COMPARATIVE STUDY ON
RECOVERY &RECONSTRUCTION

A Case for an International Platform

Anil Kkumar Sinha
Shikha Srivastava

Table of Contents
Page

1. Preamble --------------------------------------------------------------------- 2
2. Background ----------------------------------------------------------------- 31) Pinatubo Volcanic Eruption ------------------------------------------- 32) Hurricane Mitch ----------------------------------------------------------- 33) Flash floods and landslides in Venezuela -------------------------- 44) El Salvador Earthquakes ----------------------------------------------- 45) Orissa Super Cyclone --------------------------------------------------- 56) Gujarat Earthquake ------------------------------------------------------ 67) Marmara Earthquake ---------------------------------------------------- 6

3. Rehabilitation Objectives -------------------------------------------- 8
4. Analysis ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 11
5. Challenges and Shortcomings ----------------------------------- 18
6. Conclusion ------------------------------------------------------------------- 20
References ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 24

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1. Preamble
Recovery and reconstruction are a complex process and are largely
determined by the post disaster situations and the social forces existing in theregion before and after the disaster. They cannot be examined in isolationfrom the other phases of disaster management. At the macro level, therecovery and reconstruction efforts are likely to be affected by previous
preparations for, and the immediate response to, the disaster. The different
phases of emergency management, including “Prevention/Mitigation,”“Preparedness,” “Response” and ”Rehabilitation/Reconstruction,” areinterrelated.
In recent years there has been a shift from conceptualising disaster recovery
from a linear, static phenomenon with specific set stages to an understandingof recovery as a dynamic, interactive, and decision-making process (Mileti,1999). During the reconstruction period, "the central issues and decisions arevalue choices that give varying emphasis to the early return to normalcy, thereduction of future vulnerability, or to opportunities for improved efficiency,
equity and amenity" (Haas et al., 1977).
It is often difficult to generalize disasters because both the affected
communities and the events themselves are distinctive. Cities and towns areof varying sizes, in different regions, with different economic bases andcultural values. The communities are affected by different types of natural
hazards, experience different types and extents of losses, and have recovery
periods unique in nature and timing.
Nevertheless, there are a number of similar trends and recovery lessons thatcan be learned from the experiences of these regions. Common themes andissues can be identified and adopted. The seven case studies under review
are each unique and yet there is a thread of similarity to be found in each ofthem.
Natural disasters and their impacts make the task of the achievement of theMillennium Development Goals (MDG) very difficult. Disaster losses can often
exacerbate other crises such as a political and social conflict, disease andenvironmental degradation. Disasters put development gains at risk andtherefore it is imperative to integrate disaster risk management withindevelopment planning in order to meet the MDGs.
However, despite its adverse impacts, a disaster also offers an opportunity toformulate dynamic policies relating to social development, economic growth,environmental quality and other essential principles contributing tosustainability. The post disaster reconstruction period provides the ideal
occasion to introduce disaster reduction into sustainable development
planning.

２2. Background
1) Pinatubo Volcanic Eruption
The Pinatubo Volcanic Eruption occurred in June 1991 in the island of Luzonin Philippines. Mount Pinatubo’s eruption was considered the largest volcanic
eruption of the century to affect a densely populated area. The eruptions
precipitated huge fast-flowing mudflows or lahars, posing a more serious andlingering threat to life, property and environment.
The destruction, coupled with the continuing threat of lahars and ash fall,disrupted the otherwise flourishing economy of Central Luzon, slowing theregion's growth momentum and altering key development activities andpriorities. The regional office of the Department of Social Welfare andDevelopment (DSWD) reported a total of 657 persons dead, 184 injured and23 missing as of 29 September 1991. Damage to crops, infrastructure, andpersonal property totalled at least P10.1 billion (US$374 million) in 1991, andan additional P1.9 billion (US$69 million) in 1992.
The report states that the government of Philippines was able to pursue its
recovery and rehabilitation plan more efficiently and effectively with thesupport and assistance of other governments and international funding
institutions. Most of the foreign assistance for rehabilitation and reconstruction
came in the form of grants, loans, and technical assistance packages. Amongthe countries that extended assistance included Australia, Canada, France,
Germany, Israel, Japan, Netherlands, United Kingdom and U.S.A. WorldBank and Asian Development Bank (ADB) also provided support and loan
facilities.
2) Hurricane Mitch
The Hurricane Mitch, which occurred in October 1998, was the largest natural
disaster in history of Central America. It left over 10,000 persons dead, 1.5
million displaced, and affected one out of every five inhabitants in Honduras,
Nicaragua, Guatemala, and El Salvador. Agricultural production sufferedheavy losses; vital economic and social infrastructure was destroyed.
Estimated overall economic losses amounted to over US$4 billion, slowing the
expected annual growth rate for 1999 from 5.3 to 2.9 percent.
The response of the international agencies was encouraging. An Inter-agency
meeting (Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), International Fund For
Agricultural Development (IFAD), International Labour Organization (ILO),
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), United Nations Population
Fund (UNFPA), United Nations Human Rights Commission (UNHRC), United
Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), United Nations Industrial Development
Organization (UNIDO), World Food Programme (WFP), World HealthOrganization (WHO), Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), International
Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, International Organization for Migration

