], whichcontain up-to-date information on technological development in Japan.

1Professor, Department of Architecture Shibaura Institute of Technology, k-minami@shibaura-it.ac.jp

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

2

3.

Results and Discussion

3.1 History of the research and developments of housebuilding industry in Japan
In Japan, research and development has been carried out to improve the adaptability ofmulti-family dwellings and enable residents to continue living there for a longer period of time.
In Japan, such housing units are often demolished after a short period of about 30 years, so
efforts have been made to prolong their useful lifetimes by considering environmental andresource problems and economic efficiency.
In Japan, the Japan Housing Corporation, which is now called the Urban RenaissanceAgency or UR, has been conducting joint research and development with universities and privatecompanies under the leadership of the national government and the Ministry of Construction. In
the early 1970s, their research resolved the problem of housing shortages, and since then it has
been improving the quality of housing. Research and development by KEP since the late 1970s
and by CHS beginning in the 1980s contributed to the KSI and to the enactment in 2009 of the
Act Concerning the Promotion of Long-Life Quality Housing. Many dwellings for family use
range in size from 70 to 80 square meters, requiring that they be occupied skillfully or remodeled
to keep up with the growth of the children. Our research in housing adaptability is a response tothese demands for such housing units in Japan.
The Act Concerning the Promotion of Long-Life Quality Housing was designed toprolong the life of housing units. This law came into effect on June 4, 2009. About 800,000
housing units have been constructed based on technical standards mandated by this law, butalmost all were detached houses. Few have been condominiums. Because it must be possible tomaintain and replace equipment piping of multi-family dwellings from common corridors, it isdifficult for condominiums and apartments to comply with the technical guidelines, preventing
the increase in the number of dwellings in compliance with the act.
Technical Guidelines have been enacted under this law. Chapter 3 stipulates ease ofmaintenance and renewal. Chapter 4 stipulates interior adaptability of dwellings. Vertical sewer
pipes need to be easily accessible to allow replacement every couple of decades. The Piping
space needs to have additional holes for future replacements.
The first condominium apartment constructed in Japan in compliance with the Act
Concerning the Promotion of Long-Life Quality Housing is located in Urawa City. In order to beable to modify the layout of a dwelling, the ceiling and floor slabs of a condominium must ensure
at least a vertical distance of 2,650 millimeters. The double floors are 275 millimeters thick. If
this dimension is ensured, equipment piping can pass through the double floors, permitting themodification of rooms such as kitchens or bathrooms. Families can create the floor plan they
desire by arranging movable storage systems.
3.2 Recent trends in technical developments for collective dwellings
Figure 1 and Figure 2 show a condominium equipped with movable storage walls andmovable kitchens developed by Mitsui Real Estate and Haseko Corporation. The bathroom andtoilet are installed as a single unit and cannot be moved, but other spaces can be laid out freely.
The ceiling inside the room is flat and no columns or beams protrude into the rooms, so the
movable storage walls can be installed anywhere without any limitations. The entire unit isdouble-floored, enabling the location of the kitchen to be changed. The thickness of the double

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

3floor is 130 millimeters and the double ceiling is from 120 to 140 millimeters thick. This space isused to install equipment wiring and piping. Users create the floor plan they desire by arranging
the movable storage walls. The kitchen can be relocated. Exhaust from the kitchen can beventilated above the range to keep the air in the kitchen clean.
The other example of a recent technical development is the zero-slope drainage system.
Figure 3 and Figure 4 show a new drainage system based on the siphon principle. The drainage
slope is zero in order to fill the interior of the narrow 20-millimeter horizontal pipe with water.
The drain pipe fills with water then it flows out under the force of gravity. If a siphonic floor
drainage system is installed, the area where the kitchen can be located is greatly expanded. This
new drainage system narrows drain pipes and ends the need for a slope. By reducing the height ofthe double floor, it removes the need for a level difference on the floor, lowering the cost of
structure work.

Figure 2. Wheels for Movable Kitchen System
Figure 1. Movable Kitchen System

3010

150

Figure 4. Example of Zero-Slope Drainage System
Figure 3. Diagram of Zero-Slope Drainage System

3.3 Strategy for the future technical developments and innovations for building industry
The construction industry in Japan is currently facing a severe shortage of skilledworkers, and thus improving productivity is a pressing issue. The construction and housing
industry in Japan has so far been improving productivity through innovative refinements toconstruction methods, in both reinforced concrete as well as conventional wooden structures. The
construction industry, which has overcome numerous ordeals, including oil shocks and thecollapse of Japan’s bubble economy, will likely overcome this shortage of workers to a great

4

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

extent through application of robotics, IT (Information Technology) and AI (Artificial
Intelligence).
Robotic systems for pulling construction materials have already been introduced in orderto reduce the burden of on-site operations on aging workers as well as to improve productivity.
Tests have also been conducted on tasking robotic systems with cleaning operations so thatworkers can focus exclusively on on-site operations during the day. In the near future, it may bepossible for workers to commence operations from first thing in the morning thanks to robotic
systems conducting cleaning operations at night. It would also likely not be very difficult torepurpose Power Assist Suits, which are used in the distribution industry among others, to be
more in line with the characteristics of construction site operations.
The efforts of individual companies and on-site initiatives alone will be insufficient forachieving significant improvements in productivity. It is vital for the industry to engage with theissue collectively. When personnel related to the construction industry were interviewed,
personnel in both Design Divisions and Construction Divisions said that, although the in-houseinspections, client inspections and government inspections conducted at each stage throughout
the construction process are necessary in ensuring construction quality, these inspections are amajor time burden. In order to make inspection operations more advanced and streamlined,
future developments may be in areas such as laser-based measurements, image recognition
technology-based inspections, drone-based layout inspections and photography for construction
records. Attaching RFIDs (Radio Frequency Identifiers) to construction materials andarchitectural parts will likely accelerate on-site confirmation and provide greater accuracy, andmay also facilitate confirmation of concealed areas.
Government agencies also likely need to examine ways to streamline various inspection
operations for the purpose of improving the productivity of the industry as a whole. For example,
in the future, the ratio of existing structures that undergo repair will increase, which means that
forming databases and disclosing information on previous building approvals so that clients anddesigners can clearly determine whether to make use of an existing structure or to rebuild during
the initial stages of operational planning will likely lead to smoother project progression andincreased productivity.
Utilization of BIM (Building Information Modeling) is expected to improve productivity.
Initiatives are progressing in regard to building approvals that utilize BIM, such as standardizing
expressions used in drawings and specifications for applications. In the near future, in addition toensuring consistency between design drawings and application drawings, automatic confirmation
will also be conducted for both stand-alone and group regulations relating to various types ofarea calculations, physical dividers to prevent the spread of fires, fire prevention equipment,
measurements of evacuation distances, etc. And this will likely greatly reduce the amount of timenecessary for building approvals and for receiving consent from the fire department. Eventually,legality will be automatically checked starting from the basic design stage, and this will likely
eliminate the need to redo operations. When it comes to industrialized housing, application oftype certification and manufacturer certification systems will streamline building approvals andalso simplify on-site inspections. In the field of industrialized housing, which is becoming
increasingly componentized, unique CAD systems have been introduced for design, production
and construction, so engaging in building approvals that utilize BIM based on these systems will
likely be easier than for other general structures. The field of industrialized housing could19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

5

become capable of BIM level 3 inspections at a very early stage.
The construction industry in Japan is a mature industry, and it is good at progressively
improving productivity. The industry contains companies that have attempted new businesses,
such as nursing care and agriculture, by applying their skilled personnel and organizational
capacity to these new businesses during periods in which their existing businesses are performing
favorably and without falling into ‘success traps.’ However, due to rapid progress in the fields ofIT and AI, companies that are currently aiming to introduce robotics and AI into the constructionindustry are gaining more and more experience, and this could introduce ‘destructive innovation’into the construction and housing industries. In the future, AI technologies will be moreadvanced, and in terms of architectural designs for residences in particular, this may lead directconnections between clients and production process and cause major changes in business models.
In companies that provide industrialized housing, engineers from other fields who graduatedfrom courses other than architecture will be responsible for the information technologies thatform the core of production, and educational programs implemented at universities and humanresource development programs conducted by companies must stay up-to-date with changes insociety.
Achieving further innovation requires ‘ambidextrous’ administration in which managers
search for new businesses while at the same time deepening existing, mature businesses*1. The
textile industry in Japan succeeded in shifting its core focus into new fields. But will theconstructing and housing industries, for which a drop in domestic demand is unavoidable, also beable to do the same thing?
Komatsu Ltd., a manufacturer of construction equipment, began globalization at an earlystage, including entering the Chinese market, and the company has constantly created value
through innovation*2, including development of ICT construction equipment, which isincreasingly becoming automatized, KOMTRAX, which provides a visual representation ofoperation status, and SMART CONSTRUCTION, which provides higher level solution
businesses. In 2017, through a joint venture with NTT Docomo, SAP Japan and OPTiM
Corporation, Komatsu started LANDLOG, an IoT platform for construction sites. This is exactly
what Joseph Schumpeter meant by ‘new combination’ between different industries. KomatsuLtd., which had previously provided construction equipment for use at construction sites,
established a position as a leading company through proactive introduction of IT. And byconstructing a platform*3 that accumulates and processes all types of construction-related dataand providing access even to competitors, the company is increasingly becoming the main pillar
in the construction solution business.
Even though it is presently limited to the field of civil engineering, including site
preparation, etc., it may eventually expand into building construction work. Together with IT, AI
and robotics companies, the general construction industry and the housing industry should
continue searching for businesses that will create new social value and develop these into theircore businesses in the future.
So far, growth of the Japanese economy has been supported by initiatives in which
industry, academia and the government are in close cooperation. In terms of technology, further
developing the housing and construction industries in Japan, which are already highly advanced,
will require not only technological development and technological innovations but also
restructuring of social systems to produce new value. It is thought that, in the future as well, the19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

6

key to promoting social system reforms and technological innovations in an integrated andeffective way will be cooperation between government sectors in charge of policy and private
sectors in charge of research and technological development – in other words, the promotion ofopen innovation in cooperation between industry, academia and the government.
4. Conclusions
Technological developments in the construction and housing industries in Japan during
the 1970s and 1980s were promoted through participation by major companies in national
technology development projects under government leadership, and these produced results.
However, in terms of technological development currently in progress, it is necessary tocooperate with start-up companies in fields other than the construction industry that possess
advanced technologies, including IT and robotics. In particular, it is necessary to proceed in adifferent way than before, including in relation to the state of government subsidies for researchand development, etc. In addition, in regard to the ideal state of construction production in the
future, it would be preferable to construct a vision that can be shared by society as a whole and toproceed research and development aligned with society as a whole.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to express deep gratitude to all of the researchers who provided advice regarding
the writing of this paper.

References[1] Kazunobu Minami, Adaptable Infill for the Durable and Sustainable Japanese Housing, December 6th, 2018,
ORAL presentation at the Conference Strand: 1. Energy, Natural Resources and Built
Environment, The 18th Science Council of Asia Conference “Role of Science for Society:
Strategies towards SDGs in Asia”, Science Council of Japan (SCJ)[2] Kazunobu Minami, Japanese Innovation in Adaptable Homes, Loose-Fit Architecture: Designing Buildings for
Change AD, pp. 38-45, Willy, September 2017, Alex Lifschutz (Editor) et.al.. Profile 249 Volume
87 No 5[3] Kazunobu Minami a, The efforts to develop longer life housing with adaptability in Japan, PROCEEDINGS
pp.755-766、SBE16 Tallinn and Helsinki Conference; Build Green and Renovate Deep, 5-7
October 2016, Tallinn and Helsinki[4] Kazunobu Minami b, The Adaptability of Long Life Housing in Japan - Case Studies of Century Housing System(CHS) -, 11th International Symposium on Architectural Interchanges in Asia (ISAIA 2016),
September 21st-22nd, 2016[5] Kazunobu Minami, Long-Term Occupancy Records and Infill Renovation of Housing Designed Based on theCentury Housing System, The Future of Open Building Conference 2015, ETH Zurich, September
9-11 2015[6] Kazunobu Minami, ANALYSES OF LONG TERM OCCUPANCY RECORDS OF PUBLIC HOUSING IN
JAPAN, Architecture in the Fourth Dimension Methods + Practices for a Sustainable Building
Stock, Proceedings of an International Conference of CIB W104 Open Building Implementation
and CIB W110 Informal Settlements and Affordable housing, pp.287-293, November 15th -17th
2011[7] Kazunobu Minami, The New Japanese Housing Law to Promote The Longer Life of Housing And Exaple of
Changes in The Layout of Public Housing Over 40 Years In Japan, Changing Roles; New Roles,19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

7

New Challenges, pp.449-455, October 5-9,2009, Noordwijk aan Zee, The Netherlands[8] Kazunobu Minami, A Study on the Continuous Customization of an adaptable housing by KEP System,
Adaptables2006, TU/e, International Conference On Adaptable Building Structures,
July,2006,Vol.1, PP.2-101～106[9] Lead and disrupt: how to solve the innovator's dilemma, Charles A. O'Reilly III and Michael L. Tushman,
Stanford Business Books, c2016, Japanese Translation by Noriko Watanabe, Feburary 2019[10] Komatsu NEWS RELEASE No.017（2852）“DANTOTSU Value-FORWARD Together for Sustainable
Growth”, April 26th 2019, https://home.komatsu/jp/press/2019/ management/1202302_1600.html ,viewed May 2019

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Mold and Dampness in Unplanned Urban Houses in the Hot and Humid
Climate of Indonesia
Tetsu Kubota1, Jumpei Sumi2, Kresna Bhayu Adinugraha3 and Usep Surahman4
Abstract
Many parts of Indonesian cities comprise unplanned houses, the so-called Kampongs. Most
Kampong houses are small detached houses constructed by non-professional workers in densely
crowded settlements. Mold and dampness are commonly seen in Kampongs particularly during therainy season along with seasonal floods, and therefore adverse health effects, especially
respiratory diseases, are suspected among residents. We investigated the mold risk using fungal
detectors (n=68) and the self-reported prevalence of respiratory diseases using a questionnaire
form (ATS-DLD-78) (n=599) in a typical Kampong neighborhood in the city of Bandung,Indonesia during 2018-19. Mainly due to the high humidity conditions, most houses were sufferedfrom severe molds. Approximately 79% of the measured rooms showed a possibility of moldpropagation even during the dry season, whereas more than 97% were categorized as severe
conditions during the rainy season. Nevertheless, further results showed that the respondents withsome symptoms of respiratory diseases tended to be exposed to a lower mold growth index
compared to those without any symptoms. The respiratory diseases might be attributed to outdoor
air pollutions as well.
Keywords: Mold, Dampness, Health, Tropics, Kampongs

1.

Introduction

Microbial pollution involves hundreds of species of bacteria and fungi that grow indoors
when sufficient moisture is available. Exposure to microbial contaminations is clinicallyassociated with respiratory symptoms, allergies, asthma and immunological reactions [1]. The
presence of many biological agents in the indoor environment is due to dampness and inadequate
ventilation [1-2]. Excess moisture on almost all indoor materials leads to growth of microbes,
such as mold, fungi and bacteria, which subsequently emit spores, cells, fragments and volatileorganic compounds (VOCs) into indoor air [1]. Moreover, dampness initiates chemical or
biological degradation of materials, which also pollutes indoor air. Dampness has therefore beensuggested to be a strong, consistent indicator of risk of asthma and respiratory symptoms (e.g.
cough and wheeze) [1].
Indonesia has a population of more than 150 million as of today and it is still risingparticularly in the urban areas. In order to accommodate growing number of urban population,
now the central government is highly promoting provisions of affordable housing. But still, many
parts of Indonesian cities comprise traditional unplanned houses, the so-called Kampongs. Most
Kampong houses are small detached houses constructed by non-professional workers in densely
crowded settlements (Fig. 1). Mold and dampness are commonly seen in Kampongs particularly
during the rainy season along with seasonal floods, and therefore adverse health effects,
especially respiratory diseases, are suspected among residents. We investigated the mold risk
1

Dr. Associate Professor, Graduate School for International Development and Cooperation, Hiroshima University;
Research Institute for Human Settlement and Housing, Ministry of Public Works and Housing, tetsu@hiroshimau.ac.jp
2
Graduate School for International Development and Cooperation, Hiroshima University
3
Graduate School for International Development and Cooperation, Hiroshima University
4
Department of Architecture, Indonesia University of Education, Indonesia

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

10using fungal detectors and the self-reported prevalence of respiratory diseases using aquestionnaire form (ATS-DLD-78) in a typical Kampong neighborhood in the city of Bandung,Indonesia during 2018-19. This paper reports the results of the investigations to analyze an
association between the mold risk and the prevalence of respiratory diseases.
2.

Methods

A typical Kampong neighborhood, comprising 360 households, was selected in Bandungas a case study area (Fig. 1). After obtaining a consent from the head of the neighborhood
association, the field measurements and interviews were conducted during the dry season(October 2018) and the rainy season (March 2019). The subjects investigated include 333 and266 residents in dry and rainy seasons respectively for the interviews, and 34 and 34 houses forfield measurement of air temperature (AT), relative humidity (RH) and mold risk.
The interviews were conducted using a questionnaire form, comprising the American
Thoracic Society-Division of Lung Diseases (ATS-DLD-78) [3] and several additional questions,among others: personal attributes, building attributes, cleaning habits, window-opening behavior
and smoking habits. The ATS-DLD questionnaire has been validated in many previous studies [4]and commonly used to evaluate general respiratory health. The questionnaire comprises
questions for symptoms of cough, phlegm, wheezing, breathlessness, chest colds and chest
illnesses. Moreover, occupational history and tobacco smoking habits were additionally asked for
adults, among others.
Fungal contamination was predicted by using a fungal detector developed by Abe [5]. The
fungal detector encapsulates dried fungal spores and nutrients to measure fungal index. The
fungal index, defined by Abe [5], quantifies the capacity for mold growth in an environment
being examined, and therefore it is considered one of the useful indices for evaluating
microclimates for potential mold growth (Table 1) [6]. The mold measurements were taken at
approximately 10 cm above floor in the master bedroom during the dry and rainy seasons,respectively. AT and RH were measured using a small recorder (T&D 72ui, 72wf & 73u) at thesame places.
3.

Results and Discussion

3.1 Profiles of Respondents
Out of the respective samples (i.e. dry season (n=333) and rainy season (n=266)), there
are intersections of 77 respondents. As shown in Table 3, the average age of respondents in dry
season is 34.3 years, including 16.5% of children aged 12 years old and below. The majority of
respondents are classified as the income group of US$ 150-450 (monthly average). Averagely,
they open windows for approximately 8-9 hours in the bedroom and 7-8.5 hours in the livingroom. They tend to open windows during the daytime. As shown, approximately 69% of the
respondents (active; 32%, passive; 37%) are exposed to ETS during the dry season, while morethan 98% (50% and 48%) are suspected during the rainy season. Moreover, more than 45% of the
respondents (dust; 29%, chemical; 17%) are exposed to dust or chemical fumes during theirworking time, whereas more than 70% (49% and 22%) are suspected during the rainy season

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

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Table1. Fungal index (6)FungalLevel
index

Predicted
propagation of
fungi

A

<2

No propagationB

2–5

Low possibilityof propagationC

5 – 15

Possibility of
propagation

D>15

High possibilityof propagation

Remarks
Good environment
There is no problem in terms of fungi, but there is apossibility of propagation of mites, which requires
countermeasures. Dehumidification is recommended.
Fungi prevention measures are recommended.
Dehumidification is recommended.
Fungi prevention measures are required. Dehumidificationis needed for living rooms and regular cleaning is needed
for wet areas, such as bathroom.

Figure 1. Kampong houses in the case study area.

Table 2. Number of samples

Samples
Questionnaires (ATS-DLD-78)
Measurements (Mold risk)

Dry season
333

Rainy season
266

Total
599

34

34

68

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

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Table 3. Profile of respondents and overview of building attributes, interior sources andperceived dampness
Years [mean]
Male/ Female< 150
150-450
450-750
> 750

34.3
45/55
36.2
43.6
8.5
4.3

Rainy
season
47/53
25.9
62.4
9.4
2.4

Hours

7.9

8.8

Hours

7.0

8.5

ActivePassive
[%]

32.3
37.0
29.1

50.0
48.3
49.0

Dry season
Age [%]
Gender [%]Income (US$) [%]Personal
attributes

Window opening in
bedroom
Window opening in livingroom
Smoking behavior [%]HealthWork in dusty job
Exposed to gas or chemical
fumes
AsthmaEczemaAllergy
StressAge of building
No. of windows in masterbedroom [%]Building
attributes

No. of windows in livingroom [%]
HVAC system [%]Modification(s)Furniture (units)

Dampness

Visual mold
Mite
Water leakage
Smell / Odor
Humidity [%]IAQ [%]

Perceived IAQ

OAQ [%]
Annoyance by outdoor air
pollution [%]How to clean room
Cleaning
behavior
How to dry laundries

[%]

16.9

22.3

[%]
[%]
[%]
[mean: 0 = no stress, 10 = very
stressful]
Average age [years]
0
1
>1
0
1
>1
AC
Ceiling / stand fan
Exhaust fan

13.8
13.5
13.6

6.7
-

1.5

0.9

39.9
25.9
50.6
23.5
34.6
42.0
23.5
5.6
50.0
21.4

41.8
18.5
49.2
32.3
22.8
35.1
42.1
8.0
-

[%]

-

59.7

Living room [mean]
Bedroom [mean]
[%]
[%]
[%]
[%]
0-3: (rather) dry
4-6: neutral
7-10: (rather) humid
0-3: (rather) clean
4-6: neutral
7-10: (rather) dirty
0-3: (rather) clean
4-6: neutral
7-10: (rather) dirty
0-3: not annoyed
4-6: neutral
7-10: annoyed
Sweep
Wipe
Vacuum cleaner
OthersIndoorOutdoorAt veranda
Others

3.1
2.4
51.3
17.0
48.3
40.9
24.3
45.2
30.5
35.4
50.3
14.4
28.7
52.8
18.5
57.6
34.3
8.1
95.0
4.2
0.0
0.8
13.7
59.8
9.4
17.1

34.1
11.0
50.6
55.9
28.2
43.5
28.2
42.0
44.3
13.6
38.6
46.6
14.8
69.4
18.7
11.9
98.9
1.1
0.0
0.0
10.1
44.9
30.3
14.6

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

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The average age of buildings is about 40 years in the dry season and 42 years in therainy season. It should be noted that approximately 26% and 35% of houses do not have any
windows in the master bedroom and the living room respectively in the dry season, whereas
about 19% and 23% of houses do not have them in the rainy season. Dampness is commonly
seen in Kampong houses. As shown in Table 3, visual mold was reported in approximately 51%
and 34% of the houses during the dry and rainy season, respectively. About 17% and 11% of thehouses reported mite problems in dry and rainy season, respectively. Water leakage was reported
particularly in the rain season (51%), and smell and odor were reported more in the rainy season
as well (56%). Meanwhile, approximately 14% of the respondents perceived IAQ to be dirty inthe both seasons. On the other hand, about 15-19% of the respondents perceived OAQ to be dirty
in the two seasons. Approximately 8-12% of the respondents were annoyed by the outdoor air
pollutions.

3.2 Self-reported respiratory health: ATS-DLD-78
Magnitude of symptoms on respiratory health (i.e. asthma, cough and phlegm) was
evaluated through the ATS-DLD-78 questionnaire (Fig. 2). In the dry season, the percentages of
those who have severe symptoms (i.e. sickness) and some degrees of symptoms account for
0.3%/16.1% (asthma), 1.9%/21.9% (cough) and 3.2%/9.6% (phlegm). The percentages are
increased in the rainy season especially in persistent cough, and the percentages are 0%/7.6%(asthma), 4.0%/25.4% (cough) and 1.3%/12.7% (phlegm).

3.3 Mold risk
The measured average AT and RH (at the same places of fungal detectors) aresummarized in Fig. 3. As shown, in the dry season, the outdoor AT ranges approximately from
21.3-27.3°C with an average of 24.2°C, whereas the corresponding indoor AT ranges from 23.626.3°C with an average of 24.9°C. In the rainy season, the outdoor AT maintains almost the sameas that of the dry season (approximately 22.1-26.4°C), but indoor AT was averagely increased toapproximately 24.7-26.8°C. Meanwhile, in the dry season, the outdoor RH ranges approximatelyfrom 56-100% with an average of 81%, whereas the corresponding indoor RH ranges
approximately from 71 to 86%. In the rainy season, the outdoor RH is increased to 70-97%,
while the indoor RH is averaged at 82%. The results clearly indicate extremely high humidity
conditions in Kampong houses even in the dry season.
Mold growth was evaluated in terms of fungal indexes ranging from A to D (see Table1). The results show that as expected, approximately 79% of the houses are classified as C or D
even in the dry season, whereas more than 97% are classified as D, which shows a highpossibility of propagation, in the rainy season. It should be noted that in the rainy season, morethan 44% of the houses recorded the maximum fungal index of more than 70.
Fig. 5 depicts the relationship between the measured thermal conditions and the moldindexes. As shown, the mold conditions are severe particularly when the indoor RH exceeds
70%. The measured mold indexes slightly vary even when the indoor RH is more than 70%
probably due to the other dampness conditions such as water leakage and floods.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

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3.4. Factors affecting the respiratory health
110

Relative humidity (%)

No
Nosymptoms
symptom

100

30
28
26
24
22

90
80
70
60
50

20

40

18

30
Dry

Rainy

Out door

Dry

80
60
40

0
Dry

IndoorRainy

Dry

Out door

AsthmaasthmaRainy

IndoorFrequency (%)

asthmaPersistent Persistent Asthma
coughphlegm(a) Dry season (n=310)

Figure 2. Self-reported respiratory health.

(a) Dry season (n= 34) (b) Rainy season (n= 34)

C D

C D

40
30
20
10
0
<7
7-15
15- 20
20- 3030- 4040- 5050- 6060- 70> 70
0< 8.2
8.2- 15
15- 20
20- 3030- 4040- 5050- 6060- 70> 70

Fungi index (- )Fungi index (- )Figure 4. Measured fungal indexes in Kampong houses.

Fungal index <15

)

27
26
25
Outdoor ave AT

23
22

Outdoor ave RH

Mean air temperature ()

〇 Fungal index (NA)

28

60
70
80
90
100
Mean relative humidity (%)(a) Dry season

Persistent Persistentcoughphlegm(b) Rainy season (n=173)

Figure 3. Statistical summary of outdoor and indoor AT
and RH in dry and rainy season.

024

Sickness

20

Rainy

50

have
Have/hada symptom
symptom(s)or had it

100
Percentage (%)

32

Mean air temperature (Air tempreature (℃)

34

15<Fungal index<70

70<Fungal index

28
27
26
25
24

Outdoor ave AT

23
22

Outdoor ave RH

60
70
80
90
100
Mean relative humidity (%)(b) Rainy season

Figure 5. Relationship between thermal conditions and mold risk.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

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Table 4. Results of correlation analysis for Respiratory health (dry season)
A: Asthma, C: Persistent cough,
P: Persistent phlegm
Personal attributes
Age groupa
Gendera
Living in home [years]b
Incomeb
Window-opening_ bedroomb
Window-opening_ living roomb
Active smoking
Passive smoking
Work in dusty job
Exposed to gas or chemical fumes
HealthAsthmaa
Eczemaa
AllergyaStressb
Building attributes
Age of building [years]b
No. of windows_bedroomb
No. of windows_living roomb
ACa
Furniture living roomb
Dampness
Visual molda
Mitea
Water leakage
Smell/Odor
Humidity
Perceived IAQ
IAQ ratingb
OAQ ratingb
Annoyance by outdoor air pollution
Creaning behavior
How to clean room
How to dry laundries

A

C

P

0.33
0.49
0.09
0.38
0.97
0.31
0.18
0.06
0.64
0.20

0.51
0.34
0.35
0.03
0.08
0.03
0.84
0.35
0.00
0.06

0.29
0.66
0.66
0.04
0.59
0.08
0.47
0.00
0.22
0.33

0.00
0.42
0.04
0.25

0.03
0.77
0.02
0.02

0.03
0.08
0.00
0.07

0.69
0.37
0.40
0.73
0.30

0.66
0.26
0.61
0.53
0.94

0.04
0.60
0.07
0.61
0.32

0.29
0.91
0.42
0.42
0.68

0.45
0.00
0.00
0.55
0.19

0.89
0.01
0.09
0.01
0.28

0.26
0.47
0.42

0.45
0.68
0.02

0.24
0.48
0.05

0.33
0.14

0.75
0.81

0.00
0.81

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

16
Asthma Persistent cough Persistent phlegm

Asthma80

Persistent Cough

Persistent Phlrgm＊＊

Fungal index (-)

70
60
50
40
30
20
10

Nonproblematic

Problematic

Nonproblematic

Problematic

Nonproblematic

Problematic

0

Duration of opening windows (h)Figure 6. Measured fungal indexes by problematic/ non-problematic respiratory health groups (dry season).
Asthma24

Persistent phlegm

Persistent cough

24

24

18

18

18

12

12

12

6

6

6

0

0
0

1

2

3

4

Degree of symptom (- )

5

0
0

1

2

3

Degree of symptom (- )

4

0

1

2

3

Degree of symptom (- )Figure 7. Relationship between duration of opening windows and respiratory health (dry season).
ap-value of Chi-Square-Test, b p-value of Spearman rho, red: Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed), green:
Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)

By taking the degrees of symptom of respiratory diseases (i.e. ATS-DLD-78) as the target
variable, we conducted correlation analyses in order to determine the factors affecting the
respiratory health of occupants (Table 4). As shown, the average household income is associatedwith respiratory health, particularly in terms of cough and phlegm. This may reflect their job
occupations and basic sanitary conditions, but further analysis is required. The average durationof opening windows negatively affect the degree of asthma symptoms (the more they open
windows the less the symptoms are), but it has positive associations with persistent cough andphlegm. As expected, passive smoking is associated with asthma and persistent phlegm inparticular. Meanwhile, those who work in a dusty job tend to have a higher symptom of cough inparticular. Previous history of asthma, allergy and stress are also associated with the current
symptoms as expected. Furthermore, the age of buildings negatively associates with the phlegm
symptoms, which requires further investigation.
Unlike other previous studies, visual mold does not show significant associations withrespiratory health in this survey, although other dampness indicators, including mite and waterleakage and smell/odor, are associated with persistent cough and/or phlegm. On the other hand,when it comes to the perceived IAQ, it is seen that those who are annoyed by the outdoor air
pollutions tend to have higher degrees of persistent cough and phlegm.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

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We divide the samples into two groups in terms of respiratory health conditions (i.e.
problematic and non-problematic groups) and compare the two groups in terms of the measured
fungal indexes (Fig. 6). As shown, unexpectedly, those who have no respiratory symptoms tend
to be exposed to higher fungal indexes, especially in terms of persistent cough and phlegm.
Further investigations are required to clarify the reasons (e.g. it is necessary to identify the
species of mold contained in the air). However, the results imply that there is a possibility that
respiratory health of these Kampong residents is influenced not only by indoor mold anddampness but also, rather, by outdoor air pollutions, among others. Fig. 7 analyses the respiratory
health symptoms by the average duration of opening windows. Interestingly, especially inpersistent cough and phlegm, there are two modes in terms of the respiratory health symptoms.
The first mode appears when the duration of opening windows is close to zero (i.e. windows areclosed for 24 hours), and the second mode is observed when the duration is about 12 hours/day.
The results imply that their respiratory health is influenced by the two sources (i.e. indoor
sources such as mold and ETS, and outdoor sources such as traffic air pollution) respectively,
depending on the window-opening conditions.

4.

Conclusions

We investigated the mold risk using fungal detectors and the self-reported prevalence of
respiratory diseases using ATS-DLD-78 in a typical Kampong neighborhood in the city ofBandung, Indonesia during 2018-19. The main findings from the investigations are summarized
as follows:

As expected, Kampong houses were suffered from severe mold growths. Even in the dry
season, approximately 79% of the houses showed a possibility of mold propagation and
68% were considered to be a high possibility of propagation. In the rainy season, morethan 97% of the houses were classified as a high possibility of propagation.



The possibilities of propagation were mainly due to the very high humidity conditions.
The outdoor RH was averaged at 83% while the corresponding indoor RH was averaged
at 82% during the rainy season.



Nevertheless, further results showed that the respondents with some symptoms ofrespiratory diseases tended to be exposed to lower mold growth conditions compared tothose without any symptoms. On the other hand, respiratory health of occupants,
particularly persistent cough and phlegm, were associated with average householdincome, duration of opening windows, passive smoking, working environment (dustyjob), medical history such as asthma, eczema and allergy, age of buildings, dampness
such as mite, water leakage and smell/odor, and annoyance by outdoor air pollution.



The results implied that their respiratory health was influenced by the two sources (i.e.
indoor sources and outdoor sources) respectively, depending on the window-opening
conditions. When they close windows, indoor sources such as mold and ETS may become
the main causes of prevalence of respiratory diseases. Meanwhile, if they open windows,
then the indoor sources can be less influential, but the occupants are exposed to the
outdoor sources more such as traffic air pollutions.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

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Acknowledgements
This research was supported by a grant from the Sumitomo Foundation. We also would like to sincerely
thank the students in Indonesia University of Education (UPI) who supported the surveys in Bandung. We also
appreciate the supports from the Laboratory for Mold Prediction in Japan.

References[1] WHO, “WHO Guidelines for Indoor Air Quality: Dampness and Mould”, WHO Regional Office for Europe,
2009.
[2] Olaf C.G. Adan, Robert A. Samson (eds), “Fundamentals of Mold Growth in Indoor Environments and Strategies
for Health Living”, Wageningen Academic Publishers, 2011.
[3] Ferris B.G., “Epidemiology Standardization Project (American Thoracic Society)”, Am Rev Respir Dis, 1978,
vol.118, pp.1-120.
[4] Hawari F.I., Obeidat N.A., Ghonimat I.M., Ayub H.S., Dawahreh S.S., “The effect of habitual waterpipe tobaccosmoking on pulmonary function and exercise capacity in young healthy males: A pilot study”,
Respiratory Medicine, 2017, vol. 122, pp. 71-75.
[5] Abe K., “A method for numerical characterization of indoor climates by a biosensor using a xerophilic fungus”,
Indoor Air, 1993, vol. 3, pp. 344–348.
[6] Laboratory for Mold Prediction, “Additional Guidelines for Fungal Detector”, Laboratory for Mold Prediction,
Tokyo, Japan, 2004 (in Japanese) (unpublished).

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Retail Site Location in Dagon Myothit (North) Township Using GIS
Khin Mi Mi Win1 , Khin Khin Htay2, Lae Lae Mon3

Abstract
The opening of a new establishment is a critical factor for firms in the retail sector. This article
presents the development of a methodology for the process of selecting a retail site location thatcombines geographic information systems (GIS). The social, economic and environmental
impacts of large-scale retail outlets on existing retail and urban systems have been extensively
discussed in the planning literature. This article documents the last two decades oftransformation in Dagon Myothit (North)'s market sector, which have been characterized by amore organized development of the sector than traditionally existed. Changes in the economy
and related legislation prepared a base for the subsequent transformations of that decade,culminating, especially in large cities, in the development of shopping malls as alternative retailspaces to traditional markets and stores on a shopping street. This article may provide
implications for urban policy and retail planning in Dagon Myothit (North) Township. The case
may also be interesting for urban areas experiencing similar patterns of change anddevelopment, that is, where the globalization process in retailing and consumption-related sites
began later than in other countries and observed fast-paced development.
Keywords: Retail development, Shopping mall, GIS, Urban policy

1. Introduction
Retailing is defined as the sale of goods and articles individually or in small quantities
directly to the consumer, which involves selling relatively large quantities of goods, especially toretailers. Retail location analysis is an important part in site selection of a retail shop. Spatial
arrangement of retail shops is one of the most important indicators in the development process ofa town. The influences on the location of retail areas, they usually co-vary most closely withpopulation density. This paper presents the development of a methodology for the process of
selecting a retail site location that combines geographic information systems (GIS).
The main objectives of this research work are to assess the driving force of the emergenceand spatial distribution of retail shop and to analyze the relationship between location of retailshop and urban infrastructure in Dagon Myothit (North) Township.
Dagon Myothit (North) Township is one of 12 townships of Eastern Yangon District inYangon Region. (Figure. 2) It lies between North latitudes 16 51 and 16 55 and between East
longitude 96 10 and 96 14. The area of Dagon Myothit (North) is 26.28 square kilometer(10.145 square miles) constituting 27 wards. (Figure 3)
In 2019, the total population was 196199 persons with 92774 males and 103425 females
and the average population density was 7465persons per square kilometre. The population
distribution in Dagon Myothit (North) is highly uneven. More people are concentrating aroundthe main road and junction’s area. East longitude 96 10 and 96 14. The area of Dagon Myothit(North) is 26.28 square

1

Dr. Professor, Department of Geography, University of Yangon, Yangon, Myanmar
khinmimiwingeog@gmail.com
2
Department of Geography, Bago University, Bago, Myanmar kkhinhtay.geog@gmail.com
3
Department of Geography, University of Yangon, Myanmar. laelaemon69@gmail.com

20

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Figure 2. Location of Dagon Myoyhit (North) Township
Source: Map Based on 1:50000UTM Map No.1696-01

Figure 1. Location of Yangon Regions in Myanmar
Source: UTM Map of Myanmar Survey Department

Figure 3. Location of Wards within Dagon Myothit(North) Township
Source: Township General Administrative Department

2. Method
Data processing was done from extracting geographic objects such as ward boundaries
roads and streets by using based map of topographic map (1: 63360 and 1:50000) and Google
earth images of geographically references data. Retail shops data from field survey (2018), using
analysis of geospatial analysis and geostatistical analysis. Location of retail shop is analyzed bynearest neighbor analysis, directional distribution (Standard Deviation Ellipse) and cluster
analysis (Anselin Moran I) which are used to present uneven distribution of retail shops.

3. Results and Discussion
For analysis purposes, retail shops can be divided into seven main types in Dagon
Myothit (North) Township. They are (I) Food and Beverages, (II) Services, (III) Personal Goods,(IV) Building Material Shop, (V) Grocery Shop, (VI) Fabric shop and (VII) Others. (Table 1)
The total number of retail shops was 727 in 2018. In survey 2018, study area of 27 wards foundin total retail shop is 727 shops. It has 39.61 % of shop type I, 22.42% of shop type II, 15.54 % ofshop type III, 7.02 % of shop type IV, 4.40 % of shop type V, 3.58 % of shop type VI and 7.43 %of shop type VII respectively. (Table 2, Figure.4) In the study area, largest retail shop type is type
I of food and beverages shop. Retail shops are appears to the increasing population within a shortspan of time. Retailers are consideration of sold to meet the threshold of customer. Customers are19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

21

attracted the retail shops location on basis of accessibility of road side area. High accessibility
area are enhances retail shops clustering pattern. Therefore, various types of retail shops wereconcentrated along the Pyi Htaung Su Road, Pin Lon Road, Bo Hmu Ba Htoo Road and U
Wizara Road for having high population density and good accessibility. Among the various
types of grocery, food and beverages shops, 75% are dynamic type and include such shops as dry
goods, Monghinga and quid of betel, etc. Each of them can move and open easily in every
suitable place. Therefore, food and beverages shop, and grocery shops are of footloose and hence
have dispersed distribution pattern. Majority of the personal goods and fabric shops are found in
linear pattern along the Pinlon Road. Building Material shops have both cluster and dispersed
patterns. The building material shops selling likes sand and gravel shops are found along the
Ngamoeyeik creek. Distribution pattern of services and other shops are somewhere between theclustered and dispersed pattern due to their type of function. For example, car workshop and car
spa shops can be found on either side along the road. Some services like mobile phone services
and beauty palor can be found in every ward. (Figure. 5)
Table1. Classification of Retail Shops
Type I

Food and Beverages

Tea shop, Coffee shop, beer station, cold and softdrink, liquor house, restaurant, Monhinga ,Shannoodle food, snack shop, chicken fried shop, riceand curry, Thai food etc,

Type II

Services

Beauty Palor, photo studio, photo copy service,clinic, car workshop, car spa service, T.V repairing
service, KTV lounge, lottery shop, phone repairing
service, purified drinking water service

Type III

Personal Goods Shops

Gold Smith shop, medicine store, cosmetic store,
monk’robe and utensils shop, mobile shop, slipper
shop

Type IV

Building Material Shop

Brick and sand shop, ceiling plate shop, timbershop, bamboo shop

Type V

Grocery Shop

Rice and edible oil shop, vegetable shop, ngapi anddried fish shop

Type VI

Fabric Shop

Textile shop, fashion shop, clothes shop

Type VII

OthersFurniture house, animal food shops, banner shop,
pet shop, microfinance, floral and gift shop

Source: Field Observation (November, 2018)

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

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Table2. Total Number of Retail Shop by Types (2018)
Types
I

Name

Number%Food and Beverages

288

39.61

Services

163

22.42

III Personal Goods

113

15.54

IV

Building Materials

51

7.02

V

Grocery

32

4.40

I

Fabric

26

3.58

VII

Others

54

7.43

Total

727

100

II

Figure 4. Total Number of Retail Shop by Types(2018)

Source: Field Observation (November, 2018)

The nearest neighbor analysis compares the observed average distances between nearest
neighboring points and those of a known pattern. This test is required because a point distribution
pattern is examined visually whether it is cluster or dispersed or not. It is also explained bycomputed R scale value. It is difficult to get exact conclusion on clustered or disperse pattern
without calculating significant test to accept or reject R value. Therefore, significant test is
calculated. The observed average neighbor distance, expected average neighbor distance, nearest
neighbor statistics (R), and standardized Z score of the all types of retail shop are calculated topresent clustered and dispersed pattern in the study area. According to nearest neighbor statistics,
type I, II and III are more clustered than a random pattern since their nearest neighbor value isless than 1. It has been observed that type V is more dispersed pattern then their nearest neighborvalue is more than 1. (Table.3)
Table.3 Average Nearest Neighbor Analysis
P ValueSignificant Level

Types

Z scoreI-9.037151

0.000000

0.721642

ClusteredII-5.550311

0.000000

0.772756

ClusteredIII-5.546916

0.000000

0.727239

ClusteredIV

0.671261

0.502054

1.049133

RandomV

1.352297

0.000138

1.352297

Dispersed

VI

0.288505

0.772960

1.029576

RandomVII

0.504186

0.614131

1.035864

RandomSource : Field Survey and NN Analysis

R value

Distribution

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

23

Source: Field Observation (Nov, 2018)
Figure 5. Distribution of Retail Shop by Types in Dagon Myothit (North) TownshipDirectional Distribution (Standard Deviational Ellipse) measures a distribution of features
exhibiting a directional trend. Standard Deviational Ellipse provides information on the
directional bias of their locations and also indicates the direction of urban growth. (Figure. 6) The
most retail shops are found in southeast and northwest of the area. It is caused by situation of
Ngamoeyeik Creek serving as northwest and southeast boundary.

Figure 6. Directional Distribution of All Retail Shop in Dagon Myothit (North ) Township

Given a set of weighted features, identifies statistically significant spatial outliers using theAnselin Local Moran's I statistic. Calculates as formula:19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

24

Where:
Nis the number of observations (points or polygons)

Xiis the variable value at a particular location

Xj

is the variable value at another location

Wij

is a weight indexing location of i relative to j

The most common measure of Spatial Auto Correlation is used for points or polygons. It
joins Count Statistic only for polygons. Use for a continuous variable (any value) and join countstatistic only for binary variable (1,0)

Table.4 Anselin Local Moran's I Analysis of All Retail
Shops

Group

Value

NumberWorkers

1

HH

50

10-30

2

HL

8

5-10

3

LH

5

3-5

HH=High cluster, High Value
HL=High Cluster, Low Value
LH=Low Cluster, High Value
Figure 7. Anselin Local Moran's I Analysis of All Retail Shops

4. Conclusion
This paper analyzes the retail site location in Dagon Myothit (North) Township by using
data obtain from Township Administrative Department and Yangon City Development
Committee. To find out the relationship between retail shop and urban infrastructure like mainroad, Nearest Neighbor Analysis, Directional Distribution and Anselin Local Moran's I Analysis
are used. According to the nearest neighbor analysis result is type I, II, III more cluster than thetype V, VI and VII. As a result of directional distribution (standard deviation ellipse) of all typeof 27 wards northwest and southeast direction are similar to the settlement expansion pattern androad pattern. Result of Cluster and Outlier Analysis (Anselin Local Moran's I) – U Wizara Road,
Pinlon Road and Bo Hmu Ba Htoo road are high cluster value of total retail shops in Dagon
Myothit (North)Township. (Z score 7.14 & P value 0.00). As a result, retail shop distribution
pattern are related to the population density, road network expansion and settlement expansion

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

25

pattern. According to geospatial statistics analysis, the large numbers of retail shops are situatedat both sides of main road. It shows that transportation roads really have an effect on
development of retail shops in this area. Therefore retail site location, shops distribution pattern
and trend are indicate the urban development processes.
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to Professor Dr Htun Ko, Head of the Geography Department,
University of Yangon for his kind permission and encouragement do this research paper.
Thanks are due to the respective authorizes Dagon Myothit (North) Township Administrative Department
and the responsible persons and local people of Township for their ready help in data collection and willing
responses to open talk.

References[1] Aung Kyaw (2006):Spatial Structure of Retail Shops in Loikaw Town, Journal of Myanmar Art & Science, 2006
Vol IV, No 6 (ii)[2] Khin Khin Htay (2015): Geostatistical Analysis on Retail shops Distribution of 13 wards and Bardo Village in
Loikaw Township, Departmental Research Paper, Department of Geography, Loikaw University[3] Lee,J. and Wong,D.W.S.(2000): Statistical Analysis with Arc View GIS. John Wiley & Son,Inc.New York
[4] Ye Wint Htut (2009): Retail Markets in Dagon Myothit (North) Township, Unpublished MRes: Paper, Submitted to the
Department of Geography, Dagon University

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Geospatial Analysis of Solid Waste Management in Bago City, Myanmar
Khin Khin Htay1, Khin Mi Mi Win2, KhinKhin Han3, Zaw Zaw4
Abstract
Solid waste management of the study area is one of the basic factor to urban development planningof an area because of municipal solid waste is related the systematically collected system. This
study only concerns with the urban area covering Bago City which has solid waste collection
system and solid waste dump site area in the study area. The primary objective of this study is topractically apply geostatistics tools that can help to improve an evaluation of municipal solid waste
for a particular area. A set of geostatistics tools has been applied to the different real data sets
which were collected of solid waste form as household, market, commerce, hotel, garden and otherwaste. There are different methods of data analyses use in this study, which include: (1) spatial
source of solid waste, (2) spatial solid waste collection systems, (3) Extend sustainable
management of solid wastes, (4) Exploratory Geostatistical Data Analysis. As a result of spatial
waste collection system in Bago city and spatial variation dump sites. Conclusion andrecommendation of this paper are spatial management of municipal solid collected andsustainability of waste management, encourage people to think about the reduce, reuse andrecycle, increase awareness raising the waste management system.
Keywords: Geospatial, Geostatistics, Municipal solid waste, Sustainable

1. Introduction
Solid waste is the useless, unwanted and discarded material resulting from day to day
activities in the community. It is widespread problem in both urban and rural areas in many
developed and developing countries. Solid waste management may be defined as the discipline
associated with the control of generation, storage, collection, transfer, processing and disposal ofsolid waste. The present paper based on the study carried out on solid waste management practicein Bago City in Myanmar. Bago city is the economic development of lower Myanmar, locatedbetween 17° 14′13.59″ North latitude and 17°21′35.56″, between 96°26′15.15″ and 96°30′59.46″
East longitudes. This study was also designed and managing waste sustainably to study thecomposition of solid waste in Bago city. Municipal solid waste (MSW) collection and disposal isone of the major problems of urban environment in most countries worldwide today. Municipal
solid waste management (MSW) solutions must be financially sustainable, technically feasible,socially, legally acceptable and environmentally friendly. Current Municipal Solid Waste
Management (MSWM) system in the city of Bago is open dumping system and challenges are
insufficient monitoring system, lack of people awareness, law enforcement and lack of researchdevelopment facilities. In this situation, it is important to understand the current potential ofenvironmental impact of current system in order to set up the new effective management system.
Bago City has the 31 wards and central part of the city across the Yangon-Mandalay highway
road. There are 53217houses in Bago city and the total population is 222309 in 2018. The
average annual rainfall is 285.1 mm in 2018. In this paper, study on the geospatial analysis ofmunicipal solid waste management and sustainable development of solid waste management
system in Bago City.
1

Dr. Associate Professor, Department of Geography, Bago University, Myanmar, kkhinhtay.geog@gmail.com
Department of Geography, University of Yangon, Myanmar, khinmimimwingeog@gmail.com
3
Professor and Head, Department of Geography, West Yangon University, Myanmar,
drkhinkhinhan2013@gmail.com
4
Assistant Lecturer, Department of Geography, Bago University, Myanmar, Zinlay23837@gmail.com
2

28

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Figure 1. Location of the Study Area
Source: Based on Topographic Map (1:50000) and Google Earth Images (2017)

2. Methods
Garbage truck location data, waste collect sites data and waste collection routes data from
Bago City Development Committee (BCDC) and field surveys in 2019. Methodology uses of thispaper are geostatistical data analysis of the measures of Incremental spatial autocorrelation andothers relevant statistical methods.
3. Results and Discussion
Solid waste can be classified into different types depending on their sources: These are(1) Municipal Solid Waste (MSW), (2) Hazardous Wastes, (3) Industrial Wastes, (4) Agricultural
Wastes, (5) Bio-Medical Wastes and (6) Waste Minimization.
In this paper, examine the Municipal Solid Waste Management of the Bago City area.
Municipal solid waste (MSW) management solutions must be financially sustainable, technicallyfeasible, socially, legally acceptable and environmentally friendly. Solid waste management issue
is the biggest challenge to the authorities of both small and large cities’. Municipal solid waste
includes ash generated in thermal or electric power plants, sludge from wastewater treatment
plants, animals’ farm waste and gangue rocks from mineral extraction.
The activities associated with the management of municipal solid waste from the point ofgeneration to final disposal can be grouped into the six functional elements. These are Waste
generation, Storage, Collection, Transportation, Segregation & Processing, and Disposal. These
municipal solid wastes including household kitchen waste as well as the domestic food wastefrom restaurants and markets consist of high lignocellulose materials that could be decomposedand exploited to produce valuable bio-products.
Solid waste management issue is the biggest challenge to the authorities of both small andlarge cities. Total solid waste generation is 84 tons /day in Bago city. From that solid waste

29

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

generation per person is approximately 200 gm/capita/day. Solid waste collection system arethree time per day, first time of the day collected the along the Yangon-Mandalay highway roadof garbage truck at 7am to 10 am. Second time of day collected the within the Wards at 10 pm to
12. The third time of day is collected the 1 pm to 3 pm. But, collected of car routes are distributethe whole wards except the Okkthar (9) Ward the southern part of City.

Plate 1. Solid Waste collection Sites in Bago City

Source: Field Survey, 2019 August

Table 1. Sources and Types of Solid Wastes
SourceResidential
Food

Industrial

Commercial

Institutional
Construction
anddemolition
Municipal
services

Process

Typical waste generators

Types of solid wastes

Single and multifamily dwellings

wastes, paper, cardboard, plastics, textiles,
eather, yard wastes, wood, glass, metals,
ashes, special wastes (e.g. bulky items,
consumer electronics, white goods, batteries,oil, tires), and household hazardous wastes
Light and heavy manufacturing, Housekeeping wastes, packaging, foodfabrication, construction sites,
wastes, construction and demolition
power and chemical plants
materials, hazardous wastes, ashes, special
wastesStores, hotels, restaurants,
Paper, cardboard, plastics, wood, foodmarkets, office buildings, etc.
wastes, glass, metals, special wastes,
hazardous wastes
Schools, hospitals, prisons,Same as commercial
government centers
New construction sites, road
Wood, steel, concrete, dirt, etc.
repair, renovation sites,
demolition of buildings

Street cleaning, landscaping,parks, beaches, other recreational
areas, water and wastewater
treatment plants
Heavy and light manufacturing,refineries, chemical plants,
power plants, mineral extraction
and processing

Street sweepings, landscape and tree
trimmings, general wastes from parks,
beaches, and other recreational area, sludge
Industrial process wastes, scrap materials,
off specification products, slag, tailings

Source: World Bank 1999

In the Bago City, the Nearest Neighbour Analysis (NNA) result, garbage truck location
pattern is the cluster pattern, Z score values is -6.22 and P value is the 0.000. According to the
Nearest Neighbour Analysis (NNA) result, the whole city of garbage site location are near to the30

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

each other’s and suited the along the Bago-Yangon highway road and not suited the other parts of
the Wards.
Highest population and houses of the Bago City is the Mazin Ward 23124 and 4752
house, Nantawyar Ward as 35076 and 7922 house in 2018 respectively. Mazin Ward is near to
the Garbage Truck, Nantawyar Ward is not near the Garbage truck. But collected the waste by
car system routes are more the Nantawyar Ward, Ponarsu Ward, Zaypaing, Nyaungwaing-south,
Nyaungwaing-north, Zaing-south, Zaing-north, Hintharkone and Bokone Ward. Garbage trucks
collected and collected by car of wastes are combined to the site of Sinphyukwin disposal sitearea. Sinphyukwin disposal site area is only the dump site, not repair the waste.

Plate 2. Classification of Solid waste in Bago City
Source : Bago City Development Committee

Figure 2. Garbage Truck Location andpopulation in Wards of Bago City
Source : Data from the Bago City Development
Committee and Bago Township Administrative

Figure 3. Solid waste collected routes and Houses of Ward in Bago City
Source: Data from the Bago City Development Committee and Bago Township Administrative Office

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

31

Measures of Incremental spatial autocorrelation for a series of distances and optionallycreates a line graph of those distances and their corresponding z-scores. Z-scores reflect theintensity of spatial clustering, and statistically significant peak z-scores indicate distances where
spatial processes promoting clustering are most pronounced. These peak distances are often
appropriate values to use for tools with a Distance Band or Distance Radius parameter.

Figure 4. Spatial Autocorrelation by Distance of Garbage Truck Location and Waste tons
Source: Result of the Incremental Spatial Auto correlation

The center of the study area lies between Zaing-south and Shinsawpu Ward which islocated the Yangon-Mandalay railroad. All the places of Garbage-truck location are found within
the radius of 2100 meter. There are two peaks distance of garbage-truck sites and waste tons
within the study area. One peak distance is about 757.70 meter and another is about 1719.04
meter away from the center Figure 5.

Figure 5. Spatial Autocorrelation by Distance of Solid Waste collected routes and DistanceSource: Result of the Incremental Spatial Auto correlation

The center of the study area lies between Zaing-south and Shinsawpu Ward which islocated the Yangon-Mandalay railroad. All the waste collect route location is found within theradius of 2600 meter. There are two peaks distance of garbage-truck sites within the study area.
One peak distance is about 1219.97 meter and another is about 2226.65 mete away from thecenter Figure 5. In 2017, Cooperation of Bago Municipal Development Committee and Green
World Energy Co.., Ltd surveyed the waste of City area. In survey, composition Municipal Solid
waste were separate of food and garden waste, plastic/rubber, glass, paper, metal, inert andtextile. In this survey, food and garden waste is highest collect of 75.87 percent, the second is theplastic/rubber waste is 15.49 percent and the metal waste is lowest collect as 1.78 percent show
Figure 6.

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Figure 6. Composition of Municipal Solid Waste in Typical in Bago City Development Committee
Source : Data from Department of Bago Municipal

According to the 2017 survey, Bago Municipal Development Committee has municipal
solid collected and sustainability of waste management encourages. It plan will be need the landarea about 30 acres. Bago Municipal Development Committee is innovate the people to think
about the reduce, reuse, recycle and increase awareness raising the waste management system.

4. Conclusion
The activities associated with the management of municipal solid waste from the point ofgeneration to final disposal can be grouped into the six functional elements. There are Waste
generations, Storage, Collection, Transportation, and Segregation & Processing Disposal. In
Bago City, BCDC is serves as the waste storage, collection and transportation. The collected data
show that the maximum proportion of refuse caused by food and garden wastes, second highest
was plastic waste and the third highest was inert material. Percentage of Plastic carry bags washigher, where glass, ceramic and metals were nearly equal with each other in Bago City. As thedisposal site is at 6.22 km away the City center and big and smaller vehicle are used for thetransportation of solid waste. In Bago City areas: Primary collections are from households andblocks using carts or tricycles. Collectors transport the waste to local depots. Secondary
collections use dumper trucks to transport waste from the depots to the disposal sites. Disposal in
landfill sites typically 6-8 km from the wards in Bago City. Usually “open dump” sites but there
are small engineered landfills in Bago. In the landfill area of advantages are minimizes humancontact with the waste, Some potential for energy recovery, no need for separate collections anddisadvantages are an expensive solution, more economical at large scale, still some risk ofleachate pollution and gas emissions, Sites can be active for many decades, no potential forrecycling, leachate and run off a particular problem in the rainy season. Future waste
management plan of Bago City, MJT Group of Agricultural Machinery Co., Ltd will start tomanagement of waste. In this project will start to test period at 1.9.2019 to 31.9 2019 the
Leikpyarkan, Shinsawpu and Bokone Wards area. It should be done throughout the year. MJTGroup plan will collected plastic waste and after renew of plastic seeds and others will make thebio-fertilize. System should be based on Environmental protection rules (reduce, recycle, reuse
and recover) Public awareness, political will and public participation as essential for the
successful implementation of the legal provisions and to have an integrated approach towards
sustainable management of municipal solid wastes. There should be sufficient health and safety
provisions for workers at all stages of waste handling. Finally, understand the amounts andcomposition of solid waste produced in Bago City. Appreciate Myanmar’s waste management

33

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

policy and plans. Understand the concept of “stakeholders”. Identify the stakeholders involved inwaste management in Myanmar people.
Acknowledgements
We would like to express our thanks to Dr Aye Aye Tun, Rector, Bago University for her permission andadvice. And then our thanks are also due to Dr Yin Yin Than, Pro-Rector, Bago University for her encouragement
and suggestion. I also thanks to Dr Mar Mar Khin, Professor and Head, Department of Geography, Bago University
for their suggestion. Moreover, we are greatly thanks to local people in Bago Region and all teachers of Geography
Department, Bago University for their help to get the data and conducted field survey.

References[1] Ashish R et.al, Solid Waste Management – Case Study, International Journal of Research in Advent,Technology, Volume 2, Issues 1, January 2014.
[2] Kurian Joseph, Perspectives of solid waste management in India, International Symposium on the Technology
and Management of the Treatment & Reuse of The Municipal Solid Waste, Shanghai, China,
2002.
[3] Hussein Abdel-Shafy, Solid waste issue: Sources, composition, disposal, recycling, and valorization, Egyptian,
Journal of Petroleum- 27 (2018) 1275–1290, 2018.
[4] Gaurav K. Singh, Kunal Gupta, and Shashank Chaudhary, Solid Waste Management: Its Sources, Collection,
Transportation and Recycling, International Journal of Environmental Science andDevelopment, Vol. 5, No. 4, August 2014.
[5]Mainstreaming Integrated Solid Waste Management in Asia - Solid Waste Management Team, Integrated Solid
Waste Management Plan Mandalay, Mainstreaming Integrated Solid Waste Management in
Asia, 2016.
[6]Tin Min Htoo, Yoshiro HIGANO, The Environmental Impact Assessment of Current Municipal Waste
Management System in Yangon City, Myanmar, Research Paper, 2016[7]Frank Kreith, Hand Book on Solid Waste Management, The McGraw- Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved,
Manufactured in the United States of America, 0-07-135623-1, 2002
[8]Bago City Development Committee and Green World Energy C., Ltd, Statistical Analysis Report of Solid Waste
management in Bago City, Bago City Development Committee, 2017

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Establishment of Sustainable Port Criteria in Myanmar
Mee Mee Soe1, Min Han Htet2, Khin Nawarat3

AbstractMoving towards a sustainable port is a balance between the socio-economic development andprotection of ecosystems. This paper attempts to establish the appropriate criteria to develop astandard for the sustainable port in Myanmar. It is based on the concrete literature reviews ofsustainable principles not only from the Asia but also from all over the world for port
development. After that, data collection and analysis step is performed to point out the current
situations and challenges of port sector intended for sustainable future in Myanmar.
Interviewing with the government agency like Port Authority and stakeholders are comprised tocollect the data. Based on these local challenges facing in port industry, opinions fromgovernment authorities and stakeholders in combination with the reviews on sustainability
principles, the criteria for a sustainable port which is the most promising for Myanmar are
established.
Keywords: Challenges in port sector, Sustainable port criteria, Myanmar ports

1. Introduction
Sustainability is “Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs” by Brundland Report [1]. Sustainability concept
consists of environmental, economic and social dimensions and these three dimensions also
referred as the triple bottom line of sustainability [2]. Ports are very complicated and combined
activities of various services which have a wide range of environmental issues such as water
releases, harmful emissions, waste and noise production and pollution [3, 4]. Seaports arenotorious to be serious polluting industry; however, they have many opportunities for reducing
emissions and pollutions [5]. Sustainability in the port industry is of growing source of fear for
port authorities, policy makers, port users and local communities [6]. Therefore, sustainability is
one of the important concepts for port industry and implementation of sustainable port
development which satisfy economic, environmental and social dimension are intension ofcurrent and future generation. To achieve this intension, there are no exact determinations ofsustainable port development criteria. To fulfil this gas in the literature, the present study aim tocontribute the sustainable port criteria by analyzing the published databases in the literatures andby enquiring some experts and scholars from port related industry.
2. Literature Review
2.1 Sustainable Development – Shipping
Shipping operations interact with environment in many ways, either accidently or
intentionally (Talley, 2006a) [7]. Heaver, (2006 b) reported such interactions of shipping
operation with environment are generating substantial damages to natural habitats and affecting
1

Dr, Lecturer, Department of Port and Harbour Engineering, Myanmar Maritime University,
meemeesoe@gmail.com
2
Dr Associate Professor, Department of Marine Engineering, Myanmar Maritime University, mhhtet79@gmail.com
3
Teaching Assistant, Department of Port and Harbour Engineering, Myanmar Maritime University,
khinnawarat.ph.mmu@gmail.com

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

36

maritime related economic activities such as ports[8]. Gupta et al. (2005c) studied that theenvironment is suffering from oil and chemical spills from ships [9]. In these aspects, Yang et al.,2013 suggested shipping firms are increasingly expected to adopt green practices to their systemand process that promise environmentally friendly to the international community [10]. Cheng
and Tsai (2009 a) also stated that it is a challenge for shipping firms how to perform shipping
operations profitably with reducing their negative impacts on the environment [11].
The environmental impact on water quality and atmospheric pollution caused from ship
operations were studied by several authors. Frankel (1987 b) included the impact of ballast wateron port design and development plan [12]. Maritime operations such as bunkering may cause oilspill risks with potentially terrible impacts on beaches, food chains, sediment and fishingcommunities (Edoho, 2008; Idemudia and Ite, 2006c)[13,14]. Backhurst and Cole, (2000)
concluded that ship operations such as anchoring may damage irreplaceable environments [15].
Gupta et al. (2005) studied various environmental impacts on surface water quality caused byship and port discharges such as sewage, bilge, sludge, waste, oil discharges and leakages ofharmful materials [9].
The emission from ships would affect the air quality in the port and surrounding areas.
Zonn (2005b) studied the environmental pollution such as NOx, carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur
dioxide (SO2) emission caused by shipping, ports and terminals [16]. It is reported that
containerships are by far the most important source of CO2 emissions in the shipping industry(Psaraftis and Kontovas, 2009b) [17]. Walsh and Bows (2012b) studied the correlation between
ship emissions and size as well as ship type [18].
Table 1 . Typical Survey Form which identify the Challenges by Activities with the importantlevel to do the sustainable port development(for one of challenges: Air Pollution/ Quality (emission of NOx, SOx, Black Carbon, PM,
VOC’s, etc.))
Important Level

Air Pollution/ Quality (emission of NOx,
SOx, Black Carbon, PM, VOC’s, etc.)

I

II

III

IV

V

1

By Land Use

☐

☐

☐

☐

☐

2

By Hinterland Connectivity

☐

☐

☐

☐

☐

3

By
Port
Structure
Construction

☐

☐

☐

☐

☐

4

By Shipping Vessels

☐

☐

☐

☐

☐

5

By Port Vessels

☐

☐

☐

☐

☐

6

By Port Operations

☐

☐

☐

☐

☐

7

By Cargo Handling Equipments

☐

☐

☐

☐

☐

8

By Land Traffic (Truck, Cars, etc.)

☐

☐

☐

☐

☐

9

By Bunkering

☐

☐

☐

☐

☐

&

Port

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

37

Important Level

Air Pollution/ Quality (emission of NOx,
SOx, Black Carbon, PM, VOC’s, etc.)

I

II

III

IV

V

10

By Dredging

☐

☐

☐

☐

☐

11

By Fisheries

☐

☐

☐

☐

☐

12

By Recreation and Tourism

☐

☐

☐

☐

☐

13

By Cargo Storage

☐

☐

☐

☐

☐

14

By Oil and Chemical Spill

☐

☐

☐

☐

☐

15

By Ballast Water Disposal

☐

☐

☐

☐

☐

2.2 Sustainable Development – Port
Ports are considered responsible for a wider set of impacts and seek to resolve short-term
views, private and public interests, and commercial and social objectives (Dooms et al., 2012c)[19]. However, (Acciaro et al., 2014a; Dinwoodie et al., 2012d) reported that port activities haveadverse consequences on the environment effects [20, 21]. Puig et al., 2014b indicated that port
activities would facilitate commercial and economic growth, but also likely cause deterioration of
air and marine water quality in the surrounding [22]. In the year of 2015b, Wang et al.,investigated port energy efficiency with financial success. They reported a framework ofassessing energy efficiency of port operations on the data from public and data base. [23].
Port authorities and administration have to perform sustainable port in a satisfactory of
economic demands, environmental and social activities. Daamen’s (2007a) investigate portsustainable development in two different geographies to find a new typology and newinterpretation of the contemporary port-city interface [24]. Abood K. A. (2007b) made asustainability framework of New York Port with eight port operational topics such as dredging,ballast water, habitat restoration, air quality, water/energy/material conservation and waste
handling [25]. In (2012e) Lam and Van de Voorde made a gap analysis for ports to formulate theconcept of green and sustainable port strategy [26]. Jonathan et al. (2014b) propose a sustainable
port planning model with the aid of basics of sustainability [27]. Hosseini et al. (2014c)
investigated to 381 people to acquire urban sustainable development from citizens’ rights pointand determined most and least effected identifiers on sustainable port-city development [28].
Kutkaitis et al. (2014d) conducted interviews with practitioners of port and logistics sector to
identify the criteria of sustainable port development. Hence, they prepared a set of indicators that
determine different levels of sustainability of ports [29]. The decision making process of port
authority using the literature review method is suggested by Martino, 2014e [30]. In Roh et al.
(2016b) conducted in-depth interviews with Asian port authorities to determine the main factorsthat shaping sustainable port development. As a result, they identified key elements ofsustainable port development from port authorities’ perspective [31].
3. Method and Methodology
In this study, proposed indicators of sustainability are air pollution, water pollution, soil
pollution, sediment pollution, waste, hazardous waste, noise, habitats loss and so on. The values

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

and limitations of those indicators have not been measured currently and have not been found indetail in the literatures. Moreover, there is a need to collect in-depth information on people’s
opinions, particular idea, experiences, desire, and so on. In this regards, a qualitative researchtechnique such as structured-interview- research- methodology was conducted as a datacollection (Boyce, C. and Neale, P., 2006d) [32]. For a structured interview, a set of standard,predetermined questions/survey forms are prepared for particular topics in specific orders. For
the calculation of weighted values, very high important (I), high important (II), medium
important (III), low important (IV) and no important (V) are set up as 5,4,3,2 and 1, respectively.
For the interviews, the experts and scholars from port related industry such as Hohai University,
Shanghai Maritime University, Myanmar Maritime University, Myanma Port Authority, andDepartment of Marine Administration in Myanmar have been asked through email using thepredetermined survey forms.
4. Results and Discussions
4.1 Current Situations and Challenges
By doing the concrete literature review and discussion with the experiences of port andsustainable fields, the challenges for sustainable port development and port activities which makethe challenge can be presented as shown in Table 1. By using this survey form, the opinions canbe collected via emails. And then the survey data are weighted and the analysis results ofimportant levels are organized in Table 2. This table can be easily observed by using color cells.
Since water pollution/ quality by oil and chemical shows 100% in the color table, it can beclearly assumed that this challenge is the most important one to be performed in achieving thedesired sustainable purposes.
The following factors are pointing out the percentage of above 80 percent. Land use,
hinterland connectivity, land traffic, oil and chemical spills are the main causes of Air pollution/
quality. The three activities that causes water pollution are land use, dredging and ballast waterdisposal activities. The activities that causes soil pollution/ contamination are land use, hinterlandconnectivity and oil and chemical spills. Sediment pollution/ contamination is caused by land use
and dredging activities. Waste is formed mainly by land use activities. Hazardous waste is mainly
resulted from oil and chemical spills. Noise and higher energy consumption are the results of port
structures construction. Land use, hinterland connectivity and land traffic causes traffic
congestion. Port structures and dredging causes sedimentation in the vicinity of the port. Landuse, hinterland connectivity, oil and chemical spills, ballast water disposal are the main reasonsfor habitat loss of marine organisms. The challenges concerning with the above mentioned
activities are the second important challenges to be performed to achieve sustainable purposes.
The following activities can be performed and solved by taking time since they are 60 to
80 weighted activities. Noise and energy consumption caused by land use and sedimentation/
erosion problems are the activities which are necessary to take actions. Waste and noise resulted
from hinterland connectivity should be take into account to meet the sustainable requirements.
Air, water, soil and sediment pollution, waste, traffic congestion, erosion and habitat loss causedby type of port structures and construction should be considered to reduce the sustainably against
situations. Air and water pollution, various waste, noise and energy consumptions are mainly
caused by shipping vessels. And also, air and water pollution, hazardous waste, noise and energy
consumption are caused by port vessels. Moreover, air pollution, waste, hazardous waste, noise,energy consumption and traffic congestion are mainly caused by port operations.

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The challenges caused by Cargo handling equipment, land traffic, bunkering, dredging ,fishery, recreation and tourism, cargo storage, oil and chemical spills, ballast water disposal etc.
can be observed in the following color map according to their important level as shown in
Table 2.
Table 2. Results of Important level of Activities and Challenges Relationship for Sustainable Port
Development

Ballast Water Disposal

Oil and Chemical Spill

Cargo Storage

Recreation and Tourism

Fisheries

Dredging

Bunkering

Land Traffic (Trucks,
Cars, etc…)

Cargo Handling Equipment

Port Operations

Port Vessels

Shipping Vessels

Port Structure and Port
Construction

Hinterland Connectivity

Land Use

Activities By

Air Pollution/ Quality (emission of NO x ,SO x , Black Carbon, PM, VOC’s, dust,
etc..)
Water Pollution/Qualityx

Soil Pollution/Contamination

Challenges

Sediment Pollution/Contamination

x
x

Waste
Hazardous Waste
Noise
Energy Consumption
Traffic Congestion
Sedimentation
ErosionHabitat Loss

4.2 Sustainable
Criteria
For Myanmar80%Port
Development
100%
100% ‐ 80%‐ 60%
60% ‐ 40%

40% ‐ 20%

20% ‐ 0%

Proposed sustainable criteria based on the review of the guidelines of international ports
4.2

Sustainable Criteria For Myanmar Port Development

Proposed sustainable criteria based on the review of the guidelines of international ports
and the analysis of the port operation experience and challenges with Local Port Authority andstakeholders are listed as follows:
Land use mainly causes pollution and waste. It can also happen traffic congestion, energy
consumption, noise, and habitat loss. Effectiveness of existing ports should be promoted with thesustainable practices instead of building a new one. If a new port has to be propose in order tomeet the country requirement, a well-made feasibility study should be prepared to choose thelocation which is the least environmental damage one. Public space and habitat conservation
desire should be added in port area planning for the health, recreation and the nature. Port
stakeholders’ meeting should be held with well-prepared port master plan to decide the land use
and local people participation should also be emphasized.
Mode of transport connecting the ports with industrial zone, downtown area and otherhubs, etc. should be carefully analyzed in order to avoid the traffic congestion. Transport
connectivity plan is vitally needed with the suitable mode of transport. Especially rail transport

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

network should be arranged with the collaboration of related sectors. So that, the consequencessuch as time-consuming, feel tired, fuel energy loss and risk of accidents between containers,
regular-size cars, slow moving vehicles and people, etc. of uncomfortable transport system canbe avoided. Furthermore, Myanmar’s inland waterways should be more encouraged doing theinvestment for cargo and container transportation. This method is cost-effective and it can be
reduced the traffic congestion and energy consumption. For the existing ports, current
transportation network should be requested to submit and if necessary, appropriate modifications
for better network should be done under the charge of the government with the full effort of port
owners.
Erosion and sedimentation conditions in water area caused by existing jetty and port
structures should be analyzed and informed to the corresponding authorized body. Also the
proposed solution to these observed problems should be attached during the inform process.
Erosion and sedimentation estimation must be perform before constructing a new structure. The
technologies and designs which coincide best to the sustainable requirements should be usedduring the whole construction process. Sustainable codes for design and construction are also
necessary to establish.
Shipping and port vessel causes pollution and waste, energy consumption and noise. The
type and size of allowable shipping vessels should be according to the international sustainable
criteria. The shipping vessels should follow the rules and regulations which are establishedaccording to the international standards. Strict monitoring and actions should be taken for theenforcement of rules and regulations.
Noise and air pollution caused by port operation in port area should be assessed by using
monitoring devices. The methods using in the port facilities should coincide with the sustainableneeds. Renewable resources such as solar, wind and tidal energy should be replaced in theconventional resources. LED technology should be replaced in lighting inside the port area. Light
reduction equipment should be used to reduce annoyance to the nearby residential area [33].
In practice, cargo handling equipment consume large amount of energy. Replacing smart
and green cargo handling equipment in port operation can not only reduce the energy
consumption but also protect the environment and increase the cost efficiency [34].
Air pollution, traffic congestion, noise and energy consumption can be reduced byestablishing good driving practices and applying well trained drivers in land traffic.
Transfer procedures among vessels, bunker stations, bunker vessels, terminal and trucks should
be well defined and followed to avoid the pollution and hazardous waste.
In Myanmar, the energy consumption for maintenance dredging works is very large.
Dredging is also a major issue to be considered in achieving sustainable requirements. To reduce
the energy consumption in dredging works, the location of the deep sea ports should be proposed
to an area where dredging works are not necessary. Even if necessary, the proposed site should
be chosen wisely where the dredged material can be reused. If disposal of dredged material isunavoidable, the disposal site should be analyzed and allocate carefully.
Since fishery can affect health and environment, good management is required in thesefishery ports. Good fishing practice and management should be launched for the reduction ofwaste. Warning and taking action by using severe penalty system can be used to reduce waste

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

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and noise caused by recreation and tourism. Ballast water disposal can cause the habitat loss ofmarine organisms. Taking actions in enforcing the existing laws can enhance the protection of
the species. If oil and chemical spills occurred, air and water pollution and the habitat loss ofmarine organisms can happened in serious condition. Therefore, the rules and regulations
concerning with oil and chemical spills should be establish precisely and accurately. And also
even when spills happened, taking action effectively and removing in a very quick mannershould be performed to avoid the unnecessary circumstances.

5. Conclusion
In this paper, we have tried to point out the sustainable challenges by port activities
intended for Myanmar ports. The literature was concretely reviewed to identify the activities andchallenges. And then the important level of challenges was collected with surveying theexperiencers and specialist of port and sustainable fields and it can be seen the colour table toanalyze easily. . Later this can be done the large scale for sustainable purpose with more activities
and challenges. It was found that land use, hinterland connectivity, are the main activities forsustainable challenges and also port structure and construction, dredging, oil and chemical spill,ballast water disposal cause the challenges This paper proposed some sustainable criteria in
accordance of challenges of Myanmar ports such as effective land use, Inland water way
transport, Ship size and type limitation, enforcement of rules and regulations.

Acknowledgements
This paper is the first step of our proposing the sustainable criteria for Myanmar port sector and we would
like to thank Dr. Tao Aifeng, Dr. Mu Mu Han, Dr. Myo Nyein Aye, Mr. Ye Naing for supporting of their valuable
experience.

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[4] Darbra, R. M., “Marine pollution bulletin,” 2005, 50.8: 866-874.
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Cesun2012, 2012a.
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[7] Talley, W.K., “Port performance: an economic perspective,” in Brooks, M. R. and Cullinane, K. (eds.),
Devolution, Port Governance and Port Performance, Amsterdam: Elsevier Ltd., 2006a, pp. 499516.
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Devolution, Port Governance and Port Performance, Amsterdam: Elsevier Ltd., 2006b, pp. 11-41.
[9] Gupta, A.K., Gupta, S.K. and Patil, R.S., “Environmental management plan for port and harbor”, Clean
Technologies and Environmental Policy, 2005a, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. pp. 133-141.
[10] Yang, C.S., Lu, C.S., Haider, J.J. and Marlow, P.B. , “The effect of green supply chain management on green
performance and firm competitiveness in the context of container shipping Taiwan,”Transportation Research Part E, 2013, Vol. 5, pp. 55-73.

42

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)[11] Cheng, Y.H. and Tsai, Y.L., “Factors influencing shippers to use multiple country consolidation services ininternational distribution centers,” International Journal of Production Economics, 2009a, Vol. 122,
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[12] Frankel, E.G., Port planning and development, New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc., 1987b.
[13] Edoho, F.M., “Oil transnational corporations: corporate social responsibility and environmental sustainability,”
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October 2018

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Effective Control of Hybrid Solar-Hydro Renewable Energy System
Wut Hmone Oo 1, Khin Mar Win 2, Hla Htay Win3
Abstract
This research presents the control system of prototype hybrid power driven by two sources ofrenewable energy which purpose is to provide the continuous electrical power using solar-hydrorenewable energy system without causing the environmental pollution. The voltage generated
from the solar panel and waPter mill will be stored on a large battery by two different modes, realtime mode and switching mode. The real time clock module is used to control the real time datafrom solar phase during the daytime and a hydro phase is used at night. The solar voltage isrecognized as the first priority charging mode from 8:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. and the hydro charging
mode will start working after solar charging time. Since the availability of voltage from solar andwater sources depends on the weather condition, the switching mode needs to be manuallychanged in the hybrid control system. The hybrid system operates only with higher power sourceby reading the voltage firstly and then switching the voltage given by higher power plant. The
system is constructed with a programmable microcontroller development board, voltage divider
circuits, real time clock module, a few input switches and charging control circuit.
Keywords: solar energy, hydro power, hybrid control system, renewable energy sources

1. Introduction
Nowadays, pollution is one of the most serious problems in the world. The best way of
reducing CO2 emission is to use clean source of electrical energy produced from renewableenergy. Among these renewable sources, hydroelectric power and solar power are the two mostcommon sources for generating electricity for rural areas. However, these energy sources greatly
depend on weather conditions and possess inherited intermittent nature. So, hybrid system, one of
the complex control systems due to integration of two or more renewable energy, becomes asolution to those limited conditions [1]. The power generation capacity of hybrid system is morethan the power generation capacity of the individual system. The major advantage of solar-hydrohybrid energy system is that when used together, reduces the cost of supplying electricity [2]. In
solar-hydro hybrid system, solar panel directly converts solar radiation into electrical energy andhydroelectric system is the process of generating electrical energy by converting kinetic energy
of water into mechanical work to turn the turbine [3]. This hybrid power system is suitable forremote places. Rural areas need generation in the form of hybrid power system [4].The scope ofthe hybrid renewable power system is very high and it is very advantageous for both rural andurban areas [5]. In Myanmar, especially in Tanintharyi Region which lies on the southern part of
Myanmar in North Latitude 13° and East Longitude 98°45´, fifth largest region in Myanmar,
majority of rural areas are still lack of electricity. Therefore, candles and oil lamps are still being
used in those areas. The photograph of the map of Tanintharyi Region is expressed in figure 1
and it is the best location for generating renewable energy such as solar energy from sunlight,
and hydro power from water resources. As per annual data recorded from regional department ofmeteorology and hydrology, both the rainfall (inches) and the sunshine hours in Tanintharyi
region is the higher and longer than those in other cities in Myanmar. The Monthly maximum
1

Department of Physics, Dawei University, Myanmar, hmone1390@gmail.com, +959422203725
Engineering Physics Department, Mandalay Technological University, Myanmar, drkhinmarwin@gmail.com
3
Department of Physics, University of Bago, Myanmar, hlahtayphy2016@gmail.com
219th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

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rainfall, Average monthly rainfall, monthly maximum sunshine and average monthly maximum
sunshine are illustrated in figures 2-5. So, the effective control of hybrid system is one of themain advantages for rural areas in this region and can provide a good solution for those areas,villages nearby the rivers, streams, mountain, waterfall, and under sufficient sunshine.
Furthermore, the system can solve the demand of electricity in regional problem successfully.

