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Feature Article
A Study of L2 Spoken Corpora:
The Gap between Productive Skills ofJapanese EFL Learners and the Corpus-BasedELT Textbooks
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Abstract
G8%)* )40(5* +%6)* 4-* -K)&$A&* 48&* /+3* K&4B&&'* 3$-(0,4%A&* )@%..)* -7* 3+$4%,0.+$*
3$+/6+4%,*7&+40$&)*-7*C+3+'&)&*;#I*.&+$'&$)*+'(*48&*&M3&,4+4%-')*+'(*(&,%)%-')*
48&*+048-$)*-7*,-$30)NK+)&(*;IG*4&M4K--@*)&$%&)*6+@&*$&/+$(%'/*48&*453&)*-7*.+'/0+/&*4-*%',.0(&F*U-N,+..&(*H,-'A&$)+4%-'+.*)4$+4&/%&)J*%'*48&*G-0,8)4-'&*
U&$%&)*7$-6*9+6K$%(/&*:'%A&$)%45*_$&))*B%48*,-$30)NK+)&(*)5..+K0)*(&)%/'*+$&*&M+6%'&(*%'*48&*PL9G*CI;*9-$30)1*B8%,8*,-'4+%')*6-$&*48+'*-'&*6%..%-'*B-$()*-7*!1<==*C+3+'&)&*;#I*.&+$'&$)*B%48*'%'&*(%77&$&'4*3$-"*,%&',5*.&A&.)F*G8&*$&)&+$,8*)0//&)4)* 48+4* C+3+'&)&* .&+$'&$)* (-* '-4* '&,&))+$%.5* &M8%K%4* 48&%$* 3$-(0,4%A&*)@%..)*+)*48&*B+5*48&*4&M4K--@*)&$%&)*3$&)&'4)*4+$/&4*.+'/0+/&*+'(*)4$+4&/%&)F*
G8&*.&+$'&$)*+4*A+$%-0)*3$-"*,%&',5*.&A&.)*3&$7-$6&(*$&.+4%A&.5*(%77&$&'4.5*7$-6*&+,8*-48&$F*G8&*%'4&$6&(%+4&*.&+$'&$)*4&'(&(*4-*-A&$0)&*3+$4%,0.+$*B-$()*+'(*
38$+)&)* ,-63+$&(* 4-* 48-)&* B8-* B&$&* +4* 033&$* %'4&$6&(%+4&* +'(* +(A+',&(*
3$-"*,%&',5*.&A&.)F*Q&)&+$,8*%'4-*48&*PL9G*CI;*9-$30)*)0//&)4)*+*4$+')%4%-'+.*'+40$&* -7* I<* (&A&.-36&'4* B8%,8* %)* 3+$4%,0.+$* 4-* C+3+'&)&* ;#I* .&+$'&$)1* +'(*
48&*$&)0.4)*,+'*K&*0)&(*4-*,-63.&6&'4*;IG*4&M4K--@)*+'(*%63$-A&*.+'/0+/&*%')4$0,4%-'*%'*C+3+'1*)3&,%"*,+..5*+4*48&*4&$4%+$5*.&A&.F;8K+&O8)*+&F)**<"?,L&?<+F@<B&+?&I(KL(&S<8J+8&$"8M<*B8?L-&I(@(&$"8M<*B8?L&+"A&I(KL(&$"8M<*B8?L&(E&GF8<"F<3&G@<&@(,AB&+&T3;3&/Q8"9)8B?8FB1&E*(>&U<+A8"9&$"8M<*B8?L&+"A&+"&O3;3&/Q+"9)+9<&G?)A8<B1&E*(>&Q+"F+B?<*&$"8M<*B8?L&8"&?@<&$S3&V<*&8"?<*<B?B&8"F,)A<&B<F("A&,+"9)+9<&+FW)8B8?8("&+"A&F(*2)B&,8"9)8B?8FB3&G@<&F+"&X<&F("?+F?<A&+?&
A+Y"444C+>ZL+@((3F(3[23^%0$+1*VF*`<==XaF*V*)40(5*-7*I<*)3-@&'*,-$3-$+b*G8&*/+3*K&4B&&'*3$-(0,4%A&*)@%..)*-7*C+3+'&)&*;#I*.&+$'&$)*+'(*48&*,-$30)NK+)&(*;IG*4&M4K--@)F*!"#$%&'()*"+,-&.`<a1*!"EN!DXF*9-35$%/84*c*<==X*V%@+*^%0$+F*!"#$%&'()*"+,1*LUUP*!>><N=<<=1*%)*+A+%.+K.&*+4*8443bdd[+.4,0&N)%/F-$/*-'&*5&+$*+74&$*30K.%,+4%-'*(+4&F!"E!"#$%&'(#)*+&,-./001112$8

34&3456111672&7&,19:

!"#$%&'()*"+,-&./01-&223&4.\546N
ᮇ◂✪䛵䚮᪝ᮇெⱝㄊᏕ⩞⩽䛴ヨ䛝ゕⴝ䜷䞀䝕䜽䜘⏕䛊䚮䛈䜑䜷䞀䝕䜽‵ᣈ䛴䜻䝭䝔䜽䛑䜏ᠺ䜑ⱝㄊᩅᮞ䛭ཱི䜐୕䛘䜏䜒䜑ㄧヨ䝕䝃䞀䝷䛴౐⏕ᐁឺ䛴⩞ᚋṹ㝭䛴ධᐖ䜘ㄢᰕ䛝䚮ⱝㄊᩅᮞ䛭᭿ᙽ䛛䜒䜑Ꮥ⩞⩽䛴ゕㄊ㐘⏕䛮᪝ᮇெⱝㄊᏕ⩞⩽䛱ず䜏䜒䜑Ⓠヨ⬗ງ䛴ᕣ␏䜘᳠チ䛝䛥䜈䛴䛭䛈䜑䚯㻱㻬㻦㻷㻃 㻭㻯㻨㻃 㻦㼒㼕㼓㼘㼖䜘⏕䛊䚮䜵䝷䝚䝮䝇䜼ኬᏕฝ∟ᑻ䛴㻷㼒㼘㼆㼋㼖㼗㼒㼑㼈䜻䝮䞀䜾䛒ᥞ♟䛟䜑ఌヨ䜽䝌䝭䝊䜼䞀䛴౐⏕ᐁឺ䜘ㄢᰕ䛝䛥䚯ᮇ䜷䞀䝕䜽䛵䚮㻔㻕㻓㻓ெ௧୕䛴Ꮥ⩞⩽䛴㻔㻓㻓୒ㄊ䛴ヨ䛝ゕⴝ䛑䜏ᵋᠺ䛛䜒䚮㻜䛪䛴⩞ᚋṹ㝭䛱ฦื䛛䜒䛬䛊䜑䚯ㄢᰕ⤎ᯕ䜎䜐䚮୯⣥Ꮥ⩞⩽䛱䜎䜑≁ᏽ䛴䜽䝌䝭䝊䜼䞀䛴㐛ኬ౐⏕䛰䛯䚮⩞ᚋṹ㝭䛚䛮䛱␏䛰䜑ゕㄊ㐘⏕䛴ലྡྷ䛒♟䛛䜒䚮ฦᯊᑊ㇗䛮䛰䛩䛥⾪⌟䛴౐⏕㢎ᗐ䛵ᚪ䛠䛝䜈Ⓠ㐡᥆⛛䛮ୌ⮬䛝䛰䛑䛩䛥䚯⩞ᚋื䛴Ꮥ⩞⩽䜷䞀䝕䜽䜘ᶋ᩷Ⓩ䛱びᐳ䛟䜑䛙䛮䛭䚮᪝ᮇெⱝㄊ
Ꮥ⩞⩽䛱≁᭯䛰Ⓠ㐡ᣞᵾ䜘ずฝ䛝䚮䝑䜨䝊䜧䝚䜷䞀䝕䜽䛱‵ᣈ䛝䛥ⱝㄊᩅᮞ䛴⿭Ᏸ䜊ᩅ⫩⌟ሔ䛴♟ြ䛱᭯⏕䛰⤎ᯕ䛒ᚋ䜏䜒䛥䛮ゕ䛎䜑䚯