３

(IOM), International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies(IFRC), InterAction) co-chaired by United Nations Development Programme(UNDP) and Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA)
underlined the need for a Transitional Appeal in order to raise adequate
support for continuing relief needs as well as to forge links with longer-term
rehabilitation. The sectors covered by the appeal were health, water andsanitation, shelter, food security, agriculture, education, coordination, andmanagement.
3) Flash floods and landslides in Venezuela
Ten days of torrential rains in the Vargas state of Venezuela in December
1999 led to flash floods and massive mudslides that affected nine northernstates where 75 percent of the country’s population live, sweeping away
thousands of homes. In total, an estimated 15,000 to 20,000 people died,more than 8,000 homes were affected, and about 500,000 survivors had to be
evacuated from the region. According to the United Nations Economic
Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (UN/ECLAC) the losses
amounted to 3.3 % of Venezuela’s GNP.
The response of the international community to the emergency was
immediate and generous through international organizations, bilateralgovernmental agreements, and the civil society. Five days after the disaster,
the total international financial assistance amounted to more than US$ 8
million coming from more than 20 countries, international agencies and nongovernmental organizations. Several member countries of the European
Union (EU), offered concessional loans to Venezuela of over US＄100 million.
Multilateral organizations provided an estimated total of US＄1,250 million(IDB: US＄337 million; World Bank: US＄588 million; Corporación Andina de
Fomento: US ＄ 325 million) intended primarily for the water sector,
communications and housing sectors.
4) El Salvador Earthquakes
On 13 January, 2001, an earthquake measuring 7.6 on the Richter scale with
an epicentre just off the coast of El Salvador devastated the country. Exactly amonth later, on 13 February, a second earthquake measuring 6.6 struck thenation. More than 3,000 aftershocks took place during this time andafterwards including earthquakes on 17 February and 28 February that
registered 5.1 and 5.6 on the Richter scale.
The damage caused to this country with just over 6 million inhabitants wasenormous. The final toll amounted to 1,259 people killed, 8,964 injured,
149,563 houses destroyed, 185,398 houses damaged, 2,647 public schools,
24 hospitals, 28 health clinics, 2,300 kilometres of roads, and 75% of potablewater systems damaged or destroyed. Overall, 1.5 million people, 25% of the
population of El Salvador, suffered grave losses from the earthquakes.
Damaged infrastructure left unusable by the earthquakes included 40% of
hospital capacity and 30% of the nation's schools. Total economic loss was

４

estimated at US$1.255 billion, equivalent to one-half of the annual national
government budget.
By mid-2001, the reconstruction process had started although with mixed
results. United States Agency for International Development (USAID)/El
Salvador reconstruction assistance focused on the revitalization of social
infrastructure for the rural poor, including: housing, schools, childcare centres,
public health infrastructure, and potable water and sanitation systems. The
Government of Canada provided US$805,000 to Pan American HealthOrganization (PAHO)/WHO, IFRC, and NGOs for emergency assistance andapproximately US$2.7 million in relief and reconstruction assistance to theGovernment of El Salvador. Approximately US$645,000 of the funding was tobe used to support rehabilitation efforts such as the reconstruction of houses,
repairs to schools and potable water systems, and healthcare services in theearthquake-affected areas.
5) Orissa Super Cyclone
The cyclone of rare catastrophic intensity struck the eastern state of Orissa on
29-30 October 1999. It swept the entire Orissa coast, affecting 12 districts andparts of neighbouring West Bengal, devastating a 250 km stretch of eastern
Orissa’s coast. About 10,000 people were reported killed and many thousands
more devastated. The violent cyclone swept the state with sustained winds of
160 mph. It was the worst cyclone in meteorological history, with one of thehighest wind speeds ever recorded--223 mph.
The cyclone also destroyed the livelihood of the coastal state's farming
community--it saturated more than 1 million hectares of cropland under salty
water and killed some 406,000 livestock. About 11 million people, nearly athird of the state's population of 35 million, were estimated by the UN
agencies to be directly affected, having lost their shelter, crops, cattle andlivelihoods. Another 7 million people were partly affected due to the largescale collapse of infrastructure, including communications and surface
transport.
In November and December 1999, several UN missions -- ILO, WHO,
UNESCO and FAO -- visited Orissa to assess the impact of the cyclone andthe long-term rehabilitation needs in agriculture, livelihood, health andeducation. Thematic workshops aimed at addressing emerging issues at therelief, rehabilitation and reconstruction phases were organised. The UN
agencies worked out a preliminary budget of US$50 million to be spent in the
15 years following the disaster. The report gives a good description of thevarious rehabilitation and reconstruction works undertaken by the various UN
agencies and by other organizations like Cooperative for American Relief
Everywhere (CARE), Department for International Development (DFID),
ActionAid, IFRC, and World Bank.
6) Gujarat Earthquake