Figure 2. Monthly maximum rainfall

Figure 1. Map of Tanintharyi Region Myanmar[www.researchgate.net]

Figure 3. Average monthly rainfall

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Figure 4. Monthly maximum sunshine

45

Figure 5. Average monthly maximum sunshine

2. Design and Simulation of Hybrid Power Control System
2.1 Circuit Simulation
The Proteus 8.1 software is a Printed Circuit Board (PCB) design software integrated withthe simulation of the circuit design. The main purpose to design with Proteus software is to get
the optimum circuit diagram. In this research the circuit design consists of eleven main parts;
an 8-bit programmable microcontroller (ATmega328p), a crystal oscillator, an alphanumericliquid crystal LCD display, a few control input switches, a real time clock module, three
voltage divider circuits that are used to divide the output voltages of solar plant, hydro plantand storage battery, transistors, relays driver circuits, storage battery, a 5V regulated power
supply circuit and a charge controller units. The control system operates together with the twodifferent power plants, charging controller circuit, inverter circuit and storage units. The basic
structure of the hybrid system is illustrated with a block diagram in figure 6. The complete
schematic diagram of hybrid solar-hydro control system is shown in figure 7.

Figure 6. Block diagram of the hybrid solar-hydro power control system

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Figure 7. Complete schematic diagram of hybrid power control circuit

2.2 Controller Circuit
The microcontroller is an 8-bit microcontroller and it is Atmega328p. The microcontroller
itself cannot operate to run the operation of the circuit; therefore, a program code was created anduploaded into the memory ROM of microcontroller before building the circuit. The programcoding was created by using Arduino IDE software. In this circuit design, the program memory
in microcontroller cannot execute each instruction without an external clock circuit. In this case,a 16MHz crystal oscillator is connected with the two pins of microcontroller. A real time clock
module circuit is included in this circuit design to control the hybrid power system according to
the real time data. The real time data can differentiate both day or night and seasonal periods ofmonth within a year. For the experimental process, it is required to create two different circuitboards to complete the prototype design for hybrid power control system since the design ofcircuit is very complex and consisting of numerous components. The circuits are known ascontroller circuit and switching circuit. The control circuit consists of four pairs of green
terminals, two on the upper edge and other two on the right edge of the circuit. The first terminalon the upper edge is to connect with the solar power plant. The second green terminal is toconnect with the hydro power plant. The first green terminal on the right is to connect withbattery storage. The second green terminal is to connect with the charge controller circuit.
Moreover, there are three voltage divider circuits with three trimmer resistors which are used todivide the voltage of solar power plant, hydro power plant and battery voltages. The control
sketch is written in c programming language and the flow chart of the hybrid power control
system is as shown in figure 8.
2.3 Switching Circuit
There are two relays and relay driver circuits. Each of the relays cannot be directly
operated with a microcontroller since it is a coil device. Therefore, the relays are used to switch
the connection between the storage battery and power plants. The common pin of each relays areconnected with the solar plant and hydro plant. The normally open pins of relays are connectedwith the storage battery. There are three control switches on the circuit, and they are wired as
active high input switches. They are connected with the three digital pins on the microcontroller.
In the moment, only one input switch is used and it is to change the operation mode between realtime control (RT CON) and higher voltage control (HV CON). Completely installed and ready to19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

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test circuit board is shown in figure 9 and default operating condition and voltage displays infigure 10.
2.4 Operation of Hybrid Power Control System
The whole circuit will operate with two 3.7V Li-ion batteries. It is not a suitable power
supply for the microcontroller and LCD display, real time clock module and relays on the circuit.
Therefore, a 5V regulator IC (7805) is utilized to become Vcc voltage level to 5V. When the
power supply on/off switch is pressed, the LCD display illuminated the data of clock on the firstline. Each voltage level is going to be illuminated on the LCD displays. But the actual maximum
input of analog voltage to the microcontroller was limited to 5V. If it is higher than 5V, themicrocontroller may damage. Therefore, voltage divider circuits are used in the design. The realtime clock function operation is very useful and the system operation can be automatically madeby predefined periods. In this design, the default mode operation for hybrid power control system
is “RT CON”. The operation period predefined for the solar power plant is within a period
starting from 8:00 to 17:00 hours. In the display photo as shown in figure the clock is 20 hour,and it is greater than17 hours predefined period, therefore the operation of hydro power plant will
be operated. The operation system is predefined for hydro power plant after solar charging time.
In this case, the switching on power plant is display on the screen “Hy_P_ON” (hydro power on).
If the time is between 8:00 and 17:00, the system will change the solar power plant automatically.
In this case, the switching on power plant is display on the screen as “S_P_ON” (solar power on).
In switching circuit, voltage divider circuits with blue trimmer resistors are used to divide theinput voltages of solar power plant, hydro power plant, and battery voltage terminals.

Figure 8. Flow chart of the hybrid power control system19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

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Figure 9. The photograph of the hybrid power control circuit

Figure 10. Default operating condition andvoltage display

Figure 11. Calibration of solar power plant voltage

Figure 12. Calibration of hydropower plant voltage

Figure 13. Calibration of storage battery voltage

Figure 14. The selection of operation mode for HV CON

3. Results and Discussion
The solar-hydro hybrid power control system is constructed and the operations have beentested for several times for different results. The hybrid control system is based on ATMEGA328
microcontroller. Moreover, there are two types of relay control pins, relay for hydro power plant
and relay for solar power plant. If the power output of solar power plant is higher than input fromthe other power plant, then the solar relay will operate. If the power output of hydro power plant
is higher than input from the other power plant, then the hydro relay will operate. The voltages ofeach power plant and battery shows 0V, since no power plant and battery are connected on theswitching circuit. Therefore, before connecting with any power plants, a variable power supply is19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

49

connected instead of solar power plant. Then, the variable power supply is switched on andchecks the result display screen on the voltage position of solar power plant. Figure 11 shows thecalibration of output solar power voltage plant in hybrid energy system. If the voltage difference
between the display of variable power supply and constructed circuit is not equal, it can be
adjusted by slowly turning the trimmer resistor with a small flat screw driver. Similarly, thevariable power supply is connected on other remaining terminal inputs and calibrated as shown infigure 12 and 13 respectively. The simulation carries out nearly 10 hours between 8:00 and 17:00
hours in a sunny day. In addition, the two power plants are combined with a microcontroller andmanage for real time control (RT CON) and higher voltage control (HV CON).So to be able touse effectively higher power source, the manual selection of either “HV CON” from “RT CON”
operation mode or “RT CON” from “HV CON” operation mode is required after reading thevoltage level. The press of mode switch toggle the two operation mode as shown in figure 14.The
availability of the electricity in Tanintharyi Region is only 10.7% and the lowest in Myanmar.
According to the results of the proposed research and the above data information shown in thechart, the rainy season is about 6 months and monthly maximum and average rainfall are 10.55
inches and 2.91 inches respectively as shown in figure 2 and figure 3 . Except the rainy period, it
is sunny over the course of the year.Monthly maximum and average sunshine are 11.2 hours and8.48 hours as shown in figure 4 and figure 5.Therefore, the hybrid power control system can be
the most suitable hybrid system to solve the lack of electricity and provide continuous power
generation in Tanintharyi region especially for rural areas.

4. Conclusions
The use of hybrid power control system is the most effective and efficient ways ofgenerating electrical power. The designed system is intended to reduce the cost of supplying
electricity and to solve the power requirement in rural community. Single source system provides
discrete power if the source is faced disable conditions. The solar-hydro hybrid system can beused in any region that has the sufficient solar radiation and sufficient kinetic energy of water
flow. In such region, the condition of solar power and hydro power will be power complement ofeach other when the seasonal and variations of the weather condition occur. According to theannual results of weather station of Tanintharyi region figures 2-5, solar-hydro hybrid systemshould be used rather than other renewable energy generating system. Hybrid system will be able
to provide the continuous power generating processes along the coastal region and forsustainable development. Although the system designed is made to be flawless, sudden
unexpected changes on weather conditions may arise problem states. But the causes of problem
state are negligible comparing with its overall advantages.

Acknowledgements
I would like to express my profound thanks to Professor Dr San San Aye, Head of Department of Physics,
and Professor Dr Khin Swe Oo, Department of Physics, Dawei University, for their kind permission to carry out thiswork. Special thanks are Dr Thiri Khin, Lecturer, Department of Physics, Dawei University, for encouragement andhelp during this work.

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References
Binayak Bhandari, Shiva Raj Poudel, Kyung-Tae. Lee, and Sung-Hoon Ahn, “Mathematical modeling of hybrid
renewable energy system: A review on small hydro-solar wind power generation”, 2014, Vol.1,
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Bhushan. D. Agarkar and Shivprakash B. Brave, “A review on hybrid solar/ wind/hydro power generation system”,
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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Applying High Performance Seismic Structures to All Asian Countries
Tsutomu Komuro1, Yozo Shinozaki 2 and Akira Wada3
Abstract
In 1868, Japan began importing science and technology from Europe and the USA, which havelittle experience with severe earthquake disasters. This was the beginning of great changes inJapan's civilization, culture and politics. Over time, vast cities with tremendous numbers ofbuildings, such as Tokyo, Osaka and Nagoya, became the centers of modern Japanese life.
Although Japanese society has always been concerned about earthquakes, people focused more on
economic growth during the modernization process than on protecting mega-cities from possible
natural disasters. Other Asian countries also have a similar pattern of development.Seismic designcodes focus on saving human life, not only in Japan but also in other Asian countries, the USA
and some European countries. Regulations generally allow for plastic deformation of building
structures in large earthquakes. Under such design standards, it is not necessary to ensure thatbuildings can continue being used after a major earthquake. However, if too many buildings –governmental, office, factory and residential – become unusable in an earthquake, a city cannot
survive and certainly cannot be described as resilient. As society becomes more dense, highpotential and excessively rational, we must develop more reliable structures using current
technologies of seismic isolation and passive earthquake control. We would like to introduce somebeautiful new buildings constructed with high-performance seismic structural systems to other
Asian countries and for Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
Keywords: Seismic Design, Human life, Business Continuity, Seismic Isolation, Response Control

1. Introduction
Through the experience of earthquakes over history, the seismic design sections ofJapan’s building standards law have been continually revised. A new seismic design method
enforced in 1981 is the current design code. The basic principle of this code is to limit structural
damage to within an allowable range in the case of small and medium earthquakes, while severe
damage (plastic deformation) is allowed in the case major earthquakes. The purpose is to prevent
buildings from collapsing with the primary purpose of protecting human life. In the 1995
Hyogoken-Nanbu Earthquake (the Kobe Earthquake), many buildings were severely damaged, as
shown in Figures 1 and 2. However, damage to buildings designed by the 1981 seismic designcode tended to be less than to older buildings, so engineers and bureaucrats believed that the
principle of the code was effective. However, the 1981 seismic design code alone is not sufficientfrom the viewpoint of maintenance or early recovery of building function and the seismic
resilience of mega-cities [1].

1Dr. Member, Architectural Institute of Japan, Taisei Corporation, komuro@arch.taisei.co.jp
Member, Architectural Institute of Japan, Taisei Corporation, sinozaki@arch.taisei.co.jp
3
Member, Science Council of Japan, Professor Emeritus, Tokyo Institute of Technology, ada@akira-wada.com
2

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

52

Figure 1. Pancake crushing of Kobe city hall

Figure 2. Building damage scene in Kobe

Since 1995, major earthquakes have occurred in many places in Japan and damage toactual building structures has been reduced. In particular, it has been found that damage tobuildings with seismic-isolation structures or response-controlled structures is very small.
However, there have been cases where damage to the finish, and to interior fittings, of buildings
designed by the current design code but lacking such advanced seismic technologies has had asignificant impact on business continuity after an earthquake.
In this paper, we report on several large earthquakes that have occurred in Japan since1995 and on the behavior of certain buildings. We describe advanced technologies, such as
seismic-isolation and damage-controlled structures, that have helped minimize earthquake
damage.

2. Nursing Home Facility Hit by Earthquake in 2004
During the period October to November 2004, a series of earthquakes took place about
80km south of Niigata city in Japan’s Chuetsu region. The main shock, named the 2004 MidNiigata Prefecture Earthquake, occurred on October 23. The magnitude was estimated at
MJMA6.8 by the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA). On the JMA scale of seismic intensity, theearthquake reached level 6+ to 7, which indicate extremely strong motion. Many aftershocks
including some of M6 class followed the main shock. The Fire and Disaster Management Agency
reported that there were 48 people killed and 634 seriously injured, with 3,181 completely
buildings destroyed and 13,531 heavily damaged in Niigata Prefecture.
The nursing home shown in Figure 3 is a five-story reinforced concrete building with aseismic isolation system [2]. It is located in Ojiya city and is about 7 km from the epicenter of themain shock (as shown in Figure 4). This facility was planned in 1995, just after the Hyogo-ken
Nanbu Earthquake that seriously damaged many buildings in Kobe city. Considering thatdamage, the decision was made that the facility should be able to maintain its function as a
medical service facility in the case of a major earthquake. Therefore, a seismic isolation system
was adopted as the main structural design feature for reducing earthquake damage.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Figure 3. Overview of nursing home

Figure 5. Structural section

53

Figure 4. Map of main shock intensity on JMA scale

Figure 6. Isolators(Upper: rubber bearing, lower: slide bearing)A structural section of the building is shown in Figure 5. The isolation devices (isolators)
are installed beneath the first floor. The building is supported by the isolators, 18 sets of rubber
bearings and 21 sets of slide bearings. As shown in Figure 6, the rubber bearing consists of thinlayers of natural rubber bonded to steel plates and the slide bearing consists of a 3-layer highdamping rubber bearing with a PTFE sliding surface in contact with polished stainless steel.
A field survey of the building was carried out after the main shock. No damage was
identified to the exterior wall tiles or the structural members of the building. As Figure 7 shows,there was no falling of objects to the floor. In contrast, some of the wooden houses adjacent to thefacility suffered damage and a concrete block wall belonging to a house next door collapsed. The
photograph in Figure 8 shows how furniture and household items were thrown around in abuilding in the neighboring area, giving an indication of the severity of the seismic motion. Taken
together, Figures 7 and 8 show the overwhelming difference that a seismic isolation system canmake.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

54

Figure 7. Cupboard on 1st floor of the facility

Figure 8. Room in neighboring building

after the main shock

3. 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake and Seismic Retrofit of High-rise Building
On March 11 of 2011, a huge earthquake hit the Tohoku district forming the north-easternpart of Japan’s main island (the 2011 Off the Pacific Coast of Tohoku Earthquake Mw9.0 (on the
moment magnitude scale), sometimes called the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake).
Approximately 16,000 people died and 3,000 people remain missing, mainly due to the tsunami.
Figure 9 shows the seismic intensity of this event on the JMA scale [3]. The ground motion was
felt across almost the whole of Japan. Figure10 shows a building that toppled in the tsunami. The
tsunami-induced meltdowns at Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plants shocked people aroundthe world while liquefaction in the bay area of Chiba prefecture caused major difficulties to thepeople living in the region. Buildings were badly shaken, not only in east Japan but also far fromthe epicenter. High-rise buildings in Tokyo, Osaka and Nagoya experienced strong, long-period
motion for several minutes and some residents and office workers in these buildings were quite
frightened.
Epicenter

Intensity+-

Figure 9. Distribution of seismic intensityof 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake [3]Figure 10. Building toppled by the tsunami

In 2009, special oil dampers were developed as seismic damage control devices for the
retrofitting of old high-rise buildings. They were fitted to an existing 54-story office building(Shinjuku Center Building, as shown in Figure 11, completed in 1979 and located in Shinjuku
ward, Tokyo) to suppress vibration during long-period earthquake ground motion [4]. Twelve oil
dampers with a deformation-dependent damping characteristic (shown in Figure 12) were fitted
on every floor between the 15th and the 39th, for a total of 288 dampers. These floors were19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

55

selected because dynamic analysis showed that the story drift and the cumulative plastic
deformation ratio of the steel reinforcing bars were relatively large in this range of floors.
The seismic response of the building was recorded in the 2011 Great East Japan
Earthquake. Later, simulation analyses were conducted to estimate the performance of thedampers in controlling motion. This modeling work clarified that damping was improved and the
response was reduced by 20% as compared to the building without dampers. Figure 13 shows (a)the simulated relative displacement between the roof and the ground floor and (b) the simulated
acceleration at the top floor with and without the dampers. The maximum displacement at top
floor was 76.4cm without the dampers and this was reduced to 60.8cm with the dampers (theactual observed displacement was 54.2cm). This indicates that the dampers reduced displacement
by 20%. The maximum acceleration was 220.3 cm/sec2 without the dampers and 184.1 cm/sec2
with them (and the actual observed value was 161.3 cm/sec2), also about a 20% reduction. Thisconfirmed the value of the seismic retrofitting of this super high-rise building and the analyticalresults are in good agreement with the observed motion record.

Figure 11. Shinjuku Center Building

Figure 12. Installed oil damper

Maximum value: 76.4cm (without damper), 60.8cm(with damper)
100

(a)

cm/sec2cm

50
0

RF displacementtransverse (Y)without damper
with damper

-50
-100
100

150

200

250

300

350

400

500 s

450

Maximum value: 220.3Gal (without damper), 184.1Gal (with damper)
300
200

(b)

RF accelerationtransverse (Y)

Gal

100
0
-100

without damper
with damper-200-300100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500 s

Figure 13. Comparison of simulated response waveforms with/without dampers

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

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3.1 2016 Kumamoto Earthquake and Semiconductor Factory
A series of earthquakes hit the middle of the island of Kyusyu beginning on April 14,
2016, centering on Kumamoto Prefecture, where major damage occurred (the 2016 Kumamoto
earthquake, shown in Figures 14[5] and 15). Among the series of events, two major earthquakes
occurred at 21:26 on April 14 (foreshock MJMA6.5) and at 01:25 on April 16 (main shock
MJMA7.3). This was the first time in Japan that a seismic intensity of 7 had been recorded twice
within two days. The earthquakes caused severe damage not only to the structures of buildings,
but also to the contents and the finish (non-structural elements) of buildings and to lifeline in the
area.
7
6+

ｘ epicenter
2016/4/16
MainshockFigure 14. Distribution of seismic intensityof 2016 Kumamoto Earthquake (Main Shock) [5]Figure 15. Damaged Kumamoto castle

Kumamoto prefecture is home to many factories, including manufacturing facilities forsemiconductors. Semiconductor plants include equipment that is sensitive to vibration and alsoclean rooms that must remain airtight, so they are relatively fragile in the face of a large
earthquake. A large earthquake might cause operations to be halted, which leads to opportunity
loss. Opportunity losses for semiconductor manufacturers are large and in some cases may
exceed actual material losses.
A semiconductor factory (shown in Figure 16) consisting of two buildings of steel
structure in Kikuyou town, Kumamoto prefecture, is located 12km away from the epicenter ofthe main shock. These buildings were designed according to the current seismic design code. The
structure, finish and contents of the factory were severely damaged by, principally, the main
shock, but there were no injuries or deaths [6]. Brace buckling, bolt fractures and failure ofstructural member connections were observed. Figure 17 shows the structural damage at the point
where the column bases meet the foundation. Figures 18 and 19 show the damage to the finish
and to the factory equipment.
Due to the severe damage caused by the main shock, operations at the factory werehalted. Full production on all lines resumed by the end of July, about three months after theearthquake. The impact on operating income from the Kumamoto earthquake was estimated atmore than 50 billion yen, of which opportunity losses account for about 60%. If recovery could
have been hastened, the opportunity losses would have been minimized.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

57

Figure 16. View of factory [6]Figure 17. Damage to connection of column bases and foundation [6]Figure 18. Collapse of automatic conveyor rail [6]Figure 19. Damaged clean room [6]Figures 16 to 19, Source: Sony Semiconductor Manufacturing

4. Conclusion
Numerous earthquakes, including especially the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake, havetaught us that our goal in seismic design for severe ground motion should evolve from simply theprotection of human life to the combined protection of life + property conservation +maintenance of functionality. In other words, we can say our aim should be “resilience”, which isa hot topic these days.
Japan has long made efforts to deliver high seismic performance through the user ofseismic isolation and response control technologies. The devices and systems that support thesetechnologies have been improved and have become more reliable and cheaper than in the past.
We are now in a position to apply these technologies to a variety of building types in all thecountries of Asia for the benefit of the next generation.
References[1] Wada, A., “From prologue to epilogue in solutions for seismic resilience of mega-city”, Structural Engineering
Frontier Conference, March 18-19 2015, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama, Japan, pp.
323-335.
[2] Komuro, T., Kawamoto, S., Tamari, M., Fukuyama, H., and Iiba, M., “Performance of seismic isolated building
under strong earthquakes”, 5th World Conference on Structural Control and Monitoring, 2010[3] The Headquarters for Earthquake Research Promotion,
https://www.jishin.go.jp/main/oshirase/20110311_sanriku-oki.htm, 5 Oct. 2019[4] Aono, H., Hosozawa, O., Shinozaki, Y., and Kimura, Y., “Seismic retrofit of high-rise building against the longperiod ground motions”, 10th U.S. National Conference on Earthquake Engineering Frontiersof Earthquake Engineering, July 21-25, 2014[5] JapanMeteorological Agency, https://www.data.jma.go.jp/svd/eqev/ data/2016_04_14_kumamoto/ index.html, 5Oct. 2019[6] Ito, T., Damages and recovery processes of major semiconductor manufacturers following the Kumamoto
earthquake (in Japanese), Matsuyama University Journal, Vol. 29, 2017, pp. 65-96.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Analysis of Some Heavy Metals Concentrations in Muscle Tissue of Three Fish
Species and environs, Thanlwin River Segment of Mon State
Yee Yee Win1 et al
Abstract
The present study was conducted in two different study sites situated on the Thanlwin segment
and its tributaries of Mon state. Study period lasted from February 2018 to January 2019. Fish,water and sediment samples were collected seasonally in the study sites. Element concentrationsof As, Pb and Cd in extracts were determined by using Flame Atomic Absorption
Spectrophotometry (FAAS) (Perkin Elmer AA Analyst 800 and Winlab – 32 s oftware) atUniversity Research Center (URC) in University of Yangon. Concentration of As, Pb and Cd on
muscle tissues of three study fish species (Lates calcarifer, Otolithoides pama and Polynemus
paradiseus) were analyzed in the study period. Heavy metal concentrations in muscle tissues of all
study fish species were below WHO limit. Concentration of As in water of study site I in rainy
and winter seasons as well as those of study site II in all seasons were found to higher than the
WHO limitation. As concentration in sediment of study site I in all seasons as well as those of
study site II in summer and winter seasons were found to higher than the WHO limitation. In the
study site, positive relationships between size of fish and heavy metal concentrations were foundin L. calcarifer while those were negative in O. pama and no relation in P. paradiseus at study site
I. In site II, positive relationships between size of fish and As and Pb concentrations in L.
calcarifer, As in O. pama and Pb and Cd in P. paradiseus were observed. However, heavy metal
concentrations in muscle tissues of study fish species were not over the WHO MPL. Thus, study
fishes from the study area are generally safe for human consumption.
Keyword: fish, arsenic, lead, cadmium, muscle tissue, sediment, water

1. Introduction
Heavy metals are environmentally ubiquitous, readily dissolved and transported by waterand readily taken up by aquatic organisms (Alam et al., 2002). Fishes are often at the top ofaquatic food chain in water ecosystems and fish living in the polluted water may accumulate
toxic trace metals (Mansour, and Sidky, 2002).
It is well known that fish, as a regular constituent of the human diet, can represent a
dangerous source of certain heavy metals. The discharge of wastewater and industrial effluents
whether treated or not can be regarded a constant pollution source that dominate water quality.
Water quality parameters can produce an improved understanding of the environmental situation
and assist policy makers to design priorities for sustainable water management (Hung et al.,2010).
The degree of water quality is determined by the content of physical, chemical andbiological parameters available in it. Association between two parameters may cause to increaseor decrease in the concentration of others. In this study, concentrations of three metals (arsenic,
lead and cadmium) in the three fish species because these fish species have been consumed asfood by local people. Water and sediments from Thanlwin river segment of Mon State environs
were determined. The muscle is the section of fish that is consumed by human. It is required toverify whether contaminants like heavy metals are within the recommended limits for humanconsumption. Therefore the metal content in the muscle was analyzed in the present study.
1

Lecturer, Department of zoology, Mawlamyine University. Myanmar, yeewynn1@gmail.com
2. Kay Lwin Tun 3. Min Thu Aung 4.Cho Cho Thin

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

60

Especially, the mean concentrations of test metals were evaluated in terms of internationalguidelines.
Therefore, present study was chosen to conduct in order to know the following objectives.
-to find out seasonal variation of heavy metals concentration (As, Pb, Cd,) in muscle tissueof study fish species-

to monitor the toxic metals (As, Pb, Cd) concentration in aquatic environs (water andsediment) of the study fish sites-

to investigate relationship between size of fish and metal concentrations in muscle tissueof fish

2. Materials and Methods
The present study will be conducted in two different study sites (Ngan Tae village andKyauk Tan village) situated on the Thanlwin River segment and its tributaries of Mon states.
Ngan Tae village (Lat 16º 28' N and Long, 97º 39' E) and Kyauk Tan village (Lat 16º 24' N andLong, 97º 36' E) were designated as the study site I and II, respectively. Study period lasted fromJanuary to December 2018. Lates calcarifer, Otolithoides pama and Polynemus paradiseus,,
water and sediment samples were collected monthly in fish landing depots of the study sites. At
least seven samples from each fish species were collected. Total length and body weight ofspecimens were measured. They were dissected using stainless steel scalpels and forceps. A partof the muscle (dorsal muscle) was removed and weighted. Samples were put into an oven (90 ºC)
and dried to reach constant weight. After that they were stored at low temperature until digestion.
Digestion of the samples carried out according to dry method by using furnace (Model-L-3383).
Element concentrations of As, Pb and Cd in extracts were determined by using Flame
Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (FAAS) (Perkin Elmer AA Analyst 800 and Winlab-32
software) at Universities Research Center (URC) in University of Yangon. Test results werecompared with maximum permissible limit (MPL) designated by WHO.
Functional relationship between size of fish and heavy metal
analyzed by using regression method with the following formula
Y= a + bX
a = Y interceptb = slope of the liner = regression coefficient

Site I

Site II

concentrations were19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

61

Fig. 1. Map of the study sites

Cement Factory (near Ngan Tae village)
Industrial Zone (near Kyauk Tan village)( site I) Hind view
( site II) Hind view
Plate 1. Environs of the study sites

Lates calcarifer

Otolithoides pama

Polynemus paradiseus

Plate 2. Study fish species

3. Results
Seasonal variation of As concentration in muscle tissue of Lates calcarifer collected fromstudy site I was -6.296mg/L in rainy season > -6.837 mg/L in summer season > -9.985 mg/L in
winter season. Similar results were observed in study site II. As concentration in muscle tissue of
Otolithoides pama and Polynemus paradiseus was summer > rainy season > winter season. As
concentration in muscle tissues of three study fish species which collected from study site II werehigher than that of study site I in summer season (Table 2).
Lead concentration in muscle tissue of Lates calcarifer collected from study site I was 0.873 mg/L in summer season > -0.928mg/L in rainy season > -0.959mg/L in winter season.
Similar results were observed in study site II. The same conditions of Pb concentration were
found in muscle tissue of Otolithoides pama and Polynemus paradiseus. However, Pb
concentration in muscle tissues of three study fish species which collected from study site II werehigher than that of study site I in summer season (Table 2).
Cadmium concentration in muscle tissue of Lates calcarifer at rainy season(0.007mg/L) was higher than those of summer season 0.009 mg/L) and winter season (0.01mg/L) in study site I. Similar results were observed in study site II. The same conditions of
Cd concentration were found in muscle tissue of Otolithoides pama and Polynemus paradiseus.
However, Cd concentration in muscle tissues of Lates calcarifer, Otolithoides pama and
Polynemus paradiseus which collected from study site II were higher than that of study site I(Table 2).
Arsenic concentration in water and sediment at winter season (1.003mg/L in water and74.64mg/L in sediment) was higher than those of rainy season (0.134mg/L in water and26.43mg/L in sediment) and Summer season (-0.326mg/L in water and 99.36mg/L in sediment)

62

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

in study site I. Similar results were observed in study site II. However, As concentrations inwater which collected from study site II was higher than that of study site I although As
concentrations in sediment which collected from study site I was higher than that of study site II(Table 3, 4).
Lead concentration in water at winter season (1.003mg/L in water and 74.64mg/L in
sediment) was higher than those of rainy season (0.134mg/L in water and 26.43mg/L in
sediment) and summer season (- 0.326 mg/L in water) but summer season was the most higher(99.36 in sediment) in study site I. Similar results were observed in study site II. However, Pb
concentrations in water and sediment which collected from study site I were higher than that ofstudy site II in summer season (Table 3, 4).
Cadmium concentration in water and sediment at rainy season (-0.005mg/L in water and0.02mg/L in sediment) was higher than those of summer season (-0.011mg/L in water and0.025mg/L in sediment) and winter season (-0.008mg/L in water and 0.029mg/L in sediment) instudy site I. Similar results were observed in study site II. However, Cd concentrations in waterand sediment which collected from study site I were higher than that of study site II in summer
season (Table 3, 4).
WHO maximum permissible limit of As, Pb and Cd in muscle tissue of fish are 0.01
mg/L, 1 mg/L and 0.2 mg/L, respectively. Concentrations of As, Pb and Cd in muscle tissues ofstudy three fish species were not found over the maximum levels permitted by WHO (Table 2).
Positive relationships between length of fish and concentrations of As (y = 0.380x – 16.67, r =0.868), Pb (y= 0.009x - 1.135, r = 0.955) and Cd (y = 0.002x - 0.049, r = 0.959) were found in L.
calcarifer while those were negative in O. pama (y = -1.543x +33.13, r = 0.740), Pb (y= -0.020x– 0.380, r = 0.828) and Cd (y = -0.003x + 0.091, r = 0.530) and no relation in P. paradiseus (y = 0.094x – 3.426, r = 0.045), Pb (y= -0.010x – 0.765, r = 0.232) and Cd (y = 0.001x - 0.021, r =0.161) at study site I (Table 5). Similar results were observed between body weight of fish andmetal concentrations (Table 5).
In the study site II, positive relationships between size of fish and As and Pb
concentrations in L. calcarifer, As in O. pama and Pb and Cd in P. paradiseus were observed(Table10, 11).

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

63

Table 1. Mean total length and body weight of fish for seasonal analysis of metal concentrationin site I and site II
Summer

Study
area

Rainy

WinterSpeciesTL(cm)

Site I Lates calcarifer

Weight(g)TL(cm)

Weight(g)18.7 ± 2.71 78.4 ± 39.3 27.7 ±2.32 263.1 ±52.46

20.92 26.58 ±Otolithiodes pama

26.7 ± 0.37

137.
1 ± 6.21 24.58 ±1.57 102.2 ±Polynemus
paradiseus

16.2 ± 0.71

24.7
3 ± 2.67 16.22 ±0.67 25.33 ±Site II Lates calcarifer

TL(cm)

18.5 ±

2.3 82.5 ±Weight(g)23.3 ± 1.08 191.4 ±35.5

1.4 127.3 ±3.97

3.3 17.78 ± 0.97 4.39 ±5.46

42 18.7 ±1.86 94.82 ±34.05

27.8 ± 3.97 225.4 ± 22.05

Otolithiodes pama

20.3 ± 0.55

57.0
5 ± 5.02 21.67 ±0.37 64.22 ±5.53 24.83 ± 1.28 96.42 ± 13.13

Polynemus
paradiseus

16.3 ± 1.42

25.0
6±

0.7 46.23 ±10.2 15.06 ±7.6 18.38 ±0.8 20.33 ±2.82

MPL = Maximun permissible limit

Table 2. Variation of heavy metals concentration ( mg/L) in studied species at two different study
sites
Site I
Species

Site II

Element

MPL
Summer Rainy Winter Summer Rainy WinterLates
calcarifer

Otolithiodes
pama

Polynemus
paradiseusAs-6.837 -6.296-9.985-6.296 -6.051-10.240.26

Pb-0.873 -0.928-0.959-0.769 -0.799-0.843

1

Cd

0.009

0.007

-0.01

0.019

0.01

0.011

0.2

As

-4.872 -6.207-9.637-6.67 -5.255

-6.17

0.26

Pb

-0.893 -0.917-0.952-0.788 -0.818-0.859

1

Cd

0.008

0.008

-0.005

0.023

0.011

0.011

0.2

As

-3.379 -5.112-6.55-7.221 -4.431-5.1960.26

Pb-0.902-0.96-0.984-0.785 -0.829-0.862

1

Cd

0.006

0.001

-0.008

0.022

0.013

0.2

MPL = Maximun permissible limit

0.008

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

64

Table 3. Variation of metal concentrations in water of two different study sites at Thanlwin River
Sr
No.

Site I

Site II
MPL

Elements
SummerRainy

Winter Summer

Rainy

Winter1

Arsenic-0.326

0.134

1.003

0.329

0.356

0.978 0.01

2

Lead

-0.445-0.487-0.518-0.537-0.57-0.599 0.01

3

Cadmium-0.011-0.005-0.008-0.013-0.016-0.022 0.003

Table 4. Variation of metal concentrations in sediment of two different study sites at Thanlwin
River
Site I
Site II
MPL
Sr
Elements
No.
Summer Rainy Winter Summer Rainy Winter TEC MEC PEC
1

Arsenic

99.36

26.43

74.64

43.54

29.75

9.8

21.4

33

2

Lead

-0.514 -0.467-0.477-0.549 -0.572 -0.507

36

83

130

3

Cadmium

0.025

0.029

0.023

0.99

3

5

0.02

0.235

0.023

0.028

MPL = Maximun permissible limit
TEC = Threshold effect concentration
MEC = Midpoint effect concentration
PEC = Portable effect concentration

Fig. 2. Variation of metal concentrations in

Fig. 3. Variation of metal concentrations inwater of two different study sites

sediment of two different

at Thanlwin River

study sites at Thanlwin River19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

65

Table.5.Relationship between body length(cm) and weight(g) of fish and heavy metal
concentrations in muscle tissue of fish at study site I and Site II
Site I

Heavy

species

LengthLinear equationAs

y=0.380x-16.67
2

R =0.753

WeightRemarkPositive
relation

Lates calcarifer

r=0.868Pb

y=0.009x-1.135
2

R =0.912

Positive
relation

Otolithoides pama2

R =0.919

relation=0.559Positive
relation

Y=47.24x-1305
2

R R=0.266

2

R =0.369

RemarkPositive
relation

r=0.607

Positive
relation=0.516

Y=3.474x-747.8
2

R R=0.320

Positive
relation

r=0.566

Positive

Y=-0.000x=0.0024

Negative

y=-3E-05x+0.017

Negative

R2R=0.913

relation

R2R=0.324

relation

R2R=0.270

relation

r=0.956

r=0.520=0.569y=-1.543x+33.13

Negative

y=-0.0120x-7.766

Negative=0.247x-11.54

Positive

y=0.029x-8.177

Positive

R2=0.548

relation

R2=0.773

relation

R2=0.635

relation

R2=0.746

relation

Negative

y=-0.0001x-0.731

y=-0.020x-0.380=0.979r=0.879

relation2

R =0.879=0.005x-0.949

relation2

R =0.138

R =0.066=0.371

r=0.257

y=-0.003x+0.091

Negative

y=-0.000x+0.040

Negative=-0.000x+0.030

R2=0.281

relation

R2=0.514

relation

R2=0.052

y=-0.094x-3.426

y=-0.120x=7.766
2

R =0.002

R =0.773

r=0.045r=0.879

y=-0.010x-0.765=-0.850x+8.479

relation2

R =o.989

No relation

y=-0.000x+0.023

No relation

R2=0.118
r=0.344
Negative
relation

y=0.029x-8.177
2

R =0.746

Positive
relation

r=0.864=0.994=0.015x-1.086

Positive

y=0.002x-0.895

Positive

R2=0.473

relation

R2=0.668

relation

r=0.323

r-0.176=0.688y=-0.000x-0.008

No relation

No relation

2

R2=0.031

No relation

y=-0.001x-0.909

Negative

y=0.000x-0.853

R2=0.054

y=0.001x-0.021

No relation

No relation=0.228r=0.717
No relation

r=0.864

Negative

r=0.938

2

Polynemus paradiseus

Y=0.000x-0.999

R =0.313

y=0.0018x-9.952

Y=0.000x-0.017

r=0.530

Cd

relation

2

Linear equation

relation

R =0.685

Pb

Positive

Positive

r=0.828As

R =0.743

Remark

=0.247x-12.9

Remark

Y=0.002x-0.049

2

Cd

2

Linear equation

Positive

R2R=0.919

r=0.740Pb

y=0.018x-10.98

r=0.959

r=0.959
As

Linear equation

Weig

Len

r=0.862

r=0.955
Cd

Site IINo relation

r=0.817=0.004x-0.055

Positive

y=0.000x-0.001

Positive

R2=0.026

R2=0.047

R2=0.999

relation tion

R2=0.965

relation

r=0.161

r=0.217=0.999r=0.982

Discussion
Toxic metals are very harmful because of their potential to absorb, accumulate andconcentrate in different body parts. Heavy metals, such as As, Pb and Cd are dangerous forhuman health because of their accumulation properties in the body parts (Tressou et al., 2004).
Metals bioaccumulation through aquatic food webs to fish, human and other piscivorous animals
are environmental and human health concern (Dehn et al., 2006).
Arsenic is released in the environment through natural processes such as weathering, andmay circulate in natural ecosystems for long time (Mol et al., 2010).Toxic effects appear whenarsenic is ingested in excess for long periods resulting in cancer, cutaneous malignancies,
etc.Lead is toxic metal and non-essential element for human body as it causes a rise in blood

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

66

pressure, kidney damage and miscarriage (Kiran et al., 20111).Cadmium injures the kidney, poor
reproductive capacity, hypertension, tumors and hepatic dysfunction.
Khin Thida Kyaw (2008) stated that in the Daydaye Thilawar fisheries, seasonal variationof toxic metals (As, Pb and Cd) concentration in three fish species were higher in summer andrainy season than those of winter. However, Cho Cho Thin (2017) stated that the concentrationlevel of As in muscle tissues of fish in Ayeyawady River segment of Salay environ were foundover the WHO limit but Khin Myint Mar(2011) studied that the concentration of heavy metals instudied species were lower than WHO limit. Thus, present findings were not agreed with thefindings of above authors and potential danger may not be occurred for the consumption of study
fish species from the present study area.
In the present study, arsenic, concentration in water of study site I in rainy and winterseasons as well as those of study site II in all seasons were found to higher than the WHO
limitation. In the present study, arsenic, concentration in sediment of study site I in all seasons aswell as those of study site II in summer and winter seasons were found to higher than the WHO
limitation. Arvind (2002) also stated that metal content of fish increases with the increment ofmetal level in water, sediment and food organism. Present findings were agreed with the findings
and potential danger may be occurred for water and sediment. In the present study,
concentrations of As, Pb and Cd in muscle tissues of three study fish species which collectedfrom study site I and II were not over the MPL recommended by WHO. However, near the study
sites, cement factory, machine cleaning workshop and industrial zone were established in 2014.
The accumulation trend of As was approximately summer> winter>rainy. The elevation of these
metals accumulation in this study may be due to industrial and sewage wastes. Therefore, As infish will be expected over the MPL in the future study.
In the present study, positive relationships between size of fish and heavy metal
concentrations were found in L. calcarifer while those were negative in O. pama and no relationin P. paradiseus at study site I. In the study site II, positive relationships between size of fish andAs and Pb concentrations in L. calcarifer,As in O. pama and Pb and Cd in P. paradiseus wereobserved. However, heavy metal concentrations in muscle tissues of study fish species were notover the WHO MPL. Thus, study fishes from the study area are generally safe for humanconsumption.

Acknowledgements
I am greatly indebted to Dr Thida Lay Thwe Professor/Head and Dr Aye Mi San Professor. My profoundgratitude goes to Dr Kay Lwin Tun, Professor, Department of Zoology, Yangon University and Dr Min Thu Aung,
Professor, Department of Zoology, University of Pathein, for their kind support, guidance and supervision.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

67

References
Alam, M. G. M., Tanaka, A., Allinson, G., Laurenson, L. J. B., Stagnitu, F., Snow, E. T., "A comparison of traceelement concentrations in cultured and wild carp (Cyprinus carpio) of Lake Kasumigaura, Japan.
Ecotox. Environ." 2012. Safe., 53:348-354.
Arvind, K., "Ecology of polluted waters", A. P. H Publishing Corporation, New Delhi. 2002.
Cho Cho "Thin, Relation of some essential and Toxic elements Ayeyawady on different feeding types of some
freshwater fishes along the Ayeyawady River segment, Salay Environs". PhD Thesis, Department
of Zoology, University of Yangon. 2017
Dehn L.A.,Follman E. H., Thomas D. L.,Sheffield G.G., Rosa C., Duffyl.K.,O.Harat.M., "Trophic relationships in an
Arctic food web and implication for trace metal transfer". Science of the Environment. 2006.
362,103.
Hung, H., Kallenborn, R., Breivik, K., Su, Y., Brorström-Lundén, E., Olafsdottir, K., Thorlacius, J. M., Leppänen,S., Bossi, R., Skov, H., Manø, S., Patton, G. W., Stern, G., Sverko, E., Fellin., "Atmosphericmonitoring of organic pollutants in the Arctic under the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment
Programme". Sci Total Environ Kiran, 2010. 408:
2854-2873.
Khin Thida Kyaw, "Analytical studies on toxic metals (A, Cd, Pb, and Hg) concentrations in Nga-dan (Pangasius
pangasius), Ka-kadit (Lates calcarifer), and Nga-yant (Channa striata) samples", PhD Thesis.
Department of Chemistry, University of Yangon. 2008. 61-104 pp.
Khin Myint Mar, "Uptake of heavy metals and its relationship to feeding habit of selected fish species in Ayeyawady
River, Mandalay and Magway segments", PhD Thesis. Department of Zoology, University of
Mandalay. 2011.
Kiran, Y. K., Mir, A. K., Rabia, N., Mamoona, M., Hina, F., Nighat, S., Tasmia, B., Ammarah, K., "Element content
analysis of plants of genus Ficus using actomic absorption spectrometer". African Journal of
Pharmacy and Pharmacology 5 2011. (3): 317-321.
Mansour. S. A., Sidky, M. M., "Ecotoxicological studies 3. Heavy metals contaminating water and fish from
Fayoum Governorate, Egypt". Food Chemistry, 2002. 78(1):15-22.
Mol ,O, Ozden and S.A. Oymak. Turkish J. Fish. Aqua. Sci., "Determination of Heavy Metals in Fish Tissues, Waterand Sediment from Epe and Badagry Lagoons, Lagos, Nigeria",2010. 10:209-213,
Tressou J., Crepet A., Bertail P., Feinberg M.H.., Leblanc J. Ch., Probalistic exposure assessment to food chemicals
based on extreme value theory. "Application to heavy metal from fish and sea products". Food andChemical Toxicology. 2004. 42,1349.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Analysis of Elemental Concentration in Kye Pè (Plukenetia volubilis L.)
Samples by Using WDXRF Technique
Khin Shwe Tint1

Abstract
In this research work, we have been analyzed the concentration elements in three kinds of samples
which are fruits (M1), leaves (M2) and stems (M3) for KyePè or Sacha Inchi plant. The
concentration elements in these samples were determined by using WDXRF (wavelength
dispersive X-rays fluorescence) technique. All measurements have been done in drying condition.
According to the experimental results, eighteen elements are contained in fruits sample and stems
samples, seventeen elements are contained in leaves samples. These elements are Magnesium(Mg), Aluminum (Al), Silicon (Si), Phosphorus (P), Sulfur (S), Chlorine (Cl), Potassium (K),Calcium (Ca), Titanium (Ti), Vanadium (V), Manganese (Mn), Iron (Fe), Nickel (Ni), Copper(Cu), Zinc (Zn), Rubidium (Rb), Strontium (Sr) and Lead (Pb) elements in fruits sample (M1) andstems sample (M3) and then Nickel (Ni) is not contain in leaves sample (M2). The concentrationof Silicon (Si) is large in leave (M2) samples. The concentration of Potassium (K), Calcium (Ca)and Magnesium (Mg) are largest in this research samples. The concentration element in Kye Pè
can be prevented diabetes, hypertension, cancer cell and heart disease. Health benefits of Kye Pè
include improving digestion, aiding in weight loss, managing diabetes and stimulating cognition.
Kye Pè plant is a medicinal plant.
Keywords: WDXRF technique, elemental concentration, Kye Pè plant.

1. Introduction
Everybody, human health is very important. If everybody has good health, everybody will
make everything. Nowadays, people would like to use fresh air, clean water, hygienic food andgood medicine for health but human activities are causing harm. Plants are not only the major
source of energy-rich foods in our societies, but are also an indispensable source of vitamin andother substances promoting healthy growth. They have played an important role in traditional
medicine in Myanmar since ancient time. Human health, natural safeguard and minimizing thedamages of human activities to Earth are the environmental study today. The aim of this researchis to analysis of the concentration of elements in Sacha inchi or Kye Pè samples by using
WDXRF (wavelength dispersive X-rays fluorescence) technique. We have collected the fruits,
leaves and stems of Sacha inchi or Kye Pè plant. These samples were collected from KyunHla
village, Myittha Township, Mandalay Region.
2. Experimental Procedure
2.1 Sample Collection
In this research, we analyzed the three samples in Sacha inchi or Kye Pè plant samples byusing WDXRF. We collected three samples which are fruits, leaves and stems. To analysis theelemental concentration of these samples, they were sent to Department of Chemistry,
Yadanabon University. The concentrations of elements contained in three samples were analyzed
by WDXRF technique.

1

Dr. Lecturer, Department of Physics, Yadanabon University, Myanmar, physdrshwe@gmail.com

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Sample Preparation
Sample preparation is very important process to experiment. In the first step, threesamples were dried under the shade of any roof. These samples were ground in order to get fine
powders. The lists of sample are shown in Table (1).
Table 1. The list of samples.
Local Name

Kye PèEnglish Name
Scientific Name

Sacha inchi, sacha
peanutFamily Name

Plukenetia volubilis L

First sample code

Euphorbiaceaes

Second samplecode

M1 ( fruits)

Third samplecode

M3 (stems)

M2 (leaves)

The characters of three samples are shown in Figure 1 to Figure 4.

Figure 1. The Kye Pè plants from Myittha Township, KyunHla village, Mandalay region.

Figure 2. The photograph of dried fruits (M1) and fine powder in Kye Pè plant.

Figure 3. The photograph of dried leaves (M2) and fine powder in Kye Pè plant.

Figure 4. The photograph of dried cortices (M3) and fine powder in Kye Pè plant

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

71

These powders were sent to Experimental Laboratory, Department of Chemistry,
Yadanabon University. Sample preparation is important in the WDXRF analysis because it isrequired to get flat, smooth and homogeneous samples for best results. To obtain reliable resultsin X-ray emission spectrometry, proper sampling is taken and sample storage and sample
preparation prior to measurement are conducted. Then hydraulic press machine and a 32 mm
diameter die set including a die body, base and two polished metal disks were used for pellet
sample in our research work. Prior to pelletizing all parts of the die set was carefully cleaned withmethylated spirit to prevent contamination. Initially each sample was weighed using digitalbalance to obtain the needed amount (5g). Binding agent is added to form stable pellet of thesamples. Therefore, binder (1g) was added to the samples (5g) and they were mixed tohomogenize with each other. After that weighed sample were poured into the die set (mould) andpressed with 25 tons for 15 minutes by using hydraulic press machine. The pellet was thenremoved from the die set, taking care not to creak it in the process. After getting the pellet, eachof these samples is weighed again and whose weight is exactly 5g is used in this experiment. In
making pressed pellets for each sample, these samples were weighted by using the digitalbalance. The density of each pellet is 0.2 gcm-3.X-ray fluorescence technique is a multi-elemental
quantities determination and it can provide concentration of many elements contained in thesample by a single measurement. Three samples were analyzed by using energy dispersive X-ray
fluorescence system. All of the pellet samples were analyzed 600 sec for four secondary targets
system and the measurement of atmosphere is helium purge. It is used 50 kV bias voltage andtube current is automatically adjusted by hardware. The analyzed range is 0-50 keV. The X-ray
spectrum is analyzed with the help of computer to obtain the concentration of each element in thesample. This research was done with WDXRF technique in Experimental Laboratory,
Department of Chemistry, Yadanabon. The wavelength dispersive spectrometer is usuallycoupled with a SEM imaging system and requires dedicated instruments designated by electron
microprobe micro-analyzer (EPMA). The spectrometer uses diffraction to sort by wavelength thecharacteristic. X-rays emitted by the sample. The X-rays are selected using analytical crystals
with specific lattice spacing positioned at specific θ angles. Only the wavelengths that satisfy
Bragg’s law are allowed to pass on the detector. The analytical crystals are bent in order to focus
the X-ray beam on the sample and on the detector. These are situated in the Rowland circle tomaximize the collection efficiency of the spectrometer. The function of diffraction is shown in
Figure (5).

Figure 5. The function of diffraction in WDXRF technique

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Each element produces a unique set of characteristic X-rays when bombarded withelectros. Each X-ray will have a specific energy and wavelength. Wavelength dispersive
spectrometers (WDS) sort the X-rays based on their λ. WDS system use X-ray diffraction as themeans by which they separate X-rays. The spectrometer consists of the crystal and diffract willenter the detector. An X-ray photon will diffract, depending on its wavelength, the orientation of
the crystal and the crystal’s lattice spacing. Only X-ray of a given wavelength will enter thedetector at a given time. To measure X-rays of another wavelength, the crystal and the detector
are moved to a new position. Since a specific WD spectrometer can measure only one X-ray
wavelength at a time. It is important that a WDXRF system has an array of spectrometers inorder to work efficiency. Electron microprobes typically have up to five elements
simultaneously. Each spectrometer typically has between two and four analyzing crystals, eachwith a different lattice spacing, because each type of crystal can diffract only a given wavelength.
WDXRF requires standard reference materials in concentrations similar to the materials toinvestigate and is typically used for quantitative spot analysis. The composition of unknown
samples is determined by comparing the intensities obtained from studied samples with thosefrom the reference standard materials.
3. Results and Discussion
In this research work, three samples of fruits (M1), leaves (M2) and stems (M3) for
Plukenetia volubilis L. or Kye Pè or Sacha Inchi were analyzed with WDXRF (wavelength
dispersive X-rays fluorescence)technique in the Experimental Laboratory, Department ofChemistry, Yadanabon University. Elemental concentrations of sample contained in the threesamples were measured by WDXRF technique and their results are expressed in Table (2). The
graphs of these samples are shown in Figure (6).
The concentration of elements was analyzed for three samples. The three samples are M1,
M2 and M3. The concentration of elements for three samples is shown in Table (3). According to
the experimental results, the sample of fruit (M1) is contained eighteen kinds of elements. Theyare Magnesium (Mg), Aluminum (Al), Silicon (Si), Phosphorus (P), Sulfur (S), Chlorine (Cl),
Potassium (K), Calcium (Ca), Titanium (Ti), Vanadium (V), Manganese (Mn), Iron (Fe), Nickel(Ni), Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn), Rubidium (Rb), Strontium (Sr) and Lead (Pb) elements. According
to the experimental results, Lead (Pb) element is minimum concentration. The samples of leaf(M2) are contained seventeen kinds of elements. According to the experimental results, Bromine(Br) element is very small concentration. The samples of stem (M3) are contained eighteen kindsof elements. They are Magnesium (Mg), Silicon (Si), Aluminum (Al), Phosphorus (P), Sulfur(S), Chlorine (Cl), Potassium (K), Calcium (Ca), Vanadium (V), Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn),Bromine (Br), Rubidium(Rb), Manganese (Mn), Titanium (Ti), Iron (Fe), Strontium (Sr) andLead (Pb) elements. According to the experimental results, the concentration of Bromine (Br)element is very small in M3 samples.

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Table (2) The comparison of elemental concentration in M1, M2 and M3 samples.
Symb
ol
K
Ca
Mg
P
S
Si
Al
Cl
Fe

Concentration
(ppm)
M1
M2
M3
42800.00 43200.00 53700.00
8290.00 54600.00 21500.00
3700.00
4400.00
5400.00
3120.00
2660.00
3160.00
2680.00
4090.00
1840.00
1450.00 32200.00 2940.00
655.001450.00
1140.00
203.00377.00390.00173.00462.00245.00

Symbol
Zn
Ti
Mn
Cu
Sr
Rb
V
Ni
Pb

Concentration
(ppm)
M1
M2
M3
39.00 42.00
36.00
24.00 93.00
50.00
23.00 86.00
39.00
20.00 23.00
17.00
17.00 139.00 50.00
10.00
7.00
10.00
3.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
4.00
4.00

Figure 6. The experimental results of elemental concentration in M1, M2 and M3 samples.

4. Conclusion
According to the experimental result, the concentration of potassium (K) is larger insample M3 than M2 and M1. The potassium is highest concentration in M3. This element isneeded for many essential process including enzyme activation photosynthesis. Potassium is oneof the seven essential macrominerals. Potassium (K) participates actively in the maintenance ofthe cardiac rhythm. High levels of potassium in the blood have been linked to pressure, heart andkidney disorders, and other health problems.
The concentration of calcium (Ca) measured in M1 is small and measured in M2 is larger
than M3. Calcium is the main constituent of the skeleton, bone and dental health and important
for regulating many vital cellular activities such as nerve and muscle function and lowers the
blood pressure. The concentration of magnesium (Mg) measured in M3 is large and measured in74

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

M2 and M1 is small. Magnesium is essential for both plant and animal growth and health.
Magnesium is also included in some remedies for heartburn and upset stomach due to acidindigestion. The concentration of phosphorus (P) measured in M1 and M3 is large and measuredin M2 is small. Phosphorus is required in most of the body’s bio-chemical process including cell
growth and converting food to energy is also required for metabolism of fats and carbohydrate toproduce energy. The main function of P is to bind with calcium to make healthy teeth and bones.
It is also necessary for the synthesis of protein for repair and growth of tissue and cells.
Other key functions help the body to utilize vitamin B complex and support proper nerve andmuscle functioning, maintaining, calcium balance and preventing high blood calcium levels. The
concentration of sulfur (S) measured is larger in sample M2 than M1 and M3 is smaller than M1.
This element aids the liver in bile secretion and maintains oxygen balance for proper brain
function and is involving in the clotting of blood. It assists in the fight against bacterial infection
by disinfecting the blood helping the body resist bacterial, and protecting. The concentration ofIron (Fe) measured in M1 and M3 is smaller than M2. This element is an essential element forhuman beings and animals and component of hemoglobin. It facilitates the oxidation ofcarbohydrates, protein and fat to control body weight, which is very important factor in diabetes.
The concentration of Lead (Pb) measured in three samples is very small. Lead is a useful andcommon metal that has been used by humans for thousands of years. Lead in the body is
distributed to the brain, liver, kidney and bones. It accumulates over time. Lead in bone isreleased into blood during pregnancy and becomes a source of exposure to the developing fetus.
The concentration of Potassium (K), Calcium (Ca) and Magnesium (Mg) are largest in thisresearch sample. The concentration element in Kye Pè can be prevented diabetes, hypertension,
cancer cell and heart disease. Health benefits of Kye Pè include improving digestion, aiding inweight loss, managing diabetes and stimulating cognition. Kye Pè plant is a medicinal plant.
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my heartful thanks to Dr Mg Mg Naing, Rector, Dr Tint Moe Thuzar and Dr Si Si
Khin, Pro-Rector of Yadanabon University for giving permission and encouragement. I wish to express my gratitudeof Professor Dr.Yi Yi Myint, Head of Physics Department, Yadanabon University, for her valuable advice in thisresearch work.I am also grateful to Professor Dr May Thida Win, Physics Department, Yadanabon University, for
her advice and suggestions.

References[1] Guillen, MariaDet al., “Characterization of SachaInchi (Plukenetia Volubilis L.) Oil by FTIR spectroscopy and
LH NMR.Comparison with Linseed Oil”.Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society. 80(8):755-762, (2003).
[2] Hla Hla Than, Dr., "Analysis of Traditional Medicine", University of Yangon (2000).
Hufstader. Chris. “Looking to SachaInchi for their Future”. Oxfam Exchange, (2009).
[3] Ministry of Health, Department of Trditional Medicine, "Collection of Commonly Used Herbal Plants" (1982).
[4] L. friberget al., "Handbook on the Toxicology of metals" Elsever, Amsterdan (1979).
[5] Win Myint, Dr., “A Study on Combined Effects of TMF-27 and TMF-35 on Plants with Type 2 Diabetes
Mllitus”, University of Trditional Medicine, Mandalay (2012).

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Importance of Soil Moisture Balance and Soil texture in Yields of Crop:
A Case Study of Thayetlaypin Village Tract in Magway Township
Hlaing Myo Myo Htay1, Win Win Maw2, Si Si Wai3, Hnin Khaing Aye4

Abstract
Climate, soil moisture and soil texture interact with each other for crops growth. The main issue
is crop yield deterioration in Magway Township. It is necessary to know the nature of soil waterin the area for future utilization in agriculture. The aim of this research is to investigate the effectof soil moisture balance and texture on crop yields of Magway Township. Soil moisture balance
was calculated by CW Thornthwaite method to estimate the balance of soil water in the soil. Soilwater content is controlled by the soil texture. Soil texture was analyzed by biker method. Soil
textural class is determined by USDA soil textural triangle, 1987. The main types of soil texture
are sandy loam, loamy sand and sandy soil. The relative yields of sesame and groundnut are
25.67% and 78.38% respectively. Soil moisture deficiency is 538.10 mm/month in 2018.
According to the ratio of evapotranspiration and rainfall, the study area needs the water supply orrain fall. The variables can effectively explain the yield together with other variables ascorrelation. As a result, the yields of sesame and groundnut related to these soil properties but
not significantly.
Keywords: soil moisture balance, soil texture, crop yields

1. Introduction
The soil moisture budget refers to water in the soil as moisture, as it is the term mostcommonly used by scientists who study the subject from the agronomist‘s point of view. A
fundamental concept of physical geography is that the availability of water to plants and animals
is more important in the environment than precipitation itself (Fundamental of physicalgeography). Field capacity of a given soil depends largely on its texture. Soil texture influenceson the availability of water to the plant. Soil texture also impacts organic matter levels; organic
matter breaks down faster in sandy soil than in fine texture soil (www.ristormwatersolutions.).
Soil texture is composition of size of soil particles that is sand, silt, clay. Soil texture can beclassified by the percentage of sand, silt and clay into loam, silty loam, loamy sand, sandy loam,
silty clay loam, etc. (www.ristormwatersolution.org). The importance of soil texture determines
different methods and management decisions in cultivation. There are also subclass in sand andsilt. Sand is divided into very coarse sand, coarse sand, medium sand, fine sand and very finesand (USDA, 1987). Density of soil porosity, water holding capacity, organic matter content andsusceptibility to erosion are controlled by soil texture (Daji et al 1996; Biswas and Mukherjee,1994). Sandy soil is suitable for maize, groundnut potato and grapes (USDA,1987). The
relationship between crop yield and soil is very complex and depends on complex interaction
between physical and chemical properties of soil and other external natural factors’(Sys etal,1991). The soil quality should be tested before cultivation; does soil have problems? Does thecrop need water? How much should you apply? Therefore, soil analysis is very important for tofarmers. In this paper, soil texture, moisture and basic analysis of soil properties such as pH, and1Dr., Professor, Department of Geography, University of Magway, Myanmar, myomyo67.hh39@gmail.com
Assistant Lecturer, Department of Geography, University of Magway, Myanmar, winwinmaw.mdy.24@gmail.com
3
Assistant Lecturer, Department of Geography, University of Magway, Myanmar, sisiwai.mdy.26@gmail.com
4Dr., Lecturer, Department of Geography, University of Magway, Myanmar, ,hninkhineaye@gmail.com
2

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

organic matter were studied preliminarily for suitable crops cultivation and also to sustain thecrop productivity base on moisture conditions.
Aim and Objectives
The aim of this paper is to investigate the effect of soil moisture balance and texture on
crop yields of Magway Township. The objectives are as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.

To measure the ratio between precipitation and evapotranspiration
To analyze the soil moisture budget
To determine the soil textural categories andTo find out the relationship between soil properties and crop yields

2. Materials and Methods
This research was done based on the primary data. The soil samples were collected bygrid method in field area. With the sample collection, land owners were interviewed in detail aswell as their suggestions regarding crop yield. Selection of study area, literature survey, andselection of soil samples location in grid methods have been done before going to the field. Soil
texture has been tested by biker method in study room. Soil moisture balance was analyzed by
CW Thornthwaite method. After that soil test data are plotted on map by GIS 10.0.The
estimation of evaporation was used by Penman coefficient equation.Finally, interpretation andanalyzing was done by using MS-Excel 2007.
2.1 Study Area
Magway Township is one of the significant oil crops areas in Central Myanmar. Sesameand groundnut are predominantly cultivated crops in this area. The Thatyetlaypin village tract
consisting of the oil pots in Magway Township was chosen as a case study to explore relation
between the soil texture, moisture and crops. The study area is located at between latitude 19 0 45ʹ
North and latitude 20 0 21ʹ North and between longitude 94 0 54ʹ East and longitude 96018ʹ East.
The total area is 11007acres on which 5142 acres is cultivable land, actually in Thatyetlaypin
Village Tract.

Figure 1. Thatyetlaypin Village Tract.

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3. Results and Discussions
3.1 Relationship between precipitation and evapotranspiration
Potential evapotranspiration is a maximum water loss and it measures the moisturedemand for regions, (CW Thornthwaite, 1948) and also the ratio of precipitation to potential
evapotranspiration. This ratio may be less than 0.1 for these regions; water must be supplied at
potential rate. The ratio of precipitation to evapotranspiration ranges from 0.2 to 0.6, again
indicating a need for irrigation water in crop production. The range is from 0.8 to 1.6, indicatinga rather well balanced situation and in some cases, water surplus. In the study area, the ratio of
precipitation to evapotranspiration lying within 0.8 to 1.6, indicates rather well balanced situationand in some cases, water surplus.
3.2 Soil moisture budget analyze in study area
The annual water budget of the soil concerned with the storage of water in soil, runoff
and deficiency for plant growth. The basic soil moisture balance equation is as follows:
P=E+G+R (CW Thorn Thwaite, 1948) Where P = Precipitation, E = Evapotranspiration, G =Change in soil moisture storage, R = Runoff. The water balance has been calculated the waterbalance for each month singly and for the year as a whole. As a result, precipitation varies areless than actual evapotranspiration value. In this case, very high potential evapotranspiration is
occurred. When Ep (Potential Evapotranspiration) exceed P (precipitation), the plant must draw
up moisture stored in the soil as an attempt to sustain as rapid growth as possible at all time. P ismeasurable in small amount in most months. The values of Ep are always larger. Consequently
soil moisture deficiency (D) prevails throughout all months of the year although the storage ofmoisture is larger than 300 mm. Therefore, crops thrive without irrigation and yields are high insome years.(Table-1)
Table (1) The equation of Soil moisture budget analysis of study area
Rainfall AET
91.95
0
0
6.1
172.97491.9999.06
182.12
15
117.1
0
15
1191.29

G(-)

46.66
58.22 -58.22
80.3
-80.3
89.78 -83.68
96.11
84.83
87.17
11.89
83.24
80.39 -65.39
69.57
47.53
54.71 -54.71
47.93 -32.93
878.9 -315.81

G(+)
45.29

76.86
77.07
98.88
17.71

315.81

R

PET

66.66
83.18
114.72
128.26137.3
330.09 121.18
124.53118.92114.84
99.39
78.15
68.46
330.09 1255.58

Source: Meteorology and Hydrology Department, Magway Region

D=PETAET
20
24.95
34.42
38.48
41.19
36.35
37.36
35.68
34.45
29.82
23.45
20.54
376.67

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

3.3 Soil textural classes of study area
According to the experimental results, soil textural classes were determined by the ratioof sand silt and clay. In the study area, the soil textural class is moderately coarse textures areloamy sand, sandy loam and sand respectively. The common names are sandy soils and texture
are coarse texture .Size of grain size is involved in the group of 2-0.05 mm (USDA 1987). In the
study area, sandy loam 70%, loamy sand 20%, sand texture 10 % is occurred. Spatial distributionof Soil texture classes were shown in figure(2).The result show that the loamy sand contains
87.5% of sand, silt 8.3 %and clay 4.2%. The sandy loam types contains sand 68%,silt 21% andclay 11%.

Figure 2. Spatial distributions of soil texture classes of study area

3.4 Soil water content
The soil water content is the amount of water held in the soil at any given time. Averagewater content for various soils textural classes are shown with organic carbon, pH and humus intable (3). According to table 3, soil water holding capacity was observed with soil texture. The
correlation coefficient( r) between the percent of sand content in soil samples and water holding
capacity(WHC) is positive correlation (r= 0.54).It is 74% significantly. Moreover, the correlation
between clay content in soil samples and WHC is assessed by regression method .The correlation
value is (r= 0.59). The relation of silt content in soil samples and WHC is positive correlation (r=0.47).So, Soil texture controls the water holding capacity. Furthermore, the organic matter carbon
is very low and low value in the study area. There are positive correlation between organiccarbon and WHC (r=0.02). So, the study area is not sufficient in organic carbon in the soil.
Organic matters retain the soil moisture. So it is suggested that providing the soil organic matter
increases the soil water holding capacity.

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Table (3) Soil Water holding capacity and properties of soil with texture in study area
availablewaterorganic
carbonSoil texture

field capacity

PH

Humus

sandy loam

21

12

0.3

7.29

0.47

loamy sand

19

11

1.4

8.0

2.5

sandy loam

21

12

0.3

6.3

0.5

sandy loam

21

12

0.4

6.5

0.6

sandy loam

21

12

0.4

6.7

0.6

sandy loam

21

12

0.3

6.5

0.6

sandy loam

21

12

0.3

6.7

0.5

loamy sand

19

11

1.4

8.0

2.4

sandy

12

7

0.3

8.0

2.5

sandy loam

21

12

0.2

6.3

0.6

Source: USDA (1987) and field data

3.5 The relative crop yields
The sesame and groundnut yields were collected from each sample field. Therefore, The
potential of crop production cannot be equaled in actual because of other factors. Therefore, raw
yield data (survey) was calculated by relative crop yield (pp.435,Katalin Jushos, Szilard Szaabo,
and Marta Ladanyi, September,2015). The data were calculated by using the relative yield ofeach crop as follows: RY p =Y p /Y max RY p is the relative yield of plot p(a value between 0
and 1), Y p = the yield of plot p (t/h-1), Y max = maximum yield the total research site over all plots(t/h-1).According to the indices of yield, the relative yield of sesame is less than the relative yieldof groundnut. The largest yields of sesame and groundnut indices value are 1, 1 are found insandy loam type respectively. The yield variability of sesame and groundnut are 63.17% and27.84%. Table (4) shows the Indices of crop relative yield of plot. As a result, the sandy loam
type and sandy soil are more suitable for sesame crop and for groundnut.
Table (4) Indices of crop relative yield of plot
samplesoil typesandy loam
loamy sandsandy loam
sandy loam
loamy sandsandy loam
sandy loam
loamy sandsandsandy loam
Sources; Field survey

yields/Acres
sesame
8
6
5
6
6.7
6
6
4.4
5
5

Yield /Acres
groundnut
6
4
8
6
5.3
8
5
5.4
10
4

Relative Yield(Sesame)
1
0.8
0.6
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.7

Relative yield(Groundnut)
0.60
0.40
0.80
0.60
0.53
0.8
0.50
0.54
1.00
0.64

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3.6 An analysis of importance of Soil properties on crop yields
Based on the soil moisture balance and soil texture, soil water, field capacity, organic,pH, humus is studied for the crop yields. These factors were analyzed by regression analysis
method. As a result, the relative of sesame yield / acres are relations the available water in soil
due to the r value=0.47, as well as significant level p=0.16(84%). Similarly, the yields ofgroundnut were observed with percent of water available in the soil, it is also correlated to theavailable of water in soil due to the significant level 0.07(93%). In the analysis of oil crop
relationship, field capacity and yields of sesame are correlations due to the correlation coefficient
r=0.47. Moreover, the confident level is 0.16(84%).The relationship between groundnut and field
capacity were occurred significantly by p value is 0.08(91%).Furthermore, the relation between
sesame yields and the percent of sand content in the soil samples were observed due to thecoefficient correlation r=0.58. Moreover the relationship between sesame and pH value is verystrong correlation (r=0.92).However, the relationship between pH in the samples and groundnut
yields is very weak(r=0.26).The pH value also is correlation significantly with the humus in thesample soil due to the r value (r=0.91). All these variables are also controlled by soil texture.
Therefore, the others factors have to consider for the increase of crop yields.
4. Conclusion
According to the relationship between precipitation and evapotranspiration, the value ofratio is indicating to the good water balance situation for plant growth in the study area. Whereas
the conditions of moisture balance, the crop can grow without irrigation because of the storage ofmoisture larger than 300 mm. Furthermore, the common type of soil is sandy soil and the basic
soil classes are sandy loam, loamy sand and sandy soil. Soil texture classes are more suitable forin sesame and groundnut. The basic type of soil textural classes determines the water for plant
growth. As a result, the yields of sesame and groundnut are related to these physical andchemical properties but it is not significantly related. However, the soil moisture, texture andproperties are not only important but also need to test before crop cultivation for soil quality.
Therefore, it is suggested that other external factors have to be considered in the crop
cultivations.

Acknowledgements
We deeply indebted to Dr Khin Maung Oo, Rector of University of Magway, for his kind permission to do
this research. We also thank to Dr Khin Myo Myo Chun, (Professor and Head, Department of geography, Universityof Magway) for her recommendation. Finally, we acknowledge to Science Council of Asia and all respectableteachers for call paper and encouragement.

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References[1] Maurice Amooh,Kwame Nkrumoh ,University of Science and Technology, Effects of Soil Texture and Organic
matter in Evaporative loss of soil moisture, August, 2015.
[2] Surinda Jalota and Seven authors,Punjab Agriculture University, Soil Texture, Climate and Management effecton plant growth, grain yield and water use by rainfed maize-wheat cropping system: field andsimulation study.
[3] Katain Jushos, Szilard Szaabo,and Marta Ladanyi, Influence of soil Properties on Crop Yield: a multivariate
statistical approach. September,2015[4] Kshudiram Chakraborty& Biswranjan Mistri, Importance of soil texture in sustenance of agriculture: A study in
Burdwan-I C.D Block, Burdwam, West Bengal,Vol XXINo1 Jan, 2015,ISSN 0973-7642[5] T.N.Nath,Int.J.chem.sci.: Soil Texture and Total Organic Matter content and Its Influences on Soil Water
Holding Capacity of Some Selected Tea Growing Soils in Sivasagar District ofAssam,India,12(4),2014,1419-1429,ISSN 0972-768X,www.sadgurupublication.com,[6] Zachary M.Easton, Assistance Professor and Extension Specialist,Virginia Cooperative Extension,Virginia
Tec.Virginia University, Soil and Soil Water Relationships ,PSE-194P,

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Operation Models of Mini-Grid in Myanmar: The Case of
Shan State
Kensuke Yamaguchi1, Hiroshi Komikado2

Abstract
In Myanmar, rural electrification by mini-grids is necessary for its balanced development. This
paper examines the effectiveness of each operation model in conflict areas in Shan State. There are
four operation models: utility-operator; private-operator; community; and hybrid model. First,
focus group interviews were conducted to sample representative cases of each model. Next, asurvey was conducted on each operator about energy capacity, energy resources, tariff, owner, andmaintenance. Finally, semi-structured interviews were conducted on members of the Parliament
and the state assembly and the chief of the ward. Three main points were found out: (i) When theprivate enterprise operates, the tariff can be reduced through the economy of scale. But the private
have low incentives to enter conflict areas. (ii) When the local leader is responsible, people enjoy
relatively cheap electricity with stable supply, which eventually benefits anti-government armed
forces. (iii) When the community both constructs and operates, the tariff is highest due to its highinitial cost, which widens inequality in the community. In the conflict areas, a hybrid model—
mini-grids initially built by governments, then transferred to communities—is most feasible. To
scale up this model, a rural development fund is recommended to subsidize initial costs.
Keywords: Rural electrification, Mini-grid, Operation model, Rural Development Fund,
Myanmar

1.

Introduction

In Myanmar, there is an unbalanced situation in the use of electricity between urban andrural areas. People living in urban areas enjoy electricity with heavily subsidized tariff, whilepeople in rural areas face much higher tariff, and often do not have access to electricity. Since
the beginning of the rule by Burmese people in 1948, ethnic minorities, most of whom live inrural areas, have increasingly suffered from this unfair situation. As a consequence, severe
poverty still remains among minorities while the urban development is rapid.
As a counter, lots of ethnic groups formed armed forces and they began incidents with
the national army. Electrification in rural areas is essential to correct the gap among ethnic
groups and achieve balanced development over the nation (Noah and Yamaguchi, 2017;
Yamaguchi et al., 2018ab; Yamaguchi, 2019). Especially in conflict areas, expansion of thenational grid has a huge risk, and then the development of mini-grids has its significance forelectrification. This paper examines the effectiveness of each operation model of mini-grids in
Shan State with contentious conflicts area.
2.

Methods

There are several key issues for mini-grids, such as who should manage and own them.
As the initial and running costs of mini-grids are far larger than the cost of a small power
management system such as SHS, their business sustainability needs to be considered carefully(ERIA, 2018; GNESD, 2014; Seguin, 2014). An analysis using the business operator model
1

Project Assistant Professor, Institute of Future Initiatives, The University of Tokyo,
yamaguchi@ifi.u-tokyo.ac.jp; +81-(0)3-5841-0933
2
Research Assistant, Institute of Future Initiatives, The University of Tokyo, komikadohiroshi@gmail.com

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

84

gives an effective view of the discussion (Safdar, 2017). Focusing on operators of mini-grids
makes it possible to analyze the structure of the business, the flow of funds, among others.
Although there is no universal solution for electrification by mini- grids, an appropriate
business model can be chosen based on the advantages and disadvantages for business
operators, and the situations where mini-grids are introduced. There are four models of minigrids operators: Utility operator model; Private operator model; Community model; Hybrid
model (European Union Energy Initiative Partnership Dialogue Facility, 2014; Shirley, 2018).
Based on the advantages and disadvantages mentioned in previous papers, mini-grids in Shan
State are analyzed in this paper.
Data used in the analysis were collected from the field survey conducted by authors from
October to December in 2018. There were three surveys in the field survey. The first survey isfocus group interviews with five informants on Shan State, including a member of Kachin
Democratic Party, members and an advisor of Union Parliament. It was conducted to sample
six representative towns with mini-grids in Shan State, considering the operator model ofoperators of mini-grids. The second is a questionnaire survey on each operator of the six
representative town to collect basic information, such as tariff, energy capacity, energy
resources, owner, and people in charge of maintenance. The third is semi-structured interviews
with 12 stakeholders related to each mini-grid, including members of the Parliament, membersof a state assembly, and the chief of the ward. It was conducted to collect information about theadvantages and disadvantages of each model to clarify detail information of each case.

3.

Results and Discussion

First, focus group interviews picked up six representative cases of mini-grid. Real names
and locations of the cases are not used to protect personal information and the towns are renamed Town A, Town B, Town C, Town D, Town E, and Town F. It was clarified that the six
representative cases can be divided into four models. Private Operator Model (Private
enterprise); Private Operator Model (Local leaders and armed ethnic groups); Community
Model; Hybrid Model (Community transfer). Unlike the previous paper, it was clarified that
there was no utility-operator model, but that private-operator model can be divided into twomodels: Private enterprise; Local leaders and armed ethnic groups.
Basic information of each case and model, such as tariff and energy capacity, wasclarified by the questionnaire survey. Table 1 summarizes the result. Information about scale(Energy capacity), tariff, operator, owner, and maintenance are described in each case.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

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Table1. Mini-grid in Shan State, Myanmar

PrivatePrivateenterprise

HybridCommunity

Local leader

Town B 6,300 kW

Illumination:
MMK100/kWh
Industry:

Town E 20 MW

MMK65/kWhPrivateenterprise

Privateenterprise,

Privateenterprise

Town C 640 kW

MMK35/kWhPrivategovernment
Armed

Privateenterprise
Privateethnic group
Local leader

enterprise
PrivateTown F 75 and 65 MMK500
kW/bulb
Town D 160 kW
MMK100–200/kWh

Community
burdenCommunitytransfer

Privateenterpriseenterprise
Community(government

Four
stockholders

Privateenterpriseenterprise
Community

Community

Community

Communityloan)
Town A 5 kW

MMK1000

From DRD/monthto Community

Source: Based on interviews conducted by authors

Private Operator Model (Private enterprise) is observed in Town B and Tow E. Privatecompanies contract with the government to invest and manage the business In Town B, privatecompanies and residents are communicating each other and both are satisfied. However, in rural
areas, residents are dissatisfied with electricity charges because they do not know the pricing
system. Private Operator Model (Local leaders and armed ethnic groups) is observed in Town C
and Town F, where armed forces are involved in electricity distribution. Armed groups invest ina power generator for electricity supply as company shareholders. The private company by thearmed forces that set up the system is given overall control by the local government and taxes
are paid to the federal government. In some cases, the community is involved in systemadministration because the armed forces are closely related to the community.
Community Model is observed in Town D, and the government provides loans toresidents for an initial investment. The mini-grid is owned by the community and is managed byseveral residents. The initial cost is borne by the residents. Hybrid Model (Community transfer)
is observed in Town A, allowing low-cost operation by the community. The initial cost of themini-grid was borne by government agencies and foreign funds, and its operation will be handed
over to the community. Japan International Cooperation System transfers human resources tothe community through the Department of Rural Development (DRD). The community owns
and manages the mini-grid. This system is expected to reduce electricity costs because it only
recovers the lowest operational costs.
As a result, the following three points became clear. First, as the private operator model,
not only private companies but also local leaders are often business operators. When theoperators are private enterprises, the average energy capacity is ten times bigger than that ofother models. On the other hand, if the operator is a local leader, the tariff is cheaper than other19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

86

models, but the owner is an anti-government army. Second, the tariff of the Community Model
was from three to five times than that of other models. Third, as the Hybrid Model (Community
transfer), transfers of mini-grid facilities from the Department of Rural Development tocommunities are observed. In this model, energy capacity is much smaller than that of othermodels.
Based on the results, an appropriate model of mini-grids is discussed for rural
electrification. If the private enterprise is responsible for an operation of mini-grid, there is anadvantage that the economy of scale can be pursued and the price can be reduced. On the other
hand, these private-sector businesses have low incentives to enter areas with frequent conflicts
and poor purchasing power because there is a possibility that they cannot recover their cost.
Then, areas, where the private enterprise wants to introduce mini-grids, are limited and, that is,Private Operator Model (Private enterprise) is limited in scale. If the local leader is responsible
for operation, people may be able to receive power supply at a cheap price, but there is aconcern that it will be a source of anti- government armed forces. In other words, the patronclient relationship in local politics is strengthened through the mini-grids. Conflicts between
armed ethnic forces and the national force will happen more often and they will be more serious.
Private Operator Model (Local leaders and armed ethnic groups) will be deepen the gap
between people in urban areas and in rural areas, which is originally planned to be solved. Whenthe community takes charge of construction and operation, mini-grids have high initial costs,
which leads to high prices. There is a possibility that the people with purchasing power and thepeople without it will be divided. Moreover, the transfer of knowledge about construction andoperation of mini-grid is another challenge for replication of mini-grids with Community
Model.
Based on the discussion above, a hybrid model can be expected to be an efficientsolution for electrification in conflict areas where purchasing power is often scarce because it
will reduce risks for private enterprises to enter the mini-grid business, because it will not be aresource for anti-governmental armed forces, and it gives all residents an access to electricity
with relatively low tariff.