SLA and Learner Corpora
L'*-$(&$*4-*K&*+'*&77&,4%A&*.+'/0+/&*4&+,8&$1*%4*%)*+(A+'4+/&-0)*4-*
8+A&*,-')%(&$+K.&*K+,@/$-0'(*$&/+$(%'/*48&*)40(5*-7*)&,-'(*.+'/0+/&*+,R0%)%4%-'*+)*B&..*+)*3&(+/-/5*$&.+4&(*4-*I<*.&+$'&$)F*L'*)033-$4*-7*48%)*;..%)*`!XXTa*)4+4&)1*HG8&*)40(5*-7*UIV*3$-A%(&)*+*K-(5*-7*@'-B.&(/&*
B8%,8*4&+,8&$)*,+'*0)&*4-*&A+.0+4&*48&%$*-B'*3&(+/-/%,*3$+,4%,&)J*`3F*
TaF*G8&$&*8+A&*K&&'*+*/$&+4*'06K&$*-7*(%77&$&'4*+33$-+,8&)*4-*(&),$%K&*.&+$'&$* .+'/0+/&F* ;..%)* `!XXTa* %(&'4%"*&(* 7-0$* 6+[-$* +33$-+,8&)W* 48&*
)40(5*-7*.&+$'&$)e*&$$-$)1*48&*)40(5*-7*(&A&.-36&'4+.*3+44&$')1*48&*)40(5*-7* A+$%+K%.%451* +'(* 48&* )40(5* -7* 3$+/6+4%,* 7&+40$&)F* G8&* (&),$%34%-'*-7* .&+$'&$* .+'/0+/&* &'+K.&)* .+'/0+/&* 4&+,8&$)* 4-* %63$-A&* )5..+K0)*(&)%/'1* 6+4&$%+.* (&)%/'1* 4+)@* (&)%/'* +'(* 4&)4%'/* `G-'-1* <===aF*G80)1*
B8&'* (&),$%K%'/* 48&* )40(5* -7* (&A&.-36&'4+.* 3+44&$')1* ;..%)* `!XXTa*
8%/8.%/84&(* 48&* %63-$4+',&* -7* H0'3.+''&(* .+'/0+/&* 0)&J* B8%,8* %)*7-0'(* %'* '+40$+.%)4%,* )&44%'/)* `3F* ><aF*G8%)* 4&$6* ,-$$&)3-'()* 4-* B8+4*;..%)*`!XXTa*,+..&(*H'+40$+.*.+'/0+/&*0)&1J*B8%,8*H-,,0$)*%'*48&*,-0$)&*-7*0)%'/*48&*I<*%'*48&*@%'(*-7*,-660'%,+4%-'*48+4*.&+$'&$)*&'/+/&*%'*
B8&'*48&5*+$&*'-4*K&%'/*)40(%&(J*`3F*EZ<aF*]&'&$+..51* 48&* 7-,0)* -7* 48&* UIV* $&)&+$,8&$* %)* 4-* ,-..&,4* (+4+* 48+4*$&!*&,4* .&+$'&$)e* +44&634)* 4-* 0)&* 48&* I<* %'* &%48&$* ,-63$&8&')%-'* -$*3$-(0,4%-'F*f-B&A&$1*]$+'/&$*`<==<a*3-%'4&(*-04*48+4*60,8*,0$$&'4*
UIV* H4&'()* 4-* K&* (%)6%))%A&* -7* '+40$+.* .+'/0+/&* 0)&* (+4+J* 7-$* %4* %)*!"Z!"#$%&'(#)*+&,-./001112$3

34&3456111672&7&,19:

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&M3&$%6&'4+.* ,-'4&M41* +'(* 4-* )0K[&,4* +* .+$/&* '06K&$* -7* %'7-$6+'4)*
4-* &M3&$%6&'4+4%-'* `3F* DNEaF* G8&$&7-$&1* R0&)4%-')* 8+A&* K&&'* $+%)&(*
B8&48&$* 48&* $&)0.4)* -7* 48&* )40(%&)* -'* +* )6+..* '06K&$* -7* )+63.&)* -7*.&+$'&$*(+4+*,+'*K&*/&'&$+.%O&(F*
Q&,&'4.51*$&)&+$,8&$)*0)%'/*,-6304&$*K+)&(*4&,8'-.-/%&)*+$&*+K.&*
4-*,-..&,4*+'(*)4-$&*+*.+$/&*+6-0'4*-7*.&+$'&$*(+4+1*+'(*4-*+'+.5O&*%4*+04-6+4%,+..5*-$*)&6%N+04-6+4%,+..5*0)%'/*,0$$&'4.5*+A+%.+K.&*.%'/0%)4%,*)-74B+$&*+'(*4--.)*`]$+'/&$1*<==<aFG8%)*+(A+',&6&'4*6+@&)*%4*3-))%K.&*
4-*3$-(0,&*$&)&+$,8*$&)0.4)*7$-6*+*.+$/&$*'06K&$*-7*3+$4%,%3+'4)*48+'*
3$&A%-0).5* 3-))%K.&1* B8%,8* .&+()* 4-* 8%/8&$* A+.%(%45* +'(* $&.%+K%.%45*$&/+$(%'/* )4+4%)4%,+.* (+4+F* G8&$&7-$&1* )%40+4%-'+.* )3&,%"*,* (+4+* ,+'*
K&* &M3+'(&(* +'(* $&)&+$,8&$)* ,+'* +77-$(* 4-* 6+@&* 6-$&* /&'&$+.%O&(*,-',.0)%-')* $&/+$(%'/* 48&* $&)0.4)F* ]$+'/&$* `<==<a* $&7&$)* 4-* 48%)* .+$/&*+6-0'4*-7*.&+$'&$*(+4+*+)*H,-6304&$*.&+$'&$*,-$3-$+J*`9I9a`3F*TaF*
G8&* $&)&+$,8* -'* 9I9* )4&6)* 7$-6* $&,&'4* +(A+',&)* %'* 48&* "*&.(* -7*,-$30)* .%'/0%)4%,)1* )3&,%"*,+..5* B%48%'* 48&* 3+)4* (&,+(&* 9I9* 8+)* 8+(*+'* &M4&')%A&* %'!*0&',&* -'* .+'/0+/&* 4&+,8%'/* $&/+$(%'/* K-48* )&,-'(*.+'/0+/&* +,R0%)%4%-'* +)* B&..* +)* 3&(+/-/5* `]$+'/&$1* <==<W* L)8%@+B+1*<==>aF*I&+$'&$*,-$3-$+*-7*A+$%-0)*@%'()*)0,8*+)*)3&+@&$)*-7*(%77&$&'4*
6-48&$* 4-'/0&)1* 3$-"*,%&',5* .&A&.)1* +/&1* 6-(&)* `)3-@&'* -$* B$%44&'a1*+'(*$&/%)4&$)*`+,+(&6%,*-$*'-'N+,+(&6%,a*8+A&*K&&'*(&A&.-3&(*+'(*%63$-A&(*-'F*V)*7-$*C+3+'&)&*;#I*.&+$'&$)*+'(*.+'/0+/&*$&)&+$,8&$)1*.&+$'&$*,-$3-$+*+$&*+A+%.+K.&*-'.%'&1*)0,8*+)*48&*C+3+'&)&*;'/.%)8*+)*+*#-$&%/'*I+'/0+/&*I&+$'&$*`C;#IIa*9-$30)*`G-'-1*<==Za*+'(*48&*P+/-5+*
L'4&$.+'/0+/&*9-$30)*-7*;'/.%)8*`PL9;a*`U0/%0$+1*<==XaF*2&K*)%4&)*48+4*)033-$4* .&+$'&$* ,-$3-$+* (+4+* 8+A&* 0'+$/0+K.5* )033.%&(* $&)&+$,8&$)*+'(*.+'/0+/&*4&+,8&$)*B%48*+'*+K0'(+',&*-7*.&+$'&$*(+4+*48+4*,+'*K&*0)&(*7-$*)40(%&)*$+'/%'/*7$-6*48&*)6+..&$*+'(*6-$&*)%40+4%-'+.N)3&,%"*,*,.+))$--6*+,4%-'*$&)&+$,8*453&)*4-*.+$/&$*),+.&*)40(%&)F*V,,&))*4-*+*,-$30)*&'+K.&)*$&)&+$,8&$)*4-*%'A&)4%/+4&*48&*.&+$'&$)e*&$$-$)1* (&A&.-36&'4+.* 3+44&$')1* A+$%+K%.%45* +'(* 3$+/6+4%,* 7&+40$&)F*!">!"#$%&'(#)*+&,-./001112$<34&3456111672&7&;19:

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4&+,8&$*%)*4&+,8%'/1*%)*3&$,&%A&(*4-*,8+'/&*%'*$+(%,+.*B+5)J*`3F*!"ZaF*]$+'/&$* `<==<a* +.)-* )0//&)4&(* 48+4* H4&+,8&$)* +'(* $&)&+$,8&$)* -74&'*
8+A&*0)&70.*%'40%4%-')*+K-04*B8+4*(-&)*-$*(-&)*'-4*,-')4%404&*+'*+$&+*-7* (%7"*,0.45* 7-$* .&+$'&$)1* K04* 48%)* %'40%4%-'* '&&()* 4-* K&* K-$'&* -04* K5*&63%$%,+.*(+4+*7$-6*.&+$'&$*,-$3-$+J*`3F*<"aF*