５

The earthquake which occurred in Gujarat, western India in January 2001
caused massive loss of life and injury. It left nearly 1 million families homeless,and destroyed much of the area's social infrastructure: from schools andvillage health clinics, to water supply systems, communications and power.
One month after the earthquake official Government of India figures placed
the death toll at 19,727 and the number of injured at 166,000. The World Bankand the Asian Development Bank estimated that reconstruction would cost
about Rs 10,600 crore (US$2.3 billion). In their joint Gujarat Earthquake
Recovery Program Assessment Report presented to the government ofGujarat, the two multilateral banks had put the total loss of assets, including
private assets, at Rs 9,900 crore (US$2.1 billion). The bulk of these losses
were in the housing sector (Rs 5,200 crore /US$1.1 billion). Among the otherseverely affected sectors were education, health, rural water supply, irrigation,transport, and public buildings and monuments. The World Bank and the
Asian Development Bank announced loans worth US$300 million and
US$500 million respectively. Other agencies like the DFID, USAID, CanadianInternational Development Agency (CIDA) and EU too provided financial
assistance for the rehabilitation projects.
7) Marmara Earthquake
An earthquake measuring 7.8 on the Richter scale struck Izmit in the
Maramara region of Turkey on 17 August, 1999. It claimed over 17,000 lives
and left nearly 32,000 injured. The World Bank’s preliminary assessment
report in September 1999, estimated economic damage due to theearthquake to be between US$3.1 and 6.5 billion. The damage to housing
was estimated to be around US$1.1 and 3 billion and damage to essential
services at US$500 million.
The government of Turkey collaborated with international agencies like theWorld Bank to draft its reconstruction programmes. A comprehensive
reconstruction framework was drafted by the World Bank, UNDP, the EU andother international agencies and was funded by the European Investment
Bank and the World Bank. Two World Bank projects namely the Emergency
Earthquake Recovery Loan (EERL) and the Marmara Earthquake Emergency
Reconstruction Project (MEER) comprised a substantial part of thereconstruction programme. The EERL was used for short-term purposes,
while the MEER was used for short term and medium term projects.
Table 1: Disaster details
Sr.
No

Disaster

1.

Pinatubo
Eruption2.

El Salvador
Earthquake
s

3.

Flash

When & where

Luzon island in
Philippines on 12
June 1991
Cuscatalan, San
Salvador, San
Vicente and Paz on
January and 13
February 2001
Vargas state in

Death
Toll
(approx)

Total
Population Affected(approx)HousesDamaged(approx)Infrastructure
Damaged(approx)

Economic
loss(approx)657

2.1 million

81,654P3.8 billion(Pesos)P12.489
million

1,259

1.5 million

334,866-N.A-

US$1,255
billion

15,000-

-NA-

8,000

US$ 1,961

US$3,237

６

floods andlandslides

4.

5.
6.

7.

Hurricane
Mitch
GujaratEarthquake
OrissaSuper
CycloneMarmaraEarthquake

Venezuela on 15&16 December
1999
Honduras,
Nicaragua,
Guatemala and El
Salvador on 26
October 1998
Kutch in Gujarat on
26 January, 2001

10,0003.5 million

20,00012 districts of Orissaon 29 October 1999

9,893

Izmit, Turkey on 17
August 1999

20,00017,000(approx)７

millionmillion386,000

US$ 5 billion

US$billion15.9
million424,510

-NA-

US
$2.1
billion11 million

16.49
lakhs

-N A-

-NA-

Damage tohousing
estimated
between
US$1.1 to
3 billion

US$ 500
million

US$ 3.1 toUS$
6.5
billion6

3. Rehabilitation Objectives
The rehabilitation objectives in all the disasters under study were largely
framed in consultation with the international aid and donor agencies. This isclearly illustrated in the report on Hurricane Mitch. There, an important step inthe reconstruction and rehabilitation processes was in the Stockholm
Consultative Group Meeting. On 25-28 May 1999 in Stockholm, Sweden, IDB
chaired a meeting of the Consultative Group (CG) for the Reconstruction andTransformation of Central America. The conference was a forum for Central
American nations to present their plans for national reconstruction andtransformation, and an opportunity for donor countries to make pledges andcoordinate funding priorities in response to the crisis provoked by Hurricane
Mitch.
The objectives broadly were the same but varied in some specifics. The aimof the recovery and reconstruction efforts in the seven case studies focussed
on the restoration of infrastructure, the building of roads, hospitals and homes,
restoration of economic activity and the reduction of vulnerability by the
adoption of disaster reduction measures. In the aftermath of the Pinatubo
eruption, the Government of Philippines decided to adopt preparedness
measures against the mudflows or lahars. It also sought to ensure thecontinuous flow of goods and services and to reduce the susceptibility of
infrastructure in the event of areas being affected by mudflows. The
government also aimed at preventing further degradation of the environment
and to restore damaged ecosystems.
In the case of Hurricane Mitch likewise, the goal of the reconstruction efforts
was to reduce the social and ecological vulnerability of the region. The reportson the flash floods and landslides in Venezuela and the earthquakes in El
Salvador do not give any details of the objectives of the reconstruction efforts.
In the report on Hurricane Mitch, however, the objectives are clearly spelled
out in the Stockholm Declaration, which laid out the following objectives toguide the reconstruction process:•

Reduce the social and ecological vulnerability of the region, as theoverriding goal.

•

Reconstruct and transform Central America on the basis of an integrated
approach of transparency and good governance.

•

Consolidate democracy and good governance, reinforcing the process ofdecentralization of governmental functions and powers, with the active
participation of civil society.

•

Promote respect for human rights as a permanent objective. The
promotion of equality between women and men, the rights of children, of
ethnic groups and other minorities should be given special attention.