4. Conclusions
This paper examines the effectiveness of each model of the Shan state mini-grid. Rural
electrification is expected to correct the disparity between ethnic groups and achieve balanced
development across the country. Particularly in conflict areas, the expansion of the national gridpresents significant risks, and the development of mini-grids is very important forelectrification. Analyses employed the framework of business operator model to discuss theappropriate model. Data was collected from a field survey conducted by the author in 2018.
There were three surveys: focus group interview, questionnaire survey, and semi-structured
interview. The survey clarified the mini-grids in Shan State can be classified into four models
and details of each models. Considering each advantages and disadvantages and current
situation in Myanmar, Hybrid model (Community transfer) is appropriate for replications ofmini-grids because there is a possibility that Hybrid model can solve the problems the othermodels have.
Finally, following three points are proposed to promote replications of mini-grids of19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

87

Hybrid model (Community transfer). First, if DRD is in charge of construction, scalability islimited. Therefore, it is highly expected to leave some of constructions to private enterprises,but, at the same time, a public subsidy needs to be provided so that they can recovered cost byoperation for a fixed period. Second, a fund under on the village development law, which isabout to be approved, can be utilized for such subsidies. For example, a gasoline tax may becollected to make the fund managed sustainably. Third, it is better for DRD to carry out
electrification within the Ministry of Electricity and Energy with not only on-grid but also offgrid electrification, although it is currently in charge of only off-grid solutions and oversees theabove-mentioned village development law. Carrying out the proposals above, mini-griddevelopments with the electric power company model, which was not seen this time, can be
expected.
1.

Recommendations

To secure government support in a significant scale, a public financing mechanism such as
fund is needed.
Where a banking sector is not mature in a country such as Myanmar, fund mechanism isimportant to achieve a certain multi-year target. Currently, a rural development law legalizing
rural development fund is in its final deliberation. As the law articulates that the fund can beused for rural infrastructure such as electrification, it is reasonable and realistic to utilize thisfund mechanism to support mini-grids by community.
The source for the fund could be secured as an ear-marked tax system such as gasolinetax.
The initial cost of the mini-grid is required to be subsidized, especially for thiscommunity model. The current public support for one project by DRD is around 0.18mil USD.
As the Minister of MOEE states, 2,000 villages need mini-grid solution in peripheral regions. A
rough calculation shows around 360 million USD to achieve mini-grid targets in conflict-prone
areas. Referring to the case in Thailand (i.e. Energy Conservation Fund, ENCON Fund), a
petroleum tax is one of the feasible options. Assuming the surging transportation usage in urban
areas, imposing an approximately 5% tax rate both on gasoline and on diesel is sufficient as thisfund source.
A certain institutional reform among relevant line-ministries is favored to diffuse minigrid systems in a large scale.
Currently, Ministry of Energy and Electricity (MOEE) is in charge of on-grid
electrification while Ministry of Agriculture and Livelihood (MoALI) conducts the off- gridelectrification projects such as the “60-20-20” program. As MoALI is not an “energy” Ministry,
the program remains at a small scale. To expand the scale and integrate off-grid systems with
on-grid ones, an institutional reform between MOEE and MoALI is required for deeper
integration and coordination. Ultimately, an integrated policy and planning bodies such as
National Energy Management Committee (NEMC) as under the previous government isrequired with more authority.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

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Acknowledgements
The authors thank Myo Zaw Shein and Mitasu Company for its research assistance, anonymous
reviewers, and seminar participants at Yangon Technical University and the University of Tokyo for usefulcomments. This research was partially supported by the Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture, Grantin-Aid for Research Activity Start-up (17H06582, Kensuke Yamaguchi). The authors also gratefully acknowledge
financial support from the Economic Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia (ERIA).

References[1] ERIA, “Electricity futures in the Greater Mekong Sub region: Towards sustainability, inclusive development,
and conflict resolution”, ERIA, 2018[2] European Union Energy Initiative Partnership Dialogue Facility, “Mini-grid Policy
Toolkit”, European Union Energy Initiative Partnership Dialogue Facility, 2014[3] GNESD, “Renewable energy-based rural electrification: The mini-grid experience from India”, GNESD, 2014[4] Yamaguchi, K., “Why economic sanctions in Myanmar is a bad idea”, PacNet: Pacific Forum CSIS, 2019[5] Yamaguchi, K., Kittner, N., Del-barrio, D., Yoshikawa, H., and Kammen, D., “Energy for Peace in Myanmar:a sustainable and inclusive strategy”, Myanmar Times, 2018a (Burmese)[6] Yamaguchi, K., Kittner, N., and Yoshikawa, H., “Energy for Peace: ミャンマーにおける水力ダム開発”,
エネルギー・資源, 39(4), 247-251, 2018b (Japanese)[7] Kittner, N., and Yamaguchi, K., “Hydropower threatens peace in Myanmar -- but it
doesn't have to”, Nikkei Asian Review, 2017[8] Safdar, T., “Business models for mini-grids”, Smart Villages, 2017[9] Seguin Robert, “Economic feasibility of rural electrification projects”, In Side Event at the High-Level
Meeting of the Africa-EU Energy Partner- ship. Addis Ababa, 2014 [10] Shirley, R., “Fact
Sheet: Mini-Grids in India: Mini-Grid Finance and Business Models”, Power for All, 2018.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Health Risk Assessment of Soil and Water Pollution near Public Dug
Wells along Shwe-Ta-Chaung Creek in Mandalay City
Aye Myat Mon1

Abstract
The objective of this research is to determine the environmental pollution in the four public
dug wells located adjacent to the Shwe-Ta-Chaung Creek in Tanpawaddy Quarter, Mandalay,
Myanmar. Four water samples from four dug wells, named Yarma, Coco-plant, Cow Lake andSalty Water along the creek were examined with Public Health Laboratory to determine thecontamination of surface associated with waste water. The water chemical analysis reports for
twelve water quality posts of measurement in Coco-plant and Salty Water dug wells are
chemically potable and the other two dug wells are chemically unpotable. Eight soil samples
near each dug well and relevant creek were determined with Rigaku EDXRF spectrometer toestimate the elemental pollution in the soil. Modified degrees of contamination and pollution
load index for soil pollution were analyzed. The water supply wells are impacted bycontamination associated with waste water. Soil around Yarma Dug Well and Salty Water Dug
Well are more polluted than the other two dug well regions along the creek.
Keywords: Yarma Dug Well, Coco-plant Dug Well, Cow Lake Dug Well, Salty Water Dug
Well, Shwe-Ta-Chaung Creek

1. Introduction
The quality of the water in the wells can impact human health even if it is not consumed,
due to the contamination of surfaces with chemicals or pathogenic microorganisms throughimproper installation of wells, or being in close proximity to sources of pollution such as sewage
or lands fills. The main ways a home has access to water is either through a municipal watersupply from a major city or through wells. Wells exist in two forms, dug wells and tube wells. It
is hypothesized that the sewage migrates through the soil and will decrease the water quality of
the groundwater. Soil pollution as part of land degradation is caused by the presence of humanmade chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment. It is typically caused byindustrial activity, agricultural chemicals, or improper disposal or waste. Soil Pollution can havea number of harmful effects on ecosystems and human, plants and animal health. Healthconsequences from exposure to soil contamination vary greatly depending on pollutant type.
Industrial or man-made concentrations of naturally occurring substances, such as nitrate andammonia associated with livestock manure form agricultural operations, have also been
identified as health hazards in soil and groundwater.
It is suspected that the waste water from the Shwe-Ta-Chaung Creek may becontaminating the dug wells degrading the water quality. Thus, this research is to determine theimpact of the creek on environment near four public dug wells by the analysis of four water
samples and eight soil samples collected at four sites next to the creek during the dry season in
2018.

1

Dr Lecturer, Department of Physics, Banmaw University, Myanmar, ammon37@gmail.com,+9592017813

90

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

2. Materials and Methods
2.1 Description of Research Area
Yarma Dug Well (W1), Coco-plant Dug Well (W2), Cow Lake Dug Well (W3) and Salty
Water Dug Well (W4) are located in the Tanpawaddy, Chanmyatharsi Township, Mandalay
district, Myanmar and situated beside Mandalay-Sagaing-Shwebo Road.

2.2 Sample Location (Sampling Site), Collection and Preparation
Yarma Dug Well (W1), Coco-plant Dug Well (W2), Cow Lake Dug Well (W3) and Salty
Water Dug Well (W4) were constructed over 100 years ago. The well-bases of four wells areabout 30 feet, 9.5 feet, 45 feet and 36.5 feet away from the creek during the dry season. A
garbage area is about 75 feet, 15 feet, 95 feet and 65 feet away from each well-base. The
diameter of the four wells are 6.5 feet, 4.9 feet , 4 feet and 4 feet .The thickness of the four wells
are 1.5 feet, 10 inches, 11 inches and 10 inches which are constructed with a brick lining. The
heights of their well bases are 1.5 feet, 5 inches, 9 inches and 1 foot above the ground. The depth
to water from the top of the four wells casing are 20.5 feet, 17 feet, 21 feet and 19 feet in March2018. The widths of the creek near the four wells are about 25 ft, 25ft, 20 ft and 22 ft. Raw
sewage from downtown Mandalay flows into the creek. The creek adjacent to W1 and W2 are notlined by concrete. Waste water is in direct contact with the ground in the creek. The creek
adjacent to W3 and W4 are lined by concrete. Waste water is not in direct contact with the groundin the creek. W1 region is located adjacent to the rubbish filter site along the creek. There isvegetation between W4 and the creek. The photographs of the four dug wells beside the Shwe-TaChaung Creek are shown in Figure 1, 2, 3 and 4. Photograph of location map of eight researchsites in Tanpawaddy Township, Mandalay is represented in Figure 5.
Four water samples were collected with one litre bottle each from the four wells during
period in March, 2018. Eight soil samples were collected from the creek at the same time. The
sample codes for eight soil samples are listed in Table 1. These soil samples from eight researchsites were each collected with two inches in diameter PVC pipe which is one feet long. The small
trashes in these samples were cleaned and dried under the room temperature. And then it isneeded to grind the soil powdered samples and to get very fine powders. The soil powder
samples were passed through 325 mesh sieve of the samples. After getting very fine powder, thesample was weighted nearly 5g. Sample preparation is an important role in X Ray Fluorescence(XRF) measurement.

2.3 Public Health Laboratory, Ministry of Health and Sports
The water quality parameters (Appearance, Colour, Turbity, pH value, Total Solids, Total
Hardness, Total Alkalinity, Ca, Mg, Cl, SO4 and Fe) in four water samples of Yarma Dug Well
(W1),Coco-plant Dug Well (W2), Cow Lake Dug Well (W3)and Salty Water Dug Well (W4) were
tested at Public Health Laboratory, Ministry of Health and Sports, Mandalay.

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Experimental Procedure for Rigaku X-ray Spectrometer
The EDXRF machine ( Rigaku ) at the University Research Centre, Taunggyi University
is used for determination of elemental concentration in the sample of interest.

Contamination Factor (CF) and Modified Degree of Contamination (mCd)
The level of metal contamination was expressed by the contamination status of sedimentin the current research. CF and mCd were calculated according to the equation described as
CF 

MC
BC

and

mCd 

N
1
CF

i 1
N
.

Pollution Load Index (PLI)
Pollution Load Index (PLI) was used to evaluate the extent of pollution by metals in the environment.

PLI  (CF1  CF2  CF3  ..........  CFn ) n1

where n is the number of metals and CF is the contamination factor.

.

Figure.1 Yarma Dug Well beside the creek

Figure.3 Cow Lake Dug Well beside the creek

Figure.2 Coco-plant Dug Well beside the creek

Figure.4 Salty Water Dug Well beside the creek

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Figure.5 Location Map of four dug wells in Tanpawaddy Township,Mandalay District,Myanmar

Table.1 Sample Codes for eight soil samples
Sample Code

Soil Samples

S1W1

Soil sample near Yarma Dug Well (W1)

S1 C 1

Soil sample adjacent to Shwe -Ta- Chaung Creek around W1

S2W2

Soil sample near Coco-plant Dug Well (W2)S 2C 2

Soil sample adjacent to Shwe -Ta- Chaung Creek around W2

S3W3

Soil sample near Cow Lake Dug Well (W3)

S3C3

Soil sample adjacent to Shwe-Ta-Chaung Creek around W3

S4W4

Soil sample near Salty Water Dug Well (W4)S4C4Soil sample adjacent to Shwe-Ta-Chaung Creek around W4

3. Results and Discussions
The water chemical analysis for twelve water quality posts of measurement in four dug
wells are listed in Table 2.Total solids and total alkalinity are greater than maximum permissiblelevel in W1 and W3.Other parameters are under the maximum permissible level. The remarks ofwater chemical analysis report for W1 and W3 are chemically unpotable and W2 and W4 arechemically potable. The depth to water from the top of the well casing of W1 and W3 are greaterthan the other two dug wells. The water from the four dug wells is now used for taking baths,
washing clothes and cleaning dishes. It is not used for drinking purpose now.
Modified Degree of contamination (mCd) and pollution load index (PLI) of metal
contaminates in soil pollution near four dug wells were calculated in Table 3. The comparison of
mCd for soil pollution near four dug wells is shown in Figure 6. The comparison of mCd for soil
pollution in the bank of the creek near four dug wells is also shown in figure 7. Figure 8 gives thecomparison of PLI for soil pollution near four dug wells. Figure 9 gives the comparison of PLI
for soil pollution in the bank of the creek near four dug wells. The mCd for soil near W1 and in
the bank of the creek near W1 is moderate degree of contamination. The mCd results for soil nearW2 is moderate degree of contamination and in the bank of the creek near W2 is low degree ofcontamination. The result of mCd for soil near W3 and in the bank of the creek near W3 is very
low degree of contamination. The mCd results for soil near W4 is very low degree ofcontamination and in the bank of the creek near W4 is very high degree of contamination.

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Pollution Load indices (PLI) for soil near the four dug wells are moderately polluted andwould indicate deterioration of site quality. The PLI for soil in the bank of the creek near W1, W2
and W3 are moderately polluted and near W4 is strongly polluted. The PLI for soil in the bank of
the creek near the four dug wells would indicate deterioration of site quality. Although the creek
near Yarma Dug Well (W1) and Coco-plant Dug Well (W2) are not lined by concrete and thecreek near Cow Lake Dug Well (W3) and Salty Water Dug Well (W4) are lined by concrete.
According to the results, soil around W1 and W4 are more polluted than the other two dug
well regions along Shwe-Ta-Chaung Creek. There is more pollution at Yarma Dug Well (W1)
because there are many trash and garbage near in it. And there are many cash crop eugenia trees
near the Salty Water Dug Well (W4). Therefore, there are heavy pollutions because of fertilizer
insecticide from the plantations adjacent to creek around W4 region.
Table.2 Water chemical analysis in four dug wells
No.

W1

W2

W3

W4

Maximum
Permissible
Level [WHO]Unit

Slightly
TurbidSlightly
TurbidClear

Slightly
Turbid--Parameter

1

Appearance

2

Colour (Platinum,
Cobolot Scale)

7

6

6

6

50

Units

3

Turbidity (Silcoda
Scale Unit)

-

-

-

-

25

NTU

4

PH value

7.1

7.1

7.3

7.3

6.5 to 9.2-

5

Total Solids

1571

1109

1808

1109

1500

mg/l

6

Total Hardness (asCaCO3)

310

270

230

260

500

7

Total Alkalinity(as CaCO3)

1105

715

1495

780

950

8

Calcium as Ca

112

80

84

96

200

mg/l

9

Magnesium as Mg

7

17

5

5

150

mg/l

10

Chloride as Cl

140

100

120

60

600

mg/l

11

Sulphate as SO4

147

147

49

118

400

mg/l

12

Total Iron as Fe

Nil

Nil

0.01

Nil

1

mg/l

mg/l
mg/l

Table.3 Modified Degree of Contamination (mCd) and Pollution Load Index (PLI) for soil
pollution near four dug wells
SampleLocation

S1W1

S1C1

S2W2

S2C2

S3W3

S3C3

S4W4

S4C4

mCd

3.128

2.713

2.530

1.994

1.447

1.279

1.363

11.362

PLI

1.879

1.941

1.743

1.845

1.397

1.256

1.340

3.045

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10

10

9

9

8

8

7

7

6

5

mCd

mCd

6
mCd

5
3

3

2

2

mCd

4

4

1
0

1
S1W1

S2W2
S3W3
Location

S1C1

S4W4

S2C2

S3C3

S4C4

Location

Figure.6 Comparison of mCd for soil pollution

Figure.7 Comparison of mCd for soil pollution in the bank of
the creek near four dug wells

10
9
8

10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

7
5
PLI

4
3
2
1
0
S1W1

S2W2
Location

S3W3

PLI

PLI

PLI

6

S4W4

S1C1

S2C2

S3C3
Location

S4C4

Figure.9 Comparisons of PLI for soil pollution

Figure.8 Comparison of PLI for soil pollution
near four dug wells

4. Conclusion
It is indicated that the water supply wells are impacted by contamination associated with
waste water. It is recommended that the municipality declare a policy to reduce the pollution andeducate the public to have a cleaner environment. The water in Coco-plant (W2) and Salty Water(W4) dug wells for twelve water quality posts of measurement are chemically potable and theother two dug wells are chemically unpotable. Soil around Yarma Dug Well (W1) and Salty
Water Dug Well (W4) are more polluted than the other two dug well regions along Shwe-TaChaung Creek. The pollution around Yarma Dug Well (W1) is due to garbage landfills. The
pollution around Salty Water Dug Well (W4) is due to excessive fertilizers and pesticides used inagriculture. The waste water creek should be reconstructed with appropriate protection. Humans
and animals should not use the wells located near the waste water canal for any purpose. To
protect public welfare, safety and health, the water from public dug wells located beside ShweTa-Chaung Creek should not be used long-term.

Acknowledgements
First and foremost I would like to express my gratitude to Dr Aung Kyaw Tin , Rector of Banmaw
University, for his kind permission to carry out this work. I am also grateful to Professor Dr Than Than Lwin, Headof Physics Department, Banmaw University for her valuable suggestions.

References[1] Angelidis T.N,(1997), Water Air Soil Pollution, pp 99-179[2] Foster S.D & P.J Chilton, (2004), Hydrogeology Journal, pp12-15[3] Lawrence A R et al., (2000), Hydrogeology Journal, pp 8- 564[4] Lorna Fewtrell, (2004), Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol. 112,pp 1371-1374

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Health Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals via Consumption of Vegetables
Me Me Nyunt1
Abstract
Vegetables are an important part of a healthy and balanced diet. They could be contaminated byheavy metals in many ways. Health risk assessment is a very good technique to regard heavy
metal contamination in vegetables. The main objective of this paper is to estimate the risk tohuman health by heavy metals (Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, Sr and Pb) through the intake of five common
vegetables (lettuce, mustard, radish, roselle and water spinach) grown near the drain in
Taungthaman lake at Amarapura township by using indexes for vegetables. The elemental
concentrations of samples were checked by EDXRF method. Then the indexes for vegetables
were calculated. The condition of risk is determined by health risk index (HRI). If the HRI value
is less than one, there will be no observed risk. An index more than one is considered as not safefor human health. According to the calculated results, all analyzed vegetable samples except
water spinach were not found to cause any risk to the consumer. Water spinach had greatest
potential to pose health risk to the consumers. It may be due to the higher absorptivity of heavy
metals than the other samples because of its soft and spongy stem.
Keywords: Vegetables, Contamination, Heavy Metals, EDXRF, Indexes for Vegetables

1. Introduction
Vegetables are widely used as food due to their high nutrition values and are edible plants
or parts of a plant; they are herbaceous plants whose parts are eaten as supporting food or main
dishes. The nutrient content of different types of vegetables varies considerably. Human beingsare encouraged to consume more vegetables and fruits due to their richness in vitamins, minerals,
fibers and anti-oxidative effects. The fruits and vegetables are important components of a healthy
diet and their consumption could prevent a wide range of diseases. However, plants take up
metals by absorbing them from contaminated soil as well as from deposits on parts of the plants
exposed to the air from polluted environments.
Heavy metals are generally used to describe chemical elements with a specific gravity
that is at least 5 times the specific gravity of water. Heavy metals such as manganese (Mn), iron(Fe), copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) are essential in plant nutrition, however many heavy metals do
not play a significant role in the plant physiology. Plants cultivated in polluted environments canaccumulate these toxic metals at a high concentration causing serious risks to human health when
consumed. Moreover potentially harmful metal contents in soils may come not only from the
bedrock itself, but also from the anthropogenic sources like liquid or solid waste deposits,
agricultural inputs, fallout of industrial and urban emissions. The use of polluted soils mainly
results in decrease the growth of vegetables. Moreover, the heavy metals in soil reduce the yieldof vegetables because of disturbing the metabolic processes of plants. Heavy metals
contamination is a major problem of our environment and they are also one of majorcontaminating agents of our food supply. This problem is receiving more and more attention allover the world.

1

Dr. Lecturer, Department of Physics, Yadanabon University, Myanmar. memeamarapura@gmail.com

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Human health are directly affected through intake of vegetables grown in polluted soils.
Since heavy metals in the nutrient cycle have seriously threatened health and environmental
integrity, more research work is still needed to be done on all species of vegetables grown andconsumed. Thus this study was designed to assess the level of some heavy metals (Mn, Fe, Cu,
Zn, Sr and Pb) in five vegetable samples (lettuce, mustard, radish, roselle and water spinach)grown near the drain in Taungthaman lake, Amarapura.

2. Methods
2.1 Collection and Preparation of Vegetables
In the present work, the vegetable samples had been collected from the fields near thedrain of Taungthamanlake during the period in December 2018. The field is located in the eastpart of Taungthamanlake of Amarapura Township in Myanmar. To grow the plants, the farmers
use the water in drain. The water in the drain is mixed with rainwater, water from the river andthe waste water of industries. The industries from the industrial zone used to discard their waste
products into the drain. The photograph of the sampling area is shown in Figure 1.
The five vegetable samples collected are lettuce, mustard, radish, roselle and water
spinach shown in Figure 2 (a). After collecting, the freshly vegetable samples were washed withtap water thoroughly to remove the attached dust particles, soil, unicellular algae, etc. Then they
were washed with distilled water. The washed vegetables were passed through filter papers toremove surface water. After that the edible parts were chopped into small pieces. All wet
vegetable samples were dried with natural air in room temperature and the drying process wascontinued until the constant weight had been obtained as shown Figure 2 (b). The dry pieces ofsamples were crushed into powder using a porcelain mortar and pestle. Then, powder samples
were passed through the mesh to get homogeneous powder. The resulting powder samples shownin Figure 2 (c) were kept in air tight polythene packet before being taken to the laboratory formetal analyses.

Figure 1. Photograph of sampling area

(a)

(b)

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(c)

(c)
Figure2(a.) Photographs of analyzed samples, (b) Sample preparation for fresh condition, (c) Sample preparation for dry andpowder condition

2.2 Health risk assessment
Food safety is a major public concern worldwide. The index for food and foodstuff are
required to know the information about heavy metal concentration in food products and theirdietary intake is very important for assessing their risk to human health. There are many indexes
for food and foodstuff according to the field of the study area. In this work, the three indexes
associated for food and foodstuff will be discussed, these indexes are (i) the metal pollution index
MPI, (ii) daily intake for metal DIM and (iiii) health risk index HRI.
2.3 Metal pollution index (MPI)
Metal pollution index is one of the indexes associated to food and foodstuff which is todetermine overall trace elements concentrations in different foodstuff analyzed. This index is
obtained by calculating the mean concentration of all the metals in different foodstuff as follow.
1

Metal Pollution Index MPI (mg/kg) = (Cf1  Cf2  ... Cfn ) n(1)

Where Cfn = concentration of nth metal in a given foodstuff
Metal pollution index is suggested to be a reliable and precise method for metal pollution
monitoring of wastewater irrigation areas. Leafy vegetables are found to contain higher MPI
value than which are may be due to the uptake of higher amount of heavy metal available from
polluted soil.

2.4 Daily intake of metal (DIM)
The potential health risks of heavy metal consumption through vegetables were assessed
based on the daily intake of metal (DIM) and health risk index (HRI). To averagely estimate thedaily metal loading into the body system of a specified body weight of a consumer, the daily
intake of metal was calculated based on the formula below:
Daily Intake of Metal 

C metal  Cfactor  Con  EF  ED
Bw  AT

Where Cmetal = the concentration of heavy metal in vegetable (mg/kg)
Cfactor = conversion factor from fresh to dry vegetable weight = 0.085(2)19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

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Con = daily average consumption of vegetable in the region (kg person-1 day-1)
EF = exposure frequency (37 days/year)
ED = exposure duration (65 years, equivalent to the average lifespan)
AT = average time (ED  365 days/year)
Bw= average body mass of the consumer (kg/person)
The average daily vegetable intakes for a person vary according to locality and their life
style. For this present work, the average daily vegetable intake of adult for lettuce and roselle
were considered to be 0.165 kg person-1 day-1and that for mustard, radish and water spinach were
to be 0.345kg person-1day-1(expressed as fresh weight). The average body weight was taken as
70kg for adults according to the World Health Organization (WHO 1993).

Health Risk Index (HRI)
Health risk index HRI is the ratio of daily intake of metal DIM to the reference dose RD,
and it is defined as the maximum tolerable daily intake of a specific metal that does not result inany harmful health effects. If the value of HRI less than one, the exposed local population(consumers) is said to be safe and if greater than one indicating that there is a potential risk
associated with that metal and not safe for human health. The health risk index HRI was
calculated by using the following equation

Health Risk Index HRI 

Daily int ake of metal DIM
reference dose RD(3)

3. Results and Discussion
3.1 Results for metal pollution index:The EDXRF measurement of the vegetable samples gives
the elemental concentration of the metal in each sample. The detectable percentage forms of theconcentration for each sample have been transformed into the form of milligram per kilogram(mg/kg) scale. The metal pollution index (MPI) for each sample has been calculated by using
equation (1). The calculated result of metal pollution index was shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Metal pollution indexes for vegetable samples
SampleNumber of elements(n)

MPI values (mg/kg)

Lettuce

21447.127

Mustard23

664.449

Radish

23485.671

Roselle21622.901

Water Spinach

233992.254

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Results for daily intake of metal :The concentrations of some heavy metals: Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn,
Sr and Pb were presented in Table 2. Concentration of heavy metals were in the increasing order:
Fe>Zn>Cu>Mn,Sr>Pb. The daily intake of metal (DIM) for a person has been calculated byusing equation (2). For DIM calculation, heavy metal concentration, the conversion factor from
fresh vegetable to dry vegetable, the daily average consumption of vegetable, exposure
frequency, exposure duration, average time and the average body weight were used. In
calculation, daily intakes of vegetable per person for lettuce and roselle were used as 0.165 kg
and that for mustard, radish and water spinach were 0.345 kg for fresh condition. The average
body weight of a person was taken as 70kg for adults according to World Health Organization(WHO, 1993). In this present work, the daily intakes of metal indexes were estimated for six
heavy metals. The calculated result data of DIM values for all samples was shown in Table 3.
The DIM values of Fe are the highest and that of Pb are least in all samples.
Table 2. Heavy metal concentrations in vegetable samples
Heavy Metal concentration (mg/kg)
Elements
Lettuce

Mustard

RadishRoselleWater
Spinach

Mn

117

180

150

216

25100

Fe

1050

2410

1830

3170

152000

Cu

173

761

724

797

49000

Zn

305

988

778

814

54400

Sr

134

281

135

169

4190

Pb

23

51

65

63

2500

Table 3. Daily intake of metal (DIM) values for vegetable samples
Daily intake of metal (DIM) values (mg/kg/day)Elements
Lettuce

Mustard

RadishRoselleWater
SpinachMn

0.00240.00770.00640.0043

1.0659Fe

0.02140.10230.07770.06446.4549Cu

0.00350.03230.03070.01622.0809Zn

0.00620.04200.03300.01662.3102

Sr

0.00270.01190.00570.00340.1780Pb

0.00050.00210.00280.00130.1062

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Results for health risk index :By using daily intake of metals (DIM) and reference oral dose foreach metal, the important index called the health risk index (HRI) can be calculated by applying
equation (3). The oral reference dose values for analyzed heavy metals Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, Sr and Pb
are 0.014, 0.7, 0.04, 0.3, 0.6 and 0.004mg kg -1 day-1respectively. If the HRI value is less thanone, there will be no observed risk. An index more than one is considered as not safe for humanhealth. The calculated result data of HRI values were shown in Table 4. According to theseresults, HRI value of water spinach is greater than one for almost all heavy metals except
strontium.
Table 4. Health risk index (HRI) values for vegetable samples
Health risk index (HRI) values
Elements
Lettuce

Mustard

RadishRoselleWater
SpinachMn

0.16970.54600.45500.313476.1368Fe

0.03040.14620.11100.09199.2213Cu

0.08790.80790.76870.404752.0217Zn

0.02060.13990.11020.05517.7006

Sr

0.00450.01990.00570.0057

0.2966Pb

0.11680.54150.00280.319926.5417

3.2 Discussion
In the present research, five kinds of vegetable samples have been observed. In thesesamples, lettuce, mustard, roselle and water spinach are the types of leaf vegetables and radish is
the type of storage root vegetable. According to Table (1), water spinach and mustard have thehighest MPI value while lettuce has the lowest MPI value among the samples. Higher MPI ofwater spinach and mustard suggests that these vegetables may cause more human health risk due
to higher accumulation of heavy metals in the edible portion. Therefore, the leaf vegetable isfound to contain higher MPI value than the other types of vegetable which may be due to theuptake of higher amount of heavy metals available from soil and photosynthesis process takes
place in the leaf.
To assess the health risk associated with heavy metal contamination of plants grownlocally, estimated exposure of tested vegetables (daily intake of metal) and risk index were
calculated. The health risk index results showed that Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn and Pb in water spinach had
greatest potential to pose health risk to the consumers. It may be due to the higher absorptivity ofheavy metals than the other samples because of its soft and spongy stem. The HRI values foranalyzed heavy metals in other samples are lower than one. Therefore, it can be said that all
analyzed vegetable samples except water spinach were not found to cause any risk to theconsumer in the present study.

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4. Conclusion
The higher health risk index of heavy metals in water spinach also suggests that there
may be potential for human health risk due to consumption. Therefore, it can be concluded that
consumption of foodstuff with elevated levels of heavy metals may lead to high level ofaccumulation in the body causing related health disorders. Long term consumption of heavy
metal contamination may be leading to health risk of consumers. Moreover, waste water
irrigation for vegetables should be discouraged as it serves as the major route for heavy metal
accumulation in vegetables. Further research has to be carried out of determine the concentrationof heavy metals in this environment.

Acknowledgements
I would like to express thanks to my students, HninPwintWai and WahWahNaing, atDepartment of Physics,
Yadanabon University for theirhelpsin collecting the samples to do this research work.
I would like to express gratitude to my colleagues at the Department of Physics, Taunggyi University for
their helps in checking the EDXRF results.

References[1] Chauhan, G. and Prof. Chauhann, U. K.,“Human health risk assessment of heavy metals via dietary intake ofvegetables grown in wastewater irrigated area of Rewa, India”, International Journal of Scienceand Research Publication, Volume 4, Issue 9, September 2014
2Duruibe, J. O., Ogwuegbu, M. O. C and Egwurugwa, J. N., “Heavy metal pollution and human biotoxic effects”,
International Journal of Physical Science Vol. (2), May 2007
[3] Ramteke, S., Sahu, B. L., Dahariya, N. S., Patel, K. S., Blazhev, B. and Matin, L., “Heavy metal contaminationof Vegetables”, Journal of Environmental Protection, 2016[4] Singh, A., Sharma, R. K., Agrawal, M. and Marshall, F. M., “Health risk assessment of heavy metals via dietaryintake of foodstuffs from the wastewater irrigated site of a dry tropical area of India”, Food andChemical Toxicology, 2010
[5] Adedokun, Aderinola Hannah; Njoku, Kelechi Longinus; Akinola, ModupeOlatunde; Adesuyi, Adeola Alex;
Jolaoso, AnuoluwapoOmosileola “Potential human health risk assessment of heavy metals
intake via consumption of some leafy vegetables obtained from four market in Lagos
Metropolis, Nigeria”, J. Appl. Sci. Environ. Manage. Vol (20), Sept. 2016

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

PC-Based Ultrasound Object Detection System
Aung Naing Oo1 , Mar Mar Cho2

Abstract
To determine the presence of object and to search the object when it moves from its initial position,
the object detection system by using ultrasound transducers is constructed. The PIC microcontroller(PIC16F628A) is programmed to generate the required driving clock frequency for ultrasoundtransmitter (T40-16). The echo sent back from the detected object is received by the ultrasoundreceiver (R40-16). Then, the received echo pulse is amplified and transformed into digital signal by
dual audio operational amplifier (LM833) and low power dual voltage comparators (LM393).
Three receiver modules are constructed to sense the movement of the object. The receiver which
accepts the echo sent back from the object is identified. The CMOS quad 2-input NAND schmitt
triggers (CD4093B) is used to produce the proper logic level of signal receiver which receives theecho. The camera takes the picture of the object and sends to the monitor via VLC media player
software. The stepper motor performs the movement of the constructed system either clockwise orcounter clockwise direction. The operation of the system is controlled by the written program in
Visual C Sharp programming language.
Keywords: PIC microcontroller, ultrasound transmitter, ultrasound receiver, Visual C Sharp
programming language.

1. Introduction
Ultrasonic waves are mechanical waves that consist of oscillations or vibrations of theatomic or particles of a substance about the equilibrium positions of these particles. Ultrasonicwaves behave essentially the same as audible sound waves. They can propagate in an elastic
medium, which can be solid, liquid or gaseous, but not in a vacuum.
To find a barrier in the path or to avoid from the obstacles, ultrasonic transducers are used
to detect the presence of object. In this work, 40 kHz driver circuit is constructed by PIC
microcontroller (PIC16F628A). This frequency is sent to the ultrasonic transmitter circuits. The
ultrasonic transmitter (T40-16) produces the ultrasound. When the transmitted ultrasound detects
the object, echo is appeared. The ultrasonic receiver (R40-16) accepts the echo that falls on to it.
The signal is amplified by dual audio operational amplifier (LM833). The amplified signal is sent
to the low power dual voltage comparators (LM393) to be free from the noise interference. Afterthat the output voltage from LM393 is changed to digital logic level of HIGH or LOW
corresponding on the existence of object or not. Then, the logic level is sent to the personal
computer via line printer terminal. The written program controls the operation of stepper motor
depending on the logic level sent along the line printer terminal. The PC camera mounted on thecircuit board sends the photographs of objects that lie in front of it. These photographs are shownon the monitor.
2. PIC Microcontroller
A microcontroller is an inexpensive single-chip computer. The PIC16F628A is 18-pin
flash-based member of the versatile PIC microcontroller. It is complementary metal oxide
semiconductor and has high performance. It employs an advanced RISC architecture. The
1
2

Dr. Lecturer, Department of Physics, Yadanabon University
Dr. Lecturer, Department of Physics, Yadanabon University

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PIC16F628A has enhanced core features, eight-level deep stack, and multiple internal andexternal interrupt sources. The separate instruction and data buses of the Harvard architecture
allow a 14-bit wide instruction word with the separate 8-bit wide data. The two-stage instruction
pipeline allows all instructions to execute in a single-cycle, except for program branches. A totalof 35 instructions are available, complemented by a large register set.
Fig. (1) shows thephotograph and pin diagram of PIC16F628A microcontroller.

Figure1. The photograph and pin diagram of PIC16F628A microcontroller

2.1 Ultrasonic Transducer (TR40-16)
The T40-16 and R40-16 are matched pair ultrasonic transmitter and receiver respectively
operated at 40 kHz center frequency. This transducer utilizes the piezoelectric properties ofengineering ceramic that provides high sound pressure and high sensitivity. Fig. (2) shows thephotograph of ultrasonic transducer (TR40-16).

Figure2. Photograph of ultrasonic transducer (TR40-16)

2.2 Stepper Motor
A stepper motor is an electromechanical device which converts electrical pulses into
discrete mechanical movements. The shaft or spindle of a stepper motor rotates in discrete stepincrements when electrical command pulses are applied to it in the proper sequence. The motor
rotation has several direct relationships to these applied input pulses. The sequence of the applied
pulses is directly related to the direction of motor shafts rotation. The speed of the motor shafts
rotation is directly related to the frequency of the input pulses and the length of rotation is
directly related to the number of input pulses applied. The photograph of stepper motor is shownin Fig. (3).

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Figure 3. Photograph of stepper motor

2.3 Design and Construction
To find the barrier in path or to know the disappearance of the object, object detection
systems are constructed. In these systems, infrared sensor or ultrasonic transducers are used. This
work is intended to detect an object which is placed in front of the detector. In this work,
ultrasonic transducers are used to detect the object.
The block diagram of the constructed system is shown in Fig. (4). The system iscomposed of seven main parts. They are power supply unit, oscillator unit, ultrasonic transmitter
unit, ultrasonic receiver unit, level comparator unit, interfacing unit and stepper motor control
unit.

Oscillator
Unit

+ 5V

UltrasonicTransmitter
Unit

Ultrasonic
Receiver

Level
Comparator
Unit

Interfacing
Unit

Stepper
Motor
Control
U i

+ 5V

+ 5V

+ 5V

+ 12V

Regulated Power Supply Unit

Figure 4. Block diagram of the constructed system19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

106

The oscillator circuit composed of PIC microcontroller (PIC16F628A) is used to generate
the required driving clock frequency. The ultrasonic transmitter unit and ultrasonic receiver unit
are constructed by using ultrasonic transmitter (T40-16) and ultrasonic receiver (R40-16). To get
the noise free voltage level, level comparator circuits are constructed by using low power dual
voltage comparators (LM393). For interfacing with the personal computer, the interfacing circuit
using CMOS quad 2-input NAND schmitt triggers (CD4093B) is also attached. When the object
is disappeared, the transducer units are needed to rotate either in clockwise or counter clockwise
direction in searching the object. Therefore, stepper motor control circuit is also constructed. To
show the object on the monitor, a camera is also fixed in this system. Fig. (5) shows theultrasonic transmitter and receiver transducers array.

ReceiverTransmitter

ReceiverTransmitter

MiddleReceiver
Right

Figure 5. The ultrasonic transmitter and receiver transducers array

3. Results and Discussion
The oscillator produces the required clock frequency. The ultrasonic transmitter (T40-16)
uses this frequency and sends out the ultrasound. When the ultrasound hits the object, the echo isappeared. This echo is received by the ultrasonic receiver circuit and sent to the personal
computer. The written program determines the presence of object. If there is no object, no echo isappeared. Since there are three receivers for middle, left and right positions, the movement of theobject from its initial position can be known. The written program also drives the stepper motor
to rotate in clockwise or counter clockwise direction until the system finds the object. The
function of the constructed system is shown in Fig. (6).
The photograph of constructed circuit is shown in Fig. (7). Fig. (8) shows the complete
circuit diagram of the constructed circuit.

Ultrasonic Receiver

Stepper Motor Rotation

Left

Middle

Right

OFF

ON

OFF

Stationary (No Rotation)

ON

OFF

OFF

Counter Clockwise Rotation

OFF

OFF

ON

Clockwise Rotation
Figure 6. The function of the constructed system19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

107

Figure 7. Photograph of constructed circuit

Figure 8. Complete circuit diagram of the constructed circuit

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

108

4. Conclusion
In this work, three ultrasonic receivers (R40-16) are used to detect the movement ofobject. Each ultrasonic receiver is needed to get the noise free echo for the exact object location.
So, the voltage gain from dual audio operational amplifier (LM833) is limited even though theoperational amplifier has very high open loop gain. Therefore, the constructed work is effective
in detecting the object in short range.
Circuit design and programming for PIC microcontroller and personal computer is also
very important in carrying out this work. The enhancement of knowledge of application of PIC
microcontroller, interfacing with the personal computer is the great advantage of this work.

Acknowledgements
We would like to express our gratitude to Dr Maung Maung Naing, Rector, Dr Si Si Khin, Pro-Rector andDr Tin Moe Thuzar, Pro-Rector of Yadanabon University for their suggestion and permission to perform this projectwork. We would also like to express our great thanks to Dr Yi Yi Myint, Professor (Head of the Department), Dr
May Thida Win, Professor and all the teachers and staff from the Department of Physics, Yadanabon University for
their help and discussion throughout this research work.

References[1] J. David N. Cheeke, “Fundamentals and Applications of Ultrasonic Waves”, CRC Press LLC, United States ofAmerica (2002).
[2] Parallax Inc., “Detect Distance With The Ping))) Ultrasonic Sensor”, http://www.parallax.com (2005).
[3] Waitrony, “Ultrasonic Transducer (TR40-16)”, http://www.ic-on-line.cn (2003).
[4] R. A Penfold, “Easy PC Interfacing”, Bernard Babani Ltd., England (1995).
[5] S. Mueller, “Upgrading and Repairing PCs”, 14th Edition, Que, Indiana (2003).
[6] J. Iovine, “PIC Microcontroller Project Book”, McGraw-Hill, New York (2000).
[7] Microchip Technology Inc., “PIC16F627A/628A/648A Data Sheet”, United States of America (2004).
[8] Stmicroelectronics, “LM393”, http://www.st.com (2011).
[9] National Semiconductor Corporation, “LM7805”, http://www.national.com (2006).
[10] National Semiconductor Corporation, “LM833”, United States of America (1995).
[11] Texas Instruments, “CD4093B”, Dallas (2003).
[12] Philips Semiconductors, “HEF40106B”, http://www.datasheetcatalog.com (1995).
[13] Texas Instruments, “SN74LS245A”, Dallas (2003).

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Green Synthesis and Characterization of Chitosan-Copper Nanoparticle Used
as Antimicrobial and Antitumor Activities
Aung Than Htwe1, Thinzar Nu2, Cho Cho3
Abstract
This work is an attempt to aim to synthesize, characterize and apply of eco-friendly green
synthesized copper - chitosan nanoparticles (Cu-NPs). In this work the environmentally friendly
synthesis of stable Cu chitosan NPs through green route with chitosan as a stabilizer and or
reducing agent was synthesized. The synthesized copper nanoparticles were confirmed by thechange of colour after addition of chitosan into the Copper (II) sulphate solution. The
biosynthesized CuNPs were characterized by using UV-Vis, Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR),
X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). Average crystalline
size of the nanoparticles was estimated from the Debye- Scherrer’s equation. The antimicrobialactivity of the nanoparticles were investigated using six microorganisms of interest, including
Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus pumilus, E-coli andCandida albicans. The effect of a chitosan medium on growth of the microorganism was studied,and this was found to influence growth rate. The antitumor activities of the synthesized CuNPs
were investigated by Potato Crown Gall teat and these activities were found to be within 5-7 daysby the dose of 0.05, 0.1 and 0.15 g of CuNPs. Finally, the present study provided to full fill thescientific evidence, become a new trend to save and reduce environmental pollution and safety inbactericidal, wound healing and other medical applications.
Keywords: Chitosan, Cu-NPs nanoparticles, antimicrobial activity, antitumor activity

1. Introduction
Bacterial and fungus infection is a problem in all over the world. So this chitosan-copper
nanoparticles (CuNPs) is to solve and reduce this problem.
Metal nanoparticles have attracted considerable attention in many fields, such as
catalysis, optoelectronics, photovoltaic technology, information storage, environmental
technology, engineering, biosensors development, medicine, and so on [1]. Among
nanomaterials, nanoparticles have been contributing to the progress in this field. In particular,
therapies using nanoparticles have widely been achieved for the treatments of cancer, diabetes,
allergy, infection and inflammation [2]. Generally, metallic nanoparticles show antibacterial andantifungal activity, even though there are environmental and human safety concerns regarding therelease and consumption of metal nanoparticles which are yet to be explored. Excessive releaseof silver, for example, causes environmental pollution which in turn makes silver harmful tohuman and animals. An excess of copper in the human body leads to generation of the mostdamaging radicals, such as the hydroxyl radical [3]. Nanomaterials are widely used in various
technological applications viz. refrigeration systems, medical imaging, drug targeting and otherbiological applications, and catalysis [4].
1

Dr Assistant Lecturer, Department of Chemistry, University of Yangon, Myanmar,
e-mail: aungthanhtwe76@gmail.com
2
Associate Professor, Department of Chemistry, University of Yangon,Myanmar, e-mail:thinzarnu50@gmail.com
3
Professor, Department of Chemistry, University of Yangon, Myanmar, e-mail:chocho.urc@gmail.com

110

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Environmentally friendly solvents, reducing agents are used with enormous potential aspart of a responsible green approach for the development of nanotechnology. Biocompatible andnontoxic polymers (e.g. chitosan) as a reducing and stabilizing agent of metal nanoparticles issuggested [1]. Copper nanoparticles (CuNPs), due to their excellent physical and chemical
properties and low cost for preparation, have been of great interest [5].
Chitosan is a natural product derived from chitin, a polysaccharide present in theexoskeletons of shellfish such as shrimps and crabs. It is a cationic polysaccharide composed ofβ-(1-4)-linked D-glucosamine and N-acetyl-D glucosamine units. Environmental-friendly
material with many superior properties with momentous amounts of amine and hydroxyl groups
that can be easily engineered [6]. The antimicrobial action is influenced by intrinsic factors suchas the type of chitosan, the degree of chitosan polymerization, the host, the natural nutrient
constituency, the chemical or nutrient composition of the substrates or both, and theenvironmental conditions (e.g. substract water activity or moisture or both) [7]. The NPs
generated are strongly attached to the chitosan due to the chemical bond between the electronrich nitrogen present in the amino groups of the polymer and copper. The use of biopolymer as
capping and or reducing agents represents an environmentally friendly alternative to hazardousorganic solvents [8].
The present work deals with environmentally friendly synthesis of stable chitosan-copper
nanoparticles through green route with chitosan as a stabilizer and or reducing agent. The
synthesized NPs were characterized by UV-Visible spectrometry, SEM, and XRD. Their
antimicrobial properties were tested using microorganism such as fungi, algae and some bacteria.
Finally, antitumor activities were investigated.

2. Methods
2.1 Synthesis of Chitosan-Copper Nanoparticles (CuNPs)
In a typical one-step synthesis, 50 mL of 1 % (w/v) chitosan solution was prepared byusing 1 g of chitosan(CS) was dissolved in 100 mL of 1 % acetic acid solution. 50 mL of 1 % CS
solution and 25 mL of 0.05 M CuSO4.5H2O were then mixed and stirred on magnetic stirrer at 80°C for 12 h till the reaction was completed. After 12 h the colloid was centrifuged at 7,000 rpm
for 20 mins to separate particles from suspension. The precipitate was re-suspended in acetone(90%, v/v) and the centrifugation was repeated three times to remove unreacted reagents. Finally,
the precipitate was dissolved in water, dried under vacuum overnight and stored.

2.2 Characterization of Cu NPs
UV-visible spectra were recorded using a Shimadzu UV-Vis1800 Spectrophotometer forthe confirmation of NP formation. The structural features of Cu-Chitosan NPs were performed ina PerKinElmer GX system FT IR spectrometer in a range from 400 to 4000 cm-1. The size andmorphology of the Cu-Chitosan NPs were examined by SEM (JEOL model JSM 5610 LV
scanning microscope). X-ray diffraction studies were performed with an X-ray diffractometer(Rigaku Ultima III XRD) with Cu Kα1 radiation to determine the structure of a sample. The Xray source was operated at 40 kV and 40 mA. Diffraction intensity was measured in the reflection
mode at a scanning rate of 2°/min for 2θ=10-70°.

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

2.3 Determination of Antimicrobial Activity
The CuNPs was tested with Bacillus subtilis, staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonus
aeruginosa, Bacillus pumalis, Candida albican and E. coil species to investigate the nature of
antimicrobial activity. After preparing the bacteriological media, the dried films were placed on
the agar with flamed forceps and gently pressed down to ensure proper contact. The plates wereincubated immediately or within 30 min after incubation [9, 10]. After overnight incubation at 37ºC, the results are shown in Table 1 and Figure 1.

2.4 Screening of Antitumor Activity by Potato Crown Gall Test or Potato Disc Assay
Tumor producing bacteria, Agrobacterium tumefacien, was used in this study. All of thesestrains have been maintained as solid slants under refrigerator. For inoculation of potato discs, 48
h broth cultures containing 5× 107 – 5 ×109 cell/mL were used. Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain
was cultured on Luria-Bertani (LB) agar medium which was prepared by dissolving a mixture ofyeast extract (1 g), peptone (1 g), NaCl (0.5 g) and agar (2 g) in distilled water (100 mL). Single
colony was transferred into LB broth and incubated at 30 C for 48 hours in the shake. Six toseven loops of bacterial suspensions (1.0 × 109 cfu) were transferred into sterilized phosphatebuffer saline (PBS) and this was used during antitumor assay inoculums. The antitumor activity
was examined by observation of tumor produced or not.

3. Results and Discussion
The formation of Cu-NPs was observed in a series of colour changes. The addition of
Cu2+ solution to CS solution resulted in the appearance of a light blue which indicates theformation of a [Cu (CS)]2+ (aq) complex figure 1. The reduction of metal ion is one of the mostconvenient and promising synthetic approaches to obtain metallic nanoparticles with relatively
inexpensive setups. Cu-NPs are very difficult to obtain by simple reduction of copper salts inaqueous solution where copper is oxidized to CuO and Cu2O [6].

chitosansolution

CuSO4.5H2O [Cu(CS)]2+(aq)[Cu(CS)]NPs

Figure 1: Photographs of the sample at the different stages of synthesis showing colour variations

3.1 UV-visible Spectrophotometric Analysis
The observation of the absorption spectra of different aliquots overtime containing copper
sulphate (50 mM) in chitosan (0.75% w/v) showed major peak in the range 500-600 nm , thus
revealing the formation of Cu-NPs. The colloidal Cu-NPs prepared at 12 h at 70 °C showed acharacteristic single absorption peak at 536 nm (Figure 1), which indicates the decrease ofreactants Cu2+ ions in the presence of chitosan to the formation of large amount of monodisperse
NPs. The present finding was in agreement with the blue shift of the surface plasmon resonance112

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)(SPR) of the metallic NPs with their decreasing size. Nanosized Cu particles exhibited a SPR ataround 500-600 nm. This shows that copper ions was added to the chitosan solution. This is toindicate that Cu2+ ions are attached to chitosan macromolecules by electrostatic interactions. The
electron-rich oxygen atoms of polar hydroxyl and ether groups of chitosan are responsible tointeract with electropositive metal cations. It has been reported that chitosan acts as a controllerof nucleation as well as a stabilizer [8].

Figure 2: UV- visible spectrum of synthesized copper-chitosan nanoparticle

3.2 FTIR Analysis
FTIR analysis was conducted to determine the molecular interactions between chitosan
and the synthesized NPs. The chitosan spectrum in figure 3(b) illustrates an amide I C = O
vibration band at 1633.94 cm-1. The spectrum also dhows transmissions at 3303.19 cm-1 assigned
to the overlap of O-H and N-H stretching vibrations, 1633.94 cm-1 and 1537.88 cm-1 to -NH2
bending, 1336.57 cm-1 to C-H bending and 1064.11 cm-1 to -C-O skeletal stretching. A similar
trend was observed in CuNPs spectrum (figure 3(c)). For instance, a general decrease in bandwith a blue shift was noticed (from 1633.94 to 1632.60, 1537.88 to1531.25 and 1064.11 to1063.68 cm-1). The peak at 611.7 cm-1 evidence the interaction between CuNPs and CS media
which indicates a reaction between the CuNPs surface, and the CS amino and hydroxyl group [3,11].
The experiments described above indicate the importance of chitosan in the performed
synthesis. Chitosan, as a biopolymer, has a significant content of primary amines and hydroxyl
groups and possess a strong affinity towards metal ions, which are incorporated by simple
chelation by ion exchange, thereby making it an excellent support for nucleation of Cu-NPs. The
generation of [Cu (CS)]2+ complexes in solution enables metal ion reduction. From these results,
it can be envisaged that the biopolymer plays an important role as polymeric capping agent(Stabilizer) [1].

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

113

Figure 3. FT IR Spectrum of synthesized copper-chitosan nanoparticle

3.3 Powder X-ray Diffraction Analysis
The solid state or crystallinity of the synthesized CuNPs was characterized by X-ray
diffractometry. The XRD diffractogram of the CuNPs are shown in figure 4. The XRD pattern for
CuNPs exhibited two crystalline peaks at 2θ angles of 36.628  and 50.141 respectively. The
prominent diffraction peaks observed are indexed to (111) and (200) reflections. This confirmsthat the resultant nanoparticles are face centered cubic (fcc) of metal nanoparticles. The highest
intense peak for fcc materials is generally (111) reflection and this was observed in thesynthesized nanoparticles. These planes observed were compared with the standard powder
diffraction card of JCPDS copper file No. 78-0428 and copper X-ray diffraction reference No.
85-1326. The absence of any noticeable peaks in the pattern resulting from the sample suggeststhat the sample is free from impurities such as CuO and Cu2O. The average crystalline size of the
CuNPs obtained was estimated to be in the range of 28.221 nm using Debye-Scherrer equation is
given as: D = K λ , where D is the mean nanoparticles diameter (Particle size), K is a constantβ cos θwith value 0.94, λ is the wavelength of X-ray (0.154), β is full width at half maximum and θ isthe differential angle [12].

Figure 4. XRD diffractogram of synthesized copper-chitosan nanoparticle in chitosan media

3.4

SEM

The surface morphology of synthesized CuNPs was examined and the thickness of theseparticles was determined by JEOL scanning electron microscopy. The thickness wasapproximately 10 m. The micrograph of the cross-section surface structure of CuNPs wasshown in figure 5. From the micrographs the CuNPs found to be made up of the slightly

114

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

aggregated due to the absence of strong surface protecting ligands and found to be irregular inshape.

Figure 5. SEM micrograph of synthesized copper-chitosan nanoparticle

3.5 Antimicrobial Activity of CuNPs
Antimicrobial activity of CuNPs are shown in Table 1. Tested organisms were Bacillus
subtitles, Staphylococcus aurous, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus pumalis, Candida albicanand E.Coli. As seen in figure 6, antimicrobial test of CuNPs was used the agar medium
cultivation. According to the experimental results, the prepared CuNPs was really effective toantimicrobial activity. The cell wall is more exposed to nanoparticles through the outer bacterial
membrane. The unique high surface to volume ratio of CuNPs enables them to interact with thebacterial cell membrane through its surface, which leads to the death of the bacterium. Therefore,
the size of the nanoparticles is important for antimicrobial activity [3]. It was observed that
CuNPs was bactericidal and fungicidal against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria
and fungus.

CuNPs

Bacillus
subtitles

Staphylococcus Pseudomonas
aeruginosa
aurousControl

Bacillus pumalis Candida albican E.Coli

Figure 6. Antimicrobial activities of synthesized copper-chitosan nanoparticle
Table 1. Antimicrobial Activity of CuNPs by Agar Disc Diffusion Method
Microorganism
SampleCuNPs

Bacillus subtilis

Staphylococcus
aureusPseudomonas
aeruginosa

25 mm (+++)

20 mm (+++)

13 mm (+)

Bacillus pumilus Candida albican
16 mm (++)

Agar well 10 mm, 10 mm-14 mm (+), 15 mm-19 mm (++), 20 mm above (+++)

23 mm (+++)

E-coil21 mm (+++)

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

3.6

Antitumor Activity of CuNPs

The antitumor activity of CuNPs was investigated by using PCG test with bacterium A.
tumefaciens. For inoculation of the potato disc, 48 h broth cultures containing 5× 109 cells/mL
were used. The tested sample was dissolved in DMSO, diluted and mixed with the bacterial
culture for inoculated on the cleaned and sterilized potato discs, and incubated for 7 days at room
temperature. After that, the tumors were appeared on potato disc and checked by staining theknob with Lugol’s (I2-KI) solution. In the control the formation of while knob were on the blue
background indicated the presence of tumors cell because there is no protein in tumor cells. The
tested sample did not form any tumors on the potato discs and its surface remained blue. Formthis experiment, it was found that CuNPs was not significantly inhibited the formation of tumor
cell with the dose of 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3 g/disc. These results are shown in Table 2 and figure 7.

0.1 g of CuNPs for 5 days

0.2 g of CuNPs for 5 days

0.3 g of CuNPs for 5 days

0.1 g of CuNPs for 7 days

0.2 g of CuNPs for 7 days

0.3 g of CuNPs for 7 days

Table 2. Antitumor activity of CuNPs
Tumor inhibition:

Concentration/disc (mg)sampleCuNPsControl

Days
0.1 g

0.2 g

0.3 g

5

+

+

+

7

+

+

+

(++) = non activity(+) = less activity++

4. Conclusion
The present study indicates that of CuNPs with a size of 28.22 nm have been successfully
synthesized in the presence of a biowaste polymer chitosan. The synthesized NPs werecharacterized by UV-Vis, FTIR, XRD and SEM analyses. From FTIR analysis, the peaks of the
CuNPs are attributed to N-H, O-H, C=O, C-O, C-OH, CH and Cu-O stretching and bending
vibrations. The average crystalline size of CuNPs nanoparticle is 28.22 nm and agglomerate
porous and crystalline nature. The chitosan plays the main role of chelating with metal ions. The
synthesized CuNPs exhibited good antimicrobial and antitumor activity. The present synthetic
method represents a simple, convenient, cost-effective and environmental-friendly. The main
contribution of the present work producing chitosan-copper nanoparticles could promote to acertain extent of sustainable development and foster innovation toward and may be used forpharmaceutical and biomedical application.

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Acknowledgements
The authors feel indebted to Professor and Head Dr. Ni Ni Than, Department of Chemistry, University of
Yangon, Yangon, Myanmar, for his stimulating suggestions. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Science
Council of Asia (SCA) and Myanmar Academy of Arts and Science for this conference.

References[1] Katarzyna Tokarek, Jose L Hueso, Piotr Kustrowski, Grazyna Stochel, Agnieszka Kyziol, “Green synthesis ofchitosan-stabilized copper nanoparticles”, European Journal of Inorganic Chemistry, 2013,vol.28, pp. 4940-4947.
[2] Sachiko Kaihara Nitta, Keiji Numata, “Biopolymer-based nanoparticles for drug/gene delivery and tissue
engineering”, International Journal of Molecular Science, 2013, vol. 14, pp. 1629-1654.
[3] Muhammad Sani Usman, Mohamed Ezzat EI Zowalaty, Kamyar Shameli, Norhazlin Zainuddin, Mohamed Salama
and Nor Azowa Ibrahim, “Synthesis, characterization, and antimicrobial properties of copper
nanoparticles”, International Journal of Nanomedicine, 2013, vol. 8, pp. 4467-4479.
[4] Marimuthu Nidhin, Ramasamy Indumathy, Kalarical Janardhanan Sreeram, Balachandran Unni Nair, “Synthesis ofiron oxide nanoparticles of narrow size distribution on polysaccharide templates” , Bulletin ofMaterials Science, 2008, vol. 31(1), pp. 93–96.
[5] Muhammad Sani Usman, Nor Azowa Ibrahim, Kamyar Shameli, Norhazlin Zainuddi, Wan Md Wan Yunus,“Copper nanoparticles mediated by chitosan: synthesis and characterization via chemical
methods”, Molecules, 2012, vol. 17, pp. 14928-14936.(DOI: 10 3390/molecules 171214928)[6] Kaushik Mallick, Mike J. Witcomb, Mike S. Scurrell, “In Situ synthesis of copper nanoparticles and poly (otoluidine): a metal-polymer composite material”, European Polymer Journal, 2006, vol. 42, pp.
670-675.
[7] Entsar I. Rabea, Mohamed E. T. Badawy, Christian V. Stevens, Guy Smagghe and Walter Steurbaut, “Chitosan as
antimicrobial agent: Applications and Mode of Action”, Biomacromolecules, 2003, vol. 4 (6),pp. 1457-1465.
[8] Appu Manikandan and Muthukrishnan Sathiyabama, “Green synthesis of copper-chitosan nanoparticles and studyof its antibacterial activity”, Journal of Nanomedicine & Nanotechnology, 2015, vol. 6(1), pp. 15. (DOI: 10.4172/2157-7439.1000251)[9] Norashikin Mat Zain, Andrew G. F. Stapley, Gilbert Shama, “Green synthesis of silver and copper nanoparticles
using ascorbic acid and chitosan for antimicrobial applications”, Carbohydrate Polymers, 2014,vol. 112, pp. 195-202.
[10] Aung Than Htwe, Sandar Tun, Khin Aye May, Kyaw Myo Naing, “Studies on preparation, characterization andapplication of pH-sensitive biodegradable chitosan-polyvinyl alcohol hydrogel”, Jour. Myan.
Acad. Arts & Sc., 2013, vol. XI (1), pp. 127-140.
[11] Thi My Dung, Thi Thu Tuyet Le, Eric Fribourg-Blanc, Mau Chien Dang, “The influence of solvents andsurfactants on the preparation of copper nanoparticles by a chemical reduction method”,
Advances in Natural Science: Nanoscience and Nanotechnoloty, 2011, vol. 2, pp. 1-7.
[12] Krithiga N, Jayachitra A. Synthesis of copper nanoparticle by chemical method and analysis, its significant
antibacterial activity. International Journal for Research in Applied Sciences and Biotechnology,
2014, vol. 1(1), pp.22-27.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Determination of Ion Occupation Model in Spinel Lettice
Aye Aye Thant1, Thet Phyu Phyu Naing2

Abstract
Ferrite materials have exploited for a number of extensive applications in non-reciprocal devices
at microwave frequencies. Ferrite samples with the chemical composition Ni(GdxFe1-x)2O4 (x =0.0125, 0.0250, 0.0375 and 0.0500) were prepared by Conventional Ceramic Method. By
introducing a relatively small amount of Gd3+ ions instead of Fe3+ ions, the crystallization of these
dopants in the mother system was investigated. The structural analyses were performed via X-ray
diffraction (XRD) and Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). The partial substitution of Gd3+
ions in the place of Fe3+ ions was confirmed by the decrease in the lattice parameter with the Gd3+
concentration. The formation of small crystallite and grains are responsible for the increase ofcoercivity with Gd3+ ion substitution. The model of ion occupation among the available
tetrahedral (A) and octahedral (B) sites of spinel was estimated by the obtained magnetic moment
per unit cell and the Bohr magneton of each ion in the lattice according to spin quantization.
Keywords: nickel ferrite, Gd3+ ion, conventional, coercivity, ion occupation

1. Introduction
Spinel ferrite in general and magnesium-manganese in particular have extensive
applications in construction of non-reciprocal devices at microwave frequencies [1].
Ferrimagnetic cation substituted spinal ferrites are technologically versatile materials [2]. Theinteresting physical and chemical properties of ferrospinels arise from their ability to distributethe cations among the available tetrahedral (A) and octahedral (B) sites [3]. The addition oftrivalent ions in ferrites influences the electric and magnetic properties of the system; density,
crystallite size, grain size, residual macrostress and initial permeability [4], [5]. The rare earthoxides are becoming the promising additives for the improvement ferrite properties [6], [7]. In
the case of advanced functional materials, doping with small concentration of rare earth is a wellknown versatile way to tune the desirable physical properties of ferrites not only because of thelanthanide contraction which induces monotonic change of ionic radii, but also because of thedifferent stable oxidation states and the periodical variation in magnetic moments coming fromthe sequential filling of electrons in their 4f shells [8]. To date very few literature is available
reporting the effect of rare earth atom on the properties of ferrite. In this background, nickel
ferrite doped with gadolinium ions was prepared by conventional ceramic technique to provide
an accurate understanding of the changes caused by the substitution.

2. Materials and Methods
Specimens of the Gd doped Ni ferrites, Ni (GdxFe1-x)2O4, where x = 0.0125, 0.0250,
0.0375 and 0.0500, were grounded in an Agate mortar for 4 h. The mixture was pre-sintered at1000 ºC for 4 h with heating rate of 20 ºC /min, and cooled to room temperature with the samerate. The mixture was ground with an Agate mortar for 1 h. A few drops of PVA binder wereadded to the powder and the powder was pressed into pellets by uniaxial hydraulic press at apressure of 150MPa. The final sintering was performed at 1100 ºC for 10 h with the heating rate
1
2

Dr. Professor, Department of Physics, University of Yangon, Myanmar, ayeayethant@uy.edu.mm
Yangon, Myanmar, thetzin18@gmail.com

118

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)of 20 ºC/min. The pellets were well polished for further characterizations. The phase formationof the sintered ferrite pellet was checked using XRD. The morphology of the samples was
examined by using SEM. The magnetic properties were also measured and the model of ion
occupation among the available tetrahedral (A) and octahedral (B) sites of spinel was estimatedin this work.

3. Results and Discussion
3.1 Structural Analysis by XRD
After preparing Gd doped Nickel Ferrite, Ni (GdxFe1-x)2 O4, by Conventional Ceramic
Method, the structural characteristics of these samples were analyzed by XRD method. The XRD
patterns of the samples with compositions (x = 0.000 and 0.0125) show the formation of single
phase cubic spinel while the samples with (x =0.025, 0.0375 and 0.0500) involved a secondary
phase at around 2θ value of 32º in addition to spinal phase as shown in Figure 1. Among the
XRD patterns of the samples with gadolinium (Gd) dopants, only the sample with compositions(x = 0.0125) exhibited single phase cubic structure while the samples with (x =0.025, 0.0375 and0.0500) involved a secondary phase at around 2θ value of 32º in addition to spinal phase.
According to the literature, the secondary phase may be identified as GdFeO3 phase. The
initial sample NiFe2O4 is inverse spinel and Gd3+ ions preferentially occupy the B-sites. It wasestimated from the present study that the Gd3+ ions preferentially occupy the B-sites at Gdconcentration x > 0.0125 while small fraction of it also entered into the A-sites.
Ni(GdFe)2O4-0.05

Intensity(Counts)

Ni(GdFe)2O4-0.0375

Ni(GdFe)2O4-0.025

10

30

(511)
(136)
50

(531)

(136) (511)
(444)
(543)
(046)
(127) (440)(642)

88-2165> Gd2O3 - Gadolinium Oxide

60

(156)
(800)

(611)

10-0325> Trevorite, syn - NiFe2O4

(541)
(622)

(026)

(433)

(331)

(422)

(400)
(400)
40

(125)
(440)

(134)

(332)

(422)

(222)

(222)
(311)
(411)

(420)

(400)

(123)

(220)
20

(222)

(211)

(111)

(220)

NiFe2O4

(440)

(311)

Ni(GdFe)2O4-0.0125

70

Two-Theta (deg)Figure 1. XRD patterns of Ni(GdxFe1-x)2O4, where x = 0.0125, 0.0250, 0.0375 and 0.0500.

3.2 Estimation of Lattice Parameter and Crystallite Size
The values of lattice constant were determined from the XRD data and presented in Table
1. The lattice constant slightly increases with increase in Gd-content. The increase of the lattice
constants with increasing Gd concentration is strongly related to the relative ionic radius of Fe3+
and Gd3+ ions. The ionic radius of Fe3+ (0.64 Å) is smaller than that of Gd3+ (0.94 Å). It shows
the increase of the crystalline lattice parameters. If the ionic radius of the impurity ion is larger

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

than that of the displaced ion, the lattice expends and the lattice constant increases. However, thelattice parameter again decreased with the Gd concentration x=0.0500 which is the largest value
in this system. This observation again confirms the partial substitution of Gd ions in the place of
Fe ions. The crystallite size was calculated from the XRD peak broadening of the (311) peakusing Scherrer formula and presented in Table 1. It is observed that the crystallite size increased
with the substitution of small amount of Gd3+ ions in NiFe2O4. However, the size became smallerwith the increase in Gd dopants beyond x=0.0250. This may be due to the presence of secondary
phase in the samples with larger amount of dopants. Moreover, the broad peaks in XRD patterns
are due to fine crystallite size of the ferrite particles. The crystallite sizes of Ni (GdxFe1-x)2 O4
were found to be in the range of 41 to 32 nm.

3.3 Structural Analysis by SEM
SEM investigations was conducted mainly on sample surfaces to obtain information withrespect to grain morphology and bonding characteristics. SEM micrographs of Ni (GdxFe1-x)2 O4
samples are shown in Figure 2. As shown in SEM micrographs, the grains are found to be in
spherical shape. However, the grains become smaller and the pores between the necks of thegrains become bigger with increasing Gd3+ ions substitutions. It reveals that the average grain
size ranges from 1.07 μm to 1.66 μm for sintering at 1100 ºC.
Table 1. Lattice parameter, crystallite size as a function of the concentration of Gadolinium
Gd content(x)FerriteLatticeconstant(nm)

Crystallite
size (nm)Averagegrain size(µm)

0.0000Ni Fe2O4

8.21

33.39

2.783

0.0125Ni(Gd0.0125 Fe0.9875 )2O4

8.26

32.64

2.466

0.0250Ni(Gd0.0250 Fe0.9750 )2O4

8.28

40.73

2.425

0.0375Ni(Gd0.0375 Fe0.9625 )2O4

8.29

33.74

2.183

0. 0500

Ni(Gd0.0500 Fe0.9500 )2O4

8.21

34.37

2.151

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Gd-0

Gd-1

Gd-2

Gd-3

Gd-4

Figure 2. SEM micrographs of Ni(GdxFe1-x)2O4, x = 0.0000 (Gd-0), 0.0125 (Gd-1), 0.0250 (Gd-2), 0.0375 (Gd-3) and 0.0500(Gd-4)

3.4

Analysis on Magnetic Hysteresis Loop

The most interesting characteristics in ferrite are the behavior of mixed ferrites withdifferent non-magnetic ion concentrations. As the values of magnetization can be conveniently
varied by suitable substitution, Gd3+ ions were substituted for Fe3+ ions in NiFe2O4 and themagnetizations were obtained for different compositions. The hysteresis loops Ni (GdxFe1-x)2 O4
are shown in Figure 3. From the hysteresis loops, the coercivity (Hc), saturation magnetization(Ms), magnetic moment (nB) and remnant flux density (Br) of the samples were calculated andpresented in Table 2.
The increase in Gd3+ ion concentration leads saturation magnetization and saturation
moment to be decreased. Gd3+ ion with ionic radius of 0.94 Å may prefer to occupy B site while
Ni ions with ionic radius of 0.78 Å may enter both A site and B site. Since the resultant
magnetization is the difference of B site magnetization and A site magnetization, the decrease insaturation magnetic moment pointed out that the magnetization resulted from the simultaneous
increase of Gd3+ ion and decrease of Fe ions in B site is smaller than that from the decrease of Ni

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

ions and increase of Fe ions in A site. Hc shows an increase with increasing Gd3+ ionssubstitution. One important effect on Hc is the microstructural behavior. Therefore, the formationof small crystallite and grains are responsible for the increase of coercivity with Gd3+ ion
substitution.
Table 2. Coercivity (Hc), the residual flux density (Br), saturation magnetization (Ms) andmagnetic moment (nB) of Ni(GdxFe1-x)2O4
Saturation flux
density, Bs

Residual flux
density, Br(Gauss)5.90

0.0125Magnetic
moment, nB(Gauss)Saturation
magnetization, Ms(emu/g)893.19803.8770.64

2.96479.56

738.45521.2658.03

2.46180.025012.12

617.82376.0648.22

2.02670.037514.20

551.26413.4542.75

1.85270.050014.81

403.50238.4330.94

1.3549Gd contents(x)

Coercivity, Hc(Oe)

0.0000

(μB)

Gd

Gd

Gd

Gd

Gd

Figure 3. Hysteresis loops of Ni(GdxFe1-x)2O4, x = 0.0000 (Gd-0), 0.0125 (Gd-1), 0.0250 (Gd-2), 0.0375 (Gd-3) and 0.0500(Gd-4)

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

3.5 Ion Occupation in Ni (GdxFe1-x)2O4
It is generally known that the divalent ions are generally larger than the trivalent ions.
This is because the larger charge in the trivalent ion produces greater electrostatic attraction andso pulls the outer orbit inward. In the unit cell of the spinel lattice, the radius of octahedral site isapparently larger than that of the tetrahedral site. Particularly, in NiFe2O4 ferrite, the tetrahedral
site has a radius of 0.57 Å and octahedral site has a radius of 0.73 Å. Therefore, it would bereasonable to suggest that the trivalent ions, Fe3+ prefer to go into the tetrahedral A-sites while
the divalent Ni2+ and Gd3+ ions into the octahedral B-sites.
The most interesting characteristic in this study is the behavior of cation distribution in
the mixed ferrites. Based on the site preference of ions, the crystal structure of spinel and thereported work on the distribution of NiFe2O4, a model of ion occupation in Gd doped NiFe2O4,
Ni (GdxFe1-x)2O4, is proposed in this work.
For NiFe2O4 spinel lattice,(Ni2+δ Fe3+1-δ)A-site [Ni2+1-δ Fe3+1+δ] B-siteO4
where δ = the mole of the Ni2+ ions. On the other hand, for the Ni (GdxFe1-x)2 O4 spinel lattice,the model for cation distribution is proposed as:(Ni2+y+δ Fe3+1-x-δ) A-site [Ni2+1-y-δ Fe3+1-x+δGd3+2x] B-siteO4
The magnetic moment of a unit cell of Ni (GdxFe1-x)2 O4ferrite was calculated by using
the following equation.
nB = [mNi (1-y-δ) + mFe (1-x +δ) + mGd 2x]B – [mNi (y+δ) + mFe (1-x-δ)] A
The net magnetic moment of Gd3+ ion (61 electrons in the electronic shells); mGd is 7 μB,
that of Ni2+ ion (26 electrons in the electronic shells); mNi is 2 μB and Fe3+ ion (23 electrons in theelectronic shells); mFe is 5 μB.
This proposal is supported by the resultant magnetization of the Gd doped nickel ferrite
samples which has been observed in hysteresis measurement. According to the above estimation,
the added Ni2+ ions replaced Fe3+ ions in A-sites while Gd3+ ions replaced Ni2+ ions in B sites
preferably as simplified in Table 4.
Table 4. Occupation of cations in Ni(GdxFe1-x)2O4
FerriteA-siteB-siteNiFe2O4

Ni2+0.16 Fe3+0.84

Ni2+0.84 Fe3+1.16

Ni(Gd0.0125Fe0.9875)2O4

Ni2+0.71447 Fe3+0.67303

Ni2+0.28553
Gd3+0.0250

Fe3+1.30197

Ni(Gd0.0250Fe0.9750) 2O4

Ni2+0.61279 Fe3+0.76221

Ni2+0.38721
Gd3+0.0500

Fe3+1.18779

Ni(Gd0.0375Fe0.96250) 2O4

Ni2+0.55462 Fe3+0.80788

Ni2+0.44538
Gd3+0.0750

Fe3+1.11712

Ni(Gd0.0500Fe0.9500) 2O4

Ni2+0.44249 Fe3+0.90751

Ni2+0.55751 Fe3+0.99249 Gd3+0.
1000

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

4. Conclusion
The Ni (GdxFe1-x)2O4 (x= 0.0000, 0.0125, 0.0250, 0.0375, 0.0500) spinel ferrite system
was synthesized successfully using Conventional Ceramic method. The XRD analysis confirmedthat all Gd3+ substituted ferrite was obtained a single spinel phase in the range of x=0.00000.0125. The lattice parameter showed an increase with Gd3+ substitution until x = 0.0375 anddecrease up to x=0.0500, because of the formation of the secondary phase of GdFeO3. However,the particle size decreases with increase of Gd3+ content due to hindrance of grain boundary
mobility. The saturation magnetization decreased and coercivity Hc increased with increasing
Gd3+ ions substitution due to the formation of small crystallite and grains with Gd ion
substitution. Importantly, a model of ion occupation in Ni (GdxFe1-x)2O4 was estimated by theobtained magnetic moment per unit cell and the Bohr magneton of each ion in the lattice
according to spin quantization.

Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the Department of Physics and Universities’ Research Centre, University of
Yangon for the supports with research facilities.

References[1] Anjana Dogra, M. Singh and Ravi Kumar, “50MeV Li+3 ion irradiation induced modifications in dielectric
properties of Al+3 substituted Mg-Mn ferrite”, Nucl. Instr. and Meth. B, 2003, vol. 207, pp. 296300.
[2] S K Sharma, Ravi Kumar, Shalendra Kumar, M Knobel, C T Meneses, V V Siva Kumar, V R Reddy, M Singhand C G Lee, “Role of interparticle interactions on the magnetic behavior of
Mg0.95Mn0.05Fe2O4 ferrite nanoparticles”, J. Phys.: Condens. Matter, 2008, vol. 20, pp. 235214.
[3] A. A. Pandit, A. R. Shitre, D. R. Shengule and K. M. Jadhav, “Magnetic and dielectric properties of
Mg1+xMn xFe2−2xO4 ferrite system” J. Mater. Sci., 2005, vol. 40, pp. 423-428.
[4] Mohd Hashim, SS Meena, RK Kotnala, Sagar E Shirsath, Aashis S Roy, Ameena Parveen, Pramod Bhatt,Shalendra Kumar, RB Jotania, Ravi Kumar, “Study of structural, electrical and magnetic
properties of Cr doped Ni–Mg ferrite nanoparticle”, Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2014,vol. 602, pp. 150-156.
[5] M Singh, SP Sud, “Controlling the properties of magnesium–manganese ferrites”, Mater. Sci. Engng. B, 2001,
vol. 83, pp. 180.
[6] Balwinder Kaur, Monita Bhat, F. Licci, Ravi Kumar, S.D. Kulkarni, P.A. Joy, K.K. Bamzai and P.N. Kotru,“Modifications in magnetic anisotropy of M-type strontium hexaferrite crystals by swift heavyion, irradiation”, J. Magn. Magn. Mater, 2006, vol. 305, pp. 392.
[7] M Hashim, SS Meena, RK Kotnala, SE Shirsath, AS Roy, A Parveen, “Study of structural, electrical andmagnetic properties of Cr doped Ni–Mg ferrite nanoparticle”, Journal of Alloys andCompounds, 2014, vol. 602, pp. 150-156.
[8] Pardavi-Horvalh M., “Microwave applications of soft ferrites” J. Magn. Magn. Mater., 2000, vol. 171(83), pp.
215-216.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

A Study on Structural Properties and Biological Response of HAP/β-TCP
Nay Win Tun1, Win Kyaw2, Aye Aye Thant3
Abstract
Hydroxyapatite (Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2) is used in many biomedical applications including bone graft
and joint replacements. Due to its structural and chemical similarities to human bone mineral andteeth, HAP promotes growth of bone tissue directly on its surface. In this research, hydroxyapatite
was prepared by precipitation method to provide an accurate understanding of the behavior of
biphasic biomaterials with hydroxyapatite (HAP) and beta-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP). Raw
materials of calcium sulphate dihydrate (CaSO4.2H2O, or Gypsum) and di-ammonium hydrogen
phosphate ((NH4)2HPO4) solution were used as the starting materials to synthesize high purity
hydroxyapatite in the first step. The effect of reaction temperature on conversion efficiencies ofgypsum to HAP and reaction kinetics were investigated. After calcination at 1000 , HAP(Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2) converted partially into beta-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP, Ca3(PO4)2). Fourier
Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis clearly revealed the presence of various
vibrational modes corresponding to phosphate and hydroxyl groups. Besides porosity were
measured at different sintering temperatures, the theoretical density was calculated from X- Rays
Diffraction (XRD) results. Finally, the bone bonding ability was evaluated by examining theformation of the new apatite layer on the surface after immersing in Simulated Body Fluid (SBF).
Keywords: calcium sulphate, HAP,βTCP, FTIR, XRD, SBF

1.