Corpora and its Application to ELTg+)&(* -'* 48&* .%4&$+40$&1* ,-$3-$+* ,+'* K&* (&"*'&(* +)* +* 3$%',%3.&(*,-..&,4%-'* -7* 4&M4)1* B$%44&'* -$* )3-@&'1* )4-$&(* -'* +* ,-6304&$* `g%K&$1*
9-'$+(1*h*Q&33&'1*!XX>W*]$+'/&$1*<==<W*^,9+$4851*<==TW*Ye?&&77&1*^,9+$4851*h*9+$4&$1*<==ZaF*#$-6*48%)1*$&)&+$,8&$)*,+'*)40(5*'+40$+..5*-,,0$$%'/* .+'/0+/&* 0)&F* V,,-$(%'/* 4-* ]$+'/&$* `<==<a1* )40(%&)* -'*,-$3-$+* )3&,%"*,+..5* 8%/8.%/84* +* R0+'4%4+4%A&* +33$-+,8* +)* $&)&+$,8&$)*+$&* +K.&* 4-* (%),&$'* B8+4* %)* 6-)4* .%@&.5* 4-* -,,0$* %'* .+'/0+/&1* -$*H7$&R0&',5J1* B8%,8* $0.&)* -04* 48&* %'40%4%A&* +B+$&'&))* 7+,4-$* %'* 48&*,-..&,4%-'*-7*(+4+*+'(*48&*3$&,&(%'/*+'+.5)%)*-7*%4F*L'*48%)*B+51*,-$30)*.%'/0%)4%,)*8+)*,-'4$%K04&(*4-*+*'06K&$*-7*+$&+)*%'*.+'/0+/&*3&(+/-/5*%',.0(%'/*)5..+K0)*(&)%/'*+'(*6+4&$%+.)*(&A&.-36&'4*`]$+'/&$1*<==<W*f0')4-'1* <==<W* Q&33&'* h* U%63)-'1* <==<W* ^,;'&$51* i%+-1* h*G-'-1*<==EaF*?&''&(5* `!XX>a* )066+$%O&)* 48&* %63-$4+',&* -7* )5..+K0)* +'(*
6+4&$%+.)* (&)%/'* K5* )4+4%'/* ,-$3-$+* )033.5* H%'7-$6+4%-'* -'* 48&*(%)4$%K04%-'*-7*48&*&.&6&'4)*+'(*3$-,&))&)*-7*+*.+'/0+/&J1*+'(*H%4*,+'*%'!*0&',&* 48&* ,-'4&'4* -7* .+'/0+/&* 4&+,8%'/* K5* +77&,4%'/* )&.&,4%-'* -7*
B8+4*4-*4&+,81*48&*)&R0&',%'/*-7*3&(+/-/51*+'(*48&*B&%/84*/%A&'*4-*%4&6)*-$*3+$4)*-7*48&*.+'/0+/&*K&%'/*4+0/841*480)*,-'4$%K04%'/*(%$&,4.5*4-*
48&*,-'4&'4*-7*%')4$0,4%-')J*`3F*<>!aF*V74&$*,-63+$%'/*H%'4&$'+4%-'+..5*)0,,&))70.* ,-0$)&K--@)J* 4-* 48&* 9+6K$%(/&* +'(* P-44%'/8+6* 9-$30)*-7* S%),-0$)&* %'* ;'/.%)8* `9VP9YS;a1* 9+$4&$* `!XX>a* (%),-A&$&(* 48+4*!"X!"#$%&'(#)*+&,-./001112$6

34&3456111672&7&819:

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Native vs. Non-Native Corpora
U&A&$+.* )40(%&)* `9--@1* !XX>W* 2%((-B)-'1* <===a* 8+A&* .&A&.&(*,$%4%,%)6)* +/+%')4* +* ,-$30)NK+)&(* +33$-+,8* B8%,8* 4&'()* 4-* 8&+A%.5*$&.5* -'* 48&* +)3&,4* -7* H7$&R0&',5J* +'(* H+048&'4%,%45J* B8&'* +33.%&(*
4-* .+'/0+/&* 4&+,8%'/* `f0')4-'1* <==<W* G-'-1* <==>aF* 9--@* `!XX>a*+$/0&(* 48+4* H&A&'* B%48%'* 48&* '+4%A&N)3&+@&$* ,-660'%45* %4* %)* -74&'*
48&*%'7$&R0&'4*B-$(*-$*&M3$&))%-'*B8%,8*%)*6-)4*3-B&$70.*+'(*6-)4*,-660'%,+4%A&.5* &77&,4%A&J* `3F* EaF*G8&$&7-$&1* H7$&R0&',5* %'7-$6+4%-'*-K4+%'&(*7$-6*'+4%A&N)3&+@&$*,-$3-$+*+.-'&*%)*'-4*)07"*,%&'4*4-*%'7-$6*,0$$%,0.06*+'(*6+4&$%+.*(&)%/'J*`^,;'&$5*&4*+.F1*<==E1*3F*!=!aF*
L'* 48%)* $&)3&,41* 48&* $&)&+$,8* %'4-* 9I9* 3.+5)* +'* %63-$4+'4* $-.&* %'*+33.5%'/*48&*(+4+*7$-6*,-$3-$+*)40(%&)*4-*.+'/0+/&*3&(+/-/5*`^,;'&$5*&4*+.F1*<==EW*Ye?&&77&*&4*+.F1*<==ZaF*P+4%A&*,-$3-$+*H/%A&*'-*%'(%,+4%-'*B8+4)-&A&$*-7*48&*(%7"*,0.45*48&5*3$&)&'4*7-$*.&+$'&$)*%'*/&'&$+.*-$*7-$*+*)3&,%"*,*,+4&/-$5*-7*.&+$'&$)J*`]$+'/&$1*<==<1*3F*<!aF*G8&*PU*`'+4%A&*)3&+@&$)a* d* PPU* `'-'N'+4%A&* )3&+@&$)a* ,-63+$%)-'* &'+K.&)* 0)* 4-*'-4%,&* /+3)* K&4B&&'* .&+$'&$)e* %'4&$.+'/0+/&* +'(* 48&* .+'/0+/&* 48&5*+$&*.&+$'%'/*`^,;'&$5*&4*+.F1*<==Ea*G8%)*%)*+33+$&'4*%'*PPU*.&+$'&$)e*
H-A&$0)&J* +'(* H0'(&$0)&J* -7* )&.&,4&(* %4&6)1* +)* B&..* +)* HPI* `'+4%A&*.+'/0+/&a*4$+')7&$J*+'(*H+A-%(+',&*)4$+4&/%&)J1*B8&'*,-63+$&(*4-*48&*
PU* ,-$3-$+* `]$+'/&$1* <==<W* I&&,81* !XX>aF* V)* 7-$* -K[&,4%-')* 4-* 48%)*453&*-7*,-63+$%)-'*$&/+$(%'/*48&*3.+,%'/*48&*%63-$4+',&*-'*48&*'+4%A&*
H'-$6J* %'* .+'/0+/&* 4&+,8%'/* )&&* 2%((-B)-'* `<===a1* 9--@* `!XX>a1*]$+'/&$*`<==<1a1*+'(*f0')4-'*`<==<aF**
Corpora and Textbook Authoring
V3+$4*7$-6*48&*+7-$&6&'4%-'&(*,-'4$-A&$)%+.*%))0&)*$&.+4&(*4-*48&*0)&*-7*,-$3-$+*%'*.+'/0+/&*4&+,8%'/1*6+4&$%+.*(&A&.-36&'4*+'(*)5..+K0)*!T=!"#$%&'(#)*+&,-./001112,5

34&3456111672&7&819:

!"#$%&'()*"+,-&./01-&223&4.\546N(&)%/'*,-'4%'0&*4-*K&*K+)&(*-'*,-$3-$+F*G8&*%63-$4+',&*-7*,-$3-$+*%)*&A%(&'4* %'* 48&* ,-63%.+4%-'* -7* .&+$'&$)e* (%,4%-'+$%&)1* B8%,8* +$&* '-B*
K+)&(*-'*,-'4%'0+..5*03(+4&(*60.4%N6%..%-'*B-$(*(+4+K+)&)*-7*.+'/0+/&1*)0,8*+)*48&*I-'/6+'*9-$30)*+'(*48&*9+6K$%(/&*L'4&$'+4%-'+.*9-$30)*`Ye?&&77&*&4*+.F1*<==ZW*G-'-1*LO06%1*h*?+'&@-1*<==DaF*V)%(&*7$-6*48&*$&,&'4* (&A&.-36&'4* -7* ,-$30)* K+)&(* (%,4%-'+$%&)1* 4&M4* K--@* +048-$)*+'(*30K.%)8&$)*+$&*+.)-*04%.%O%'/*,-$3-$+*%'*6+4&$%+.*(&A&.-36&'4F*
G8&*I()F@B?("<&G<*8<B*%)*-'&*-7*48&*6-$&*$&,&'4.5*30K.%)8&(*;IG*
4&M4K--@)*B8-)&*(%+.-/0&)*+'(*&'4%$&*)5..+K%*+$&*%'7-$6&(*K5*,-$30)*(+4+* `^,9+$4851* <==TW* ^,9+$4851* ^,9+$4&'1* h* U+'(%7-$(1* <==D+1*<==DK1*<==D,W*^,9+$485*&4*+.F1*<==E+1*<==EKW*Ye?&&7&*&4*+.F1*<==ZaF*
G8&*)&$%&)*%)*HK+)&(*-'*48&*6-)4*,-66-'*B-$()*+'(*38$+)&)*%'*48&*
P-$48* V6&$%,+'* )&/6&'4* -7* 9+6K$%(/&* L'4&$'+4%-'+.* 9-$30)* `9L9aJ*
B8%,8*,-'4+%')*Z==*6%..%-'*B-$()*-7*4&M4*`Ye?&&77&*&4*+.F1*<==Z1*3F<<aF*
V,,-$(%'/*4-*^,9+$485*`<==Ta1*48&*+048-$)*%'4&$3$&4*+'(*6&(%+4&*48&%$*,-$30)*$&)&+$,8*K5*.--@%'/*+4*B-$(*.%)4)*7$-6*48&*9-$30)*+'(*)&+$,8%'/*
7-$*48&*6-)4*7$&R0&'4*+'(*453%,+.*0)&)*%'*&A&$5(+5*,-'A&$)+4%-'F*G8&'*
48&5*(&,%(&*B8%,8*B-$()*+$&*48&*6-)4*%63-$4+'4*-'&)*4-*K&*%',.0(&(1*,-')%(&$%'/* B8&48&$* 48&5* )0%4* 48&* %'4&$&)4)* -7* .&+$'&$)* +'(* +$&* 6-)4*$&.&A+'4*4-*48&%$*.%A&)*-$*'-4F*#-$*3&(+/-/%,+.*,-')%(&$+4%-')1*%4*)8-0.(*
K&* '-4&(* 48+4* H,-$30)* (+4+* +.-'&* (-&)* '-4* (%,4+4&* +'* %')4$0,4%-'+.*)5..+K0)J* `^,9+$4851* <==T1* 3F* !Da1* )%',&* 8%/8N7$&R0&',5* .+'/0+/&* %)*'-4*+.B+5)*+33$-3$%+4&*7-$*K&/%''&$)*4-*)4+$4*4-*.&+$'*`L)8%@+B+1*<==>W*^,;'&$5*&4*+.F1*<==EW*G-'-1*<==>aF