８

•

Coordinate donor efforts, guided by priorities set by the recipient countries.
Intensify efforts to reduce the external debt burden of the countries of theregion.
The reports on the Orissa Super Cyclone and the Marmara Earthquake and toa lesser extent the one on the El Salvador Earthquakes, the objectives are
enumerated in terms of the sectoral interventions by the international agencies.
The report on Orissa Super Cyclone lists in a table the areas of intervention by
the UN agencies in the rehabilitation process.
Table 2 : UN Sectoral Intervention in Orissa

UN agency
UNDMT(United Nations Disaster
Management Team)
UNICEF

UNESCOWHOFAO/UNDP
ILO/UNDPUNDP
WFP
UNCHS (United Nations Centre for
Human Settlement)
UNFEM (United Nations
Development Fund for Women)
UNHCR (The Office of the United
Nations High Commissioner for
Refugees)
UNFPA

Sectors of Intervention
Disaster Preparedness, MIS support,
UN House operation, Advocacy andcommunication
andIntersectoral
coordination
Health, Education, Child development
and nutrition, Child protection andChild Rights.
Textbooks
HealthAgriculture/Allied sectors
Livelihood support for artisans
Shelter Development and slum
improvement
Nutrition/ Food for work
Technical Know-how/Expertise

The report on the Marmara Earthquake gives a breakdown of the MEER
project undertaken by the World Bank, mentions the various projects for which
the World Bank allocated funds. These include Disaster Response System
and Risk Reduction Strategy, which covered areas like Emergency
Management System, Disaster Insurance Scheme and Land Use Planningand Enforcement of Construction Codes. The other areas of intervention werea trauma programme for adults, construction of permanent housing, businessrehabilitation and rebuilding and repair of roads, water supply systems,
wastewater systems, power distribution networks.
In the El Salvador Earthquakes the report mentions that the USAID/El
Salvador reconstruction assistance focused on the revitalization of social
infrastructure for the rural poor, including: housing, schools, child care centres,
public health infrastructure, and potable water and sanitation systems.

９

The report on the Gujarat Earthquake lists out some of the objectives and also
how many of them were achieved. The Government of Gujarat, with thesupport of World Bank and ADB, initiated Gujarat Emergency Earthquake
Reconstruction Project (GEERP). The rehabilitation and reconstruction effort
was the biggest–ever housing program undertaken in the entire world in termsof numbers and geographic area. One of its objectives in the housing sector
was the owner-driven housing construction facilitated by financial, material
and technical assistance by the government.

１０

4. Analysis
There are no universally accepted methods to gauge the progress in the risk
reduction process or the impact of international cooperation. The international
assistance is largely tabulated in terms of the total financial contributions. It isimperative to have standards based on comprehensive evaluations of thecurrent situation and then develop tools and mechanisms to periodicallymonitor progress and evaluate impact.
In the light of the criteria that were laid down for the assessment of
rehabilitation and reconstruction works in these disasters very few of thedisasters under study are able to pass muster. These criteria as spelt out inthe outline to this report are:•Appropriate institutional and operational frameworks to facilitate
immediate recovery as well as long-term sustainable development•

Assessment of the existing protocols and mechanisms for cooperationand coordination among the international agencies and the affected
country•

The presence or otherwise of systems to assist swift and efficient
recovery of the affected populace•

Legal, institutional and financial mechanisms/ structures to facilitate
recovery and reconstruction•

The presence or otherwise of an advisory group to assist in thedevelopment of a recovery plan•

Training of personnel in charge of recovery on a regular basis

Additionally other criteria to be taken into consideration are:•

Whether the reconstruction works incorporated risk reduction concernsand practices and were able to reduce overall vulnerability of theaffected communities over a period of time.

•

Whether the reconstruction projects were able to provide an impetus tosocio-economic recovery and plan for strategic investments in order tofacilitate resumption of the productive processes.

•

Whether the recovery efforts were able to initiate structural reform inthe socio-political and economic environment of the country leading tolong-term development.

In terms of the first criteria of institutional and operational frameworks inalmost all the disasters under study, some operational structures were set up
１１

in the immediate aftermath of disasters. In the Philippines, the Presidential
Task Force on the Rehabilitation of Areas Affected by the Eruption of Mount
Pinatubo or Task Force Mt. Pinatubo was established. It was mandated to
guide and coordinate all rehabilitation efforts of the government, including
those participated in by the private sector and the international community.
After a year, the Mount Pinatubo Assistance, Resettlement and Development
Commission succeeded the Task Force by virtue of a law, Republic Act 7637,
passed by the Philippine Congress and signed by the President Fidel V.
Ramos on 24 September 1992. With a term of six years, the Commission was
mandated, among others, to formulate policies and plans, to coordinate theimplementation of programs and projects, and to administer the initial 10billion peso fund appropriated for the “aid, relief, resettlement, rehabilitationand livelihood services as well as infrastructure support for the victims.”
In the regions affected by Hurricane Mitch, an Ad-hoc Emergency
Management Committee (CONE) at the national level was created to function
as an information centre, headed by a Minister of State. The permanentCommittee for Contingencies (COPECO) was the coordinating body for all the
Regional Disaster Committees (CODERs) and Municipal Disaster Committees(CODEMs). Information was fed from the CODEMs through CODERs to
COPECO and CONE. The UNDP in Nicaragua helped in designing a newdisaster management strategy. Early in 2000, the Nicaraguan National
Assembly passed a new law creating the National System for Disaster
Prevention, Mitigation and Attention and officially established the National
Risk Reduction Plan as a primary operational instrument.
In Venezuela, UNDP performed a comprehensive and multidisciplinary
damage evaluation that was provided to the Venezuelan Government andcoordinated the activities of the multiple actors, both national and international,
that participated in the emergency response.
However, these bodies were largely short-lived and limited to short-term goals.
The exceptions were the Orissa State Disaster Management Authority(OSDMA) and the Gujarat State Disaster Management Authority (GSDMA) set
up in the aftermath of the Orissa super cyclone and the Gujarat Earthquake
respectively. GSDMA was the highest body created at the State Government
level to tackle disasters effectively and efficiently. It is a mix of seniorpoliticians as well as senior bureaucrats. Among the functions of GSDMA as
laid out in its charter are:•To undertake social and economical activities for rehabilitation andresettlement of the affected people that would include new housing,
infrastructure, economic rehabilitation, social rehabilitation andother related programmes,•