Introduction
Among all biomaterials, hydroxyapatite; the mineral component of hard tissues invertebrates, is the most biocompatible material able to be used in clinical applications ofconservation and restoration because of its excellent features such as biocompatibility andbioactivity. Hydroxyapatite shows excellent biocompatibility not only with hard tissue but alsowith soft tissue [1]. This material is capable of integrating biologically when directly implanted
into a bone defect; furthermore, it produces no harmful effect on the immune system and featuresof an osteoconductive behavior. Tricalcium phosphate is also one of the most importantbiomaterials based on phosphates, currently recognized as ceramic material that significantly
simulates the mineralogical structure of bone. β-TCP is found to be resorbable in vivo with newbone growth replacing the implanted β-TCP. Theoretically, resorbable β-TCP is an ideal implantmaterial [2].
2. Materials and Methods
2.1 Experimental Procedure
Laboratory grade gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) was used for starting material to synthesizehydroxyapatite (HAP) in the first stage. HAP synthesized from gypsum powder was achieved by
precipitation method at 90 . This reaction conversion was achieved according to the reaction
below.
10CaSO4.2H2O + 6(NH4)2 HPO4 → Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2 + 6(NH4)2SO4 + 4H2SO4 + 18H2O
1.6 M of gypsum solution was prepared with 11.5 g of gypsum and 40 ml of deionized water.
Then the gypsum solution was mixed with 40 ml of 1 M - (NH4)2HPO4 solution in conical flaskwith water bath at the reaction temperature of 90° with magnetic stirring. The reaction time waslasted for 4 hours. At the end of the reaction period, the solid products were washed with DI1

Department of Physics, Dagon University, naywinhtun747@gmail.com
Department of Physics, Pyay University, wkyaw08@gmail.com
3
Department of Physics, University of Yangon, ayeayethant@uy.edu.mm
2

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

water for 5 times and filtered to eliminate any water soluble remains. After washing, the solid
residue was put in drying oven operating at 75 for 24 hours. Again, the dry powder was heattreated at 500 , 800 , 1000 , 1100 and 1150 for 2 hours each in a furnace. The HAPphase was formed at 500
and 800
for 2 hours. However, HAP converts into β-tricalcium
phosphate (β-TCP) at 1000 and beyond. After sintering 1200 of HAP/β-TCP pellet partiallyconverts into biphasic HAP/α-TCP. The α-TCP is brittle and more soluble than HAP and β-TCP.
Therefore, this research focuses on biphasic HAP/β-TCP.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Formation of Dentures with HAP, HAP/β-TCP and β-TCP
Titanium-Chromium alloy was used as base of the denture. Bricera vacuum porcelain
body A-3 from Brident Inc, USA was placed above the base. Then, HAP, HAP/β-TCP and βTCP powder which were mixed with DI water was placed above the porcelain layer as enamel.
The heat-treatment was conducted into the Automatic Programmable Vacuum Porcelain Furnace
at 930 for 15 minutes. The denture obtained by using this method is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. The formation of dentures with HAP, HAP/β-TCP and β-TCP at different calcination temperatures.

3.2. Bioactivity Test
The bone-bonding ability of a material is often evaluated by examining the ability of
apatite to form on its surface in a Simulated Body Fluid (SBF) with ion concentrations nearly
equal to those of human blood plasma. Haemo-A (Aeonmed Co., Ltd) was mixed with Haemo-B(Aeonmed Co., Ltd) in 1:1.2 ratio to form Simulated Body Fluid (SBF). This solution was mixed
with DI water in 1:32.8 ratio. Each of this solution (5 ml) was put into 25 ml of three glass
beakers. HAP, HAP/β-TCP and β-TCP pellets were put into the SBF solution in each beaker. The
beakers were put into an incubator and set the temperature at 37 for 14 days. Then, the pellets
were dried in desiccator for 2 days. These dried pellets were analyzed by SEM. SEM
micrographs obtained from pellets before SBF test and after SBF test were compared.
3.3. Analysis on Molecular Vibration by FTIRThe FTIR analysis strongly supports the XRD result in this work. FTIR spectroscopy has
been performed in order to investigate the functional groups presented in hydroxyapatite
synthesized by precipitation method. The functional groups present in hydroxyapatite clearly
revealed the presence of various vibrational modes corresponding to phosphate and hydroxyl
groups. Chemical groups with vibration bands are confirmed by the FTIR transmission bands ofsynthesized HAP and β-TCP.
In HAP and β-TCP, PO43- group formed intensive IR absorption bands at 502 cm-1 and at
1000 – 1100 cm-1. Adsorbed water band was relatively wide, from 3600 to 2600 cm-1 indicating
the symmetric stretching and asymmetric stretching vibrations of water. In FTIR spectra of HAPand β-TCP, the characteristic absorption bands at 3435 and 3428 cm-1 were attributed to 3 mode
(asymmetric stretching) of water. The bands at 900-1200 cm-1 were the stretching mode of PO43group. The sharp peaks at 608 and 677 cm-1 represented the vibrational peaks 4 mode of PO43-

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)127

in both HAP and β-TCP. The characteristic bands due to vibration of PO43- group appeared at595, 604, 606, 608, 615 and 677 cm-1. Five IR bands were detected peaking at 2132, 2133, 2135
and 2137 cm-1 for soluble CO2 (gas) in the ceramic materials. The peaks at 2137 cm-1 wereformed at the two calcination temperatures at 500
and 800 . FTIR results are similar to theliterature data [3].
Figures 2 shows the FTIR results obtained at different calcination temperatures. All
spectra show the characteristic band of adsorbed water, hydroxyl and phosphate species. The
peaks in the spectrum and their association to respective chemical groups are summarized inTable 1.
3.4. Porosity Measurement
The values of apparent porosity of HAP, HAP/β-TCP and β-TCP at different sintering
temperatures were estimated by the equations using Archimedes’ method and are shown in Table
2. In this study, for three different sintering temperatures, the porosity of sintered pellets rapidly
increased to the highest percentage, 63.63% when sintered at 1200
compared to othertemperatures.

Figure 2. The FTIR spectra of HAP, HAP/ β-TCP and β-TCP prepared at different calcination temperatures of 500
800

,1000

, 1100,and 1150

Table 1. The FTIR transmission bands of HAP, HAP/ β-TCP and β-TCP at calcination
temperatures of 500 , 800 , 1000 ,1100

and 1150
Transmission Band (cm-1)

Chemical
Group

500

800

1000

1100

1150

Vibrational Mode (cm-1)

PO43-

949

941

ND

ND

ND

 Symmetric Stretching

453

430

496

550

ND

ND

 Bending

1090

1119

 Dipole

595

595

604

608

679

677

502

1113

606
677

1003
1184
615
677
723

1090

615
677

 Polarization

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Transmission Band (cm-1)

Chemical
Group

H-O-H

CO2

500

800

1000

1100

1150

Vibrational Mode (cm-1)

2874

2870

2872

2874

2874

2996

2994

2992

2994

2994

 SymmetricStretching 

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

 Bending

3464

3435

3555

3568

3428

 Asymmetric

2137

2137

2133

2135

2132

Stretching

ND= Non Detected

Table 2. The variation of Apparent Porosity and Theoretical Density of HAP, HAP/β-TCP and βTCP at three different sintering Temperatures
Dry

Suspended Apparent
Weight, S Porosity

SinteredTemperature

Weight, D

SoakedWeight, W

( )

(g)

(g)

(g)

(%)

(g/cm3)

900

1.63

1.78

1.42

41.66

3.38

1100

1.58

1.72

1.45

51.85

3.17

1200

1.23

1.30

1.19

63.63

3.23

Theoretical
Density

3.5. Apatite Formation in Simulated Body Fluid (SBF)
The SEM images for the pellets before and after immersing in SBF are presented in
Figures 3 to 5. It is worth to note that the morphology of the pellets immersed in SBF waschanged distinctly. As seen in the SEM images the formation of apatite layers on each surface of
HAP, HAP/β-TCP and β-TCP pellets was confirmed by the difference in the surface texture of
the sample. Importantly, the β-TCP exhibited the faster rate of formation of apatite layercompared to the pure HAP and biphasic HAP/β-TCP. Based on the SEM analysis, β-TCP seemed
to have better bioactivity than HAP in this work. The apatite layer formed on the surface of the
HAP, HAP/β-TCP and β-TCP can bond to living bone. Therefore, the HAP, HAP/β-TCP and βTCP prepared in this research have potential biomaterials which can be applied for bonereplacement.

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Synthesis HAP

Bioactive HAP

(a)

(b)

Immersionin SBF2m

2m

Figure 3. SEM micrographs of HAP pellets at the calcination temperature of 900

in 10 K × magnification(a) before and (b) after immersion in SBF.

Synthesis HAP/ -TCP(a)

Bioactive HAP/ -TCP(b)

Immersionin SBF2m

2m

Figure 4. SEM micrographs of HAP/β-TCP pellets at the calcination temperature of 1100
magnification(a) before and (b) after immersion in SBF.

Synthesis -TCP

Bioactive -TCP(a)in 10 K ×(b)

Immersionin SBF2m

2m

Figure 5. SEM micrographs of β-TCP pellets at the calcination temperature of 1200(a)before and (b) after immersion in SBF

in 10 K × magnification

4. Conclusion
Hydroxyapatite, Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2 was prepared from gypsum by precipitation method.
The raw materials were well characterized prior to the preparation of HAP. A single phasestructure of HAP from gypsum was successfully formed via the precipitation method after heattreated at 500 and 800 for 2 hours. It is worth to note that some parts of HAP converted to
β-TCP phases after heat-treated at 1000 for 2 hours. It is interesting to note that transformationto β-TCP started by calcination at 1000 and the transformation rate increased with increase intemperature. FTIR data clearly revealed the presence of various vibrational modes corresponding
to phosphate and hydroxyl groups. The porosity of sintered pellets rapidly increased to thehighest percentage, 63.63% when sintered at 1200
compared to other temperatures. The SBF
soaking results revealed that all the studied materials are biologically active which confirmed its
application as bone in living things.

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Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the Department of Physics and Universities’ Research Centre, University of
Yangon for the supports with research facilities.

References[1] Angelescu, N., Ungureanu, D.N., Anghelina F.V. “Synthesis and Characteristic of Hydroxyapatite Obtained in
Different Experimental Conditions”, 2011, Valahia University of Targoviste, Romania.
[2] Bahman Mirhadi, Bahman Mehdikhani , Nayereh Askari, “Sintering effects on the hardness of β-TCP”, Journalof Ceramic Processing Research, 2012, vol. 13, No.4.
[3] Maisara S.M. Arsad, Pat M.Lee, Lee Kong Hung, “Synthesis and Characterization of Hydroxyapatite
Nanoparticles and β-TCP Particles”, 2011, IPCBEE vol.7.
[4] Hitachi High-Tech Science Corporation, “Thermal Analysis of Gypsum”, 1985, Tokyo, TA No.22.
[5] Kim, S.R., Lee, J.H., Riu, D.H., Jung, S.J., Lee, Y.J., Chung, S.C., Kim, Y.H., “Synthesis of Si, Mg substitutedhydroxyapatite and their sintering behaviors”, Biomaterials, 2003, vol. 24, pp. 1389-1398.
[6] Kannan,S., Lemos,I.A.F., Rocha, J.H.G., Ferreira, J.M.F. “Synthesis and characterization of magnesium
substituted biphasic mixtures of controlled hydroxyapatite/beta-tricalcium phosphate ratios”, 2005,
Department of Ceramics and Glass Engineering, University of Aveiro, Portugal.
[7] Onur Rauf Bingöl, Caner Durucan, “Hydrothermal Synthesis of Hydroxyapatite from Calcium Sulfate
Hemihydrate”, 2011, Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Middle East
Technical University, Ankara, Turkey.
[8] Orlovskii, V.P. et al., “Hydroxyapatite and Hydroxyapatite-Based Ceramics”, Inorganic Materials, 2002, vol. 38.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Characterization & Morphological Analysis of Nanostructured Material
Images by Image Processing
Khin Khin Win1, Zin Min Tun2, Zin Min Myat3, Thidar Pyone4 Thazin Khaing5

Abstract
This paper aims to analyse and characterize the nanostructured material images obtained from
SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy) technique at the morphological aspect. State-of-the-art
techniques for these purposes are complex and complicated given the variability of the different
image acquisition modalities, different synthesis parameters and material composition. Image
processing is a potential tool to characterize and analyse the properties of nanoscale images interms of data acquisition, pre-processing, filtering, classification, surface morphology, particle
size, porosity measurement which is enable to use in many areas. The morphological analysis ofnanoscale images is an important research area in Materials Science to characterize theirproperties for many applications in the area of materials science and solid state physics. This work
has carried out the characterization and morphological analysis of titanium dioxide (TiO2)
nanostructured material images at different temperatures by utilizing the image processing
methods. The results show that current approach is capable of characterizing complex
morphological characteristics of the subtle nanostructured SEM images. The analysis ofnanostructured materials is easy to perform for well-behaved samples which have been describedusing simple functions of existing MatLab software packages (R2019b). This paper compares andpresents the results of previous works. It is found that the present work can be able to perform
more efficient and effective methods to analyse and characterize the nanostructured material
images. Moreover, this research work is enabling to address the issues and challenges ofnanostructured materials image characterization and analysis.
Keywords: SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy), pre-processing, edge detection, morphology,

1. Introduction
This paper aims to address some problems and state-of-the-art techniques encountered inimage processing for material analysis and design. Current methods for this purpose are acomplex task given the variability of the different image acquisition modalities, different
synthesis parameters and material composition. This paper presents an overview of techniquesthat have been and are currently developed to address this diversity of problems, such as
segmentation, texture analysis, multi scale and directional features extraction, stochastic models
and rendering, among others. Finally, it provides references to enter the issues, challenges andopportunities in materials characterization for Nanostructured Material Images.
1.1

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)[1]

The Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) is a tool for visualizing the surface of solid
samples, with a resolution (depending on the application) that can approach 1nm. Energydispersive X-ray analysis can be used to analyze volumes with dimensions of around 1 micronwith a sensitivity of about 0.2wt%, while back-scattered electron imaging allows the
1

Dr, Professor & Head, Department of Physics, University of Yangon, khinkhinwin@uy.edu.mm
Dr, Assistant Lecturer, Department of Physics, West University of Yangon
3
Dr. Assistant Lecturer, Department of Physics, University of Yangon
4
PhD Candidate, Lecturer, Department of Physics, University of Yangon,
5
PhD Candidate, Assistant Lecturer, Department of Physics, Bamaw University,2

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visualization of regions of different composition. Crystallographic orientation and structure canbe examined using electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) analysis, though sample preparation
requirements for this technique are very stringent and limit the number of samples that can bestudied in this way.
In principle, the SEM generates a primary focused electron beam in a vacuum chamberand raster scans the beam over a sample surface. The incident primary electrons interact with theatoms in the surface of the sample. Some of the primary electrons excite the sample to emit
secondary electrons while some are being scattered back. A secondary electron detector or abackscattered electron detector collects and converts the secondary electrons or the backscattered electrons into high resolution images.
Secondary electrons are emitted by atoms near the surface of a sample material when
their electrons become excited and have sufficient energy to escape the sample surface.
Secondary electrons carry information about morphology and surface topography of the sample.
The contrast is dominated by the so-called edge effect: more secondary electron can leave thesample at edges for reduced material retardation and adsorption and thus can lead to increased
brightness.
A highly sensitive backscatter electron detector captures composition, topography, andshadow images. Elements of higher atomic number will backscatter electrons more strongly thanthose of lower atomic numbers. Backscatter imaging allows for improved image contrast forcompositional images as well as topographical images. Therefore, backscatter detectors are used
to detect areas of varying chemical compositions. Backscattered electron imaging of
nonconductive, uncoated samples shows composition by contrast; higher atomic number regions
are brighter, while lower atomic number regions are darker.
1.2.

Nano structured materials images and Features

The possibility of designing, analysing and modelling materials from images (or generally
two- or three dimensional modalities) reveals important contributions in this area. As mentioned,
the appearance of nano structured materials images changes significantly with imaging
processing techniques, the scale of analysis, image qualities and settings, physical properties andsample preparation methods of materials. Understanding these aspects turns out to be crucial formaterial analysis and modelling. In particular, we face challenges regarding the characterizationof the physical assembly process of materials, the formation process of images, of imaging
techniques interacting with materials (geometry, transmission, illumination, reflection,
scattering). Answering these questions is important to separate the material appearance from its
intrinsic morphology and properties. This paper aims to report on issues from image feature
extraction to image simulation with the challenges and emerging trends in material analysis andmodelling that are likely to pose challenges to image processing, through the diversity of types ofmaterials, acquisition techniques and applications. Most likely traditional such as human visionbased interpretation of materials image can be misleading, as illustrated in Figure 1. Fully taking
into account physical properties and laws is at the heart of successful image analysis in materialscience.

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Figure 1 Images at 400

133

and 500

temperature treatment

2. Methods and Outputs
Figures 2 represent a sample of images acquired and problems for material analysis. It
illustrates the cracks (black), partially filled pores (rounded dark grey shapes with white spots)
and zeolite inclusions (scattered or aggregated white dots) in a neutral substrate. Itscharacteristics relate to the efficiency of a spherical catalyst used in refining for the conversion ofhydrocarbons into chemical products. Such images raise different problems at different scales ofobservations, from isolated objects to scattered phases, requiring different segmentation tools.
Figure 3 results from optical microscopy. The thickness of the crusts may be measured byelectron probe microanalysis. It directly correlates with catalyst activity. Resorting to image
processing techniques to automate the measurement of crust thickness avoids invasive probe
techniques, and hastens the conception of new catalysts. It can use local orientation estimates for2D and 3D texture segmentation. The goal is to infer bounds on the effective properties ofmaterials by dealing with three-dimensional, computational microstructure simulations. It
combines a multiscale approach with homogenization techniques. The same goal is pursued in
the nanometric scale that illustrates a mixture of a crystalline and an amorphous material. The
periodicity of the first one, and the lack of long-term regularity of the second one, drives the useof local Fourier attributes.

Figure 2 Sample acquired image

Figure 4 CaTiO3 Image at 1100

Figure 3 Sample Image from Optical Microscopy

Figure 5 SiO2 Image at 800

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3. Image processing: issues and challenges
Classical approaches and techniques may define a relatively standard work-flow forimage processing in materials science. It includes the following steps: Image acquisition orreconstruction Depending on the resolution of interest, different equipments may be used, forinstance optical microscopes (mm-µm), scanning electron microscopes or SEM (µm) andtransmission electron microscopes or TEM (nm-˚A) for 2D acquisitions. Turning to 3D
acquisitions, one observes a frequent use of X-ray tomography (mm-µm) and electronic
tomography (nm) based on TEM projections. Some techniques deal with the reconstruction of
surface topography [20].
Enhancement and filtering: This step (Fig. 2, with bilateral filtering) relates to image
improvement from a noise level or homogeneity point-of-view. One is primarily interested innoise filtering techniques permitting only minimal modifications in the structures of interest, or
drift or background correction. Techniques for artifact corrections, specific to the acquisition
process, include for instance ring artifact suppression (X-ray tomography), sample impregnationor encasement in colourless resin (causing effects akin to cast shadows), mechanical or ionicsurface polishing.
Segmentation: This step encompassing dimensionality reduction, classification and model
fitting, simplifies rich images into a few meaningful intensities or components. It aims at therecovery of the border of the objects of interest. When the colour intensity level is directly related
to object properties (topography, like in secondary electron SEM, or chemical structure, like inback-scattered electron SEM), global histogram segmentation methods (inter-class variancemaximization, entropy, Expectation-Maximization) are complemented by criterion-based
segmentation (object length, surface, tortuosity). This combination permits the elimination of nonconform or non interesting elements, sometimes mere residuals of a previous processing
sequence. For images whose intensity is less directly related to properties, extraction of local
morphology or contours may be performed using global optimization approaches such as
geodesic active contours and regions, maximum flows approaches and/or mathematicalmorphology operations such as top-hat filtering or watershed transformations. Analysis Image
structures can be described without an explicit segmentation of the objects of interest using multiscale image representations based on morphological decompositions or wavelet-based multi scale
representations. Once simplified, objects of interest may be characterized by numbers, shapes andspatial distribution among others. Stereology, stochastic modelling (spatial moments, such as thecovariance, and spatial distributions) and the use of distance functions (inter-object, geodesic
length, tortuosity) provide the main sources of algorithms. Multi-modality It involves image
regularization and segmentation of multi-modal/multichannel/multi scale images acquired fromthe same samples. In order to deal with this kind of data, some pre-processing steps such as
registration, denoising and image fusion are required. In addition to extract relevant informationfrom complex data sets integrating various acquisition techniques, it is useful to use
dimensionally reduction techniques, from classical PCA to modern nonlinear manifold learning.
Microstructure stochastic modelling: This step (with 3D modelling from 2D images) may use
input characteristic data either from segmentation or analysis. It consists in estimating astochastic, geometric model (Boolean random functions, reaction-diffusion or dilution models,dead leaves tessellations), representing the microstructure of the observed material. It serves the
purposes of inferring the potential 3D structure from 2D cuts, or of obtaining structure variations

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through model parameter modifications, hence of “numerical material by design”. Finally, thisstep may even replace the segmentation step, when individual objects can not, or need not, be
individualized.
Segmentation and analysis are sometimes merged. “Texture approaches” aim at
extracting image characteristics without resorting to individual or excessively precise object
separation. Morphological metrics are extracted, with the help of 2D/3D models. Machinelearning techniques are also emerging, typically to automate supervised/unsupervisedclassification problems. Meaningful characteristics may be enriched by combining or merging
different acquisition techniques. Acquisitions may consider different scales of observation(multiscale fusion approaches), or different modalities (multi-modal fusion approaches), or both.
Such techniques, very common in medical or satellite imaging, are increasingly being used inmaterials design, combining for instance topographic and physico-chemical information (viasecondary electron and back-scattered SEM or Energy-Dispersive Spectroscopy). With 3D or
3D+time imaging [9], an important effort is dedicated to processing performance, especiallyalgorithm acceleration. Materials science processing work-flows are increasingly carried out,
with reduced cost, with CPU/GPU optimization. For instance, tomographic reconstruction istypically now faster than acquisition. Similar performance increases are being pursued withfiltering or segmentation techniques, toward integrated high-throughput materials science andengineering.

4. Conclusions
Among the challenges proposed before, and the ones recently exposed in [9], we retain
the attention on the following four:• multi-step: to produce a complete pipe-line or work-flow of image analyses and simulations,from sample acquisition to the estimation of physical properties;• data-flow: to manage raw and simulated data and acceleration of the aforementioned workflows from high throughput screening of materials with ever increasing amounts of numericalinformation;• multi-modality (or synergy): to employ as much as possible the potentialities to retrieve
information on materials from different acquisition sources, with novel fusion/combination
techniques improving characterization or providing access to novel properties;• reverse engineering: to help in computational material design, by orienting the synthesis or
manufacturing process of novel materials, desired or predicted (e.g. graphene).
A successful application of more standard image processing thus requires a better integration of
known techniques, as well as the deployment of image analysis not used in materials science yet,with the new challenges raised by its variety of data and physical models.

Acknowledgements
Author would like to thank all concerns from Ministry of Education (MOE), Department of Higher
Education (MOE), Myanmar Academy of Arts & Science (MAAS), Science Council of Asia and Japan Science
Council (JSC) for their permission, supporting and all round assisting to carry out this paper.

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References[1] R. E. Hummel, “Understanding Materials Science: History, Properties, Applications”, Springer, 2nd edition, 2004.
[2] J. A. Mathews, “The steel age—1876 to 1926,” Ind. Eng. Chem., vol. 18, no. 9, pp. 913–914, 1926.
[3] P. Ball, Madeto Measure: NewMaterialsforthe21stCentury, PrincetonUniversity Press, 1999.
[4] Y. Br´echet, “Materials science: from materials discovered by chance to made-tomeasure materials,” Coll`ege deFrance, 2013.
[5] J. P. Davim and C. A. Charitidis, Eds., “Nanocomposites: materials, manufacturing, and engineering, Advanced
Composites”, Walter De Gruyter, Berlin Boston, 2013.
[6] Y. Liu and X. Zhang, “Met materials: a new frontier of science and technology,” Chem. Soc. Rev., vol. 40, no. 5,
pp. 2494, 2011.
[7] J. W. Gibbs, “On the equilibrium of heterogeneous substances”, Trans. Connect. Acad. Arts Sci., vol. III, pp.
108–248 and 343–524, 1875 to 1878.
[8] L.Wojnar, “Image analysis. Applications in materials engineering”, CRCPress,1999.
[9] I. M. Robertson, C. A. Schuh, J. S. Vetrano, N. D. Browning, D. P. Field, D. J. Jensen, M. K. Miller, I. Baker, D.
C.
Dunand,R.
Dunin-Borkowski,
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Kabius,T.Kelly,S.LozanoPerez,A.Misra,G.S.Rohrer,A.D.Rollett,M.L.Taheri,G.B. Thompson, M. Uchic, X.-L. Wang,
and G. Was, “Towards an integrated materials characterization toolbox,” J. Mater. Res., vol.
26, no. 11, pp. 1341–1383, Jun 2011.
[10] D. Salomon and G. Motta, Handbook of Data Compression, Springer, 2009.
[11] B. K. Gunturk and X. Li, Eds., “Image Restoration: Fundamentals and Advances, Digital Imaging andComputer Vision”, CRC Press, 2012.
[12] J. Chanussot, C. Collet, and K. Chehdi, Eds., Multivariate Image Processing, ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons
Inc., 2009.
[13] J. Ohser and K. Schladitz, “3D Images of Materials Structures: Processing and Analysis”, Wiley-VCH, 2009.
[14] A.Depeursinge,A.Foncubierta-Rodriguez,D.VanDeVille, and H.M¨uller, “Three dimensional solid texture
analysis in biomedical imaging: Review and opportunities,” Med. Image Anal., vol. 18, no. 1,
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[15] H. H. Bauschke, R. S. Burachik, P. L. Combettes, V. Elser, D. R. Luke, and H. Wolkowicz, Eds., “Fixed-Point
Algorithms for Inverse Problems in Science and Engineering”, Springer, 2011.
[16] M.L. Comer and E.J.Delp, “The EM/MPM algorithm for segmentation of textured images: analysis and further
experimental results,” IEEE Trans. Image Process .,vol. 9, no. 10, pp. 1731–1744, 2000.
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[22] S. Torquato,“Random Heterogeneous Materials: Microstructure and Macroscopic Properties”, Springer, 2002.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Formation of Calcium Hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) Nanorods for CO2 Adsorption
Nwe Ni Hlaing1, Srimala Sreekantan2, Hirofumi Hinode3, Winarto Kurniawan4,
Aye Aye Thant5

Abstract
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is one of the major contributors to the global warming and climate change.
Hence, mitigate towards the emission of CO2 into an atmosphere, various types of adsorbents
were reported. Recent years, nanostructured calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) has been proposed as apotential calcium oxide (CaO) based adsorbent for CO2 adsorption. In this study, Ca(OH)2
samples were synthesized via simple precipitation method by using cetyltrimethyl ammonium
bromide (CTAB) as a surfactant. The effect of CTAB concentration (0.01-0.03 mol) on the
structure and morphology of synthetic Ca(OH)2 samples were investigated by X-ray diffraction
and field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM). From XRD and FESEM results, theformation of Ca(OH)2 nanorods with an average diameter of 80-100 nm was observed at 0.03
mol of CTAB. The CO2 adsorption capacities of CaO derived from synthetic Ca(OH)2 samples
were studied by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The TGA results demonstrated that CaO
derived from Ca(OH)2 nanorods exhibited CO2 adsorption capacity of 0.75 g-CO2/g-adsorbent
which was higher than those of CaO derived from irregular and hexagonal shapes Ca(OH)2
samples synthesized at 0.01 and 0.02 mol of CTAB, respectively.
Keywords: calcium hydroxide, nanorods, carbon dioxide, adsorption capacity, XRD, TGA

1. Introduction
Mitigate towards the emission of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the combustion of fossil fuelburning has been worldwide concerns due to their adverse effect towards the heath of mankind
and environment. Carbon dioxide capture, utilization and storage (CCUS) technology is areasonable technology that prevents the release of large quantities of CO2 into the atmosphere bycapturing CO2 and transporting it to where it can be useful. The first step of CCUS technology iscarbon dioxide capturing process and hence, researches are focused on the investigation ofmaterials and techniques which can capture large amount of CO2 [1,2].
Among numerous gas separation technologies which have been attempted to capture CO2from flue gas, adsorption using solid materials is one the most promising methods due to someadvantages of solid adsorbents including low energy requirement, cost advantage, and the ability
to use over a wide range of temperatures and pressures. Different solid adsorbents including
metal organic frameworks (MOFs), grapheme organic frameworks (GOFs), zeolites, activatedcarbons, clays, calcium oxide, etc have different capability to adsorb CO2 and cyclic stabilities.
Among various materials, calcium oxide (CaO) based adsorbent is one of the promising material
1

Department of Physics, Taunggyi University, 06013, Taunggyi, Myanmar, nwenihlaing76@gmail.com
School of Materials and Mineral Resources Engineering, Engineering Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 14300
Nibong Tebal, Penang,3
Department of Transdiciplinary Science and Technology, School of Environment and Society, Tokyo Institute ofTechnology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, Japan
4
Department of Transdiciplinary Science and Technology, School of Environment and Society, Tokyo Institute ofTechnology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, Japan
5
Department of Physics, University of Yangon, 11041 Kamayut, Yangon, Myanmar
2

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because of the advantages such as high CO2 adsorption capacity, low material cost and reversible
carbonation/calcination cycles [2,3].
Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) is one of the materials that can be used as CaO-based
adsorbent for the capture of CO2 because of its excellent properties such as high reactivity andfast reactions [4,5]. Some researchers synthesized Ca(OH)2 by various methods including waterin-oil (W/O) microemulsions [6], sonochemical [7], hydrogen plasma-metal reaction [8] and wet
chemical method [9]. However, some of these methods require high temperature or complicatedequipment [6-8]. Therefore, the development of a simple method with low-temperature is highly
desirable for the synthesis of Ca(OH)2.
Recent years, high aspect ratio one dimensional (1D) nanostructures including nanowires,
nanorods, and nanotubes have attracted attention owing to their chemical, mechanical, electrical,
and optical properties and their promising applications in in different types of applications. Up tonow, a variety of synthetic approaches including precipitation, hydrothermal, solvothermal, spraypyrolysis, thermal hydrolysis and sol-gel methods have been developed to synthesize one
dimensional nanostructures [10-12].
In this study, Ca(OH)2 nanostructures were synthesized by a simple precipitation method
using calcium acetate hydrate as calcium (Ca) source. The formation of Ca(OH)2 nanorods werestudied by varying the concentration of cetyltrimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB). The
obtained samples were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron
microscopy (SEM). The CO2 adsorption capacities of the synthetic Ca(OH)2 nanostructures were
investigated by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA).

2. Methods
A 0.01 mol of cetyltrimethyl ammonium bromide, CTAB (Merck) was added to the 0.16
mol of sodium hydroxide, NaOH (Aldrich) aqueous solution. This solution was stirred for 30
min. A 0.02 mol of calcium acetate hydrate, Ca(CH3COO)2.H2O (Merck) was dissolved in 100
ml distilled water and then dropped slowly into the previously stirred solution. This mixed
solution was heated to 40C and vigorously stirred for 30 min. White precipitates were formed
and subsequently centrifuged and then dried in an oven at 70°C for 24 hours. The sameprocedures were performed for preparing other samples with different moles of CTAB (0.020.03).
The obtained samples were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD) with a Bruker AXS
D8 Advance X-Ray Diffractometer and field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM,Carl Zeiss SUPRA 35 VP). The thermal behaviors and CO2 adsorption capacities of CaO derived
from synthetic Ca(OH)2 samples were studied by a Rigaku thermogravimetry-differential thermal
analysis (TG-DTA) apparatus with Thermoplus 2 software. A small amount of Ca(OH)2 sample(~ 6.5 mg) was placed in a platinum crucible and heated from room temperature to 700C at aheating rate of 10C/min under 100% N2 gas flow. After that, carbonation process was performedfor 30 min under 100% CO2 gas flow. The constant gas flow rate for CO2 and N2 was 40 ml/min.
The CO2 adsorption capacity was calculated by using the following equation.
CO2 Adsorption Capacity 

w n - wiwi

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where, Wn is the weight of the carbonated sample after carbonation process and Wi is the initial
weight of the calcined sample.

3. Results and Discussion
Figure 1(a-c) shows the XRD patterns of the synthetic samples obtained by a simple
precipitation method. All the major diffraction peaks could be indexed to the hexagonal structure
Ca(OH)2 (calcium hydroxide) phase, according to the standard data (JCPDS No. 78-0135). The
peaks at 2θ value of 28°, 34°, 47°, 50°, and 54° were corresponded to the reflection from (100),(011), (012), (110) and (111) planes of Ca(OH)2 phase, respectively. Moreover, minor diffraction
peaks belong to the calcite (CaCO3,) phase with rhombohedral structure (JCPDS No. 05-0586)
were also observed.
In the XRD pattern of Ca(OH)2 sample prepared with 0.01 mol of CTAB (Figure 1(a)),
the high intensity diffraction peak was found at 2θ value of 29° which was corresponded to thereflection from (104) plane of calcite phase. In the XRD patterns of Ca(OH)2 samples preparedwith 0.02 mol and 0.03 mol of CTAB, the intensities of the characteristic diffraction peaks ofcalcite (at 2θ value of 29°) decreased. On the other hand, the intensity of characteristic diffraction
peak of Ca(OH)2 phase at 2θ=34° increased. The results showed that the concentration of CTAB
influenced the contents of calcite phase in the synthetic Ca(OH)2 samples.
The crystallite sizes of Ca(OH)2 samples were calculated by well-known Scherrer’s
equation (D = k / cos ), where D is crystallite, k is Scherrer’s constant (typically between
0.85 and 0.99), λ is the wavelength of the incident X-rays, θ is the angle of diffraction and β isfull width at half maximum (FWHM). The calculated crystallite sizes of Ca(OH)2 samples
prepared with 0.01 mol, 0.02 mol and 0.03 mol of CTAB were 42.07 nm, 45.54 nm and 56.04
nm, respectively. The results showed that the crystallite size and crystallinity increased withincreasing the concentration of CTAB.

Figure 1. XRD patterns of calcium hydroxide samples synthesized with (a) 0.01 mol, (b) 0.02 mol and (c) 0.03 mol of CTAB

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Figure 2(a-c) displays the FESEM images of synthetic Ca(OH)2 samples prepared with
0.01 mol, 0.02 mol and 0.03 mol of CTAB. In the FESEM image of Ca(OH)2 sample preparedwith 0.01 mol of CTAB (Figure 2(a)), irregular shaped and irregular sized micro/nano particles
were observed. When CTAB was increased to 0.02 mol, micro/nano hexagonal plates with non
uniform sizes were seen in Figure 2(b). With 0.03 mol of CTAB, the formation of Ca(OH)2
nanorods with an average diameter of 80-100 nm was observed (Figure 2(c)). FESEM images
revealed that the concentration of CTAB played a critical role to control the formation of
Ca(OH)2 nanorods.

.
Figure 2. FESEM images of calcium hydroxide samples synthesized with (a) 0.01 mol, (b) 0.02 mol and (c) 0.03 mol of CTAB

TG/DTA analysis was carried out to examine the conversion process of synthetic
Ca(OH)2 sample during calcination process. Figure 3(a-b) shows the TG and DTA curves ofsynthetic Ca(OH)2 sample prepared with 0.03 mol of CTAB. Three weight-loss steps wereobserved in the TGA curve shown in Figure 3(a). The first step occurring in the temperature
range from 50C to 300C was attributed to the physical water evaporation of Ca(OH)2 sample.
The second step between 360C and 460C was ascribed to the chemical dehydration of
Ca(OH)2, which are confirmed by the sharp endothermic peak at 430°C in DTA curve (Figure3(b)). The weight loss of this step was about 20%. The third step between 550C and 680C was
attributed to the decomposition of CaCO3. The weight loss 6% in this step was consistent with
the XRD result shown in Figure 1(c), indicating that calcite was a minor phase.
The synthetic Ca(OH)2 samples were used as calcium oxide (CaO) based adsorbents forcarbon dioxide (CO2) adsorption. The CO2 adsorption capacities of CaO derived from synthetic
Ca(OH)2 samples were determined by TGA. Figure 4(a) shows the TGA profile of twoconsecutive carbonation/calcination cycles of CaO derived from synthetic Ca(OH)2 sample
prepared with 0.03 mol of CTAB in weight percentage. When synthetic Ca(OH)2 sample washeated from room temperature to 700°C under 100% N2 gas, dehydration of Ca(OH)2 anddecomposition of CaCO3 were observed. Then, the temperature was maintained at 700°C for 6
min to ensure complete decomposition of CaCO3 to CaO. After that, the reaction atmosphere was19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

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switched to 100% CO2, the carbonation reaction of CaO took place to form the carbonated
CaCO3. This step was followed by the next calcination reaction whereby the carbonated CaCO3
converted to CaO under 100% N2 gas.
The CO2 adsorption capacities of CaO obtained from synthetic Ca(OH)2 samples
prepared with 0.01 mol, 0.02 mol and 0.03 mol of CTAB were calculated from the TGA profile.
The calculated results are presented in Table 1 and Figure 4(b). As seen in Table 1 and Figure4(b), CO2 adsorption capacities of CaO derived from Ca(OH)2 samples increased with increasingof CTAB concentration. In comparison with CaO derived from irregular-shaped and hexagonalshaped Ca(OH)2 samples prepared with 0.01 mol and 0.02 mol of CTAB, the capacity of CaO
derived from one dimensional (1D) nanorods Ca(OH)2 sample prepared with 0.03 mol of CTAB
after 1st cycle was higher (0.75 g-CO2/g-adsorbent), which approached to the theoretical
adsorption capacity of CaO (0.78 g-CO2/g-adsorbent).

Figure 3. (a) TG and (b) DTA curves of calcium hydroxide sample synthesized with 0.03 mol of CTAB

Figure 4. (a) TGA profile Ca(OH)2 sample synthesized with 0.03 mol of CTAB and(b) CO2 adsorption capacity of CaO derived from Ca(OH)2 samples

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Table 1. CO2 adsorption capacities of CaO derived from Ca(OH)2 samples
No

CO2 adsorption capacity (gCO2/g-adsorbent)

SampleFirst cycle

Second cycle

1

CaO derived from Ca(OH)2 sample preparedwith 0.01 mol of CTAB

0.60

0.55

2

CaO derived from Ca(OH)2 sample preparedwith 0.02 mol of CTAB

0.70

0.69

3

CaO derived from Ca(OH)2 sample preparedwith 0.03 mol of CTAB

0.75

0.73

4. Conclusion
In this study, nanostructured calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) samples were synthesized via
a simple precipitation method at the temperature 40C by varying the concentration ofcetyltrimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB). The formation of one dimensional Ca(OH)2
nanorods was investigated. FESEM images exhibited that Ca(OH)2 samples synthesized with
0.01 mol of CTAB resulted in irregular shaped and sized micro/nano particles, with 0.02 mol of
CTAB resulted in micro/nano hexagonal plates with non uniform sizes, with 0.03 mol of CTAB
resulted in nanorods with an average diameter of 80-100 nm, respectively. Based on FESEM
images, it could be concluded that the concentration of CTAB played a critical role to control theformation of Ca(OH)2 nanorods. The TGA results showed that the CO2 adsorption capacity of
CaO derived from synthetic Ca(OH)2 nanorods sample (0.75 g-CO2/g-adsorbent) was higher thanthose of CaO derived from irregular and hexagonal shapes Ca(OH)2 samples.

Acknowledgements
The authors thank the AUN/SEED Net Project under the Grant no. 304/6050219 and JICA for financial
support and greatly acknowledge to Universiti Sains Malaysia and Tokyo Institute of Technology for facility support.
The authors are grateful to Dr Mu Mu Myint, Rector and Dr Win Win Ei, Pro-Rectors, Taunggyi University for theirpermission to submit this paper. The authors grateful to Dr Khin Khin Htoot, Head of Department of Physics andProfessor Dr Nwe Nwe San, Department of Physics, Taunggyi University for encouragement to submit this paper.

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[6] Nanni, A. and L. Dei, “Ca(OH)2 nanoparticles from W/O microemulsions”, Langmuir, 2002, vol.19, pp. 933-938.
[7] Amin Alavi, M. and A. Morsali, “Ultrasonic-assisted synthesis of Ca(OH)2 and CaO nanostructures”, Journal of
Experimental Nanoscience, 2010, vol. 5, pp. 93-105.
[8] Tong Liu, Yarong Zhu, Xuanzhou Zhang, Tongwen Zhang, Tao Zhang, Xingguo Li, “Synthesis andcharacterization of calcium hydroxide nanoparticles by hydrogen plasma-metal reaction
method”, Materials Letters, 2010, vol. 64, pp. 2575-2577.
[9] Rodriguez-Navarro, C, A. Suzuki, and E. Ruiz-Agudo, “Alcohol dispersions of calcium hydroxide nanoparticles
for stone conservation”, Langmuir, 2013, vol. 29, pp. 11457-11470.
[10] Yanlong Xing and Petra S. Dittrich, “One-dimensional nanostructures: microfluidic-based synthesis, alignment
and integration towards functional sensing devices”, Sensors, 2018, vol.18:134, pp.1-21.
[11] Maithri Tharmavaram, Deepak Rawtani and Gaurav Pandey, “Fabrication routes for one-dimensional
nanostructures via block copolymers”, Nano Convergence, 2017, vol. 4:12, pp.1-13.
[12] Rui Chen, Zuoshan Wang, Qingqing Zhou, Juan Lu and Min Zheng, “A template-free microwave synthesis of
one-dimensional Cu2O nanowires with desired photocatalytic property”, Materials, 2018,vol.11: 1843, pp.1-11.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

The Updated Probabilistic Seismic Models 2018 for Mitigation of Seismic
Risks in Myanmar
Myo Thant1, Maung Thein2

Abstract
The seismic hazard assessment of Myanmar was firstly carried out by Gorshkov (1959), and theseismic hazard model was then continuously updated by Mg Thein in 1985 and 2001, andMaung Thein et al. in 2003 and 2005. All of those seismic hazard models based on the previous
major events, it means that the models were developed by using deterministic seismic hazard
assessment (DSHA) methodology. The seismic hazard maps and information are very important
for a country in seismic risk reduction processes. In recent years, all of the scientists accept that
only deterministic seismic hazard model is not sufficient for conducting the seismic risk
reduction processes, and the seismic hazard models constructed by using probabilistic seismic
hazard assessment (PSHA) method. Therefore, the probabilistic seismic hazard maps of
Myanmar were developed in 2012 by Myo Thant et al. In developing those maps, the seismic
sources are modeled as areal seismic sources for the subduction zone domain of Indian-Australia
Plate beneath Burma Plate, in the west of country and the collision zone domain of IndianAustralia Plate and Eurasia Plate, in the north-west. Moreover, the Eastern Highland region is
also modeled as the areal seismic sources due to the unavailability of the sufficient fault
parameters, even though there are several strike-slip faults in that region (e.g. Moemeik Fault,
Nampon Fault, Shweli Fault, Kyaukme Fault, and Nam Ma Fault, etc.). The 2012 seismic
sources were remodeled especially the areal seismic sources of subduction and collision zones,
and Eastern Highland, and the new probabilistic hazard models are proposed for Myanmar in
2018. In those models, the seismic hazard calculations are for 10% and 2% probability ofexceedances in 50 years as the previous one. The resulted seismic hazard maps of Myanmar are
peak ground acceleration (PGA) maps, spectral acceleration (SA) maps for the period 0.2 s and
1.0 s, and peak ground velocity (PGV) maps. In this work, we try to understand the seismic riskof Myanmar based on the available demographic and other related information, and the modified
seismic hazard models, especially for the major cities as Yangon, Mandalay, Sagaing, Bago, etc.
Moreover, we also make the seismic hazard model for 10% probability of exceedance in 50
years simple to understand by public for self-realization of risk condition, and the public canprepare themselves for seismic risk reduction purposes.
Keywords: probabilistic seismic hazard maps, peak ground acceleration, spectral acceleration,
peak ground velocity, seismic risk reduction.

1. Introduction
Myanmar is the earthquake disaster prone country since it lies along one of the major
earthquake belts of the world, Alpide earthquake belt. With respect to the tectonics of the country,
the convergence of Indian-Australia Plate in the south with the Eurasia Plate in north is the major
cause of the earthquakes in Myanmar and surrounding regions. The crustal faults present in
Myanmar can be assumed due to this tectonic process. One of the major active faults is the rightlateral, strike-slip, Sagaing Fault passing through near or on the major cities of Myanmar such as
Naypyitaw, Yangon, Mandalay, Bago, and Sagaing, etc. The others are Kabaw Fault, Mrauk-U
Fault, Gwegyo Fault, West Bago Yoma Fault in central and western parts of Myanmar; Lashio
1
2

Dr Professor, Department of Geology, University of Yangon, myothant05@gmail.com
Dr Professor, Ret., Department of Geology, University of Yangon

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Fault in the Eastern Highland; NW-SE trending Three Pagodas Fault, and Papun Fault in
Tanintharyi Region. From the point of view of earthquake experiences, the country has
experienced several large earthquakes such as 1839 Ava (Innwa) Earthquake, 1912 Maymyo
Earthquake, 1929 Swa Earthquake, 1930 Bago Earthquake, 1930 Phyu Earthquake, 1956 Sagaing
Earthquake, 1991 Tagaung Earthquake, etc. Among them th deadliest and the most damaged
events are 1930 Bago Earthquake originated from Sagaing Fault, which struck on May 5 with themagnitude of 7.3 M, causing 550 deaths and several buildings were damaged in Bago andYangon, while the other is 1839 Ava (Innwa) event that caused 400 casualties in Innwa andsurrounding areas with several buildings damages especially pagodas, and monasteries. The mostrecent events are 2011 Tarlay Earthquake, 2012 Thabeikkyin Earthquake, 2016 Chauk
Earthquake and 2017 Taikkyi Earthquake.
It can, therefore, be clearly seen that earthquake disaster of Myanmar is quite high, and theearthquake disaster mitigation processes are required to continuously carry out. Among those
processes, the seismic hazard assessment is the essential and initial step. Therefore, seismic
hazard assessments had been carrying out since eighteen century, e.g. Gorshkov (1959) [1], Mg
Thein (1985, 2001) [2, 3], and Maung Thein et al. (2003, 2005)[4,5] based on the deterministic
methodology. In 2012, Myo Thant et al. [6] carried out seismic hazard assessment of Myanmar
by using the probabilistic seismic hazard assessment (PSHA) approach, then they modified in2018 again.
2. Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Assessment Methodology and Applied Data
The methodology used in the seismic hazard assessment of Myanmar by Myo Thant et al.
(2018) is probabilistic seismic hazard analysis defined by Cornell (1968) [7], and the basic steps
are briefly described as four steps (Reiter, 1990; Cramer, 1996) [8, 9]. The earthquake sources
identification is the first step of the method, in which the seismic sources are identified as beingof uniform earthquake potential throughout the sources that can be range from planar faults tolarge seismotectonic provinces. The second step is definition of seismicity recurrence
characteristics for each seismic source, by earthquake recurrence relationship giving the chanceof an earthquake of a given size to happen in the source during a specific period of time,
considering all of the upper limits of earthquakes. The simple earthquake recurrence relationshipis Log N= a - bM, in which N is the cumulative number of earthquakes of a given magnitude orlarger that can be expected to happened during a specified time period; a and b are the constantsof earthquake occurrence, M is the earthquake magnitude, normally moment magnitude.
Estimation of the earthquake effect is the step, and the attenuation of ground motion expectedfrom the earthquakes in different magnitude range with distance, mostly represented nowadays
by means of ground motion prediction equations. The last step is determining the seismic hazard
at the site, i.e. the probability that the ground motion parameter (for example: groundacceleration, ground velocity and spectral acceleration) will be exceeded during a specified time
period is calculated by considering the uncertainties in spatial and temporal earthquake
occurrences, earthquake size, and ground motion prediction, etc.
The data and information applied in the seismic hazard calculation are the combined
information of seismic sources model (2012) and the modified 2016 seismic sources model, andthe seismicity information (Figure 1). The seismic sources are modeled as areal seismic sources
for the subduction zone domain of Indian-Australia Plate beneath Burma Plate, in the west of
country and the collision zone domain of Indian-Australia Plate and Eurasia Plate, in the north-19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

147

west. Moreover, the Eastern Highland region is also modeled as the areal seismic sources due tothe unavailability of the sufficient fault parameters, even though there are several strike-slip
faults in that region (e.g. Moemeik Fault, Nampon Fault, Shweli Fault, Kyaukme Fault, and Nam
Ma Fault, etc.). The 2012 seismic sources were remodeled especially the areal seismic sources ofsubduction and collision zones, and Eastern Highland, and the new probabilistic hazard models
are proposed for Myanmar in 2018.

Figure 1. Map presenting the seismicity of Myanmar region (ISC earthquake catalog, 2011) after declustering.

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3. Results and Discussion

Figure 2. Seismic zone map of Myanmar, modified probabilistic seismic hazard map of Myanmar for 475 years recurrence
interval (Myo Thant et al., 2018) by Myo Thant and Mg Thein (2019)19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

149

Figure 3. Seismic zone map of Yangon Region, modified probabilistic seismic hazard map of Myanmar for 475 years recurrence
interval (Myo Thant et al., 2018) by Myo Thant and Mg Thein (2019)

Myo Thant et al. (2018) [10] constructed the probabilistic hazard maps of Myanmar for
10% and 2% probability of exceedance in 50 years and seismic hazards are illustrated in terms ofpeak ground acceleration (PGA), peak ground velocity (PGV), and spectral acceleration at theperiods of 0.2 s and 1.0 s. In here, we modified the seismic hazard map for 10% probability ofexceedance in 50 years (Figure 2) and the seismic hazards are presented by dividing different

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zones in terms of peak ground acceleration (PGA), Modified Mercalli (MM) scale and potential
damages. Five seismic zones are identified based on the range of PGA in which Seismic Zone I
comprises Low Zone of Potential Damage with PGA value of ≤ 0.15 g and MM scale of VI;
Seismic Zone II as Moderate Potential Zone with PGA range of 0.16 -0.3 g and MM scale VII,
Zone III as Strong Potential Damage Zone with PGA range 0.31 – 0.45 g; Zone IV as Severe
Potential Damage Zone with PGA range of 0.46 – 0.6 g and MM scale VIII-IX; and Seismic
Zone V as Destructive Zone with PGA range ≥ 0.6 g and MM scale IX (Figure 2). The westernpart of Myanmar as northern Rakhine, Chin, northern Magway, western Sagaing are located in
Seismic Zone III, IV and V. Four major regions/states as Yangon, Bago, Mandalay, Kachin also
occur in Zone III, IV and V. Most of the major cities such as Mandalay, Sagaing, Naypyitaw,
Bago, Taungoo, and Wuntho correspond to the seismic zones of III and IV while the city Yangon
belongs to seismic zone of II. However, it should be noted that this seismic zone map isprobabilistic seismic hazard map of 10% probability of exceedance in 50 years (475 years
recurrence interval) and the site condition is considered as the bedrock. If the reference seismic
hazard is for 2% probability of exceedance in 50 years (2475 years recurrence interval) and thesite conditions are considered based on the soil properties, the hazard values will be higher thanthe present one and the hazard distributed areas will also be wider.
With regards to Yagon Region, The central and eastern part of the region belongs to theseismic zones of Zone II to III and some are of Seismic Zone IV such as Thongwa andKyaukktan, Tanyin, Taikkyi and Hlegu Townships. Based on the population of Yangon City, Mostof the high populated townships, e.g. Dagonmyothit (S), Myaukokkalar, Mingaladon, Thakeda,
Thingankyun, Dagonmyothit (N), Dagonmyothit (Seikkan), Dagonmyothit (E) Tamwe,
Taungokkalar, comprise of Seismic Zone II. As mentioned previously, This also bases on theseismic hazard information of 10% probability of exceedance in 50 years and bedrock condition,
if the hazard information based on 2% probability of exceedance in 50 years and the detailed soil
condition, the seismic hazard will be higher and the area of distribution will be wider.
The seismic hazard assessment plays an important role for earthquake disaster mitigation
processes that will include application in seismic resistance design calculation (for engineering
purposes, the seismic zone factor will be included in National Building Code), land-use plan,
seismic risk assessment, and other mitigation purposes. Moreover, the public must understand theseismic risk condition of their buildings and areas, the development of seismic zone map bytranslation the estimated seismic hazard is therefore very important, especially for the public.
Based on these information, they can carry out earthquake disaster preparing processes and theconcerned ministries, departments and organizations can also use for various purposes.

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References[1] Gorshkov, G. P. “Problems of Seismotectonics and Seismicity – Zoning of the Territory of the Union of Burma”.
(Mineographed Manuscript), 1959.
[2] Maung Thein. “Mitigation of Earthquake Hazards in Myanmar (in Myanmar Language)”, Working People Daily,
18 Nov., 1985.
[3] Maung Thein. “Mitigation of Earthquake Hazard in Myanmar (in Myanmar Language)”, Jour. Myan. Acad.
Tech., Vol. 1., No. 2, P. 124 – 134.
[4] Maung Thein, Tint Lwin Swe and Tin Htay Mu. “Seismic Zone Map of Myanmar”, With an Explanatory Note (9pg.), 2003.
[5] Maung Thein and Tint Lwin Swe. “The Seismic Zone Map of Myanmar”, Myanmar Earthquake Committee,
Myanmar Engineer Society, 2005.
[6] Myo Thant, Nwai Le’ Ngal, Soe Thura Tun, Maung Thein, Win Swe, Than Myint. “Seismic Hazard Assessment
For Myanmar”, Report to Myanmar Earthquake Committee and Myanmar Geoscience Socity,
P58., 2012.
[7] Cornell, C. A. “Engineering Seismic Risk Analysis”, Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, Vol. 58,
1583-1606, 1968.
[8] Reiter, L., “Earthquake Hazard Analysis- Issues and Insights”, Columbia University Press, New York, 254pp.,
1990.
[9] Kramer, S. L. “Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering”, Prentice-Hall International Series in Civil Engineeringand Engineering Mechanics, 653 pp., 1996.
[10] Myo Thant, Saw Ngwe Khaing, Soe Min, Lin Thu Aung, Thura Aung, Soe Thura Tun, Hiroshi Kawase, ChungHan Chang, Yu Wang, “Updated Probabilistic Seismic Models of Myanmar”, Report of
Myanmar Earthquake Committee, 2018.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Seismic Microzonation at Taungthaman area, Mandalay Region
Pyi Soe Thein1, Tint Tint Khaing2 , Junji Kiyono3, Tun Tun Win 4, Htay Win5

Abstract
Taunthaman area is located very closed to the most active dextral Sagaing Fault in Myanmar.
In the historical record, several earthquakes happened in and around Mandalay, Amarapura,Innwa, Sagaing region from the beginning of the year of 1400. Even a moderately strong
earthquake may cause great loss of lives and property damage. The study area is partly built on
alluvial sediments which can amplify seismic ground motion. There is a need to prepare acomprehensive seismic microzonation in near future to support seismic hazard assessment. We
conducted 7-sites PQWT-TC series geophysical survey to estimate the shaking intensity
distribution during the earthquake. We also conducted 7-site bore holes investigation to gain arepresentative determination of the soil condition of subsurface structures in Taung Tha Man
area. These parameters are required for seismic resistant design of structures. The adopted
methodology comprises of three parts:(i) soil modeling and estimation of depth to Engineering Bed Layer (ii) estimation of the groundmotion at Engineering Bed Layer (iii) estimation of ground motion at the surface by 1D groundresponse analysis using Multiple Reflection Analysis (MRA) program. The soil models areprepared from geophysical survey data and shear wave velocity/ N-values. The results enabled us
to estimate the site-dependent shaking characteristics of earthquake ground motion.
Keywords: Alluvial sediments, Sagaing Fault, geophysical survey, earthquake ground motion

1. Introduction
In Myanmar, earthquakes are mainly caused by the tectonic movements related to thesubduction of the Indian plate beneath the Burma plate along the Andaman Islands andRakhine-China-Naga Ranges. The Indian Plate collides with Eurasia Plate at the rate of 50
mm/yr [1], while the rate of subduction of Indian plate under Burma plate is about 36 mm/yr
and the Benioff zone dips in varying degree in each segment of the subduction system. Anothermajor active geological structure that generates the major earthquakes in Myanmar is Sagaing
Fault. Others are Kyaukkyan Fault, Papun Fault, Kabaw Fault, Gwegyo Fault and West Bago
Yoma Fault. Taungthaman area, Mandalay region is the famous cultural center of Myanmar
and the population is about thirty thousand. There are also greater population, higher
urbanization, more industrialization and many infrastructures. Actually, the study area islocated very closed to the most active dextral Sagaing fault in Myanmar. An active Sagaing
Fault is a fault that may have displacement within a future period of concern to humans.
Identification of active Sagaing Fault requires recognizing previous displacement andconstraining the age of displacement [2], [3] and [4]. An active fault is usually identified byassociating it with tectonically deformed Quaternary- age materials or surface. In the historical
record, several earthquakes happened in and around Mandalay, Amarapura, Innwa, Sagaing
region from the beginning of the year of 1400. Even a moderately strong earthquake may cause1

Lecturer, Department of Geology, Yadanabon University, pyisoethein@yahoo.com
M.Sc student, Department of Geology, Yadanabon University, tinttintkhaing.geol@gmail.com
3
Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Japan, kiyono.junji.5x@kyoto.u.ac.jp
4
Lecturer, Department of Geology, Mandalay University, geolttw73@gmail.com
5
Professor and Head, Department of Geology, Yadanabon University, htaywin.geol.61@gmail.com
2

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great loss of lives and property damage. Seismic microzonation studies are generally
considered as a prerequisite for the site specific risk analysis to mitigate earthquake losses ordamages. The first relevant applications appeared in Myanmar at recent years [5].
In this research, the development of a high resolution near-surface Mandalay region
Vs model is presented, including descriptions of the processing steps applied to the adopted
SPT dataset and PQWT-TC500 geophysical data, the consideration made for the seismic
microzonation mapping of the selected spatial interpolation schemes. The seismic
microzonation maps are developed by using the multiple reflection analysis and empiricalstochastic green function.
30

2. Geophysical Survey and Data Analysis
Geophysical lines are generally arranged perpendicular to the line to be constructed, candetect tectonic crushed zone on both sides of the border and its different physical characteristics,
contrast is strong, crushing width, extending distinctive characteristics. There are seven sites
from PQWT-TC500 geophysical instrument throughout the taungthaman area to evaluate thegeotechnical properties of subsurface layers (Figure 1). The collected data each time is the dataof the midpoint between two electrode data, Electrode spacing is generally 5-10 m, dot spacingis generally about 0.5-2m, electrode spacing and dot spacing must keep the same distance forone measuring line (Figure 2). The measurement and result PQWT-TC500 geophysical crosssection of the site no.1 is reported in Figure 3 and 4.

Figure 1. SRTM Satellite image with Geophysical survey Sites.

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155

Figure 2. Sketch map of wiring method N、M are electrodes, O is Measuring point,
NM=10m, dot spacing is generally about 0.5-2m (standardis1m)

Figure 3. PQWT-TC500 Geophysical measurement at site No 1,
Yadanabon University [ 96°4'18.897'' E & 21°53'31.516'' N].

Figure 3. The result PQWT-TC500 geophysical cross-section of the site no.1

Seven borehole data were collected to evaluate the subsurface profiles and related
geotechnical parameters for seismic microzonation analyses. The detailed drilling program had
been carried out for subsurface investigation in taungthaman area. The SPT dataset is used todevelop surfaces describing the distribution of time-averaged shear wave velocity, Vs30, acrossthe urban area in Mandalay region. Target profile depths of 5, 10, 20, 30 m wereconsidered to allow for an assessment of the distributions of soil stiffness with depth across the30

region. Vs values are computed for each target depth, as Eq. (1) [6] and [7]. The evaluatedsubsurface profiles for each area in Mandalay region are shown in the following Figure 4.

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156

Vs30=

(1)

where v_si is shear wave velocity, d_i thickness of i layer and t_i one way travel time in ith layer.

Figure 4. Example of Vs profile at Taungthaman area (SPT 1 dataset).

The MRA (Multiple Reflection Analysis) was used to calculate the transfer function,
which expresses the relation between the period and the corresponding magnification factor.
Calculation of predominant period by using boring data and the ground model profile is done
according to the MRA. The governing equation is(2)
in which µ is the displacement of horizontal S-wave (SH), Z the direction of wave propagation
the shear modulus and η the coefficient of visco(up-down), t the time, the density,
elasticity. The soil damping is considered by giving the complex value to the shear modulus
and solving Eq. (2). The damping constant is 5% of critical damping for each layer [8].

3. Peak Ground Acceleration
Seismic hazard models are being updated by modifying some of the seismic sources in
Myanmar. In this research, the input motions were selected based on the Probabilistic PGA(Peak Ground Acceleration) (g) Map of Myanmar for 10% probability of exceedance in 50
years, for engineering bedrock condition [9]. The ground response analyses were conducted byusing the assumption of vertical propagation of shear waves from the engineering bedrock to
the ground surface. The seismic ground motion at EBL is estimated using Empirical157

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Stochastic Green Function. The surface ground motion is estimated by passing ground motion
simulated at EBL through prepared soil models of each site using Multiple reflection program.
The peak horizontal ground acceleration of these seismic events ranged from 0.35 g to 0.55 g.
Distribution of the estimated peak ground accelerations are shown in Figure 5. The componentof the shaking is NS, EW. This is the first trial to estimate the shaking and the damage under thecondition of the occurrence of a future Amarapura earthquake.
Table 1. Results of Geophysical data.
Location Site

PGA (g)Yadanabon
University

0.45-0.35

Ground Water( ) > 74

Vs30 (m/s)
250

Figure 5. Estimated (PGA) map of Taungthaman area, Amarapura township, Mandalay region.

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4. Conclusions
Seven sites of Standard Peneration Test (SPT) and PQWT-TC500 series groundwater detection were carried out for constructing a subsurface ground model in Taungthamanarea. The Kriging method can be used for the interpolation of subsurface information such as
shear wave velocity and depth of irregular boundary. The shear wave velocity of the top layer
is Vs ≤ 250 m/s. By combining above two-layer model and the results of geophysicalobservation, the author proposed the distribution of the first layer thickness of the sediment.
Seismic microzonation of the Taungthaman area had predicted based on the multiple reflection
analysis by using the proposed ground model. The outputs of this research would be very
applicable for both engineering purpose and to identify and mitigate the seismic risk for
Mandalay region, Myanmar. There are high acceleration areas appears along the dextral
Sagaing Fault, especially near the epicenter. Peak acceleration becomes more than 0.45 g insome areas, which causes severe damage for buildings in high probability (Table 1).
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by the Yadanabon University, Ministry of Education. The acknowledgement is
extended to Rector Dr. Maung Maung Naing, Pro-rector of Dr. Si Si Khin and Dr. Tint Moe Thu Zar,
Yadanabon University for their kind permission for the submission of this research paper. We would also like tothank the Foundation Soil Investigation Group (FIG) Company for providing geotechnical and geophysical dataof the Taung Tha Man area. Managing director Mr Kyaw Khant (Robust Trust Company) provided well points
and geophysical data of the study area and his deserve special acknowledgement.

References[1] GIAC, TOTAL, UNOCAL, MOGE, EcoleNormaleSuperieure, Yangon, Dagon, Mandalay, Chaing
Mai and Chulalonkom Universities), “The tectonics of Myanmar”, Final Report of GIAC Project
1996-1999, 2002
[2] Win Swe, “Rift-features at the Sagaing-Tagaung Ridge”. Abstract, Burma Research Congr., Rangoon, 101. 1970
[3] Hla Maung, “Transcurrent movements in the Burma-Andaman Sea region”. Geology 15, 911 912, 1987
[4] Myint Thein, Kyaw Tint and Aye, Ko Aung, “On the lateral displacement of the Sagaing fault” 1991,
Georeports 1, 23–34.
[5] Maung Thein and Tint Lwin Swe, “Explanatory Account for Seismic Zone Map of Myanmar (Revised Version,2005) February (Prepared under the auspices of Myanmar Earthquake Committee)”, 2006, 4 p.
[6] Pyi Soe Thein, Junji Kiyono, Tun Tun Win, Than Than Nuand Day Wa Aung, “Seismic Microzonation of
Mandalay City, Myanmar”. Journal of Geological Resources and Engineering, David Puiblishing,
2015.
[7] Ohta, Y. and Goto, N,“Estimation of s-wave velocity in terms of characteristic indices of soil”, Butsuri-Tanko,
29(4), 1976. 34-41[8] Kiyono, J. and Suzuki, M, “Conditional Simulation of Stochastic Waves by Using Kalman Filter andKriging
Techniques”, Proc. of the 11th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Acapulco, Mexico, 1996. Paper
No.1620.
[9] Myo Thant, Nwai Le’ Ngal, Soe Thura Tun, Maung Thein, Win Swe, Than Myint, “Seismic Hazard
Assessment For Myanmar”, Report to Myanmar Earthquake Committee and Myanmar
Geoscience Socity, 2012, P58.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Adsorptive Removal of Color from Textile Effluent Using Agricultural Wastes
as Adsorbents
Nwe Nwe Aung1, Mon Mon Aye2, Rosy3, Thet Thet Mon 4, Zue Zue Aung5

Abstract
Dyes are used in various fields such as paper, textile and plastics industries. Local dyeing housesin Amarapura discharge their dyeing wastewater into water body of Taungthaman Lake without
any treatment. The color in these effluents are not biodegradable and can damage water quality.
The aim of the present study is to explore the feasibility of using agricultural wastes such as rice
husk, peanut husk and saw dust in the removal of color from dyeing effluents. The adsorption
study was carried out by column method by choosing the most effective adsorbent from rice husk,
peanut husk and sawdust. Different particle sizes and dose of adsorbents were used for study theeffect of various parameter on adsorption process. The absorbances of dye containing wastewaterand treated wastewater were measured by using UV-visible spectrophotometer. The max value ofdyeing wastewater was found to be 546 nm. The percent removal of red color from dyeing effluent
could be calculated as 78 % by rice husk, 83 % by peanut husk and 80 % by saw dust. The pH
value of effluents was measured after biosorption process and found to be 11.4 and 7.9
respectively. In addition, the removal efficiency for COD in the final effluent was found to be
78 %. The results prove that agricultural wastes, peanut husk and saw dust, are cost-effective andeco-friendly for removal of color from dyeing effluents.

1. Introduction
Textile dyes are generally made of synthetic, organic and aromatic compounds that may
contain some heavy metals in their structure. These heavy metal containing aromatic compound
can cause toxicity and carcinogen [1]. Wastewater discharged by the textile industry and dyeing
houses are generally high in both color and such organic compounds. The presence of large
amount of suspended solids, dissolved solids, high pH in the textile wastewater can cause serious
environmental problems. Among then, color is the very first contaminant to be recognized in the
textile dyeing wastewater [2]. A very small amount of dye in water body is highly visible andreduces penetration of light in water systems, thus causing the negative impacts on
photosynthesis of aquatic plant [3]. One of the major challenges to environmental scientists is theenvironmental impact of textile effluent which contain residual color and some other organic
contain residual color and some other organic compounds. In the last few years, environmental
scientists paid great attention to the color removal from the textile effluents not only because of
their potential toxicity but also mainly due to its visibility problems [4, 5].
Nowadays, various treatment methods such as adsorption, coagulation/flocculation/
precipitation [6], biological processes and ionizing/gamma radiation [7] are available for theremoval of dye from textile effluent. However, most of them are expensive. Among thesemethods, adsorption is the most economical and effective treatment method, and soenvironmental scientists widely used adsorption technique for color removal from textile
1

Lecturer, Department of Chemistry, Yadanabon University, nwenweaung748@gmail.com
Assistant Lecturer, Department of Chemistry, Yadanabon University, monmon129464@gmail.com
3
Assistant Lecturer, Department of Chemistry, Yadanabon University, rosylaphai@gmail.com
4
Assistant Lecturer, Department of Chemistry, Yadanabon University, tthet8365@gmail.com
5
M Sc student, Department of Chemistry, Yadanabon University, zuezueaung3333@gmail.com
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effluent. Due to high cost of activated carbon, adsorption on natural materials such as sand [8],fly ash [9], orange peel and banana peel [10], sugarcane bagasse and used black tea leaves [11],rice husk [9], peanut husk [12], sawdust [13] and modified biomaterials [14-16] have received
great interest. These natural adsorbents are locally available, cost-effective and ecofriendly.
The present study investigates the effective use of agricultural wastes as nonconventional
and low-cost adsorbents for the removal of color from textile effluents using column method. The
aim of this study was to compare the color removal efficiency of the selected agricultural wastes
and to find an ecofriendly solution for the environmental problems caused by direct discharge ofdyeing wastewater into water body without treatment. The effect of various parameters such as
adsorbent dose, particle size of adsorbent and volume of dyeing wastewater were also
investigated in this study.

2. Methods
2.1 Collection of textile wastewater
The textile wastewater sample was collected from local dyeing house located near
Taungthaman Lake, Amarapura township, Mandalay Region. Sample was collected in precleaned
pdyethlene bottles and placed in icebox for analysis. The collected wastewater sample for thepresent study was blue colored. The physicochemical parameters such as pH, electricalconductivity (EC), total dissolved solid (TDS) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) wereanalyzed to characterize the collected wastewater samples according to the methods prescribed in
APHA [17].

2.2 Preparation of Adsorbents
The different agricultural wastes (rice husk, peanut husk and sawdust) were collectedfrom different areas of Patheingyi Township, Mandalay Region. The biomasses were rinsed withtap water for several times to remove dust and any debris. And then they were rinsed two times
with distilled water and dried in sunlight. The dried biomasses were further dried in oven for 24hours at 60C. The cleaned dried biomasses were ground into fine particles by grinding machineand sieved into different particles sizes. The particles sizes used in this study were 125 m, 250
m and 400 m.

(a)

(b)

Figure 1. Adsorbents of 250 m size (a) rice husk (b) peanut husk (c) sawdust.

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2.3 Removal of color from textile effluent by column method
To choose the most effective adsorbent, three different columns having the diameter of
1cm and length of 25cm were packed with different adsorbents of 250 m particle sizes. A pieceof cotton wool was used as support at the bottom of each column. The characteristic features of
the columns packed with different adsorbents were given in Table 1.
Table.1 The Characteristic features of different column packed with different adsorbent.
Adsorbent

Adsorbent dose (g)Height of adsorbent
in column (cm)

Flowrate ateffluent (mLmin-1)

Rice husk

2

3

0.3

Peanut husk

1.5

3

0.3

Saw dust

1.5

3

0.3

To remove dissolved materials and dissolved coloring substances from the adsorbents,
same amount of distilled water was allowed to pass the column until clear solution was obtained.
Then, all the water in the column was drained out. After that, 50 mL of dye wastewater waspoured into the columns. The effluent from the column was collected at suitable time interval indifferent test tubes. Five fractions were collected. The absorbance of each fraction was measured
by UV-visible spectrophotometer and the percent color removal for each fraction was calculatedby the following equation.
Percent color removal =inital absorbance  final absorbancex 100
initial absorbance

2.4 Effect of particle sizes
After choosing the best adsorbent for collected textile effluent from the dyeing house, theeffect of particle size on the color removal efficiency was studied by using the adsorbent ofdifferent particle sizes such as 125 m, 250m and 400 m.
2.5 Effect of adsorbent dose
After optimizing the particle size, the effect of adsorbent dose on the color removal
efficiency was also studied by varying the amount of adsorbent with pre-optimized particle size.
The amount of adsorbent used for this study were 2 g, 2.5 g, 3 g, 3.5 g, 4 g, 4.5 g and 5 g,respectively.
2.6 Effect of volume of wastewater
To study the influence of the volume of textile wastewater on the adsorption process, thedifferent volumes of textile wastewater in the range of 20 ml to 200 ml were used. The column
was packed with 5g of sawdust powder having the particle size of 125 m. After removing thedissolved coloring matter by passing distilled water, 200 ml of textile wastewater was allowed topass into the column. The flow rate was maintained at 0.3 ml min-1 and the eluent was collectedwith different test tubes at 5min time interval. The volume of each fraction was 15.0ml andtotally fractions were collected.

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3. Results and Discussion
To choose the adsorbent with highest color removal efficiency for each wastewater
sample, screening tests were carried out. The highest color removal efficiencies of the different
adsorbents were found to be 78% by rice husk, 83% by peanut husk and 90% by sawdust. Fromthese results, it was observed that the most effective adsorbent for collected wastewater sample
was sawdust and hence sawdust powder was chosen for the color removal process of thecollected textile wastewater sample.
3.1 Effect of particle size
After choosing the most effective adsorbent, the effects of three different particle sizes
such as 125 m, 250 m and 400 m were investigated by column method. The percent color
removal of each fraction collect from the column with 125 m particle size adsorbent was shownin Table 2.
Table 2. Percent color removal by 125 m size sawdust adsorbent.
Fraction
No.

Volume of eluent (ml)Percent color removal
(%)

1

10

92.93

2

10

92.87

3

10

91.89

4

10

90.92

5

10

81.85

Average percent
color removal (%)

90.09

pAverage ercent color
removal(%)

The percent color removal was varied from 92.93% to 81.85% with the sawdust powderof 125 m particle size and the average percent color removal was found to be 90.09%.
Similarly, the sawdust adsorbent of particle sizes 250 m and 400 m gave the average percent
color removal from collected textile wastewater at 81.85% and 64.87% respectively. The plot ofpercent color removal from textile wastewater against particle size is shown in Figure 2.
100
80
60
40

Series1

20
0
0

200

400

600

particle size (mm)Figure 2. Optimization of particle size for color removal process19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

163

The figure reveals that the color removal efficiency of sawdust adsorbent for the collected
dyeing wastewater sample decreased with increase in particle size. This phenomenon wasprobably due to the fact that the smaller the particle size, the greater the surface area of theadsorbent and the number of adsorption sites on the surface of the adsorbent to adsorb the dyemolecules. According to the results, the particle size 125 m of the adsorbent showed the highest
color removal efficiency and was chosen for further investigations.
3.2 Effect of Adsorbent dose
After selecting the optimized particle size, the effect of adsorbent dose was studied byusing various amount of sawdust powder (125 m particle size) and flow rate of 0.3 ml min-1. It
was observed that the percent color removal varied from 47.75 % to 91.94 % by 5g of sawdust
powder. The percent color removal of each fraction collected from the column experiment with
5g adsorbent (125m particle size) and the average percent color removal were depicted inTable3.
Table 3. Percent color removal by different amount of sawdust powder (125 m particle size)
Adsorbent dose (g)Average percent color
removal (%)

2

47.75

2.5

56.32

3

67.84

3.5

81.76

4

88.94

4.5

91.44

5

91.94

Figure 3 was represented the plot of adsorbent dose against the average percent color
removal. From the figure, it was also observed that the color removal efficiency of sawdust
powder increased with increase the amount of adsorbent. This result is probably due to theincreased number of adsorption sites when the amount of adsorbent was raised. From theexperimental results, 5 g of sawdust powder exhibit the highest color removal efficiency(91.94 %). Therefore, adsorbent dose (5 g) and particle size (125 m) of sawdust powder wereselected for further study.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Average p
ercent color removal(%)

164

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Adsorbent dose (g)Figure 2. Optimization of adsorbent dose for color removal process

3.3 Effect of textile wastewater volume
The effect of the volume of the dyeing wastewater was shown in Figure 4. The figures
pointed out that the color removal efficiency became decreased with increase in volume of textile
wastewater. Therefore it can be observed that 5 g of sawdust powder (125 m particle size) can
reduce the color from the maximum volume of 160 mL textile wastewater.
100

Percent color removal(%)

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0

50

100

150

200

250

Volume of textile wastewater(mL)Figure 4. Effect of textile effluent volume on color removal process

3.4 Physico-chemical characterization of textile effluent
The effluent selected for the present study is dark blue color. The effluent was highlycolored indicating high content of different dyes and color producing compounds. The high color
may be the combined result of pH, temperature and acidic conditions that do not allow thechromophore group of dye to disintegrate during dyeing process and making the effluent highlycolored.
In the present study, the pH value of dye wastewater was found to be 11.4 before
adsorption and 7.8 after adsorption and was found to be within the standard discharge limit (69)[18]. EC values of wastewater sample reflect the content of dissolved ions in the wastewater.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

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TDS value of dye wastewater was determined to be 2500 mgL-1. This high TDS value may be
due to the fixing, bleaching and dyeing agent used in different stages of dyeing processes. The
high TDS values of water are not recommended not only for drinking but also for irrigation
purposes. After adsorption by sawdust powder, the TDS value of the effluent was found to be1140 mgL-1.
Before adsorption, COD of the effluent was found to be 1645.5 mgL-1 which is very highcompared to discharge standard and reuse standard. High COD value indicate the presence ofseveral waste such as detergents, softeners non-biodegradable chemicals such as dye fixing
agents. After adsorption, COD value of the effluent was determined to be 362 mgL-1. This value
is still higher than the water quality standard for industrial uses and standard discharge values[19]. The results reveals that the values of pH, EC, TDS and COD decrease after adsorption of
textile effluent using sawdust powder as adsorbent. This indicate that removal of color fromtextile effluent is effective and ecofriendly.

4. Conclusions
In this study, an attempt has been made for the removal of color from the textile
wastewater by adsorption using the agricultural wastes as adsorbents. Of the three adsorbent, rice
husk, peanut husk and sawdust, sawdust powder showed the highest color removal efficiency.
The effects of various parameters on adsorption process such as particle size of adsorbent,
adsorbent dose, and volume of textile effluent were studied. The optimum particle size was foundto be 125 m and the optimum adsorbent dose for column adsorption was 5 g. Another important
finding was the decrease in color removal efficiency with increase in wastewater volume. The
adsorption by column method using optimized particle size (125 m) and adsorbent dose (5 g)exhibit the maximum color removal efficiency up to 91.94 % . Based on findings, the agricultural
wastes such as sawdust was found to be useful as a low-cost, natural, abundant and effective
adsorbent for the removal of color from dye wastewater.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank to Dr Hlaing Hlaing Myat, Professor and Head of the department ofChemistry, Yadanabon University for the permission to carry out this research and supporting the required facilities
throughout the research work. We also thanks to Professor Dr Htay Htay Win for her thoughtful suggestions which isnecessary to complete this work. We also wish to thank to our colleagues for their kind and understanding helps.

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References[1] Venkatamohan S, Mamatha VVS, Karthikeyan J. Removal of color from acid and direct dyes by adsorption onto
silica fumes. Fresenius Envion Bull, 1998; 7(1):51.8.
[2] Patel, H and RT Vashi, 2010 (a), Treatment of textile wastewater by adsorption and coagulation, E.J. Chemistry,
7 (4): 1468-1476.
[3] Poots V.I.P, Mckay G and Healy J, J.Water Pollut Con.F., 1978,5065), 926[4] Robinson T, Chandran B and Nigam P, Water Res.,2002,36,2824-2830.
[5] Nigam P, Armour G, Banat IM, Singh D and Marchant R, Bioresource Technology, 2002,72,219-226.
[6] Pala A, Indian J Environ Health, 2001, 43(3), 128-134.
[7] Prieto ), Fermoso J, Nae-ez Yand Del.Valle JL, Solar Energy, 2005, 79(4), 376-386.
[8] Y.Zaker, M.A Hossain, T.S.A Islam, Effect of various factors on the adsorption of methylene blue on sittfractionated from Bijoypur soil, Bangladesh, Int. Res.J. Environment sci. 2(6), (2013) 243-250.
[9] S.De Gisi etal., Characteristics and adsorption capacities of low-cost adsorbents for wastewater treatment: areview, sustain, materials. Technol.9, 2016, 10-40.
[10] R.SiMane and V.N Bhusari, Removal of colour (dyes) from textile effluent byadsorption using orange andbanana peel, International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications, Vol-2, Issues,
2012,PP-1997-2004.
[11] M.A Hossain, M.M.Ali and T.S.A Islam, Comparative adsorption of methylene blue on different low costadsorbents by continuous column process, Int. letters of Chemistry, Physics and Astronomy,
77,2018,26-34.
[12] A.M. Etroki and F.M.N. Massoudi, The use of peanut hull for the adsorption of colour from aqueous dye
solutions and dye textile effluent, Oriental Journal of Chemistry, 2011, Vol.27, 875-884.
[13] Mohammad Shafiqul Alam, Rexona Khanom, Mohmmad Arifur Raham, Removal of Congo Red Dye from
Industrial Wastewater by untreated sawdust, American Journal of Environmental protection,
Vol.4,No.5,2015,pp207-213. Doi:10.11648/J.ajep 20150405.12.
[14] Mane . V.S. and P.V.V Babu, Studies on the adsorption of brilliant green dye from aqueous solution onto lowcost NaOH treated sawdust. Desalination 2011,273:321-329.
[15] H.N.Bhatti, S.Sadaf and A.Aleem, Treatment of textile effluent by low-cost agricultural wastes: Batch
adsorption study,The Journal of Animal and Plant Science, 2015,pp 284-289.
[16] China-Discharge Standards of water pollutants for dyeing and finishing of textile industry (GB.4278-2012),
2015.
[17] A.E.Greenberg, L.S.Clesceri and A.D. Eaton, Standard methods for the analysis of water and wastewater,
17th ed., American public Health Association(APHA), Washington DC,1992.
[18] L.V.Wilcos, Classification and use of irrigation waters, 1955, USDA Circular No.969.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

The Innovation of Housebuilding Industry in Japan
Kazunobu Minami1

Abstract
Following my paper “Adaptable Infill for the Durable and Sustainable Japanese Housing”
presented at the last year SCA Conference, the author continues the analysis of the innovationsin Japanese house building and construction industry. Recent developments in housing
technology has been promoting the longer life for housing and has reduced the material
consumption and its environmental impacts. The adaptable infill system preserves building
longer by changing its fit out according to the changes of lifestyles of the resident. The numberof skilled construction workers in Japan is predicted to fall significantly in the near future. We
are conducting the research and development in order to use less manpower for the site works.
The use of robots on site works and the use of Artificial Intelligence and BIM in the process ofdesign, building permission, on site construction and maintenance are the main research agenda
for the expected innovation of our industry.
This paper analysis the characteristics of the past innovations in Japan and examines the
key factors to foster the future innovations. The tradition of the collaborative relation among thegovernment, academia and industry in Japan will be the most effective way to promote new
innovation in the housebuilding and construction industry.
Keywords: Innovation, House building industry, Robot, AI, BIM

1.

Introduction

In the previous paper “Adaptable Infill for the Durable and Sustainable Japanese
Housing [1]” presented at the last year SCA Conference, the author pointed that the continuous
research and development of adaptable housing in Japan from KEP, CHS (Century Housing
System), KSI (Kodan Skelton Infill) to the establishment of the long fife housing law and therecent development of the zero slope gray water drainage system by the collaboration of thegovernment, private companies and research institutions have been one of the most essential
forces for the development of adaptable and sustainable housing in Japan. Based on this, theauthor tries to find out the necessary collaboration among public and privates sectors for the
future innovation of housebuilding and building industries.
2.

Methods

Sections 3-1 and 3-2 in this paper are summaries based on references [2] ~ [8] previously
presented by the author. Section 3-3 is an examination based on references [9] ~ [10], whichcontain up-to-date information on technological development in Japan.

1Professor, Department of Architecture Shibaura Institute of Technology, k-minami@shibaura-it.ac.jp

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

2

3.

Results and Discussion

3.1 History of the research and developments of housebuilding industry in Japan
In Japan, research and development has been carried out to improve the adaptability ofmulti-family dwellings and enable residents to continue living there for a longer period of time.
In Japan, such housing units are often demolished after a short period of about 30 years, so
efforts have been made to prolong their useful lifetimes by considering environmental andresource problems and economic efficiency.
In Japan, the Japan Housing Corporation, which is now called the Urban RenaissanceAgency or UR, has been conducting joint research and development with universities and privatecompanies under the leadership of the national government and the Ministry of Construction. In
the early 1970s, their research resolved the problem of housing shortages, and since then it has
been improving the quality of housing. Research and development by KEP since the late 1970s
and by CHS beginning in the 1980s contributed to the KSI and to the enactment in 2009 of the
Act Concerning the Promotion of Long-Life Quality Housing. Many dwellings for family use
range in size from 70 to 80 square meters, requiring that they be occupied skillfully or remodeled
to keep up with the growth of the children. Our research in housing adaptability is a response tothese demands for such housing units in Japan.
The Act Concerning the Promotion of Long-Life Quality Housing was designed toprolong the life of housing units. This law came into effect on June 4, 2009. About 800,000
housing units have been constructed based on technical standards mandated by this law, butalmost all were detached houses. Few have been condominiums. Because it must be possible tomaintain and replace equipment piping of multi-family dwellings from common corridors, it isdifficult for condominiums and apartments to comply with the technical guidelines, preventing
the increase in the number of dwellings in compliance with the act.
Technical Guidelines have been enacted under this law. Chapter 3 stipulates ease ofmaintenance and renewal. Chapter 4 stipulates interior adaptability of dwellings. Vertical sewer
pipes need to be easily accessible to allow replacement every couple of decades. The Piping
space needs to have additional holes for future replacements.
The first condominium apartment constructed in Japan in compliance with the Act
Concerning the Promotion of Long-Life Quality Housing is located in Urawa City. In order to beable to modify the layout of a dwelling, the ceiling and floor slabs of a condominium must ensure
at least a vertical distance of 2,650 millimeters. The double floors are 275 millimeters thick. If
this dimension is ensured, equipment piping can pass through the double floors, permitting themodification of rooms such as kitchens or bathrooms. Families can create the floor plan they
desire by arranging movable storage systems.
3.2 Recent trends in technical developments for collective dwellings
Figure 1 and Figure 2 show a condominium equipped with movable storage walls andmovable kitchens developed by Mitsui Real Estate and Haseko Corporation. The bathroom andtoilet are installed as a single unit and cannot be moved, but other spaces can be laid out freely.
The ceiling inside the room is flat and no columns or beams protrude into the rooms, so the
movable storage walls can be installed anywhere without any limitations. The entire unit isdouble-floored, enabling the location of the kitchen to be changed. The thickness of the double

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

3floor is 130 millimeters and the double ceiling is from 120 to 140 millimeters thick. This space isused to install equipment wiring and piping. Users create the floor plan they desire by arranging
the movable storage walls. The kitchen can be relocated. Exhaust from the kitchen can beventilated above the range to keep the air in the kitchen clean.
The other example of a recent technical development is the zero-slope drainage system.
Figure 3 and Figure 4 show a new drainage system based on the siphon principle. The drainage
slope is zero in order to fill the interior of the narrow 20-millimeter horizontal pipe with water.
The drain pipe fills with water then it flows out under the force of gravity. If a siphonic floor
drainage system is installed, the area where the kitchen can be located is greatly expanded. This
new drainage system narrows drain pipes and ends the need for a slope. By reducing the height ofthe double floor, it removes the need for a level difference on the floor, lowering the cost of
structure work.

Figure 2. Wheels for Movable Kitchen System
Figure 1. Movable Kitchen System

3010

150

Figure 4. Example of Zero-Slope Drainage System
Figure 3. Diagram of Zero-Slope Drainage System

3.3 Strategy for the future technical developments and innovations for building industry
The construction industry in Japan is currently facing a severe shortage of skilledworkers, and thus improving productivity is a pressing issue. The construction and housing
industry in Japan has so far been improving productivity through innovative refinements toconstruction methods, in both reinforced concrete as well as conventional wooden structures. The
construction industry, which has overcome numerous ordeals, including oil shocks and thecollapse of Japan’s bubble economy, will likely overcome this shortage of workers to a great

4

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

extent through application of robotics, IT (Information Technology) and AI (Artificial
Intelligence).
Robotic systems for pulling construction materials have already been introduced in orderto reduce the burden of on-site operations on aging workers as well as to improve productivity.
Tests have also been conducted on tasking robotic systems with cleaning operations so thatworkers can focus exclusively on on-site operations during the day. In the near future, it may bepossible for workers to commence operations from first thing in the morning thanks to robotic
systems conducting cleaning operations at night. It would also likely not be very difficult torepurpose Power Assist Suits, which are used in the distribution industry among others, to be
more in line with the characteristics of construction site operations.
The efforts of individual companies and on-site initiatives alone will be insufficient forachieving significant improvements in productivity. It is vital for the industry to engage with theissue collectively. When personnel related to the construction industry were interviewed,
personnel in both Design Divisions and Construction Divisions said that, although the in-houseinspections, client inspections and government inspections conducted at each stage throughout
the construction process are necessary in ensuring construction quality, these inspections are amajor time burden. In order to make inspection operations more advanced and streamlined,
future developments may be in areas such as laser-based measurements, image recognition
technology-based inspections, drone-based layout inspections and photography for construction
records. Attaching RFIDs (Radio Frequency Identifiers) to construction materials andarchitectural parts will likely accelerate on-site confirmation and provide greater accuracy, andmay also facilitate confirmation of concealed areas.
Government agencies also likely need to examine ways to streamline various inspection
operations for the purpose of improving the productivity of the industry as a whole. For example,
in the future, the ratio of existing structures that undergo repair will increase, which means that
forming databases and disclosing information on previous building approvals so that clients anddesigners can clearly determine whether to make use of an existing structure or to rebuild during
the initial stages of operational planning will likely lead to smoother project progression andincreased productivity.
Utilization of BIM (Building Information Modeling) is expected to improve productivity.
Initiatives are progressing in regard to building approvals that utilize BIM, such as standardizing
expressions used in drawings and specifications for applications. In the near future, in addition toensuring consistency between design drawings and application drawings, automatic confirmation
will also be conducted for both stand-alone and group regulations relating to various types ofarea calculations, physical dividers to prevent the spread of fires, fire prevention equipment,
measurements of evacuation distances, etc. And this will likely greatly reduce the amount of timenecessary for building approvals and for receiving consent from the fire department. Eventually,legality will be automatically checked starting from the basic design stage, and this will likely
eliminate the need to redo operations. When it comes to industrialized housing, application oftype certification and manufacturer certification systems will streamline building approvals andalso simplify on-site inspections. In the field of industrialized housing, which is becoming
increasingly componentized, unique CAD systems have been introduced for design, production
and construction, so engaging in building approvals that utilize BIM based on these systems will
likely be easier than for other general structures. The field of industrialized housing could19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

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become capable of BIM level 3 inspections at a very early stage.
The construction industry in Japan is a mature industry, and it is good at progressively
improving productivity. The industry contains companies that have attempted new businesses,
such as nursing care and agriculture, by applying their skilled personnel and organizational
capacity to these new businesses during periods in which their existing businesses are performing
favorably and without falling into ‘success traps.’ However, due to rapid progress in the fields ofIT and AI, companies that are currently aiming to introduce robotics and AI into the constructionindustry are gaining more and more experience, and this could introduce ‘destructive innovation’into the construction and housing industries. In the future, AI technologies will be moreadvanced, and in terms of architectural designs for residences in particular, this may lead directconnections between clients and production process and cause major changes in business models.
In companies that provide industrialized housing, engineers from other fields who graduatedfrom courses other than architecture will be responsible for the information technologies thatform the core of production, and educational programs implemented at universities and humanresource development programs conducted by companies must stay up-to-date with changes insociety.
Achieving further innovation requires ‘ambidextrous’ administration in which managers
search for new businesses while at the same time deepening existing, mature businesses*1. The
textile industry in Japan succeeded in shifting its core focus into new fields. But will theconstructing and housing industries, for which a drop in domestic demand is unavoidable, also beable to do the same thing?
Komatsu Ltd., a manufacturer of construction equipment, began globalization at an earlystage, including entering the Chinese market, and the company has constantly created value
through innovation*2, including development of ICT construction equipment, which isincreasingly becoming automatized, KOMTRAX, which provides a visual representation ofoperation status, and SMART CONSTRUCTION, which provides higher level solution
businesses. In 2017, through a joint venture with NTT Docomo, SAP Japan and OPTiM
Corporation, Komatsu started LANDLOG, an IoT platform for construction sites. This is exactly
what Joseph Schumpeter meant by ‘new combination’ between different industries. KomatsuLtd., which had previously provided construction equipment for use at construction sites,
established a position as a leading company through proactive introduction of IT. And byconstructing a platform*3 that accumulates and processes all types of construction-related dataand providing access even to competitors, the company is increasingly becoming the main pillar
in the construction solution business.
Even though it is presently limited to the field of civil engineering, including site
preparation, etc., it may eventually expand into building construction work. Together with IT, AI
and robotics companies, the general construction industry and the housing industry should
continue searching for businesses that will create new social value and develop these into theircore businesses in the future.
So far, growth of the Japanese economy has been supported by initiatives in which
industry, academia and the government are in close cooperation. In terms of technology, further
developing the housing and construction industries in Japan, which are already highly advanced,
will require not only technological development and technological innovations but also
restructuring of social systems to produce new value. It is thought that, in the future as well, the19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

6

key to promoting social system reforms and technological innovations in an integrated andeffective way will be cooperation between government sectors in charge of policy and private
sectors in charge of research and technological development – in other words, the promotion ofopen innovation in cooperation between industry, academia and the government.
4. Conclusions
Technological developments in the construction and housing industries in Japan during
the 1970s and 1980s were promoted through participation by major companies in national
technology development projects under government leadership, and these produced results.
However, in terms of technological development currently in progress, it is necessary tocooperate with start-up companies in fields other than the construction industry that possess
advanced technologies, including IT and robotics. In particular, it is necessary to proceed in adifferent way than before, including in relation to the state of government subsidies for researchand development, etc. In addition, in regard to the ideal state of construction production in the
future, it would be preferable to construct a vision that can be shared by society as a whole and toproceed research and development aligned with society as a whole.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to express deep gratitude to all of the researchers who provided advice regarding
the writing of this paper.

References[1] Kazunobu Minami, Adaptable Infill for the Durable and Sustainable Japanese Housing, December 6th, 2018,
ORAL presentation at the Conference Strand: 1. Energy, Natural Resources and Built
Environment, The 18th Science Council of Asia Conference “Role of Science for Society:
Strategies towards SDGs in Asia”, Science Council of Japan (SCJ)[2] Kazunobu Minami, Japanese Innovation in Adaptable Homes, Loose-Fit Architecture: Designing Buildings for
Change AD, pp. 38-45, Willy, September 2017, Alex Lifschutz (Editor) et.al.. Profile 249 Volume
87 No 5[3] Kazunobu Minami a, The efforts to develop longer life housing with adaptability in Japan, PROCEEDINGS
pp.755-766、SBE16 Tallinn and Helsinki Conference; Build Green and Renovate Deep, 5-7
October 2016, Tallinn and Helsinki[4] Kazunobu Minami b, The Adaptability of Long Life Housing in Japan - Case Studies of Century Housing System(CHS) -, 11th International Symposium on Architectural Interchanges in Asia (ISAIA 2016),
September 21st-22nd, 2016[5] Kazunobu Minami, Long-Term Occupancy Records and Infill Renovation of Housing Designed Based on theCentury Housing System, The Future of Open Building Conference 2015, ETH Zurich, September
9-11 2015[6] Kazunobu Minami, ANALYSES OF LONG TERM OCCUPANCY RECORDS OF PUBLIC HOUSING IN
JAPAN, Architecture in the Fourth Dimension Methods + Practices for a Sustainable Building
Stock, Proceedings of an International Conference of CIB W104 Open Building Implementation
and CIB W110 Informal Settlements and Affordable housing, pp.287-293, November 15th -17th
2011[7] Kazunobu Minami, The New Japanese Housing Law to Promote The Longer Life of Housing And Exaple of
Changes in The Layout of Public Housing Over 40 Years In Japan, Changing Roles; New Roles,19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

7

New Challenges, pp.449-455, October 5-9,2009, Noordwijk aan Zee, The Netherlands[8] Kazunobu Minami, A Study on the Continuous Customization of an adaptable housing by KEP System,
Adaptables2006, TU/e, International Conference On Adaptable Building Structures,
July,2006,Vol.1, PP.2-101～106[9] Lead and disrupt: how to solve the innovator's dilemma, Charles A. O'Reilly III and Michael L. Tushman,
Stanford Business Books, c2016, Japanese Translation by Noriko Watanabe, Feburary 2019[10] Komatsu NEWS RELEASE No.017（2852）“DANTOTSU Value-FORWARD Together for Sustainable
Growth”, April 26th 2019, https://home.komatsu/jp/press/2019/ management/1202302_1600.html ,viewed May 2019

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Mold and Dampness in Unplanned Urban Houses in the Hot and Humid
Climate of Indonesia
Tetsu Kubota1, Jumpei Sumi2, Kresna Bhayu Adinugraha3 and Usep Surahman4
Abstract
Many parts of Indonesian cities comprise unplanned houses, the so-called Kampongs. Most
Kampong houses are small detached houses constructed by non-professional workers in densely
crowded settlements. Mold and dampness are commonly seen in Kampongs particularly during therainy season along with seasonal floods, and therefore adverse health effects, especially
respiratory diseases, are suspected among residents. We investigated the mold risk using fungal
detectors (n=68) and the self-reported prevalence of respiratory diseases using a questionnaire
form (ATS-DLD-78) (n=599) in a typical Kampong neighborhood in the city of Bandung,Indonesia during 2018-19. Mainly due to the high humidity conditions, most houses were sufferedfrom severe molds. Approximately 79% of the measured rooms showed a possibility of moldpropagation even during the dry season, whereas more than 97% were categorized as severe
conditions during the rainy season. Nevertheless, further results showed that the respondents withsome symptoms of respiratory diseases tended to be exposed to a lower mold growth index
compared to those without any symptoms. The respiratory diseases might be attributed to outdoor
air pollutions as well.
Keywords: Mold, Dampness, Health, Tropics, Kampongs

1.

Introduction

Microbial pollution involves hundreds of species of bacteria and fungi that grow indoors
when sufficient moisture is available. Exposure to microbial contaminations is clinicallyassociated with respiratory symptoms, allergies, asthma and immunological reactions [1]. The
presence of many biological agents in the indoor environment is due to dampness and inadequate
ventilation [1-2]. Excess moisture on almost all indoor materials leads to growth of microbes,
such as mold, fungi and bacteria, which subsequently emit spores, cells, fragments and volatileorganic compounds (VOCs) into indoor air [1]. Moreover, dampness initiates chemical or
biological degradation of materials, which also pollutes indoor air. Dampness has therefore beensuggested to be a strong, consistent indicator of risk of asthma and respiratory symptoms (e.g.
cough and wheeze) [1].
Indonesia has a population of more than 150 million as of today and it is still risingparticularly in the urban areas. In order to accommodate growing number of urban population,
now the central government is highly promoting provisions of affordable housing. But still, many
parts of Indonesian cities comprise traditional unplanned houses, the so-called Kampongs. Most
Kampong houses are small detached houses constructed by non-professional workers in densely
crowded settlements (Fig. 1). Mold and dampness are commonly seen in Kampongs particularly
during the rainy season along with seasonal floods, and therefore adverse health effects,
especially respiratory diseases, are suspected among residents. We investigated the mold risk
1

Dr. Associate Professor, Graduate School for International Development and Cooperation, Hiroshima University;
Research Institute for Human Settlement and Housing, Ministry of Public Works and Housing, tetsu@hiroshimau.ac.jp
2
Graduate School for International Development and Cooperation, Hiroshima University
3
Graduate School for International Development and Cooperation, Hiroshima University
4
Department of Architecture, Indonesia University of Education, Indonesia

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

10using fungal detectors and the self-reported prevalence of respiratory diseases using aquestionnaire form (ATS-DLD-78) in a typical Kampong neighborhood in the city of Bandung,Indonesia during 2018-19. This paper reports the results of the investigations to analyze an
association between the mold risk and the prevalence of respiratory diseases.
2.

Methods

A typical Kampong neighborhood, comprising 360 households, was selected in Bandungas a case study area (Fig. 1). After obtaining a consent from the head of the neighborhood
association, the field measurements and interviews were conducted during the dry season(October 2018) and the rainy season (March 2019). The subjects investigated include 333 and266 residents in dry and rainy seasons respectively for the interviews, and 34 and 34 houses forfield measurement of air temperature (AT), relative humidity (RH) and mold risk.
The interviews were conducted using a questionnaire form, comprising the American
Thoracic Society-Division of Lung Diseases (ATS-DLD-78) [3] and several additional questions,among others: personal attributes, building attributes, cleaning habits, window-opening behavior
and smoking habits. The ATS-DLD questionnaire has been validated in many previous studies [4]and commonly used to evaluate general respiratory health. The questionnaire comprises
questions for symptoms of cough, phlegm, wheezing, breathlessness, chest colds and chest
illnesses. Moreover, occupational history and tobacco smoking habits were additionally asked for
adults, among others.
Fungal contamination was predicted by using a fungal detector developed by Abe [5]. The
fungal detector encapsulates dried fungal spores and nutrients to measure fungal index. The
fungal index, defined by Abe [5], quantifies the capacity for mold growth in an environment
being examined, and therefore it is considered one of the useful indices for evaluating
microclimates for potential mold growth (Table 1) [6]. The mold measurements were taken at
approximately 10 cm above floor in the master bedroom during the dry and rainy seasons,respectively. AT and RH were measured using a small recorder (T&D 72ui, 72wf & 73u) at thesame places.
3.

Results and Discussion

3.1 Profiles of Respondents
Out of the respective samples (i.e. dry season (n=333) and rainy season (n=266)), there
are intersections of 77 respondents. As shown in Table 3, the average age of respondents in dry
season is 34.3 years, including 16.5% of children aged 12 years old and below. The majority of
respondents are classified as the income group of US$ 150-450 (monthly average). Averagely,
they open windows for approximately 8-9 hours in the bedroom and 7-8.5 hours in the livingroom. They tend to open windows during the daytime. As shown, approximately 69% of the
respondents (active; 32%, passive; 37%) are exposed to ETS during the dry season, while morethan 98% (50% and 48%) are suspected during the rainy season. Moreover, more than 45% of the
respondents (dust; 29%, chemical; 17%) are exposed to dust or chemical fumes during theirworking time, whereas more than 70% (49% and 22%) are suspected during the rainy season

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

11

Table1. Fungal index (6)FungalLevel
index

Predicted
propagation of
fungi

A

<2

No propagationB

2–5

Low possibilityof propagationC

5 – 15

Possibility of
propagation

D>15

High possibilityof propagation

Remarks
Good environment
There is no problem in terms of fungi, but there is apossibility of propagation of mites, which requires
countermeasures. Dehumidification is recommended.
Fungi prevention measures are recommended.
Dehumidification is recommended.
Fungi prevention measures are required. Dehumidificationis needed for living rooms and regular cleaning is needed
for wet areas, such as bathroom.

Figure 1. Kampong houses in the case study area.

Table 2. Number of samples

Samples
Questionnaires (ATS-DLD-78)
Measurements (Mold risk)

Dry season
333

Rainy season
266

Total
599

34

34

68

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

12

Table 3. Profile of respondents and overview of building attributes, interior sources andperceived dampness
Years [mean]
Male/ Female< 150
150-450
450-750
> 750

34.3
45/55
36.2
43.6
8.5
4.3

Rainy
season
47/53
25.9
62.4
9.4
2.4

Hours

7.9

8.8

Hours

7.0

8.5

ActivePassive
[%]

32.3
37.0
29.1

50.0
48.3
49.0

Dry season
Age [%]
Gender [%]Income (US$) [%]Personal
attributes

Window opening in
bedroom
Window opening in livingroom
Smoking behavior [%]HealthWork in dusty job
Exposed to gas or chemical
fumes
AsthmaEczemaAllergy
StressAge of building
No. of windows in masterbedroom [%]Building
attributes

No. of windows in livingroom [%]
HVAC system [%]Modification(s)Furniture (units)

Dampness

Visual mold
Mite
Water leakage
Smell / Odor
Humidity [%]IAQ [%]

Perceived IAQ

OAQ [%]
Annoyance by outdoor air
pollution [%]How to clean room
Cleaning
behavior
How to dry laundries

[%]

16.9

22.3

[%]
[%]
[%]
[mean: 0 = no stress, 10 = very
stressful]
Average age [years]
0
1
>1
0
1
>1
AC
Ceiling / stand fan
Exhaust fan

13.8
13.5
13.6

6.7
-

1.5

0.9

39.9
25.9
50.6
23.5
34.6
42.0
23.5
5.6
50.0
21.4

41.8
18.5
49.2
32.3
22.8
35.1
42.1
8.0
-

[%]

-

59.7

Living room [mean]
Bedroom [mean]
[%]
[%]
[%]
[%]
0-3: (rather) dry
4-6: neutral
7-10: (rather) humid
0-3: (rather) clean
4-6: neutral
7-10: (rather) dirty
0-3: (rather) clean
4-6: neutral
7-10: (rather) dirty
0-3: not annoyed
4-6: neutral
7-10: annoyed
Sweep
Wipe
Vacuum cleaner
OthersIndoorOutdoorAt veranda
Others

3.1
2.4
51.3
17.0
48.3
40.9
24.3
45.2
30.5
35.4
50.3
14.4
28.7
52.8
18.5
57.6
34.3
8.1
95.0
4.2
0.0
0.8
13.7
59.8
9.4
17.1

34.1
11.0
50.6
55.9
28.2
43.5
28.2
42.0
44.3
13.6
38.6
46.6
14.8
69.4
18.7
11.9
98.9
1.1
0.0
0.0
10.1
44.9
30.3
14.6

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

13

The average age of buildings is about 40 years in the dry season and 42 years in therainy season. It should be noted that approximately 26% and 35% of houses do not have any
windows in the master bedroom and the living room respectively in the dry season, whereas
about 19% and 23% of houses do not have them in the rainy season. Dampness is commonly
seen in Kampong houses. As shown in Table 3, visual mold was reported in approximately 51%
and 34% of the houses during the dry and rainy season, respectively. About 17% and 11% of thehouses reported mite problems in dry and rainy season, respectively. Water leakage was reported
particularly in the rain season (51%), and smell and odor were reported more in the rainy season
as well (56%). Meanwhile, approximately 14% of the respondents perceived IAQ to be dirty inthe both seasons. On the other hand, about 15-19% of the respondents perceived OAQ to be dirty
in the two seasons. Approximately 8-12% of the respondents were annoyed by the outdoor air
pollutions.

3.2 Self-reported respiratory health: ATS-DLD-78
Magnitude of symptoms on respiratory health (i.e. asthma, cough and phlegm) was
evaluated through the ATS-DLD-78 questionnaire (Fig. 2). In the dry season, the percentages of
those who have severe symptoms (i.e. sickness) and some degrees of symptoms account for
0.3%/16.1% (asthma), 1.9%/21.9% (cough) and 3.2%/9.6% (phlegm). The percentages are
increased in the rainy season especially in persistent cough, and the percentages are 0%/7.6%(asthma), 4.0%/25.4% (cough) and 1.3%/12.7% (phlegm).

3.3 Mold risk
The measured average AT and RH (at the same places of fungal detectors) aresummarized in Fig. 3. As shown, in the dry season, the outdoor AT ranges approximately from
21.3-27.3°C with an average of 24.2°C, whereas the corresponding indoor AT ranges from 23.626.3°C with an average of 24.9°C. In the rainy season, the outdoor AT maintains almost the sameas that of the dry season (approximately 22.1-26.4°C), but indoor AT was averagely increased toapproximately 24.7-26.8°C. Meanwhile, in the dry season, the outdoor RH ranges approximatelyfrom 56-100% with an average of 81%, whereas the corresponding indoor RH ranges
approximately from 71 to 86%. In the rainy season, the outdoor RH is increased to 70-97%,
while the indoor RH is averaged at 82%. The results clearly indicate extremely high humidity
conditions in Kampong houses even in the dry season.
Mold growth was evaluated in terms of fungal indexes ranging from A to D (see Table1). The results show that as expected, approximately 79% of the houses are classified as C or D
even in the dry season, whereas more than 97% are classified as D, which shows a highpossibility of propagation, in the rainy season. It should be noted that in the rainy season, morethan 44% of the houses recorded the maximum fungal index of more than 70.
Fig. 5 depicts the relationship between the measured thermal conditions and the moldindexes. As shown, the mold conditions are severe particularly when the indoor RH exceeds
70%. The measured mold indexes slightly vary even when the indoor RH is more than 70%
probably due to the other dampness conditions such as water leakage and floods.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

14

3.4. Factors affecting the respiratory health
110

Relative humidity (%)

No
Nosymptoms
symptom

100

30
28
26
24
22

90
80
70
60
50

20

40

18

30
Dry

Rainy

Out door

Dry

80
60
40

0
Dry

IndoorRainy

Dry

Out door

AsthmaasthmaRainy

IndoorFrequency (%)

asthmaPersistent Persistent Asthma
coughphlegm(a) Dry season (n=310)

Figure 2. Self-reported respiratory health.

(a) Dry season (n= 34) (b) Rainy season (n= 34)

C D

C D

40
30
20
10
0
<7
7-15
15- 20
20- 3030- 4040- 5050- 6060- 70> 70
0< 8.2
8.2- 15
15- 20
20- 3030- 4040- 5050- 6060- 70> 70

Fungi index (- )Fungi index (- )Figure 4. Measured fungal indexes in Kampong houses.

Fungal index <15

)

27
26
25
Outdoor ave AT

23
22

Outdoor ave RH

Mean air temperature ()

〇 Fungal index (NA)

28

60
70
80
90
100
Mean relative humidity (%)(a) Dry season

Persistent Persistentcoughphlegm(b) Rainy season (n=173)

Figure 3. Statistical summary of outdoor and indoor AT
and RH in dry and rainy season.

024

Sickness

20

Rainy

50

have
Have/hada symptom
symptom(s)or had it

100
Percentage (%)

32

Mean air temperature (Air tempreature (℃)

34

15<Fungal index<70

70<Fungal index

28
27
26
25
24

Outdoor ave AT

23
22

Outdoor ave RH

60
70
80
90
100
Mean relative humidity (%)(b) Rainy season

Figure 5. Relationship between thermal conditions and mold risk.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

15

Table 4. Results of correlation analysis for Respiratory health (dry season)
A: Asthma, C: Persistent cough,
P: Persistent phlegm
Personal attributes
Age groupa
Gendera
Living in home [years]b
Incomeb
Window-opening_ bedroomb
Window-opening_ living roomb
Active smoking
Passive smoking
Work in dusty job
Exposed to gas or chemical fumes
HealthAsthmaa
Eczemaa
AllergyaStressb
Building attributes
Age of building [years]b
No. of windows_bedroomb
No. of windows_living roomb
ACa
Furniture living roomb
Dampness
Visual molda
Mitea
Water leakage
Smell/Odor
Humidity
Perceived IAQ
IAQ ratingb
OAQ ratingb
Annoyance by outdoor air pollution
Creaning behavior
How to clean room
How to dry laundries

A

C

P

0.33
0.49
0.09
0.38
0.97
0.31
0.18
0.06
0.64
0.20

0.51
0.34
0.35
0.03
0.08
0.03
0.84
0.35
0.00
0.06

0.29
0.66
0.66
0.04
0.59
0.08
0.47
0.00
0.22
0.33

0.00
0.42
0.04
0.25

0.03
0.77
0.02
0.02

0.03
0.08
0.00
0.07

0.69
0.37
0.40
0.73
0.30

0.66
0.26
0.61
0.53
0.94

0.04
0.60
0.07
0.61
0.32

0.29
0.91
0.42
0.42
0.68

0.45
0.00
0.00
0.55
0.19

0.89
0.01
0.09
0.01
0.28

0.26
0.47
0.42

0.45
0.68
0.02

0.24
0.48
0.05

0.33
0.14

0.75
0.81

0.00
0.81

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

16
Asthma Persistent cough Persistent phlegm

Asthma80

Persistent Cough

Persistent Phlrgm＊＊

Fungal index (-)

70
60
50
40
30
20
10

Nonproblematic

Problematic

Nonproblematic

Problematic

Nonproblematic

Problematic

0

Duration of opening windows (h)Figure 6. Measured fungal indexes by problematic/ non-problematic respiratory health groups (dry season).
Asthma24

Persistent phlegm

Persistent cough

24

24

18

18

18

12

12

12

6

6

6

0

0
0

1

2

3

4

Degree of symptom (- )

5

0
0

1

2

3

Degree of symptom (- )

4

0

1

2

3

Degree of symptom (- )Figure 7. Relationship between duration of opening windows and respiratory health (dry season).
ap-value of Chi-Square-Test, b p-value of Spearman rho, red: Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed), green:
Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)

By taking the degrees of symptom of respiratory diseases (i.e. ATS-DLD-78) as the target
variable, we conducted correlation analyses in order to determine the factors affecting the
respiratory health of occupants (Table 4). As shown, the average household income is associatedwith respiratory health, particularly in terms of cough and phlegm. This may reflect their job
occupations and basic sanitary conditions, but further analysis is required. The average durationof opening windows negatively affect the degree of asthma symptoms (the more they open
windows the less the symptoms are), but it has positive associations with persistent cough andphlegm. As expected, passive smoking is associated with asthma and persistent phlegm inparticular. Meanwhile, those who work in a dusty job tend to have a higher symptom of cough inparticular. Previous history of asthma, allergy and stress are also associated with the current
symptoms as expected. Furthermore, the age of buildings negatively associates with the phlegm
symptoms, which requires further investigation.
Unlike other previous studies, visual mold does not show significant associations withrespiratory health in this survey, although other dampness indicators, including mite and waterleakage and smell/odor, are associated with persistent cough and/or phlegm. On the other hand,when it comes to the perceived IAQ, it is seen that those who are annoyed by the outdoor air
pollutions tend to have higher degrees of persistent cough and phlegm.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

17

We divide the samples into two groups in terms of respiratory health conditions (i.e.
problematic and non-problematic groups) and compare the two groups in terms of the measured
fungal indexes (Fig. 6). As shown, unexpectedly, those who have no respiratory symptoms tend
to be exposed to higher fungal indexes, especially in terms of persistent cough and phlegm.
Further investigations are required to clarify the reasons (e.g. it is necessary to identify the
species of mold contained in the air). However, the results imply that there is a possibility that
respiratory health of these Kampong residents is influenced not only by indoor mold anddampness but also, rather, by outdoor air pollutions, among others. Fig. 7 analyses the respiratory
health symptoms by the average duration of opening windows. Interestingly, especially inpersistent cough and phlegm, there are two modes in terms of the respiratory health symptoms.
The first mode appears when the duration of opening windows is close to zero (i.e. windows areclosed for 24 hours), and the second mode is observed when the duration is about 12 hours/day.
The results imply that their respiratory health is influenced by the two sources (i.e. indoor
sources such as mold and ETS, and outdoor sources such as traffic air pollution) respectively,
depending on the window-opening conditions.

4.

Conclusions

We investigated the mold risk using fungal detectors and the self-reported prevalence of
respiratory diseases using ATS-DLD-78 in a typical Kampong neighborhood in the city ofBandung, Indonesia during 2018-19. The main findings from the investigations are summarized
as follows:

As expected, Kampong houses were suffered from severe mold growths. Even in the dry
season, approximately 79% of the houses showed a possibility of mold propagation and
68% were considered to be a high possibility of propagation. In the rainy season, morethan 97% of the houses were classified as a high possibility of propagation.



The possibilities of propagation were mainly due to the very high humidity conditions.
The outdoor RH was averaged at 83% while the corresponding indoor RH was averaged
at 82% during the rainy season.



Nevertheless, further results showed that the respondents with some symptoms ofrespiratory diseases tended to be exposed to lower mold growth conditions compared tothose without any symptoms. On the other hand, respiratory health of occupants,
particularly persistent cough and phlegm, were associated with average householdincome, duration of opening windows, passive smoking, working environment (dustyjob), medical history such as asthma, eczema and allergy, age of buildings, dampness
such as mite, water leakage and smell/odor, and annoyance by outdoor air pollution.



The results implied that their respiratory health was influenced by the two sources (i.e.
indoor sources and outdoor sources) respectively, depending on the window-opening
conditions. When they close windows, indoor sources such as mold and ETS may become
the main causes of prevalence of respiratory diseases. Meanwhile, if they open windows,
then the indoor sources can be less influential, but the occupants are exposed to the
outdoor sources more such as traffic air pollutions.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

18

Acknowledgements
This research was supported by a grant from the Sumitomo Foundation. We also would like to sincerely
thank the students in Indonesia University of Education (UPI) who supported the surveys in Bandung. We also
appreciate the supports from the Laboratory for Mold Prediction in Japan.

References[1] WHO, “WHO Guidelines for Indoor Air Quality: Dampness and Mould”, WHO Regional Office for Europe,
2009.
[2] Olaf C.G. Adan, Robert A. Samson (eds), “Fundamentals of Mold Growth in Indoor Environments and Strategies
for Health Living”, Wageningen Academic Publishers, 2011.
[3] Ferris B.G., “Epidemiology Standardization Project (American Thoracic Society)”, Am Rev Respir Dis, 1978,
vol.118, pp.1-120.
[4] Hawari F.I., Obeidat N.A., Ghonimat I.M., Ayub H.S., Dawahreh S.S., “The effect of habitual waterpipe tobaccosmoking on pulmonary function and exercise capacity in young healthy males: A pilot study”,
Respiratory Medicine, 2017, vol. 122, pp. 71-75.
[5] Abe K., “A method for numerical characterization of indoor climates by a biosensor using a xerophilic fungus”,
Indoor Air, 1993, vol. 3, pp. 344–348.
[6] Laboratory for Mold Prediction, “Additional Guidelines for Fungal Detector”, Laboratory for Mold Prediction,
Tokyo, Japan, 2004 (in Japanese) (unpublished).

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Retail Site Location in Dagon Myothit (North) Township Using GIS
Khin Mi Mi Win1 , Khin Khin Htay2, Lae Lae Mon3

Abstract
The opening of a new establishment is a critical factor for firms in the retail sector. This article
presents the development of a methodology for the process of selecting a retail site location thatcombines geographic information systems (GIS). The social, economic and environmental
impacts of large-scale retail outlets on existing retail and urban systems have been extensively
discussed in the planning literature. This article documents the last two decades oftransformation in Dagon Myothit (North)'s market sector, which have been characterized by amore organized development of the sector than traditionally existed. Changes in the economy
and related legislation prepared a base for the subsequent transformations of that decade,culminating, especially in large cities, in the development of shopping malls as alternative retailspaces to traditional markets and stores on a shopping street. This article may provide
implications for urban policy and retail planning in Dagon Myothit (North) Township. The case
may also be interesting for urban areas experiencing similar patterns of change anddevelopment, that is, where the globalization process in retailing and consumption-related sites
began later than in other countries and observed fast-paced development.
Keywords: Retail development, Shopping mall, GIS, Urban policy

1. Introduction
Retailing is defined as the sale of goods and articles individually or in small quantities
directly to the consumer, which involves selling relatively large quantities of goods, especially toretailers. Retail location analysis is an important part in site selection of a retail shop. Spatial
arrangement of retail shops is one of the most important indicators in the development process ofa town. The influences on the location of retail areas, they usually co-vary most closely withpopulation density. This paper presents the development of a methodology for the process of
selecting a retail site location that combines geographic information systems (GIS).
The main objectives of this research work are to assess the driving force of the emergenceand spatial distribution of retail shop and to analyze the relationship between location of retailshop and urban infrastructure in Dagon Myothit (North) Township.
Dagon Myothit (North) Township is one of 12 townships of Eastern Yangon District inYangon Region. (Figure. 2) It lies between North latitudes 16 51 and 16 55 and between East
longitude 96 10 and 96 14. The area of Dagon Myothit (North) is 26.28 square kilometer(10.145 square miles) constituting 27 wards. (Figure 3)
In 2019, the total population was 196199 persons with 92774 males and 103425 females
and the average population density was 7465persons per square kilometre. The population
distribution in Dagon Myothit (North) is highly uneven. More people are concentrating aroundthe main road and junction’s area. East longitude 96 10 and 96 14. The area of Dagon Myothit(North) is 26.28 square

1

Dr. Professor, Department of Geography, University of Yangon, Yangon, Myanmar
khinmimiwingeog@gmail.com
2
Department of Geography, Bago University, Bago, Myanmar kkhinhtay.geog@gmail.com
3
Department of Geography, University of Yangon, Myanmar. laelaemon69@gmail.com

20

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Figure 2. Location of Dagon Myoyhit (North) Township
Source: Map Based on 1:50000UTM Map No.1696-01

Figure 1. Location of Yangon Regions in Myanmar
Source: UTM Map of Myanmar Survey Department

Figure 3. Location of Wards within Dagon Myothit(North) Township
Source: Township General Administrative Department

2. Method
Data processing was done from extracting geographic objects such as ward boundaries
roads and streets by using based map of topographic map (1: 63360 and 1:50000) and Google
earth images of geographically references data. Retail shops data from field survey (2018), using
analysis of geospatial analysis and geostatistical analysis. Location of retail shop is analyzed bynearest neighbor analysis, directional distribution (Standard Deviation Ellipse) and cluster
analysis (Anselin Moran I) which are used to present uneven distribution of retail shops.

3. Results and Discussion
For analysis purposes, retail shops can be divided into seven main types in Dagon
Myothit (North) Township. They are (I) Food and Beverages, (II) Services, (III) Personal Goods,(IV) Building Material Shop, (V) Grocery Shop, (VI) Fabric shop and (VII) Others. (Table 1)
The total number of retail shops was 727 in 2018. In survey 2018, study area of 27 wards foundin total retail shop is 727 shops. It has 39.61 % of shop type I, 22.42% of shop type II, 15.54 % ofshop type III, 7.02 % of shop type IV, 4.40 % of shop type V, 3.58 % of shop type VI and 7.43 %of shop type VII respectively. (Table 2, Figure.4) In the study area, largest retail shop type is type
I of food and beverages shop. Retail shops are appears to the increasing population within a shortspan of time. Retailers are consideration of sold to meet the threshold of customer. Customers are19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

21

attracted the retail shops location on basis of accessibility of road side area. High accessibility
area are enhances retail shops clustering pattern. Therefore, various types of retail shops wereconcentrated along the Pyi Htaung Su Road, Pin Lon Road, Bo Hmu Ba Htoo Road and U
Wizara Road for having high population density and good accessibility. Among the various
types of grocery, food and beverages shops, 75% are dynamic type and include such shops as dry
goods, Monghinga and quid of betel, etc. Each of them can move and open easily in every
suitable place. Therefore, food and beverages shop, and grocery shops are of footloose and hence
have dispersed distribution pattern. Majority of the personal goods and fabric shops are found in
linear pattern along the Pinlon Road. Building Material shops have both cluster and dispersed
patterns. The building material shops selling likes sand and gravel shops are found along the
Ngamoeyeik creek. Distribution pattern of services and other shops are somewhere between theclustered and dispersed pattern due to their type of function. For example, car workshop and car
spa shops can be found on either side along the road. Some services like mobile phone services
and beauty palor can be found in every ward. (Figure. 5)
Table1. Classification of Retail Shops
Type I

Food and Beverages

Tea shop, Coffee shop, beer station, cold and softdrink, liquor house, restaurant, Monhinga ,Shannoodle food, snack shop, chicken fried shop, riceand curry, Thai food etc,

Type II

Services

Beauty Palor, photo studio, photo copy service,clinic, car workshop, car spa service, T.V repairing
service, KTV lounge, lottery shop, phone repairing
service, purified drinking water service

Type III

Personal Goods Shops

Gold Smith shop, medicine store, cosmetic store,
monk’robe and utensils shop, mobile shop, slipper
shop

Type IV

Building Material Shop

Brick and sand shop, ceiling plate shop, timbershop, bamboo shop

Type V

Grocery Shop

Rice and edible oil shop, vegetable shop, ngapi anddried fish shop

Type VI

Fabric Shop

Textile shop, fashion shop, clothes shop

Type VII

OthersFurniture house, animal food shops, banner shop,
pet shop, microfinance, floral and gift shop

Source: Field Observation (November, 2018)

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

22

Table2. Total Number of Retail Shop by Types (2018)
Types
I

Name

Number%Food and Beverages

288

39.61

Services

163

22.42

III Personal Goods

113

15.54

IV

Building Materials

51

7.02

V

Grocery

32

4.40

I

Fabric

26

3.58

VII

Others

54

7.43

Total

727

100

II

Figure 4. Total Number of Retail Shop by Types(2018)

Source: Field Observation (November, 2018)

The nearest neighbor analysis compares the observed average distances between nearest
neighboring points and those of a known pattern. This test is required because a point distribution
pattern is examined visually whether it is cluster or dispersed or not. It is also explained bycomputed R scale value. It is difficult to get exact conclusion on clustered or disperse pattern
without calculating significant test to accept or reject R value. Therefore, significant test is
calculated. The observed average neighbor distance, expected average neighbor distance, nearest
neighbor statistics (R), and standardized Z score of the all types of retail shop are calculated topresent clustered and dispersed pattern in the study area. According to nearest neighbor statistics,
type I, II and III are more clustered than a random pattern since their nearest neighbor value isless than 1. It has been observed that type V is more dispersed pattern then their nearest neighborvalue is more than 1. (Table.3)
Table.3 Average Nearest Neighbor Analysis
P ValueSignificant Level

Types

Z scoreI-9.037151

0.000000

0.721642

ClusteredII-5.550311

0.000000

0.772756

ClusteredIII-5.546916

0.000000

0.727239

ClusteredIV

0.671261

0.502054

1.049133

RandomV

1.352297

0.000138

1.352297

Dispersed

VI

0.288505

0.772960

1.029576

RandomVII

0.504186

0.614131

1.035864

RandomSource : Field Survey and NN Analysis

R value

Distribution

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

23

Source: Field Observation (Nov, 2018)
Figure 5. Distribution of Retail Shop by Types in Dagon Myothit (North) TownshipDirectional Distribution (Standard Deviational Ellipse) measures a distribution of features
exhibiting a directional trend. Standard Deviational Ellipse provides information on the
directional bias of their locations and also indicates the direction of urban growth. (Figure. 6) The
most retail shops are found in southeast and northwest of the area. It is caused by situation of
Ngamoeyeik Creek serving as northwest and southeast boundary.

Figure 6. Directional Distribution of All Retail Shop in Dagon Myothit (North ) Township

Given a set of weighted features, identifies statistically significant spatial outliers using theAnselin Local Moran's I statistic. Calculates as formula:19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

24

Where:
Nis the number of observations (points or polygons)

Xiis the variable value at a particular location

Xj

is the variable value at another location

Wij

is a weight indexing location of i relative to j

The most common measure of Spatial Auto Correlation is used for points or polygons. It
joins Count Statistic only for polygons. Use for a continuous variable (any value) and join countstatistic only for binary variable (1,0)

Table.4 Anselin Local Moran's I Analysis of All Retail
Shops

Group

Value

NumberWorkers

1

HH

50

10-30

2

HL

8

5-10

3

LH

5

3-5

HH=High cluster, High Value
HL=High Cluster, Low Value
LH=Low Cluster, High Value
Figure 7. Anselin Local Moran's I Analysis of All Retail Shops

4. Conclusion
This paper analyzes the retail site location in Dagon Myothit (North) Township by using
data obtain from Township Administrative Department and Yangon City Development
Committee. To find out the relationship between retail shop and urban infrastructure like mainroad, Nearest Neighbor Analysis, Directional Distribution and Anselin Local Moran's I Analysis
are used. According to the nearest neighbor analysis result is type I, II, III more cluster than thetype V, VI and VII. As a result of directional distribution (standard deviation ellipse) of all typeof 27 wards northwest and southeast direction are similar to the settlement expansion pattern androad pattern. Result of Cluster and Outlier Analysis (Anselin Local Moran's I) – U Wizara Road,
Pinlon Road and Bo Hmu Ba Htoo road are high cluster value of total retail shops in Dagon
Myothit (North)Township. (Z score 7.14 & P value 0.00). As a result, retail shop distribution
pattern are related to the population density, road network expansion and settlement expansion

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

25

pattern. According to geospatial statistics analysis, the large numbers of retail shops are situatedat both sides of main road. It shows that transportation roads really have an effect on
development of retail shops in this area. Therefore retail site location, shops distribution pattern
and trend are indicate the urban development processes.
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to Professor Dr Htun Ko, Head of the Geography Department,
University of Yangon for his kind permission and encouragement do this research paper.
Thanks are due to the respective authorizes Dagon Myothit (North) Township Administrative Department
and the responsible persons and local people of Township for their ready help in data collection and willing
responses to open talk.

References[1] Aung Kyaw (2006):Spatial Structure of Retail Shops in Loikaw Town, Journal of Myanmar Art & Science, 2006
Vol IV, No 6 (ii)[2] Khin Khin Htay (2015): Geostatistical Analysis on Retail shops Distribution of 13 wards and Bardo Village in
Loikaw Township, Departmental Research Paper, Department of Geography, Loikaw University[3] Lee,J. and Wong,D.W.S.(2000): Statistical Analysis with Arc View GIS. John Wiley & Son,Inc.New York
[4] Ye Wint Htut (2009): Retail Markets in Dagon Myothit (North) Township, Unpublished MRes: Paper, Submitted to the
Department of Geography, Dagon University

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Geospatial Analysis of Solid Waste Management in Bago City, Myanmar
Khin Khin Htay1, Khin Mi Mi Win2, KhinKhin Han3, Zaw Zaw4
Abstract
Solid waste management of the study area is one of the basic factor to urban development planningof an area because of municipal solid waste is related the systematically collected system. This
study only concerns with the urban area covering Bago City which has solid waste collection
system and solid waste dump site area in the study area. The primary objective of this study is topractically apply geostatistics tools that can help to improve an evaluation of municipal solid waste
for a particular area. A set of geostatistics tools has been applied to the different real data sets
which were collected of solid waste form as household, market, commerce, hotel, garden and otherwaste. There are different methods of data analyses use in this study, which include: (1) spatial
source of solid waste, (2) spatial solid waste collection systems, (3) Extend sustainable
management of solid wastes, (4) Exploratory Geostatistical Data Analysis. As a result of spatial
waste collection system in Bago city and spatial variation dump sites. Conclusion andrecommendation of this paper are spatial management of municipal solid collected andsustainability of waste management, encourage people to think about the reduce, reuse andrecycle, increase awareness raising the waste management system.
Keywords: Geospatial, Geostatistics, Municipal solid waste, Sustainable

1. Introduction
Solid waste is the useless, unwanted and discarded material resulting from day to day
activities in the community. It is widespread problem in both urban and rural areas in many
developed and developing countries. Solid waste management may be defined as the discipline
associated with the control of generation, storage, collection, transfer, processing and disposal ofsolid waste. The present paper based on the study carried out on solid waste management practicein Bago City in Myanmar. Bago city is the economic development of lower Myanmar, locatedbetween 17° 14′13.59″ North latitude and 17°21′35.56″, between 96°26′15.15″ and 96°30′59.46″
East longitudes. This study was also designed and managing waste sustainably to study thecomposition of solid waste in Bago city. Municipal solid waste (MSW) collection and disposal isone of the major problems of urban environment in most countries worldwide today. Municipal
solid waste management (MSW) solutions must be financially sustainable, technically feasible,socially, legally acceptable and environmentally friendly. Current Municipal Solid Waste
Management (MSWM) system in the city of Bago is open dumping system and challenges are
insufficient monitoring system, lack of people awareness, law enforcement and lack of researchdevelopment facilities. In this situation, it is important to understand the current potential ofenvironmental impact of current system in order to set up the new effective management system.
Bago City has the 31 wards and central part of the city across the Yangon-Mandalay highway
road. There are 53217houses in Bago city and the total population is 222309 in 2018. The
average annual rainfall is 285.1 mm in 2018. In this paper, study on the geospatial analysis ofmunicipal solid waste management and sustainable development of solid waste management
system in Bago City.
1

Dr. Associate Professor, Department of Geography, Bago University, Myanmar, kkhinhtay.geog@gmail.com
Department of Geography, University of Yangon, Myanmar, khinmimimwingeog@gmail.com
3
Professor and Head, Department of Geography, West Yangon University, Myanmar,
drkhinkhinhan2013@gmail.com
4
Assistant Lecturer, Department of Geography, Bago University, Myanmar, Zinlay23837@gmail.com
2

28

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Figure 1. Location of the Study Area
Source: Based on Topographic Map (1:50000) and Google Earth Images (2017)

2. Methods
Garbage truck location data, waste collect sites data and waste collection routes data from
Bago City Development Committee (BCDC) and field surveys in 2019. Methodology uses of thispaper are geostatistical data analysis of the measures of Incremental spatial autocorrelation andothers relevant statistical methods.
3. Results and Discussion
Solid waste can be classified into different types depending on their sources: These are(1) Municipal Solid Waste (MSW), (2) Hazardous Wastes, (3) Industrial Wastes, (4) Agricultural
Wastes, (5) Bio-Medical Wastes and (6) Waste Minimization.
In this paper, examine the Municipal Solid Waste Management of the Bago City area.
Municipal solid waste (MSW) management solutions must be financially sustainable, technicallyfeasible, socially, legally acceptable and environmentally friendly. Solid waste management issue
is the biggest challenge to the authorities of both small and large cities’. Municipal solid waste
includes ash generated in thermal or electric power plants, sludge from wastewater treatment
plants, animals’ farm waste and gangue rocks from mineral extraction.
The activities associated with the management of municipal solid waste from the point ofgeneration to final disposal can be grouped into the six functional elements. These are Waste
generation, Storage, Collection, Transportation, Segregation & Processing, and Disposal. These
municipal solid wastes including household kitchen waste as well as the domestic food wastefrom restaurants and markets consist of high lignocellulose materials that could be decomposedand exploited to produce valuable bio-products.
Solid waste management issue is the biggest challenge to the authorities of both small andlarge cities. Total solid waste generation is 84 tons /day in Bago city. From that solid waste

29

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

generation per person is approximately 200 gm/capita/day. Solid waste collection system arethree time per day, first time of the day collected the along the Yangon-Mandalay highway roadof garbage truck at 7am to 10 am. Second time of day collected the within the Wards at 10 pm to
12. The third time of day is collected the 1 pm to 3 pm. But, collected of car routes are distributethe whole wards except the Okkthar (9) Ward the southern part of City.

Plate 1. Solid Waste collection Sites in Bago City

Source: Field Survey, 2019 August

Table 1. Sources and Types of Solid Wastes
SourceResidential
Food

Industrial

Commercial

Institutional
Construction
anddemolition
Municipal
services

Process

Typical waste generators

Types of solid wastes

Single and multifamily dwellings

wastes, paper, cardboard, plastics, textiles,
eather, yard wastes, wood, glass, metals,
ashes, special wastes (e.g. bulky items,
consumer electronics, white goods, batteries,oil, tires), and household hazardous wastes
Light and heavy manufacturing, Housekeeping wastes, packaging, foodfabrication, construction sites,
wastes, construction and demolition
power and chemical plants
materials, hazardous wastes, ashes, special
wastesStores, hotels, restaurants,
Paper, cardboard, plastics, wood, foodmarkets, office buildings, etc.
wastes, glass, metals, special wastes,
hazardous wastes
Schools, hospitals, prisons,Same as commercial
government centers
New construction sites, road
Wood, steel, concrete, dirt, etc.
repair, renovation sites,
demolition of buildings

Street cleaning, landscaping,parks, beaches, other recreational
areas, water and wastewater
treatment plants
Heavy and light manufacturing,refineries, chemical plants,
power plants, mineral extraction
and processing

Street sweepings, landscape and tree
trimmings, general wastes from parks,
beaches, and other recreational area, sludge
Industrial process wastes, scrap materials,
off specification products, slag, tailings

Source: World Bank 1999

In the Bago City, the Nearest Neighbour Analysis (NNA) result, garbage truck location
pattern is the cluster pattern, Z score values is -6.22 and P value is the 0.000. According to the
Nearest Neighbour Analysis (NNA) result, the whole city of garbage site location are near to the30

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

each other’s and suited the along the Bago-Yangon highway road and not suited the other parts of
the Wards.
Highest population and houses of the Bago City is the Mazin Ward 23124 and 4752
house, Nantawyar Ward as 35076 and 7922 house in 2018 respectively. Mazin Ward is near to
the Garbage Truck, Nantawyar Ward is not near the Garbage truck. But collected the waste by
car system routes are more the Nantawyar Ward, Ponarsu Ward, Zaypaing, Nyaungwaing-south,
Nyaungwaing-north, Zaing-south, Zaing-north, Hintharkone and Bokone Ward. Garbage trucks
collected and collected by car of wastes are combined to the site of Sinphyukwin disposal sitearea. Sinphyukwin disposal site area is only the dump site, not repair the waste.

Plate 2. Classification of Solid waste in Bago City
Source : Bago City Development Committee

Figure 2. Garbage Truck Location andpopulation in Wards of Bago City
Source : Data from the Bago City Development
Committee and Bago Township Administrative

Figure 3. Solid waste collected routes and Houses of Ward in Bago City
Source: Data from the Bago City Development Committee and Bago Township Administrative Office

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

31

Measures of Incremental spatial autocorrelation for a series of distances and optionallycreates a line graph of those distances and their corresponding z-scores. Z-scores reflect theintensity of spatial clustering, and statistically significant peak z-scores indicate distances where
spatial processes promoting clustering are most pronounced. These peak distances are often
appropriate values to use for tools with a Distance Band or Distance Radius parameter.

Figure 4. Spatial Autocorrelation by Distance of Garbage Truck Location and Waste tons
Source: Result of the Incremental Spatial Auto correlation

The center of the study area lies between Zaing-south and Shinsawpu Ward which islocated the Yangon-Mandalay railroad. All the places of Garbage-truck location are found within
the radius of 2100 meter. There are two peaks distance of garbage-truck sites and waste tons
within the study area. One peak distance is about 757.70 meter and another is about 1719.04
meter away from the center Figure 5.

Figure 5. Spatial Autocorrelation by Distance of Solid Waste collected routes and DistanceSource: Result of the Incremental Spatial Auto correlation

The center of the study area lies between Zaing-south and Shinsawpu Ward which islocated the Yangon-Mandalay railroad. All the waste collect route location is found within theradius of 2600 meter. There are two peaks distance of garbage-truck sites within the study area.
One peak distance is about 1219.97 meter and another is about 2226.65 mete away from thecenter Figure 5. In 2017, Cooperation of Bago Municipal Development Committee and Green
World Energy Co.., Ltd surveyed the waste of City area. In survey, composition Municipal Solid
waste were separate of food and garden waste, plastic/rubber, glass, paper, metal, inert andtextile. In this survey, food and garden waste is highest collect of 75.87 percent, the second is theplastic/rubber waste is 15.49 percent and the metal waste is lowest collect as 1.78 percent show
Figure 6.

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Figure 6. Composition of Municipal Solid Waste in Typical in Bago City Development Committee
Source : Data from Department of Bago Municipal

According to the 2017 survey, Bago Municipal Development Committee has municipal
solid collected and sustainability of waste management encourages. It plan will be need the landarea about 30 acres. Bago Municipal Development Committee is innovate the people to think
about the reduce, reuse, recycle and increase awareness raising the waste management system.

4. Conclusion
The activities associated with the management of municipal solid waste from the point ofgeneration to final disposal can be grouped into the six functional elements. There are Waste
generations, Storage, Collection, Transportation, and Segregation & Processing Disposal. In
Bago City, BCDC is serves as the waste storage, collection and transportation. The collected data
show that the maximum proportion of refuse caused by food and garden wastes, second highest
was plastic waste and the third highest was inert material. Percentage of Plastic carry bags washigher, where glass, ceramic and metals were nearly equal with each other in Bago City. As thedisposal site is at 6.22 km away the City center and big and smaller vehicle are used for thetransportation of solid waste. In Bago City areas: Primary collections are from households andblocks using carts or tricycles. Collectors transport the waste to local depots. Secondary
collections use dumper trucks to transport waste from the depots to the disposal sites. Disposal in
landfill sites typically 6-8 km from the wards in Bago City. Usually “open dump” sites but there
are small engineered landfills in Bago. In the landfill area of advantages are minimizes humancontact with the waste, Some potential for energy recovery, no need for separate collections anddisadvantages are an expensive solution, more economical at large scale, still some risk ofleachate pollution and gas emissions, Sites can be active for many decades, no potential forrecycling, leachate and run off a particular problem in the rainy season. Future waste
management plan of Bago City, MJT Group of Agricultural Machinery Co., Ltd will start tomanagement of waste. In this project will start to test period at 1.9.2019 to 31.9 2019 the
Leikpyarkan, Shinsawpu and Bokone Wards area. It should be done throughout the year. MJTGroup plan will collected plastic waste and after renew of plastic seeds and others will make thebio-fertilize. System should be based on Environmental protection rules (reduce, recycle, reuse
and recover) Public awareness, political will and public participation as essential for the
successful implementation of the legal provisions and to have an integrated approach towards
sustainable management of municipal solid wastes. There should be sufficient health and safety
provisions for workers at all stages of waste handling. Finally, understand the amounts andcomposition of solid waste produced in Bago City. Appreciate Myanmar’s waste management

33

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

policy and plans. Understand the concept of “stakeholders”. Identify the stakeholders involved inwaste management in Myanmar people.
Acknowledgements
We would like to express our thanks to Dr Aye Aye Tun, Rector, Bago University for her permission andadvice. And then our thanks are also due to Dr Yin Yin Than, Pro-Rector, Bago University for her encouragement
and suggestion. I also thanks to Dr Mar Mar Khin, Professor and Head, Department of Geography, Bago University
for their suggestion. Moreover, we are greatly thanks to local people in Bago Region and all teachers of Geography
Department, Bago University for their help to get the data and conducted field survey.

References[1] Ashish R et.al, Solid Waste Management – Case Study, International Journal of Research in Advent,Technology, Volume 2, Issues 1, January 2014.
[2] Kurian Joseph, Perspectives of solid waste management in India, International Symposium on the Technology
and Management of the Treatment & Reuse of The Municipal Solid Waste, Shanghai, China,
2002.
[3] Hussein Abdel-Shafy, Solid waste issue: Sources, composition, disposal, recycling, and valorization, Egyptian,
Journal of Petroleum- 27 (2018) 1275–1290, 2018.
[4] Gaurav K. Singh, Kunal Gupta, and Shashank Chaudhary, Solid Waste Management: Its Sources, Collection,
Transportation and Recycling, International Journal of Environmental Science andDevelopment, Vol. 5, No. 4, August 2014.
[5]Mainstreaming Integrated Solid Waste Management in Asia - Solid Waste Management Team, Integrated Solid
Waste Management Plan Mandalay, Mainstreaming Integrated Solid Waste Management in
Asia, 2016.
[6]Tin Min Htoo, Yoshiro HIGANO, The Environmental Impact Assessment of Current Municipal Waste
Management System in Yangon City, Myanmar, Research Paper, 2016[7]Frank Kreith, Hand Book on Solid Waste Management, The McGraw- Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved,
Manufactured in the United States of America, 0-07-135623-1, 2002
[8]Bago City Development Committee and Green World Energy C., Ltd, Statistical Analysis Report of Solid Waste
management in Bago City, Bago City Development Committee, 2017

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Establishment of Sustainable Port Criteria in Myanmar
Mee Mee Soe1, Min Han Htet2, Khin Nawarat3

AbstractMoving towards a sustainable port is a balance between the socio-economic development andprotection of ecosystems. This paper attempts to establish the appropriate criteria to develop astandard for the sustainable port in Myanmar. It is based on the concrete literature reviews ofsustainable principles not only from the Asia but also from all over the world for port
development. After that, data collection and analysis step is performed to point out the current
situations and challenges of port sector intended for sustainable future in Myanmar.
Interviewing with the government agency like Port Authority and stakeholders are comprised tocollect the data. Based on these local challenges facing in port industry, opinions fromgovernment authorities and stakeholders in combination with the reviews on sustainability
principles, the criteria for a sustainable port which is the most promising for Myanmar are
established.
Keywords: Challenges in port sector, Sustainable port criteria, Myanmar ports

1. Introduction
Sustainability is “Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs” by Brundland Report [1]. Sustainability concept
consists of environmental, economic and social dimensions and these three dimensions also
referred as the triple bottom line of sustainability [2]. Ports are very complicated and combined
activities of various services which have a wide range of environmental issues such as water
releases, harmful emissions, waste and noise production and pollution [3, 4]. Seaports arenotorious to be serious polluting industry; however, they have many opportunities for reducing
emissions and pollutions [5]. Sustainability in the port industry is of growing source of fear for
port authorities, policy makers, port users and local communities [6]. Therefore, sustainability is
one of the important concepts for port industry and implementation of sustainable port
development which satisfy economic, environmental and social dimension are intension ofcurrent and future generation. To achieve this intension, there are no exact determinations ofsustainable port development criteria. To fulfil this gas in the literature, the present study aim tocontribute the sustainable port criteria by analyzing the published databases in the literatures andby enquiring some experts and scholars from port related industry.
2. Literature Review
2.1 Sustainable Development – Shipping
Shipping operations interact with environment in many ways, either accidently or
intentionally (Talley, 2006a) [7]. Heaver, (2006 b) reported such interactions of shipping
operation with environment are generating substantial damages to natural habitats and affecting
1

Dr, Lecturer, Department of Port and Harbour Engineering, Myanmar Maritime University,
meemeesoe@gmail.com
2
Dr Associate Professor, Department of Marine Engineering, Myanmar Maritime University, mhhtet79@gmail.com
3
Teaching Assistant, Department of Port and Harbour Engineering, Myanmar Maritime University,
khinnawarat.ph.mmu@gmail.com

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

36

maritime related economic activities such as ports[8]. Gupta et al. (2005c) studied that theenvironment is suffering from oil and chemical spills from ships [9]. In these aspects, Yang et al.,2013 suggested shipping firms are increasingly expected to adopt green practices to their systemand process that promise environmentally friendly to the international community [10]. Cheng
and Tsai (2009 a) also stated that it is a challenge for shipping firms how to perform shipping
operations profitably with reducing their negative impacts on the environment [11].
The environmental impact on water quality and atmospheric pollution caused from ship
operations were studied by several authors. Frankel (1987 b) included the impact of ballast wateron port design and development plan [12]. Maritime operations such as bunkering may cause oilspill risks with potentially terrible impacts on beaches, food chains, sediment and fishingcommunities (Edoho, 2008; Idemudia and Ite, 2006c)[13,14]. Backhurst and Cole, (2000)
concluded that ship operations such as anchoring may damage irreplaceable environments [15].
Gupta et al. (2005) studied various environmental impacts on surface water quality caused byship and port discharges such as sewage, bilge, sludge, waste, oil discharges and leakages ofharmful materials [9].
The emission from ships would affect the air quality in the port and surrounding areas.
Zonn (2005b) studied the environmental pollution such as NOx, carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur
dioxide (SO2) emission caused by shipping, ports and terminals [16]. It is reported that
containerships are by far the most important source of CO2 emissions in the shipping industry(Psaraftis and Kontovas, 2009b) [17]. Walsh and Bows (2012b) studied the correlation between
ship emissions and size as well as ship type [18].
Table 1 . Typical Survey Form which identify the Challenges by Activities with the importantlevel to do the sustainable port development(for one of challenges: Air Pollution/ Quality (emission of NOx, SOx, Black Carbon, PM,
VOC’s, etc.))
Important Level

Air Pollution/ Quality (emission of NOx,
SOx, Black Carbon, PM, VOC’s, etc.)

I

II

III

IV

V

1

By Land Use

☐

☐

☐

☐

☐

2

By Hinterland Connectivity

☐

☐

☐

☐

☐

3

By
Port
Structure
Construction

☐

☐

☐

☐

☐

4

By Shipping Vessels

☐

☐

☐

☐

☐

5

By Port Vessels

☐

☐

☐

☐

☐

6

By Port Operations

☐

☐

☐

☐

☐

7

By Cargo Handling Equipments

☐

☐

☐

☐

☐

8

By Land Traffic (Truck, Cars, etc.)

☐

☐

☐

☐

☐

9

By Bunkering

☐

☐

☐

☐

☐

&

Port

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

37

Important Level

Air Pollution/ Quality (emission of NOx,
SOx, Black Carbon, PM, VOC’s, etc.)

I

II

III

IV

V

10

By Dredging

☐

☐

☐

☐

☐

11

By Fisheries

☐

☐

☐

☐

☐

12

By Recreation and Tourism

☐

☐

☐

☐

☐

13

By Cargo Storage

☐

☐

☐

☐

☐

14

By Oil and Chemical Spill

☐

☐

☐

☐

☐

15

By Ballast Water Disposal

☐

☐

☐

☐

☐

2.2 Sustainable Development – Port
Ports are considered responsible for a wider set of impacts and seek to resolve short-term
views, private and public interests, and commercial and social objectives (Dooms et al., 2012c)[19]. However, (Acciaro et al., 2014a; Dinwoodie et al., 2012d) reported that port activities haveadverse consequences on the environment effects [20, 21]. Puig et al., 2014b indicated that port
activities would facilitate commercial and economic growth, but also likely cause deterioration of
air and marine water quality in the surrounding [22]. In the year of 2015b, Wang et al.,investigated port energy efficiency with financial success. They reported a framework ofassessing energy efficiency of port operations on the data from public and data base. [23].
Port authorities and administration have to perform sustainable port in a satisfactory of
economic demands, environmental and social activities. Daamen’s (2007a) investigate portsustainable development in two different geographies to find a new typology and newinterpretation of the contemporary port-city interface [24]. Abood K. A. (2007b) made asustainability framework of New York Port with eight port operational topics such as dredging,ballast water, habitat restoration, air quality, water/energy/material conservation and waste
handling [25]. In (2012e) Lam and Van de Voorde made a gap analysis for ports to formulate theconcept of green and sustainable port strategy [26]. Jonathan et al. (2014b) propose a sustainable
port planning model with the aid of basics of sustainability [27]. Hosseini et al. (2014c)
investigated to 381 people to acquire urban sustainable development from citizens’ rights pointand determined most and least effected identifiers on sustainable port-city development [28].
Kutkaitis et al. (2014d) conducted interviews with practitioners of port and logistics sector to
identify the criteria of sustainable port development. Hence, they prepared a set of indicators that
determine different levels of sustainability of ports [29]. The decision making process of port
authority using the literature review method is suggested by Martino, 2014e [30]. In Roh et al.
(2016b) conducted in-depth interviews with Asian port authorities to determine the main factorsthat shaping sustainable port development. As a result, they identified key elements ofsustainable port development from port authorities’ perspective [31].
3. Method and Methodology
In this study, proposed indicators of sustainability are air pollution, water pollution, soil
pollution, sediment pollution, waste, hazardous waste, noise, habitats loss and so on. The values

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

and limitations of those indicators have not been measured currently and have not been found indetail in the literatures. Moreover, there is a need to collect in-depth information on people’s
opinions, particular idea, experiences, desire, and so on. In this regards, a qualitative researchtechnique such as structured-interview- research- methodology was conducted as a datacollection (Boyce, C. and Neale, P., 2006d) [32]. For a structured interview, a set of standard,predetermined questions/survey forms are prepared for particular topics in specific orders. For
the calculation of weighted values, very high important (I), high important (II), medium
important (III), low important (IV) and no important (V) are set up as 5,4,3,2 and 1, respectively.
For the interviews, the experts and scholars from port related industry such as Hohai University,
Shanghai Maritime University, Myanmar Maritime University, Myanma Port Authority, andDepartment of Marine Administration in Myanmar have been asked through email using thepredetermined survey forms.
4. Results and Discussions
4.1 Current Situations and Challenges
By doing the concrete literature review and discussion with the experiences of port andsustainable fields, the challenges for sustainable port development and port activities which makethe challenge can be presented as shown in Table 1. By using this survey form, the opinions canbe collected via emails. And then the survey data are weighted and the analysis results ofimportant levels are organized in Table 2. This table can be easily observed by using color cells.
Since water pollution/ quality by oil and chemical shows 100% in the color table, it can beclearly assumed that this challenge is the most important one to be performed in achieving thedesired sustainable purposes.
The following factors are pointing out the percentage of above 80 percent. Land use,
hinterland connectivity, land traffic, oil and chemical spills are the main causes of Air pollution/
quality. The three activities that causes water pollution are land use, dredging and ballast waterdisposal activities. The activities that causes soil pollution/ contamination are land use, hinterlandconnectivity and oil and chemical spills. Sediment pollution/ contamination is caused by land use
and dredging activities. Waste is formed mainly by land use activities. Hazardous waste is mainly
resulted from oil and chemical spills. Noise and higher energy consumption are the results of port
structures construction. Land use, hinterland connectivity and land traffic causes traffic
congestion. Port structures and dredging causes sedimentation in the vicinity of the port. Landuse, hinterland connectivity, oil and chemical spills, ballast water disposal are the main reasonsfor habitat loss of marine organisms. The challenges concerning with the above mentioned
activities are the second important challenges to be performed to achieve sustainable purposes.
The following activities can be performed and solved by taking time since they are 60 to
80 weighted activities. Noise and energy consumption caused by land use and sedimentation/
erosion problems are the activities which are necessary to take actions. Waste and noise resulted
from hinterland connectivity should be take into account to meet the sustainable requirements.
Air, water, soil and sediment pollution, waste, traffic congestion, erosion and habitat loss causedby type of port structures and construction should be considered to reduce the sustainably against
situations. Air and water pollution, various waste, noise and energy consumptions are mainly
caused by shipping vessels. And also, air and water pollution, hazardous waste, noise and energy
consumption are caused by port vessels. Moreover, air pollution, waste, hazardous waste, noise,energy consumption and traffic congestion are mainly caused by port operations.

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The challenges caused by Cargo handling equipment, land traffic, bunkering, dredging ,fishery, recreation and tourism, cargo storage, oil and chemical spills, ballast water disposal etc.
can be observed in the following color map according to their important level as shown in
Table 2.
Table 2. Results of Important level of Activities and Challenges Relationship for Sustainable Port
Development

Ballast Water Disposal

Oil and Chemical Spill

Cargo Storage

Recreation and Tourism

Fisheries

Dredging

Bunkering

Land Traffic (Trucks,
Cars, etc…)

Cargo Handling Equipment

Port Operations

Port Vessels

Shipping Vessels

Port Structure and Port
Construction

Hinterland Connectivity

Land Use

Activities By

Air Pollution/ Quality (emission of NO x ,SO x , Black Carbon, PM, VOC’s, dust,
etc..)
Water Pollution/Qualityx

Soil Pollution/Contamination

Challenges

Sediment Pollution/Contamination

x
x

Waste
Hazardous Waste
Noise
Energy Consumption
Traffic Congestion
Sedimentation
ErosionHabitat Loss

4.2 Sustainable
Criteria
For Myanmar80%Port
Development
100%
100% ‐ 80%‐ 60%
60% ‐ 40%

40% ‐ 20%

20% ‐ 0%

Proposed sustainable criteria based on the review of the guidelines of international ports
4.2

Sustainable Criteria For Myanmar Port Development

Proposed sustainable criteria based on the review of the guidelines of international ports
and the analysis of the port operation experience and challenges with Local Port Authority andstakeholders are listed as follows:
Land use mainly causes pollution and waste. It can also happen traffic congestion, energy
consumption, noise, and habitat loss. Effectiveness of existing ports should be promoted with thesustainable practices instead of building a new one. If a new port has to be propose in order tomeet the country requirement, a well-made feasibility study should be prepared to choose thelocation which is the least environmental damage one. Public space and habitat conservation
desire should be added in port area planning for the health, recreation and the nature. Port
stakeholders’ meeting should be held with well-prepared port master plan to decide the land use
and local people participation should also be emphasized.
Mode of transport connecting the ports with industrial zone, downtown area and otherhubs, etc. should be carefully analyzed in order to avoid the traffic congestion. Transport
connectivity plan is vitally needed with the suitable mode of transport. Especially rail transport

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network should be arranged with the collaboration of related sectors. So that, the consequencessuch as time-consuming, feel tired, fuel energy loss and risk of accidents between containers,
regular-size cars, slow moving vehicles and people, etc. of uncomfortable transport system canbe avoided. Furthermore, Myanmar’s inland waterways should be more encouraged doing theinvestment for cargo and container transportation. This method is cost-effective and it can be
reduced the traffic congestion and energy consumption. For the existing ports, current
transportation network should be requested to submit and if necessary, appropriate modifications
for better network should be done under the charge of the government with the full effort of port
owners.
Erosion and sedimentation conditions in water area caused by existing jetty and port
structures should be analyzed and informed to the corresponding authorized body. Also the
proposed solution to these observed problems should be attached during the inform process.
Erosion and sedimentation estimation must be perform before constructing a new structure. The
technologies and designs which coincide best to the sustainable requirements should be usedduring the whole construction process. Sustainable codes for design and construction are also
necessary to establish.
Shipping and port vessel causes pollution and waste, energy consumption and noise. The
type and size of allowable shipping vessels should be according to the international sustainable
criteria. The shipping vessels should follow the rules and regulations which are establishedaccording to the international standards. Strict monitoring and actions should be taken for theenforcement of rules and regulations.
Noise and air pollution caused by port operation in port area should be assessed by using
monitoring devices. The methods using in the port facilities should coincide with the sustainableneeds. Renewable resources such as solar, wind and tidal energy should be replaced in theconventional resources. LED technology should be replaced in lighting inside the port area. Light
reduction equipment should be used to reduce annoyance to the nearby residential area [33].
In practice, cargo handling equipment consume large amount of energy. Replacing smart
and green cargo handling equipment in port operation can not only reduce the energy
consumption but also protect the environment and increase the cost efficiency [34].
Air pollution, traffic congestion, noise and energy consumption can be reduced byestablishing good driving practices and applying well trained drivers in land traffic.
Transfer procedures among vessels, bunker stations, bunker vessels, terminal and trucks should
be well defined and followed to avoid the pollution and hazardous waste.
In Myanmar, the energy consumption for maintenance dredging works is very large.
Dredging is also a major issue to be considered in achieving sustainable requirements. To reduce
the energy consumption in dredging works, the location of the deep sea ports should be proposed
to an area where dredging works are not necessary. Even if necessary, the proposed site should
be chosen wisely where the dredged material can be reused. If disposal of dredged material isunavoidable, the disposal site should be analyzed and allocate carefully.
Since fishery can affect health and environment, good management is required in thesefishery ports. Good fishing practice and management should be launched for the reduction ofwaste. Warning and taking action by using severe penalty system can be used to reduce waste

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

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and noise caused by recreation and tourism. Ballast water disposal can cause the habitat loss ofmarine organisms. Taking actions in enforcing the existing laws can enhance the protection of
the species. If oil and chemical spills occurred, air and water pollution and the habitat loss ofmarine organisms can happened in serious condition. Therefore, the rules and regulations
concerning with oil and chemical spills should be establish precisely and accurately. And also
even when spills happened, taking action effectively and removing in a very quick mannershould be performed to avoid the unnecessary circumstances.

5. Conclusion
In this paper, we have tried to point out the sustainable challenges by port activities
intended for Myanmar ports. The literature was concretely reviewed to identify the activities andchallenges. And then the important level of challenges was collected with surveying theexperiencers and specialist of port and sustainable fields and it can be seen the colour table toanalyze easily. . Later this can be done the large scale for sustainable purpose with more activities
and challenges. It was found that land use, hinterland connectivity, are the main activities forsustainable challenges and also port structure and construction, dredging, oil and chemical spill,ballast water disposal cause the challenges This paper proposed some sustainable criteria in
accordance of challenges of Myanmar ports such as effective land use, Inland water way
transport, Ship size and type limitation, enforcement of rules and regulations.

Acknowledgements
This paper is the first step of our proposing the sustainable criteria for Myanmar port sector and we would
like to thank Dr. Tao Aifeng, Dr. Mu Mu Han, Dr. Myo Nyein Aye, Mr. Ye Naing for supporting of their valuable
experience.

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October 2018

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Effective Control of Hybrid Solar-Hydro Renewable Energy System
Wut Hmone Oo 1, Khin Mar Win 2, Hla Htay Win3
Abstract
This research presents the control system of prototype hybrid power driven by two sources ofrenewable energy which purpose is to provide the continuous electrical power using solar-hydrorenewable energy system without causing the environmental pollution. The voltage generated
from the solar panel and waPter mill will be stored on a large battery by two different modes, realtime mode and switching mode. The real time clock module is used to control the real time datafrom solar phase during the daytime and a hydro phase is used at night. The solar voltage isrecognized as the first priority charging mode from 8:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. and the hydro charging
mode will start working after solar charging time. Since the availability of voltage from solar andwater sources depends on the weather condition, the switching mode needs to be manuallychanged in the hybrid control system. The hybrid system operates only with higher power sourceby reading the voltage firstly and then switching the voltage given by higher power plant. The
system is constructed with a programmable microcontroller development board, voltage divider
circuits, real time clock module, a few input switches and charging control circuit.
Keywords: solar energy, hydro power, hybrid control system, renewable energy sources

1. Introduction
Nowadays, pollution is one of the most serious problems in the world. The best way of
reducing CO2 emission is to use clean source of electrical energy produced from renewableenergy. Among these renewable sources, hydroelectric power and solar power are the two mostcommon sources for generating electricity for rural areas. However, these energy sources greatly
depend on weather conditions and possess inherited intermittent nature. So, hybrid system, one of
the complex control systems due to integration of two or more renewable energy, becomes asolution to those limited conditions [1]. The power generation capacity of hybrid system is morethan the power generation capacity of the individual system. The major advantage of solar-hydrohybrid energy system is that when used together, reduces the cost of supplying electricity [2]. In
solar-hydro hybrid system, solar panel directly converts solar radiation into electrical energy andhydroelectric system is the process of generating electrical energy by converting kinetic energy
of water into mechanical work to turn the turbine [3]. This hybrid power system is suitable forremote places. Rural areas need generation in the form of hybrid power system [4].The scope ofthe hybrid renewable power system is very high and it is very advantageous for both rural andurban areas [5]. In Myanmar, especially in Tanintharyi Region which lies on the southern part of
Myanmar in North Latitude 13° and East Longitude 98°45´, fifth largest region in Myanmar,
majority of rural areas are still lack of electricity. Therefore, candles and oil lamps are still being
used in those areas. The photograph of the map of Tanintharyi Region is expressed in figure 1
and it is the best location for generating renewable energy such as solar energy from sunlight,
and hydro power from water resources. As per annual data recorded from regional department ofmeteorology and hydrology, both the rainfall (inches) and the sunshine hours in Tanintharyi
region is the higher and longer than those in other cities in Myanmar. The Monthly maximum
1

Department of Physics, Dawei University, Myanmar, hmone1390@gmail.com, +959422203725
Engineering Physics Department, Mandalay Technological University, Myanmar, drkhinmarwin@gmail.com
3
Department of Physics, University of Bago, Myanmar, hlahtayphy2016@gmail.com
219th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

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rainfall, Average monthly rainfall, monthly maximum sunshine and average monthly maximum
sunshine are illustrated in figures 2-5. So, the effective control of hybrid system is one of themain advantages for rural areas in this region and can provide a good solution for those areas,villages nearby the rivers, streams, mountain, waterfall, and under sufficient sunshine.
Furthermore, the system can solve the demand of electricity in regional problem successfully.

Figure 2. Monthly maximum rainfall

Figure 1. Map of Tanintharyi Region Myanmar[www.researchgate.net]

Figure 3. Average monthly rainfall

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Figure 4. Monthly maximum sunshine

45

Figure 5. Average monthly maximum sunshine

2. Design and Simulation of Hybrid Power Control System
2.1 Circuit Simulation
The Proteus 8.1 software is a Printed Circuit Board (PCB) design software integrated withthe simulation of the circuit design. The main purpose to design with Proteus software is to get
the optimum circuit diagram. In this research the circuit design consists of eleven main parts;
an 8-bit programmable microcontroller (ATmega328p), a crystal oscillator, an alphanumericliquid crystal LCD display, a few control input switches, a real time clock module, three
voltage divider circuits that are used to divide the output voltages of solar plant, hydro plantand storage battery, transistors, relays driver circuits, storage battery, a 5V regulated power
supply circuit and a charge controller units. The control system operates together with the twodifferent power plants, charging controller circuit, inverter circuit and storage units. The basic
structure of the hybrid system is illustrated with a block diagram in figure 6. The complete
schematic diagram of hybrid solar-hydro control system is shown in figure 7.

Figure 6. Block diagram of the hybrid solar-hydro power control system

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Figure 7. Complete schematic diagram of hybrid power control circuit

2.2 Controller Circuit
The microcontroller is an 8-bit microcontroller and it is Atmega328p. The microcontroller
itself cannot operate to run the operation of the circuit; therefore, a program code was created anduploaded into the memory ROM of microcontroller before building the circuit. The programcoding was created by using Arduino IDE software. In this circuit design, the program memory
in microcontroller cannot execute each instruction without an external clock circuit. In this case,a 16MHz crystal oscillator is connected with the two pins of microcontroller. A real time clock
module circuit is included in this circuit design to control the hybrid power system according to
the real time data. The real time data can differentiate both day or night and seasonal periods ofmonth within a year. For the experimental process, it is required to create two different circuitboards to complete the prototype design for hybrid power control system since the design ofcircuit is very complex and consisting of numerous components. The circuits are known ascontroller circuit and switching circuit. The control circuit consists of four pairs of green
terminals, two on the upper edge and other two on the right edge of the circuit. The first terminalon the upper edge is to connect with the solar power plant. The second green terminal is toconnect with the hydro power plant. The first green terminal on the right is to connect withbattery storage. The second green terminal is to connect with the charge controller circuit.
Moreover, there are three voltage divider circuits with three trimmer resistors which are used todivide the voltage of solar power plant, hydro power plant and battery voltages. The control
sketch is written in c programming language and the flow chart of the hybrid power control
system is as shown in figure 8.
2.3 Switching Circuit
There are two relays and relay driver circuits. Each of the relays cannot be directly
operated with a microcontroller since it is a coil device. Therefore, the relays are used to switch
the connection between the storage battery and power plants. The common pin of each relays areconnected with the solar plant and hydro plant. The normally open pins of relays are connectedwith the storage battery. There are three control switches on the circuit, and they are wired as
active high input switches. They are connected with the three digital pins on the microcontroller.
In the moment, only one input switch is used and it is to change the operation mode between realtime control (RT CON) and higher voltage control (HV CON). Completely installed and ready to19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

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test circuit board is shown in figure 9 and default operating condition and voltage displays infigure 10.
2.4 Operation of Hybrid Power Control System
The whole circuit will operate with two 3.7V Li-ion batteries. It is not a suitable power
supply for the microcontroller and LCD display, real time clock module and relays on the circuit.
Therefore, a 5V regulator IC (7805) is utilized to become Vcc voltage level to 5V. When the
power supply on/off switch is pressed, the LCD display illuminated the data of clock on the firstline. Each voltage level is going to be illuminated on the LCD displays. But the actual maximum
input of analog voltage to the microcontroller was limited to 5V. If it is higher than 5V, themicrocontroller may damage. Therefore, voltage divider circuits are used in the design. The realtime clock function operation is very useful and the system operation can be automatically madeby predefined periods. In this design, the default mode operation for hybrid power control system
is “RT CON”. The operation period predefined for the solar power plant is within a period
starting from 8:00 to 17:00 hours. In the display photo as shown in figure the clock is 20 hour,and it is greater than17 hours predefined period, therefore the operation of hydro power plant will
be operated. The operation system is predefined for hydro power plant after solar charging time.
In this case, the switching on power plant is display on the screen “Hy_P_ON” (hydro power on).
If the time is between 8:00 and 17:00, the system will change the solar power plant automatically.
In this case, the switching on power plant is display on the screen as “S_P_ON” (solar power on).
In switching circuit, voltage divider circuits with blue trimmer resistors are used to divide theinput voltages of solar power plant, hydro power plant, and battery voltage terminals.

Figure 8. Flow chart of the hybrid power control system19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

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Figure 9. The photograph of the hybrid power control circuit

Figure 10. Default operating condition andvoltage display

Figure 11. Calibration of solar power plant voltage

Figure 12. Calibration of hydropower plant voltage

Figure 13. Calibration of storage battery voltage

Figure 14. The selection of operation mode for HV CON

3. Results and Discussion
The solar-hydro hybrid power control system is constructed and the operations have beentested for several times for different results. The hybrid control system is based on ATMEGA328
microcontroller. Moreover, there are two types of relay control pins, relay for hydro power plant
and relay for solar power plant. If the power output of solar power plant is higher than input fromthe other power plant, then the solar relay will operate. If the power output of hydro power plant
is higher than input from the other power plant, then the hydro relay will operate. The voltages ofeach power plant and battery shows 0V, since no power plant and battery are connected on theswitching circuit. Therefore, before connecting with any power plants, a variable power supply is19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

49

connected instead of solar power plant. Then, the variable power supply is switched on andchecks the result display screen on the voltage position of solar power plant. Figure 11 shows thecalibration of output solar power voltage plant in hybrid energy system. If the voltage difference
between the display of variable power supply and constructed circuit is not equal, it can be
adjusted by slowly turning the trimmer resistor with a small flat screw driver. Similarly, thevariable power supply is connected on other remaining terminal inputs and calibrated as shown infigure 12 and 13 respectively. The simulation carries out nearly 10 hours between 8:00 and 17:00
hours in a sunny day. In addition, the two power plants are combined with a microcontroller andmanage for real time control (RT CON) and higher voltage control (HV CON).So to be able touse effectively higher power source, the manual selection of either “HV CON” from “RT CON”
operation mode or “RT CON” from “HV CON” operation mode is required after reading thevoltage level. The press of mode switch toggle the two operation mode as shown in figure 14.The
availability of the electricity in Tanintharyi Region is only 10.7% and the lowest in Myanmar.
According to the results of the proposed research and the above data information shown in thechart, the rainy season is about 6 months and monthly maximum and average rainfall are 10.55
inches and 2.91 inches respectively as shown in figure 2 and figure 3 . Except the rainy period, it
is sunny over the course of the year.Monthly maximum and average sunshine are 11.2 hours and8.48 hours as shown in figure 4 and figure 5.Therefore, the hybrid power control system can be
the most suitable hybrid system to solve the lack of electricity and provide continuous power
generation in Tanintharyi region especially for rural areas.

4. Conclusions
The use of hybrid power control system is the most effective and efficient ways ofgenerating electrical power. The designed system is intended to reduce the cost of supplying
electricity and to solve the power requirement in rural community. Single source system provides
discrete power if the source is faced disable conditions. The solar-hydro hybrid system can beused in any region that has the sufficient solar radiation and sufficient kinetic energy of water
flow. In such region, the condition of solar power and hydro power will be power complement ofeach other when the seasonal and variations of the weather condition occur. According to theannual results of weather station of Tanintharyi region figures 2-5, solar-hydro hybrid systemshould be used rather than other renewable energy generating system. Hybrid system will be able
to provide the continuous power generating processes along the coastal region and forsustainable development. Although the system designed is made to be flawless, sudden
unexpected changes on weather conditions may arise problem states. But the causes of problem
state are negligible comparing with its overall advantages.

Acknowledgements
I would like to express my profound thanks to Professor Dr San San Aye, Head of Department of Physics,
and Professor Dr Khin Swe Oo, Department of Physics, Dawei University, for their kind permission to carry out thiswork. Special thanks are Dr Thiri Khin, Lecturer, Department of Physics, Dawei University, for encouragement andhelp during this work.

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References
Binayak Bhandari, Shiva Raj Poudel, Kyung-Tae. Lee, and Sung-Hoon Ahn, “Mathematical modeling of hybrid
renewable energy system: A review on small hydro-solar wind power generation”, 2014, Vol.1,
pp.157-173.
Bhushan. D. Agarkar and Shivprakash B. Brave, “A review on hybrid solar/ wind/hydro power generation system”,
2016, vol.4, pp.188-191.
G. Joga Rao and S.K Shrivastava, “Modeling and implementation of hybrid solar-hydro renewable energy systems”,
2016, Vol.3, pp.63-69.
G.Lakshmi,P.V.V. Rama rao, Y.R. Palleswari,“Power Management of Hybrid Renewable Energy System byFrequency Deviation Control”,2014,Vol.10,pp.243-251.
Diksha.A. Shinde, “Power quality improvement by solar –hydro hybrid system”, 2016, (IJIRST), Vol.3, pp-234-236.
Kavitha Sirasain and S.Y. Kamdi, “Solar wind hydro hybrid energy system simulation”, 2013, (IJSCE) Vol.2,
pp.500-503.
B.Murali Mohan, S. Muqthiar Ali and P.Manohar, “Designing and control of isolated wind-hydro hybrid systemwith BEES”, 2014, Vol.10, pp.64-70.
Hassan Moghbelli, Hamid Toliyat, Haitham Abu-Rub, “A green hybrid power plant using photovoltaic and windenergy with power quality improvement in Qatar”,2011, American Society for Engineering
Education, pp-2-14.
Source: MOEE web site: http://www.moee.gov.mm/en/ignite/page/80)

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Applying High Performance Seismic Structures to All Asian Countries
Tsutomu Komuro1, Yozo Shinozaki 2 and Akira Wada3
Abstract
In 1868, Japan began importing science and technology from Europe and the USA, which havelittle experience with severe earthquake disasters. This was the beginning of great changes inJapan's civilization, culture and politics. Over time, vast cities with tremendous numbers ofbuildings, such as Tokyo, Osaka and Nagoya, became the centers of modern Japanese life.
Although Japanese society has always been concerned about earthquakes, people focused more on
economic growth during the modernization process than on protecting mega-cities from possible
natural disasters. Other Asian countries also have a similar pattern of development.Seismic designcodes focus on saving human life, not only in Japan but also in other Asian countries, the USA
and some European countries. Regulations generally allow for plastic deformation of building
structures in large earthquakes. Under such design standards, it is not necessary to ensure thatbuildings can continue being used after a major earthquake. However, if too many buildings –governmental, office, factory and residential – become unusable in an earthquake, a city cannot
survive and certainly cannot be described as resilient. As society becomes more dense, highpotential and excessively rational, we must develop more reliable structures using current
technologies of seismic isolation and passive earthquake control. We would like to introduce somebeautiful new buildings constructed with high-performance seismic structural systems to other
Asian countries and for Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
Keywords: Seismic Design, Human life, Business Continuity, Seismic Isolation, Response Control

1. Introduction
Through the experience of earthquakes over history, the seismic design sections ofJapan’s building standards law have been continually revised. A new seismic design method
enforced in 1981 is the current design code. The basic principle of this code is to limit structural
damage to within an allowable range in the case of small and medium earthquakes, while severe
damage (plastic deformation) is allowed in the case major earthquakes. The purpose is to prevent
buildings from collapsing with the primary purpose of protecting human life. In the 1995
Hyogoken-Nanbu Earthquake (the Kobe Earthquake), many buildings were severely damaged, as
shown in Figures 1 and 2. However, damage to buildings designed by the 1981 seismic designcode tended to be less than to older buildings, so engineers and bureaucrats believed that the
principle of the code was effective. However, the 1981 seismic design code alone is not sufficientfrom the viewpoint of maintenance or early recovery of building function and the seismic
resilience of mega-cities [1].

1Dr. Member, Architectural Institute of Japan, Taisei Corporation, komuro@arch.taisei.co.jp
Member, Architectural Institute of Japan, Taisei Corporation, sinozaki@arch.taisei.co.jp
3
Member, Science Council of Japan, Professor Emeritus, Tokyo Institute of Technology, ada@akira-wada.com
2

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

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Figure 1. Pancake crushing of Kobe city hall

Figure 2. Building damage scene in Kobe

Since 1995, major earthquakes have occurred in many places in Japan and damage toactual building structures has been reduced. In particular, it has been found that damage tobuildings with seismic-isolation structures or response-controlled structures is very small.
However, there have been cases where damage to the finish, and to interior fittings, of buildings
designed by the current design code but lacking such advanced seismic technologies has had asignificant impact on business continuity after an earthquake.
In this paper, we report on several large earthquakes that have occurred in Japan since1995 and on the behavior of certain buildings. We describe advanced technologies, such as
seismic-isolation and damage-controlled structures, that have helped minimize earthquake
damage.

2. Nursing Home Facility Hit by Earthquake in 2004
During the period October to November 2004, a series of earthquakes took place about
80km south of Niigata city in Japan’s Chuetsu region. The main shock, named the 2004 MidNiigata Prefecture Earthquake, occurred on October 23. The magnitude was estimated at
MJMA6.8 by the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA). On the JMA scale of seismic intensity, theearthquake reached level 6+ to 7, which indicate extremely strong motion. Many aftershocks
including some of M6 class followed the main shock. The Fire and Disaster Management Agency
reported that there were 48 people killed and 634 seriously injured, with 3,181 completely
buildings destroyed and 13,531 heavily damaged in Niigata Prefecture.
The nursing home shown in Figure 3 is a five-story reinforced concrete building with aseismic isolation system [2]. It is located in Ojiya city and is about 7 km from the epicenter of themain shock (as shown in Figure 4). This facility was planned in 1995, just after the Hyogo-ken
Nanbu Earthquake that seriously damaged many buildings in Kobe city. Considering thatdamage, the decision was made that the facility should be able to maintain its function as a
medical service facility in the case of a major earthquake. Therefore, a seismic isolation system
was adopted as the main structural design feature for reducing earthquake damage.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Figure 3. Overview of nursing home

Figure 5. Structural section

53

Figure 4. Map of main shock intensity on JMA scale

Figure 6. Isolators(Upper: rubber bearing, lower: slide bearing)A structural section of the building is shown in Figure 5. The isolation devices (isolators)
are installed beneath the first floor. The building is supported by the isolators, 18 sets of rubber
bearings and 21 sets of slide bearings. As shown in Figure 6, the rubber bearing consists of thinlayers of natural rubber bonded to steel plates and the slide bearing consists of a 3-layer highdamping rubber bearing with a PTFE sliding surface in contact with polished stainless steel.
A field survey of the building was carried out after the main shock. No damage was
identified to the exterior wall tiles or the structural members of the building. As Figure 7 shows,there was no falling of objects to the floor. In contrast, some of the wooden houses adjacent to thefacility suffered damage and a concrete block wall belonging to a house next door collapsed. The
photograph in Figure 8 shows how furniture and household items were thrown around in abuilding in the neighboring area, giving an indication of the severity of the seismic motion. Taken
together, Figures 7 and 8 show the overwhelming difference that a seismic isolation system canmake.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

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Figure 7. Cupboard on 1st floor of the facility

Figure 8. Room in neighboring building

after the main shock

3. 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake and Seismic Retrofit of High-rise Building
On March 11 of 2011, a huge earthquake hit the Tohoku district forming the north-easternpart of Japan’s main island (the 2011 Off the Pacific Coast of Tohoku Earthquake Mw9.0 (on the
moment magnitude scale), sometimes called the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake).
Approximately 16,000 people died and 3,000 people remain missing, mainly due to the tsunami.
Figure 9 shows the seismic intensity of this event on the JMA scale [3]. The ground motion was
felt across almost the whole of Japan. Figure10 shows a building that toppled in the tsunami. The
tsunami-induced meltdowns at Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plants shocked people aroundthe world while liquefaction in the bay area of Chiba prefecture caused major difficulties to thepeople living in the region. Buildings were badly shaken, not only in east Japan but also far fromthe epicenter. High-rise buildings in Tokyo, Osaka and Nagoya experienced strong, long-period
motion for several minutes and some residents and office workers in these buildings were quite
frightened.
Epicenter

Intensity+-

Figure 9. Distribution of seismic intensityof 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake [3]Figure 10. Building toppled by the tsunami

In 2009, special oil dampers were developed as seismic damage control devices for the
retrofitting of old high-rise buildings. They were fitted to an existing 54-story office building(Shinjuku Center Building, as shown in Figure 11, completed in 1979 and located in Shinjuku
ward, Tokyo) to suppress vibration during long-period earthquake ground motion [4]. Twelve oil
dampers with a deformation-dependent damping characteristic (shown in Figure 12) were fitted
on every floor between the 15th and the 39th, for a total of 288 dampers. These floors were19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

55

selected because dynamic analysis showed that the story drift and the cumulative plastic
deformation ratio of the steel reinforcing bars were relatively large in this range of floors.
The seismic response of the building was recorded in the 2011 Great East Japan
Earthquake. Later, simulation analyses were conducted to estimate the performance of thedampers in controlling motion. This modeling work clarified that damping was improved and the
response was reduced by 20% as compared to the building without dampers. Figure 13 shows (a)the simulated relative displacement between the roof and the ground floor and (b) the simulated
acceleration at the top floor with and without the dampers. The maximum displacement at top
floor was 76.4cm without the dampers and this was reduced to 60.8cm with the dampers (theactual observed displacement was 54.2cm). This indicates that the dampers reduced displacement
by 20%. The maximum acceleration was 220.3 cm/sec2 without the dampers and 184.1 cm/sec2
with them (and the actual observed value was 161.3 cm/sec2), also about a 20% reduction. Thisconfirmed the value of the seismic retrofitting of this super high-rise building and the analyticalresults are in good agreement with the observed motion record.

Figure 11. Shinjuku Center Building

Figure 12. Installed oil damper

Maximum value: 76.4cm (without damper), 60.8cm(with damper)
100

(a)

cm/sec2cm

50
0

RF displacementtransverse (Y)without damper
with damper

-50
-100
100

150

200

250

300

350

400

500 s

450

Maximum value: 220.3Gal (without damper), 184.1Gal (with damper)
300
200

(b)

RF accelerationtransverse (Y)

Gal

100
0
-100

without damper
with damper-200-300100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500 s

Figure 13. Comparison of simulated response waveforms with/without dampers

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

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3.1 2016 Kumamoto Earthquake and Semiconductor Factory
A series of earthquakes hit the middle of the island of Kyusyu beginning on April 14,
2016, centering on Kumamoto Prefecture, where major damage occurred (the 2016 Kumamoto
earthquake, shown in Figures 14[5] and 15). Among the series of events, two major earthquakes
occurred at 21:26 on April 14 (foreshock MJMA6.5) and at 01:25 on April 16 (main shock
MJMA7.3). This was the first time in Japan that a seismic intensity of 7 had been recorded twice
within two days. The earthquakes caused severe damage not only to the structures of buildings,
but also to the contents and the finish (non-structural elements) of buildings and to lifeline in the
area.
7
6+

ｘ epicenter
2016/4/16
MainshockFigure 14. Distribution of seismic intensityof 2016 Kumamoto Earthquake (Main Shock) [5]Figure 15. Damaged Kumamoto castle

Kumamoto prefecture is home to many factories, including manufacturing facilities forsemiconductors. Semiconductor plants include equipment that is sensitive to vibration and alsoclean rooms that must remain airtight, so they are relatively fragile in the face of a large
earthquake. A large earthquake might cause operations to be halted, which leads to opportunity
loss. Opportunity losses for semiconductor manufacturers are large and in some cases may
exceed actual material losses.
A semiconductor factory (shown in Figure 16) consisting of two buildings of steel
structure in Kikuyou town, Kumamoto prefecture, is located 12km away from the epicenter ofthe main shock. These buildings were designed according to the current seismic design code. The
structure, finish and contents of the factory were severely damaged by, principally, the main
shock, but there were no injuries or deaths [6]. Brace buckling, bolt fractures and failure ofstructural member connections were observed. Figure 17 shows the structural damage at the point
where the column bases meet the foundation. Figures 18 and 19 show the damage to the finish
and to the factory equipment.
Due to the severe damage caused by the main shock, operations at the factory werehalted. Full production on all lines resumed by the end of July, about three months after theearthquake. The impact on operating income from the Kumamoto earthquake was estimated atmore than 50 billion yen, of which opportunity losses account for about 60%. If recovery could
have been hastened, the opportunity losses would have been minimized.

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Figure 16. View of factory [6]Figure 17. Damage to connection of column bases and foundation [6]Figure 18. Collapse of automatic conveyor rail [6]Figure 19. Damaged clean room [6]Figures 16 to 19, Source: Sony Semiconductor Manufacturing

4. Conclusion
Numerous earthquakes, including especially the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake, havetaught us that our goal in seismic design for severe ground motion should evolve from simply theprotection of human life to the combined protection of life + property conservation +maintenance of functionality. In other words, we can say our aim should be “resilience”, which isa hot topic these days.
Japan has long made efforts to deliver high seismic performance through the user ofseismic isolation and response control technologies. The devices and systems that support thesetechnologies have been improved and have become more reliable and cheaper than in the past.
We are now in a position to apply these technologies to a variety of building types in all thecountries of Asia for the benefit of the next generation.
References[1] Wada, A., “From prologue to epilogue in solutions for seismic resilience of mega-city”, Structural Engineering
Frontier Conference, March 18-19 2015, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama, Japan, pp.
323-335.
[2] Komuro, T., Kawamoto, S., Tamari, M., Fukuyama, H., and Iiba, M., “Performance of seismic isolated building
under strong earthquakes”, 5th World Conference on Structural Control and Monitoring, 2010[3] The Headquarters for Earthquake Research Promotion,
https://www.jishin.go.jp/main/oshirase/20110311_sanriku-oki.htm, 5 Oct. 2019[4] Aono, H., Hosozawa, O., Shinozaki, Y., and Kimura, Y., “Seismic retrofit of high-rise building against the longperiod ground motions”, 10th U.S. National Conference on Earthquake Engineering Frontiersof Earthquake Engineering, July 21-25, 2014[5] JapanMeteorological Agency, https://www.data.jma.go.jp/svd/eqev/ data/2016_04_14_kumamoto/ index.html, 5Oct. 2019[6] Ito, T., Damages and recovery processes of major semiconductor manufacturers following the Kumamoto
earthquake (in Japanese), Matsuyama University Journal, Vol. 29, 2017, pp. 65-96.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Analysis of Some Heavy Metals Concentrations in Muscle Tissue of Three Fish
Species and environs, Thanlwin River Segment of Mon State
Yee Yee Win1 et al
Abstract
The present study was conducted in two different study sites situated on the Thanlwin segment
and its tributaries of Mon state. Study period lasted from February 2018 to January 2019. Fish,water and sediment samples were collected seasonally in the study sites. Element concentrationsof As, Pb and Cd in extracts were determined by using Flame Atomic Absorption
Spectrophotometry (FAAS) (Perkin Elmer AA Analyst 800 and Winlab – 32 s oftware) atUniversity Research Center (URC) in University of Yangon. Concentration of As, Pb and Cd on
muscle tissues of three study fish species (Lates calcarifer, Otolithoides pama and Polynemus
paradiseus) were analyzed in the study period. Heavy metal concentrations in muscle tissues of all
study fish species were below WHO limit. Concentration of As in water of study site I in rainy
and winter seasons as well as those of study site II in all seasons were found to higher than the
WHO limitation. As concentration in sediment of study site I in all seasons as well as those of
study site II in summer and winter seasons were found to higher than the WHO limitation. In the
study site, positive relationships between size of fish and heavy metal concentrations were foundin L. calcarifer while those were negative in O. pama and no relation in P. paradiseus at study site
I. In site II, positive relationships between size of fish and As and Pb concentrations in L.
calcarifer, As in O. pama and Pb and Cd in P. paradiseus were observed. However, heavy metal
concentrations in muscle tissues of study fish species were not over the WHO MPL. Thus, study
fishes from the study area are generally safe for human consumption.
Keyword: fish, arsenic, lead, cadmium, muscle tissue, sediment, water

1. Introduction
Heavy metals are environmentally ubiquitous, readily dissolved and transported by waterand readily taken up by aquatic organisms (Alam et al., 2002). Fishes are often at the top ofaquatic food chain in water ecosystems and fish living in the polluted water may accumulate
toxic trace metals (Mansour, and Sidky, 2002).
It is well known that fish, as a regular constituent of the human diet, can represent a
dangerous source of certain heavy metals. The discharge of wastewater and industrial effluents
whether treated or not can be regarded a constant pollution source that dominate water quality.
Water quality parameters can produce an improved understanding of the environmental situation
and assist policy makers to design priorities for sustainable water management (Hung et al.,2010).
The degree of water quality is determined by the content of physical, chemical andbiological parameters available in it. Association between two parameters may cause to increaseor decrease in the concentration of others. In this study, concentrations of three metals (arsenic,
lead and cadmium) in the three fish species because these fish species have been consumed asfood by local people. Water and sediments from Thanlwin river segment of Mon State environs
were determined. The muscle is the section of fish that is consumed by human. It is required toverify whether contaminants like heavy metals are within the recommended limits for humanconsumption. Therefore the metal content in the muscle was analyzed in the present study.
1

Lecturer, Department of zoology, Mawlamyine University. Myanmar, yeewynn1@gmail.com
2. Kay Lwin Tun 3. Min Thu Aung 4.Cho Cho Thin

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

60

Especially, the mean concentrations of test metals were evaluated in terms of internationalguidelines.
Therefore, present study was chosen to conduct in order to know the following objectives.
-to find out seasonal variation of heavy metals concentration (As, Pb, Cd,) in muscle tissueof study fish species-

to monitor the toxic metals (As, Pb, Cd) concentration in aquatic environs (water andsediment) of the study fish sites-

to investigate relationship between size of fish and metal concentrations in muscle tissueof fish

2. Materials and Methods
The present study will be conducted in two different study sites (Ngan Tae village andKyauk Tan village) situated on the Thanlwin River segment and its tributaries of Mon states.
Ngan Tae village (Lat 16º 28' N and Long, 97º 39' E) and Kyauk Tan village (Lat 16º 24' N andLong, 97º 36' E) were designated as the study site I and II, respectively. Study period lasted fromJanuary to December 2018. Lates calcarifer, Otolithoides pama and Polynemus paradiseus,,
water and sediment samples were collected monthly in fish landing depots of the study sites. At
least seven samples from each fish species were collected. Total length and body weight ofspecimens were measured. They were dissected using stainless steel scalpels and forceps. A partof the muscle (dorsal muscle) was removed and weighted. Samples were put into an oven (90 ºC)
and dried to reach constant weight. After that they were stored at low temperature until digestion.
Digestion of the samples carried out according to dry method by using furnace (Model-L-3383).
Element concentrations of As, Pb and Cd in extracts were determined by using Flame
Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (FAAS) (Perkin Elmer AA Analyst 800 and Winlab-32
software) at Universities Research Center (URC) in University of Yangon. Test results werecompared with maximum permissible limit (MPL) designated by WHO.
Functional relationship between size of fish and heavy metal
analyzed by using regression method with the following formula
Y= a + bX
a = Y interceptb = slope of the liner = regression coefficient

Site I

Site II

concentrations were19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

61

Fig. 1. Map of the study sites

Cement Factory (near Ngan Tae village)
Industrial Zone (near Kyauk Tan village)( site I) Hind view
( site II) Hind view
Plate 1. Environs of the study sites

Lates calcarifer

Otolithoides pama

Polynemus paradiseus

Plate 2. Study fish species

3. Results
Seasonal variation of As concentration in muscle tissue of Lates calcarifer collected fromstudy site I was -6.296mg/L in rainy season > -6.837 mg/L in summer season > -9.985 mg/L in
winter season. Similar results were observed in study site II. As concentration in muscle tissue of
Otolithoides pama and Polynemus paradiseus was summer > rainy season > winter season. As
concentration in muscle tissues of three study fish species which collected from study site II werehigher than that of study site I in summer season (Table 2).
Lead concentration in muscle tissue of Lates calcarifer collected from study site I was 0.873 mg/L in summer season > -0.928mg/L in rainy season > -0.959mg/L in winter season.
Similar results were observed in study site II. The same conditions of Pb concentration were
found in muscle tissue of Otolithoides pama and Polynemus paradiseus. However, Pb
concentration in muscle tissues of three study fish species which collected from study site II werehigher than that of study site I in summer season (Table 2).
Cadmium concentration in muscle tissue of Lates calcarifer at rainy season(0.007mg/L) was higher than those of summer season 0.009 mg/L) and winter season (0.01mg/L) in study site I. Similar results were observed in study site II. The same conditions of
Cd concentration were found in muscle tissue of Otolithoides pama and Polynemus paradiseus.
However, Cd concentration in muscle tissues of Lates calcarifer, Otolithoides pama and
Polynemus paradiseus which collected from study site II were higher than that of study site I(Table 2).
Arsenic concentration in water and sediment at winter season (1.003mg/L in water and74.64mg/L in sediment) was higher than those of rainy season (0.134mg/L in water and26.43mg/L in sediment) and Summer season (-0.326mg/L in water and 99.36mg/L in sediment)

62

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

in study site I. Similar results were observed in study site II. However, As concentrations inwater which collected from study site II was higher than that of study site I although As
concentrations in sediment which collected from study site I was higher than that of study site II(Table 3, 4).
Lead concentration in water at winter season (1.003mg/L in water and 74.64mg/L in
sediment) was higher than those of rainy season (0.134mg/L in water and 26.43mg/L in
sediment) and summer season (- 0.326 mg/L in water) but summer season was the most higher(99.36 in sediment) in study site I. Similar results were observed in study site II. However, Pb
concentrations in water and sediment which collected from study site I were higher than that ofstudy site II in summer season (Table 3, 4).
Cadmium concentration in water and sediment at rainy season (-0.005mg/L in water and0.02mg/L in sediment) was higher than those of summer season (-0.011mg/L in water and0.025mg/L in sediment) and winter season (-0.008mg/L in water and 0.029mg/L in sediment) instudy site I. Similar results were observed in study site II. However, Cd concentrations in waterand sediment which collected from study site I were higher than that of study site II in summer
season (Table 3, 4).
WHO maximum permissible limit of As, Pb and Cd in muscle tissue of fish are 0.01
mg/L, 1 mg/L and 0.2 mg/L, respectively. Concentrations of As, Pb and Cd in muscle tissues ofstudy three fish species were not found over the maximum levels permitted by WHO (Table 2).
Positive relationships between length of fish and concentrations of As (y = 0.380x – 16.67, r =0.868), Pb (y= 0.009x - 1.135, r = 0.955) and Cd (y = 0.002x - 0.049, r = 0.959) were found in L.
calcarifer while those were negative in O. pama (y = -1.543x +33.13, r = 0.740), Pb (y= -0.020x– 0.380, r = 0.828) and Cd (y = -0.003x + 0.091, r = 0.530) and no relation in P. paradiseus (y = 0.094x – 3.426, r = 0.045), Pb (y= -0.010x – 0.765, r = 0.232) and Cd (y = 0.001x - 0.021, r =0.161) at study site I (Table 5). Similar results were observed between body weight of fish andmetal concentrations (Table 5).
In the study site II, positive relationships between size of fish and As and Pb
concentrations in L. calcarifer, As in O. pama and Pb and Cd in P. paradiseus were observed(Table10, 11).

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Table 1. Mean total length and body weight of fish for seasonal analysis of metal concentrationin site I and site II
Summer

Study
area

Rainy

WinterSpeciesTL(cm)

Site I Lates calcarifer

Weight(g)TL(cm)

Weight(g)18.7 ± 2.71 78.4 ± 39.3 27.7 ±2.32 263.1 ±52.46

20.92 26.58 ±Otolithiodes pama

26.7 ± 0.37

137.
1 ± 6.21 24.58 ±1.57 102.2 ±Polynemus
paradiseus

16.2 ± 0.71

24.7
3 ± 2.67 16.22 ±0.67 25.33 ±Site II Lates calcarifer

TL(cm)

18.5 ±

2.3 82.5 ±Weight(g)23.3 ± 1.08 191.4 ±35.5

1.4 127.3 ±3.97

3.3 17.78 ± 0.97 4.39 ±5.46

42 18.7 ±1.86 94.82 ±34.05

27.8 ± 3.97 225.4 ± 22.05

Otolithiodes pama

20.3 ± 0.55

57.0
5 ± 5.02 21.67 ±0.37 64.22 ±5.53 24.83 ± 1.28 96.42 ± 13.13

Polynemus
paradiseus

16.3 ± 1.42

25.0
6±

0.7 46.23 ±10.2 15.06 ±7.6 18.38 ±0.8 20.33 ±2.82

MPL = Maximun permissible limit

Table 2. Variation of heavy metals concentration ( mg/L) in studied species at two different study
sites
Site I
Species

Site II

Element

MPL
Summer Rainy Winter Summer Rainy WinterLates
calcarifer

Otolithiodes
pama

Polynemus
paradiseusAs-6.837 -6.296-9.985-6.296 -6.051-10.240.26

Pb-0.873 -0.928-0.959-0.769 -0.799-0.843

1

Cd

0.009

0.007

-0.01

0.019

0.01

0.011

0.2

As

-4.872 -6.207-9.637-6.67 -5.255

-6.17

0.26

Pb

-0.893 -0.917-0.952-0.788 -0.818-0.859

1

Cd

0.008

0.008

-0.005

0.023

0.011

0.011

0.2

As

-3.379 -5.112-6.55-7.221 -4.431-5.1960.26

Pb-0.902-0.96-0.984-0.785 -0.829-0.862

1

Cd

0.006

0.001

-0.008

0.022

0.013

0.2

MPL = Maximun permissible limit

0.008

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

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Table 3. Variation of metal concentrations in water of two different study sites at Thanlwin River
Sr
No.

Site I

Site II
MPL

Elements
SummerRainy

Winter Summer

Rainy

Winter1

Arsenic-0.326

0.134

1.003

0.329

0.356

0.978 0.01

2

Lead

-0.445-0.487-0.518-0.537-0.57-0.599 0.01

3

Cadmium-0.011-0.005-0.008-0.013-0.016-0.022 0.003

Table 4. Variation of metal concentrations in sediment of two different study sites at Thanlwin
River
Site I
Site II
MPL
Sr
Elements
No.
Summer Rainy Winter Summer Rainy Winter TEC MEC PEC
1

Arsenic

99.36

26.43

74.64

43.54

29.75

9.8

21.4

33

2

Lead

-0.514 -0.467-0.477-0.549 -0.572 -0.507

36

83

130

3

Cadmium

0.025

0.029

0.023

0.99

3

5

0.02

0.235

0.023

0.028

MPL = Maximun permissible limit
TEC = Threshold effect concentration
MEC = Midpoint effect concentration
PEC = Portable effect concentration

Fig. 2. Variation of metal concentrations in

Fig. 3. Variation of metal concentrations inwater of two different study sites

sediment of two different

at Thanlwin River

study sites at Thanlwin River19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

65

Table.5.Relationship between body length(cm) and weight(g) of fish and heavy metal
concentrations in muscle tissue of fish at study site I and Site II
Site I

Heavy

species

LengthLinear equationAs

y=0.380x-16.67
2

R =0.753

WeightRemarkPositive
relation

Lates calcarifer

r=0.868Pb

y=0.009x-1.135
2

R =0.912

Positive
relation

Otolithoides pama2

R =0.919

relation=0.559Positive
relation

Y=47.24x-1305
2

R R=0.266

2

R =0.369

RemarkPositive
relation

r=0.607

Positive
relation=0.516

Y=3.474x-747.8
2

R R=0.320

Positive
relation

r=0.566

Positive

Y=-0.000x=0.0024

Negative

y=-3E-05x+0.017

Negative

R2R=0.913

relation

R2R=0.324

relation

R2R=0.270

relation

r=0.956

r=0.520=0.569y=-1.543x+33.13

Negative

y=-0.0120x-7.766

Negative=0.247x-11.54

Positive

y=0.029x-8.177

Positive

R2=0.548

relation

R2=0.773

relation

R2=0.635

relation

R2=0.746

relation

Negative

y=-0.0001x-0.731

y=-0.020x-0.380=0.979r=0.879

relation2

R =0.879=0.005x-0.949

relation2

R =0.138

R =0.066=0.371

r=0.257

y=-0.003x+0.091

Negative

y=-0.000x+0.040

Negative=-0.000x+0.030

R2=0.281

relation

R2=0.514

relation

R2=0.052

y=-0.094x-3.426

y=-0.120x=7.766
2

R =0.002

R =0.773

r=0.045r=0.879

y=-0.010x-0.765=-0.850x+8.479

relation2

R =o.989

No relation

y=-0.000x+0.023

No relation

R2=0.118
r=0.344
Negative
relation

y=0.029x-8.177
2

R =0.746

Positive
relation

r=0.864=0.994=0.015x-1.086

Positive

y=0.002x-0.895

Positive

R2=0.473

relation

R2=0.668

relation

r=0.323

r-0.176=0.688y=-0.000x-0.008

No relation

No relation

2

R2=0.031

No relation

y=-0.001x-0.909

Negative

y=0.000x-0.853

R2=0.054

y=0.001x-0.021

No relation

No relation=0.228r=0.717
No relation

r=0.864

Negative

r=0.938

2

Polynemus paradiseus

Y=0.000x-0.999

R =0.313

y=0.0018x-9.952

Y=0.000x-0.017

r=0.530

Cd

relation

2

Linear equation

relation

R =0.685

Pb

Positive

Positive

r=0.828As

R =0.743

Remark

=0.247x-12.9

Remark

Y=0.002x-0.049

2

Cd

2

Linear equation

Positive

R2R=0.919

r=0.740Pb

y=0.018x-10.98

r=0.959

r=0.959
As

Linear equation

Weig

Len

r=0.862

r=0.955
Cd

Site IINo relation

r=0.817=0.004x-0.055

Positive

y=0.000x-0.001

Positive

R2=0.026

R2=0.047

R2=0.999

relation tion

R2=0.965

relation

r=0.161

r=0.217=0.999r=0.982

Discussion
Toxic metals are very harmful because of their potential to absorb, accumulate andconcentrate in different body parts. Heavy metals, such as As, Pb and Cd are dangerous forhuman health because of their accumulation properties in the body parts (Tressou et al., 2004).
Metals bioaccumulation through aquatic food webs to fish, human and other piscivorous animals
are environmental and human health concern (Dehn et al., 2006).
Arsenic is released in the environment through natural processes such as weathering, andmay circulate in natural ecosystems for long time (Mol et al., 2010).Toxic effects appear whenarsenic is ingested in excess for long periods resulting in cancer, cutaneous malignancies,
etc.Lead is toxic metal and non-essential element for human body as it causes a rise in blood

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

66

pressure, kidney damage and miscarriage (Kiran et al., 20111).Cadmium injures the kidney, poor
reproductive capacity, hypertension, tumors and hepatic dysfunction.
Khin Thida Kyaw (2008) stated that in the Daydaye Thilawar fisheries, seasonal variationof toxic metals (As, Pb and Cd) concentration in three fish species were higher in summer andrainy season than those of winter. However, Cho Cho Thin (2017) stated that the concentrationlevel of As in muscle tissues of fish in Ayeyawady River segment of Salay environ were foundover the WHO limit but Khin Myint Mar(2011) studied that the concentration of heavy metals instudied species were lower than WHO limit. Thus, present findings were not agreed with thefindings of above authors and potential danger may not be occurred for the consumption of study
fish species from the present study area.
In the present study, arsenic, concentration in water of study site I in rainy and winterseasons as well as those of study site II in all seasons were found to higher than the WHO
limitation. In the present study, arsenic, concentration in sediment of study site I in all seasons aswell as those of study site II in summer and winter seasons were found to higher than the WHO
limitation. Arvind (2002) also stated that metal content of fish increases with the increment ofmetal level in water, sediment and food organism. Present findings were agreed with the findings
and potential danger may be occurred for water and sediment. In the present study,
concentrations of As, Pb and Cd in muscle tissues of three study fish species which collectedfrom study site I and II were not over the MPL recommended by WHO. However, near the study
sites, cement factory, machine cleaning workshop and industrial zone were established in 2014.
The accumulation trend of As was approximately summer> winter>rainy. The elevation of these
metals accumulation in this study may be due to industrial and sewage wastes. Therefore, As infish will be expected over the MPL in the future study.
In the present study, positive relationships between size of fish and heavy metal
concentrations were found in L. calcarifer while those were negative in O. pama and no relationin P. paradiseus at study site I. In the study site II, positive relationships between size of fish andAs and Pb concentrations in L. calcarifer,As in O. pama and Pb and Cd in P. paradiseus wereobserved. However, heavy metal concentrations in muscle tissues of study fish species were notover the WHO MPL. Thus, study fishes from the study area are generally safe for humanconsumption.

Acknowledgements
I am greatly indebted to Dr Thida Lay Thwe Professor/Head and Dr Aye Mi San Professor. My profoundgratitude goes to Dr Kay Lwin Tun, Professor, Department of Zoology, Yangon University and Dr Min Thu Aung,
Professor, Department of Zoology, University of Pathein, for their kind support, guidance and supervision.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

67

References
Alam, M. G. M., Tanaka, A., Allinson, G., Laurenson, L. J. B., Stagnitu, F., Snow, E. T., "A comparison of traceelement concentrations in cultured and wild carp (Cyprinus carpio) of Lake Kasumigaura, Japan.
Ecotox. Environ." 2012. Safe., 53:348-354.
Arvind, K., "Ecology of polluted waters", A. P. H Publishing Corporation, New Delhi. 2002.
Cho Cho "Thin, Relation of some essential and Toxic elements Ayeyawady on different feeding types of some
freshwater fishes along the Ayeyawady River segment, Salay Environs". PhD Thesis, Department
of Zoology, University of Yangon. 2017
Dehn L.A.,Follman E. H., Thomas D. L.,Sheffield G.G., Rosa C., Duffyl.K.,O.Harat.M., "Trophic relationships in an
Arctic food web and implication for trace metal transfer". Science of the Environment. 2006.
362,103.
Hung, H., Kallenborn, R., Breivik, K., Su, Y., Brorström-Lundén, E., Olafsdottir, K., Thorlacius, J. M., Leppänen,S., Bossi, R., Skov, H., Manø, S., Patton, G. W., Stern, G., Sverko, E., Fellin., "Atmosphericmonitoring of organic pollutants in the Arctic under the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment
Programme". Sci Total Environ Kiran, 2010. 408:
2854-2873.
Khin Thida Kyaw, "Analytical studies on toxic metals (A, Cd, Pb, and Hg) concentrations in Nga-dan (Pangasius
pangasius), Ka-kadit (Lates calcarifer), and Nga-yant (Channa striata) samples", PhD Thesis.
Department of Chemistry, University of Yangon. 2008. 61-104 pp.
Khin Myint Mar, "Uptake of heavy metals and its relationship to feeding habit of selected fish species in Ayeyawady
River, Mandalay and Magway segments", PhD Thesis. Department of Zoology, University of
Mandalay. 2011.
Kiran, Y. K., Mir, A. K., Rabia, N., Mamoona, M., Hina, F., Nighat, S., Tasmia, B., Ammarah, K., "Element content
analysis of plants of genus Ficus using actomic absorption spectrometer". African Journal of
Pharmacy and Pharmacology 5 2011. (3): 317-321.
Mansour. S. A., Sidky, M. M., "Ecotoxicological studies 3. Heavy metals contaminating water and fish from
Fayoum Governorate, Egypt". Food Chemistry, 2002. 78(1):15-22.
Mol ,O, Ozden and S.A. Oymak. Turkish J. Fish. Aqua. Sci., "Determination of Heavy Metals in Fish Tissues, Waterand Sediment from Epe and Badagry Lagoons, Lagos, Nigeria",2010. 10:209-213,
Tressou J., Crepet A., Bertail P., Feinberg M.H.., Leblanc J. Ch., Probalistic exposure assessment to food chemicals
based on extreme value theory. "Application to heavy metal from fish and sea products". Food andChemical Toxicology. 2004. 42,1349.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Analysis of Elemental Concentration in Kye Pè (Plukenetia volubilis L.)
Samples by Using WDXRF Technique
Khin Shwe Tint1

Abstract
In this research work, we have been analyzed the concentration elements in three kinds of samples
which are fruits (M1), leaves (M2) and stems (M3) for KyePè or Sacha Inchi plant. The
concentration elements in these samples were determined by using WDXRF (wavelength
dispersive X-rays fluorescence) technique. All measurements have been done in drying condition.
According to the experimental results, eighteen elements are contained in fruits sample and stems
samples, seventeen elements are contained in leaves samples. These elements are Magnesium(Mg), Aluminum (Al), Silicon (Si), Phosphorus (P), Sulfur (S), Chlorine (Cl), Potassium (K),Calcium (Ca), Titanium (Ti), Vanadium (V), Manganese (Mn), Iron (Fe), Nickel (Ni), Copper(Cu), Zinc (Zn), Rubidium (Rb), Strontium (Sr) and Lead (Pb) elements in fruits sample (M1) andstems sample (M3) and then Nickel (Ni) is not contain in leaves sample (M2). The concentrationof Silicon (Si) is large in leave (M2) samples. The concentration of Potassium (K), Calcium (Ca)and Magnesium (Mg) are largest in this research samples. The concentration element in Kye Pè
can be prevented diabetes, hypertension, cancer cell and heart disease. Health benefits of Kye Pè
include improving digestion, aiding in weight loss, managing diabetes and stimulating cognition.
Kye Pè plant is a medicinal plant.
Keywords: WDXRF technique, elemental concentration, Kye Pè plant.

1. Introduction
Everybody, human health is very important. If everybody has good health, everybody will
make everything. Nowadays, people would like to use fresh air, clean water, hygienic food andgood medicine for health but human activities are causing harm. Plants are not only the major
source of energy-rich foods in our societies, but are also an indispensable source of vitamin andother substances promoting healthy growth. They have played an important role in traditional
medicine in Myanmar since ancient time. Human health, natural safeguard and minimizing thedamages of human activities to Earth are the environmental study today. The aim of this researchis to analysis of the concentration of elements in Sacha inchi or Kye Pè samples by using
WDXRF (wavelength dispersive X-rays fluorescence) technique. We have collected the fruits,
leaves and stems of Sacha inchi or Kye Pè plant. These samples were collected from KyunHla
village, Myittha Township, Mandalay Region.
2. Experimental Procedure
2.1 Sample Collection
In this research, we analyzed the three samples in Sacha inchi or Kye Pè plant samples byusing WDXRF. We collected three samples which are fruits, leaves and stems. To analysis theelemental concentration of these samples, they were sent to Department of Chemistry,
Yadanabon University. The concentrations of elements contained in three samples were analyzed
by WDXRF technique.

1

Dr. Lecturer, Department of Physics, Yadanabon University, Myanmar, physdrshwe@gmail.com

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Sample Preparation
Sample preparation is very important process to experiment. In the first step, threesamples were dried under the shade of any roof. These samples were ground in order to get fine
powders. The lists of sample are shown in Table (1).
Table 1. The list of samples.
Local Name

Kye PèEnglish Name
Scientific Name

Sacha inchi, sacha
peanutFamily Name

Plukenetia volubilis L

First sample code

Euphorbiaceaes

Second samplecode

M1 ( fruits)

Third samplecode

M3 (stems)

M2 (leaves)

The characters of three samples are shown in Figure 1 to Figure 4.

Figure 1. The Kye Pè plants from Myittha Township, KyunHla village, Mandalay region.

Figure 2. The photograph of dried fruits (M1) and fine powder in Kye Pè plant.

Figure 3. The photograph of dried leaves (M2) and fine powder in Kye Pè plant.

Figure 4. The photograph of dried cortices (M3) and fine powder in Kye Pè plant

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

71

These powders were sent to Experimental Laboratory, Department of Chemistry,
Yadanabon University. Sample preparation is important in the WDXRF analysis because it isrequired to get flat, smooth and homogeneous samples for best results. To obtain reliable resultsin X-ray emission spectrometry, proper sampling is taken and sample storage and sample
preparation prior to measurement are conducted. Then hydraulic press machine and a 32 mm
diameter die set including a die body, base and two polished metal disks were used for pellet
sample in our research work. Prior to pelletizing all parts of the die set was carefully cleaned withmethylated spirit to prevent contamination. Initially each sample was weighed using digitalbalance to obtain the needed amount (5g). Binding agent is added to form stable pellet of thesamples. Therefore, binder (1g) was added to the samples (5g) and they were mixed tohomogenize with each other. After that weighed sample were poured into the die set (mould) andpressed with 25 tons for 15 minutes by using hydraulic press machine. The pellet was thenremoved from the die set, taking care not to creak it in the process. After getting the pellet, eachof these samples is weighed again and whose weight is exactly 5g is used in this experiment. In
making pressed pellets for each sample, these samples were weighted by using the digitalbalance. The density of each pellet is 0.2 gcm-3.X-ray fluorescence technique is a multi-elemental
quantities determination and it can provide concentration of many elements contained in thesample by a single measurement. Three samples were analyzed by using energy dispersive X-ray
fluorescence system. All of the pellet samples were analyzed 600 sec for four secondary targets
system and the measurement of atmosphere is helium purge. It is used 50 kV bias voltage andtube current is automatically adjusted by hardware. The analyzed range is 0-50 keV. The X-ray
spectrum is analyzed with the help of computer to obtain the concentration of each element in thesample. This research was done with WDXRF technique in Experimental Laboratory,
Department of Chemistry, Yadanabon. The wavelength dispersive spectrometer is usuallycoupled with a SEM imaging system and requires dedicated instruments designated by electron
microprobe micro-analyzer (EPMA). The spectrometer uses diffraction to sort by wavelength thecharacteristic. X-rays emitted by the sample. The X-rays are selected using analytical crystals
with specific lattice spacing positioned at specific θ angles. Only the wavelengths that satisfy
Bragg’s law are allowed to pass on the detector. The analytical crystals are bent in order to focus
the X-ray beam on the sample and on the detector. These are situated in the Rowland circle tomaximize the collection efficiency of the spectrometer. The function of diffraction is shown in
Figure (5).

Figure 5. The function of diffraction in WDXRF technique

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Each element produces a unique set of characteristic X-rays when bombarded withelectros. Each X-ray will have a specific energy and wavelength. Wavelength dispersive
spectrometers (WDS) sort the X-rays based on their λ. WDS system use X-ray diffraction as themeans by which they separate X-rays. The spectrometer consists of the crystal and diffract willenter the detector. An X-ray photon will diffract, depending on its wavelength, the orientation of
the crystal and the crystal’s lattice spacing. Only X-ray of a given wavelength will enter thedetector at a given time. To measure X-rays of another wavelength, the crystal and the detector
are moved to a new position. Since a specific WD spectrometer can measure only one X-ray
wavelength at a time. It is important that a WDXRF system has an array of spectrometers inorder to work efficiency. Electron microprobes typically have up to five elements
simultaneously. Each spectrometer typically has between two and four analyzing crystals, eachwith a different lattice spacing, because each type of crystal can diffract only a given wavelength.
WDXRF requires standard reference materials in concentrations similar to the materials toinvestigate and is typically used for quantitative spot analysis. The composition of unknown
samples is determined by comparing the intensities obtained from studied samples with thosefrom the reference standard materials.
3. Results and Discussion
In this research work, three samples of fruits (M1), leaves (M2) and stems (M3) for
Plukenetia volubilis L. or Kye Pè or Sacha Inchi were analyzed with WDXRF (wavelength
dispersive X-rays fluorescence)technique in the Experimental Laboratory, Department ofChemistry, Yadanabon University. Elemental concentrations of sample contained in the threesamples were measured by WDXRF technique and their results are expressed in Table (2). The
graphs of these samples are shown in Figure (6).
The concentration of elements was analyzed for three samples. The three samples are M1,
M2 and M3. The concentration of elements for three samples is shown in Table (3). According to
the experimental results, the sample of fruit (M1) is contained eighteen kinds of elements. Theyare Magnesium (Mg), Aluminum (Al), Silicon (Si), Phosphorus (P), Sulfur (S), Chlorine (Cl),
Potassium (K), Calcium (Ca), Titanium (Ti), Vanadium (V), Manganese (Mn), Iron (Fe), Nickel(Ni), Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn), Rubidium (Rb), Strontium (Sr) and Lead (Pb) elements. According
to the experimental results, Lead (Pb) element is minimum concentration. The samples of leaf(M2) are contained seventeen kinds of elements. According to the experimental results, Bromine(Br) element is very small concentration. The samples of stem (M3) are contained eighteen kindsof elements. They are Magnesium (Mg), Silicon (Si), Aluminum (Al), Phosphorus (P), Sulfur(S), Chlorine (Cl), Potassium (K), Calcium (Ca), Vanadium (V), Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn),Bromine (Br), Rubidium(Rb), Manganese (Mn), Titanium (Ti), Iron (Fe), Strontium (Sr) andLead (Pb) elements. According to the experimental results, the concentration of Bromine (Br)element is very small in M3 samples.

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Table (2) The comparison of elemental concentration in M1, M2 and M3 samples.
Symb
ol
K
Ca
Mg
P
S
Si
Al
Cl
Fe

Concentration
(ppm)
M1
M2
M3
42800.00 43200.00 53700.00
8290.00 54600.00 21500.00
3700.00
4400.00
5400.00
3120.00
2660.00
3160.00
2680.00
4090.00
1840.00
1450.00 32200.00 2940.00
655.001450.00
1140.00
203.00377.00390.00173.00462.00245.00

Symbol
Zn
Ti
Mn
Cu
Sr
Rb
V
Ni
Pb

Concentration
(ppm)
M1
M2
M3
39.00 42.00
36.00
24.00 93.00
50.00
23.00 86.00
39.00
20.00 23.00
17.00
17.00 139.00 50.00
10.00
7.00
10.00
3.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
4.00
4.00

Figure 6. The experimental results of elemental concentration in M1, M2 and M3 samples.

4. Conclusion
According to the experimental result, the concentration of potassium (K) is larger insample M3 than M2 and M1. The potassium is highest concentration in M3. This element isneeded for many essential process including enzyme activation photosynthesis. Potassium is oneof the seven essential macrominerals. Potassium (K) participates actively in the maintenance ofthe cardiac rhythm. High levels of potassium in the blood have been linked to pressure, heart andkidney disorders, and other health problems.
The concentration of calcium (Ca) measured in M1 is small and measured in M2 is larger
than M3. Calcium is the main constituent of the skeleton, bone and dental health and important
for regulating many vital cellular activities such as nerve and muscle function and lowers the
blood pressure. The concentration of magnesium (Mg) measured in M3 is large and measured in74

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

M2 and M1 is small. Magnesium is essential for both plant and animal growth and health.
Magnesium is also included in some remedies for heartburn and upset stomach due to acidindigestion. The concentration of phosphorus (P) measured in M1 and M3 is large and measuredin M2 is small. Phosphorus is required in most of the body’s bio-chemical process including cell
growth and converting food to energy is also required for metabolism of fats and carbohydrate toproduce energy. The main function of P is to bind with calcium to make healthy teeth and bones.
It is also necessary for the synthesis of protein for repair and growth of tissue and cells.
Other key functions help the body to utilize vitamin B complex and support proper nerve andmuscle functioning, maintaining, calcium balance and preventing high blood calcium levels. The
concentration of sulfur (S) measured is larger in sample M2 than M1 and M3 is smaller than M1.
This element aids the liver in bile secretion and maintains oxygen balance for proper brain
function and is involving in the clotting of blood. It assists in the fight against bacterial infection
by disinfecting the blood helping the body resist bacterial, and protecting. The concentration ofIron (Fe) measured in M1 and M3 is smaller than M2. This element is an essential element forhuman beings and animals and component of hemoglobin. It facilitates the oxidation ofcarbohydrates, protein and fat to control body weight, which is very important factor in diabetes.
The concentration of Lead (Pb) measured in three samples is very small. Lead is a useful andcommon metal that has been used by humans for thousands of years. Lead in the body is
distributed to the brain, liver, kidney and bones. It accumulates over time. Lead in bone isreleased into blood during pregnancy and becomes a source of exposure to the developing fetus.
The concentration of Potassium (K), Calcium (Ca) and Magnesium (Mg) are largest in thisresearch sample. The concentration element in Kye Pè can be prevented diabetes, hypertension,
cancer cell and heart disease. Health benefits of Kye Pè include improving digestion, aiding inweight loss, managing diabetes and stimulating cognition. Kye Pè plant is a medicinal plant.
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my heartful thanks to Dr Mg Mg Naing, Rector, Dr Tint Moe Thuzar and Dr Si Si
Khin, Pro-Rector of Yadanabon University for giving permission and encouragement. I wish to express my gratitudeof Professor Dr.Yi Yi Myint, Head of Physics Department, Yadanabon University, for her valuable advice in thisresearch work.I am also grateful to Professor Dr May Thida Win, Physics Department, Yadanabon University, for
her advice and suggestions.

References[1] Guillen, MariaDet al., “Characterization of SachaInchi (Plukenetia Volubilis L.) Oil by FTIR spectroscopy and
LH NMR.Comparison with Linseed Oil”.Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society. 80(8):755-762, (2003).
[2] Hla Hla Than, Dr., "Analysis of Traditional Medicine", University of Yangon (2000).
Hufstader. Chris. “Looking to SachaInchi for their Future”. Oxfam Exchange, (2009).
[3] Ministry of Health, Department of Trditional Medicine, "Collection of Commonly Used Herbal Plants" (1982).
[4] L. friberget al., "Handbook on the Toxicology of metals" Elsever, Amsterdan (1979).
[5] Win Myint, Dr., “A Study on Combined Effects of TMF-27 and TMF-35 on Plants with Type 2 Diabetes
Mllitus”, University of Trditional Medicine, Mandalay (2012).

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Importance of Soil Moisture Balance and Soil texture in Yields of Crop:
A Case Study of Thayetlaypin Village Tract in Magway Township
Hlaing Myo Myo Htay1, Win Win Maw2, Si Si Wai3, Hnin Khaing Aye4

Abstract
Climate, soil moisture and soil texture interact with each other for crops growth. The main issue
is crop yield deterioration in Magway Township. It is necessary to know the nature of soil waterin the area for future utilization in agriculture. The aim of this research is to investigate the effectof soil moisture balance and texture on crop yields of Magway Township. Soil moisture balance
was calculated by CW Thornthwaite method to estimate the balance of soil water in the soil. Soilwater content is controlled by the soil texture. Soil texture was analyzed by biker method. Soil
textural class is determined by USDA soil textural triangle, 1987. The main types of soil texture
are sandy loam, loamy sand and sandy soil. The relative yields of sesame and groundnut are
25.67% and 78.38% respectively. Soil moisture deficiency is 538.10 mm/month in 2018.
According to the ratio of evapotranspiration and rainfall, the study area needs the water supply orrain fall. The variables can effectively explain the yield together with other variables ascorrelation. As a result, the yields of sesame and groundnut related to these soil properties but
not significantly.
Keywords: soil moisture balance, soil texture, crop yields

1. Introduction
The soil moisture budget refers to water in the soil as moisture, as it is the term mostcommonly used by scientists who study the subject from the agronomist‘s point of view. A
fundamental concept of physical geography is that the availability of water to plants and animals
is more important in the environment than precipitation itself (Fundamental of physicalgeography). Field capacity of a given soil depends largely on its texture. Soil texture influenceson the availability of water to the plant. Soil texture also impacts organic matter levels; organic
matter breaks down faster in sandy soil than in fine texture soil (www.ristormwatersolutions.).
Soil texture is composition of size of soil particles that is sand, silt, clay. Soil texture can beclassified by the percentage of sand, silt and clay into loam, silty loam, loamy sand, sandy loam,
silty clay loam, etc. (www.ristormwatersolution.org). The importance of soil texture determines
different methods and management decisions in cultivation. There are also subclass in sand andsilt. Sand is divided into very coarse sand, coarse sand, medium sand, fine sand and very finesand (USDA, 1987). Density of soil porosity, water holding capacity, organic matter content andsusceptibility to erosion are controlled by soil texture (Daji et al 1996; Biswas and Mukherjee,1994). Sandy soil is suitable for maize, groundnut potato and grapes (USDA,1987). The
relationship between crop yield and soil is very complex and depends on complex interaction
between physical and chemical properties of soil and other external natural factors’(Sys etal,1991). The soil quality should be tested before cultivation; does soil have problems? Does thecrop need water? How much should you apply? Therefore, soil analysis is very important for tofarmers. In this paper, soil texture, moisture and basic analysis of soil properties such as pH, and1Dr., Professor, Department of Geography, University of Magway, Myanmar, myomyo67.hh39@gmail.com
Assistant Lecturer, Department of Geography, University of Magway, Myanmar, winwinmaw.mdy.24@gmail.com
3
Assistant Lecturer, Department of Geography, University of Magway, Myanmar, sisiwai.mdy.26@gmail.com
4Dr., Lecturer, Department of Geography, University of Magway, Myanmar, ,hninkhineaye@gmail.com
2

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

organic matter were studied preliminarily for suitable crops cultivation and also to sustain thecrop productivity base on moisture conditions.
Aim and Objectives
The aim of this paper is to investigate the effect of soil moisture balance and texture on
crop yields of Magway Township. The objectives are as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.

To measure the ratio between precipitation and evapotranspiration
To analyze the soil moisture budget
To determine the soil textural categories andTo find out the relationship between soil properties and crop yields

2. Materials and Methods
This research was done based on the primary data. The soil samples were collected bygrid method in field area. With the sample collection, land owners were interviewed in detail aswell as their suggestions regarding crop yield. Selection of study area, literature survey, andselection of soil samples location in grid methods have been done before going to the field. Soil
texture has been tested by biker method in study room. Soil moisture balance was analyzed by
CW Thornthwaite method. After that soil test data are plotted on map by GIS 10.0.The
estimation of evaporation was used by Penman coefficient equation.Finally, interpretation andanalyzing was done by using MS-Excel 2007.
2.1 Study Area
Magway Township is one of the significant oil crops areas in Central Myanmar. Sesameand groundnut are predominantly cultivated crops in this area. The Thatyetlaypin village tract
consisting of the oil pots in Magway Township was chosen as a case study to explore relation
between the soil texture, moisture and crops. The study area is located at between latitude 19 0 45ʹ
North and latitude 20 0 21ʹ North and between longitude 94 0 54ʹ East and longitude 96018ʹ East.
The total area is 11007acres on which 5142 acres is cultivable land, actually in Thatyetlaypin
Village Tract.

Figure 1. Thatyetlaypin Village Tract.

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3. Results and Discussions
3.1 Relationship between precipitation and evapotranspiration
Potential evapotranspiration is a maximum water loss and it measures the moisturedemand for regions, (CW Thornthwaite, 1948) and also the ratio of precipitation to potential
evapotranspiration. This ratio may be less than 0.1 for these regions; water must be supplied at
potential rate. The ratio of precipitation to evapotranspiration ranges from 0.2 to 0.6, again
indicating a need for irrigation water in crop production. The range is from 0.8 to 1.6, indicatinga rather well balanced situation and in some cases, water surplus. In the study area, the ratio of
precipitation to evapotranspiration lying within 0.8 to 1.6, indicates rather well balanced situationand in some cases, water surplus.
3.2 Soil moisture budget analyze in study area
The annual water budget of the soil concerned with the storage of water in soil, runoff
and deficiency for plant growth. The basic soil moisture balance equation is as follows:
P=E+G+R (CW Thorn Thwaite, 1948) Where P = Precipitation, E = Evapotranspiration, G =Change in soil moisture storage, R = Runoff. The water balance has been calculated the waterbalance for each month singly and for the year as a whole. As a result, precipitation varies areless than actual evapotranspiration value. In this case, very high potential evapotranspiration is
occurred. When Ep (Potential Evapotranspiration) exceed P (precipitation), the plant must draw
up moisture stored in the soil as an attempt to sustain as rapid growth as possible at all time. P ismeasurable in small amount in most months. The values of Ep are always larger. Consequently
soil moisture deficiency (D) prevails throughout all months of the year although the storage ofmoisture is larger than 300 mm. Therefore, crops thrive without irrigation and yields are high insome years.(Table-1)
Table (1) The equation of Soil moisture budget analysis of study area
Rainfall AET
91.95
0
0
6.1
172.97491.9999.06
182.12
15
117.1
0
15
1191.29

G(-)

46.66
58.22 -58.22
80.3
-80.3
89.78 -83.68
96.11
84.83
87.17
11.89
83.24
80.39 -65.39
69.57
47.53
54.71 -54.71
47.93 -32.93
878.9 -315.81

G(+)
45.29

76.86
77.07
98.88
17.71

315.81

R

PET

66.66
83.18
114.72
128.26137.3
330.09 121.18
124.53118.92114.84
99.39
78.15
68.46
330.09 1255.58

Source: Meteorology and Hydrology Department, Magway Region

D=PETAET
20
24.95
34.42
38.48
41.19
36.35
37.36
35.68
34.45
29.82
23.45
20.54
376.67

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

3.3 Soil textural classes of study area
According to the experimental results, soil textural classes were determined by the ratioof sand silt and clay. In the study area, the soil textural class is moderately coarse textures areloamy sand, sandy loam and sand respectively. The common names are sandy soils and texture
are coarse texture .Size of grain size is involved in the group of 2-0.05 mm (USDA 1987). In the
study area, sandy loam 70%, loamy sand 20%, sand texture 10 % is occurred. Spatial distributionof Soil texture classes were shown in figure(2).The result show that the loamy sand contains
87.5% of sand, silt 8.3 %and clay 4.2%. The sandy loam types contains sand 68%,silt 21% andclay 11%.

Figure 2. Spatial distributions of soil texture classes of study area

3.4 Soil water content
The soil water content is the amount of water held in the soil at any given time. Averagewater content for various soils textural classes are shown with organic carbon, pH and humus intable (3). According to table 3, soil water holding capacity was observed with soil texture. The
correlation coefficient( r) between the percent of sand content in soil samples and water holding
capacity(WHC) is positive correlation (r= 0.54).It is 74% significantly. Moreover, the correlation
between clay content in soil samples and WHC is assessed by regression method .The correlation
value is (r= 0.59). The relation of silt content in soil samples and WHC is positive correlation (r=0.47).So, Soil texture controls the water holding capacity. Furthermore, the organic matter carbon
is very low and low value in the study area. There are positive correlation between organiccarbon and WHC (r=0.02). So, the study area is not sufficient in organic carbon in the soil.
Organic matters retain the soil moisture. So it is suggested that providing the soil organic matter
increases the soil water holding capacity.

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Table (3) Soil Water holding capacity and properties of soil with texture in study area
availablewaterorganic
carbonSoil texture

field capacity

PH

Humus

sandy loam

21

12

0.3

7.29

0.47

loamy sand

19

11

1.4

8.0

2.5

sandy loam

21

12

0.3

6.3

0.5

sandy loam

21

12

0.4

6.5

0.6

sandy loam

21

12

0.4

6.7

0.6

sandy loam

21

12

0.3

6.5

0.6

sandy loam

21

12

0.3

6.7

0.5

loamy sand

19

11

1.4

8.0

2.4

sandy

12

7

0.3

8.0

2.5

sandy loam

21

12

0.2

6.3

0.6

Source: USDA (1987) and field data

3.5 The relative crop yields
The sesame and groundnut yields were collected from each sample field. Therefore, The
potential of crop production cannot be equaled in actual because of other factors. Therefore, raw
yield data (survey) was calculated by relative crop yield (pp.435,Katalin Jushos, Szilard Szaabo,
and Marta Ladanyi, September,2015). The data were calculated by using the relative yield ofeach crop as follows: RY p =Y p /Y max RY p is the relative yield of plot p(a value between 0
and 1), Y p = the yield of plot p (t/h-1), Y max = maximum yield the total research site over all plots(t/h-1).According to the indices of yield, the relative yield of sesame is less than the relative yieldof groundnut. The largest yields of sesame and groundnut indices value are 1, 1 are found insandy loam type respectively. The yield variability of sesame and groundnut are 63.17% and27.84%. Table (4) shows the Indices of crop relative yield of plot. As a result, the sandy loam
type and sandy soil are more suitable for sesame crop and for groundnut.
Table (4) Indices of crop relative yield of plot
samplesoil typesandy loam
loamy sandsandy loam
sandy loam
loamy sandsandy loam
sandy loam
loamy sandsandsandy loam
Sources; Field survey

yields/Acres
sesame
8
6
5
6
6.7
6
6
4.4
5
5

Yield /Acres
groundnut
6
4
8
6
5.3
8
5
5.4
10
4

Relative Yield(Sesame)
1
0.8
0.6
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.7

Relative yield(Groundnut)
0.60
0.40
0.80
0.60
0.53
0.8
0.50
0.54
1.00
0.64

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3.6 An analysis of importance of Soil properties on crop yields
Based on the soil moisture balance and soil texture, soil water, field capacity, organic,pH, humus is studied for the crop yields. These factors were analyzed by regression analysis
method. As a result, the relative of sesame yield / acres are relations the available water in soil
due to the r value=0.47, as well as significant level p=0.16(84%). Similarly, the yields ofgroundnut were observed with percent of water available in the soil, it is also correlated to theavailable of water in soil due to the significant level 0.07(93%). In the analysis of oil crop
relationship, field capacity and yields of sesame are correlations due to the correlation coefficient
r=0.47. Moreover, the confident level is 0.16(84%).The relationship between groundnut and field
capacity were occurred significantly by p value is 0.08(91%).Furthermore, the relation between
sesame yields and the percent of sand content in the soil samples were observed due to thecoefficient correlation r=0.58. Moreover the relationship between sesame and pH value is verystrong correlation (r=0.92).However, the relationship between pH in the samples and groundnut
yields is very weak(r=0.26).The pH value also is correlation significantly with the humus in thesample soil due to the r value (r=0.91). All these variables are also controlled by soil texture.
Therefore, the others factors have to consider for the increase of crop yields.
4. Conclusion
According to the relationship between precipitation and evapotranspiration, the value ofratio is indicating to the good water balance situation for plant growth in the study area. Whereas
the conditions of moisture balance, the crop can grow without irrigation because of the storage ofmoisture larger than 300 mm. Furthermore, the common type of soil is sandy soil and the basic
soil classes are sandy loam, loamy sand and sandy soil. Soil texture classes are more suitable forin sesame and groundnut. The basic type of soil textural classes determines the water for plant
growth. As a result, the yields of sesame and groundnut are related to these physical andchemical properties but it is not significantly related. However, the soil moisture, texture andproperties are not only important but also need to test before crop cultivation for soil quality.
Therefore, it is suggested that other external factors have to be considered in the crop
cultivations.

Acknowledgements
We deeply indebted to Dr Khin Maung Oo, Rector of University of Magway, for his kind permission to do
this research. We also thank to Dr Khin Myo Myo Chun, (Professor and Head, Department of geography, Universityof Magway) for her recommendation. Finally, we acknowledge to Science Council of Asia and all respectableteachers for call paper and encouragement.

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

References[1] Maurice Amooh,Kwame Nkrumoh ,University of Science and Technology, Effects of Soil Texture and Organic
matter in Evaporative loss of soil moisture, August, 2015.
[2] Surinda Jalota and Seven authors,Punjab Agriculture University, Soil Texture, Climate and Management effecton plant growth, grain yield and water use by rainfed maize-wheat cropping system: field andsimulation study.
[3] Katain Jushos, Szilard Szaabo,and Marta Ladanyi, Influence of soil Properties on Crop Yield: a multivariate
statistical approach. September,2015[4] Kshudiram Chakraborty& Biswranjan Mistri, Importance of soil texture in sustenance of agriculture: A study in
Burdwan-I C.D Block, Burdwam, West Bengal,Vol XXINo1 Jan, 2015,ISSN 0973-7642[5] T.N.Nath,Int.J.chem.sci.: Soil Texture and Total Organic Matter content and Its Influences on Soil Water
Holding Capacity of Some Selected Tea Growing Soils in Sivasagar District ofAssam,India,12(4),2014,1419-1429,ISSN 0972-768X,www.sadgurupublication.com,[6] Zachary M.Easton, Assistance Professor and Extension Specialist,Virginia Cooperative Extension,Virginia
Tec.Virginia University, Soil and Soil Water Relationships ,PSE-194P,

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Operation Models of Mini-Grid in Myanmar: The Case of
Shan State
Kensuke Yamaguchi1, Hiroshi Komikado2

Abstract
In Myanmar, rural electrification by mini-grids is necessary for its balanced development. This
paper examines the effectiveness of each operation model in conflict areas in Shan State. There are
four operation models: utility-operator; private-operator; community; and hybrid model. First,
focus group interviews were conducted to sample representative cases of each model. Next, asurvey was conducted on each operator about energy capacity, energy resources, tariff, owner, andmaintenance. Finally, semi-structured interviews were conducted on members of the Parliament
and the state assembly and the chief of the ward. Three main points were found out: (i) When theprivate enterprise operates, the tariff can be reduced through the economy of scale. But the private
have low incentives to enter conflict areas. (ii) When the local leader is responsible, people enjoy
relatively cheap electricity with stable supply, which eventually benefits anti-government armed
forces. (iii) When the community both constructs and operates, the tariff is highest due to its highinitial cost, which widens inequality in the community. In the conflict areas, a hybrid model—
mini-grids initially built by governments, then transferred to communities—is most feasible. To
scale up this model, a rural development fund is recommended to subsidize initial costs.
Keywords: Rural electrification, Mini-grid, Operation model, Rural Development Fund,
Myanmar

1.

Introduction

In Myanmar, there is an unbalanced situation in the use of electricity between urban andrural areas. People living in urban areas enjoy electricity with heavily subsidized tariff, whilepeople in rural areas face much higher tariff, and often do not have access to electricity. Since
the beginning of the rule by Burmese people in 1948, ethnic minorities, most of whom live inrural areas, have increasingly suffered from this unfair situation. As a consequence, severe
poverty still remains among minorities while the urban development is rapid.
As a counter, lots of ethnic groups formed armed forces and they began incidents with
the national army. Electrification in rural areas is essential to correct the gap among ethnic
groups and achieve balanced development over the nation (Noah and Yamaguchi, 2017;
Yamaguchi et al., 2018ab; Yamaguchi, 2019). Especially in conflict areas, expansion of thenational grid has a huge risk, and then the development of mini-grids has its significance forelectrification. This paper examines the effectiveness of each operation model of mini-grids in
Shan State with contentious conflicts area.
2.

Methods

There are several key issues for mini-grids, such as who should manage and own them.
As the initial and running costs of mini-grids are far larger than the cost of a small power
management system such as SHS, their business sustainability needs to be considered carefully(ERIA, 2018; GNESD, 2014; Seguin, 2014). An analysis using the business operator model
1

Project Assistant Professor, Institute of Future Initiatives, The University of Tokyo,
yamaguchi@ifi.u-tokyo.ac.jp; +81-(0)3-5841-0933
2
Research Assistant, Institute of Future Initiatives, The University of Tokyo, komikadohiroshi@gmail.com

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

84

gives an effective view of the discussion (Safdar, 2017). Focusing on operators of mini-grids
makes it possible to analyze the structure of the business, the flow of funds, among others.
Although there is no universal solution for electrification by mini- grids, an appropriate
business model can be chosen based on the advantages and disadvantages for business
operators, and the situations where mini-grids are introduced. There are four models of minigrids operators: Utility operator model; Private operator model; Community model; Hybrid
model (European Union Energy Initiative Partnership Dialogue Facility, 2014; Shirley, 2018).
Based on the advantages and disadvantages mentioned in previous papers, mini-grids in Shan
State are analyzed in this paper.
Data used in the analysis were collected from the field survey conducted by authors from
October to December in 2018. There were three surveys in the field survey. The first survey isfocus group interviews with five informants on Shan State, including a member of Kachin
Democratic Party, members and an advisor of Union Parliament. It was conducted to sample
six representative towns with mini-grids in Shan State, considering the operator model ofoperators of mini-grids. The second is a questionnaire survey on each operator of the six
representative town to collect basic information, such as tariff, energy capacity, energy
resources, owner, and people in charge of maintenance. The third is semi-structured interviews
with 12 stakeholders related to each mini-grid, including members of the Parliament, membersof a state assembly, and the chief of the ward. It was conducted to collect information about theadvantages and disadvantages of each model to clarify detail information of each case.

3.

Results and Discussion

First, focus group interviews picked up six representative cases of mini-grid. Real names
and locations of the cases are not used to protect personal information and the towns are renamed Town A, Town B, Town C, Town D, Town E, and Town F. It was clarified that the six
representative cases can be divided into four models. Private Operator Model (Private
enterprise); Private Operator Model (Local leaders and armed ethnic groups); Community
Model; Hybrid Model (Community transfer). Unlike the previous paper, it was clarified that
there was no utility-operator model, but that private-operator model can be divided into twomodels: Private enterprise; Local leaders and armed ethnic groups.
Basic information of each case and model, such as tariff and energy capacity, wasclarified by the questionnaire survey. Table 1 summarizes the result. Information about scale(Energy capacity), tariff, operator, owner, and maintenance are described in each case.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

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Table1. Mini-grid in Shan State, Myanmar

PrivatePrivateenterprise

HybridCommunity

Local leader

Town B 6,300 kW

Illumination:
MMK100/kWh
Industry:

Town E 20 MW

MMK65/kWhPrivateenterprise

Privateenterprise,

Privateenterprise

Town C 640 kW

MMK35/kWhPrivategovernment
Armed

Privateenterprise
Privateethnic group
Local leader

enterprise
PrivateTown F 75 and 65 MMK500
kW/bulb
Town D 160 kW
MMK100–200/kWh

Community
burdenCommunitytransfer

Privateenterpriseenterprise
Community(government

Four
stockholders

Privateenterpriseenterprise
Community

Community

Community

Communityloan)
Town A 5 kW

MMK1000

From DRD/monthto Community

Source: Based on interviews conducted by authors

Private Operator Model (Private enterprise) is observed in Town B and Tow E. Privatecompanies contract with the government to invest and manage the business In Town B, privatecompanies and residents are communicating each other and both are satisfied. However, in rural
areas, residents are dissatisfied with electricity charges because they do not know the pricing
system. Private Operator Model (Local leaders and armed ethnic groups) is observed in Town C
and Town F, where armed forces are involved in electricity distribution. Armed groups invest ina power generator for electricity supply as company shareholders. The private company by thearmed forces that set up the system is given overall control by the local government and taxes
are paid to the federal government. In some cases, the community is involved in systemadministration because the armed forces are closely related to the community.
Community Model is observed in Town D, and the government provides loans toresidents for an initial investment. The mini-grid is owned by the community and is managed byseveral residents. The initial cost is borne by the residents. Hybrid Model (Community transfer)
is observed in Town A, allowing low-cost operation by the community. The initial cost of themini-grid was borne by government agencies and foreign funds, and its operation will be handed
over to the community. Japan International Cooperation System transfers human resources tothe community through the Department of Rural Development (DRD). The community owns
and manages the mini-grid. This system is expected to reduce electricity costs because it only
recovers the lowest operational costs.
As a result, the following three points became clear. First, as the private operator model,
not only private companies but also local leaders are often business operators. When theoperators are private enterprises, the average energy capacity is ten times bigger than that ofother models. On the other hand, if the operator is a local leader, the tariff is cheaper than other19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

86

models, but the owner is an anti-government army. Second, the tariff of the Community Model
was from three to five times than that of other models. Third, as the Hybrid Model (Community
transfer), transfers of mini-grid facilities from the Department of Rural Development tocommunities are observed. In this model, energy capacity is much smaller than that of othermodels.
Based on the results, an appropriate model of mini-grids is discussed for rural
electrification. If the private enterprise is responsible for an operation of mini-grid, there is anadvantage that the economy of scale can be pursued and the price can be reduced. On the other
hand, these private-sector businesses have low incentives to enter areas with frequent conflicts
and poor purchasing power because there is a possibility that they cannot recover their cost.
Then, areas, where the private enterprise wants to introduce mini-grids, are limited and, that is,Private Operator Model (Private enterprise) is limited in scale. If the local leader is responsible
for operation, people may be able to receive power supply at a cheap price, but there is aconcern that it will be a source of anti- government armed forces. In other words, the patronclient relationship in local politics is strengthened through the mini-grids. Conflicts between
armed ethnic forces and the national force will happen more often and they will be more serious.
Private Operator Model (Local leaders and armed ethnic groups) will be deepen the gap
between people in urban areas and in rural areas, which is originally planned to be solved. Whenthe community takes charge of construction and operation, mini-grids have high initial costs,
which leads to high prices. There is a possibility that the people with purchasing power and thepeople without it will be divided. Moreover, the transfer of knowledge about construction andoperation of mini-grid is another challenge for replication of mini-grids with Community
Model.
Based on the discussion above, a hybrid model can be expected to be an efficientsolution for electrification in conflict areas where purchasing power is often scarce because it
will reduce risks for private enterprises to enter the mini-grid business, because it will not be aresource for anti-governmental armed forces, and it gives all residents an access to electricity
with relatively low tariff.

4. Conclusions
This paper examines the effectiveness of each model of the Shan state mini-grid. Rural
electrification is expected to correct the disparity between ethnic groups and achieve balanced
development across the country. Particularly in conflict areas, the expansion of the national gridpresents significant risks, and the development of mini-grids is very important forelectrification. Analyses employed the framework of business operator model to discuss theappropriate model. Data was collected from a field survey conducted by the author in 2018.
There were three surveys: focus group interview, questionnaire survey, and semi-structured
interview. The survey clarified the mini-grids in Shan State can be classified into four models
and details of each models. Considering each advantages and disadvantages and current
situation in Myanmar, Hybrid model (Community transfer) is appropriate for replications ofmini-grids because there is a possibility that Hybrid model can solve the problems the othermodels have.
Finally, following three points are proposed to promote replications of mini-grids of19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

87

Hybrid model (Community transfer). First, if DRD is in charge of construction, scalability islimited. Therefore, it is highly expected to leave some of constructions to private enterprises,but, at the same time, a public subsidy needs to be provided so that they can recovered cost byoperation for a fixed period. Second, a fund under on the village development law, which isabout to be approved, can be utilized for such subsidies. For example, a gasoline tax may becollected to make the fund managed sustainably. Third, it is better for DRD to carry out
electrification within the Ministry of Electricity and Energy with not only on-grid but also offgrid electrification, although it is currently in charge of only off-grid solutions and oversees theabove-mentioned village development law. Carrying out the proposals above, mini-griddevelopments with the electric power company model, which was not seen this time, can be
expected.
1.

Recommendations

To secure government support in a significant scale, a public financing mechanism such as
fund is needed.
Where a banking sector is not mature in a country such as Myanmar, fund mechanism isimportant to achieve a certain multi-year target. Currently, a rural development law legalizing
rural development fund is in its final deliberation. As the law articulates that the fund can beused for rural infrastructure such as electrification, it is reasonable and realistic to utilize thisfund mechanism to support mini-grids by community.
The source for the fund could be secured as an ear-marked tax system such as gasolinetax.
The initial cost of the mini-grid is required to be subsidized, especially for thiscommunity model. The current public support for one project by DRD is around 0.18mil USD.
As the Minister of MOEE states, 2,000 villages need mini-grid solution in peripheral regions. A
rough calculation shows around 360 million USD to achieve mini-grid targets in conflict-prone
areas. Referring to the case in Thailand (i.e. Energy Conservation Fund, ENCON Fund), a
petroleum tax is one of the feasible options. Assuming the surging transportation usage in urban
areas, imposing an approximately 5% tax rate both on gasoline and on diesel is sufficient as thisfund source.
A certain institutional reform among relevant line-ministries is favored to diffuse minigrid systems in a large scale.
Currently, Ministry of Energy and Electricity (MOEE) is in charge of on-grid
electrification while Ministry of Agriculture and Livelihood (MoALI) conducts the off- gridelectrification projects such as the “60-20-20” program. As MoALI is not an “energy” Ministry,
the program remains at a small scale. To expand the scale and integrate off-grid systems with
on-grid ones, an institutional reform between MOEE and MoALI is required for deeper
integration and coordination. Ultimately, an integrated policy and planning bodies such as
National Energy Management Committee (NEMC) as under the previous government isrequired with more authority.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

88

Acknowledgements
The authors thank Myo Zaw Shein and Mitasu Company for its research assistance, anonymous
reviewers, and seminar participants at Yangon Technical University and the University of Tokyo for usefulcomments. This research was partially supported by the Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture, Grantin-Aid for Research Activity Start-up (17H06582, Kensuke Yamaguchi). The authors also gratefully acknowledge
financial support from the Economic Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia (ERIA).

References[1] ERIA, “Electricity futures in the Greater Mekong Sub region: Towards sustainability, inclusive development,
and conflict resolution”, ERIA, 2018[2] European Union Energy Initiative Partnership Dialogue Facility, “Mini-grid Policy
Toolkit”, European Union Energy Initiative Partnership Dialogue Facility, 2014[3] GNESD, “Renewable energy-based rural electrification: The mini-grid experience from India”, GNESD, 2014[4] Yamaguchi, K., “Why economic sanctions in Myanmar is a bad idea”, PacNet: Pacific Forum CSIS, 2019[5] Yamaguchi, K., Kittner, N., Del-barrio, D., Yoshikawa, H., and Kammen, D., “Energy for Peace in Myanmar:a sustainable and inclusive strategy”, Myanmar Times, 2018a (Burmese)[6] Yamaguchi, K., Kittner, N., and Yoshikawa, H., “Energy for Peace: ミャンマーにおける水力ダム開発”,
エネルギー・資源, 39(4), 247-251, 2018b (Japanese)[7] Kittner, N., and Yamaguchi, K., “Hydropower threatens peace in Myanmar -- but it
doesn't have to”, Nikkei Asian Review, 2017[8] Safdar, T., “Business models for mini-grids”, Smart Villages, 2017[9] Seguin Robert, “Economic feasibility of rural electrification projects”, In Side Event at the High-Level
Meeting of the Africa-EU Energy Partner- ship. Addis Ababa, 2014 [10] Shirley, R., “Fact
Sheet: Mini-Grids in India: Mini-Grid Finance and Business Models”, Power for All, 2018.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Health Risk Assessment of Soil and Water Pollution near Public Dug
Wells along Shwe-Ta-Chaung Creek in Mandalay City
Aye Myat Mon1

Abstract
The objective of this research is to determine the environmental pollution in the four public
dug wells located adjacent to the Shwe-Ta-Chaung Creek in Tanpawaddy Quarter, Mandalay,
Myanmar. Four water samples from four dug wells, named Yarma, Coco-plant, Cow Lake andSalty Water along the creek were examined with Public Health Laboratory to determine thecontamination of surface associated with waste water. The water chemical analysis reports for
twelve water quality posts of measurement in Coco-plant and Salty Water dug wells are
chemically potable and the other two dug wells are chemically unpotable. Eight soil samples
near each dug well and relevant creek were determined with Rigaku EDXRF spectrometer toestimate the elemental pollution in the soil. Modified degrees of contamination and pollution
load index for soil pollution were analyzed. The water supply wells are impacted bycontamination associated with waste water. Soil around Yarma Dug Well and Salty Water Dug
Well are more polluted than the other two dug well regions along the creek.
Keywords: Yarma Dug Well, Coco-plant Dug Well, Cow Lake Dug Well, Salty Water Dug
Well, Shwe-Ta-Chaung Creek

1. Introduction
The quality of the water in the wells can impact human health even if it is not consumed,
due to the contamination of surfaces with chemicals or pathogenic microorganisms throughimproper installation of wells, or being in close proximity to sources of pollution such as sewage
or lands fills. The main ways a home has access to water is either through a municipal watersupply from a major city or through wells. Wells exist in two forms, dug wells and tube wells. It
is hypothesized that the sewage migrates through the soil and will decrease the water quality of
the groundwater. Soil pollution as part of land degradation is caused by the presence of humanmade chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment. It is typically caused byindustrial activity, agricultural chemicals, or improper disposal or waste. Soil Pollution can havea number of harmful effects on ecosystems and human, plants and animal health. Healthconsequences from exposure to soil contamination vary greatly depending on pollutant type.
Industrial or man-made concentrations of naturally occurring substances, such as nitrate andammonia associated with livestock manure form agricultural operations, have also been
identified as health hazards in soil and groundwater.
It is suspected that the waste water from the Shwe-Ta-Chaung Creek may becontaminating the dug wells degrading the water quality. Thus, this research is to determine theimpact of the creek on environment near four public dug wells by the analysis of four water
samples and eight soil samples collected at four sites next to the creek during the dry season in
2018.

1

Dr Lecturer, Department of Physics, Banmaw University, Myanmar, ammon37@gmail.com,+9592017813

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

2. Materials and Methods
2.1 Description of Research Area
Yarma Dug Well (W1), Coco-plant Dug Well (W2), Cow Lake Dug Well (W3) and Salty
Water Dug Well (W4) are located in the Tanpawaddy, Chanmyatharsi Township, Mandalay
district, Myanmar and situated beside Mandalay-Sagaing-Shwebo Road.

2.2 Sample Location (Sampling Site), Collection and Preparation
Yarma Dug Well (W1), Coco-plant Dug Well (W2), Cow Lake Dug Well (W3) and Salty
Water Dug Well (W4) were constructed over 100 years ago. The well-bases of four wells areabout 30 feet, 9.5 feet, 45 feet and 36.5 feet away from the creek during the dry season. A
garbage area is about 75 feet, 15 feet, 95 feet and 65 feet away from each well-base. The
diameter of the four wells are 6.5 feet, 4.9 feet , 4 feet and 4 feet .The thickness of the four wells
are 1.5 feet, 10 inches, 11 inches and 10 inches which are constructed with a brick lining. The
heights of their well bases are 1.5 feet, 5 inches, 9 inches and 1 foot above the ground. The depth
to water from the top of the four wells casing are 20.5 feet, 17 feet, 21 feet and 19 feet in March2018. The widths of the creek near the four wells are about 25 ft, 25ft, 20 ft and 22 ft. Raw
sewage from downtown Mandalay flows into the creek. The creek adjacent to W1 and W2 are notlined by concrete. Waste water is in direct contact with the ground in the creek. The creek
adjacent to W3 and W4 are lined by concrete. Waste water is not in direct contact with the groundin the creek. W1 region is located adjacent to the rubbish filter site along the creek. There isvegetation between W4 and the creek. The photographs of the four dug wells beside the Shwe-TaChaung Creek are shown in Figure 1, 2, 3 and 4. Photograph of location map of eight researchsites in Tanpawaddy Township, Mandalay is represented in Figure 5.
Four water samples were collected with one litre bottle each from the four wells during
period in March, 2018. Eight soil samples were collected from the creek at the same time. The
sample codes for eight soil samples are listed in Table 1. These soil samples from eight researchsites were each collected with two inches in diameter PVC pipe which is one feet long. The small
trashes in these samples were cleaned and dried under the room temperature. And then it isneeded to grind the soil powdered samples and to get very fine powders. The soil powder
samples were passed through 325 mesh sieve of the samples. After getting very fine powder, thesample was weighted nearly 5g. Sample preparation is an important role in X Ray Fluorescence(XRF) measurement.

2.3 Public Health Laboratory, Ministry of Health and Sports
The water quality parameters (Appearance, Colour, Turbity, pH value, Total Solids, Total
Hardness, Total Alkalinity, Ca, Mg, Cl, SO4 and Fe) in four water samples of Yarma Dug Well
(W1),Coco-plant Dug Well (W2), Cow Lake Dug Well (W3)and Salty Water Dug Well (W4) were
tested at Public Health Laboratory, Ministry of Health and Sports, Mandalay.

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Experimental Procedure for Rigaku X-ray Spectrometer
The EDXRF machine ( Rigaku ) at the University Research Centre, Taunggyi University
is used for determination of elemental concentration in the sample of interest.

Contamination Factor (CF) and Modified Degree of Contamination (mCd)
The level of metal contamination was expressed by the contamination status of sedimentin the current research. CF and mCd were calculated according to the equation described as
CF 

MC
BC

and

mCd 

N
1
CF

i 1
N
.

Pollution Load Index (PLI)
Pollution Load Index (PLI) was used to evaluate the extent of pollution by metals in the environment.

PLI  (CF1  CF2  CF3  ..........  CFn ) n1

where n is the number of metals and CF is the contamination factor.

.

Figure.1 Yarma Dug Well beside the creek

Figure.3 Cow Lake Dug Well beside the creek

Figure.2 Coco-plant Dug Well beside the creek

Figure.4 Salty Water Dug Well beside the creek

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Figure.5 Location Map of four dug wells in Tanpawaddy Township,Mandalay District,Myanmar

Table.1 Sample Codes for eight soil samples
Sample Code

Soil Samples

S1W1

Soil sample near Yarma Dug Well (W1)

S1 C 1

Soil sample adjacent to Shwe -Ta- Chaung Creek around W1

S2W2

Soil sample near Coco-plant Dug Well (W2)S 2C 2

Soil sample adjacent to Shwe -Ta- Chaung Creek around W2

S3W3

Soil sample near Cow Lake Dug Well (W3)

S3C3

Soil sample adjacent to Shwe-Ta-Chaung Creek around W3

S4W4

Soil sample near Salty Water Dug Well (W4)S4C4Soil sample adjacent to Shwe-Ta-Chaung Creek around W4

3. Results and Discussions
The water chemical analysis for twelve water quality posts of measurement in four dug
wells are listed in Table 2.Total solids and total alkalinity are greater than maximum permissiblelevel in W1 and W3.Other parameters are under the maximum permissible level. The remarks ofwater chemical analysis report for W1 and W3 are chemically unpotable and W2 and W4 arechemically potable. The depth to water from the top of the well casing of W1 and W3 are greaterthan the other two dug wells. The water from the four dug wells is now used for taking baths,
washing clothes and cleaning dishes. It is not used for drinking purpose now.
Modified Degree of contamination (mCd) and pollution load index (PLI) of metal
contaminates in soil pollution near four dug wells were calculated in Table 3. The comparison of
mCd for soil pollution near four dug wells is shown in Figure 6. The comparison of mCd for soil
pollution in the bank of the creek near four dug wells is also shown in figure 7. Figure 8 gives thecomparison of PLI for soil pollution near four dug wells. Figure 9 gives the comparison of PLI
for soil pollution in the bank of the creek near four dug wells. The mCd for soil near W1 and in
the bank of the creek near W1 is moderate degree of contamination. The mCd results for soil nearW2 is moderate degree of contamination and in the bank of the creek near W2 is low degree ofcontamination. The result of mCd for soil near W3 and in the bank of the creek near W3 is very
low degree of contamination. The mCd results for soil near W4 is very low degree ofcontamination and in the bank of the creek near W4 is very high degree of contamination.

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Pollution Load indices (PLI) for soil near the four dug wells are moderately polluted andwould indicate deterioration of site quality. The PLI for soil in the bank of the creek near W1, W2
and W3 are moderately polluted and near W4 is strongly polluted. The PLI for soil in the bank of
the creek near the four dug wells would indicate deterioration of site quality. Although the creek
near Yarma Dug Well (W1) and Coco-plant Dug Well (W2) are not lined by concrete and thecreek near Cow Lake Dug Well (W3) and Salty Water Dug Well (W4) are lined by concrete.
According to the results, soil around W1 and W4 are more polluted than the other two dug
well regions along Shwe-Ta-Chaung Creek. There is more pollution at Yarma Dug Well (W1)
because there are many trash and garbage near in it. And there are many cash crop eugenia trees
near the Salty Water Dug Well (W4). Therefore, there are heavy pollutions because of fertilizer
insecticide from the plantations adjacent to creek around W4 region.
Table.2 Water chemical analysis in four dug wells
No.

W1

W2

W3

W4

Maximum
Permissible
Level [WHO]Unit

Slightly
TurbidSlightly
TurbidClear

Slightly
Turbid--Parameter

1

Appearance

2

Colour (Platinum,
Cobolot Scale)

7

6

6

6

50

Units

3

Turbidity (Silcoda
Scale Unit)

-

-

-

-

25

NTU

4

PH value

7.1

7.1

7.3

7.3

6.5 to 9.2-

5

Total Solids

1571

1109

1808

1109

1500

mg/l

6

Total Hardness (asCaCO3)

310

270

230

260

500

7

Total Alkalinity(as CaCO3)

1105

715

1495

780

950

8

Calcium as Ca

112

80

84

96

200

mg/l

9

Magnesium as Mg

7

17

5

5

150

mg/l

10

Chloride as Cl

140

100

120

60

600

mg/l

11

Sulphate as SO4

147

147

49

118

400

mg/l

12

Total Iron as Fe

Nil

Nil

0.01

Nil

1

mg/l

mg/l
mg/l

Table.3 Modified Degree of Contamination (mCd) and Pollution Load Index (PLI) for soil
pollution near four dug wells
SampleLocation

S1W1

S1C1

S2W2

S2C2

S3W3

S3C3

S4W4

S4C4

mCd

3.128

2.713

2.530

1.994

1.447

1.279

1.363

11.362

PLI

1.879

1.941

1.743

1.845

1.397

1.256

1.340

3.045

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10

10

9

9

8

8

7

7

6

5

mCd

mCd

6
mCd

5
3

3

2

2

mCd

4

4

1
0

1
S1W1

S2W2
S3W3
Location

S1C1

S4W4

S2C2

S3C3

S4C4

Location

Figure.6 Comparison of mCd for soil pollution

Figure.7 Comparison of mCd for soil pollution in the bank of
the creek near four dug wells

10
9
8

10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

7
5
PLI

4
3
2
1
0
S1W1

S2W2
Location

S3W3

PLI

PLI

PLI

6

S4W4

S1C1

S2C2

S3C3
Location

S4C4

Figure.9 Comparisons of PLI for soil pollution

Figure.8 Comparison of PLI for soil pollution
near four dug wells

4. Conclusion
It is indicated that the water supply wells are impacted by contamination associated with
waste water. It is recommended that the municipality declare a policy to reduce the pollution andeducate the public to have a cleaner environment. The water in Coco-plant (W2) and Salty Water(W4) dug wells for twelve water quality posts of measurement are chemically potable and theother two dug wells are chemically unpotable. Soil around Yarma Dug Well (W1) and Salty
Water Dug Well (W4) are more polluted than the other two dug well regions along Shwe-TaChaung Creek. The pollution around Yarma Dug Well (W1) is due to garbage landfills. The
pollution around Salty Water Dug Well (W4) is due to excessive fertilizers and pesticides used inagriculture. The waste water creek should be reconstructed with appropriate protection. Humans
and animals should not use the wells located near the waste water canal for any purpose. To
protect public welfare, safety and health, the water from public dug wells located beside ShweTa-Chaung Creek should not be used long-term.

Acknowledgements
First and foremost I would like to express my gratitude to Dr Aung Kyaw Tin , Rector of Banmaw
University, for his kind permission to carry out this work. I am also grateful to Professor Dr Than Than Lwin, Headof Physics Department, Banmaw University for her valuable suggestions.

References[1] Angelidis T.N,(1997), Water Air Soil Pollution, pp 99-179[2] Foster S.D & P.J Chilton, (2004), Hydrogeology Journal, pp12-15[3] Lawrence A R et al., (2000), Hydrogeology Journal, pp 8- 564[4] Lorna Fewtrell, (2004), Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol. 112,pp 1371-1374

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Health Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals via Consumption of Vegetables
Me Me Nyunt1
Abstract
Vegetables are an important part of a healthy and balanced diet. They could be contaminated byheavy metals in many ways. Health risk assessment is a very good technique to regard heavy
metal contamination in vegetables. The main objective of this paper is to estimate the risk tohuman health by heavy metals (Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, Sr and Pb) through the intake of five common
vegetables (lettuce, mustard, radish, roselle and water spinach) grown near the drain in
Taungthaman lake at Amarapura township by using indexes for vegetables. The elemental
concentrations of samples were checked by EDXRF method. Then the indexes for vegetables
were calculated. The condition of risk is determined by health risk index (HRI). If the HRI value
is less than one, there will be no observed risk. An index more than one is considered as not safefor human health. According to the calculated results, all analyzed vegetable samples except
water spinach were not found to cause any risk to the consumer. Water spinach had greatest
potential to pose health risk to the consumers. It may be due to the higher absorptivity of heavy
metals than the other samples because of its soft and spongy stem.
Keywords: Vegetables, Contamination, Heavy Metals, EDXRF, Indexes for Vegetables

1. Introduction
Vegetables are widely used as food due to their high nutrition values and are edible plants
or parts of a plant; they are herbaceous plants whose parts are eaten as supporting food or main
dishes. The nutrient content of different types of vegetables varies considerably. Human beingsare encouraged to consume more vegetables and fruits due to their richness in vitamins, minerals,
fibers and anti-oxidative effects. The fruits and vegetables are important components of a healthy
diet and their consumption could prevent a wide range of diseases. However, plants take up
metals by absorbing them from contaminated soil as well as from deposits on parts of the plants
exposed to the air from polluted environments.
Heavy metals are generally used to describe chemical elements with a specific gravity
that is at least 5 times the specific gravity of water. Heavy metals such as manganese (Mn), iron(Fe), copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) are essential in plant nutrition, however many heavy metals do
not play a significant role in the plant physiology. Plants cultivated in polluted environments canaccumulate these toxic metals at a high concentration causing serious risks to human health when
consumed. Moreover potentially harmful metal contents in soils may come not only from the
bedrock itself, but also from the anthropogenic sources like liquid or solid waste deposits,
agricultural inputs, fallout of industrial and urban emissions. The use of polluted soils mainly
results in decrease the growth of vegetables. Moreover, the heavy metals in soil reduce the yieldof vegetables because of disturbing the metabolic processes of plants. Heavy metals
contamination is a major problem of our environment and they are also one of majorcontaminating agents of our food supply. This problem is receiving more and more attention allover the world.

1

Dr. Lecturer, Department of Physics, Yadanabon University, Myanmar. memeamarapura@gmail.com

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Human health are directly affected through intake of vegetables grown in polluted soils.
Since heavy metals in the nutrient cycle have seriously threatened health and environmental
integrity, more research work is still needed to be done on all species of vegetables grown andconsumed. Thus this study was designed to assess the level of some heavy metals (Mn, Fe, Cu,
Zn, Sr and Pb) in five vegetable samples (lettuce, mustard, radish, roselle and water spinach)grown near the drain in Taungthaman lake, Amarapura.

2. Methods
2.1 Collection and Preparation of Vegetables
In the present work, the vegetable samples had been collected from the fields near thedrain of Taungthamanlake during the period in December 2018. The field is located in the eastpart of Taungthamanlake of Amarapura Township in Myanmar. To grow the plants, the farmers
use the water in drain. The water in the drain is mixed with rainwater, water from the river andthe waste water of industries. The industries from the industrial zone used to discard their waste
products into the drain. The photograph of the sampling area is shown in Figure 1.
The five vegetable samples collected are lettuce, mustard, radish, roselle and water
spinach shown in Figure 2 (a). After collecting, the freshly vegetable samples were washed withtap water thoroughly to remove the attached dust particles, soil, unicellular algae, etc. Then they
were washed with distilled water. The washed vegetables were passed through filter papers toremove surface water. After that the edible parts were chopped into small pieces. All wet
vegetable samples were dried with natural air in room temperature and the drying process wascontinued until the constant weight had been obtained as shown Figure 2 (b). The dry pieces ofsamples were crushed into powder using a porcelain mortar and pestle. Then, powder samples
were passed through the mesh to get homogeneous powder. The resulting powder samples shownin Figure 2 (c) were kept in air tight polythene packet before being taken to the laboratory formetal analyses.

Figure 1. Photograph of sampling area

(a)

(b)

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(c)

(c)
Figure2(a.) Photographs of analyzed samples, (b) Sample preparation for fresh condition, (c) Sample preparation for dry andpowder condition

2.2 Health risk assessment
Food safety is a major public concern worldwide. The index for food and foodstuff are
required to know the information about heavy metal concentration in food products and theirdietary intake is very important for assessing their risk to human health. There are many indexes
for food and foodstuff according to the field of the study area. In this work, the three indexes
associated for food and foodstuff will be discussed, these indexes are (i) the metal pollution index
MPI, (ii) daily intake for metal DIM and (iiii) health risk index HRI.
2.3 Metal pollution index (MPI)
Metal pollution index is one of the indexes associated to food and foodstuff which is todetermine overall trace elements concentrations in different foodstuff analyzed. This index is
obtained by calculating the mean concentration of all the metals in different foodstuff as follow.
1

Metal Pollution Index MPI (mg/kg) = (Cf1  Cf2  ... Cfn ) n(1)

Where Cfn = concentration of nth metal in a given foodstuff
Metal pollution index is suggested to be a reliable and precise method for metal pollution
monitoring of wastewater irrigation areas. Leafy vegetables are found to contain higher MPI
value than which are may be due to the uptake of higher amount of heavy metal available from
polluted soil.

2.4 Daily intake of metal (DIM)
The potential health risks of heavy metal consumption through vegetables were assessed
based on the daily intake of metal (DIM) and health risk index (HRI). To averagely estimate thedaily metal loading into the body system of a specified body weight of a consumer, the daily
intake of metal was calculated based on the formula below:
Daily Intake of Metal 

C metal  Cfactor  Con  EF  ED
Bw  AT

Where Cmetal = the concentration of heavy metal in vegetable (mg/kg)
Cfactor = conversion factor from fresh to dry vegetable weight = 0.085(2)19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

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Con = daily average consumption of vegetable in the region (kg person-1 day-1)
EF = exposure frequency (37 days/year)
ED = exposure duration (65 years, equivalent to the average lifespan)
AT = average time (ED  365 days/year)
Bw= average body mass of the consumer (kg/person)
The average daily vegetable intakes for a person vary according to locality and their life
style. For this present work, the average daily vegetable intake of adult for lettuce and roselle
were considered to be 0.165 kg person-1 day-1and that for mustard, radish and water spinach were
to be 0.345kg person-1day-1(expressed as fresh weight). The average body weight was taken as
70kg for adults according to the World Health Organization (WHO 1993).

Health Risk Index (HRI)
Health risk index HRI is the ratio of daily intake of metal DIM to the reference dose RD,
and it is defined as the maximum tolerable daily intake of a specific metal that does not result inany harmful health effects. If the value of HRI less than one, the exposed local population(consumers) is said to be safe and if greater than one indicating that there is a potential risk
associated with that metal and not safe for human health. The health risk index HRI was
calculated by using the following equation

Health Risk Index HRI 

Daily int ake of metal DIM
reference dose RD(3)

3. Results and Discussion
3.1 Results for metal pollution index:The EDXRF measurement of the vegetable samples gives
the elemental concentration of the metal in each sample. The detectable percentage forms of theconcentration for each sample have been transformed into the form of milligram per kilogram(mg/kg) scale. The metal pollution index (MPI) for each sample has been calculated by using
equation (1). The calculated result of metal pollution index was shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Metal pollution indexes for vegetable samples
SampleNumber of elements(n)

MPI values (mg/kg)

Lettuce

21447.127

Mustard23

664.449

Radish

23485.671

Roselle21622.901

Water Spinach

233992.254

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Results for daily intake of metal :The concentrations of some heavy metals: Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn,
Sr and Pb were presented in Table 2. Concentration of heavy metals were in the increasing order:
Fe>Zn>Cu>Mn,Sr>Pb. The daily intake of metal (DIM) for a person has been calculated byusing equation (2). For DIM calculation, heavy metal concentration, the conversion factor from
fresh vegetable to dry vegetable, the daily average consumption of vegetable, exposure
frequency, exposure duration, average time and the average body weight were used. In
calculation, daily intakes of vegetable per person for lettuce and roselle were used as 0.165 kg
and that for mustard, radish and water spinach were 0.345 kg for fresh condition. The average
body weight of a person was taken as 70kg for adults according to World Health Organization(WHO, 1993). In this present work, the daily intakes of metal indexes were estimated for six
heavy metals. The calculated result data of DIM values for all samples was shown in Table 3.
The DIM values of Fe are the highest and that of Pb are least in all samples.
Table 2. Heavy metal concentrations in vegetable samples
Heavy Metal concentration (mg/kg)
Elements
Lettuce

Mustard

RadishRoselleWater
Spinach

Mn

117

180

150

216

25100

Fe

1050

2410

1830

3170

152000

Cu

173

761

724

797

49000

Zn

305

988

778

814

54400

Sr

134

281

135

169

4190

Pb

23

51

65

63

2500

Table 3. Daily intake of metal (DIM) values for vegetable samples
Daily intake of metal (DIM) values (mg/kg/day)Elements
Lettuce

Mustard

RadishRoselleWater
SpinachMn

0.00240.00770.00640.0043

1.0659Fe

0.02140.10230.07770.06446.4549Cu

0.00350.03230.03070.01622.0809Zn

0.00620.04200.03300.01662.3102

Sr

0.00270.01190.00570.00340.1780Pb

0.00050.00210.00280.00130.1062

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Results for health risk index :By using daily intake of metals (DIM) and reference oral dose foreach metal, the important index called the health risk index (HRI) can be calculated by applying
equation (3). The oral reference dose values for analyzed heavy metals Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, Sr and Pb
are 0.014, 0.7, 0.04, 0.3, 0.6 and 0.004mg kg -1 day-1respectively. If the HRI value is less thanone, there will be no observed risk. An index more than one is considered as not safe for humanhealth. The calculated result data of HRI values were shown in Table 4. According to theseresults, HRI value of water spinach is greater than one for almost all heavy metals except
strontium.
Table 4. Health risk index (HRI) values for vegetable samples
Health risk index (HRI) values
Elements
Lettuce

Mustard

RadishRoselleWater
SpinachMn

0.16970.54600.45500.313476.1368Fe

0.03040.14620.11100.09199.2213Cu

0.08790.80790.76870.404752.0217Zn

0.02060.13990.11020.05517.7006

Sr

0.00450.01990.00570.0057

0.2966Pb

0.11680.54150.00280.319926.5417

3.2 Discussion
In the present research, five kinds of vegetable samples have been observed. In thesesamples, lettuce, mustard, roselle and water spinach are the types of leaf vegetables and radish is
the type of storage root vegetable. According to Table (1), water spinach and mustard have thehighest MPI value while lettuce has the lowest MPI value among the samples. Higher MPI ofwater spinach and mustard suggests that these vegetables may cause more human health risk due
to higher accumulation of heavy metals in the edible portion. Therefore, the leaf vegetable isfound to contain higher MPI value than the other types of vegetable which may be due to theuptake of higher amount of heavy metals available from soil and photosynthesis process takes
place in the leaf.
To assess the health risk associated with heavy metal contamination of plants grownlocally, estimated exposure of tested vegetables (daily intake of metal) and risk index were
calculated. The health risk index results showed that Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn and Pb in water spinach had
greatest potential to pose health risk to the consumers. It may be due to the higher absorptivity ofheavy metals than the other samples because of its soft and spongy stem. The HRI values foranalyzed heavy metals in other samples are lower than one. Therefore, it can be said that all
analyzed vegetable samples except water spinach were not found to cause any risk to theconsumer in the present study.

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4. Conclusion
The higher health risk index of heavy metals in water spinach also suggests that there
may be potential for human health risk due to consumption. Therefore, it can be concluded that
consumption of foodstuff with elevated levels of heavy metals may lead to high level ofaccumulation in the body causing related health disorders. Long term consumption of heavy
metal contamination may be leading to health risk of consumers. Moreover, waste water
irrigation for vegetables should be discouraged as it serves as the major route for heavy metal
accumulation in vegetables. Further research has to be carried out of determine the concentrationof heavy metals in this environment.

Acknowledgements
I would like to express thanks to my students, HninPwintWai and WahWahNaing, atDepartment of Physics,
Yadanabon University for theirhelpsin collecting the samples to do this research work.
I would like to express gratitude to my colleagues at the Department of Physics, Taunggyi University for
their helps in checking the EDXRF results.

References[1] Chauhan, G. and Prof. Chauhann, U. K.,“Human health risk assessment of heavy metals via dietary intake ofvegetables grown in wastewater irrigated area of Rewa, India”, International Journal of Scienceand Research Publication, Volume 4, Issue 9, September 2014
2Duruibe, J. O., Ogwuegbu, M. O. C and Egwurugwa, J. N., “Heavy metal pollution and human biotoxic effects”,
International Journal of Physical Science Vol. (2), May 2007
[3] Ramteke, S., Sahu, B. L., Dahariya, N. S., Patel, K. S., Blazhev, B. and Matin, L., “Heavy metal contaminationof Vegetables”, Journal of Environmental Protection, 2016[4] Singh, A., Sharma, R. K., Agrawal, M. and Marshall, F. M., “Health risk assessment of heavy metals via dietaryintake of foodstuffs from the wastewater irrigated site of a dry tropical area of India”, Food andChemical Toxicology, 2010
[5] Adedokun, Aderinola Hannah; Njoku, Kelechi Longinus; Akinola, ModupeOlatunde; Adesuyi, Adeola Alex;
Jolaoso, AnuoluwapoOmosileola “Potential human health risk assessment of heavy metals
intake via consumption of some leafy vegetables obtained from four market in Lagos
Metropolis, Nigeria”, J. Appl. Sci. Environ. Manage. Vol (20), Sept. 2016

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

PC-Based Ultrasound Object Detection System
Aung Naing Oo1 , Mar Mar Cho2

Abstract
To determine the presence of object and to search the object when it moves from its initial position,
the object detection system by using ultrasound transducers is constructed. The PIC microcontroller(PIC16F628A) is programmed to generate the required driving clock frequency for ultrasoundtransmitter (T40-16). The echo sent back from the detected object is received by the ultrasoundreceiver (R40-16). Then, the received echo pulse is amplified and transformed into digital signal by
dual audio operational amplifier (LM833) and low power dual voltage comparators (LM393).
Three receiver modules are constructed to sense the movement of the object. The receiver which
accepts the echo sent back from the object is identified. The CMOS quad 2-input NAND schmitt
triggers (CD4093B) is used to produce the proper logic level of signal receiver which receives theecho. The camera takes the picture of the object and sends to the monitor via VLC media player
software. The stepper motor performs the movement of the constructed system either clockwise orcounter clockwise direction. The operation of the system is controlled by the written program in
Visual C Sharp programming language.
Keywords: PIC microcontroller, ultrasound transmitter, ultrasound receiver, Visual C Sharp
programming language.

1. Introduction
Ultrasonic waves are mechanical waves that consist of oscillations or vibrations of theatomic or particles of a substance about the equilibrium positions of these particles. Ultrasonicwaves behave essentially the same as audible sound waves. They can propagate in an elastic
medium, which can be solid, liquid or gaseous, but not in a vacuum.
To find a barrier in the path or to avoid from the obstacles, ultrasonic transducers are used
to detect the presence of object. In this work, 40 kHz driver circuit is constructed by PIC
microcontroller (PIC16F628A). This frequency is sent to the ultrasonic transmitter circuits. The
ultrasonic transmitter (T40-16) produces the ultrasound. When the transmitted ultrasound detects
the object, echo is appeared. The ultrasonic receiver (R40-16) accepts the echo that falls on to it.
The signal is amplified by dual audio operational amplifier (LM833). The amplified signal is sent
to the low power dual voltage comparators (LM393) to be free from the noise interference. Afterthat the output voltage from LM393 is changed to digital logic level of HIGH or LOW
corresponding on the existence of object or not. Then, the logic level is sent to the personal
computer via line printer terminal. The written program controls the operation of stepper motor
depending on the logic level sent along the line printer terminal. The PC camera mounted on thecircuit board sends the photographs of objects that lie in front of it. These photographs are shownon the monitor.
2. PIC Microcontroller
A microcontroller is an inexpensive single-chip computer. The PIC16F628A is 18-pin
flash-based member of the versatile PIC microcontroller. It is complementary metal oxide
semiconductor and has high performance. It employs an advanced RISC architecture. The
1
2

Dr. Lecturer, Department of Physics, Yadanabon University
Dr. Lecturer, Department of Physics, Yadanabon University

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PIC16F628A has enhanced core features, eight-level deep stack, and multiple internal andexternal interrupt sources. The separate instruction and data buses of the Harvard architecture
allow a 14-bit wide instruction word with the separate 8-bit wide data. The two-stage instruction
pipeline allows all instructions to execute in a single-cycle, except for program branches. A totalof 35 instructions are available, complemented by a large register set.
Fig. (1) shows thephotograph and pin diagram of PIC16F628A microcontroller.

Figure1. The photograph and pin diagram of PIC16F628A microcontroller

2.1 Ultrasonic Transducer (TR40-16)
The T40-16 and R40-16 are matched pair ultrasonic transmitter and receiver respectively
operated at 40 kHz center frequency. This transducer utilizes the piezoelectric properties ofengineering ceramic that provides high sound pressure and high sensitivity. Fig. (2) shows thephotograph of ultrasonic transducer (TR40-16).

Figure2. Photograph of ultrasonic transducer (TR40-16)

2.2 Stepper Motor
A stepper motor is an electromechanical device which converts electrical pulses into
discrete mechanical movements. The shaft or spindle of a stepper motor rotates in discrete stepincrements when electrical command pulses are applied to it in the proper sequence. The motor
rotation has several direct relationships to these applied input pulses. The sequence of the applied
pulses is directly related to the direction of motor shafts rotation. The speed of the motor shafts
rotation is directly related to the frequency of the input pulses and the length of rotation is
directly related to the number of input pulses applied. The photograph of stepper motor is shownin Fig. (3).

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Figure 3. Photograph of stepper motor

2.3 Design and Construction
To find the barrier in path or to know the disappearance of the object, object detection
systems are constructed. In these systems, infrared sensor or ultrasonic transducers are used. This
work is intended to detect an object which is placed in front of the detector. In this work,
ultrasonic transducers are used to detect the object.
The block diagram of the constructed system is shown in Fig. (4). The system iscomposed of seven main parts. They are power supply unit, oscillator unit, ultrasonic transmitter
unit, ultrasonic receiver unit, level comparator unit, interfacing unit and stepper motor control
unit.

Oscillator
Unit

+ 5V

UltrasonicTransmitter
Unit

Ultrasonic
Receiver

Level
Comparator
Unit

Interfacing
Unit

Stepper
Motor
Control
U i

+ 5V

+ 5V

+ 5V

+ 12V

Regulated Power Supply Unit

Figure 4. Block diagram of the constructed system19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

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The oscillator circuit composed of PIC microcontroller (PIC16F628A) is used to generate
the required driving clock frequency. The ultrasonic transmitter unit and ultrasonic receiver unit
are constructed by using ultrasonic transmitter (T40-16) and ultrasonic receiver (R40-16). To get
the noise free voltage level, level comparator circuits are constructed by using low power dual
voltage comparators (LM393). For interfacing with the personal computer, the interfacing circuit
using CMOS quad 2-input NAND schmitt triggers (CD4093B) is also attached. When the object
is disappeared, the transducer units are needed to rotate either in clockwise or counter clockwise
direction in searching the object. Therefore, stepper motor control circuit is also constructed. To
show the object on the monitor, a camera is also fixed in this system. Fig. (5) shows theultrasonic transmitter and receiver transducers array.

ReceiverTransmitter

ReceiverTransmitter

MiddleReceiver
Right

Figure 5. The ultrasonic transmitter and receiver transducers array

3. Results and Discussion
The oscillator produces the required clock frequency. The ultrasonic transmitter (T40-16)
uses this frequency and sends out the ultrasound. When the ultrasound hits the object, the echo isappeared. This echo is received by the ultrasonic receiver circuit and sent to the personal
computer. The written program determines the presence of object. If there is no object, no echo isappeared. Since there are three receivers for middle, left and right positions, the movement of theobject from its initial position can be known. The written program also drives the stepper motor
to rotate in clockwise or counter clockwise direction until the system finds the object. The
function of the constructed system is shown in Fig. (6).
The photograph of constructed circuit is shown in Fig. (7). Fig. (8) shows the complete
circuit diagram of the constructed circuit.

Ultrasonic Receiver

Stepper Motor Rotation

Left

Middle

Right

OFF

ON

OFF

Stationary (No Rotation)

ON

OFF

OFF

Counter Clockwise Rotation

OFF

OFF

ON

Clockwise Rotation
Figure 6. The function of the constructed system19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

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Figure 7. Photograph of constructed circuit

Figure 8. Complete circuit diagram of the constructed circuit

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4. Conclusion
In this work, three ultrasonic receivers (R40-16) are used to detect the movement ofobject. Each ultrasonic receiver is needed to get the noise free echo for the exact object location.
So, the voltage gain from dual audio operational amplifier (LM833) is limited even though theoperational amplifier has very high open loop gain. Therefore, the constructed work is effective
in detecting the object in short range.
Circuit design and programming for PIC microcontroller and personal computer is also
very important in carrying out this work. The enhancement of knowledge of application of PIC
microcontroller, interfacing with the personal computer is the great advantage of this work.

Acknowledgements
We would like to express our gratitude to Dr Maung Maung Naing, Rector, Dr Si Si Khin, Pro-Rector andDr Tin Moe Thuzar, Pro-Rector of Yadanabon University for their suggestion and permission to perform this projectwork. We would also like to express our great thanks to Dr Yi Yi Myint, Professor (Head of the Department), Dr
May Thida Win, Professor and all the teachers and staff from the Department of Physics, Yadanabon University for
their help and discussion throughout this research work.

References[1] J. David N. Cheeke, “Fundamentals and Applications of Ultrasonic Waves”, CRC Press LLC, United States ofAmerica (2002).
[2] Parallax Inc., “Detect Distance With The Ping))) Ultrasonic Sensor”, http://www.parallax.com (2005).
[3] Waitrony, “Ultrasonic Transducer (TR40-16)”, http://www.ic-on-line.cn (2003).
[4] R. A Penfold, “Easy PC Interfacing”, Bernard Babani Ltd., England (1995).
[5] S. Mueller, “Upgrading and Repairing PCs”, 14th Edition, Que, Indiana (2003).
[6] J. Iovine, “PIC Microcontroller Project Book”, McGraw-Hill, New York (2000).
[7] Microchip Technology Inc., “PIC16F627A/628A/648A Data Sheet”, United States of America (2004).
[8] Stmicroelectronics, “LM393”, http://www.st.com (2011).
[9] National Semiconductor Corporation, “LM7805”, http://www.national.com (2006).
[10] National Semiconductor Corporation, “LM833”, United States of America (1995).
[11] Texas Instruments, “CD4093B”, Dallas (2003).
[12] Philips Semiconductors, “HEF40106B”, http://www.datasheetcatalog.com (1995).
[13] Texas Instruments, “SN74LS245A”, Dallas (2003).

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Green Synthesis and Characterization of Chitosan-Copper Nanoparticle Used
as Antimicrobial and Antitumor Activities
Aung Than Htwe1, Thinzar Nu2, Cho Cho3
Abstract
This work is an attempt to aim to synthesize, characterize and apply of eco-friendly green
synthesized copper - chitosan nanoparticles (Cu-NPs). In this work the environmentally friendly
synthesis of stable Cu chitosan NPs through green route with chitosan as a stabilizer and or
reducing agent was synthesized. The synthesized copper nanoparticles were confirmed by thechange of colour after addition of chitosan into the Copper (II) sulphate solution. The
biosynthesized CuNPs were characterized by using UV-Vis, Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR),
X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). Average crystalline
size of the nanoparticles was estimated from the Debye- Scherrer’s equation. The antimicrobialactivity of the nanoparticles were investigated using six microorganisms of interest, including
Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus pumilus, E-coli andCandida albicans. The effect of a chitosan medium on growth of the microorganism was studied,and this was found to influence growth rate. The antitumor activities of the synthesized CuNPs
were investigated by Potato Crown Gall teat and these activities were found to be within 5-7 daysby the dose of 0.05, 0.1 and 0.15 g of CuNPs. Finally, the present study provided to full fill thescientific evidence, become a new trend to save and reduce environmental pollution and safety inbactericidal, wound healing and other medical applications.
Keywords: Chitosan, Cu-NPs nanoparticles, antimicrobial activity, antitumor activity

1. Introduction
Bacterial and fungus infection is a problem in all over the world. So this chitosan-copper
nanoparticles (CuNPs) is to solve and reduce this problem.
Metal nanoparticles have attracted considerable attention in many fields, such as
catalysis, optoelectronics, photovoltaic technology, information storage, environmental
technology, engineering, biosensors development, medicine, and so on [1]. Among
nanomaterials, nanoparticles have been contributing to the progress in this field. In particular,
therapies using nanoparticles have widely been achieved for the treatments of cancer, diabetes,
allergy, infection and inflammation [2]. Generally, metallic nanoparticles show antibacterial andantifungal activity, even though there are environmental and human safety concerns regarding therelease and consumption of metal nanoparticles which are yet to be explored. Excessive releaseof silver, for example, causes environmental pollution which in turn makes silver harmful tohuman and animals. An excess of copper in the human body leads to generation of the mostdamaging radicals, such as the hydroxyl radical [3]. Nanomaterials are widely used in various
technological applications viz. refrigeration systems, medical imaging, drug targeting and otherbiological applications, and catalysis [4].
1

Dr Assistant Lecturer, Department of Chemistry, University of Yangon, Myanmar,
e-mail: aungthanhtwe76@gmail.com
2
Associate Professor, Department of Chemistry, University of Yangon,Myanmar, e-mail:thinzarnu50@gmail.com
3
Professor, Department of Chemistry, University of Yangon, Myanmar, e-mail:chocho.urc@gmail.com

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Environmentally friendly solvents, reducing agents are used with enormous potential aspart of a responsible green approach for the development of nanotechnology. Biocompatible andnontoxic polymers (e.g. chitosan) as a reducing and stabilizing agent of metal nanoparticles issuggested [1]. Copper nanoparticles (CuNPs), due to their excellent physical and chemical
properties and low cost for preparation, have been of great interest [5].
Chitosan is a natural product derived from chitin, a polysaccharide present in theexoskeletons of shellfish such as shrimps and crabs. It is a cationic polysaccharide composed ofβ-(1-4)-linked D-glucosamine and N-acetyl-D glucosamine units. Environmental-friendly
material with many superior properties with momentous amounts of amine and hydroxyl groups
that can be easily engineered [6]. The antimicrobial action is influenced by intrinsic factors suchas the type of chitosan, the degree of chitosan polymerization, the host, the natural nutrient
constituency, the chemical or nutrient composition of the substrates or both, and theenvironmental conditions (e.g. substract water activity or moisture or both) [7]. The NPs
generated are strongly attached to the chitosan due to the chemical bond between the electronrich nitrogen present in the amino groups of the polymer and copper. The use of biopolymer as
capping and or reducing agents represents an environmentally friendly alternative to hazardousorganic solvents [8].
The present work deals with environmentally friendly synthesis of stable chitosan-copper
nanoparticles through green route with chitosan as a stabilizer and or reducing agent. The
synthesized NPs were characterized by UV-Visible spectrometry, SEM, and XRD. Their
antimicrobial properties were tested using microorganism such as fungi, algae and some bacteria.
Finally, antitumor activities were investigated.

2. Methods
2.1 Synthesis of Chitosan-Copper Nanoparticles (CuNPs)
In a typical one-step synthesis, 50 mL of 1 % (w/v) chitosan solution was prepared byusing 1 g of chitosan(CS) was dissolved in 100 mL of 1 % acetic acid solution. 50 mL of 1 % CS
solution and 25 mL of 0.05 M CuSO4.5H2O were then mixed and stirred on magnetic stirrer at 80°C for 12 h till the reaction was completed. After 12 h the colloid was centrifuged at 7,000 rpm
for 20 mins to separate particles from suspension. The precipitate was re-suspended in acetone(90%, v/v) and the centrifugation was repeated three times to remove unreacted reagents. Finally,
the precipitate was dissolved in water, dried under vacuum overnight and stored.

2.2 Characterization of Cu NPs
UV-visible spectra were recorded using a Shimadzu UV-Vis1800 Spectrophotometer forthe confirmation of NP formation. The structural features of Cu-Chitosan NPs were performed ina PerKinElmer GX system FT IR spectrometer in a range from 400 to 4000 cm-1. The size andmorphology of the Cu-Chitosan NPs were examined by SEM (JEOL model JSM 5610 LV
scanning microscope). X-ray diffraction studies were performed with an X-ray diffractometer(Rigaku Ultima III XRD) with Cu Kα1 radiation to determine the structure of a sample. The Xray source was operated at 40 kV and 40 mA. Diffraction intensity was measured in the reflection
mode at a scanning rate of 2°/min for 2θ=10-70°.

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2.3 Determination of Antimicrobial Activity
The CuNPs was tested with Bacillus subtilis, staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonus
aeruginosa, Bacillus pumalis, Candida albican and E. coil species to investigate the nature of
antimicrobial activity. After preparing the bacteriological media, the dried films were placed on
the agar with flamed forceps and gently pressed down to ensure proper contact. The plates wereincubated immediately or within 30 min after incubation [9, 10]. After overnight incubation at 37ºC, the results are shown in Table 1 and Figure 1.

2.4 Screening of Antitumor Activity by Potato Crown Gall Test or Potato Disc Assay
Tumor producing bacteria, Agrobacterium tumefacien, was used in this study. All of thesestrains have been maintained as solid slants under refrigerator. For inoculation of potato discs, 48
h broth cultures containing 5× 107 – 5 ×109 cell/mL were used. Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain
was cultured on Luria-Bertani (LB) agar medium which was prepared by dissolving a mixture ofyeast extract (1 g), peptone (1 g), NaCl (0.5 g) and agar (2 g) in distilled water (100 mL). Single
colony was transferred into LB broth and incubated at 30 C for 48 hours in the shake. Six toseven loops of bacterial suspensions (1.0 × 109 cfu) were transferred into sterilized phosphatebuffer saline (PBS) and this was used during antitumor assay inoculums. The antitumor activity
was examined by observation of tumor produced or not.

3. Results and Discussion
The formation of Cu-NPs was observed in a series of colour changes. The addition of
Cu2+ solution to CS solution resulted in the appearance of a light blue which indicates theformation of a [Cu (CS)]2+ (aq) complex figure 1. The reduction of metal ion is one of the mostconvenient and promising synthetic approaches to obtain metallic nanoparticles with relatively
inexpensive setups. Cu-NPs are very difficult to obtain by simple reduction of copper salts inaqueous solution where copper is oxidized to CuO and Cu2O [6].

chitosansolution

CuSO4.5H2O [Cu(CS)]2+(aq)[Cu(CS)]NPs

Figure 1: Photographs of the sample at the different stages of synthesis showing colour variations

3.1 UV-visible Spectrophotometric Analysis
The observation of the absorption spectra of different aliquots overtime containing copper
sulphate (50 mM) in chitosan (0.75% w/v) showed major peak in the range 500-600 nm , thus
revealing the formation of Cu-NPs. The colloidal Cu-NPs prepared at 12 h at 70 °C showed acharacteristic single absorption peak at 536 nm (Figure 1), which indicates the decrease ofreactants Cu2+ ions in the presence of chitosan to the formation of large amount of monodisperse
NPs. The present finding was in agreement with the blue shift of the surface plasmon resonance112

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)(SPR) of the metallic NPs with their decreasing size. Nanosized Cu particles exhibited a SPR ataround 500-600 nm. This shows that copper ions was added to the chitosan solution. This is toindicate that Cu2+ ions are attached to chitosan macromolecules by electrostatic interactions. The
electron-rich oxygen atoms of polar hydroxyl and ether groups of chitosan are responsible tointeract with electropositive metal cations. It has been reported that chitosan acts as a controllerof nucleation as well as a stabilizer [8].

Figure 2: UV- visible spectrum of synthesized copper-chitosan nanoparticle

3.2 FTIR Analysis
FTIR analysis was conducted to determine the molecular interactions between chitosan
and the synthesized NPs. The chitosan spectrum in figure 3(b) illustrates an amide I C = O
vibration band at 1633.94 cm-1. The spectrum also dhows transmissions at 3303.19 cm-1 assigned
to the overlap of O-H and N-H stretching vibrations, 1633.94 cm-1 and 1537.88 cm-1 to -NH2
bending, 1336.57 cm-1 to C-H bending and 1064.11 cm-1 to -C-O skeletal stretching. A similar
trend was observed in CuNPs spectrum (figure 3(c)). For instance, a general decrease in bandwith a blue shift was noticed (from 1633.94 to 1632.60, 1537.88 to1531.25 and 1064.11 to1063.68 cm-1). The peak at 611.7 cm-1 evidence the interaction between CuNPs and CS media
which indicates a reaction between the CuNPs surface, and the CS amino and hydroxyl group [3,11].
The experiments described above indicate the importance of chitosan in the performed
synthesis. Chitosan, as a biopolymer, has a significant content of primary amines and hydroxyl
groups and possess a strong affinity towards metal ions, which are incorporated by simple
chelation by ion exchange, thereby making it an excellent support for nucleation of Cu-NPs. The
generation of [Cu (CS)]2+ complexes in solution enables metal ion reduction. From these results,
it can be envisaged that the biopolymer plays an important role as polymeric capping agent(Stabilizer) [1].

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Figure 3. FT IR Spectrum of synthesized copper-chitosan nanoparticle

3.3 Powder X-ray Diffraction Analysis
The solid state or crystallinity of the synthesized CuNPs was characterized by X-ray
diffractometry. The XRD diffractogram of the CuNPs are shown in figure 4. The XRD pattern for
CuNPs exhibited two crystalline peaks at 2θ angles of 36.628  and 50.141 respectively. The
prominent diffraction peaks observed are indexed to (111) and (200) reflections. This confirmsthat the resultant nanoparticles are face centered cubic (fcc) of metal nanoparticles. The highest
intense peak for fcc materials is generally (111) reflection and this was observed in thesynthesized nanoparticles. These planes observed were compared with the standard powder
diffraction card of JCPDS copper file No. 78-0428 and copper X-ray diffraction reference No.
85-1326. The absence of any noticeable peaks in the pattern resulting from the sample suggeststhat the sample is free from impurities such as CuO and Cu2O. The average crystalline size of the
CuNPs obtained was estimated to be in the range of 28.221 nm using Debye-Scherrer equation is
given as: D = K λ , where D is the mean nanoparticles diameter (Particle size), K is a constantβ cos θwith value 0.94, λ is the wavelength of X-ray (0.154), β is full width at half maximum and θ isthe differential angle [12].

Figure 4. XRD diffractogram of synthesized copper-chitosan nanoparticle in chitosan media

3.4

SEM

The surface morphology of synthesized CuNPs was examined and the thickness of theseparticles was determined by JEOL scanning electron microscopy. The thickness wasapproximately 10 m. The micrograph of the cross-section surface structure of CuNPs wasshown in figure 5. From the micrographs the CuNPs found to be made up of the slightly

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aggregated due to the absence of strong surface protecting ligands and found to be irregular inshape.

Figure 5. SEM micrograph of synthesized copper-chitosan nanoparticle

3.5 Antimicrobial Activity of CuNPs
Antimicrobial activity of CuNPs are shown in Table 1. Tested organisms were Bacillus
subtitles, Staphylococcus aurous, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus pumalis, Candida albicanand E.Coli. As seen in figure 6, antimicrobial test of CuNPs was used the agar medium
cultivation. According to the experimental results, the prepared CuNPs was really effective toantimicrobial activity. The cell wall is more exposed to nanoparticles through the outer bacterial
membrane. The unique high surface to volume ratio of CuNPs enables them to interact with thebacterial cell membrane through its surface, which leads to the death of the bacterium. Therefore,
the size of the nanoparticles is important for antimicrobial activity [3]. It was observed that
CuNPs was bactericidal and fungicidal against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria
and fungus.

CuNPs

Bacillus
subtitles

Staphylococcus Pseudomonas
aeruginosa
aurousControl

Bacillus pumalis Candida albican E.Coli

Figure 6. Antimicrobial activities of synthesized copper-chitosan nanoparticle
Table 1. Antimicrobial Activity of CuNPs by Agar Disc Diffusion Method
Microorganism
SampleCuNPs

Bacillus subtilis

Staphylococcus
aureusPseudomonas
aeruginosa

25 mm (+++)

20 mm (+++)

13 mm (+)

Bacillus pumilus Candida albican
16 mm (++)

Agar well 10 mm, 10 mm-14 mm (+), 15 mm-19 mm (++), 20 mm above (+++)

23 mm (+++)

E-coil21 mm (+++)

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3.6

Antitumor Activity of CuNPs

The antitumor activity of CuNPs was investigated by using PCG test with bacterium A.
tumefaciens. For inoculation of the potato disc, 48 h broth cultures containing 5× 109 cells/mL
were used. The tested sample was dissolved in DMSO, diluted and mixed with the bacterial
culture for inoculated on the cleaned and sterilized potato discs, and incubated for 7 days at room
temperature. After that, the tumors were appeared on potato disc and checked by staining theknob with Lugol’s (I2-KI) solution. In the control the formation of while knob were on the blue
background indicated the presence of tumors cell because there is no protein in tumor cells. The
tested sample did not form any tumors on the potato discs and its surface remained blue. Formthis experiment, it was found that CuNPs was not significantly inhibited the formation of tumor
cell with the dose of 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3 g/disc. These results are shown in Table 2 and figure 7.

0.1 g of CuNPs for 5 days

0.2 g of CuNPs for 5 days

0.3 g of CuNPs for 5 days

0.1 g of CuNPs for 7 days

0.2 g of CuNPs for 7 days

0.3 g of CuNPs for 7 days

Table 2. Antitumor activity of CuNPs
Tumor inhibition:

Concentration/disc (mg)sampleCuNPsControl

Days
0.1 g

0.2 g

0.3 g

5

+

+

+

7

+

+

+

(++) = non activity(+) = less activity++

4. Conclusion
The present study indicates that of CuNPs with a size of 28.22 nm have been successfully
synthesized in the presence of a biowaste polymer chitosan. The synthesized NPs werecharacterized by UV-Vis, FTIR, XRD and SEM analyses. From FTIR analysis, the peaks of the
CuNPs are attributed to N-H, O-H, C=O, C-O, C-OH, CH and Cu-O stretching and bending
vibrations. The average crystalline size of CuNPs nanoparticle is 28.22 nm and agglomerate
porous and crystalline nature. The chitosan plays the main role of chelating with metal ions. The
synthesized CuNPs exhibited good antimicrobial and antitumor activity. The present synthetic
method represents a simple, convenient, cost-effective and environmental-friendly. The main
contribution of the present work producing chitosan-copper nanoparticles could promote to acertain extent of sustainable development and foster innovation toward and may be used forpharmaceutical and biomedical application.

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Acknowledgements
The authors feel indebted to Professor and Head Dr. Ni Ni Than, Department of Chemistry, University of
Yangon, Yangon, Myanmar, for his stimulating suggestions. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Science
Council of Asia (SCA) and Myanmar Academy of Arts and Science for this conference.

References[1] Katarzyna Tokarek, Jose L Hueso, Piotr Kustrowski, Grazyna Stochel, Agnieszka Kyziol, “Green synthesis ofchitosan-stabilized copper nanoparticles”, European Journal of Inorganic Chemistry, 2013,vol.28, pp. 4940-4947.
[2] Sachiko Kaihara Nitta, Keiji Numata, “Biopolymer-based nanoparticles for drug/gene delivery and tissue
engineering”, International Journal of Molecular Science, 2013, vol. 14, pp. 1629-1654.
[3] Muhammad Sani Usman, Mohamed Ezzat EI Zowalaty, Kamyar Shameli, Norhazlin Zainuddin, Mohamed Salama
and Nor Azowa Ibrahim, “Synthesis, characterization, and antimicrobial properties of copper
nanoparticles”, International Journal of Nanomedicine, 2013, vol. 8, pp. 4467-4479.
[4] Marimuthu Nidhin, Ramasamy Indumathy, Kalarical Janardhanan Sreeram, Balachandran Unni Nair, “Synthesis ofiron oxide nanoparticles of narrow size distribution on polysaccharide templates” , Bulletin ofMaterials Science, 2008, vol. 31(1), pp. 93–96.
[5] Muhammad Sani Usman, Nor Azowa Ibrahim, Kamyar Shameli, Norhazlin Zainuddi, Wan Md Wan Yunus,“Copper nanoparticles mediated by chitosan: synthesis and characterization via chemical
methods”, Molecules, 2012, vol. 17, pp. 14928-14936.(DOI: 10 3390/molecules 171214928)[6] Kaushik Mallick, Mike J. Witcomb, Mike S. Scurrell, “In Situ synthesis of copper nanoparticles and poly (otoluidine): a metal-polymer composite material”, European Polymer Journal, 2006, vol. 42, pp.
670-675.
[7] Entsar I. Rabea, Mohamed E. T. Badawy, Christian V. Stevens, Guy Smagghe and Walter Steurbaut, “Chitosan as
antimicrobial agent: Applications and Mode of Action”, Biomacromolecules, 2003, vol. 4 (6),pp. 1457-1465.
[8] Appu Manikandan and Muthukrishnan Sathiyabama, “Green synthesis of copper-chitosan nanoparticles and studyof its antibacterial activity”, Journal of Nanomedicine & Nanotechnology, 2015, vol. 6(1), pp. 15. (DOI: 10.4172/2157-7439.1000251)[9] Norashikin Mat Zain, Andrew G. F. Stapley, Gilbert Shama, “Green synthesis of silver and copper nanoparticles
using ascorbic acid and chitosan for antimicrobial applications”, Carbohydrate Polymers, 2014,vol. 112, pp. 195-202.
[10] Aung Than Htwe, Sandar Tun, Khin Aye May, Kyaw Myo Naing, “Studies on preparation, characterization andapplication of pH-sensitive biodegradable chitosan-polyvinyl alcohol hydrogel”, Jour. Myan.
Acad. Arts & Sc., 2013, vol. XI (1), pp. 127-140.
[11] Thi My Dung, Thi Thu Tuyet Le, Eric Fribourg-Blanc, Mau Chien Dang, “The influence of solvents andsurfactants on the preparation of copper nanoparticles by a chemical reduction method”,
Advances in Natural Science: Nanoscience and Nanotechnoloty, 2011, vol. 2, pp. 1-7.
[12] Krithiga N, Jayachitra A. Synthesis of copper nanoparticle by chemical method and analysis, its significant
antibacterial activity. International Journal for Research in Applied Sciences and Biotechnology,
2014, vol. 1(1), pp.22-27.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Determination of Ion Occupation Model in Spinel Lettice
Aye Aye Thant1, Thet Phyu Phyu Naing2

Abstract
Ferrite materials have exploited for a number of extensive applications in non-reciprocal devices
at microwave frequencies. Ferrite samples with the chemical composition Ni(GdxFe1-x)2O4 (x =0.0125, 0.0250, 0.0375 and 0.0500) were prepared by Conventional Ceramic Method. By
introducing a relatively small amount of Gd3+ ions instead of Fe3+ ions, the crystallization of these
dopants in the mother system was investigated. The structural analyses were performed via X-ray
diffraction (XRD) and Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). The partial substitution of Gd3+
ions in the place of Fe3+ ions was confirmed by the decrease in the lattice parameter with the Gd3+
concentration. The formation of small crystallite and grains are responsible for the increase ofcoercivity with Gd3+ ion substitution. The model of ion occupation among the available
tetrahedral (A) and octahedral (B) sites of spinel was estimated by the obtained magnetic moment
per unit cell and the Bohr magneton of each ion in the lattice according to spin quantization.
Keywords: nickel ferrite, Gd3+ ion, conventional, coercivity, ion occupation

1. Introduction
Spinel ferrite in general and magnesium-manganese in particular have extensive
applications in construction of non-reciprocal devices at microwave frequencies [1].
Ferrimagnetic cation substituted spinal ferrites are technologically versatile materials [2]. Theinteresting physical and chemical properties of ferrospinels arise from their ability to distributethe cations among the available tetrahedral (A) and octahedral (B) sites [3]. The addition oftrivalent ions in ferrites influences the electric and magnetic properties of the system; density,
crystallite size, grain size, residual macrostress and initial permeability [4], [5]. The rare earthoxides are becoming the promising additives for the improvement ferrite properties [6], [7]. In
the case of advanced functional materials, doping with small concentration of rare earth is a wellknown versatile way to tune the desirable physical properties of ferrites not only because of thelanthanide contraction which induces monotonic change of ionic radii, but also because of thedifferent stable oxidation states and the periodical variation in magnetic moments coming fromthe sequential filling of electrons in their 4f shells [8]. To date very few literature is available
reporting the effect of rare earth atom on the properties of ferrite. In this background, nickel
ferrite doped with gadolinium ions was prepared by conventional ceramic technique to provide
an accurate understanding of the changes caused by the substitution.

2. Materials and Methods
Specimens of the Gd doped Ni ferrites, Ni (GdxFe1-x)2O4, where x = 0.0125, 0.0250,
0.0375 and 0.0500, were grounded in an Agate mortar for 4 h. The mixture was pre-sintered at1000 ºC for 4 h with heating rate of 20 ºC /min, and cooled to room temperature with the samerate. The mixture was ground with an Agate mortar for 1 h. A few drops of PVA binder wereadded to the powder and the powder was pressed into pellets by uniaxial hydraulic press at apressure of 150MPa. The final sintering was performed at 1100 ºC for 10 h with the heating rate
1
2

Dr. Professor, Department of Physics, University of Yangon, Myanmar, ayeayethant@uy.edu.mm
Yangon, Myanmar, thetzin18@gmail.com

118

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)of 20 ºC/min. The pellets were well polished for further characterizations. The phase formationof the sintered ferrite pellet was checked using XRD. The morphology of the samples was
examined by using SEM. The magnetic properties were also measured and the model of ion
occupation among the available tetrahedral (A) and octahedral (B) sites of spinel was estimatedin this work.

3. Results and Discussion
3.1 Structural Analysis by XRD
After preparing Gd doped Nickel Ferrite, Ni (GdxFe1-x)2 O4, by Conventional Ceramic
Method, the structural characteristics of these samples were analyzed by XRD method. The XRD
patterns of the samples with compositions (x = 0.000 and 0.0125) show the formation of single
phase cubic spinel while the samples with (x =0.025, 0.0375 and 0.0500) involved a secondary
phase at around 2θ value of 32º in addition to spinal phase as shown in Figure 1. Among the
XRD patterns of the samples with gadolinium (Gd) dopants, only the sample with compositions(x = 0.0125) exhibited single phase cubic structure while the samples with (x =0.025, 0.0375 and0.0500) involved a secondary phase at around 2θ value of 32º in addition to spinal phase.
According to the literature, the secondary phase may be identified as GdFeO3 phase. The
initial sample NiFe2O4 is inverse spinel and Gd3+ ions preferentially occupy the B-sites. It wasestimated from the present study that the Gd3+ ions preferentially occupy the B-sites at Gdconcentration x > 0.0125 while small fraction of it also entered into the A-sites.
Ni(GdFe)2O4-0.05

Intensity(Counts)

Ni(GdFe)2O4-0.0375

Ni(GdFe)2O4-0.025

10

30

(511)
(136)
50

(531)

(136) (511)
(444)
(543)
(046)
(127) (440)(642)

88-2165> Gd2O3 - Gadolinium Oxide

60

(156)
(800)

(611)

10-0325> Trevorite, syn - NiFe2O4

(541)
(622)

(026)

(433)

(331)

(422)

(400)
(400)
40

(125)
(440)

(134)

(332)

(422)

(222)

(222)
(311)
(411)

(420)

(400)

(123)

(220)
20

(222)

(211)

(111)

(220)

NiFe2O4

(440)

(311)

Ni(GdFe)2O4-0.0125

70

Two-Theta (deg)Figure 1. XRD patterns of Ni(GdxFe1-x)2O4, where x = 0.0125, 0.0250, 0.0375 and 0.0500.

3.2 Estimation of Lattice Parameter and Crystallite Size
The values of lattice constant were determined from the XRD data and presented in Table
1. The lattice constant slightly increases with increase in Gd-content. The increase of the lattice
constants with increasing Gd concentration is strongly related to the relative ionic radius of Fe3+
and Gd3+ ions. The ionic radius of Fe3+ (0.64 Å) is smaller than that of Gd3+ (0.94 Å). It shows
the increase of the crystalline lattice parameters. If the ionic radius of the impurity ion is larger

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

than that of the displaced ion, the lattice expends and the lattice constant increases. However, thelattice parameter again decreased with the Gd concentration x=0.0500 which is the largest value
in this system. This observation again confirms the partial substitution of Gd ions in the place of
Fe ions. The crystallite size was calculated from the XRD peak broadening of the (311) peakusing Scherrer formula and presented in Table 1. It is observed that the crystallite size increased
with the substitution of small amount of Gd3+ ions in NiFe2O4. However, the size became smallerwith the increase in Gd dopants beyond x=0.0250. This may be due to the presence of secondary
phase in the samples with larger amount of dopants. Moreover, the broad peaks in XRD patterns
are due to fine crystallite size of the ferrite particles. The crystallite sizes of Ni (GdxFe1-x)2 O4
were found to be in the range of 41 to 32 nm.

3.3 Structural Analysis by SEM
SEM investigations was conducted mainly on sample surfaces to obtain information withrespect to grain morphology and bonding characteristics. SEM micrographs of Ni (GdxFe1-x)2 O4
samples are shown in Figure 2. As shown in SEM micrographs, the grains are found to be in
spherical shape. However, the grains become smaller and the pores between the necks of thegrains become bigger with increasing Gd3+ ions substitutions. It reveals that the average grain
size ranges from 1.07 μm to 1.66 μm for sintering at 1100 ºC.
Table 1. Lattice parameter, crystallite size as a function of the concentration of Gadolinium
Gd content(x)FerriteLatticeconstant(nm)

Crystallite
size (nm)Averagegrain size(µm)

0.0000Ni Fe2O4

8.21

33.39

2.783

0.0125Ni(Gd0.0125 Fe0.9875 )2O4

8.26

32.64

2.466

0.0250Ni(Gd0.0250 Fe0.9750 )2O4

8.28

40.73

2.425

0.0375Ni(Gd0.0375 Fe0.9625 )2O4

8.29

33.74

2.183

0. 0500

Ni(Gd0.0500 Fe0.9500 )2O4

8.21

34.37

2.151

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Gd-0

Gd-1

Gd-2

Gd-3

Gd-4

Figure 2. SEM micrographs of Ni(GdxFe1-x)2O4, x = 0.0000 (Gd-0), 0.0125 (Gd-1), 0.0250 (Gd-2), 0.0375 (Gd-3) and 0.0500(Gd-4)

3.4

Analysis on Magnetic Hysteresis Loop

The most interesting characteristics in ferrite are the behavior of mixed ferrites withdifferent non-magnetic ion concentrations. As the values of magnetization can be conveniently
varied by suitable substitution, Gd3+ ions were substituted for Fe3+ ions in NiFe2O4 and themagnetizations were obtained for different compositions. The hysteresis loops Ni (GdxFe1-x)2 O4
are shown in Figure 3. From the hysteresis loops, the coercivity (Hc), saturation magnetization(Ms), magnetic moment (nB) and remnant flux density (Br) of the samples were calculated andpresented in Table 2.
The increase in Gd3+ ion concentration leads saturation magnetization and saturation
moment to be decreased. Gd3+ ion with ionic radius of 0.94 Å may prefer to occupy B site while
Ni ions with ionic radius of 0.78 Å may enter both A site and B site. Since the resultant
magnetization is the difference of B site magnetization and A site magnetization, the decrease insaturation magnetic moment pointed out that the magnetization resulted from the simultaneous
increase of Gd3+ ion and decrease of Fe ions in B site is smaller than that from the decrease of Ni

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

ions and increase of Fe ions in A site. Hc shows an increase with increasing Gd3+ ionssubstitution. One important effect on Hc is the microstructural behavior. Therefore, the formationof small crystallite and grains are responsible for the increase of coercivity with Gd3+ ion
substitution.
Table 2. Coercivity (Hc), the residual flux density (Br), saturation magnetization (Ms) andmagnetic moment (nB) of Ni(GdxFe1-x)2O4
Saturation flux
density, Bs

Residual flux
density, Br(Gauss)5.90

0.0125Magnetic
moment, nB(Gauss)Saturation
magnetization, Ms(emu/g)893.19803.8770.64

2.96479.56

738.45521.2658.03

2.46180.025012.12

617.82376.0648.22

2.02670.037514.20

551.26413.4542.75

1.85270.050014.81

403.50238.4330.94

1.3549Gd contents(x)

Coercivity, Hc(Oe)

0.0000

(μB)

Gd

Gd

Gd

Gd

Gd

Figure 3. Hysteresis loops of Ni(GdxFe1-x)2O4, x = 0.0000 (Gd-0), 0.0125 (Gd-1), 0.0250 (Gd-2), 0.0375 (Gd-3) and 0.0500(Gd-4)

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

3.5 Ion Occupation in Ni (GdxFe1-x)2O4
It is generally known that the divalent ions are generally larger than the trivalent ions.
This is because the larger charge in the trivalent ion produces greater electrostatic attraction andso pulls the outer orbit inward. In the unit cell of the spinel lattice, the radius of octahedral site isapparently larger than that of the tetrahedral site. Particularly, in NiFe2O4 ferrite, the tetrahedral
site has a radius of 0.57 Å and octahedral site has a radius of 0.73 Å. Therefore, it would bereasonable to suggest that the trivalent ions, Fe3+ prefer to go into the tetrahedral A-sites while
the divalent Ni2+ and Gd3+ ions into the octahedral B-sites.
The most interesting characteristic in this study is the behavior of cation distribution in
the mixed ferrites. Based on the site preference of ions, the crystal structure of spinel and thereported work on the distribution of NiFe2O4, a model of ion occupation in Gd doped NiFe2O4,
Ni (GdxFe1-x)2O4, is proposed in this work.
For NiFe2O4 spinel lattice,(Ni2+δ Fe3+1-δ)A-site [Ni2+1-δ Fe3+1+δ] B-siteO4
where δ = the mole of the Ni2+ ions. On the other hand, for the Ni (GdxFe1-x)2 O4 spinel lattice,the model for cation distribution is proposed as:(Ni2+y+δ Fe3+1-x-δ) A-site [Ni2+1-y-δ Fe3+1-x+δGd3+2x] B-siteO4
The magnetic moment of a unit cell of Ni (GdxFe1-x)2 O4ferrite was calculated by using
the following equation.
nB = [mNi (1-y-δ) + mFe (1-x +δ) + mGd 2x]B – [mNi (y+δ) + mFe (1-x-δ)] A
The net magnetic moment of Gd3+ ion (61 electrons in the electronic shells); mGd is 7 μB,
that of Ni2+ ion (26 electrons in the electronic shells); mNi is 2 μB and Fe3+ ion (23 electrons in theelectronic shells); mFe is 5 μB.
This proposal is supported by the resultant magnetization of the Gd doped nickel ferrite
samples which has been observed in hysteresis measurement. According to the above estimation,
the added Ni2+ ions replaced Fe3+ ions in A-sites while Gd3+ ions replaced Ni2+ ions in B sites
preferably as simplified in Table 4.
Table 4. Occupation of cations in Ni(GdxFe1-x)2O4
FerriteA-siteB-siteNiFe2O4

Ni2+0.16 Fe3+0.84

Ni2+0.84 Fe3+1.16

Ni(Gd0.0125Fe0.9875)2O4

Ni2+0.71447 Fe3+0.67303

Ni2+0.28553
Gd3+0.0250

Fe3+1.30197

Ni(Gd0.0250Fe0.9750) 2O4

Ni2+0.61279 Fe3+0.76221

Ni2+0.38721
Gd3+0.0500

Fe3+1.18779

Ni(Gd0.0375Fe0.96250) 2O4

Ni2+0.55462 Fe3+0.80788

Ni2+0.44538
Gd3+0.0750

Fe3+1.11712

Ni(Gd0.0500Fe0.9500) 2O4

Ni2+0.44249 Fe3+0.90751

Ni2+0.55751 Fe3+0.99249 Gd3+0.
1000

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

4. Conclusion
The Ni (GdxFe1-x)2O4 (x= 0.0000, 0.0125, 0.0250, 0.0375, 0.0500) spinel ferrite system
was synthesized successfully using Conventional Ceramic method. The XRD analysis confirmedthat all Gd3+ substituted ferrite was obtained a single spinel phase in the range of x=0.00000.0125. The lattice parameter showed an increase with Gd3+ substitution until x = 0.0375 anddecrease up to x=0.0500, because of the formation of the secondary phase of GdFeO3. However,the particle size decreases with increase of Gd3+ content due to hindrance of grain boundary
mobility. The saturation magnetization decreased and coercivity Hc increased with increasing
Gd3+ ions substitution due to the formation of small crystallite and grains with Gd ion
substitution. Importantly, a model of ion occupation in Ni (GdxFe1-x)2O4 was estimated by theobtained magnetic moment per unit cell and the Bohr magneton of each ion in the lattice
according to spin quantization.

Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the Department of Physics and Universities’ Research Centre, University of
Yangon for the supports with research facilities.

References[1] Anjana Dogra, M. Singh and Ravi Kumar, “50MeV Li+3 ion irradiation induced modifications in dielectric
properties of Al+3 substituted Mg-Mn ferrite”, Nucl. Instr. and Meth. B, 2003, vol. 207, pp. 296300.
[2] S K Sharma, Ravi Kumar, Shalendra Kumar, M Knobel, C T Meneses, V V Siva Kumar, V R Reddy, M Singhand C G Lee, “Role of interparticle interactions on the magnetic behavior of
Mg0.95Mn0.05Fe2O4 ferrite nanoparticles”, J. Phys.: Condens. Matter, 2008, vol. 20, pp. 235214.
[3] A. A. Pandit, A. R. Shitre, D. R. Shengule and K. M. Jadhav, “Magnetic and dielectric properties of
Mg1+xMn xFe2−2xO4 ferrite system” J. Mater. Sci., 2005, vol. 40, pp. 423-428.
[4] Mohd Hashim, SS Meena, RK Kotnala, Sagar E Shirsath, Aashis S Roy, Ameena Parveen, Pramod Bhatt,Shalendra Kumar, RB Jotania, Ravi Kumar, “Study of structural, electrical and magnetic
properties of Cr doped Ni–Mg ferrite nanoparticle”, Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2014,vol. 602, pp. 150-156.
[5] M Singh, SP Sud, “Controlling the properties of magnesium–manganese ferrites”, Mater. Sci. Engng. B, 2001,
vol. 83, pp. 180.
[6] Balwinder Kaur, Monita Bhat, F. Licci, Ravi Kumar, S.D. Kulkarni, P.A. Joy, K.K. Bamzai and P.N. Kotru,“Modifications in magnetic anisotropy of M-type strontium hexaferrite crystals by swift heavyion, irradiation”, J. Magn. Magn. Mater, 2006, vol. 305, pp. 392.
[7] M Hashim, SS Meena, RK Kotnala, SE Shirsath, AS Roy, A Parveen, “Study of structural, electrical andmagnetic properties of Cr doped Ni–Mg ferrite nanoparticle”, Journal of Alloys andCompounds, 2014, vol. 602, pp. 150-156.
[8] Pardavi-Horvalh M., “Microwave applications of soft ferrites” J. Magn. Magn. Mater., 2000, vol. 171(83), pp.
215-216.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

A Study on Structural Properties and Biological Response of HAP/β-TCP
Nay Win Tun1, Win Kyaw2, Aye Aye Thant3
Abstract
Hydroxyapatite (Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2) is used in many biomedical applications including bone graft
and joint replacements. Due to its structural and chemical similarities to human bone mineral andteeth, HAP promotes growth of bone tissue directly on its surface. In this research, hydroxyapatite
was prepared by precipitation method to provide an accurate understanding of the behavior of
biphasic biomaterials with hydroxyapatite (HAP) and beta-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP). Raw
materials of calcium sulphate dihydrate (CaSO4.2H2O, or Gypsum) and di-ammonium hydrogen
phosphate ((NH4)2HPO4) solution were used as the starting materials to synthesize high purity
hydroxyapatite in the first step. The effect of reaction temperature on conversion efficiencies ofgypsum to HAP and reaction kinetics were investigated. After calcination at 1000 , HAP(Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2) converted partially into beta-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP, Ca3(PO4)2). Fourier
Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis clearly revealed the presence of various
vibrational modes corresponding to phosphate and hydroxyl groups. Besides porosity were
measured at different sintering temperatures, the theoretical density was calculated from X- Rays
Diffraction (XRD) results. Finally, the bone bonding ability was evaluated by examining theformation of the new apatite layer on the surface after immersing in Simulated Body Fluid (SBF).
Keywords: calcium sulphate, HAP,βTCP, FTIR, XRD, SBF

1.

Introduction
Among all biomaterials, hydroxyapatite; the mineral component of hard tissues invertebrates, is the most biocompatible material able to be used in clinical applications ofconservation and restoration because of its excellent features such as biocompatibility andbioactivity. Hydroxyapatite shows excellent biocompatibility not only with hard tissue but alsowith soft tissue [1]. This material is capable of integrating biologically when directly implanted
into a bone defect; furthermore, it produces no harmful effect on the immune system and featuresof an osteoconductive behavior. Tricalcium phosphate is also one of the most importantbiomaterials based on phosphates, currently recognized as ceramic material that significantly
simulates the mineralogical structure of bone. β-TCP is found to be resorbable in vivo with newbone growth replacing the implanted β-TCP. Theoretically, resorbable β-TCP is an ideal implantmaterial [2].
2. Materials and Methods
2.1 Experimental Procedure
Laboratory grade gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) was used for starting material to synthesizehydroxyapatite (HAP) in the first stage. HAP synthesized from gypsum powder was achieved by
precipitation method at 90 . This reaction conversion was achieved according to the reaction
below.
10CaSO4.2H2O + 6(NH4)2 HPO4 → Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2 + 6(NH4)2SO4 + 4H2SO4 + 18H2O
1.6 M of gypsum solution was prepared with 11.5 g of gypsum and 40 ml of deionized water.
Then the gypsum solution was mixed with 40 ml of 1 M - (NH4)2HPO4 solution in conical flaskwith water bath at the reaction temperature of 90° with magnetic stirring. The reaction time waslasted for 4 hours. At the end of the reaction period, the solid products were washed with DI1

Department of Physics, Dagon University, naywinhtun747@gmail.com
Department of Physics, Pyay University, wkyaw08@gmail.com
3
Department of Physics, University of Yangon, ayeayethant@uy.edu.mm
2

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

water for 5 times and filtered to eliminate any water soluble remains. After washing, the solid
residue was put in drying oven operating at 75 for 24 hours. Again, the dry powder was heattreated at 500 , 800 , 1000 , 1100 and 1150 for 2 hours each in a furnace. The HAPphase was formed at 500
and 800
for 2 hours. However, HAP converts into β-tricalcium
phosphate (β-TCP) at 1000 and beyond. After sintering 1200 of HAP/β-TCP pellet partiallyconverts into biphasic HAP/α-TCP. The α-TCP is brittle and more soluble than HAP and β-TCP.
Therefore, this research focuses on biphasic HAP/β-TCP.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Formation of Dentures with HAP, HAP/β-TCP and β-TCP
Titanium-Chromium alloy was used as base of the denture. Bricera vacuum porcelain
body A-3 from Brident Inc, USA was placed above the base. Then, HAP, HAP/β-TCP and βTCP powder which were mixed with DI water was placed above the porcelain layer as enamel.
The heat-treatment was conducted into the Automatic Programmable Vacuum Porcelain Furnace
at 930 for 15 minutes. The denture obtained by using this method is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. The formation of dentures with HAP, HAP/β-TCP and β-TCP at different calcination temperatures.

3.2. Bioactivity Test
The bone-bonding ability of a material is often evaluated by examining the ability of
apatite to form on its surface in a Simulated Body Fluid (SBF) with ion concentrations nearly
equal to those of human blood plasma. Haemo-A (Aeonmed Co., Ltd) was mixed with Haemo-B(Aeonmed Co., Ltd) in 1:1.2 ratio to form Simulated Body Fluid (SBF). This solution was mixed
with DI water in 1:32.8 ratio. Each of this solution (5 ml) was put into 25 ml of three glass
beakers. HAP, HAP/β-TCP and β-TCP pellets were put into the SBF solution in each beaker. The
beakers were put into an incubator and set the temperature at 37 for 14 days. Then, the pellets
were dried in desiccator for 2 days. These dried pellets were analyzed by SEM. SEM
micrographs obtained from pellets before SBF test and after SBF test were compared.
3.3. Analysis on Molecular Vibration by FTIRThe FTIR analysis strongly supports the XRD result in this work. FTIR spectroscopy has
been performed in order to investigate the functional groups presented in hydroxyapatite
synthesized by precipitation method. The functional groups present in hydroxyapatite clearly
revealed the presence of various vibrational modes corresponding to phosphate and hydroxyl
groups. Chemical groups with vibration bands are confirmed by the FTIR transmission bands ofsynthesized HAP and β-TCP.
In HAP and β-TCP, PO43- group formed intensive IR absorption bands at 502 cm-1 and at
1000 – 1100 cm-1. Adsorbed water band was relatively wide, from 3600 to 2600 cm-1 indicating
the symmetric stretching and asymmetric stretching vibrations of water. In FTIR spectra of HAPand β-TCP, the characteristic absorption bands at 3435 and 3428 cm-1 were attributed to 3 mode
(asymmetric stretching) of water. The bands at 900-1200 cm-1 were the stretching mode of PO43group. The sharp peaks at 608 and 677 cm-1 represented the vibrational peaks 4 mode of PO43-

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)127

in both HAP and β-TCP. The characteristic bands due to vibration of PO43- group appeared at595, 604, 606, 608, 615 and 677 cm-1. Five IR bands were detected peaking at 2132, 2133, 2135
and 2137 cm-1 for soluble CO2 (gas) in the ceramic materials. The peaks at 2137 cm-1 wereformed at the two calcination temperatures at 500
and 800 . FTIR results are similar to theliterature data [3].
Figures 2 shows the FTIR results obtained at different calcination temperatures. All
spectra show the characteristic band of adsorbed water, hydroxyl and phosphate species. The
peaks in the spectrum and their association to respective chemical groups are summarized inTable 1.
3.4. Porosity Measurement
The values of apparent porosity of HAP, HAP/β-TCP and β-TCP at different sintering
temperatures were estimated by the equations using Archimedes’ method and are shown in Table
2. In this study, for three different sintering temperatures, the porosity of sintered pellets rapidly
increased to the highest percentage, 63.63% when sintered at 1200
compared to othertemperatures.

Figure 2. The FTIR spectra of HAP, HAP/ β-TCP and β-TCP prepared at different calcination temperatures of 500
800

,1000

, 1100,and 1150

Table 1. The FTIR transmission bands of HAP, HAP/ β-TCP and β-TCP at calcination
temperatures of 500 , 800 , 1000 ,1100

and 1150
Transmission Band (cm-1)

Chemical
Group

500

800

1000

1100

1150

Vibrational Mode (cm-1)

PO43-

949

941

ND

ND

ND

 Symmetric Stretching

453

430

496

550

ND

ND

 Bending

1090

1119

 Dipole

595

595

604

608

679

677

502

1113

606
677

1003
1184
615
677
723

1090

615
677

 Polarization

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Transmission Band (cm-1)

Chemical
Group

H-O-H

CO2

500

800

1000

1100

1150

Vibrational Mode (cm-1)

2874

2870

2872

2874

2874

2996

2994

2992

2994

2994

 SymmetricStretching 

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

 Bending

3464

3435

3555

3568

3428

 Asymmetric

2137

2137

2133

2135

2132

Stretching

ND= Non Detected

Table 2. The variation of Apparent Porosity and Theoretical Density of HAP, HAP/β-TCP and βTCP at three different sintering Temperatures
Dry

Suspended Apparent
Weight, S Porosity

SinteredTemperature

Weight, D

SoakedWeight, W

( )

(g)

(g)

(g)

(%)

(g/cm3)

900

1.63

1.78

1.42

41.66

3.38

1100

1.58

1.72

1.45

51.85

3.17

1200

1.23

1.30

1.19

63.63

3.23

Theoretical
Density

3.5. Apatite Formation in Simulated Body Fluid (SBF)
The SEM images for the pellets before and after immersing in SBF are presented in
Figures 3 to 5. It is worth to note that the morphology of the pellets immersed in SBF waschanged distinctly. As seen in the SEM images the formation of apatite layers on each surface of
HAP, HAP/β-TCP and β-TCP pellets was confirmed by the difference in the surface texture of
the sample. Importantly, the β-TCP exhibited the faster rate of formation of apatite layercompared to the pure HAP and biphasic HAP/β-TCP. Based on the SEM analysis, β-TCP seemed
to have better bioactivity than HAP in this work. The apatite layer formed on the surface of the
HAP, HAP/β-TCP and β-TCP can bond to living bone. Therefore, the HAP, HAP/β-TCP and βTCP prepared in this research have potential biomaterials which can be applied for bonereplacement.

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19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Synthesis HAP

Bioactive HAP

(a)

(b)

Immersionin SBF2m

2m

Figure 3. SEM micrographs of HAP pellets at the calcination temperature of 900

in 10 K × magnification(a) before and (b) after immersion in SBF.

Synthesis HAP/ -TCP(a)

Bioactive HAP/ -TCP(b)

Immersionin SBF2m

2m

Figure 4. SEM micrographs of HAP/β-TCP pellets at the calcination temperature of 1100
magnification(a) before and (b) after immersion in SBF.

Synthesis -TCP

Bioactive -TCP(a)in 10 K ×(b)

Immersionin SBF2m

2m

Figure 5. SEM micrographs of β-TCP pellets at the calcination temperature of 1200(a)before and (b) after immersion in SBF

in 10 K × magnification

4. Conclusion
Hydroxyapatite, Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2 was prepared from gypsum by precipitation method.
The raw materials were well characterized prior to the preparation of HAP. A single phasestructure of HAP from gypsum was successfully formed via the precipitation method after heattreated at 500 and 800 for 2 hours. It is worth to note that some parts of HAP converted to
β-TCP phases after heat-treated at 1000 for 2 hours. It is interesting to note that transformationto β-TCP started by calcination at 1000 and the transformation rate increased with increase intemperature. FTIR data clearly revealed the presence of various vibrational modes corresponding
to phosphate and hydroxyl groups. The porosity of sintered pellets rapidly increased to thehighest percentage, 63.63% when sintered at 1200
compared to other temperatures. The SBF
soaking results revealed that all the studied materials are biologically active which confirmed its
application as bone in living things.

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Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the Department of Physics and Universities’ Research Centre, University of
Yangon for the supports with research facilities.

References[1] Angelescu, N., Ungureanu, D.N., Anghelina F.V. “Synthesis and Characteristic of Hydroxyapatite Obtained in
Different Experimental Conditions”, 2011, Valahia University of Targoviste, Romania.
[2] Bahman Mirhadi, Bahman Mehdikhani , Nayereh Askari, “Sintering effects on the hardness of β-TCP”, Journalof Ceramic Processing Research, 2012, vol. 13, No.4.
[3] Maisara S.M. Arsad, Pat M.Lee, Lee Kong Hung, “Synthesis and Characterization of Hydroxyapatite
Nanoparticles and β-TCP Particles”, 2011, IPCBEE vol.7.
[4] Hitachi High-Tech Science Corporation, “Thermal Analysis of Gypsum”, 1985, Tokyo, TA No.22.
[5] Kim, S.R., Lee, J.H., Riu, D.H., Jung, S.J., Lee, Y.J., Chung, S.C., Kim, Y.H., “Synthesis of Si, Mg substitutedhydroxyapatite and their sintering behaviors”, Biomaterials, 2003, vol. 24, pp. 1389-1398.
[6] Kannan,S., Lemos,I.A.F., Rocha, J.H.G., Ferreira, J.M.F. “Synthesis and characterization of magnesium
substituted biphasic mixtures of controlled hydroxyapatite/beta-tricalcium phosphate ratios”, 2005,
Department of Ceramics and Glass Engineering, University of Aveiro, Portugal.
[7] Onur Rauf Bingöl, Caner Durucan, “Hydrothermal Synthesis of Hydroxyapatite from Calcium Sulfate
Hemihydrate”, 2011, Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Middle East
Technical University, Ankara, Turkey.
[8] Orlovskii, V.P. et al., “Hydroxyapatite and Hydroxyapatite-Based Ceramics”, Inorganic Materials, 2002, vol. 38.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Characterization & Morphological Analysis of Nanostructured Material
Images by Image Processing
Khin Khin Win1, Zin Min Tun2, Zin Min Myat3, Thidar Pyone4 Thazin Khaing5

Abstract
This paper aims to analyse and characterize the nanostructured material images obtained from
SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy) technique at the morphological aspect. State-of-the-art
techniques for these purposes are complex and complicated given the variability of the different
image acquisition modalities, different synthesis parameters and material composition. Image
processing is a potential tool to characterize and analyse the properties of nanoscale images interms of data acquisition, pre-processing, filtering, classification, surface morphology, particle
size, porosity measurement which is enable to use in many areas. The morphological analysis ofnanoscale images is an important research area in Materials Science to characterize theirproperties for many applications in the area of materials science and solid state physics. This work
has carried out the characterization and morphological analysis of titanium dioxide (TiO2)
nanostructured material images at different temperatures by utilizing the image processing
methods. The results show that current approach is capable of characterizing complex
morphological characteristics of the subtle nanostructured SEM images. The analysis ofnanostructured materials is easy to perform for well-behaved samples which have been describedusing simple functions of existing MatLab software packages (R2019b). This paper compares andpresents the results of previous works. It is found that the present work can be able to perform
more efficient and effective methods to analyse and characterize the nanostructured material
images. Moreover, this research work is enabling to address the issues and challenges ofnanostructured materials image characterization and analysis.
Keywords: SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy), pre-processing, edge detection, morphology,

1. Introduction
This paper aims to address some problems and state-of-the-art techniques encountered inimage processing for material analysis and design. Current methods for this purpose are acomplex task given the variability of the different image acquisition modalities, different
synthesis parameters and material composition. This paper presents an overview of techniquesthat have been and are currently developed to address this diversity of problems, such as
segmentation, texture analysis, multi scale and directional features extraction, stochastic models
and rendering, among others. Finally, it provides references to enter the issues, challenges andopportunities in materials characterization for Nanostructured Material Images.
1.1

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)[1]

The Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) is a tool for visualizing the surface of solid
samples, with a resolution (depending on the application) that can approach 1nm. Energydispersive X-ray analysis can be used to analyze volumes with dimensions of around 1 micronwith a sensitivity of about 0.2wt%, while back-scattered electron imaging allows the
1

Dr, Professor & Head, Department of Physics, University of Yangon, khinkhinwin@uy.edu.mm
Dr, Assistant Lecturer, Department of Physics, West University of Yangon
3
Dr. Assistant Lecturer, Department of Physics, University of Yangon
4
PhD Candidate, Lecturer, Department of Physics, University of Yangon,
5
PhD Candidate, Assistant Lecturer, Department of Physics, Bamaw University,2

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visualization of regions of different composition. Crystallographic orientation and structure canbe examined using electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) analysis, though sample preparation
requirements for this technique are very stringent and limit the number of samples that can bestudied in this way.
In principle, the SEM generates a primary focused electron beam in a vacuum chamberand raster scans the beam over a sample surface. The incident primary electrons interact with theatoms in the surface of the sample. Some of the primary electrons excite the sample to emit
secondary electrons while some are being scattered back. A secondary electron detector or abackscattered electron detector collects and converts the secondary electrons or the backscattered electrons into high resolution images.
Secondary electrons are emitted by atoms near the surface of a sample material when
their electrons become excited and have sufficient energy to escape the sample surface.
Secondary electrons carry information about morphology and surface topography of the sample.
The contrast is dominated by the so-called edge effect: more secondary electron can leave thesample at edges for reduced material retardation and adsorption and thus can lead to increased
brightness.
A highly sensitive backscatter electron detector captures composition, topography, andshadow images. Elements of higher atomic number will backscatter electrons more strongly thanthose of lower atomic numbers. Backscatter imaging allows for improved image contrast forcompositional images as well as topographical images. Therefore, backscatter detectors are used
to detect areas of varying chemical compositions. Backscattered electron imaging of
nonconductive, uncoated samples shows composition by contrast; higher atomic number regions
are brighter, while lower atomic number regions are darker.
1.2.

Nano structured materials images and Features

The possibility of designing, analysing and modelling materials from images (or generally
two- or three dimensional modalities) reveals important contributions in this area. As mentioned,
the appearance of nano structured materials images changes significantly with imaging
processing techniques, the scale of analysis, image qualities and settings, physical properties andsample preparation methods of materials. Understanding these aspects turns out to be crucial formaterial analysis and modelling. In particular, we face challenges regarding the characterizationof the physical assembly process of materials, the formation process of images, of imaging
techniques interacting with materials (geometry, transmission, illumination, reflection,
scattering). Answering these questions is important to separate the material appearance from its
intrinsic morphology and properties. This paper aims to report on issues from image feature
extraction to image simulation with the challenges and emerging trends in material analysis andmodelling that are likely to pose challenges to image processing, through the diversity of types ofmaterials, acquisition techniques and applications. Most likely traditional such as human visionbased interpretation of materials image can be misleading, as illustrated in Figure 1. Fully taking
into account physical properties and laws is at the heart of successful image analysis in materialscience.

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Figure 1 Images at 400

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and 500

temperature treatment

2. Methods and Outputs
Figures 2 represent a sample of images acquired and problems for material analysis. It
illustrates the cracks (black), partially filled pores (rounded dark grey shapes with white spots)
and zeolite inclusions (scattered or aggregated white dots) in a neutral substrate. Itscharacteristics relate to the efficiency of a spherical catalyst used in refining for the conversion ofhydrocarbons into chemical products. Such images raise different problems at different scales ofobservations, from isolated objects to scattered phases, requiring different segmentation tools.
Figure 3 results from optical microscopy. The thickness of the crusts may be measured byelectron probe microanalysis. It directly correlates with catalyst activity. Resorting to image
processing techniques to automate the measurement of crust thickness avoids invasive probe
techniques, and hastens the conception of new catalysts. It can use local orientation estimates for2D and 3D texture segmentation. The goal is to infer bounds on the effective properties ofmaterials by dealing with three-dimensional, computational microstructure simulations. It
combines a multiscale approach with homogenization techniques. The same goal is pursued in
the nanometric scale that illustrates a mixture of a crystalline and an amorphous material. The
periodicity of the first one, and the lack of long-term regularity of the second one, drives the useof local Fourier attributes.

Figure 2 Sample acquired image

Figure 4 CaTiO3 Image at 1100

Figure 3 Sample Image from Optical Microscopy

Figure 5 SiO2 Image at 800

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3. Image processing: issues and challenges
Classical approaches and techniques may define a relatively standard work-flow forimage processing in materials science. It includes the following steps: Image acquisition orreconstruction Depending on the resolution of interest, different equipments may be used, forinstance optical microscopes (mm-µm), scanning electron microscopes or SEM (µm) andtransmission electron microscopes or TEM (nm-˚A) for 2D acquisitions. Turning to 3D
acquisitions, one observes a frequent use of X-ray tomography (mm-µm) and electronic
tomography (nm) based on TEM projections. Some techniques deal with the reconstruction of
surface topography [20].
Enhancement and filtering: This step (Fig. 2, with bilateral filtering) relates to image
improvement from a noise level or homogeneity point-of-view. One is primarily interested innoise filtering techniques permitting only minimal modifications in the structures of interest, or
drift or background correction. Techniques for artifact corrections, specific to the acquisition
process, include for instance ring artifact suppression (X-ray tomography), sample impregnationor encasement in colourless resin (causing effects akin to cast shadows), mechanical or ionicsurface polishing.
Segmentation: This step encompassing dimensionality reduction, classification and model
fitting, simplifies rich images into a few meaningful intensities or components. It aims at therecovery of the border of the objects of interest. When the colour intensity level is directly related
to object properties (topography, like in secondary electron SEM, or chemical structure, like inback-scattered electron SEM), global histogram segmentation methods (inter-class variancemaximization, entropy, Expectation-Maximization) are complemented by criterion-based
segmentation (object length, surface, tortuosity). This combination permits the elimination of nonconform or non interesting elements, sometimes mere residuals of a previous processing
sequence. For images whose intensity is less directly related to properties, extraction of local
morphology or contours may be performed using global optimization approaches such as
geodesic active contours and regions, maximum flows approaches and/or mathematicalmorphology operations such as top-hat filtering or watershed transformations. Analysis Image
structures can be described without an explicit segmentation of the objects of interest using multiscale image representations based on morphological decompositions or wavelet-based multi scale
representations. Once simplified, objects of interest may be characterized by numbers, shapes andspatial distribution among others. Stereology, stochastic modelling (spatial moments, such as thecovariance, and spatial distributions) and the use of distance functions (inter-object, geodesic
length, tortuosity) provide the main sources of algorithms. Multi-modality It involves image
regularization and segmentation of multi-modal/multichannel/multi scale images acquired fromthe same samples. In order to deal with this kind of data, some pre-processing steps such as
registration, denoising and image fusion are required. In addition to extract relevant informationfrom complex data sets integrating various acquisition techniques, it is useful to use
dimensionally reduction techniques, from classical PCA to modern nonlinear manifold learning.
Microstructure stochastic modelling: This step (with 3D modelling from 2D images) may use
input characteristic data either from segmentation or analysis. It consists in estimating astochastic, geometric model (Boolean random functions, reaction-diffusion or dilution models,dead leaves tessellations), representing the microstructure of the observed material. It serves the
purposes of inferring the potential 3D structure from 2D cuts, or of obtaining structure variations

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through model parameter modifications, hence of “numerical material by design”. Finally, thisstep may even replace the segmentation step, when individual objects can not, or need not, be
individualized.
Segmentation and analysis are sometimes merged. “Texture approaches” aim at
extracting image characteristics without resorting to individual or excessively precise object
separation. Morphological metrics are extracted, with the help of 2D/3D models. Machinelearning techniques are also emerging, typically to automate supervised/unsupervisedclassification problems. Meaningful characteristics may be enriched by combining or merging
different acquisition techniques. Acquisitions may consider different scales of observation(multiscale fusion approaches), or different modalities (multi-modal fusion approaches), or both.
Such techniques, very common in medical or satellite imaging, are increasingly being used inmaterials design, combining for instance topographic and physico-chemical information (viasecondary electron and back-scattered SEM or Energy-Dispersive Spectroscopy). With 3D or
3D+time imaging [9], an important effort is dedicated to processing performance, especiallyalgorithm acceleration. Materials science processing work-flows are increasingly carried out,
with reduced cost, with CPU/GPU optimization. For instance, tomographic reconstruction istypically now faster than acquisition. Similar performance increases are being pursued withfiltering or segmentation techniques, toward integrated high-throughput materials science andengineering.

4. Conclusions
Among the challenges proposed before, and the ones recently exposed in [9], we retain
the attention on the following four:• multi-step: to produce a complete pipe-line or work-flow of image analyses and simulations,from sample acquisition to the estimation of physical properties;• data-flow: to manage raw and simulated data and acceleration of the aforementioned workflows from high throughput screening of materials with ever increasing amounts of numericalinformation;• multi-modality (or synergy): to employ as much as possible the potentialities to retrieve
information on materials from different acquisition sources, with novel fusion/combination
techniques improving characterization or providing access to novel properties;• reverse engineering: to help in computational material design, by orienting the synthesis or
manufacturing process of novel materials, desired or predicted (e.g. graphene).
A successful application of more standard image processing thus requires a better integration of
known techniques, as well as the deployment of image analysis not used in materials science yet,with the new challenges raised by its variety of data and physical models.

Acknowledgements
Author would like to thank all concerns from Ministry of Education (MOE), Department of Higher
Education (MOE), Myanmar Academy of Arts & Science (MAAS), Science Council of Asia and Japan Science
Council (JSC) for their permission, supporting and all round assisting to carry out this paper.

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References[1] R. E. Hummel, “Understanding Materials Science: History, Properties, Applications”, Springer, 2nd edition, 2004.
[2] J. A. Mathews, “The steel age—1876 to 1926,” Ind. Eng. Chem., vol. 18, no. 9, pp. 913–914, 1926.
[3] P. Ball, Madeto Measure: NewMaterialsforthe21stCentury, PrincetonUniversity Press, 1999.
[4] Y. Br´echet, “Materials science: from materials discovered by chance to made-tomeasure materials,” Coll`ege deFrance, 2013.
[5] J. P. Davim and C. A. Charitidis, Eds., “Nanocomposites: materials, manufacturing, and engineering, Advanced
Composites”, Walter De Gruyter, Berlin Boston, 2013.
[6] Y. Liu and X. Zhang, “Met materials: a new frontier of science and technology,” Chem. Soc. Rev., vol. 40, no. 5,
pp. 2494, 2011.
[7] J. W. Gibbs, “On the equilibrium of heterogeneous substances”, Trans. Connect. Acad. Arts Sci., vol. III, pp.
108–248 and 343–524, 1875 to 1878.
[8] L.Wojnar, “Image analysis. Applications in materials engineering”, CRCPress,1999.
[9] I. M. Robertson, C. A. Schuh, J. S. Vetrano, N. D. Browning, D. P. Field, D. J. Jensen, M. K. Miller, I. Baker, D.
C.
Dunand,R.
Dunin-Borkowski,
B.
Kabius,T.Kelly,S.LozanoPerez,A.Misra,G.S.Rohrer,A.D.Rollett,M.L.Taheri,G.B. Thompson, M. Uchic, X.-L. Wang,
and G. Was, “Towards an integrated materials characterization toolbox,” J. Mater. Res., vol.
26, no. 11, pp. 1341–1383, Jun 2011.
[10] D. Salomon and G. Motta, Handbook of Data Compression, Springer, 2009.
[11] B. K. Gunturk and X. Li, Eds., “Image Restoration: Fundamentals and Advances, Digital Imaging andComputer Vision”, CRC Press, 2012.
[12] J. Chanussot, C. Collet, and K. Chehdi, Eds., Multivariate Image Processing, ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons
Inc., 2009.
[13] J. Ohser and K. Schladitz, “3D Images of Materials Structures: Processing and Analysis”, Wiley-VCH, 2009.
[14] A.Depeursinge,A.Foncubierta-Rodriguez,D.VanDeVille, and H.M¨uller, “Three dimensional solid texture
analysis in biomedical imaging: Review and opportunities,” Med. Image Anal., vol. 18, no. 1,
pp. 176–196, 2014.
[15] H. H. Bauschke, R. S. Burachik, P. L. Combettes, V. Elser, D. R. Luke, and H. Wolkowicz, Eds., “Fixed-Point
Algorithms for Inverse Problems in Science and Engineering”, Springer, 2011.
[16] M.L. Comer and E.J.Delp, “The EM/MPM algorithm for segmentation of textured images: analysis and further
experimental results,” IEEE Trans. Image Process .,vol. 9, no. 10, pp. 1731–1744, 2000.
[17] C. Chaux, A. Jezierska, J.-C. Pesquet, and H. Talbot, “A spatial regularization approach for vector
quantization,” J. Math. Imaging Vis., vol. 41, no. 1-2, pp. 23–38, 2011.
[18] C. Park, J. Z. Huang, J. X. Ji, and Y. Ding, “Segmentation, inference and classification of partially overlapping
nanoparticles,” IEEE Trans. Patt. Anal. Mach. Int.,vol. 35, no. 3, pp. 669–681, 2013.
[19] M. Petrou and P. G. Sevilla, Image processing: dealing with texture, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2006.
[20] R. Leach, Ed., “Characterisation of Areal Surface Texture”, Springer, 2013.
[21]S. T. Ali, J.-P. Antoine, and J.-P. Gazeau, “Multidimensional Wavelets and Generalizations”, pp. 411–456,
Theoretical and Mathematical Physics. Springer-Verlag, Aug. 2014.
[22] S. Torquato,“Random Heterogeneous Materials: Microstructure and Macroscopic Properties”, Springer, 2002.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Formation of Calcium Hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) Nanorods for CO2 Adsorption
Nwe Ni Hlaing1, Srimala Sreekantan2, Hirofumi Hinode3, Winarto Kurniawan4,
Aye Aye Thant5

Abstract
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is one of the major contributors to the global warming and climate change.
Hence, mitigate towards the emission of CO2 into an atmosphere, various types of adsorbents
were reported. Recent years, nanostructured calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) has been proposed as apotential calcium oxide (CaO) based adsorbent for CO2 adsorption. In this study, Ca(OH)2
samples were synthesized via simple precipitation method by using cetyltrimethyl ammonium
bromide (CTAB) as a surfactant. The effect of CTAB concentration (0.01-0.03 mol) on the
structure and morphology of synthetic Ca(OH)2 samples were investigated by X-ray diffraction
and field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM). From XRD and FESEM results, theformation of Ca(OH)2 nanorods with an average diameter of 80-100 nm was observed at 0.03
mol of CTAB. The CO2 adsorption capacities of CaO derived from synthetic Ca(OH)2 samples
were studied by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The TGA results demonstrated that CaO
derived from Ca(OH)2 nanorods exhibited CO2 adsorption capacity of 0.75 g-CO2/g-adsorbent
which was higher than those of CaO derived from irregular and hexagonal shapes Ca(OH)2
samples synthesized at 0.01 and 0.02 mol of CTAB, respectively.
Keywords: calcium hydroxide, nanorods, carbon dioxide, adsorption capacity, XRD, TGA

1. Introduction
Mitigate towards the emission of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the combustion of fossil fuelburning has been worldwide concerns due to their adverse effect towards the heath of mankind
and environment. Carbon dioxide capture, utilization and storage (CCUS) technology is areasonable technology that prevents the release of large quantities of CO2 into the atmosphere bycapturing CO2 and transporting it to where it can be useful. The first step of CCUS technology iscarbon dioxide capturing process and hence, researches are focused on the investigation ofmaterials and techniques which can capture large amount of CO2 [1,2].
Among numerous gas separation technologies which have been attempted to capture CO2from flue gas, adsorption using solid materials is one the most promising methods due to someadvantages of solid adsorbents including low energy requirement, cost advantage, and the ability
to use over a wide range of temperatures and pressures. Different solid adsorbents including
metal organic frameworks (MOFs), grapheme organic frameworks (GOFs), zeolites, activatedcarbons, clays, calcium oxide, etc have different capability to adsorb CO2 and cyclic stabilities.
Among various materials, calcium oxide (CaO) based adsorbent is one of the promising material
1

Department of Physics, Taunggyi University, 06013, Taunggyi, Myanmar, nwenihlaing76@gmail.com
School of Materials and Mineral Resources Engineering, Engineering Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 14300
Nibong Tebal, Penang,3
Department of Transdiciplinary Science and Technology, School of Environment and Society, Tokyo Institute ofTechnology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, Japan
4
Department of Transdiciplinary Science and Technology, School of Environment and Society, Tokyo Institute ofTechnology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, Japan
5
Department of Physics, University of Yangon, 11041 Kamayut, Yangon, Myanmar
2

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because of the advantages such as high CO2 adsorption capacity, low material cost and reversible
carbonation/calcination cycles [2,3].
Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) is one of the materials that can be used as CaO-based
adsorbent for the capture of CO2 because of its excellent properties such as high reactivity andfast reactions [4,5]. Some researchers synthesized Ca(OH)2 by various methods including waterin-oil (W/O) microemulsions [6], sonochemical [7], hydrogen plasma-metal reaction [8] and wet
chemical method [9]. However, some of these methods require high temperature or complicatedequipment [6-8]. Therefore, the development of a simple method with low-temperature is highly
desirable for the synthesis of Ca(OH)2.
Recent years, high aspect ratio one dimensional (1D) nanostructures including nanowires,
nanorods, and nanotubes have attracted attention owing to their chemical, mechanical, electrical,
and optical properties and their promising applications in in different types of applications. Up tonow, a variety of synthetic approaches including precipitation, hydrothermal, solvothermal, spraypyrolysis, thermal hydrolysis and sol-gel methods have been developed to synthesize one
dimensional nanostructures [10-12].
In this study, Ca(OH)2 nanostructures were synthesized by a simple precipitation method
using calcium acetate hydrate as calcium (Ca) source. The formation of Ca(OH)2 nanorods werestudied by varying the concentration of cetyltrimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB). The
obtained samples were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron
microscopy (SEM). The CO2 adsorption capacities of the synthetic Ca(OH)2 nanostructures were
investigated by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA).

2. Methods
A 0.01 mol of cetyltrimethyl ammonium bromide, CTAB (Merck) was added to the 0.16
mol of sodium hydroxide, NaOH (Aldrich) aqueous solution. This solution was stirred for 30
min. A 0.02 mol of calcium acetate hydrate, Ca(CH3COO)2.H2O (Merck) was dissolved in 100
ml distilled water and then dropped slowly into the previously stirred solution. This mixed
solution was heated to 40C and vigorously stirred for 30 min. White precipitates were formed
and subsequently centrifuged and then dried in an oven at 70°C for 24 hours. The sameprocedures were performed for preparing other samples with different moles of CTAB (0.020.03).
The obtained samples were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD) with a Bruker AXS
D8 Advance X-Ray Diffractometer and field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM,Carl Zeiss SUPRA 35 VP). The thermal behaviors and CO2 adsorption capacities of CaO derived
from synthetic Ca(OH)2 samples were studied by a Rigaku thermogravimetry-differential thermal
analysis (TG-DTA) apparatus with Thermoplus 2 software. A small amount of Ca(OH)2 sample(~ 6.5 mg) was placed in a platinum crucible and heated from room temperature to 700C at aheating rate of 10C/min under 100% N2 gas flow. After that, carbonation process was performedfor 30 min under 100% CO2 gas flow. The constant gas flow rate for CO2 and N2 was 40 ml/min.
The CO2 adsorption capacity was calculated by using the following equation.
CO2 Adsorption Capacity 

w n - wiwi

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where, Wn is the weight of the carbonated sample after carbonation process and Wi is the initial
weight of the calcined sample.

3. Results and Discussion
Figure 1(a-c) shows the XRD patterns of the synthetic samples obtained by a simple
precipitation method. All the major diffraction peaks could be indexed to the hexagonal structure
Ca(OH)2 (calcium hydroxide) phase, according to the standard data (JCPDS No. 78-0135). The
peaks at 2θ value of 28°, 34°, 47°, 50°, and 54° were corresponded to the reflection from (100),(011), (012), (110) and (111) planes of Ca(OH)2 phase, respectively. Moreover, minor diffraction
peaks belong to the calcite (CaCO3,) phase with rhombohedral structure (JCPDS No. 05-0586)
were also observed.
In the XRD pattern of Ca(OH)2 sample prepared with 0.01 mol of CTAB (Figure 1(a)),
the high intensity diffraction peak was found at 2θ value of 29° which was corresponded to thereflection from (104) plane of calcite phase. In the XRD patterns of Ca(OH)2 samples preparedwith 0.02 mol and 0.03 mol of CTAB, the intensities of the characteristic diffraction peaks ofcalcite (at 2θ value of 29°) decreased. On the other hand, the intensity of characteristic diffraction
peak of Ca(OH)2 phase at 2θ=34° increased. The results showed that the concentration of CTAB
influenced the contents of calcite phase in the synthetic Ca(OH)2 samples.
The crystallite sizes of Ca(OH)2 samples were calculated by well-known Scherrer’s
equation (D = k / cos ), where D is crystallite, k is Scherrer’s constant (typically between
0.85 and 0.99), λ is the wavelength of the incident X-rays, θ is the angle of diffraction and β isfull width at half maximum (FWHM). The calculated crystallite sizes of Ca(OH)2 samples
prepared with 0.01 mol, 0.02 mol and 0.03 mol of CTAB were 42.07 nm, 45.54 nm and 56.04
nm, respectively. The results showed that the crystallite size and crystallinity increased withincreasing the concentration of CTAB.

Figure 1. XRD patterns of calcium hydroxide samples synthesized with (a) 0.01 mol, (b) 0.02 mol and (c) 0.03 mol of CTAB

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Figure 2(a-c) displays the FESEM images of synthetic Ca(OH)2 samples prepared with
0.01 mol, 0.02 mol and 0.03 mol of CTAB. In the FESEM image of Ca(OH)2 sample preparedwith 0.01 mol of CTAB (Figure 2(a)), irregular shaped and irregular sized micro/nano particles
were observed. When CTAB was increased to 0.02 mol, micro/nano hexagonal plates with non
uniform sizes were seen in Figure 2(b). With 0.03 mol of CTAB, the formation of Ca(OH)2
nanorods with an average diameter of 80-100 nm was observed (Figure 2(c)). FESEM images
revealed that the concentration of CTAB played a critical role to control the formation of
Ca(OH)2 nanorods.

.
Figure 2. FESEM images of calcium hydroxide samples synthesized with (a) 0.01 mol, (b) 0.02 mol and (c) 0.03 mol of CTAB

TG/DTA analysis was carried out to examine the conversion process of synthetic
Ca(OH)2 sample during calcination process. Figure 3(a-b) shows the TG and DTA curves ofsynthetic Ca(OH)2 sample prepared with 0.03 mol of CTAB. Three weight-loss steps wereobserved in the TGA curve shown in Figure 3(a). The first step occurring in the temperature
range from 50C to 300C was attributed to the physical water evaporation of Ca(OH)2 sample.
The second step between 360C and 460C was ascribed to the chemical dehydration of
Ca(OH)2, which are confirmed by the sharp endothermic peak at 430°C in DTA curve (Figure3(b)). The weight loss of this step was about 20%. The third step between 550C and 680C was
attributed to the decomposition of CaCO3. The weight loss 6% in this step was consistent with
the XRD result shown in Figure 1(c), indicating that calcite was a minor phase.
The synthetic Ca(OH)2 samples were used as calcium oxide (CaO) based adsorbents forcarbon dioxide (CO2) adsorption. The CO2 adsorption capacities of CaO derived from synthetic
Ca(OH)2 samples were determined by TGA. Figure 4(a) shows the TGA profile of twoconsecutive carbonation/calcination cycles of CaO derived from synthetic Ca(OH)2 sample
prepared with 0.03 mol of CTAB in weight percentage. When synthetic Ca(OH)2 sample washeated from room temperature to 700°C under 100% N2 gas, dehydration of Ca(OH)2 anddecomposition of CaCO3 were observed. Then, the temperature was maintained at 700°C for 6
min to ensure complete decomposition of CaCO3 to CaO. After that, the reaction atmosphere was19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

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switched to 100% CO2, the carbonation reaction of CaO took place to form the carbonated
CaCO3. This step was followed by the next calcination reaction whereby the carbonated CaCO3
converted to CaO under 100% N2 gas.
The CO2 adsorption capacities of CaO obtained from synthetic Ca(OH)2 samples
prepared with 0.01 mol, 0.02 mol and 0.03 mol of CTAB were calculated from the TGA profile.
The calculated results are presented in Table 1 and Figure 4(b). As seen in Table 1 and Figure4(b), CO2 adsorption capacities of CaO derived from Ca(OH)2 samples increased with increasingof CTAB concentration. In comparison with CaO derived from irregular-shaped and hexagonalshaped Ca(OH)2 samples prepared with 0.01 mol and 0.02 mol of CTAB, the capacity of CaO
derived from one dimensional (1D) nanorods Ca(OH)2 sample prepared with 0.03 mol of CTAB
after 1st cycle was higher (0.75 g-CO2/g-adsorbent), which approached to the theoretical
adsorption capacity of CaO (0.78 g-CO2/g-adsorbent).

Figure 3. (a) TG and (b) DTA curves of calcium hydroxide sample synthesized with 0.03 mol of CTAB

Figure 4. (a) TGA profile Ca(OH)2 sample synthesized with 0.03 mol of CTAB and(b) CO2 adsorption capacity of CaO derived from Ca(OH)2 samples

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Table 1. CO2 adsorption capacities of CaO derived from Ca(OH)2 samples
No

CO2 adsorption capacity (gCO2/g-adsorbent)

SampleFirst cycle

Second cycle

1

CaO derived from Ca(OH)2 sample preparedwith 0.01 mol of CTAB

0.60

0.55

2

CaO derived from Ca(OH)2 sample preparedwith 0.02 mol of CTAB

0.70

0.69

3

CaO derived from Ca(OH)2 sample preparedwith 0.03 mol of CTAB

0.75

0.73

4. Conclusion
In this study, nanostructured calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) samples were synthesized via
a simple precipitation method at the temperature 40C by varying the concentration ofcetyltrimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB). The formation of one dimensional Ca(OH)2
nanorods was investigated. FESEM images exhibited that Ca(OH)2 samples synthesized with
0.01 mol of CTAB resulted in irregular shaped and sized micro/nano particles, with 0.02 mol of
CTAB resulted in micro/nano hexagonal plates with non uniform sizes, with 0.03 mol of CTAB
resulted in nanorods with an average diameter of 80-100 nm, respectively. Based on FESEM
images, it could be concluded that the concentration of CTAB played a critical role to control theformation of Ca(OH)2 nanorods. The TGA results showed that the CO2 adsorption capacity of
CaO derived from synthetic Ca(OH)2 nanorods sample (0.75 g-CO2/g-adsorbent) was higher thanthose of CaO derived from irregular and hexagonal shapes Ca(OH)2 samples.

Acknowledgements
The authors thank the AUN/SEED Net Project under the Grant no. 304/6050219 and JICA for financial
support and greatly acknowledge to Universiti Sains Malaysia and Tokyo Institute of Technology for facility support.
The authors are grateful to Dr Mu Mu Myint, Rector and Dr Win Win Ei, Pro-Rectors, Taunggyi University for theirpermission to submit this paper. The authors grateful to Dr Khin Khin Htoot, Head of Department of Physics andProfessor Dr Nwe Nwe San, Department of Physics, Taunggyi University for encouragement to submit this paper.

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References[1] Luís Quesada Carballo, María del Rosario Perez, David Cantador Fernández, Alvaro Caballero Amores, and José
María Fernández Rodríguez , “Optimum particle size of treated calcites for CO2 capture in a
power plant”, Materials, 2019, vol.12, pp.1-17.
[2] Muhammad Awais Naeem, Andac Armutlulu, Qasim Imtiaz, Felix Donat, Robin Schäublin, Agnieszka
Kierzkowska and Christoph R. Müller, “Optimization of the structural characteristics of CaO
and its effective stabilization yield high-capacity CO2 sorbents”, Nature communications, 2018,
9:2408, pp.1-11.
[3] Qiang Wang, Jizhong Luo, Ziyi Zhong and Armando Borgna, “CO2 capture by solid adsorbents and theirapplications: current status and new trends”, Energy Environ. Sci, 2011, vol.4, pp. 42-55.
[4] Chiung-Fang Liu, Shin-Min Shih, and Tsai-Bang Huang, “Effect of SO2 on the reaction of calcium hydroxidewith CO2 at low temperatures”, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2010, vol.49, pp.9052-9057.
[5] Wu, S.F, T. H. Beum, J. I. Yang, and J. N. Kim, “Properties of Ca-base CO2 sorbent using Ca(OH)2 as precursor”,
Ind. Eng. Chem. Res, 2007, vol. 46, pp. 7896-7899.
[6] Nanni, A. and L. Dei, “Ca(OH)2 nanoparticles from W/O microemulsions”, Langmuir, 2002, vol.19, pp. 933-938.
[7] Amin Alavi, M. and A. Morsali, “Ultrasonic-assisted synthesis of Ca(OH)2 and CaO nanostructures”, Journal of
Experimental Nanoscience, 2010, vol. 5, pp. 93-105.
[8] Tong Liu, Yarong Zhu, Xuanzhou Zhang, Tongwen Zhang, Tao Zhang, Xingguo Li, “Synthesis andcharacterization of calcium hydroxide nanoparticles by hydrogen plasma-metal reaction
method”, Materials Letters, 2010, vol. 64, pp. 2575-2577.
[9] Rodriguez-Navarro, C, A. Suzuki, and E. Ruiz-Agudo, “Alcohol dispersions of calcium hydroxide nanoparticles
for stone conservation”, Langmuir, 2013, vol. 29, pp. 11457-11470.
[10] Yanlong Xing and Petra S. Dittrich, “One-dimensional nanostructures: microfluidic-based synthesis, alignment
and integration towards functional sensing devices”, Sensors, 2018, vol.18:134, pp.1-21.
[11] Maithri Tharmavaram, Deepak Rawtani and Gaurav Pandey, “Fabrication routes for one-dimensional
nanostructures via block copolymers”, Nano Convergence, 2017, vol. 4:12, pp.1-13.
[12] Rui Chen, Zuoshan Wang, Qingqing Zhou, Juan Lu and Min Zheng, “A template-free microwave synthesis of
one-dimensional Cu2O nanowires with desired photocatalytic property”, Materials, 2018,vol.11: 1843, pp.1-11.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

The Updated Probabilistic Seismic Models 2018 for Mitigation of Seismic
Risks in Myanmar
Myo Thant1, Maung Thein2

Abstract
The seismic hazard assessment of Myanmar was firstly carried out by Gorshkov (1959), and theseismic hazard model was then continuously updated by Mg Thein in 1985 and 2001, andMaung Thein et al. in 2003 and 2005. All of those seismic hazard models based on the previous
major events, it means that the models were developed by using deterministic seismic hazard
assessment (DSHA) methodology. The seismic hazard maps and information are very important
for a country in seismic risk reduction processes. In recent years, all of the scientists accept that
only deterministic seismic hazard model is not sufficient for conducting the seismic risk
reduction processes, and the seismic hazard models constructed by using probabilistic seismic
hazard assessment (PSHA) method. Therefore, the probabilistic seismic hazard maps of
Myanmar were developed in 2012 by Myo Thant et al. In developing those maps, the seismic
sources are modeled as areal seismic sources for the subduction zone domain of Indian-Australia
Plate beneath Burma Plate, in the west of country and the collision zone domain of IndianAustralia Plate and Eurasia Plate, in the north-west. Moreover, the Eastern Highland region is
also modeled as the areal seismic sources due to the unavailability of the sufficient fault
parameters, even though there are several strike-slip faults in that region (e.g. Moemeik Fault,
Nampon Fault, Shweli Fault, Kyaukme Fault, and Nam Ma Fault, etc.). The 2012 seismic
sources were remodeled especially the areal seismic sources of subduction and collision zones,
and Eastern Highland, and the new probabilistic hazard models are proposed for Myanmar in
2018. In those models, the seismic hazard calculations are for 10% and 2% probability ofexceedances in 50 years as the previous one. The resulted seismic hazard maps of Myanmar are
peak ground acceleration (PGA) maps, spectral acceleration (SA) maps for the period 0.2 s and
1.0 s, and peak ground velocity (PGV) maps. In this work, we try to understand the seismic riskof Myanmar based on the available demographic and other related information, and the modified
seismic hazard models, especially for the major cities as Yangon, Mandalay, Sagaing, Bago, etc.
Moreover, we also make the seismic hazard model for 10% probability of exceedance in 50
years simple to understand by public for self-realization of risk condition, and the public canprepare themselves for seismic risk reduction purposes.
Keywords: probabilistic seismic hazard maps, peak ground acceleration, spectral acceleration,
peak ground velocity, seismic risk reduction.

1. Introduction
Myanmar is the earthquake disaster prone country since it lies along one of the major
earthquake belts of the world, Alpide earthquake belt. With respect to the tectonics of the country,
the convergence of Indian-Australia Plate in the south with the Eurasia Plate in north is the major
cause of the earthquakes in Myanmar and surrounding regions. The crustal faults present in
Myanmar can be assumed due to this tectonic process. One of the major active faults is the rightlateral, strike-slip, Sagaing Fault passing through near or on the major cities of Myanmar such as
Naypyitaw, Yangon, Mandalay, Bago, and Sagaing, etc. The others are Kabaw Fault, Mrauk-U
Fault, Gwegyo Fault, West Bago Yoma Fault in central and western parts of Myanmar; Lashio
1
2

Dr Professor, Department of Geology, University of Yangon, myothant05@gmail.com
Dr Professor, Ret., Department of Geology, University of Yangon

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Fault in the Eastern Highland; NW-SE trending Three Pagodas Fault, and Papun Fault in
Tanintharyi Region. From the point of view of earthquake experiences, the country has
experienced several large earthquakes such as 1839 Ava (Innwa) Earthquake, 1912 Maymyo
Earthquake, 1929 Swa Earthquake, 1930 Bago Earthquake, 1930 Phyu Earthquake, 1956 Sagaing
Earthquake, 1991 Tagaung Earthquake, etc. Among them th deadliest and the most damaged
events are 1930 Bago Earthquake originated from Sagaing Fault, which struck on May 5 with themagnitude of 7.3 M, causing 550 deaths and several buildings were damaged in Bago andYangon, while the other is 1839 Ava (Innwa) event that caused 400 casualties in Innwa andsurrounding areas with several buildings damages especially pagodas, and monasteries. The mostrecent events are 2011 Tarlay Earthquake, 2012 Thabeikkyin Earthquake, 2016 Chauk
Earthquake and 2017 Taikkyi Earthquake.
It can, therefore, be clearly seen that earthquake disaster of Myanmar is quite high, and theearthquake disaster mitigation processes are required to continuously carry out. Among those
processes, the seismic hazard assessment is the essential and initial step. Therefore, seismic
hazard assessments had been carrying out since eighteen century, e.g. Gorshkov (1959) [1], Mg
Thein (1985, 2001) [2, 3], and Maung Thein et al. (2003, 2005)[4,5] based on the deterministic
methodology. In 2012, Myo Thant et al. [6] carried out seismic hazard assessment of Myanmar
by using the probabilistic seismic hazard assessment (PSHA) approach, then they modified in2018 again.
2. Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Assessment Methodology and Applied Data
The methodology used in the seismic hazard assessment of Myanmar by Myo Thant et al.
(2018) is probabilistic seismic hazard analysis defined by Cornell (1968) [7], and the basic steps
are briefly described as four steps (Reiter, 1990; Cramer, 1996) [8, 9]. The earthquake sources
identification is the first step of the method, in which the seismic sources are identified as beingof uniform earthquake potential throughout the sources that can be range from planar faults tolarge seismotectonic provinces. The second step is definition of seismicity recurrence
characteristics for each seismic source, by earthquake recurrence relationship giving the chanceof an earthquake of a given size to happen in the source during a specific period of time,
considering all of the upper limits of earthquakes. The simple earthquake recurrence relationshipis Log N= a - bM, in which N is the cumulative number of earthquakes of a given magnitude orlarger that can be expected to happened during a specified time period; a and b are the constantsof earthquake occurrence, M is the earthquake magnitude, normally moment magnitude.
Estimation of the earthquake effect is the step, and the attenuation of ground motion expectedfrom the earthquakes in different magnitude range with distance, mostly represented nowadays
by means of ground motion prediction equations. The last step is determining the seismic hazard
at the site, i.e. the probability that the ground motion parameter (for example: groundacceleration, ground velocity and spectral acceleration) will be exceeded during a specified time
period is calculated by considering the uncertainties in spatial and temporal earthquake
occurrences, earthquake size, and ground motion prediction, etc.
The data and information applied in the seismic hazard calculation are the combined
information of seismic sources model (2012) and the modified 2016 seismic sources model, andthe seismicity information (Figure 1). The seismic sources are modeled as areal seismic sources
for the subduction zone domain of Indian-Australia Plate beneath Burma Plate, in the west of
country and the collision zone domain of Indian-Australia Plate and Eurasia Plate, in the north-19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

147

west. Moreover, the Eastern Highland region is also modeled as the areal seismic sources due tothe unavailability of the sufficient fault parameters, even though there are several strike-slip
faults in that region (e.g. Moemeik Fault, Nampon Fault, Shweli Fault, Kyaukme Fault, and Nam
Ma Fault, etc.). The 2012 seismic sources were remodeled especially the areal seismic sources ofsubduction and collision zones, and Eastern Highland, and the new probabilistic hazard models
are proposed for Myanmar in 2018.

Figure 1. Map presenting the seismicity of Myanmar region (ISC earthquake catalog, 2011) after declustering.

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3. Results and Discussion

Figure 2. Seismic zone map of Myanmar, modified probabilistic seismic hazard map of Myanmar for 475 years recurrence
interval (Myo Thant et al., 2018) by Myo Thant and Mg Thein (2019)19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

149

Figure 3. Seismic zone map of Yangon Region, modified probabilistic seismic hazard map of Myanmar for 475 years recurrence
interval (Myo Thant et al., 2018) by Myo Thant and Mg Thein (2019)

Myo Thant et al. (2018) [10] constructed the probabilistic hazard maps of Myanmar for
10% and 2% probability of exceedance in 50 years and seismic hazards are illustrated in terms ofpeak ground acceleration (PGA), peak ground velocity (PGV), and spectral acceleration at theperiods of 0.2 s and 1.0 s. In here, we modified the seismic hazard map for 10% probability ofexceedance in 50 years (Figure 2) and the seismic hazards are presented by dividing different

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zones in terms of peak ground acceleration (PGA), Modified Mercalli (MM) scale and potential
damages. Five seismic zones are identified based on the range of PGA in which Seismic Zone I
comprises Low Zone of Potential Damage with PGA value of ≤ 0.15 g and MM scale of VI;
Seismic Zone II as Moderate Potential Zone with PGA range of 0.16 -0.3 g and MM scale VII,
Zone III as Strong Potential Damage Zone with PGA range 0.31 – 0.45 g; Zone IV as Severe
Potential Damage Zone with PGA range of 0.46 – 0.6 g and MM scale VIII-IX; and Seismic
Zone V as Destructive Zone with PGA range ≥ 0.6 g and MM scale IX (Figure 2). The westernpart of Myanmar as northern Rakhine, Chin, northern Magway, western Sagaing are located in
Seismic Zone III, IV and V. Four major regions/states as Yangon, Bago, Mandalay, Kachin also
occur in Zone III, IV and V. Most of the major cities such as Mandalay, Sagaing, Naypyitaw,
Bago, Taungoo, and Wuntho correspond to the seismic zones of III and IV while the city Yangon
belongs to seismic zone of II. However, it should be noted that this seismic zone map isprobabilistic seismic hazard map of 10% probability of exceedance in 50 years (475 years
recurrence interval) and the site condition is considered as the bedrock. If the reference seismic
hazard is for 2% probability of exceedance in 50 years (2475 years recurrence interval) and thesite conditions are considered based on the soil properties, the hazard values will be higher thanthe present one and the hazard distributed areas will also be wider.
With regards to Yagon Region, The central and eastern part of the region belongs to theseismic zones of Zone II to III and some are of Seismic Zone IV such as Thongwa andKyaukktan, Tanyin, Taikkyi and Hlegu Townships. Based on the population of Yangon City, Mostof the high populated townships, e.g. Dagonmyothit (S), Myaukokkalar, Mingaladon, Thakeda,
Thingankyun, Dagonmyothit (N), Dagonmyothit (Seikkan), Dagonmyothit (E) Tamwe,
Taungokkalar, comprise of Seismic Zone II. As mentioned previously, This also bases on theseismic hazard information of 10% probability of exceedance in 50 years and bedrock condition,
if the hazard information based on 2% probability of exceedance in 50 years and the detailed soil
condition, the seismic hazard will be higher and the area of distribution will be wider.
The seismic hazard assessment plays an important role for earthquake disaster mitigation
processes that will include application in seismic resistance design calculation (for engineering
purposes, the seismic zone factor will be included in National Building Code), land-use plan,
seismic risk assessment, and other mitigation purposes. Moreover, the public must understand theseismic risk condition of their buildings and areas, the development of seismic zone map bytranslation the estimated seismic hazard is therefore very important, especially for the public.
Based on these information, they can carry out earthquake disaster preparing processes and theconcerned ministries, departments and organizations can also use for various purposes.

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References[1] Gorshkov, G. P. “Problems of Seismotectonics and Seismicity – Zoning of the Territory of the Union of Burma”.
(Mineographed Manuscript), 1959.
[2] Maung Thein. “Mitigation of Earthquake Hazards in Myanmar (in Myanmar Language)”, Working People Daily,
18 Nov., 1985.
[3] Maung Thein. “Mitigation of Earthquake Hazard in Myanmar (in Myanmar Language)”, Jour. Myan. Acad.
Tech., Vol. 1., No. 2, P. 124 – 134.
[4] Maung Thein, Tint Lwin Swe and Tin Htay Mu. “Seismic Zone Map of Myanmar”, With an Explanatory Note (9pg.), 2003.
[5] Maung Thein and Tint Lwin Swe. “The Seismic Zone Map of Myanmar”, Myanmar Earthquake Committee,
Myanmar Engineer Society, 2005.
[6] Myo Thant, Nwai Le’ Ngal, Soe Thura Tun, Maung Thein, Win Swe, Than Myint. “Seismic Hazard Assessment
For Myanmar”, Report to Myanmar Earthquake Committee and Myanmar Geoscience Socity,
P58., 2012.
[7] Cornell, C. A. “Engineering Seismic Risk Analysis”, Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, Vol. 58,
1583-1606, 1968.
[8] Reiter, L., “Earthquake Hazard Analysis- Issues and Insights”, Columbia University Press, New York, 254pp.,
1990.
[9] Kramer, S. L. “Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering”, Prentice-Hall International Series in Civil Engineeringand Engineering Mechanics, 653 pp., 1996.
[10] Myo Thant, Saw Ngwe Khaing, Soe Min, Lin Thu Aung, Thura Aung, Soe Thura Tun, Hiroshi Kawase, ChungHan Chang, Yu Wang, “Updated Probabilistic Seismic Models of Myanmar”, Report of
Myanmar Earthquake Committee, 2018.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Seismic Microzonation at Taungthaman area, Mandalay Region
Pyi Soe Thein1, Tint Tint Khaing2 , Junji Kiyono3, Tun Tun Win 4, Htay Win5

Abstract
Taunthaman area is located very closed to the most active dextral Sagaing Fault in Myanmar.
In the historical record, several earthquakes happened in and around Mandalay, Amarapura,Innwa, Sagaing region from the beginning of the year of 1400. Even a moderately strong
earthquake may cause great loss of lives and property damage. The study area is partly built on
alluvial sediments which can amplify seismic ground motion. There is a need to prepare acomprehensive seismic microzonation in near future to support seismic hazard assessment. We
conducted 7-sites PQWT-TC series geophysical survey to estimate the shaking intensity
distribution during the earthquake. We also conducted 7-site bore holes investigation to gain arepresentative determination of the soil condition of subsurface structures in Taung Tha Man
area. These parameters are required for seismic resistant design of structures. The adopted
methodology comprises of three parts:(i) soil modeling and estimation of depth to Engineering Bed Layer (ii) estimation of the groundmotion at Engineering Bed Layer (iii) estimation of ground motion at the surface by 1D groundresponse analysis using Multiple Reflection Analysis (MRA) program. The soil models areprepared from geophysical survey data and shear wave velocity/ N-values. The results enabled us
to estimate the site-dependent shaking characteristics of earthquake ground motion.
Keywords: Alluvial sediments, Sagaing Fault, geophysical survey, earthquake ground motion

1. Introduction
In Myanmar, earthquakes are mainly caused by the tectonic movements related to thesubduction of the Indian plate beneath the Burma plate along the Andaman Islands andRakhine-China-Naga Ranges. The Indian Plate collides with Eurasia Plate at the rate of 50
mm/yr [1], while the rate of subduction of Indian plate under Burma plate is about 36 mm/yr
and the Benioff zone dips in varying degree in each segment of the subduction system. Anothermajor active geological structure that generates the major earthquakes in Myanmar is Sagaing
Fault. Others are Kyaukkyan Fault, Papun Fault, Kabaw Fault, Gwegyo Fault and West Bago
Yoma Fault. Taungthaman area, Mandalay region is the famous cultural center of Myanmar
and the population is about thirty thousand. There are also greater population, higher
urbanization, more industrialization and many infrastructures. Actually, the study area islocated very closed to the most active dextral Sagaing fault in Myanmar. An active Sagaing
Fault is a fault that may have displacement within a future period of concern to humans.
Identification of active Sagaing Fault requires recognizing previous displacement andconstraining the age of displacement [2], [3] and [4]. An active fault is usually identified byassociating it with tectonically deformed Quaternary- age materials or surface. In the historical
record, several earthquakes happened in and around Mandalay, Amarapura, Innwa, Sagaing
region from the beginning of the year of 1400. Even a moderately strong earthquake may cause1

Lecturer, Department of Geology, Yadanabon University, pyisoethein@yahoo.com
M.Sc student, Department of Geology, Yadanabon University, tinttintkhaing.geol@gmail.com
3
Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Japan, kiyono.junji.5x@kyoto.u.ac.jp
4
Lecturer, Department of Geology, Mandalay University, geolttw73@gmail.com
5
Professor and Head, Department of Geology, Yadanabon University, htaywin.geol.61@gmail.com
2

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great loss of lives and property damage. Seismic microzonation studies are generally
considered as a prerequisite for the site specific risk analysis to mitigate earthquake losses ordamages. The first relevant applications appeared in Myanmar at recent years [5].
In this research, the development of a high resolution near-surface Mandalay region
Vs model is presented, including descriptions of the processing steps applied to the adopted
SPT dataset and PQWT-TC500 geophysical data, the consideration made for the seismic
microzonation mapping of the selected spatial interpolation schemes. The seismic
microzonation maps are developed by using the multiple reflection analysis and empiricalstochastic green function.
30

2. Geophysical Survey and Data Analysis
Geophysical lines are generally arranged perpendicular to the line to be constructed, candetect tectonic crushed zone on both sides of the border and its different physical characteristics,
contrast is strong, crushing width, extending distinctive characteristics. There are seven sites
from PQWT-TC500 geophysical instrument throughout the taungthaman area to evaluate thegeotechnical properties of subsurface layers (Figure 1). The collected data each time is the dataof the midpoint between two electrode data, Electrode spacing is generally 5-10 m, dot spacingis generally about 0.5-2m, electrode spacing and dot spacing must keep the same distance forone measuring line (Figure 2). The measurement and result PQWT-TC500 geophysical crosssection of the site no.1 is reported in Figure 3 and 4.

Figure 1. SRTM Satellite image with Geophysical survey Sites.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

155

Figure 2. Sketch map of wiring method N、M are electrodes, O is Measuring point,
NM=10m, dot spacing is generally about 0.5-2m (standardis1m)

Figure 3. PQWT-TC500 Geophysical measurement at site No 1,
Yadanabon University [ 96°4'18.897'' E & 21°53'31.516'' N].

Figure 3. The result PQWT-TC500 geophysical cross-section of the site no.1

Seven borehole data were collected to evaluate the subsurface profiles and related
geotechnical parameters for seismic microzonation analyses. The detailed drilling program had
been carried out for subsurface investigation in taungthaman area. The SPT dataset is used todevelop surfaces describing the distribution of time-averaged shear wave velocity, Vs30, acrossthe urban area in Mandalay region. Target profile depths of 5, 10, 20, 30 m wereconsidered to allow for an assessment of the distributions of soil stiffness with depth across the30

region. Vs values are computed for each target depth, as Eq. (1) [6] and [7]. The evaluatedsubsurface profiles for each area in Mandalay region are shown in the following Figure 4.

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156

Vs30=

(1)

where v_si is shear wave velocity, d_i thickness of i layer and t_i one way travel time in ith layer.

Figure 4. Example of Vs profile at Taungthaman area (SPT 1 dataset).

The MRA (Multiple Reflection Analysis) was used to calculate the transfer function,
which expresses the relation between the period and the corresponding magnification factor.
Calculation of predominant period by using boring data and the ground model profile is done
according to the MRA. The governing equation is(2)
in which µ is the displacement of horizontal S-wave (SH), Z the direction of wave propagation
the shear modulus and η the coefficient of visco(up-down), t the time, the density,
elasticity. The soil damping is considered by giving the complex value to the shear modulus
and solving Eq. (2). The damping constant is 5% of critical damping for each layer [8].

3. Peak Ground Acceleration
Seismic hazard models are being updated by modifying some of the seismic sources in
Myanmar. In this research, the input motions were selected based on the Probabilistic PGA(Peak Ground Acceleration) (g) Map of Myanmar for 10% probability of exceedance in 50
years, for engineering bedrock condition [9]. The ground response analyses were conducted byusing the assumption of vertical propagation of shear waves from the engineering bedrock to
the ground surface. The seismic ground motion at EBL is estimated using Empirical157

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Stochastic Green Function. The surface ground motion is estimated by passing ground motion
simulated at EBL through prepared soil models of each site using Multiple reflection program.
The peak horizontal ground acceleration of these seismic events ranged from 0.35 g to 0.55 g.
Distribution of the estimated peak ground accelerations are shown in Figure 5. The componentof the shaking is NS, EW. This is the first trial to estimate the shaking and the damage under thecondition of the occurrence of a future Amarapura earthquake.
Table 1. Results of Geophysical data.
Location Site

PGA (g)Yadanabon
University

0.45-0.35

Ground Water( ) > 74

Vs30 (m/s)
250

Figure 5. Estimated (PGA) map of Taungthaman area, Amarapura township, Mandalay region.

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4. Conclusions
Seven sites of Standard Peneration Test (SPT) and PQWT-TC500 series groundwater detection were carried out for constructing a subsurface ground model in Taungthamanarea. The Kriging method can be used for the interpolation of subsurface information such as
shear wave velocity and depth of irregular boundary. The shear wave velocity of the top layer
is Vs ≤ 250 m/s. By combining above two-layer model and the results of geophysicalobservation, the author proposed the distribution of the first layer thickness of the sediment.
Seismic microzonation of the Taungthaman area had predicted based on the multiple reflection
analysis by using the proposed ground model. The outputs of this research would be very
applicable for both engineering purpose and to identify and mitigate the seismic risk for
Mandalay region, Myanmar. There are high acceleration areas appears along the dextral
Sagaing Fault, especially near the epicenter. Peak acceleration becomes more than 0.45 g insome areas, which causes severe damage for buildings in high probability (Table 1).
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by the Yadanabon University, Ministry of Education. The acknowledgement is
extended to Rector Dr. Maung Maung Naing, Pro-rector of Dr. Si Si Khin and Dr. Tint Moe Thu Zar,
Yadanabon University for their kind permission for the submission of this research paper. We would also like tothank the Foundation Soil Investigation Group (FIG) Company for providing geotechnical and geophysical dataof the Taung Tha Man area. Managing director Mr Kyaw Khant (Robust Trust Company) provided well points
and geophysical data of the study area and his deserve special acknowledgement.

References[1] GIAC, TOTAL, UNOCAL, MOGE, EcoleNormaleSuperieure, Yangon, Dagon, Mandalay, Chaing
Mai and Chulalonkom Universities), “The tectonics of Myanmar”, Final Report of GIAC Project
1996-1999, 2002
[2] Win Swe, “Rift-features at the Sagaing-Tagaung Ridge”. Abstract, Burma Research Congr., Rangoon, 101. 1970
[3] Hla Maung, “Transcurrent movements in the Burma-Andaman Sea region”. Geology 15, 911 912, 1987
[4] Myint Thein, Kyaw Tint and Aye, Ko Aung, “On the lateral displacement of the Sagaing fault” 1991,
Georeports 1, 23–34.
[5] Maung Thein and Tint Lwin Swe, “Explanatory Account for Seismic Zone Map of Myanmar (Revised Version,2005) February (Prepared under the auspices of Myanmar Earthquake Committee)”, 2006, 4 p.
[6] Pyi Soe Thein, Junji Kiyono, Tun Tun Win, Than Than Nuand Day Wa Aung, “Seismic Microzonation of
Mandalay City, Myanmar”. Journal of Geological Resources and Engineering, David Puiblishing,
2015.
[7] Ohta, Y. and Goto, N,“Estimation of s-wave velocity in terms of characteristic indices of soil”, Butsuri-Tanko,
29(4), 1976. 34-41[8] Kiyono, J. and Suzuki, M, “Conditional Simulation of Stochastic Waves by Using Kalman Filter andKriging
Techniques”, Proc. of the 11th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Acapulco, Mexico, 1996. Paper
No.1620.
[9] Myo Thant, Nwai Le’ Ngal, Soe Thura Tun, Maung Thein, Win Swe, Than Myint, “Seismic Hazard
Assessment For Myanmar”, Report to Myanmar Earthquake Committee and Myanmar
Geoscience Socity, 2012, P58.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Adsorptive Removal of Color from Textile Effluent Using Agricultural Wastes
as Adsorbents
Nwe Nwe Aung1, Mon Mon Aye2, Rosy3, Thet Thet Mon 4, Zue Zue Aung5

Abstract
Dyes are used in various fields such as paper, textile and plastics industries. Local dyeing housesin Amarapura discharge their dyeing wastewater into water body of Taungthaman Lake without
any treatment. The color in these effluents are not biodegradable and can damage water quality.
The aim of the present study is to explore the feasibility of using agricultural wastes such as rice
husk, peanut husk and saw dust in the removal of color from dyeing effluents. The adsorption
study was carried out by column method by choosing the most effective adsorbent from rice husk,
peanut husk and sawdust. Different particle sizes and dose of adsorbents were used for study theeffect of various parameter on adsorption process. The absorbances of dye containing wastewaterand treated wastewater were measured by using UV-visible spectrophotometer. The max value ofdyeing wastewater was found to be 546 nm. The percent removal of red color from dyeing effluent
could be calculated as 78 % by rice husk, 83 % by peanut husk and 80 % by saw dust. The pH
value of effluents was measured after biosorption process and found to be 11.4 and 7.9
respectively. In addition, the removal efficiency for COD in the final effluent was found to be
78 %. The results prove that agricultural wastes, peanut husk and saw dust, are cost-effective andeco-friendly for removal of color from dyeing effluents.

1. Introduction
Textile dyes are generally made of synthetic, organic and aromatic compounds that may
contain some heavy metals in their structure. These heavy metal containing aromatic compound
can cause toxicity and carcinogen [1]. Wastewater discharged by the textile industry and dyeing
houses are generally high in both color and such organic compounds. The presence of large
amount of suspended solids, dissolved solids, high pH in the textile wastewater can cause serious
environmental problems. Among then, color is the very first contaminant to be recognized in the
textile dyeing wastewater [2]. A very small amount of dye in water body is highly visible andreduces penetration of light in water systems, thus causing the negative impacts on
photosynthesis of aquatic plant [3]. One of the major challenges to environmental scientists is theenvironmental impact of textile effluent which contain residual color and some other organic
contain residual color and some other organic compounds. In the last few years, environmental
scientists paid great attention to the color removal from the textile effluents not only because of
their potential toxicity but also mainly due to its visibility problems [4, 5].
Nowadays, various treatment methods such as adsorption, coagulation/flocculation/
precipitation [6], biological processes and ionizing/gamma radiation [7] are available for theremoval of dye from textile effluent. However, most of them are expensive. Among thesemethods, adsorption is the most economical and effective treatment method, and soenvironmental scientists widely used adsorption technique for color removal from textile
1

Lecturer, Department of Chemistry, Yadanabon University, nwenweaung748@gmail.com
Assistant Lecturer, Department of Chemistry, Yadanabon University, monmon129464@gmail.com
3
Assistant Lecturer, Department of Chemistry, Yadanabon University, rosylaphai@gmail.com
4
Assistant Lecturer, Department of Chemistry, Yadanabon University, tthet8365@gmail.com
5
M Sc student, Department of Chemistry, Yadanabon University, zuezueaung3333@gmail.com
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effluent. Due to high cost of activated carbon, adsorption on natural materials such as sand [8],fly ash [9], orange peel and banana peel [10], sugarcane bagasse and used black tea leaves [11],rice husk [9], peanut husk [12], sawdust [13] and modified biomaterials [14-16] have received
great interest. These natural adsorbents are locally available, cost-effective and ecofriendly.
The present study investigates the effective use of agricultural wastes as nonconventional
and low-cost adsorbents for the removal of color from textile effluents using column method. The
aim of this study was to compare the color removal efficiency of the selected agricultural wastes
and to find an ecofriendly solution for the environmental problems caused by direct discharge ofdyeing wastewater into water body without treatment. The effect of various parameters such as
adsorbent dose, particle size of adsorbent and volume of dyeing wastewater were also
investigated in this study.

2. Methods
2.1 Collection of textile wastewater
The textile wastewater sample was collected from local dyeing house located near
Taungthaman Lake, Amarapura township, Mandalay Region. Sample was collected in precleaned
pdyethlene bottles and placed in icebox for analysis. The collected wastewater sample for thepresent study was blue colored. The physicochemical parameters such as pH, electricalconductivity (EC), total dissolved solid (TDS) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) wereanalyzed to characterize the collected wastewater samples according to the methods prescribed in
APHA [17].

2.2 Preparation of Adsorbents
The different agricultural wastes (rice husk, peanut husk and sawdust) were collectedfrom different areas of Patheingyi Township, Mandalay Region. The biomasses were rinsed withtap water for several times to remove dust and any debris. And then they were rinsed two times
with distilled water and dried in sunlight. The dried biomasses were further dried in oven for 24hours at 60C. The cleaned dried biomasses were ground into fine particles by grinding machineand sieved into different particles sizes. The particles sizes used in this study were 125 m, 250
m and 400 m.

(a)

(b)

Figure 1. Adsorbents of 250 m size (a) rice husk (b) peanut husk (c) sawdust.

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2.3 Removal of color from textile effluent by column method
To choose the most effective adsorbent, three different columns having the diameter of
1cm and length of 25cm were packed with different adsorbents of 250 m particle sizes. A pieceof cotton wool was used as support at the bottom of each column. The characteristic features of
the columns packed with different adsorbents were given in Table 1.
Table.1 The Characteristic features of different column packed with different adsorbent.
Adsorbent

Adsorbent dose (g)Height of adsorbent
in column (cm)

Flowrate ateffluent (mLmin-1)

Rice husk

2

3

0.3

Peanut husk

1.5

3

0.3

Saw dust

1.5

3

0.3

To remove dissolved materials and dissolved coloring substances from the adsorbents,
same amount of distilled water was allowed to pass the column until clear solution was obtained.
Then, all the water in the column was drained out. After that, 50 mL of dye wastewater waspoured into the columns. The effluent from the column was collected at suitable time interval indifferent test tubes. Five fractions were collected. The absorbance of each fraction was measured
by UV-visible spectrophotometer and the percent color removal for each fraction was calculatedby the following equation.
Percent color removal =inital absorbance  final absorbancex 100
initial absorbance

2.4 Effect of particle sizes
After choosing the best adsorbent for collected textile effluent from the dyeing house, theeffect of particle size on the color removal efficiency was studied by using the adsorbent ofdifferent particle sizes such as 125 m, 250m and 400 m.
2.5 Effect of adsorbent dose
After optimizing the particle size, the effect of adsorbent dose on the color removal
efficiency was also studied by varying the amount of adsorbent with pre-optimized particle size.
The amount of adsorbent used for this study were 2 g, 2.5 g, 3 g, 3.5 g, 4 g, 4.5 g and 5 g,respectively.
2.6 Effect of volume of wastewater
To study the influence of the volume of textile wastewater on the adsorption process, thedifferent volumes of textile wastewater in the range of 20 ml to 200 ml were used. The column
was packed with 5g of sawdust powder having the particle size of 125 m. After removing thedissolved coloring matter by passing distilled water, 200 ml of textile wastewater was allowed topass into the column. The flow rate was maintained at 0.3 ml min-1 and the eluent was collectedwith different test tubes at 5min time interval. The volume of each fraction was 15.0ml andtotally fractions were collected.

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3. Results and Discussion
To choose the adsorbent with highest color removal efficiency for each wastewater
sample, screening tests were carried out. The highest color removal efficiencies of the different
adsorbents were found to be 78% by rice husk, 83% by peanut husk and 90% by sawdust. Fromthese results, it was observed that the most effective adsorbent for collected wastewater sample
was sawdust and hence sawdust powder was chosen for the color removal process of thecollected textile wastewater sample.
3.1 Effect of particle size
After choosing the most effective adsorbent, the effects of three different particle sizes
such as 125 m, 250 m and 400 m were investigated by column method. The percent color
removal of each fraction collect from the column with 125 m particle size adsorbent was shownin Table 2.
Table 2. Percent color removal by 125 m size sawdust adsorbent.
Fraction
No.

Volume of eluent (ml)Percent color removal
(%)

1

10

92.93

2

10

92.87

3

10

91.89

4

10

90.92

5

10

81.85

Average percent
color removal (%)

90.09

pAverage ercent color
removal(%)

The percent color removal was varied from 92.93% to 81.85% with the sawdust powderof 125 m particle size and the average percent color removal was found to be 90.09%.
Similarly, the sawdust adsorbent of particle sizes 250 m and 400 m gave the average percent
color removal from collected textile wastewater at 81.85% and 64.87% respectively. The plot ofpercent color removal from textile wastewater against particle size is shown in Figure 2.
100
80
60
40

Series1

20
0
0

200

400

600

particle size (mm)Figure 2. Optimization of particle size for color removal process19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

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The figure reveals that the color removal efficiency of sawdust adsorbent for the collected
dyeing wastewater sample decreased with increase in particle size. This phenomenon wasprobably due to the fact that the smaller the particle size, the greater the surface area of theadsorbent and the number of adsorption sites on the surface of the adsorbent to adsorb the dyemolecules. According to the results, the particle size 125 m of the adsorbent showed the highest
color removal efficiency and was chosen for further investigations.
3.2 Effect of Adsorbent dose
After selecting the optimized particle size, the effect of adsorbent dose was studied byusing various amount of sawdust powder (125 m particle size) and flow rate of 0.3 ml min-1. It
was observed that the percent color removal varied from 47.75 % to 91.94 % by 5g of sawdust
powder. The percent color removal of each fraction collected from the column experiment with
5g adsorbent (125m particle size) and the average percent color removal were depicted inTable3.
Table 3. Percent color removal by different amount of sawdust powder (125 m particle size)
Adsorbent dose (g)Average percent color
removal (%)

2

47.75

2.5

56.32

3

67.84

3.5

81.76

4

88.94

4.5

91.44

5

91.94

Figure 3 was represented the plot of adsorbent dose against the average percent color
removal. From the figure, it was also observed that the color removal efficiency of sawdust
powder increased with increase the amount of adsorbent. This result is probably due to theincreased number of adsorption sites when the amount of adsorbent was raised. From theexperimental results, 5 g of sawdust powder exhibit the highest color removal efficiency(91.94 %). Therefore, adsorbent dose (5 g) and particle size (125 m) of sawdust powder wereselected for further study.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme I)

Average p
ercent color removal(%)

164

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Adsorbent dose (g)Figure 2. Optimization of adsorbent dose for color removal process

3.3 Effect of textile wastewater volume
The effect of the volume of the dyeing wastewater was shown in Figure 4. The figures
pointed out that the color removal efficiency became decreased with increase in volume of textile
wastewater. Therefore it can be observed that 5 g of sawdust powder (125 m particle size) can
reduce the color from the maximum volume of 160 mL textile wastewater.
100

Percent color removal(%)

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0

50

100

150

200

250

Volume of textile wastewater(mL)Figure 4. Effect of textile effluent volume on color removal process

3.4 Physico-chemical characterization of textile effluent
The effluent selected for the present study is dark blue color. The effluent was highlycolored indicating high content of different dyes and color producing compounds. The high color
may be the combined result of pH, temperature and acidic conditions that do not allow thechromophore group of dye to disintegrate during dyeing process and making the effluent highlycolored.
In the present study, the pH value of dye wastewater was found to be 11.4 before
adsorption and 7.8 after adsorption and was found to be within the standard discharge limit (69)[18]. EC values of wastewater sample reflect the content of dissolved ions in the wastewater.

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TDS value of dye wastewater was determined to be 2500 mgL-1. This high TDS value may be
due to the fixing, bleaching and dyeing agent used in different stages of dyeing processes. The
high TDS values of water are not recommended not only for drinking but also for irrigation
purposes. After adsorption by sawdust powder, the TDS value of the effluent was found to be1140 mgL-1.
Before adsorption, COD of the effluent was found to be 1645.5 mgL-1 which is very highcompared to discharge standard and reuse standard. High COD value indicate the presence ofseveral waste such as detergents, softeners non-biodegradable chemicals such as dye fixing
agents. After adsorption, COD value of the effluent was determined to be 362 mgL-1. This value
is still higher than the water quality standard for industrial uses and standard discharge values[19]. The results reveals that the values of pH, EC, TDS and COD decrease after adsorption of
textile effluent using sawdust powder as adsorbent. This indicate that removal of color fromtextile effluent is effective and ecofriendly.

4. Conclusions
In this study, an attempt has been made for the removal of color from the textile
wastewater by adsorption using the agricultural wastes as adsorbents. Of the three adsorbent, rice
husk, peanut husk and sawdust, sawdust powder showed the highest color removal efficiency.
The effects of various parameters on adsorption process such as particle size of adsorbent,
adsorbent dose, and volume of textile effluent were studied. The optimum particle size was foundto be 125 m and the optimum adsorbent dose for column adsorption was 5 g. Another important
finding was the decrease in color removal efficiency with increase in wastewater volume. The
adsorption by column method using optimized particle size (125 m) and adsorbent dose (5 g)exhibit the maximum color removal efficiency up to 91.94 % . Based on findings, the agricultural
wastes such as sawdust was found to be useful as a low-cost, natural, abundant and effective
adsorbent for the removal of color from dye wastewater.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank to Dr Hlaing Hlaing Myat, Professor and Head of the department ofChemistry, Yadanabon University for the permission to carry out this research and supporting the required facilities
throughout the research work. We also thanks to Professor Dr Htay Htay Win for her thoughtful suggestions which isnecessary to complete this work. We also wish to thank to our colleagues for their kind and understanding helps.

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