Learner Corpus Data and its Proficiency Levels
G8&* P+4%-'+.* L')4%404&* -7* L'7-$6+4%-'* +'(* 9-660'%,+4%-'*G&,8'-.-/5*`PL9Ga*(&A&.-3&(*48&*PL9G*CI;*9-$30)1*+*.&+$'&$*,-$30)*-7*C+3+'&)&*I&+$'&$)*-7*;'/.%)8*`CI;a1*B8%,8*,-'4+%')*6-$&*48+'*-'&*
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!"#$%&'(#)*+&,-./001112,2

34&3456111672&7&319:

O8)*+-&PQ0&G2(K<"&#(*2(*+R

48&* %'4&$A%&B)* ,-6&)* 7$-6* 48&* U4+'(+$(* U3&+@%'/*G&)4* `UUGa* ,$&+4&(*K5*VI9*_$&))F*G8&*UUG*%)*K+)&(*-'*48&*Y$+.*_$-"*,%&',5*L'4&$A%&B*-7*
48&*V6&$%,+'*9-0',%.*-'*48&*G&+,8%'/*-7*#-$&%/'*I+'/0+/&)F*G+K.&*!*)8-B)*48&*(%)4$%K04%-'*-7*)0K[&,4)e*3$-"*,%&',5*.&A&.)1*453&)*`48&*4-4+.*'06K&$* -7* (%77&$&'4* B-$(* 7-$6)* %'* &+,8* .&A&.a1* +'(* 4-@&')* `48&* 4-4+.*-,,0$$&',&)* -7* +'5* /%A&'* B-$(* 7-$6)* %'* &+,8* .&A&.aF*G8-)&* B8-* 7+..*%'4-*.&A&.)*!*4-*"*,+'*K&*(&),$%K&(*+)*'-A%,&*.&+$'&$)*+'(*48-)&*B8-*"*4*.&A&.)*T*4-*>*+$&*,-')%(&$&(*%'4&$6&(%+4&*-'&)1*+'(*"*'+..51*4&)4*4+@&$)*
B%48*48&*8%/8&)4*),-$&)*+$&*,.+))%"*&(*+)*48&*6-)4*+(A+',&(*+4*I&A&.*X*`)&&*LO06%*&4*+.F1*<==TaF*
G+K.&*!*]8B?*8X)?8("&(E&G)X[<F?B-&IL2<B-&+"A&I(K<"&(E&?@<&^H#I&'Q%&#(*2)B
Level

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Subjects

3

35

222

482

236

130

77

56

40

Types

217

1516

6025

10120

8290

6867

5455

4981

4429

Token

1440 20788 211625 606951 365330 219646 139534 112185 85420

Conversational Strategies and the Touchstone Series
G8&*3$%6+$5*+%6*-7*48%)*)40(5*%)*4-*%'A&)4%/+4&*48&*C+3+'&)&*.&+$'&$)e*0)&*-7*3$+/6+4%,*7&+40$&)*K+)&(*-'*48&*(&4+%.&(*+'+.5)&)*-7*48&*'+4%A&*)3&+@&$)e* ,-$30)F* G8%)* )8-0.(* K&* (%)4%'/0%)8&(* 7$-6* $&)&+$,8* %'4-*
H(%),-0$)&* 6+$@&$)J* K+)&(* -'* 3$+/6+4%,* 48&-$%&)* +'(* H7-$60.+%,*&M3$&))%-')J* `S&* 9-,@1* ]$+'/&$1* I&&,81* h* ^,;'&$51* !XX>W* #$+)&$1*!XX"aF*
Ye?&&77&*&4*+.F*`<==Za*+'(*^,9+$485*`<==>a*(&"*'&(*,-'A&$)+4%-'+.*)4$+4&/%&)* +)* F@)"KB1* B8%,8* +$&* +04-6+4%,+..5* &M4$+,4&(* 60.4%NB-$(*)4$%'/)* 7$-6* 48&* ,-$30)* 48+4* (%)3.+5* 3$+/6+4%,* 70',4%-')* )0,8* +)*8&(/%'/1*A+/0&'&))1*+'(*(%),-0$)&*6+$@%'/1*48&*3$&)&$A+4%-'*-7*7+,&*+'(*48&*&M3$&))%-'*-7*3-.%4&'&))1*$+48&$*48+'*K&.-'/%'/*4-*)5'4+,4%,*+'(*)&6+'4%,*,+4&/-$%&)*`^,9+$485*h*9+$4&$1*<==EW*Ye?&&77&*&4*+.F1*<==ZaF*
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Ye?&&77&*&4*+.F1*<==ZaF*S&*9-,@*&4*+.F*`!XX>a*-77&$*48&%$*(&"*'%4%-'*-7*,80'@)*+)*H7-$60.+%,*&M3$&))%-')1*%F&F*7$&R0&'4.5*0)&(*60.4%NB-$(*0'%4)*48+4*3&$7-$6*3$+/6+4%,*-$*(%),-0$)&*)4$0,40$%'/*70',4%-')J*`S&*9-,@*&4*+.F1*!XX>1*33F*E>NEXaF
G8&*I()F@B?("<&G<*8<B*%)*,-63-)&(*-7*T((K&4*7-$*K&/%''&$)1*T((K&0& 7-$* 8%/8* K&/%''&$)1* T((K& .* 7-$* .-BN%'4&$6&(%+4&1* +'(* g--@* T* 7-$*%'4&$6&(%+4&*.&+$'&$)F*;+,8*K--@*,-')%)4)*-7*!<*0'%4)1*B8%,8*%',.0(&)*+*)&,4%-'*(&A-4&(*4-*,-'A&$)+4%-'+.*)4$+4&/%&)*3$&)&'4&(*%'*+*(%+.-/0&*
7-..-B&(* K5* /$+66+4%,+.* &M3.+'+4%-')1* .+'/0+/&* 3$+,4%,&* &M&$,%)&)*+'(*.%)4&'%'/*,-63$&8&')%-'*R0%OO&)F*G8&*7-..-B%'/*)+63.&*(%+.-/0&*%)*4+@&'*7$-6*I()F@B?("<&T((K&0*`^,9+$485*&4*+.F1*<==DK1*3F*Z!a*+'(*
7-,0)&)* -'* 48&* 4+$/&4* .+'/0+/&* 7-$6* L* /0&))1* B8%,8* %)* 0)&(* HB8&'*5-0e$&*'-4*!==j*)0$&*+K-04*)-6&48%'/1*-$*%7*5-0*(-'e4*B+'4*4-*)-0'(*!==j*)0$&Jb*98$%)b*k-0*@'-B1*B&*)8-0.(*4+@&*+*7&B*(+5)*-77*)-6&4%6&F
V(+6b*k&+81*B&*)8-0.(F*S&"*'%4&.5F*
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V(+6b*G8+4e)*+*/$&+4*%(&+F*98$%)b*2&*,-0.(*&A&'*/-*7-$*,-03.&*-7*B&&@)F*
V(+6b*2&..1*6+5K&F*H&9)<BB*B&*,-0.(1*K04l
98$%)b* k-0* @'-B1* B&* ,-0.(* [0)4* R0%4* -0$* [-K)* +'(* 6+5K&* /-*K+,@3+,@%'/*7-$*+*7&B*6-'48)lFF
V(+6b*2&..1* L* (-'e4* @'-BF* Le(* .%@&* 4-1* K04lFF* L* /0&))* L* '&&(* 4-*@&&3*48%)*[-K1*5-0*@'-B1*4-*3+5*7-$*),8--.*+'(*)4077F*
98$%)b*k&+81*6&*4--1*H&9)<BBF*
L'*48&*(+4+*+'+.5)%)1*48&*.%)4*-7*,-'A&$)+4%-'+.*)4$+4&/%&)*B+)*%'%4%+..5*
6+(&*7$-6*7-0$*K--@)*-7*48&*)&$%&)*`4-4+.%'/*>!*%4&6)aF*G8&*70',4%-')*-7*48&*)4$+4&/%&)*+$&*(&"*'&(*%'*&+,8*K--@1*%',.0(%'/*48&*%',.0)%-'*-7*,-$30)NK+)&(*%'7-$6+4%-'1*%F&F1*HL*/0&))*%)*-'&*-7*48&*4-3*<=*&M3$&))%-')*!T"!"#$%&'(#)*+&,-./001112,$34&3456111672&7&319:

O8)*+-&PQ0&G2(K<"&#(*2(*+R%'* ,-'A&$)+4%-'J* `^,9+$485* &4* +.F1* <==DK1* 3F* Z!aF*G+K.&* <* )8-B)* 48&*%4&6)*B8%,8*+$&*)3&,%"*,+..5*(%),0))&(*%'*48&*3+3&$F*
G+K.&*<]<BF*82?8("&(E&F("M<*B+?8("&B?*+?<98<B&8"&?@<&G-0,8)4-'&*U&$%&)*g--@)*!1*<1*"1*+'(*T*/OF#+*?@L&<?&+,3-&0CC6+-&0CC6X_&OF#+*?@L&<?&+,3-&0CC\+-&
0CC\X1
LanguageBook

Function of strategy Corpus information

1

Repeating your5
“I mean” is one of theideas or saying more
(p. 48-9)
top 15 expressions.
about something

2“Mean” is one of theCorrecting yourself top100 words. About
5
when you say the 90% of its uses are(p. 48-9)
wrong word or name in the expression of “Imean.”