To prepare programmes and plans to mitigate losses on account ofdisasters as a strategy for long- term disaster preparedness,•

To undertake research and study regarding causes for losses on
account of natural disasters and to suggest remedial measures forminimizing the same,

１２

•

To obtain funds for rehabilitation and resettlement, and to ensure
optimum utilization of these funds obtained in the form of theGovernment of India, World Bank and ADB, USAID, DFID, IFRC,
Donors, NGOs and from financial institutions, public and private
trusts or any other organisations,•

To manage the Gujarat
Reconstruction Fund,•To act as nodal agency and co-ordinate various issues relating to
the deserving victims, out of the funds, either directly or through acommon fund.

Earthquake

Rehabilitation

andIn Gujarat, for the successful implementation of its housing reconstruction
programme, GSDMA was awarded the UN Sasakawa Award. The citation of
the award says “the Sasakawa Jury wishes to recognize the inclusive andinnovative approach adopted by GSDMA in disaster situations, in which many
partners and their stakeholders, both inside and outside India, provided
knowledge and resources to formulate effective policies and legislation andprepare disaster management plans.”
In Orissa, a notable success of the international rehabilitation efforts was thecreation of the programme on Community-Based Disaster Management(CBDM), supported by UNDP and DFID of the Government of U.K. One of thehighlights of the programme was the preparation of Community Contingency
Plans. The project implemented over a period of 19 months in 10 blocks in thestate strengthened the capacity of the government functionaries as well as
communities to cope with natural hazards more effectively. These initiatives
helped the state government to develop a state disaster management planand policy. The UN agencies identified their strengths in the entire
rehabilitation and reconstruction efforts as:•

Policy changes made in the Orissa state agriculture with focus on early
warning system•

Community-based Development Plan of Orissa placed as a model forother states•

Creation of positive environment for attracting funds which resulted in
the UN system contributions of US$30million in response to Orissa
Super Cyclone 1999 and over US$ 23million in response to Gujarat
Earthquake 2001•

Partnership with the Secretary to government of India for reconstruction
management•

Strategic support provided for setting up of State Disaster Mitigation
Authority in Orissa

１３•Strategy of the ongoing programmes of the UN family to channelize
individual resources through the network of NGO partners with strong
field presence, trust and credibility among the local communities in theaffected areas, in addition to their co-operation.

As for laws governing reconstruction and rehabilitation the report on the
Pinatubo eruption mentions that the Philippine Congress and the Office of the
President promulgated a series of laws and regulations that governed thecountry’s reconstruction and rehabilitation.
The financial assistance for reconstruction and rehabilitation was largely
adequate in almost all the regions although its utilization was not efficient.
The report on El Salvador points out that despite the generous assistancefrom the international community, the reconstruction and rehabilitation
process has not been as effective as it would have been desired. In the areas
affected by Hurricane Mitch, the report points out that the window ofopportunity provided in the aftermath of the disaster to initiate systemicchange was lost. The regional socio-economic structures remain the same.
The endemic poverty of the region, which increased its vulnerability, was also
not tackled. In Venezuela, a large proportion of the generous financial
assistance was made available as well through the reallocation of loans
granted but not disbursed. The actual disbursement of these funds wasconsiderably delayed because it depended on the presentation of detailed
programs for their use. The unstable political and administrative situation of
the country acted as a hindrance to the effective operation of the international
rehabilitation efforts.
In all the case studies, few years after the disaster, progress was made in therestoration of infrastructure, however there was very little progress in theprocess of ushering in long-term changes. The report on Hurricane Mitch
states that, five years later, much of the damaged infrastructure of Central
America has been restored. Groundwork was laid for the development of early
warning systems and also for the relocation of habitation from vulnerable
areas.
The report on the El Salvador Earthquakes informs that although over
200,000 temporary shelters were erected shortly after the earthquakes, theconstruction of more permanent housing was not taken up in earnest. By early
2002, there had been little reconstruction in the health sector, and 7 mostdamaged hospitals were described by health officials as still in “a critical state,
and work on rebuilding smaller healthcare facilities had only begun.” Most
major highways had been repaired but local roads still needed work as of
September 2001. The economic situation greatly deteriorated in El Salvador.
Almost 51 percent of the population now lives below the poverty line,
proportion nearly 4 percent higher than in 1999 and considered to be due tothe quakes. In 2002, more than 200 Salvadorans were reported to be
emigrating every day due to poverty.
Six months after the flash floods and landslides in Venezuela the social andeconomic situation in the country according to the study was still very
precarious. There was, no long-term reconstruction program and for the

１４

international agencies it presented a complex situation leading to duplicationof efforts. The report goes on to state that the widely held perception within
the country was that the international assistance did make an impact during
the emergency response period. However, its efforts in the rehabilitation andreconstruction process proved to be ineffective. The implementation of several
externally funded reconstruction projects brought some new techniques andmethodologies to Venezuela although there has been no evaluation of thesignificance of the technology transfer.
In the Orissa super cyclone, government as well as media reports show thatthe rehabilitation efforts in Orissa have not met with the anticipated level ofsuccess. This can be judged from this report in the ‘Times of India’ three years
after the cyclone.
• Only 11 out of 100 proposed cyclone shelters had been built• A mere 392 out of 3,779 schools had been rebuilt• Government departments had not spent funds allocated to them forrelief and rehabilitation.
The Times of India again in a report dated 9 April 2002 cited the state’s
revenue minister that major departments like water resources, ruraldevelopment, and housing had not been able to utilize fully the funds
allocated to them for rehabilitation works. Works which are worth only
US$ 9.55 million of the US$ 51 million sanctioned by the World Bank had
been used by March 2002. Another report in the India Today of 27 May 2002
also gives examples of the poor state of the rehabilitation efforts. Two years
after the calamity, the state government had only been able to undertakereconstruction projects worth Rs 600 million under World Bank assistance.
The Bank had agreed to provide an assistance of Rs 23.5 billion in the firstphase.
The report on the Marmara Earthquake mentions that among the various
reconstruction projects undertaken, the building of roads and the restoration of
infrastructure have been largely successful. However, in the field of urban
regeneration a lot remains to be achieved as yet. Some bottlenecks that still
remain are:••

The practice of constructing gecekondus, i.e. poorly constructed illplanned housing, is widespread in Turkish society. It is often difficult toconvince householders to replace their homes with earthquake
resistant structures.
Various schemes linked to earthquake reconstruction such as thesystem for state compensation for damaged buildings under theDisaster Law, and the scheme for partial ownership of real-estate,
which give owners very powerful right proved difficult to implement.

Similarly the report on the Pinatubo eruption says that the application and useof good practices and experiences made available through technicalassistance extended by other governments and international organizations,facilitating the development and implementation of critical development

１５

programs and projects and the early recovery and rehabilitation of the affectedareas. In terms of the above criteria, it seems apparent that only one of theabove criteria, namely, that of legal system to assist recovery, was present.
The rehabilitation in Gujarat with the assistance of agencies like the World
Bank, ADB and UNDP especially in the construction sector was largely
successful. The ISDR report ‘Living with Risk’ says the reconstruction process
in Gujarat did not conform to previous or traditional approaches for organisinglarge-scale public works. There was collaboration between national andinternational interests as well as a conscious effort to ensure that local
communities would be involved in the process and that their needs would be
represented at every stage in the rehabilitation process. The document further
states that “the fact that all plans for housing and community facilities were
designed to meet construction standards for both earthquake and cyclone
resistance, and that they were approved by both the communities and theappropriate government technical departments, illustrates practical measuresthat contribute to the future reduction of risks”.
The Government of Gujarat reconstructed and repaired affected houses inrecord time of 2 years. Among the many innovative methods adopted in the
housing reconstruction efforts were:• Housing assistance packages announced in a record time with a choiceof relocation or in-situ reconstruction to be taken by the village
community.
• Owner driven housing construction was facilitated by financial, material
and technical assistance by government• Multi-hazard resistant reconstruction was made mandatory to resist
cyclones, earthquake and other natural disasters• Engineers were appointed in villages to supervise housing construction
and provide technical guidance• Payments were made in three instalments for new construction toensure multi-hazard resistant construction. The second and third
instalments were given only after verification and certification byengineers• An important move was to exempt the excise duty for building materials
produced in Kutch• Nirdeshika (guidelines) I and II were prepared to guide people forconstruction and repair• Four shaking table demonstrations were conducted for awarenessgeneration and confidence building

１６• Technical cassettes on construction and retrofitting houses were shownin 2,500 villages• A cassette on safe construction using the medium of folk art Bhavai wasprepared and screened in 2,500 villages• Audiocassette in the form of folk songs giving messages on multihazard resistant construction was played in community gatherings andmeetings.
• The need for safe housing construction and retrofitting was taken up as
an agenda in the gram sabha in all the 18,000 villages of Gujarat.
In terms of information sharing, there seems to have been some apparatus inplace in almost all countries under study. For example, the report on
Hurricane Mitch states that the office of the UN Resident Coordinatorfacilitated the information outflow, enhancing a coordinated response between
the UN System, the Government, and the international donor community. A
special “Mitch” website was established to keep the international community
regularly updated. In addition, a United Nations Disaster Assessment andCoordination team (UNDAC) was mobilized to assist the overall situation andneeds assessment and in the coordination of the international assistance, anda senior emergency adviser was recruited to facilitate the coordination
between all the main actors. In Venezuela, the UNDP established the
Cooperation Management System (SIGCO) that served as an information andcoordination centre for the international emergency assistance. Thus, there
was a system to assist coordination and information sharing among theinternational agencies.
However, there remained some lacunae in the coordination because thereport on Hurricane Mitch subsequently states, “millions of dollars have been
given in foreign assistance mainly to implement mostly technical and, in manycases, repetitive and uncoordinated projects. The result of foreign assistancefor disaster reduction has been many reports, maps, and publications that are
not being utilized and whose existence is, in many instances, completely
ignored.”Thus, it seems evident that despite the adequate financial backing and thegood intentions, the international rehabilitation efforts did not prove to be an
unqualified success. There were undoubtedly some successes and goodpractices that with some improvisations could also be replicated elsewhere.

１７5. Challenges and Shortcomings
As is evident from the above assessment, the international efforts atreconstruction in very few of the disasters under study, with the notable
exception of the work in Gujarat, were able to achieve a great degree ofsuccess. Some of the challenges that can be identified based on the above
studies, faced by international agencies working in the field of reconstruction
and rehabilitation are:•

The support of the local government and a favourable political climate:This is very clearly stated in the report on Venezuela, which states thatthe unstable political and administrative situation in the country acted
as an impediment to the international rehabilitation efforts in the
country. The unfavourable political situation constituted a sizeable
obstacle for the international donors. Substantial financial resources
available from national and international sources for reconstruction took
some time to reach their destination because of bureaucratic difficulties
resulting from the political upheavals affecting the country. The UNDP
report ‘Reducing Disaster Risk’ says that a review of livelihoods andgovernance conditions prior to the Orissa cyclone in 1999 pointed tocorruption at all levels, unnecessary bureaucracy, political rivalry andan apathetic civil society as pressures that contributed to vulnerability.
The report further points out that in the aftermath of the disaster,
problems with governance mean that aid budgets can be skewed
towards the recovery of one group or sector as opposed to another.

•

Legal and institutional frameworks to assist recovery: Few of theregions under study created stable long-term legal and institutional
structures to assist recovery. In the immediate aftermath of the disaster,
the respective governments responded by setting up organisations to
aid recovery but these largely proved to be short-lived and defunct.
Notable exceptions, however, were GSDMA and OSDMA. Gujarat
subsequently also enacted a comprehensive disaster management
legislation.
As the UNDP report ‘Reducing Disaster Risk’ points out that in all
internationally assisted capacity building programmes for disaster risk
management, a component of institutional strengthening is included.
These efforts do not always lead to any perceptible effectiveness indisaster risk management. Though national organisations are set up,
they are often unnecessarily centralised and at times unable toeffectively coordinate across other government sectors or with civilsociety.

•

Financial mechanisms to support the rehabilitation works: A study of
the above disasters underlines the need for an integrated financial
mechanism that would ensure effective allocation of funds as well as
their disbursement.

１８•Lack of any well formulated reconstruction plan incorporating mitigationand structural changes: The international efforts in few of the disasters
under study were able to bring about any substantial risk reduction in
the region. The communities’ socio-economic conditions remained
unchanged and so did their vulnerability to future disasters. No clear
reconstruction and recovery strategic programming could be organised
implementation of initiatives was inadequately coordinated, patchy andoften driven by the short-term imperative of quickly delivering physicalproducts•

Involvement of the local communities: The international agencies
largely remained isolated from the local communities often due tocultural barriers, however where efforts were made to involve thecommunities, they have met with unprecedented success. This wasevident in the success of the Community-based Disaster Management(CBDM) launched by the UNDP in Orissa. Most of the international aid
is often routed through the central government, which is often
geographically as well as socially isolated from the affected
communities. Therefore, there is the need to decentralise theinternational aid i.e. reroute it through the local communities.

•

Lack of coordination among the international agencies: While theemergency response activities were often well coordinated, in themedium term reconstruction projects there were often international
agencies working at cross-purposes. The report on Hurricane Mitch
points out that the substantial foreign assistance that came in theaftermath of the disaster was used largely to implement mostly
technical and, in many cases, repetitive and uncoordinated projects.
The result of foreign assistance for disaster reduction has been many
reports, maps, and publications that are not being utilized and whose
existence is, in many instances, completely ignored.

１９

6. Conclusion
International emergency aid has shown both a quantitative and qualitative
improvement over the past few years. Reconstruction and recovery processes
have also shown a corresponding upswing. One notable feature in recent
years has been the larger and more effective international assistance inrecovery and reconstruction compared to earlier years. Recovery andreconstruction are no longer left entirely to local governments. The recovery
and reconstruction in the western Indian state of Gujarat was able to achievea notable degree of success, its housing reconstruction programme received
international acclaim. The methods employed were non-traditional anddecentralised, targeting the local communities. In Orissa, the Communitybased Disaster Programme launched in assistance with UNDP was very
successful and replicated in other areas.
In the other case studies under review, greater progress, than in the past,
was made in the restoration of infrastructure with considerable international
assistance. In the aftermath of the Marmara Earthquake in Turkey,
reconstruction projects assisted largely by World Bank for the repair of roads
and restoration of infrastructure were successfully implemented. In theaftermath of the Hurricane Mitch, many infrastructural projects weresuccessfully implemented. Both in Orissa and Gujarat, long term institutional
mechanisms were created for disaster management.
The information sharing among the international agencies in these disasters
was also a great improvement from the past. In the aftermath of the Hurricane
Mitch, a special Mitch website was created by the UN agencies and in
Venezuela a Cooperation Management System was devised to assist in
information sharing.
However, recovery and reconstruction are also specifically the areas, which
require greater attention by the international agencies. Reconstruction andrecovery periods provide opportunities for understanding the root causes ofdisaster and reorienting development objectives towards sustainable
alternatives.
Effective reconstruction should not merely involve delivery of physicalproducts but also incorporate risk reduction concerns and promotesustainable development. The recovery process can be an opportunity forincorporating disaster risk reduction mechanisms into post-disasterdevelopment planning. Disturbances caused by disasters often provide
political space for alternative and more democratic forms of socialorganisation. It is in incorporating and universalising these practises that aninternational recovery platform can play a vital role.
To organise and manage recovery efforts in an alien environment is adaunting task. It requires a good understanding of the local socio-economic
and political structure of the affected country. The rehabilitation efforts have to
be undertaken in close cooperation with the local government and community.
Their support will go a long way in ensuring the success of the rehabilitation２０

efforts. Rehabilitation projects have to be conceptualised keeping in mind theneeds of the community and should be administered and executed diligently
in order to minimise cost over-runs and adhere to the time schedule. It isimperative that apart from the physical reconstruction visualised there is alsoa need for socio-economic reconstruction.
Some lessons that can be drawn from the above case studies and lead to an
improvement in the international recovery efforts are:•

It is imperative to enlist the support of the local authorities and liasewith them to ensure smooth implementation of plans. This would
require a good understanding of the political, socio-economic andcultural structures of the region. An international platform could
facilitate this with established mechanisms for collection andassimilation of global data. It is imperative to assimilate the vast
amount of data collected nationally for global comparisons toinclude key information needed for risk assessment (number oftrained paramedics, number and capacity of active community
disaster response groups) and vulnerability factors (armed conflict,governance, social capital, epidemiology). This would increase thequality of global recovery interventions. The ideal would be to createa unified global system of disaster data that connects nationally
maintained country databases to a global database that is
administered through such a platform.

•

The international agencies need to provide an impetus to thedevelopment of legal and organisational structures to implement
reconstruction. A system should be developed to assist the country
in recovery. Disaster mitigation should be an integral part of public
policy, urban planning and development processes. In the wake of
the Hurricane Mitch, a pilot project to incorporate disasterprevention within the development agenda at the local level was
initiated in Nicaragua in 2001. This UNDP project sought to include
disaster management in the planning for all productive sectors,social sectors and environmental management. Following risk
mapping procedures areas of high vulnerability received additional
support and incentives for environmental rehabilitation, thedesignation of safe areas for urban expansion and demarcation ofzones for protection from human intervention.
There is a need to extend these practices to other international
recovery efforts. They have, of course, to be tailored to the specificlocal needs. An advisory group of international experts with goodknowledge of the recovery process and the regional dynamics could
be constituted to provide the necessary guidance. An international
platform with a body of experts easily accessible for consultation
would be of great help. There is a need for an established andtested methodology for rapid assessment of needs, rapid
programming of action and rapid deployment of required technicalteams. The international platform could network and document skills,

２１

knowledge and best practices of recovery and reconstruction and,draw from their experience for the benefit of affected countries. It
can also provide training to personnel engaged in recovery andreconstruction.
•

With a multitude of agencies, there is often a lack of coordination
leading to them often working at cross-purposes. Thus, there is aneed for an international platform, which would coordinate theactivities of agencies engaged in the implementation andmanagement of recovery projects. The international agency could
also help in the development of international protocols, which would
aid the international agencies in their overseas work.

•

A financial mechanism to sustain the recovery efforts should beworked out. While the specifics would vary from one disaster to thenext, a broad framework to fund the reconstruction projects should
be worked out. This funding mechanism could be worked by majorinternational agencies in unison working under a broad platform. A
universally approved formula would provide uniformity and greater
efficiency to the international efforts.

•

A comprehensive reconstruction plan incorporating risk reduction
measures and promoting sustainable development should beformulated. The plan should be conceived in consonance with thecommunity’s needs and vulnerability. It is evident from the abovecase studies that for international efforts to be effective, they haveto move beyond physical reconstruction to a more sustainable longterm development.

•

The involvement of the local communities and the incorporation of
their needs would enhance the viability of the international projects.
Most international aid is largely routed through the central or state
governments. The governments are often not tuned to thegrassroots realities and as the report on the Latin American
disasters points out the outcome of the international intervention in
the region was a series of reports and publications that were of nouse to the local communities. There should be emphasis on
capacity building of the community and increasing its economic selfsufficiency. The technologies to be used should be compatible withthe communities’ capacity and transfer of technology to thecommunity should be the goal.

•

The endemic poverty in most of the regions under study increased
its vulnerability to disaster, thus for any disaster mitigation
measures to be effective would have to address socio-economic
problems. The ‘window of opportunity’ provided should be utilised tousher in long-term structural changes in the economy, polity andsociety. For the above measures to be formulated and implemented
requires a level of expertise and knowledge often beyond theresources of a single organisation. An international recovery

２２

platform with a body of experts and a comprehensive databasewould be of great assistance to international agencies undertaking
structural recovery programmes.
•

There is a need for an advisory group under the aegis of aninternational recovery platform to provide guidance to theinternational recovery efforts. This group would be comprised of ainternational and regional experts on the subject andrepresentatives from international organisations and NGOs.

•

There are at present no standards to evaluate the impact of theinternational efforts. Most contributions are generally evaluated inmonetary terms with no attempt to assess the impact on risk
reduction or sustainable development. It is therefore vital to have abody, which could set benchmarks based on comprehensive
reviews of the work done by the international agencies.

It is evident from the above that recovery and reconstruction are complex
processes requiring a level of expertise often beyond the capacity of individual
nations and organisations. This has become very evident in the recent
Tsunami which devastated countries across continents killing more than 300
thousand people and displacing people in regions as diverse as Indonesia,
Thailand, Sri Lanka, India and even Somalia in Africa. The UN agencies havecalled it the biggest relief operation to be undertaken in recent times and also
the costliest with many billions of dollars being spent. In such situations, theneed for an international recovery platform, which will help evolve appropriate
frameworks and mechanisms to coordinate international responses andefforts, becomes even more imperative.
Additionally this platform would provide training to personnel engaged inrecovery and also help in the development of a database of recovery andreconstruction experiences and best practices in non-disaster situations, aswell as a national socio-economic, cultural and disaster profile. This
information could be readily accessible in times of disasters and go a longway in streamlining the efforts of the international recovery platform. While it isundeniable for global sustainable development, there is a need for efficient
recovery and reconstruction mechanisms.

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