2

When you’re not
100 % sure about
7“I guess” is one of top
something, or if you(p. 71)20 expressions
don’t want to sound
100 % sure

3

7
Softening comments(p. 70)

4

3Sounding more
(p. 26-7) direct(1) I mean(2) I guess(3) of course,
absolutely,
definitely,
really*,actually*,certainly,
honestly, infact,
to be honest

Unit(page)_____“Of course” is one of
top 50 expressions!TT!"#$%&'(#)*+&,-./001112,,34&3456111672&7&319:

!"#$%&'()*"+,-&./01-&223&4.\546N

G+K.&*<*`,-'4%'0&(a(4) I guess/I
think,
probably/
maybe*, sortof/kind of*,a little (bit),(just)(5) just*(6) like

3

7
Softening comments(p. 70-1)_____“Just” is one of the
top 30 words. Over
half of its uses are to
make ideas stronger
or softer.

4

6
Making your(p. 58-9) meaning clearer

4“Like” is one of the top
Various functions
15 words. It is about 6
8(See the results and times more frequent in(p. 81)
discussion section.) conversation than inwriting.

Various functions
4
Checking your(See the results and(p. 39)understanding
discussion section.)^(?<`* ;6345* ,&..)* )%/'%75* ,-$30)* %'7-$6+4%-'* B+)* '-4* 3$-A%(&(* $&/+$(%'/*
4+$/&4*.+'/0+/&*%'*48&*4+K.&F*G8&*0)&*-7*%4&6)*6+$@&(*K5*`ma*%)*70$48&$*(%),0))&(*%'*48&*$&)0.4)*)&,4%-'F*(7) so4

G8&* 3$%',%3.&* (+4+* $&/+$(%'/* 48&* -,,0$$&',&* -7* &+,8* %4&6* B+)*)&+$,8&(*04%.%O%'/*48&*PL9G*CI;*9-$30)F*#%/0$&*!*)8-B)*+'*&M4$+,4*-7*!=*,-',-$(+',&*.%'&)*7-$*L*/0&))*%'*+*)0KN,-$30)*-7*I&A&.*>*7$-6*48&*PL9G*
CI;* 9-$30)F* L4* )8-0.(* K&* '-4&(* 48+4* 6-)4* 453&)* -7* ,-$3-$+* /&'&$+..5*
8+A&*)-6&B8+4*-7*+'*-$%/%'+.*+''-4+4%-'*),8&6&1*B8%,8*%)*+.)-*4$0&*%'*48&*,+)&*-7*48&*PL9G*CI;*9-$30)*+)*n#n*6&+')*"*..&$*-$*"*..&(*3+0)&1*
nU9n*6&+')*)&.7*,-$$&,4%-'1*HQJ*6&+')*$&3&4%4%-'*+'(*.+)4*nC_n*6&+')*
C+3+'&)&*`)&&*LO06%*&4*+.F1*<==TaF*!TD!"#$%&'(#)*+&,-./001112,;34&3456111672&7&<19:

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CI;*9-$30)F*

Results
G8&*(%)4$%K04%-'*-7*H&><+"*+'(*H&9)<BB*%'*48&*PL9G*CI;*9-$30)*%)*)8-B'*%'*#%/0$&*<F*U%',&*4-@&')*%'*&+,8*3$-"*,%&',5*.&A&.*B&$&*(%77&$&'4*+)*%'(%,+4&(*%'*G+K.&*!1*48&*7$&R0&',5*-7*+'+.5O&(*B-$()*-$*38$+)&)*B+)*'-$6+.%O&(* +4* !==1===* B-$(* 4-@&')F*V* )+63.&* 4+@&'* 7$-6* 48&* PL9G*
CI;* 9-$30)* )8-B)* 48+4* +* )40(&'4* -7* I&A&.* Z* 3$-(0,&(* 48&* 7-..-B%'/*
044&$+',&b*HL'*65*8-6&4-B'1*H&><+"*L*(-'e4*8+A&*+*8-6&4-B'*$%/84*'-B*)%',&*65*3+$&'4)*6-A&(*4-*+'-48&$*4-B'FJ*G8&*)40(&'4*,-$$&,4.5*0)&)*48&*4&$6*H&><+"*+)*+*,-'A&$)+4%-'+.*)4$+4&/5*4-*,.+$%75*6&+'%'/F*
V,,-$(%'/*4-*#%/0$&*<1*H&><+"*+'(*H&9)<BB*B&$&*&)3&,%+..5*0'(&$0)&(*K5*'-A%,&*+'(*.-B&$*%'4&$6&(%+4&*.&+$'&$)*-7*I&A&.*!*4-*D1*,-63+$&(*
4-*033&$*%'4&$6&(%+4&*+'(*+(A+',&(*.&+$'&$)F*G8&*7$&R0&',5*-7*H&><+")8-B&(*+*)0((&'*%',$&+)&*+4*I&A&.*EF*Y'*48&*-48&$*8+'(1*48&*0)&*-7*H&
9)<BB*)0((&'.5*%',$&+)&(*+4*I&A&.*>*B8%.&*48&*7$&R0&',5*-7*H&><+"*%'*
I&A&.*X*($-33&(*7$-6*X=*4-*E=1*B8%,8*6+5*)0//&)4*48+4*48&*(&/$&&*-7*)&.7N,-$$&,4%'/*K5*+(A+',&(*.&+$'&$)*(&,$&+)&)*+)*48&5*%63$-A&(*48&%$*3$-"*,%&',5*B%48*%',$&+)&(*A-,+K0.+$5F*#%/0$&* "* )8-B)* 48&* 7$&R0&',5* -7* )4$+4&/%&)* B8-)&* 70',4%-'* %)* 4-*)-0'(*6-$&*(%$&,41*%'*,-'4$+)4*4-*48&*)4$+4&/%&)*48+4*)-74&'*,-66&'4)F*
L'* 48&* +'+.5)%)* [0)4* B+)* &M,.0(&(* 7$-6* 48&* H)-74&'%'/J* /$-03)* +)* %4*+.)-*8+)*48&*70',4%-'*-7*6+@%'/*48&*044&$+',&*)4$-'/&$F*V,,-$(%'/*4-*!TE!"#$%&'(#)*+&,-./001112,8

34&3456111672&7&<19:

!"#$%&'()*"+,-&./01-&223&4.\546N=89)*<&03&S%)4$%K04%-'*-7*48&*0)&*-7*H&9)<BB*+'(*H&><+"*%'*48&*PL9G*CI;*
9-$30)F=89)*<&.3&S%)4$%K04%-'*-7*(%$&,4*+'(*)-74&'%'/*)4$+4&/%&)*%'*48&*PL9G*CI;*
9-$30)F
65*+'+.5)%)1*48&$&*B+)*+'*%',$&+)&*%'*48&*0)&*-7*)4$+4&/%&)*$&/+$(%'/*)-74&'%'/* ,-66&'4)* +'(* B8&'* )-0'(%'/* 6-$&* (%$&,4* +)* )40(&'4*3$-"*,%&',5*.&A&.)*%63$-A&(F*P-A%,&*+'(*.-B&$*%'4&$6&(%+4&*.&+$'&$)*
4&'(&(*4-*0)&*)-74&'%'/*,-66&'4*)4$+4&/%&)*6-$&*7$&R0&'4.5*48+'*(%$&,4*!TZ!"#$%&'(#)*+&,-./001112,3

34&3456111672&7&<19:

O8)*+-&PQ0&G2(K<"&#(*2(*+R=89)*<&a3*S%)4$%K04%-'*-7*48&*0)&*-7**<+,,L-&[)B?-&>+LX<-&+F?)+,,L*+'(*K8"A&(E*%'*48&*PL9G*CI;*9-$30)F-'&)FV)* )8-B'* %'* G+K.&* <1* 48&* I()F@B?("<& G<*8<B* %'4$-(0,&)* '%'&*&M3$&))%-')*7-$*H)-0'(%'/*6-$&*(%$&,4J*`(E&F()*B<-&+XB(,)?<,L-&A<!&"8?<,L-&*<+,,L-& +F?)+,,L-& F<*?+8",L-& @("<B?,L-& 8"& E+F?-& ?(& X<& @("<B?a1* +'(* &%/84*
7-$* H)-74&'%'/* ,-66&'4)J* `H& 9)<BB-& H& ?@8"K-& 2*(X+X,L-& >+LX<-& B(*?& (E-&
K8"A& (E-& +& ,8??,<& /X8?1-& [)B?aF* ;M,&34* 7-$* 48&* 7-..-B%'/* "*A&* &M3$&))%-')**<+,,L-& +F?)+,,L-& >+LX<-& K8"A& (E& +'(* [)B?1* 48&* -48&$* '%'&* &M3$&))%-')*
7-$* H)-0'(%'/* (%$&,4J* +'(* 48&* $&6+%'%'/* &%/84* &M3$&))%-')* 0)&(* 7-$*H)-74&'%'/* ,-66&'4)J* B&$&* '-4* +'+.5O&(* 7-$* 48%)* )40(5* (0&* 4-* 48&%$*%'7$&R0&'4* 0)&* %'* 48&* PL9G* CI;* 9-$30)F* #%/0$&* T* 3$&)&'4)* 48&* 0)&* -7*48&)&* "*A&* 7$&R0&'4.5* 0)&(* 38$+)&)1* +'(* ,.&+$.5* )8-B)* +'* %',$&+)&*)3&,%"*,+..5*7$-6*I&A&.*D*-'B+$()F*G8&*8%/8&)4*%',$&+)&*-,,0$)*B%48*48&*
4B-*38$+)&)**<+,,L*+'(*[)B?1*$&)3&,4%A&.5F*G8&$&*%)*+.)-*+*)8+$3*%',$&+)&*
7-$*K-48*38$+)&)*K&4B&&'*I&A&.)*E*+'(*>1*B8%,8*6+5*&%48&$*%'(%,+4&*-A&$0)&* -7* 48&* 4&$6)* -$* +'* %',$&+)&(* .&A&.* -7* !*0&',5F* Y'* 48&* -48&$*8+'(1* 48&$&* B+)* +* (&,$&+)&* %'* 48&* 7$&R0&',5* -7* 48&* 38$+)&* +,40+..51*!T>!"#$%&'(#)*+&,-./001112,<34&3456111672&7&619:

!"#$%&'()*"+,-&./01-&223&4.\546N@%'(*-7*+'(*6+5K&*+)*48&*3$-"*,%&',5*.&A&.)*%',$&+)&(F#%'+..51*$&/+$(%'/*,8K<*+'(*B(1*C+3+'&)&*.&+$'&$)*)8-B&(*,-63.&4&.5*(%77&$&'4* 4&'(&',%&)* 7$-6* 8-B* 48&5* +$&* +,40+..5* %'4$-(0,&(* %'* 48&*
I()F@B?("<& G<*8<BF* L'* G+K.&* "1* ,-'A&$)+4%-'+.* +'+.5)%)* -7* (%+.-/0&)*&M4$+,4&(* 7$-6* g--@* T* $&A&+.)* )%M* (%77&$&'4* 70',4%-')* -7* ,8K<* +'(* 48&*
3&$,&'4*-7*8-B*&+,8*70',4%-'*%)*0)&(*K5*'+4%A&*)3&+@&$)*%'*48&*7+$*$%/84*,-.06'F*
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G8b& ]8EE<*<"?& $B+9<B& (E& PQ8K<R& 8"?*(A)F<A& 8"& G-0,8)4-'&* U&$%&)*/OF#+*?@L&<?&+,3-&0CC\X1&
Type Function
ExamplePercent
To say something(1)
He acted like we were in his way. 34%
is similar
To highlight
They were like totally blocking the(2)18%
somethingdoors.
To mean other(3) things, including I like to ski.
17%
the verb “like”
To give an(4)Like, I get upset……
16%
exampleTo report what
They were like, “What’s your(5)
10%
someone said
problems?”
To say(6)
Isn’t he like 80 years old?
5%
“approximately”#%/0$&*D*3$&)&'4)*48&*(%)4$%K04%-'*-7*48&*0)&*-7*,8K<*+6-'/*C+3+'&)&*.&+$'&$)* `)&&* V33&'(%M* V* 7-$* )+63.&* (+4+* 4+@&'* 7$-6* 48&* PL9G* CI;*
9-$30)aF*V,,-$(%'/*4-*48&*$&)0.4)1*,8K<*0)&(*+)*+*A&$K*B+)*6-)4*7$&R0&'4*+6-'/*C+3+'&)&*.&+$'&$)1*3&+@%'/*+4*D==*4-@&')*+4*I&A&.*X1*,-63+$&(*
4-*'+4%A&*)3&+@&$)*B8-*0)&(*,8K<*+)*+*A&$K*+4*-'.5*!Zj*`)&&*4+K.&*"aF*
G8&$&*%)*R0%4&*+*(%),$&3+',5*K&4B&&'*48&*4B-*/$-03)*B8%,8*K&,-6&)*&A%(&'4*(0&*4-*48&*(+4+*$&A&+.&(*7$-6*,-$3-$+*)40(%&)F*!TX!"#$%&'(#)*+&,-./001112,634&3456111672&7&619:

O8)*+-&PQ0&G2(K<"&#(*2(*+R=89)*<&63&S%)4$%K04%-'*-7*48&*0)&*-7*,8K<*%'*48&*PL9G*CI;*9-$30)F*
G+K.&* T* )8-B)* 7-0$* (%77&$&'4* 0)&)* -7* )-* %'* I()F@B?("<& G<*8<B&`^,9+$485*&4*+.F1*<==EK1*3F">aF*
G+K.&*T=()*& ]8EE<*<"?& $B+9<B& (E& PG(R& 8"?*(A)F<A& 8"& I()F@B?("<& G<*8<B&/OF#+*?@L&<?&+,3-&0CC\X1
Type Function
ExampleTo start a topic, often with(1)
So it’s your birthday Friday, right?
a question
To check your(2)
So they all came, huh?
understanding
To pause or let the other(3)
They all came, so……
person draw a conclusion
So that’s what happened. They all(4) To close a topic
came.
#%/0$&*E*3$&)&'4)*48&*(%)4$%K04%-'*-7*48&*0)&*-7*B(*+6-'/*C+3+'&)&*.&+$'&$)* `)&&* V33&'(%M* g* 7-$* )+63.&* (+4+* 4+@&'* 7$-6* 48&* PL9G* CI;*
9-$30)aF*G8&$&*%)*+*)8+$3*%',$&+)&*%'*7$&R0&',5*K&4B&&'*I&A&.*!*+'(*!D=!"#$%&'(#)*+&,-./001112;534&3456111672&7&619:

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PL9G*CI;*9-$30)F
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34&3456111672&7$519:

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Discussion#%$)41* +'* %'4&$&)4%'/* $&)0.4* /&'&$+4&(* 7$-6* 48&* (+4+* B+)* 48+4*
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L'4&$6&(%+4&*.&+$'&$)*3-))%K.5*-A&$0)&(*48&)&*B-$()*+)*"*..&$)*K&,+0)&*-7*48&%$*.+,@*-7*A-,+K0.+$5*+'(*3$-(0,4%A&*)@%..)F*g+)&(*-'*-K)&$A+4%-')*-7* 65* .&+$'&$)1* 48&* -A&$0)&* -7* 48&)&* )4$+4&/%&)* %'4&$7&$&)* B%48* 48&%$*,-'A&$)+4%-'+.* !*0&',5F* #$-6* +* 3&(+/-/%,+.* 3&$)3&,4%A&1* )40(&'4)1*)3&,%"*,+..5* %'4&$6&(%+4&* .&+$'&$)1* )8-0.(* K&* 6+(&* +B+$&* 48+4* 48&*
-A&$0)&*-7*48&*4&$6*6+5*8%'(&$*,-660'%,+4%-'F*
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B&$&*48&*6-)4*(%$&,4*B8&'*6+@%'/*$&R0&)4)1*B8%,8*%)*,-'4$+$5*4-*48&*(+4+*,-..&,4&(*7-$*48%)*)40(5F*U-6&* )40(%&)* 04%.%O&* (%),-0$)&* ,-63.&4%-'* 4+)@)* +)* +* 6&48-(*-7* (+4+* ,-..&,4%-'F* 9-.&* +'(* V'(&$)-'e)* `<==!a* .-'/%40(%'+.* )40(5*)8-B&(* 48&%$* )40(&'4)* 0)&(* .+'/0+/&* 48+4* %'(%,+4&(* +'* %',$&+)&* %'*6-$&* %'(%$&,4* ,-'A&$)+4%-'+.* )4$+4&/%&)* +74&$* +* 4&'N6-'48* 8-6&)4+5F*
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6&'4%-'&(*)40(%&)*8+A&*A+$%&(*+'(*+$&*%',.0)%A&*$&/+$(%'/*(%$&,4*+'(*%'(%$&,4*,-'A&$)+4%-'+.*)4$+4&/%&)F*Y'&*$&+)-'*7-$*48%)*6%/84*K&*(0&*4-*
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3$-"*,%&',5*.&A&.*/-&)*031*48&$&*%)*)4%..*+*B%(&*/+3*K&4B&&'*48&*6-$&*,-',$&4&* -$* &+)%&$* 0)&)* -7* ,8K<* 48+'* B8+4* 6%/84* K&* 3&$,&%A&(* +)* 48&*
6-$&*(%7"*,0.4*0)&)*-7*,8K<F*V,,-$(%'/*4-*^,9+$485*&4*+.*`<==EKa1*48&*'+4%A&*)3&+@&$)*0)&*-7*,8K<*+)*453&)*<1*D1*+'(*E*`)&&*4+K.&*"a*+$&*0)&(*H%'*
A&$5*%'7-$6+.*,-'A&$)+4%-')*-'.5J*`3F*>!af-B&A&$1* -'&* -A&$B8&.6%'/* +33&+.* -7* 48&* I()F@B?("<& G<*8<B* %)*48+4*48&*(%+.-/0&)*+'(*%')4$0,4%-'+.*3-%'4)*%'*48&*)&$%&)*+$&*K+)&(*-'*&63%$%,+.*(+4+*4+@&'*7$-6*'+4%A&*)3&+@&$)e*,-$30)F*G8&*$&)0.4)*%'*48&*,-$30)*-7*C+3+'&)&*.&+$'&$)*)0//&)4*48+4*48&5*)8-0.(*3$-(0,&*,8K<*B%48*
6-$&*A+$%&4%&)1*K04*.+'/0+/&*4&+,8&$)*6+5*8+A&*4-*K&*,+$&70.*$&/+$(%'/*
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Ea*6+5*'-4*K&*$&+(%.5*4+0/84*K5*.+'/0+/&*%')4$0,4-$)1*+)*)-6&*4&+,8&$)*4&'(*'-4*4-*&',-0$+/&*48&%$*)40(&'4)*4-*0)&*-A&$.5*,-..-R0%+.1*%'7-$6+.*+'(*$&(0'(+'4*.+'/0+/&*%'*48&%$*,-660'%,+4%-'F*#%'+..51*+'*%'4&$&)4%'/*"*'(%'/*B%48*48&*7$&R0&',5*,-0'4)*-7*B(*+'(*
48&*+'+.5)&)*-7*%4)*,-'4&M4*)8-0.(*K&*HLJ*%)*48&*-'.5*.&M%,+.*7-$61*+'(*-48&$)* +$&* 8&)%4+4%-')* -$* 606K.&)* %'* 48&* %'4&$A%&B)F* I&A&.* T* +'(* D*)8-B*48&*8%/8&)4*7$&R0&',5*-7*48&*'-'NB-$(*%4&6)1*+'(*48&*-,,0$$&',&*(&,$&+)&)*+)*48&*3$-"*,%&',5*.&A&.*%',$&+)&)F*I-B&$*3$-"*,%&',5*.&A&.*.&+$'&$)*4&'(*4-*)&%O&*)3&+@%'/*+74&$*044&$%'/*B(1*B8%,8*,+'*K&*$&.+4&(*
4-*48&*$&)0.4)*-7*-A&$0)%'/*H&><+"-&+F?)+,,L-&>+LX<*+'(*+&K8"A&(EF*#$-6*!D"!"#$%&'(#)*+&,-./001112;$34&3456111672&7$519:

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3$+,4%,&)F* L'* )066+$51* 48&* ,-',&$'* $&/+$(%'/* ,-..-R0%+.* 0)+/&)* %'*3&(+/-/5*6+5*K&*$&+.%O&(*%'*4&$6)*-7*48&*)4+',&*+/+%')4*8&+A5*$&.%+',&*-'*'+4%A&*)3&+@&$)e*,-$3-$+*+)*,.+%6&(*K5*]$+'/&$*`<==<aF*G8%)*6%/84*
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Conclusion
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K&*(0&*4-*48&*)&44%'/)*-7*48&*%'4&$A%&B)1*B8&$&*)40(&'4)*,-63.&4&*48&*+))%/'&(*4+)@)*)-*48+4*48&5*+$&*+))&))&(*%'*4&$6)*-7*48&%$*-$+.*3$-"*,%&',5F*
G8&*UUG*%'4&$A%&B1*B8%,8*48&*PL9G*CI;*9-$30)*%)*K+)&(*-'1*+,40+..5*8+)*"*A&*)4+/&)b*`!a*+')B&$%'/*B+$6N03*R0&)4%-')1*`<a*(&),$%K%'/*+*)%'/.&*!DT!"#$%&'(#)*+&,-./001112;,34&3456111672&7$219:

!"#$%&'()*"+,-&./01-&223&4.\546N

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4+$/&4* .+'/0+/&1* +'(* +,4%A%4%&)* K+)&(* -'* 48&%$* -B'* )40(&'4)e* '&&()F*
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48&* /+3* -7* ,.+%6)* 6+(&* K&4B&&'* ,-$30)NK+)&(* &(0,+4%-'+.%)4)* +'(*
48&%$*,$%4%,)*)0,8*+)*9--@*`!XX>a*+'(*2%((-B)-'*`<===aF
Acknowledgement
L*B-0.(*.%@&*4-*48+'@*S$F*k0@%-*G-'-*+4*G-@5-*:'%A&$)%45*-7*#-$&%/'*
U40(%&)*7-$*+,,&))*4-*48&*PL9G*CI;*9-$30)*+'(*8%)*48-0/8470.*,-66&'4)*-'*48%)*$&)&+$,8F*!DD!"#$%&'(#)*+&,-./001112;;34&3456111672&7$219:

O8)*+-&PQ0&G2(K<"&#(*2(*+R

References
g%K&$1*SF1*9-'$+(1*UF1*h*Q&33&'1*QF*`!XX>aF*#(*2)B&,8"9)8B?8FB`&
H"M<B?89+?8"9&,+"9)+9<&B?*)F?)*<&+"A&)B<F*9+6K$%(/&b*9+6K$%(/&*:'%A&$)%45*_$&))F*
9+$4&$1*QF*`!XX>aF*Y$(&$)*-7*$&+.%45b*9VP9YS;1*,-660'%,+4%-'*+'(*,0.40$&F*%QI&'()*"+,-&601*T"NDEF*
9--@1*]F*`!XX>aF*G8&*0)&)*-7*$&+.%45b*V*$&3.5*4-*Q-'+.(*9+$4&$F*%QI&'()*"+,-&60`!a1*DZNE"F*
9-.&1*UF1*h*V'(&$)-'1*VF*`<==!aF*Q&R0&)4)*K5*5-0'/*C+3+'&)&b*V*.-'/%40(%'+.*)40(5F*I@<&Q+"9)+9<&I<+F@<*-&06`>a1*ZN!!F**S&*9-,@1*UF1*]$+'/&$1*UF1*I&&,81*]F1*h*^,;'&$51*GF*`!XX>aF*V'*+04-6+4&(*+33$-+,8*4-*38$+)%,-'*-7*;#I*.&+$'&$)F*L'*UF*]$+'/&$*`;(Fa1*Q<+*"<*&%"9,8B@&("&F(>2)?<**`33F*EZNZXaF*I-'(-'b*I-'/6+'F*;..%)1*QF*`!XXTaF*I@<&B?)AL&(E&B<F("A&,+"9)+9<&+FW)8B8?8("F*YM7-$(b*YM7-$(*:'%A&$)%45*_$&))F**#$+)&$1*gF*`!XX"aF*S%),-0$)&*6+$@&$)*+,$-))*.+'/0+/&F*e*+9>+?8FB&+"A&
Q+"9)+9<&Q<+*"8"9-&a1*!N!EF**]$+'/&$1*UF*`;(Fa*`!XX>aF*Q<+*"<*&%"9,8B@&("&F(>2)?<*F*I-'(-'b*I-'/6+'F*]$+'/&$1*UF*`<==<aF*V*K%$(e)N&5&*A%&B*-7*.&+$'&$*,-$30)*$&)&+$,8F*L'*
UF*]$+'/&$1*CF*f0'/1*h*UF*_&4,8NG5)-'*`;()Fa1*#(>2)?<*&,<+*"<*&
F(*2(*+-&B<F("A&,+"9)+9<&+FW)8B8?8("&+"A&E(*<89"&,+"9)+9<&?<+F@8"9*`33F*"N!>aF*I-'(-'b*I-'/6+'F*f0')4-'1*UF*`<==<aF*#(*2(*+&8"&+22,8<A&,8"9)8B?8FBF*9+6K$%(/&b*9+6K$%(/&*:'%A&$)%45*_$&))F*L)8%@+B+1*UF*`<==>aF*%89(&F(*2)B&?(&9<"9(&KL()8K)`&A+?+&?(B@8?<&"(&?<b?3*o;'/.%)8*,-$3-$+*+'(*.+'/0+/&*4&+,8%'/b*G&M4)*+)*(+4+pF*
G-@5-b*G+%)80@+'F*
LO06%1*;F1*:,8%6-4-1*?F1*h*L)+8+$+1*fF*`;()FaF*`<==TaF*^8@("[8"&40CC&"8"&"(&<89(&B2<+K8"9&F(*2)B*oI<*)3-@&'*,-$30)*-7*!<==*C+3+'&)&*.&+$'&$)*-7*;'/.%)8pF*G-@5-b*VI9F?+'&@-1*VF*`<==TaF*P%8-'[%'*&%/-/+@0)800)8+*'-*5-@50*'-*8+4)0B+*'-*8+44+4)0F*oG8&*(&A&.-36&'4+.*3$-,&))&)*-7*6+@%'/*$&R0&)4)*+)*)3&&,8*+,4*K5*C+3+'&)&*;#I*.&+$'&$)pF*L'*;F*LO06%1*?F*:,8%6-4-1*
h*fF*L)+8+$+*`;()Fa1*^8@("[8"&40CC&"8"&"(&<89(&B2<+K8"9&F(*2)B&oI<*)3-@&'*,-$30)*-7*!<==*C+3+'&)&*.&+$'&$)*-7*;'/.%)8p*`33F*!!"N!DE!"#$%&'(#)*+&,-./001112;834&3456111672&7$219:

!"#$%&'()*"+,-&./01-&223&4.\546N!<XaF*G-@5-b*VI9F?&''&(51*]F*`!XX>aF*;"&8"?*(A)F?8("&?(&F(*2)B&,8"9)8B?8FBF*I-'(-'b*I-'/6+'F
I&&,81*]F*`!XX>aF*I&+$'&$*,-$3-$+b*28+4*48&5*+$&*+'(*B8+4*,+'*K&*(-'&*B%48*48&6F*L'*UF*]$+'/&$*`;(Fa1*Q<+*"<*&%"9,8B@&("&F(>2)?<**`33F*M%ANMMaF*I-'(-'b*I-'/6+'F^,9+$4851*^F*CF*`<==TaF*I()F@B?("<`&=*(>&F(*2)B&?(&F()*B<&X((KF*
9+6K$%(/&b*9+6K$%(/&*:'%A&$)%45*_$&))F*^,9+$4851*^F*CF*`<==>aF*_$-"*.%'/*)3-@&'*!*0&',5F*I@<&Q+"9)+9<&
I<+F@<*-&.0`Za1*"<N""F*^,9+$4851*^F*CF1*h*9+$4&$1*QF*VF*`<==EaF*G8%)*48+4*+'(*48&*-48&$b*^0.4%N
B-$(*,.0)4&$)*%'*)3-@&'*;'/.%)8*+)*A%)%K.&*3+44&$')*-7*%'4&$+,4%-'F*
L'*^F*CF*^,9+$485*`;(Fa1*%b2,(*+?8("B&8"&F(*2)B&,8"9)8B?8FB*`33F*ZN<EaF*9+6K$%(/&b*9+6K$%(/&*:'%A&$)%45*_$&))F*^,9+$4851*^F*CF1*^,9+$4&'1*CF1*h*U+'(%7-$(1*fF*`<==D+aF*I()F@B?("<3&G?)A<"?fB&X((K&4F*9+6K$%(/&b*9+6K$%(/&*:'%A&$)%45*_$&))F**^,9+$4851*^F*CF1*^,9+$4&'1*CF1*h*U+'(%7-$(1*fF*`<==DKaF*I()F@B?("<3&G?)A<"?fB&X((K&0F*9+6K$%(/&b*9+6K$%(/&*:'%A&$)%45*_$&))F**^,9+$4851*^F*CF1*^,9+$4&'1*CF1*h*U+'(%7-$(1*fF*`<==D,aF*I()F@B?("<3&I<+F@<*fB&<A8?8("&0F*9+6K$%(/&b*9+6K$%(/&*:'%A&$)%45*_$&))F**^,9+$4851*^F*CF1*^,9+$4&'1*CF1*h*U+'(%7-$(1*fF*`<==E+aF*I()F@B?("<3&G?)A<"?fB&X((K&.F*9+6K$%(/&b*9+6K$%(/&*:'%A&$)%45*_$&))F**^,9+$4851*^F*CF1*^,9+$4&'1*CF1*h*U+'(%7-$(1*fF*`<==EKaF*I()F@B?("<3&G?)A<"?fB&X((K&aF*9+6K$%(/&b*9+6K$%(/&*:'%A&$)%45*_$&))F**^,;'&$51*GF1*i%+-1*QF1*h*G-'-1*kF*`<==EaF*#(*2)B5X+B<A&,+"9)+9<&
B?)A8<B`&;"&+AM+"F<A&*<B()*F<&X((KF*I-'(-'b*Q-04.&(/&F
Ye?&&77&1*VF1*^,9+$4851*^F*CF1*h*9+$4&$1*QF*VF*`<==ZaF*=*(>&F(*2)B&?(&F,+BB*((>`&Q+"9)+9<&)B<&+"A&,+"9)+9<&?<+F@8"9F*9+6K$%(/&b*9+6K$%(/&*:'%A&$)%45*_$&))F
Q&33&'1*QF1*h*U%63)-'1*QF*`<==<aF*9-$30)*.%'/0%)4%,)F*L'*PF*U,86%44*`;(Fa1*;"&8"?*(A)F?8("&?(&+22,8<A&,8"9)8B?8FB*`33F*X<N!!!aF*I-'(-'b*
YM7-$(*:'%A&$)%45*_$&))F
U0/%0$+1*^F*`<==XaF*PL9;b*P+/-5+*L'4&$.+'/0+/&*9-$30)*-7*;'/.%)8F*
Q&4$%&A&(*C0'&*E1*<==X1*7$-6*8443bdd)0/%0$+DF/)%(F'+/-5+N0F+,F[3dq)+@+0&d'%,&d%'(&MF846.*
G+@+8+)8%1*UF*`!XXEaF*_$+/6+4%,*4$+')7&$+K%.%45F*G?)A8<B&8"&G<F("A&Q+"9)+9<&;FW)8B8?8("-&4D`<a1*!>XN<<"F**!DZ!"#$%&'(#)*+&,-./001112;3

34&3456111672&7$219:

O8)*+-&PQ0&G2(K<"&#(*2(*+R

G-'-1*kF*`<===aF*V*,-6304&$*.&+$'&$*,-$30)*K+)&(*+'+.5)%)*-7*48&*+,R0%)%4%-'*-$(&$*-7*;'/.%)8*/$+66+4%,+.*6-$38&6&)F*L'*IF*
g0$'+$(*h*GF*^,;'&$5*`;()Fa1*U<?@8"K8"9&,+"9)+9<&2<A+9(9L&
E*(>&+&F(*2)B&2<*B2<F?8M<`&e+2<*B&E*(>&?@<&?@8*A&8"?<*"+?8("+,&
F("E<*<"F<&?<+F@8"9&+"A&,+"9)+9<&F(*2(*+*`33F*!<"N!"<aF*#$+'@70$4*+6*^+%'b*_&4&$*I+'/F*
G-'-1*kF*`<==ZaF*G8&*C;#II*9-$30)*_$-[&,4F*Q&4$%&A&(*C0'&*E1*<==X1*
7$-6*8443bdd[&!*.F,-$30),-K-F'&4dG-'-1*kF*`<==>aF*?5-O+%*4-*,-$30)*oG8&*6+4&$%+.)*+'(*,-$3-$+pF*L'*CF*
P+@+60$+*h*UF*f-44+*`;()Fa1*#(*2)B&?(&<89(&KL()8K)&"(&B<??<"*
oG8&*%'4&$7+,&*K&4B&&'*,-$3-$+*+'(*;IGpF*G-@5-b*U8-8+@0)8+F*
G-'-1*kF1*LO06%1*;F1*h*?+'&@-1*;F*`<==DaF*G8&*PL9G*CI;*9-$30)b*48&*"*'+.*$&3-$4F*L'*?F*g$+(7-$(N2+44)1*9F*L@&/0,8%1*h*^F*UB+')-'*`;()Fa1*';QI&0CCa&#("E<*<"F<&e*(F<<A8"9B*`33F*"TDN"DEaF*G-@5-b*
CVIG*_0K.%,+4%-')F*Q&4$%&A&(*V0/0)4*!=1*<==Z1*7$-6*8443bdd[+.4N
30K.%,+4%-')F-$/d3$-,&&(%'/)d<==Td,-'4&'4)F383
2%((-B)-'1*fF*]F*`<===aF*Y'*48&*.%6%4+4%-')*-7*.%'/0%)4%,)*+33.%&(F*;22,8<A&Q8"9)8B?8FB-&04`!a1*"N<DF**!D>!"#$%&'(#)*+&,-./001112;<34&3456111672&7$219:

!"#$%&'()*"+,-&./01-&223&4.\546N

Appendix A
Lists of Sample data of “like” in the NICT JLE CorpusType(1) or (2)(1) or (2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)

Level
ExampleLevel 3 My room looks like this.
Level 7 And one guy is like falling down on a ski.
Level 2 I like Giants.
Like there are hundreds of language schools
Level 9nationwide.
All my neighbors were pretty old like fifty or
Level 9sixty.
And his girlfriend was like “Oh what are you
Level 7doing?”.

Appendix B
Lists of Sample data of “so” in the NICT JLE Corpus
Type

Level

ExampleHow much is this? Yes. So, I will takethis one.
The Charlie’s Angel is starting. So#F# #F# do you want to see it withme?
So #SC# if I watch #F# #F# if I watch
it #SC# in movie theater, …..
I don’t think ATM is working. So,
please come and help me.

“So” + “I”

Level 2“So” + Filler(#F#)

Level 3“So” + Self
Correction(#SC#)

Level 6

“So, (comma)”

Level 9“So”+
Repetition(#RC#)My mother is house wife. So #R# #R#
Level 5 she make breakfast and lunch anddinner for us everyday.

!DX!"#$%&'(#)*+&,-./001112;6

34&3456111672&7$&19: