ISSN 2185-159X

erd

International Journal ofEnvironmental and Rural Development

Volume 4 Number 1

April 2013

International Society of Environmental and Rural Development

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

erd

International Journal ofEnvironmental and Rural Development
Official Journal of the International Society of Environmental and Rural Development

Aims and Scope:
The International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development, IJERD, is an interdisciplinary journal
concerning environmental and rural development research in the education for sustainable development, ESD.
The IJERD is devoted to publishing peer-reviewed research article, review article and technical report in thefields of environmental and rural development, such as education for sustainable rural development, ruraldevelopment, environmental management or agricultural systems. Every article or report in IJERD must be
accepted by at least 2 reviewers and an editorial member.
The aims of IJERD are to publish the latest research development and achievements, to strengthen
education systems, to promote cooperation in environmental and rural development and to contribute to theprogress in sustainable development. The editorial board of this journal covers a variety of scientificdisciplines.
Thematic Areas:
The following areas are envisioned in IJERD.
Education for Sustainable Rural Development:
Environmental Education, Food and Agricultural Education, Participatory Approach, Capacity Building,Community Empowerment, Agricultural Extension, etc.
Rural Development:
Marketing, Partnership, Value Added Product, Community Development, Access to Technology,
Cultural Preservation, etc.
Environmental Management:
Bio-Diversity, Soil Degradation and Land Conservation, Water Quality Conservation, Deforestation andSustainable Forest Management, Environmental Management, etc.
Agricultural Systems:
Organic Farming, Conservation Tillage, Mechanization, Irrigation and Drainage, Nutrient and Pest
Management, Cattle Breeding, Agro-Forestry, Indigenous Technology, etc.
Infrastructural Systems:
Water Resource Development, Land Reclamation, Road Construction, etc.
Editorial Board:
Editor in Chief:
Prof. Dr. Eiji Yamaji, The University of Tokyo, Japan
Managing Editors:
Prof. Dr. Machito Mihara, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Dr. Yoko Mochizuki, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, France
Dr. Muhammad Aqil, Indonesian Center for Food Crops Research, Indonesia
Dr. Lalita Siriwattananon, Association of Environmental and Rural Development, Thailand
Editorial Advisory Board:
Dr. Venkatachalam Anbumozhi, Asian Development Bank Institute, Japan
Dr. Robert J. Farquharson, The University of Melbourne, Australia
Prof. Dr. Keishiro Itagaki, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Dr. Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Prof. Dr. Arata Koga, University of Veterinary and Animal Science, Pakistan
Prof. Dr. Robert J. Martin, University of New England, Australia
Prof. Dr. Bunthan Ngo, Royal University of Agriculture, Cambodia
Dr. Hiromu Okazawa, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Prof. Dr. Salvador Catello, University of the Philippines, Philippines
Dr. Rajendra P. Shrestha, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand
Prof. Dr. Murari Suvedi, Michigan State University, USA
Prof. Dr. Mario T. Tabucanon, United Nations University, Institute of Advanced Studies, Japan
Dr. Vidhaya Trelo-Ges, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Editorial Secretariat:
Dr. Aya Ikawa, Mr. Julian Torillo Jr., Ms. Hidemi Sasabe, Ms. Jeeranuch Sakkhamduang and
Mr. Sergio Azael May Cuevas

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

Contents
The Influence of Earthworm and Rice Stubble on Soil Aggregate, Carbon Sequestration and Soil
Fertility in Sandy Loam Paddy Soil in Northeast Thailand
Ajcharawadee Kruapukdee, Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai andMongkon Ta-oun

1

One Way of Expressing Bio-diversity based on Simpson and Fisher Indexes
Aya Ikawa, Machito Mihara and Masaharu Komamura

7

Predictive Model for Biochemical Component of Phytoplankton in the River and Estuarine Systemsof the Mae Klong River, Thailand
Boontarika Thongdonphum, Shettapong Meksumpun,
Charumas Meksumpun, Banthita Sawasdee andPattira Kasemsiri

13

Reducing Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Phnom Tbeng Forests
Chan Somanta, Nophea Sasaki and Shuichi Kobayashi

19

Factors Affecting Rice Production in Northeastern Thailand: The Relationship between Soil Salinity
and Vegetative CoverCharuwan Phaithong and Adcharaporn Pagdee

25

Climate Change Vulnerability: Household Assessment Levels in the Kampong Speu Province,
Cambodida
Chhinh Nyda and Hoeurn Cheb

31

A Feasibility Study on Payment for Forest Environmental Services in Cambodia
Chhinh Nyda and Kong Sopheak

39

Women’s  Roles  in  Fisheries  Governance  in  Ban  Laem,  Phetchaburi  Province,  Thailand
Daracha Thiammueang, Kungwan Juntarashote andRatana Chuenpagdee

45

Acute Toxicity of Textile Metal Complex Dark Green Azo Acid Dye (53) and Anionic Surfactant Oilon Nile Tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus and Bioconcentration of Total Chromium and Copper in Gill
Tissues
Hilma Rantilla Amwele, Rakpong Petkam,
Frederick William Henry Beamish andKanit Chukanhom

51

Understanding Socio-Ecological Production Landscapes in the Context of Cambodia
Kaoru Ichikawa

57

Assessment of Local Livelihood of Forest-Dependent Communities in Cambodia
Koy Ra and Nophea Sasaki

63

Using Chicken Manure in Vermicompost to Manage Different Agro-Industrial Wastes
Nattakit Petmuenwai, Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai,
Thammared Chuasavathi and Mongkon Ta-oun

69

Guidance of a Transplanting Skid Steer Vehicle with Variable Center of Gravity
Noe Velazquez Lopez, Kiyoshi Tajima, Hideyuki Tanaka,
Do Tuan Thanh, Wataru Yukumoto, Masataka Jitsuno,
Masayoshi Kato, Eiichiro Sakaguchi, Junya Tatsuno andTadashi Ishii

75

The Change of Phosphorus Form in Vermicompost Using Cassava Pulp
Nuntawut Champar-Ngam, Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai,
Mongkon Ta-oun and Surasak Seripong

81i

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

Using Choice Experiment to Estimate the Value of Sustainable Rattan Resource Management in
Cambodia
Ou Ratanak and Mitsuhiro Terauchi

88

Effect of Organic Materials from Agro-Industrial Wastes (Molasses and Distillery Slop) on
Earthworms under Vermicomposting Using Cassava Waste
Ratchanee Wongkogsoong, Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai andMongkon Ta-oun

95

Enhancing the Use of Value-Added Products from Underutilized Fruit of the Endangered Mabolo(Diospyros blancoi) Tree
Regucivilla A. Pobar

100

Pilot Case Studies of Climate Risk-coping Strategies of Small-scale Farmers in Cambodia
Robert J. Martin and Van Touch

106

Improving Delivery of Technical Information to Farmers in North-Western Cambodia
Robert J.Martin, Stuart Brown and Rouja Johnstone112

Growth Performance of Planted Indigenous Trees 12 years from Establishment
Rumila C. Bullecer and Loreto Socorin

118

Agri-Supply Chain in Tourism Market: A Case Study of Koh Trong Ecotourism Community andMarket in Kratie Province
Saut Moeun and Masaaki Yamada

124

Off-Farm and Non-Farm Activities Development in Rural South-Eastern Bosnia
Sinisa Berjan, Hamid El Bilali, Borko Sorajić,
Noureddin Driouech, Aleksandra Despotović andJasmina Simić

130

Agricultural Extension and Advisory Services in Bosnia
Sinisa Berj an, Hamid El Bilali, Aleksandra Despotović,
Jasmina Simić, Mirko Kulina and Noureddin Driouech

136

The  Study  on  Flood’s  Impact  on  Rice  Production  in  Sandek Commune Bathay District Kampong Cham
Soeung Lyly

142

Dietary Exposure Assessment of Benzylpenicillin Residue in Pork Consumed by Age and GenderGroups in the Philippines
Venn Vutey, Loinda R. Baldias, Billy P. Divina and
Rio John T. Ducusin

147

The Difference of Agricultural Land Use in Watersheds and Long Term Fluctuation on the River Water
Quality
Yuri Yamazaki, Toshimi Muneoka, Sachiyo Wakou,
Motoko Shimura, Kunihiko Yoshino, Osamu Tsuji and
Toshio Tabuchi

152

E-Learning Solution on Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) for Students of Higher Learning in
Cambodia (Focus Vegetables)
Aruna Rajendram, Shanmuga Vivekanada Nadarajan,
Dahlan Abdul Ghani and Lor Lytour

158

Utilization of Inoculated Eri Cocoon for Water Pollutant Removal
Carlos Onan Mendoza Tovar, Kumiko Kawabe,
Hiromu Okazawa and Machito Mihara

164

Management of Municipal Sewage Sludge by Vermicomposting Technology: Converting a Waste intoa Bio fertilizer for Agriculture
Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai, Mongkon Ta-oun,
Thammared Chuasavatee and Praweena Boonyotha

169

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

The Role of Organic Farming in Providing Ecosystem Services
Insa Kühling and Dieter Trautz

175

Pre-Planting Treatments of Stem Cutting with Vermicompost Tea Affecting Rooting and Growth Yields
of Different Cassava Varieties
Jiraphon Choeichit, Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai andMongkon Ta-oun

179

Water Quality Preservation Effect of Riparian Forests in Watersheds with Dairy Farming Areas inEastern Hokkaido
Okazawa Hiromu, Yamamoto Tadao, Inoue Takashi andNagasawa Tetuaki

183

Integrating  Plant  Genetic  Resources  Conservation  and  Management  into  a  State  University’s  Mandates: An Initiative for Sustainable Development
Marina A. Labonite

190

Development of Organic Animal and Crop Production in Bosnia
Noureddin Driouech, Vesna Milić, Hamid El Bilali,
Aleksandra Despotović, Jasmina Simić, Sinisa Berjan and
Mirko Kulina

196

The Study on Conventional Farming Practice - A  Case  Study  of  Farmers’  Practice  in  Samroung  Village, Cambodia
Sokornthea Pin and Machito Mihara

202

Alternative Cropping Systems for North-West Cambodia
Stephanie C. Belfield, Robert J. Martin and J. Fiona Scott

209

Economics of Weed Management in Maize in Pailin Province Cambodia
Van Touch, Robert J. Martin and J. Fiona Scott

215

Impacts of an Agricultural Water Use Restructuring Project on the Water Quality of Oxbow Lake
Yamamoto Tadao and Okazaki Hiroki

220

Behavioural Factor of Boiling Drinking Water in Rural India
Sato Morio and Yamaji Eiji

226

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

Research article
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The Influence of Earthworm and Rice Stubble on Soil
Aggregate, Carbon Sequestration and Soil Fertility in
Sandy Loam Paddy Soil in Northeast Thailand
AJCHARAWADEE KRUAPUKDEE
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Email: ajchara_krua@hotmail.com, chuleemas1@gmail.com

CHULEEMAS BOONTHAI IWAI*
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Thailand

MONGKON TA-OUN
Land Resources and Environment Section, Faculty of Agriculture
Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Received 16 December 2012

Accepted 30 January 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of epigeic earthworm(Eudrillus eugeniae) and rice stubble on soil aggregate, SOC, soil fertility and greenhousegases (CO2) emission in sandy loam paddy soils in Northeast Thailand. Experimental
design was a completely randomized design. There were four treatments of incubation
using Thai soil (Roi-et series) Sandy loam were: (I) soil control (no additions), (II) soil +rice stubble, (III) soil + earthworms (these added after 8 days incubation) and (IV) soil +rice stubble +  earthworms  (these  added  after  8  days’  incubation),  and  then  incubated  for  20 days. During the experiment, soil respiration (CO2), the aggregate size, SOC and soil
fertility (N, P and K) were measured. The results suggest that the treatment with adding
earthworms and rice stubble had significantly changed on soil aggregate than those
without earthworm and added rice stubble only. Earthworm increased SOC and soil
fertility (N, P and K) in paddy soil (sandy loam) than other treatment. The effect ofearthworm on the decomposition of rice stubble in paddy sandy loam may influence theCO2 emission from paddy soil.
Keywords sandy loam paddy soil, rice stubble, earthworm, carbon sequestration, soil
fertility

INTRODUCTION
Earthworms, one of the most important macroinvertebrates in the terrestrial ecosystems of thetemperate zone, exert important influences on soil functions (Fonte et al., 2007). Their activities
play an important role in improving and changing the physical, biological, and chemical properties
of soil (Coq et al., 2007). Earthworms improve the soil and increase water retention (Bossuyt et al.,2005). Additionally, the biomass and activity of soil microbial diversity (Doube and Beown, 1998)
encourage earthworm activity, and allow fungi to perform better. Such activities are the main
factors influencing the transformation of organic matter and are important for the dynamics ofcarbon in the soil. Thus, the experimental results of Don et al. (2008) reported that earthworms
have a significant impact on the turnover of carbon in soil. They assist nutrient cycling in soil
(Edwards and Bohlen, 1996).
Most of soil in Northeast Thailand is classified as sandy textured soil, which has relatively
low fertility (Patama et al., 2004). The change of land use from forest to agriculture causes soil
deterioration. Returning organic materials into the soil is one of the most effective approaches torestoring soil fertility (Patama et al., 2004). In Thailand, the main crop is rice. This contributes to ahigh amount of stubble and straw, while the rest of rice plant materials are retained in the paddyⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

field. The rice residue produced is equal to 38.22 million tons/year (Rice Department, 2006). There
are several beneficial uses of rice residue, such as incorporating the residue into soil, which may
enhance soil fertility. Results of long-term research have shown that the carbon content of soil
treated with rice residue was low, while simultaneously, CO2 evolution increased (Samahadthai etal., 2010; Puttaso et al., 2011). There remains a critical need for research on the effects andinteractions (soil carbon dynamics and nutrient turnover) of earthworms with rice residue in agroecosystems (paddy fields).
OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this study were to investigate the activities of earthworms and added rice stubble
on soil properties; chemical, biological and physical; dynamics of organic carbon in soil and to
improve the properties of soil and increase carbon sequestration in soil.
METHODOLOGY
Soil samples were collected (0-15 cm depth) from paddy fields in Khon Kaen province, Northeast
Thailand. The soil textural class was sandy loam (62.40% sand, 36.60% silt, and 1% clay), organic
C 4.55 g kg-1, total N 0.28 g kg-1, available P 6.29 mg kg-1 and exchangeable K 38.51 mg kg-1.
After collection, the soil was air-dried and sieved to pass 2 mm. Residue, stones, and sand larger
than 2 mm. were discarded. Soil incubation consisted of 12 subsamples with four treatments, andthree replicates each. Treatments consisted of four categories: 1) non rice stubble with noearthworms 2) soil with added rice stubble 3) soil with added earthworms and 4) soil with added
rice stubble and earthworms. The earthworm species was Eudrilus eugeniae. The treatment added
rice stubble 1.15 g (2-3 cm) was mixed in 200 g soil and put in glass jars with lids. Moisture levels
in all treatments were appropriate (≈  70%)  and  incubated  at  30 oC. After seven days of incubation,eight adult earthworms were added in the designated earthworm treatments. Soil respirations were
measured at days: 0, 3, 7, 10, 14 and 18. At 20 days; earthworms were removed from the jars,
residues were discarded form soil, and the soil was air-dried. Soil was separated into two parts: onepart aggregately measured (sieving shaker), another part chemically measured. Organic carbon wasmeasured by the partial-oxidation method (Walkley and Black, 1934). Total nitrogen was measured
by micro Kjeldahl method (Jackson, 1975). Extractable phosphorous was determined by following
Olson’s  sodium  bicarbonate  extraction  method  (Olsen et al., 1954).
Exchangeable K was determined after extracting the sample using the ammonium acetate
extractable method, and analyzed using the Perkin Elmer model 3110 double beam atomic
absorption spectrophotometer (AAS) (Simard, 1993).
Analysis of variance pertaining to a complete random block design (CRD) and related
statistical analysis were performed employing Statistics 8.0 (Analytical Software, 2003). Mean
comparisons of different treatments were done by least significant difference (LSD) and standard
error of the difference (SED).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Soil aggregate formation
The results of short term experimentation show the influence of earthworm activity on soil
aggregate formation in micro and macro aggregates (Table 1). The results clearly show that theearthworm significantly helped form new macroaggregates (p<0.01) on earthworm treatments
compared with added earthworms and no earthworms, or added rice stubble only. On the other
hand, activity of earthworm treatments decreased in the microaggregate. This is compatible withthe hierarchical theory of aggregate formation (Samahadthai et al., 2010; Tisdall and Oades, 1982).
In this experiment, added rice stubble had no effect on soil aggregate formation. Added earthwormsⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

had positive effects on soil aggregation. Earthworms contributed to soil aggregation mainly
through cast production and burrowing activities. Earthworm gut transit involved contaminationand mixing of soil, fragmentation of plant litter, and the addition of large amounts of water soluble
mucus (Edwards and Bohlen, 1996).
Table 1 Chang of soil aggregate after 20 days of incubation
with rice stubble and earthworm
Microaggregate
Macroaggregate(<1 mm.)(≤  2-1 mm.)Control (soil)
89.86 a9.63 cSoil + Rice stubble
83.13 a16.55 cSoil + Earthworm
72.33 b26.84 bSoil + Rice stubble + Earthworm
57.31 c41.82 af – test
**
**
CV %
5.41
16.43
Mean (n=3) in the same column followed by the same lower case letters are notsignificantly different at |p| ≤0.01  (LSD).
Land use system

Carbon sequestration in soil
Carbon storage was increased in all soils compared to the initial, by about 2-27% in all treatments(Table 2). Concentrations of total C in soil between added rice stubble with earthworm and added
rice stubble only were significantly (p<0.01) difference in soil organic C (SOC) than added
earthworm only (Table 2). Newly added of rice stubble residues was improved SOC. This results
were consistent with Naklang et al. (1999) which studied the management of chemical fertilizer
and rice straw and leaves in rain fed paddy fields of Northeast Thailand (in both the dry and rainyseason). They  reported  that  in  the  first  year’s  newly  added  residue  (1994),  the  incorporation  of  rice  stubble produced a higher level of organic carbon in soil (3.40 mg/g) than treatments without theincorporation of rice straw (3.10 mg/g). Interaction between earthworm activity and rice stubble
increased SOC 27.22% higher than the control. Earthworm activities on macroaggregate dynamics
are also important for C stabilization processes (Elliott, 1986; Six et al., 1998, 2002; Fonte et al.,2007). Due to rapid occlusion of organic materials, microbial communities associated withmicroaggregates within macroaggregates formed during or shortly after passage through theearthworm gut are relatively inactive, and therefore change relatively little over time compared tomacro aggregate populations as a whole (Mummey et al., 2006). Earthworm gut mixing with soil
was previously inaccessible as physically protected organic matter from microbial attack (Edwards
and Bohlen, 1996).
Table 2 Quantities of carbon in soil after 20 days of incubation
with rice stubble and earthworm
Total C
Changes in quantities(g kg-1 )relative to the control (%)
0.380 bControl (soil)
0.450 a18.55
Soil + Rice stubble
0.389 b
2.56
Soil + Earthworm
0.483
a
27.22
Soil + Rice stubble + Earthworm
f – test
**
CV %
6.28
Mean (n=3) in the same column followed by the same lower case letters are notsignificantly  different  at  |p|  ≤0.01  (LSD).
Treatment

Soil respiration
In this study, CO2 evolution was the highest in added rice stubble with earthworm treatment (Fig.
1). This demonstrates that rice stubble with earthworms could lead to a metabolically activeⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

microbial biomass efficient in utilizing carbon resources. A greater proportion of substrate carbon
is lost in the form of CO2 through respiratory activity (Pang et al., 2012). Rice residues werecategorized as low quality organic material since they comprise a high content of carbon (367-423
g kg-1) and cellulose (353-507 g kg-1), and a low content of nitrogen (4.7–8.5 g kg-1) and lignin (1945 g kg-1). Incorporated into soils with optimum conditions, rice residues rapidly decomposed(Samahadthai et al., 2010; Puttaso et al., 2011) and led to an increase in CO2 evolution.

Fig. 1 Temporal pattern of CO2 evolution (g CO2 m2 day) as affectedby rice stubble and earthworm
Earthworm influence on N, P, K
In this experiment, the results have shown that the effect of earthworms and rice stubble increasesoil nutrients such as N, P and K. Ponnamperuma (1984) reported that rice straw added to soil
increases nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and beneficial nutrients. Furthermore, rice straw helps
increase the amount of organic matter and nitrogen in the soil (IRRI, 1976). Utilization of ricestraw is possible through the incorporation of rice straw residue. Through cultivation into soil, ricestraw proves to be an important source of plant nutrients and improves soil fertility (Azam, 1990).
Concentration of total N, though not significant, increased through earthworm treatments(Table 3). Earthworms increase nitrogen mineralization via the biological processes or physicalchanges they bring about in the environment (Costello and Lamberti, 2012). Earthworm feeding
increases the rate at which organic N is mineralized into inorganic forms as earthworms primarily
excrete NH4+ (Scheu, 1987; Whalen et al., 2000; Costello and Lamberti, 2012). Concentration ofavailable P and exchangeable K were higher in rice stubble with earthworm treatment. Lui et al.,(2005) reported that during 100-day incubation periods, earthworm inoculation combined withorganic materials (rice straw, peanut residue and rape residue) increased significantly the content ofsoil available phosphorus. Basker et al., (1992) reported upon the incubation experiment ofTokomaru soil (silt loam) inoculated with the common pasture earthworm species Aporrectodea
caliginosa for a period of 21 days. The resulting content of exchangeable K increased significantly
due to earthworm activity.
Table 3 Chemical compositions of soil after 20 days incubation
with rice stubble and earthworm
Total N
Available P
Exchangeable K(mg kg-1)(mg kg-1)(mg kg-1)
0.28
6.83
c
42.39 dControl (soil)
0.29
7.81
b
118.74b
Soil + Rice stubble
0.42
7.11
bc
69.55
c
Soil + Earthworm
Soil + Rice stubble + Earthworm
0.45
11.78 a143.19 af – test
ns
**
**
CV %
51.62
4.67
2.46
Mean (n=3) in the same column followed by the same lower case letters are notsignificantly different at |p| ≤0.01 (LSD).
TreatmentⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

CONCLUSION
This study suggests that the effect of earthworm and rice stubble increase soil fertility N, P and K
in paddy sandy loam. As, interaction between earthworm and rice stubble helped form newmacroaggregate; they are increased carbon storage compared to the initial, by about 2-27%. And
increase metabolically active microbial biomass and influence the CO2 emission from paddy soil.
Earthworms have an important in soil carbon sequestration. However, more studies need to be
conduct to investigate other factors may influence such as type of earthworm, soil and rice stubble
between agroclimatic zones.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was funding by Khon Kaen University Research fund, Integrate Water Resource
Management Research and Development Center in Northeast Thailand, GWRC and the office ofHigher Education Commission and Khon Kaen University under the   research   project   “AgroIndustrial Waste Management and Utilization”  and  thanks  to  Prof.  Dr. Machito MIHARA for kind
support. Thanks   to   “Problem   Soil   Research   Group”   and   research   project   “Using   Soil   Biota   for  Biological Monitoring and Ecological Zoning in the Salt-Affected Area in Northeast Thailand.
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Samahadthai, P., Vityakon, P. and Saenjan, P. 2010. Effects of different quality plant residues on soil carbon
accumulation and aggregate formation in a tropical sandy soil in Northeast Thailand as revealed by a
10-year field experiment. Land Degradation and Development, 21, 463-473.
Scheu, S. 1987. The influence of earthworms (Lumbricidae) on the nitrogen dynamics in the soil litter systemof a deciduous forest. Oecologia, 72, 197-201.
Simard, R.R. 1993. Ammonium acetate extractable elements, in: R. Martin, S. Carter (Eds.), Soil Sampling
and Methods of Analysis, Lewis Publisher, FL, USA, 39-43.
Six, J., Elliott, E.T., Paustian, K. and Doran, J.W. 1998. Aggregation and soil organic matter accumulation incultivated and native grassland soils. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 62, 1367-1377.
Six, J., Conant, R.T., Paul, E.A. and Paustian, K. 2002. Stabilization mechanisms of soil organic matter:
implications for C-saturation of soils. Plant and Soil 241, 155–176.
Tisdall, J.M., Oades, J.M. 1982. Organic matter and water-stable aggregates in soils. Journal of Soil Science,
33, 141-163.
Walkley, A. and Black, I.A. 1934. An examination of the degtjareff method for determining soil organic
matter and prepared modification of the chronic acid titration method. Soil Sci., 34, 29-38.
Whalen, J.K., Parmelee, R.W. and Subler, S. 2000. Quantification of nitrogen excretion rates for threelumbricid earthworms using 15N. Biology and Fertility of Soils, 32, 347-352.
Wu, H., Guo, Z., Peng, C. 2003. Land use induced changes of organic carbon storage in soils of China.
Global Change Biology, 9, 305-315.

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Research article
erd

One Way of Expressing Bio-diversity based on Simpson andFisher Indexes
AYA IKAWA*
Research Center, Institute of Environment Rehabilitation and Conservation, Tokyo, Japan
Email: kt.ay_ikawa@me.scn-net.ne.jp

MACHITO MIHARA
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan /Institute of Environment Rehabilitation and Conservation, Tokyo, Japan

MASAHARU KOMAMURA
Professer Emeritus at Tokyo Univercity of Agriculuture, Tokyo, Japan
Received 15 December 2012

Accepted 30 January 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract For making out soil lives in upland field and field properties clearly, microarthropods living in farmland soils were picked up, and population, genera, diversity indexof Simpson   (1/λ)   and   that   of   Fisher   (α+1)   were   employed   for   evaluating   soil   microarthropods under different management were investigated in this study. Also soil physicaland chemical properties were measured. Soil samples were gathered from the fields at
Hachioji, Tama and Machida in Tokyo, Japan. Planting and fertilized types were collected.
And for making out of relationships in diversity of soil micro-arthropods and soil moisture
conditions, soil micro-arthropods in some types of drip irrigation fields and tube irrigation
fields in green house were observed. The fields in this study were categorized into twogroups based on the history of dressing or land degradation. There was no certain
difference in population, number of genera and two types of diversity indices between
decollated and not-decollated   fields.   Fisher’s   diversity   index   seemed   to   be   larger   than  Simpson’s  in  soil  dressed  fields,  while  Simpson’s  diversity  index  seemed  to  be  larger  than  Fisher’s  in  non-dressed fields. The difference in types of diversity may be caused by yearsof cultivation in those fields. Also, based on the results of multiple regression analysis,
population,   number   of   genera   and   Simpson’s   diversity   index   were   related   with   macro  porosity. So, it was concluded that those two types of diversity indices are useful formaking clear difference of bio-diversities  in  upland  field’s  soils.
Keywords soil micro arthropods, bio-diversities, soil physical property

INTRODUCTION
Bio-diversities in farmlands are important for sustainable land use. Soil conditions in agricultural
fields are hard for lives. That limits richness of lives of soils. And low application of organic
fertilizers caused declining the richness of soil lives is said. But in Japan, ecosystems in uplandfields were less interested  than  that  in  paddy  fields.  So  there  are  few  surveys  on  upland  field’s  biodiversity and its effects on their soils in Japan. One cause is that farmers avoid their fields
disturbing many places for research, especially in farming season. It is need that solve that problem
will be solved for evaluating farming fields in biological diversity.
Micro-arthropods are kinds of group of soil lives, sort of insects and mites. And microarthropods are known to have large population and high species richness, especially in high content
of  organic  matters.  That  fits  ‘good’  soil.  Effects  of  their  density  or  species  richness  on  soil  chemical  properties were investigated in Europe (Cole et al., 2004). Enough population is need forevaluating bio-diversity, so there is some possibility of evaluating farmland with bio-diversity
disturbing minimum space.
Ⓒ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

OBJECTIVES
Surveys   on   upland  field’s  micro-arthropods in Japan were mainly in just biological. Cropping or
harvesting methods in their surveys were limited 2 or 3 types, and soil physical properties were notdiscussed. So making out some relationship between upland  field’s  micro-arthropods diversity andits soils, and suggesting method of the evaluating the farming fields with the biological diversity
are objectives in this study.
METHODOLOGY
Field survey
Soil   samples   were   gathered   from   the   farmers’   fields   at   Hachioji,   Tama   and   Machida   in   Tokyo,  Japan. The fields were located in west hill side of Tokyo, there are called Tama hills. There are
mixed residential area and farm fields. Some of farm fields were dressing or land degradation formaking residential area. So the fields in this study were categorized into two groups based on
dressing  or  land  degradation  affected  or  not.  We  use  “decollated  fields”  for  the  fields that dressingor land degradation affected in this study.
Soil sampling carried out Aug. 2003 to Nov. 2003 and Aug. 2005 to Nov. 2005. Autumn is theseason that micro-arthropods’   population  is  the   most.   All   of  the  fields   were  for   vegetables,   but   a  few sampling had the same plant. Fertilizing is independent in each field. And no herbicides nor
pesticides were used. 5 cm depth, total 400 ml surface soil was sampled for gathering soil microarthropods. Physical properties of soils and amounts of fertilizers were  collected.  Total  22  fields’  samples were measured.
Experimental survey
For making out of relationships in diversity of soil micro-arthropods and soil moisture conditions,soil micro-arthropods in some types of drip irrigation fields and tube irrigation fields in green
house were observed. Drip irrigation plots were typed with water mass (standard, less and little),
and interval were 2 or 3 days, irrigated 3-5 mm/day in standard plot. Less irrigation plot was 0.75
times, little irrigation plot was 0.5 times less than the standard plot. Tube irrigation field was there
were micro-pored tube on the ground base with minimum pressured and irrigated full of soil waterpore volume within the plant growth. Soil sampling carried out Jun. 2006 to Oct. 2006. 5 cm depth(same as field survey), 200ml soil was sampled from each plots in each 2 weeks within irrigating
for plants.
This green house is built in Setagaya, Tokyo, about 20 km far from field survey area. And soil
category of this field is same as decollated fields in field survey. The green house of this survey
was also used test at supplying gathered rain water falling on top of green house. So the tanked rainwater was used for irrigation in this survey.
Tokyo
Sampling Area
Tama River
Green House

Fig. 1 Study Site
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

Gathering soil micro-arthropods
Micro-Arthropods in this study are mainly in collembola and mites. They are called soil animals orsoil meso-fauna in Japan (Fig.2). Soil macro-fauna are larger than 2 mm, include earth worms andinsects. Soil micro-fauna are smaller than 0.2 mm, lives in soil water.
Tullgren’s  apparatuses  (Fig.  3)  were  used  for  gathering  soil  fauna.  Apparatus  was  made  from  2
mm opening sieve, stain-less funnel and 40 W heating light stand. Soil samples for investigating
micro-arthropods were put on stainless sieve set on funnel under the heating light for 48 hours.
Glass beaker with 70% alcohol was set for catching arthropods dropped through funnels. Thenmicro-arthropods  were  classified  into  genera,  and  then  each  species’  population  was  counted  with  a  microscope. Pictorial Keys to Soil Animals of Japan (Edited by Aoki, 1999) was used forclassifying.

40W electric
lump
15cm
15cm

1mm

10cm
10cm

ふるい
Sieve(φ2mm)

Beaker

Fig.2 Soil micro-arthropods                                                              Fig.3  Tullgren’s  apparatuses  Diversity indices
If   their   species’   richness   (one of the diversity index) was discussed, it is not compared in othersituation. Because of the environment of every field is different. It needs some standard that thebio-diversity can use evaluation of farming fields.
Two types of diversity indexes were employed for evaluating soil micro-arthropods under
different management were investigated in this study. Fisher et al. (1943) suggested that some of
number  of  species  and  number  of  individuals  in  random  sample  fitting  logarithmic  distribution.  α  is  fixed and calculated from Eq. (1) as uses total population (N) and total species (S). Simpson
suggested   λ   as   the   index   which   independent   of   sample   size   (Simpson,   1949).   λ   is   calculated   in  Eq.(2). Simpson also said, we obtain Eq. (3) when the individuals of population are under the
logarithmic  population.  This  is  the  point  that  the  Fisher’s  diversity  index  (α+1) is the expectation ofthe  Simpson’s  diversity  index  (1/λ)  at  the  identified  total  population  (N)  and  total  species  (S).  An  expectation  can   use   the   one   kind   of   standard.   So   1/λ   and   α+1   are   used   as   diversity   index   in   this  study.
S D (ln N D  1)

(1)

6Ni ( Ni  1)
N ( N  1)

(2)

O

(3)

1/ O D 1Ⓒ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Field survey
Population, number of genera and two types of diversity indices are shown in Table 1. Total
population and total genera in non-decollated fields were larger than those in decollated fields. It
would depend on the difference of land use around the sampling fields. There are many houses andasphalt pavement roads around the decollated fields, and woods and bamboo forest around nondecollated field. But there was no certain difference in population, number of genera and two typesof diversity indices between decollated and not-decollated fields. those are suggests that the severe
impact for soil micro-arthropods from farming activity (cultivating, tillage, weed control, etc.) .
But  in  relationships  between  two  types  of  diversity  indices  (Fig.  4),  Fisher’s  diversity  index  seemed   to   be   larger   than   Simpson’s   in   soil   decollated   fields,   while   Simpson’s   diversity   index  seemed  to  be  larger  than  Fisher’s  in  non-decollated fields. The difference in types of diversity may
be caused by years of cultivation in those fields.
Based on the results of multiple regression analysis (Table 2), population, number of generaand   Simpson’s   diversity   index   were   related   with   macro   porosity   (d ＞0.3mm, measured watersuction by 10 cm high capillary rise) and water content (dry base) at the sampling day. The macro
porosity was almost same space as air phase 6-12 hour after rain or irrigation. That air space insoils limits the micro-arthropods’  population.  
Experimental survey
Results of averages and medians of population, genera and two types of diversity indices in eachsampling in experimental survey are shown in Table 3. Tube irrigation plot had the least populationand number of genera. Those results can be express as same as in field survey, the air phase in tube
irrigation plot was lowest in experimental survey. But there was no certain difference in population,
number of genera and two types of diversity indices between each plot.
But in relationships between two types of diversity indices (Fig. 5), both standard irrigatedplot in drip irrigation and underground water irrigation plot were stable conditions of diversity
indices. Because standard irrigated plot was the most stable soil moisture conditions in drip
irrigated fields, there were same tendency that both standard irrigation plot and tube irrigation had
similar expanse of the distribution. And high correlation coefficient of tube irrigation plot wascaused by stabilized soil moisture in their field. This result suggests that soil moisture condition is
the most important factor for sampling times minimized.
Table 1 Population, number of genera and two types of diversity indices in field survey
No.

Pop.

Decollated fields
Gen.
1/λ

α+1

No.

Non-Decollated fields
Pop.
Gen.
1/λ

α+1

No.1
No.2
No.3
No.4
No.5
No.6
No.7
No.8
No.9
No.10
No.11
Ave.
Med.
Total

6
82
235
100
53
67
88
12
170
135
205
104.8
88.0
1153

5
18
24
12
15
16
18
6
19
14
11
14.4
15.0
46

15.1
8.1
7.7
4.6
8.0
7.7
7.8
5.8
6.5
4.9
3.5
7.2
7.7
10.6

No.12
No.13
No.14
No.15
No.16
No.17
No.18
No.19
No.20
No.21
No.22
Ave.
Med.
Total

52
360
53
369
281
211
43
65
10
77
135
150.5
77.0
1656

10.8
4.2
8.8
5.8
9.1
4.1
6.5
7.1
3.5
12.1
4.5
7.0
6.5
11.5

15.0
10.6
8.5
5.5
11.9
5.0
7.3
6.6
6.7
5.2
2.4
7.7
6.7
11.4

Ⓒ ISERD

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18
15
16
21
29
13
12
15
4
23
13
16.3
15.0
53

11.5
1.3
8.2
4.1
3.8
3.2
8.9
5.2
2.1
11.7
3.3
5.8
4.1
5.9

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

20

r = 0.84**

α+1

15
10
5
0
0

5

10

15

20

1/λ
Decollated

Non-Decollated

Fig. 4 Relationship between two types of diversity indexes
in decollated and non-decollated fields
Table 2 Results of multiple regression analysis between bio-indexes andsoil physical properties in field survey
Criterion
variable

Predictor
variable

Population*(log)

Macro porosity*
Water content*
Water content**
Macro porosity
Macro porosity-

Genera*1/λ
α+1Partialregression
coefficient
0.588
0.561
0.685
0.332
-0.431-

F factor
8.481
7.719
11.334
2.669
3.870
-

Partialcorrelation
coefficient
0.589
0.570
0.644
0.378
-0.431-

Correlation
coefficientMultiplecorrelation
coefficient

0.391
0.354
0.568
0.091
-0.431-* p<0.05, **p<0.01

Table 3 Results of averages and medians of population, genera and two types ofdiversity indexes in each sampling in experimental survey

Population
Genera1/λ

α+1Average
S.D.
MedianAverage
S.D.
MedianAverage
S.D.
MedianAverage
S.D.
MedianDrip irrigation field
Standard
LittleLess(×1.0)(×0.75)(×0.5)
41.9
41.2
35.1
28.7
28.2
27.3
44
34
26
7.3
8.6
9.1
3.2
3.3
3.3
8
9
9
4.1
5.4
6.5
1.4
3.1
2.9
4
4.6
7.2
4
5.1
5.8
1.0
2.4
1.7
4.2
4.3
5.9

Ⓒ ISERD

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Tube
irrigation
field
26.3
18.7
19
7.3
4.2
6
4.4
1.4
4.35
4.8
1.7
4.95

0.597
0.589
0.371
-

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

12

8

?+1

4

0
0
standard
standard
y = 0.941x
R = 0.0902

4

1/λ

less
less
y = 0.8295x
R = 0.0357

8
littlelittley = 0.816x
R = -0.155

12
tube
tube
y = 1.104x
R = 0.8607

Fig. 5 Relationship between two types of diversity indexes in irrigated plot
CONCLUSION
Using  Fisher’s  diversity  index  as  the  expectation  of  Simpson’s  diversity index, it makes clearly thatthe difference in types of diversity may be caused by years of cultivation in those fields. Field
survey shows that the soil macro porosity (sometimes same as gas phase) is important for soil
micro-arthropods. And through the field survey and the experimental survey, soil moisture
condition is most important factor for soil sampling minimum.
So we concluded that those two types of diversity indexes are useful for making clear
difference of bio-diversities in upland fields soils.
REFERENCES
Cole, L., Dromph, K.M., Boaglio, V. and Bardgett, R.D. 2004. Effect of density and species richness of soil
mesofauna on nutrient mineralisation and plant growth. Biological Fertility of Soils, 39, 337-343.
Aoki, J. (ed.). 1999. Pictorial keys to soil animals of Japan. Tokai University Press, Japan. (Japanese)
Fisher, R.A., Corbet, A.S. and Williams, C.B. 1943. The relation between the number of species and thenumber of individuals in a random sample of an animal population. Journal of Animal Ecology, 12, 4258.
Simpson, E.H. 1949. Measurement of diversity. Nature, 163, 688.
Kaneko, A., Mihara, M. and Komamura, M. 2007. Diversity of soil meso-fauna in volcanic ash soil dressing
field. Trans of JSIDRE, 248, 1-6. (in Japanese)
Kaneko, A., Mihara, M. and Komamura, M. 2006. Relationship between diversity of soil meso-fauna and soil
physical properties in upland fields. Papers on environmental information science, 20, 43-48. (inJapanese)
Ikawa, A., Mihara M. and Komamura, M. 2010. Relationship between diversity of soil meso-fauna and soil
moisture condition in green house. Journal of Agriculture Science, 55(1), 56-62. (in Japanese)Ⓒ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

Research article
erd

Predictive Model for Biochemical Component of
Phytoplankton in the River and Estuarine Systems of
the Mae Klong River, Thailand
BOONTARIKA THONGDONPHUM*
Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi,
Pathum Thani, Thailand
Email: Boontarika_T@exchange.rmutt.ac.th

SHETTAPONG MEKSUMPUN
Faculty of Fishery, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand

CHARUMAS MEKSUMPUN
Faculty of Fishery, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand

BANTHITA SAWASDEE
Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Rajabhat Mahasarakham University, Mahasarakham,
Thailand

PATTIRA KASEMSIRI
Faculty of Technology, Mahasarakham University, Mahasarakham, Thailand
Received 16 December 2012

Accepted 30 January 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract As one of the four major rivers of Thailand, the Mae Klong River flows in thewest of the Kingdom and exits into the Gulf of Thailand. This research study was
conducted during February 2006 through May 2008 and found the increased levels of NH4+,NO2-+NO3-, and PO43- in the lower river and estuary areas of the Mae Klong River, which
led to the phytoplankton blooming phenomenon in such areas. Three phyta and 63 generaof phytoplanktons were discovered in the river. The dominant groups were diatoms(Plurosigma or Gyrosigma), cyanobacteria (Trichodesmium), and dinoflagellates(Peridinium and Gonyaulax). In this study, generalized linear modeling (GLM) wasapplied to examine the factors influencing phytoplankton abundance in the river systems.
The results showed that phytoplankton abundance varied according to the dissolved
inorganic nutrient (DIN), zone, and season. Thus, the predictive model should beestablished to facilitate determination of phytoplankton abundance, assessment of water
quality, and thereby more efficient management of water resources for sustainable use.
Keywords dissolved inorganic nitrogen, phytoplankton, GLM analysis, Mae Klong River

INTRODUCTION
The Mae Klong River is the most important river in the west of Thailand, with an approximate
length of 140 km and a catchment covering 22,075 km2. The river runs from Kanchanaburiprovince and flows toward the lower plain through Ratchaburi province before discharging into theGulf of Thailand in Samut Songkhram province (Thongdonphum et al., 2010). It has long been
known that changes of river flow could impact biochemical composition, including nutrient
loading, in the river and thereby phytoplankton abundance. Nutrient loading restriction is thecornerstone of aquatic eutrophication control (Smith et al., 1999) and is readily available
monitoring data of red tide/harmful algal bloom (Zhou et al., 2008). Regional Environmental
Office 8 (REO8, 2004) reported that utilization of land along the Mae Klong River for agriculture
was estimated at 83%, 58%, and 32% in Samut Songkhram, Ratchaburi, and KanchanaburiⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

provinces, respectively. According to REO8 (2007), the deterioration of water quality induced
mainly by sewage, domestic discharges, and agriculture use has contributed to phytoplankton
blooming phenomena in the estuarine and coastal zones.
OBJECTIVE
This study aims to assess the impacts of aquatic environmental factors on the variation orabundance of phytoplankton. The findings could subsequently be used to establish a biochemical
predictive model that enables better management of water resources and thereby sustainableutilization of the river and estuarine systems as well as the ecosystem.
METHODOLOGY
Sampling sites and survey plan
The surveys were conducted at 27 sampling stations (stn.) along the Mae Klong River, the stationsof which were grouped into 3 zones: the estuarine zone in Samut Songkhram province (stn.1-stn.8),
the middle zone in Ratchaburi province (stn.9-stn.18), and the upper zone in Kanchanaburiprovince (stn.19-stn.27), spanning from February 2006 to May 2008 (Fig. 1). According to therainfall patterns, Thailand is under the influence of monsoon winds (TMD, 2012). The seasons canthus be divided into rainy season (May- September), winter season (October-February), and dry
season (March-April). In addition, large amounts of water typically flow into the lower river basin
between September and February. Water samples from the 27 stations were collected during thethree seasonal periods for the 2-year interval such that all possible loading periods were taken into
consideration, hence giving rise to a total 6 sampling times: May 2006 and May 2008 (earlyloading period), November 2006 and September 2007 (mid-loading period), and February 2006 andDecember 2007 (late-loading period).
Sample collection and analysis
The general water quality factors, namely temperature, dissolved oxygen (DO), salinity and pH,
were measured with a multi-parameter probe (YSI-6600 Sonde instrument) at the sampling sites.
Samples of surface water (30 cm deep) were pre-filtered through GF/F (Whatman) and then stored
at 4oC before transporting to the laboratory for analysis of nutrients, including ammonium (NH4+),
nitrite and nitrate (NO2-+NO3-), silicate (Si(OH)4), and ortho-phosphate (PO43-), with a SKALAR
segmented flow analyzer. The samples for chlorophyll a (Chl a) and total suspended solids (TSS)
measurement were analyzed by the spectrophotometric method and the freeze-dried technique,respectively. Phytoplankton samples were collected and preserved in formaldehyde buffered
solution before being classified and enumerated with a Sedgewick-Rafter counting chamber undera light microscope.
Data analysis
Comparisons of water quality in terms of temperature, salinity, DO, pH, Chl a, and TSS among thesampling periods and zones were performed using average levels and distribution characteristics.
Least Significant Differences (LSD) or Tamhane's T2 of Post Hoc test of the one-way analysis ofvariance (ANOVA) was used for the environmental variation comparison, and the level ofconfidence greater than 95% (p < 0.05) was considered to indicate a statistically significant impact.
The Mann-Whitney test was used where a normal distribution was not observed. Based on the workof Zuur et al. (2007), GLM analysis was applied to the proposed predictive model for
phytoplankton assessment, with attention given to the goodness of fit of the model.

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

1560000

1550000

1540000

1560000

26
2725
24

23 22

Mae Klong
Diversion Dam

Kanchanaburi Province(Upper zone)

21

1540000

20
19

18
17

1530000

1520000

1510000

1530000

1520000

16
15

Ratchaburi Province(Middle zone)

1510000

14
13
12
11

1500000

1550000

1500000

10

91490000

Samut Songkhram Province(Estuarine zone)

871480000

1490000

65
4
321480000

1 Thailand
Gulf of
1470000

1470000
560000570000580000590000600000610000620000Fig. 1 Sampling stations (Stn. 1–27) from the estuarine to the upper zone of the Mae Klong
River
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Environmental factors
The results indicated that the Mae Klong River was influenced by freshwater runoffs, which in turncontributed to varying water quality by loading periods. Water temperatures slightly decreased withseasons (p < 0.05), and low level of salinity was detected during the early-loading period for whichlarge quantity of water flows into the river. The pH level was found to be relatively constant for theentire study area, while DO varied and markedly decreased to unsuitable levels (<4 mg/l) in theestuarine zone during the early-loading period. The levels of TSS were between 2.40 and 187.50
mg/L with higher TSS levels found in the lower and estuarine zones. The Chl a concentration
ranged between 1.34 - 14.69 Pg/l with high concentration levels mostly found in the estuarine zone.
Chl a of approximately 10 Pg/l has been regarded as the initial level for eutrophication in theestuarine zone. In addition, this study has found that the level of Chl a in the upper zone was 4.24
Pg/L, which far exceeded the natural base-line level of Chl a of approximately 3.3 Pg/L
(Thongdonphum et al., 2011).
The levels of NH4+ and NO2-+NO3- varied significantly (p < 0.05) with seasons. The
concentrations of NH4+ and NO2-+NO3- varied from 0.63 to 74.47 PM and 0.40 to 24.75 PM,
respectively. Higher concentration levels were found in the lower and estuarine zones with land
utilization for agriculture, of which rice fields and aquaculture areas accounted for 108.2 and 29.1
square kilometer, respectively (NSO, 2010). The highest population density was reported at 496
people per square kilometer in Samut Songkhram province (REO8, 2008). Si(OH) 4 concentrations
ranged from 30.13 to 148.35 PM with the concentration level apparently decreasing around theestuarine stations near the river mouth. The results show that the nutrients induced by rainfalls
during the early-loading period in the three zones under the study were significantly different (p <Ⓒ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

0.05). PO43- levels ranged from undetectable to 8.07 PM with noticeably high levels in the estuarine
zone where population density and land use were high. Of concern is that PO43- concentration in the
Mae Klong estuary was much higher than the recommended level of 0.48 PM for the ASEAN
marine water quality (Chongprasith et al., 1999).
Table 1 The quality of water (mean±SD) along the Mae Klong River during the study periodParametersTemp(oC)
Salinity(psu)
DO(mg/L)pH
Chl a(Pg/L)TSS(mg/L)NH4+(PM)
NO2+NO3(PM)Si(OH)4(PM)
PO43(PM)

Early-loading period
Upper
MiddleEstuarine
29.3±0.730.3±0.330.5±0.5Upper
28.4±0.7

Mid-loading period
MiddleEstuarine
29.4±0.729.5±1.2

Late-loading period
Upper
MiddleEstuarine
27.1±1.1
27.8±1.3
27.6±0.9

0.1±0.0

0.1±0.0

2.5±4.7

0.1±0.0

0.1±0.0

9.1±10.5

0.1±0.0

0.1±0.0

10.5±9.6

6.0±1.6

6.2±1.4

4.8±0.87.7±1.3

6.5±1.0

5.7±1.8

6.8±2.0

7.4±1.3

6.2±1.0

7.7±0.7

8.6±0.2

8.0±0.78.5±1.0

8.7±0.2

8.2±0.6

8.5±0.6

7.8±0.5

8.1±0.4

3.7±1.5

3.8±1.1

4.5±2.0

4.8±1.9

3.1±1.2

5.4±3.0

4.1±1.5

3.4±0.9

6.8±3.917.5±7.925.6±17.932.8±23.0

21.1±15.8

20.9±10.0

30.7±19.1

11.7±5.1

16.5±6.0

27.2±43.9

3.4±2.0

9.6±4.3

12.8±5.3

2.9±2.1

7.8±3.3

19.4±9.4

2.1±1.1

11.4±9.2

22.4±17.9

4.9±2.28

8.7±4.4

13.4±4.9

6.4±2.89.0±2.0

10.8±6.3

6.0±1.4

9.2±2.8

11.0±5.2

98.9±49.2

99.6±48.7

95.8±44.873.6±5.7

73.66±5.8

69.1±8.1

64.6±7.3

66.5±4.854.5±13.6

0.2±0.1

0.7±0.4

2.2±0.8

0.2±0.1

0.8±0.4

4.4±2.4

0.2±0.1

0.5±0.3

1.8±1.1

Phytoplankton distribution
The phytoplankton community during the study period consisted of 63 genera, namely 7
Cyanophyceae, 19 Chlorophyceae, 26 Bacillariophyceae (diatoms), 10 Dinophyceae(dinoflagellates), and 1 Chrysophyceae. The amount of phytoplankton varied from 125 to 1.86x10 5
unit cells/L with the highest density found around the stations in the estuarine zone. The results
showed that diatoms were the most dominant group with highest phytoplankton abundance (1.86 x
105 cells/L). Other species, such as Trichodesmium sp., Gymnodinium sp., Noctiluca sp., Ceratiumsp., Gonyaulax sp., Peridinium sp. and Protoperidinium sp., were also found in the estuarine zone
and markedly increased in the late-loading period.
Predictive model for phytoplankton
The results of GLM analysis in Table 2 show that M2 is the optimal model (Adj.R 2 = 0.400). The
model indicates that phytoplankton abundance depends on the dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN;
NH4++NO2-+NO3-), zone, and loading period (Load). Moreover, an interaction effect exists between
Load and DIN.
Table 2 Predictive model of phytoplankton density for the Mae Klong RiverModel
M1: Total_Phyto1 = Zone1 + Zone2 + DIN
M2: Total_Phyto2 = Zone1 + Zone2 + DIN + Load +Load*DIN
M3: Total_Phyto3 = Zone1 +Zone2 +DIN + Load +Load*Zone

Adj.R2
0.254
0.400

MSE
239183423
192354102

Goodness of Fit
p = 0.913
p = 0.963

0.283

229810498

p = 0.925

A numerical example of phytoplankton abundance estimation in the estuarine zone isshown below:Ⓒ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

Total_Phyto2 = Intercept + zone + DIN + Load + Load*DIN= 4,843.427 - 5,475.341(Zone1) - 7,211.332(Zone2) + 226.213(DIN) 16,936.047(Load1) + 194.040(Load2) + 1,060.511(Load1)(DIN) 115.320(Load2)(DIN)= 4,843.427 - 5,475.341(1) - 7,211.332(0) + 226.213DIN - 16,936.047(1)+ 194.040(0) + 1,060.511(1)(DIN) - 115.320(0)(DIN)(1)
From Eq. (1) and as shown in Table 3, the estimated values of phytoplankton or
phytoplankton density is dependent upon the levels of DIN.
Table 3 Predicted phytoplankton density in the estuarine zone during the study periods
Study period

Predicted
phytoplankton density

Early-loading period (DIN* = 23.30)
Mid-loading period (DIN* = 27.06)
Late-loading period (DIN* = 26.77)

4,739
2,663
16,977

Phytoplankton density(unit cells/l)Median
Min
Max
1,600
325
63,750
2,150
550
7,900
3,350
200
186,400* median values

CONCLUSION
This study has revealed the ability of the proposed predictive model to identify dissolved inorganic
nitrogen (DIN) as the crucial influencing factor of phytoplankton growth. DIN has greatly
influenced the phytoplankton density of the Mae Klong River and the estuary. The predictivemodel could be employed to monitor and manage eutrophication sites. In addition, the levels ofchlorophyll a well in excess of the natural base-line level (3.3 Pg/L) point to the fact that thenutrient loading is impacted by the anthropogenic and natural activities in the area. The study
results could be applied to estimate the level of phytoplankton density for more efficientmanagement of water resources and thereby sustainable utilization.
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to express deep gratitude to Dr. Urairat Netharn, to Dr. Sansanee
Wangvoralak, and to all the staff members of the Marine Environmental Laboratory (Departmentof Marine Sciences) and the Sediment and Aquatic Environment Research Laboratory (Departmentof Fishery Biology), Faculty of Fisheries, Kasetsart University, for their invaluable advice andassistance.
REFERENCES
Chongprasith, P., Wiliratanadilok, W., and Utoomprurkporm, W. 1999. ASEAN marine water quality criteria
for phosphate. ASEAN-Canada CPMS-II Cooperative Programme on Marine Science, Department of
Pollution Control, Thailand.
Chulalongkorn University. 1996. Environmental conservation plan for the Don Hoi Lord in the mud beacharea, Changwat Samut Songkram. The Office of Environmental Policy and Planning, Ministryof Science, Technology and Environment.
NSO. 2010. Statistical data. National Statistical Office, Thailand. Available from: (http://service.nso.go.
th/nso/nso.center/project/search_center/province-th.htm., Accessed on January 11, 2013)
REO8. 2004. Environmental status in the western report. Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment,
Thailand.
REO8. 2007. Environmental status in the western report. Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment,
Thailand.
REO8. 2008. Environmental status in the western report. Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment,
Thailand.
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

Smith, V.H., Tilman, G.D. and Nekola, J.C. 1999. Eutrophication: Impacts of excess nutrient inputs on
freshwater, marine, and terrestrial ecosystems. Environmental Pollution, 100, 179-196.
Thongdonphum, B., Meksumpun, S. and Meksumpun C. 2011. Nutrient loads and their impacts onchlorophyll a in the Mae Klong River and estuarine ecosystem: An Approach for Nutrient Criteria
Development. Water Science and Technology, 64(1), 178-188.
TMD. 2012. Climate of Thailand. Thai Meteorological Department, Thailand. (http://www.tmd.go.th/
en/archive/thailand_climate.php., Accessed on October 22, 2012).
Zhou, M.J., Shen, Z.L. and Yu, R.C. 2008. Responses of a coastal phytoplankton community to increased
nutrient input from the Changjiang (Yangtze) River. Continental Shelf Research, 28, 1483-1489.
Zuur, F.A., Ieno, E.N. and Smith, G.M. 2007. Analysing ecological data. Springer Science + Business Media,
LLC, USA.

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Research article
erd

Reducing Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Phnom
Tbeng Forests
CHAN SOMANTA*The University of Hyogo, Kobe, Japan
Email: chan.somanta@gmail.com

NOPHEA SASAKIThe University of Hyogo, Kobe, JapanSHUICHI KOBAYASHIJapan Forest Technology Association, Japan
Received 17 December 2012

Accepted 30 January 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Carbon emissions are the source of global climate change. Tropical deforestation
was responsible for up to 25% of the global carbon emissions. Foreseeing the danger oflosing tropical forests and impacts on local people and global climate change, world
leaders have adopted the Copenhagen and Cancun Accords to fully recognize the REDD+(Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation, Conservation of Carbon
Stocks, Sustainable Management of Forests and the Enhancement of Forest Carbon
Stocks) scheme of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. The
REDD+ scheme provides financial incentives for any verified activities that result in
reducing carbon emissions or increasing carbon stocks. Compensation can be madepossible only when the amount of reduced emissions or increased carbon stocks isestimated. This study focuses on estimating the reduced emissions from deforestation andforest degradation and discusses the benefit sharing for local people. Phnom Tbeng forest
in the Preah Vihear province was selected as a study site. There are four types of forests,
namely evergreen forest, semi-evergreen forest, deciduous and others forests covering
41,530 ha. Our results suggest that a carbon project in this site is likely to result in reduced
carbon emissions of about 3.7 million tCO2 over 30-year project. Depending on carbon
price, carbon revenues would be US$ 19 million or US$ 0.6 million annually for a 30-year
REDD+ project cycle. In addition to carbon revenues, there are other ecosystem benefits
that well-protected forests will provide to local people. Designing appropriate policies andmeasures to reduce the drivers of deforestation and forest degradation along with law
enforcement mechanism is essential for success of the forestry carbon project.
Keywords REDD+, carbon emissions, climate change, carbon stocks, tropicaldeforestation

INTRODUCTION
Since the adoption of the Bali Action Plan in 2007 at the 13th Conference of Parties (COP13) of theUnited Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), renewed interests have
rapidly increased in achieving carbon and sustainable development benefits by implementing
activities that result in reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, conservationof carbon stocks, sustainable management of forests, and enhancement of forest carbon stocks(REDD+). The REDD+ scheme had become the common terms referring to a scheme that provides
financial compensation to developing countries for reducing carbon emissions. Accounting for up
to 25% of the global emissions (Houghton, 2003), carbon emissions from deforestation and forest
degradation in developing countries contribute significantly to global warming. Such emissions
could be reduced at a relatively low cost compared to the reduction costs in energy sector (Stern
2006; Kinderman et al., 2007). Obviously, huge carbon emission reductions could be achieved withⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

the appropriate compensation mechanisms. However, financial compensation could only bepossible if the amount of reduced emissions and/or removals through enrichment planting isquantifiable. Until recently, there is no agreed global carbon accounting system that is applicablefor estimating carbon stock changes and related emissions or removals (Angelsen, 2008).
Particularly, no study of carbon accounting system for forest management at local level was
conducted in Cambodia, except a handful of few general studies on carbon emissions in the whole
Cambodia (Sasaki, 2006) and the opportunity costs for tropical forest management in Cambodia(Sasaki and Yoshimoto, 2010). As REDD+ projects are commonly implemented at the local level(project level), there is an urgent need to develop carbon accounting system, based upon whichcarbon emission reductions and related financial compensation could be estimated.
OBJECTIVE
The objectives of this study are to provide assessments of carbon emissions and emission
reductions from protecting forests under the REDD+ scheme at Phnom Tbeng forests in Cambodia
and to discusses the benefit sharing for local people
METHODOLOGY
Study Site and Forest Resources: In 2011, the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry of Japan
initiated grants for feasibility study (FS) on potential new mechanisms including REDD+ scheme
in developing countries. This study is continuous part of this FS on developing REDD+ project inPhnom Tbeng forests in the Preah Vihear Province, Cambodia. The study site administratively
includes four districts and one municipality of Preah Vihear province. Field surveys revealed that
there were more than 30 villages in 11 communes around this site (Fig. 1). Approximately 75% of
rural population depends on forest and non-timber forest products such as for energy use and foodparticularly during drought or war time (FA, 2010).

Fig. 1 Location map of the Phnom Tbeng study site
Local communities living in and around Phnom Tbeng forests depend on forests for daily
subsistence, energy, and rice cultivation. Due to increasing population and fast economic growth,these forests are increasingly threatened by the clearing of forests for land speculation, the clearingof forests for industrial crop cultivation, land encroachment, and illegal logging. During thefieldwork in 2011 and with collaboration   with   FA’s   local   authority   of Cambodia, Japan Forest
Technology Association (JAFTA) classified forests in this study site to four types, namelyⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

evergreen,  mixed,  deciduous,  and  other  forests.  According  to  JAFTA’s  forest  land  cover  analysis,  total forest area was 41,530 ha in 2004 and decreased to 41,038 ha in 2009 with an overall annual
decrease  rate  of  0.24%  (JAFTA’s  unpublished  data).  More  specifically,  evergreen  forest  decreased  2.71%, semi-evergreen forest 2.09%, other forests 1.53% while deciduous forest increased 5.58%
annually between 2004 and 2009 (Table 1).
Table 1 Forest cover changes by type in Phnom Tbeng forest
Forest typeArea (ha)Evergreen
14,784Semi-evergreen
12,075
Deciduous
10,954
Other forest
3,717
Total forest
41,530None forest
1,511
Total Area
43,041
Source:  JAFTA’s  unpublished  data

2004

2009
Percent %
34.3%
28.1%
25.5%
8.6%
96.5%
3.5%
100.0%

Area (ha)12,778
10,816
14,013
3,431
41,0382,003
43,041

Decreasing rate/year
2004-2009-2.71%-2.09%
5.58%-1.53%-0.24%
6.51%-

Percent %
29.7%
25.1%
32.6%
8.0%
95.3%
4.7%
100.0%

Based on data from 45 sample plots, mean of carbon stocks for each forest type are 102 MgC
ha-1, 117 MgC ha-1, and 61 MgC ha-1, respectively for evergreen, semi-evergreen, and deciduous
forests. We assumed that carbon stocks in deciduous and other forest are equivalent. Upperconfidence interval with 90% reliability (CI90%) is 111 MgC ha-1, 128 MgC ha-1, 69 MgC ha-1, and69 MgC ha-1and lower CI90% is 93 MgC ha-1, 105 MgC ha-1, 54 MgC ha-1, and 54 MgC ha-1
corresponding to 9%, 10%, 12% and 12% of the means, respectively for evergreen, semi-evergreen,
deciduous and other forest (Table 2).
Table 2 Carbon stock of each forest (MgC ha-1)
Variables
Evergreen
Mean
102
Upper Confidence Interval with 90%
111
Reliability
Lower Confidence Interval with 90%
93
Reliability
Source: Result of 45 sample plots in Phnom Tbeng forest

Semi-evergreen
117

Deciduous
61

Other forest
61

128

69

69

105

54

54

Equations of Estimating Forest Cover Change and Carbon Emission Reductions
Change in area of forest cover by type in the study site can be estimated by
For change rate smaller than zero (a<0)FA(t) FA(0)u ea ut(1)

For change rate greater than zero (a>0)FA(t) FA(0)u t a(2)

If no change in forest cover (a=0)FA(t) FA(0)where
FA(t): area (ha) of each forest type at time t
FAi(0): area (ha) of each forest type at time t=0 (i.e. area in 2012)
a: Change rate of forest cover for each forest type
t: is time step (year)
Baseline deforestation (BD) and project deforestation (PD) can be derived byBD(t) FA(t2)- F(t1)
PD(t) RPI(t)u BD(t)

(3)

(4)
(5)

where
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

RPI(t): Relatives impact of all project activities on drivers of deforestation at time t. RPI(t) is takenfrom Ty et al. (2011)
CS: Carbon stocks of forest type (MgC ha-1)
Baseline and project emissions (CE) can be derived by

CE baseline(t) BD(t)u CS u 3.67
CE project (t) PD(t)u CS u 3.67

(6)CC(t) [CE baseline(t)  CE project (t)]u (1  Leakage)  Carbon Sinks

(8)

(7)

where
3.67 is the conversion factor from carbon to carbon dioxide (CO2)
CC(t): carbon credits
Unit for CE and CC is MgCO2
Leakage: carbon emissions outside project boundary. It is assumed here at 20% (or 0.2)
Carbon Sinks: are the increases of carbon stocks (MgCO2 ha-1)
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Modeling timeframe for this study is a 30-year period between 2012 and 2042. During the 30-year
period, baseline deforestation was estimated at 224 ha, 160 ha and 41 ha year -1 corresponding tocarbon emissions of 83,811 MgCO2, 68,582 MgCO2 and 9,171 MgCO2 year-1, respectively forevergreen, semi-evergreen and other forests. Over the same period, area of deciduous forest
increased about 39 ha year-1 corresponding to the increase of forest carbon stocks of 8,792 MgCO2
year-1(Fig. 2).
350

300

Evergreen baseline

Semi-evergreen baseline

Decidious baseline

Other forest baseline

Evergreen projectSemi-evergreen project

Other forest project
250

Area (ha)

200

150

100

50

0

2012
-50

2014

2016

2018

2020

2022

2024

2026

2028

2030

2032

2034

2036

2038

2040

2042

Year

-100

Fig. 2 Forest area loses under baseline and project line
Totally for evergreen, semi-evergreen, and other forests, baseline emissions were estimated at
5,008,487 MgCO2 for the modeling period or 166,950 MgCO2 year-1. If REDD+ project is
implemented (project scenario), project emissions were estimated at 1,442,867 MgCO2 or 48,096
MgCO2 year-1. Our results suggest that a 30-year REDD+ project in Phnom Tbeng forests could
lead to emission reductions of 3,565,6621 MgCO2 or 118,854 MgCO2 year-1 . Increasing in area ofdeciduous forest could lead to carbon sinks up to 272,541 MgCO2 or 9,085 MgCO2 year-1 (Fig. 3).
Ⓒ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

210,000
180,000

Baseline

Project

Carbon Sink

150,000

MgCO2

120,000
90,00060,00030,0000-30,000

2012 2014 20162018 2020 2022 2024 2026 2028 2030 2032 2034 2036 2038 2040 2042

Year

Fig. 3 Carbon emissions under baseline and project scenarios
Therefore, protecting Phnom Tbeng forests under the REDD+ scheme would result in carbon
emission reductions of about 3.7 million MgCO2 or US$19 million if carbon is traded at US$6
(mean carbon price at the voluntary carbon market was $7.88 per MgCO 2 reported by Hamilton etal., (2011)). Revenues from carbon sales will protect and improve the ecosystem functions offorests, benefit to local communities and government as resource manager and owner. A transparent
benefit sharing system is required so as to make sure that carbon benefits will directly reach local
communities.
Estimation of carbon emissions and emission reductions is affected by the change rate offorest cover, initial carbon stocks, and the assumptions of the effectiveness of the future project
implementation. In addition, actual emissions may also be affected by other factors such as forest
fires, rise of opportunity costs and the political stability.
CONCLUSION
This study has attempted to estimate carbon emissions and emission reductions from protecting
forests in Phnom Tbeng in the Preah Vihear province. The methods developed in our study could
be useful tool for better informed-decision making and the developed methods may be applicable toother locations in Cambodia. Our findings suggest that there are huge emissions from reducing
deforestation and forest degradation. Achievement of such emissions will provide more benefits tolocal people and the Cambodian government through financial support from the international
agreements, carbon trading, and other ecosystem related benefits (i.e. improve agricultural land
productivity). Protecting forests will also results in biodiversity conservation and protection of
traditional rights and culture of forest-dependent communities. Government should be committed
to protecting forests for multiple benefits under the REDD+ scheme or similar international
agreements that aim to provide financial support for managing forests.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Part of this research was supported by the grant from Japanese Ministry of Economy, Trade andIndustry under the theme of the 2011 Climate Change Policy Research (promotion of research on
non-energy greenhouse gas emissions) granted to Japan Forest Technology Association, Mitsui &Co.  Ltd.,  and  the  University  of  Hyogo  for  a  project  entitled  “Feasibility  Study  on  New  Mechanism
for REDD+ Project in Phnom Tbeng Protected Forest in Kingdom of Cambodia" and the
MEXT/JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number 24252002.
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REFERENCES
Angelsen, A. (Ed.). 2008. Moving ahead with REDD: Issues, options and implications. CIFOR, Bogor.
FA. 2010. National forest program, Phnom Penh.
Hamilton, K., Chokkalingam, U., Bendana, M. 2011. State of the forest carbon markets 2009: taking root andbranching out. (http://www.forest-trends.org/documents/files/doc_2384.pdf, Accessed 10 December2012).
Hougthon, R.A. 2003. Revised estimates of annual net flux of carbon to the atmosphere from changes in land
use and land use agreement 1850-2000. Tellus 55B, 378-390.
Kindermann, G., Obersteiner, M., Sohngen, B., Sathaye, J., Andrakso, K., Rametsteiner, E., Schlamadinger,
B., Wunder, S. and Beach, R. 2008. Global cost estimates of reducing carbon emissions through avoided
deforestation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U.S.A., 105, 10302-10307.
Sasaki, N. 2006. Carbon emissions due to land-use and logging in Cambodia: a modeling approach. Journalof Forest Research, 11, 397-403.
Sasaki, N. and Yoshimoto, A. 2010. Benefit of tropical forest management under the new climate change
agreement: a case study in Cambodia. Environmental Science & Policy, 13, 384-392.
Stern, N. 2006. The stern review: The economics of climate change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Ty, S., Sasaki, N., Ahmad, A.H. and Ahmad, Z.A. 2011. REDD development in Cambodia - Potential carbon
emission reductions in a REDD project. Formath, 10, 1-23.

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Research article
erd

Factors Affecting Rice Production in Northeastern
Thailand: The Relationship between Soil Salinity andVegetative Cover
CHARUWAN PHAITHONG
Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Email: serf_444@hotmail.com

ADCHARAPORN PAGDEE*
Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Email: adcpag@kku.ac.th
Received 16 December 2012

Accepted 30 January 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Saline soil is typically found in lower elevation terrain which is also used for ricecultivation. Deforestation in recharge areas can accelerate soil salinity due to increased
capillary action. This study examined the relationship between saline soil distribution andvegetative cover at Nong Due Village, Khon Kaen, Thailand. It also identified some social
factors and farm management practices which affected rice production in saline paddies.
A field survey was conducted in April, 2012 to determine soil property analysis, combinedwith   a   questionnaire   on   rice   production,   farm   management,   and   farmer’s   household  socioeconomic conditions. In total, 34 paddy fields were surveyed with 68 soil samples
collected from non-saline and saline plots. Elevations of the sampled plots were 146-178
m with electrical conductivity (ECe) 0.19-16.58 dS/m. Soil salinity did not show asignificant correlation from the sampled paddies to the closest vegetation, but high salinity
did occur in lower elevations and farther away from the nearest forest. Forty household
representatives answered the questionnaire, of which 34 had encountered some problems
with soil salinity (average 0.89 ha/household). Average rice yields from saline paddies
were 1.9 tons/ha, lower than those from non-saline paddies (mean difference -113.39
kg/ha). Rice production costs associated with soil salinity were estimated 10,770 Baht/ha,of which the highest amount was spent on crop maintenance. In contrast, costs from nonsaline farming systems were 9,791 Baht/ha (39.75% also spent on farm maintenance).
Household income and labor did not show a significant correlation with farm management
practices. Fertilizer application is dependent on the availability of on-farm resources andword-of-mouth. Farmers often use cattle manure, compost and green manure to reduce soil
salinity. Moreover, farmers raised the height of paddy borders, so that more rainwater
could be stored, thus ensuring that the rice paddies were continuously submerged.
Keywords soil salinity, saline paddies, vegetative cover, rice production,
Nong Due village

INTRODUCTION
Soil salinity is a major problem in semi-arid or arid regions around the world. For example, Arunin(1996) reported 17.81 million ha of salt-affected areas in northeastern Thailand (approximately
17% of the region). According to Yuvaniyama (2003), two important factors that cause saline soil
distribution are: 1) the presence of salt rock in Maha Sarakham geological formation which induces
salt-dissolved water to the topsoil through capillary action; and 2) land use activities, such as
deforestation in recharge areas, that accelerate dissolved salt transfer to the surface (Land
Development Department, 2009). Soil salinity reaches a steady state when the amount of salt
intruding into the soil profile is equaled by the amount leaving the soil surface via stream flow.
This phenomenon is widespread in rice paddy fields where salt accumulates easily and graduallyⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

deteriorates over time (Barrett-Lennard, 2002). Sayok et al. (1993) reported that soil EC measures
for specific clear-cut areas in the Davy Crockett National Forest near Apple Springs, Texas werehigher than adjacent, undisturbed forest land.
Economically speaking, rice (Oryza sativa L.)  is  Thailand’s  most  important  cash  crop.  During
2009-2011, Thailand exported about 9.42 million tons of rice annually, estimated at USD 5.18
million per year (Office of Agriculture Economics of Thailand, 2012). In 2011, the total harvested
paddies were estimated at 8.91 million ha, of which about 5.55 million ha (62.22%) were from theNortheast  (12.01  million  tons  accounted  for  51.60%  of  Thailand’s  total  rice  production). Althoughthe  region’s  total  rice  production  is  relatively  high,  the  yield  per  unit  area  is  only  2.02  tons/ha  as  compared to the national average yield of 2.38 tons/ha (Office of Agriculture Economics ofThailand, 2012). This is due to several factors,  including  the  region’s  climatic  conditions,  poor  soil  fertility, low inputs (Wijnhoud et al., 2003) and soil salinity (Quantin et al., 2008). Rice yields andeconomic returns are about one third less in saline soil as compared with nearby unaffected areas(Hall et al., 2004).
Salinity has a harmful impact on soils and crop production. Excessive amounts of salt
adversely affect the physical and chemical properties of soil, as well as microbiological processes(Lakhdar et al., 2009). Salinity and sodicity also affect crop yields because of osmotic effects andsodium toxicity (Marschner, 1995). If nutrient up-take efficiency decreases, then plants will suffer.
For example, nitrogen deficiency expresses itself in older leaves of rice – those having a pale anddry leaf apex. Prolonged nitrogen deficiency causes severe plant stunting, reduced tillering, andyield reduction. Additionally, increased levels of salt can result in soil compaction, thus reducing
water infiltration and causing difficulty in plowing. Wijnhoud et al. (2003) stated that farming
decisions often favor rice paddies with higher income potential, thus shifting management priorities
to socioeconomic factors. Family income can also affect farm management practices, including
fertilizer application.
OBJECTIVE
Soil salinity tends to increase when vegetative cover decreases. This can exacerbate land limitation
problems, especially on rice production which takes place in areas where soil salinity typicallyoccurs. Subsequently, ecological factors, such as the availability of nutrients (N-P-K) can affectrice production. Furthermore, farm management practices (e.g., fertilizer application, manure input
and irrigation) play key roles in productivity, but success is heavily dependent upon the farmer’s  socio-economic condition. This study examined several factors affecting rice production at Nong
Due Village, Nong Song Hong district, Khon Kaen province, including the relationship between
saline soil distribution and vegetative cover. Better understanding of soil salinity and riceproduction problems will help farmers to more effectively adapt, thus to a certain extent help
improve their productivity and benefits gained.
METHODOLOGY
Two data collection activities were done. Firstly, soil samples from both saline and non-saline ricepaddies were collected in April, 2012 using a composite sampling method for soil property
analysis, including ECe, organic matter (titration method, modified from Walkley and Black,1934), N (calculation derived from OM values), P (Bray no. II method), K (Flam photometry
method), soil pH, texture and color. Sampled paddy coordinates and elevations were recorded on a
GPS receiver (Garmin etrex). The distance between each sampled plot to the closest forest wasestimated using a Google Earth map. Correlations between soil sample ECe values and distances tothe closest forest, as well as elevations, were calculated to determine the extent of salinity
distribution.
Secondly, a questionnaire was administered to villagers in July, 2012 to measure riceproduction, farm management practices, and household socioeconomic factors. Most of thequantitative data such as rice yields, nutrient inputs, and residue management were provided byⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

farmers during oral interviews. Units were standardized, which involved conversion of volumes toweights. This conversion was checked through direct observations of rice containers and/or sacks.
Descriptive statistics, t-tests and correlations were performed to examine potential factors affecting
rice production.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Nong Due (UTM 48P 263316mE 1733847mN) is a village in Dong Keng sub-district, Nong Song
Hong district, Khon Kaen province, Thailand. Patches of soil salinity can be observed in ricepaddies, especially during the dry season. Rice paddies were primarily located northeast of thevillage adjacent to a dry Dipterocarp forest called Kok Nongjan (KNJ) community forest (UTM
48P 265044mE 1735511mN). The southern side of the village was surrounded by a forest patchwith trees scattered throughout the rice paddies (Fig.1).

B

Fig. 1 Nong Due Village (A): rice paddies and surrounding forests - KNJ (B)(Source: Google Earth, 2012)

Soil salinity distribution
A total of 68 soil samples from both saline and non-saline rice paddies were collected. The sampled
point elevations ranged from 146 m to 178 m with the lowest estimated soil ECe 0.19 dS/m up to
16.58 dS/m. The average distance from non-saline rice paddies to the closest vegetation was 0.28 ±0.10 km, while high salinity sampled plots were found farther away from the forests (Table 1).
Although soil salinity distribution did not show significant correlations with distance, high salinity
areas tended to occur in lower elevations and farther away from vegetative cover.
Table 1 Salinity distribution: sampled point elevation, distance to the closest forest and ECe
ECe (dS/m)
Criterion
Range*
Non saline<20.19- 1.99
Slightly saline soil
2-4
2.33- 3.83
Moderately saline soil
4-8
4.09- 7.49
Highly saline soil
8-16
8.49-14.63
Severely saline soil
>16
16.58
Source: *U.S. Salinity Laboratory Staff (1954)
Salinity level

Elevation (m)Distance (km) to theclosest vegetation

No. of sampled
points (%)

161.95 ± 7.60
159.89 ± 5.37
162.43 ± 4.65
159.20 ± 5.81
161

0.28 ± 0.10
0.29 ± 0.09
0.30 ± 0.11
0.32 ± 0.12
0.30

41 (60.29)
9 (13.24)
7 (10.29)
10 (14.71)
1 (1.47)

Soil properties
Soil samples consisted of loamy sand with high variability of pH (3.64-9.93, median=7.28).
Takuhito et al. (2006) found that soil pH can be affected by water drainage during fallow periodsⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

and rice straw inputs to the soil. Water drainage during the fallow season increases soil pH, whichmight explain higher pH readings in the sampled plots since it rained the night before sampling
occurred. Furthermore, the application of rice straw decreases soil pH, partly due to thedecomposition of organic matter. Since organic materials serve as an electron donor for soil
reduction, the soil pH decreases because of increased pressure from CO2 (Ponnamperuma et al.,
1966; Takuhito et al., 2006).
Soil coloration from the saline samples ranged from reddish yellow to strong brown, whilesamples from non-saline paddies were reddish yellow to pinkish gray. The majority of soil samples(60.29%) were classified as non-saline, except for one location (Table 1). Furthermore, themajority of soil samples had low nutrient contents (Tabel 2), including OM and N (less than 1%).
This finding is typical for soils in Northeast Thailand (Tulaphitak, 2002), partly due to loamy sandtexture, erosion, and land use activities. Only a few samples yielded moderate to high contents ofK. The independent samples t-tests showed significant differences of OM and total N contents
between non-saline soil and saline sites (mean difference = 0.127 and 0.006; p-value < 0.05,
respectively). Although no significant difference was detected, available K contents of saline soil
samples were higher than non-saline soils (Table 3). This may result from poor nutrient uptake
caused by dehydration since the rice plants were growing in saline soil (Patel et al., 2009).
Table 2  Soil properties: Total OM, Total N, Available P and K
Soil fertility
Moderate*
High*
Soil
Parameters
No. ofMean ± S.D.
No. ofMean ± S.D.
No. ofsalinity
samplessamplessamples(%)(%)(%)
NonOM (%)
0.44 ± 0.29
41 (100)
0 (0)
0 (0)
salineN (%)
0.02 ± 0.01
41 (100)
0 (0)
0 (0)
soil
P (ppm)0.11 ± 0.05
41 (100)
0 (0)
0 (0)
K (ppm)28.75±13.69
29 (71)70.22 ± 12.38
8 (20)
98.43 ± 6.81
4 (10)
SalineOM (%)
0.31 ± 0.22
27 (100)
0 (0)
0 (0)
soil
N (%)
0.02 ± 0.01
27 (100)
0 (0)
0 (0)
P (ppm)0.08 ± 0.08
27 (100)
0 (0)
0 (0)
K (ppm)19.79±10.87
22 (81)83.40 ± 0.44
3 (11)
255.55 ± 127.07
2 (7)Note: *Standards: Total OM (%): Low <1.5, Moderate 1.5-3.5, High >3.5; Total N (%): Low <0.3, Moderate 0.3-0.6,
High >0.6; Available P (ppm): Low <10, Moderate 10-25, High >25; and Available K (ppm): Low <60, Moderate
60-90, High >90
Source: Soil Survey Division, Land Development Department (1980)
Low*
Mean ± S.D.

Table 3 Comparison of soil nutrient contents between non-saline and saline soil samples
Group

N

Mean ± S.D.

Mean DifferenceNS410.437 ± 0.209
0.127
SS
27
0.310 ± 0.223
NS41
0.022 ± 0.0104
0.006
N (%)
SS
27
0.016 ± 0.0112
NS41
0.111 ± 0.054
0.030
P (ppm)SS
27
0.080 ± 0.075
NS41
43.638 ± 27.634-0.686K (ppm)SS
27
44.324 ± 69.526
Note: NS = non-saline soil sample and SS = saline soil sample
OM (%)

t-test (p-value)
2.354 (0.022)
2.349 (0.023)
1.943 (0.056)
ns

95% Confidence Interval of
the Difference
Lower
Upper
0.021
0.019
0.001
0.001
-0.001-0.0031-24.761-29.343

0.233
0.235
0.012
0.012
0.062
0.064
23.38927.970

Rice production and farm management in saline soil farming systems
Rain-fed rice cultivation is the primary occupation of Nong Due villagers. A total of 40 householdⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

representatives (out of 70) participated in the survey. A majority of the households (n=34) had
encountered soil salinity issues (the averaged size was 0.89 ha/household which accounted for 34%
of their total paddy area). Primarily, farmers grow two rice cultivars including a glutinous mutant
of jasmine rice—RD6 and jasmine rice—KDLM-105. The average rice yield from farmers who
experienced soil salinity was 1.9 tons/ha, lower than the average production from non-saline
paddies (mean difference –113.39 kg/ha). Moreover, the size of saline paddies showed a negative
correlation with rice production (R2 = 0.120, p-value = 0.029).
The average household annual income derived from a four-person labor force wasapproximately 112,000 Baht (USD1 a 30.64 Baht as of December 14, 2012). These figures were
not significantly different between households that experienced soil salinity and those who did not.
Moreover, the household income and labor force did not show significant correlations with farmmanagement practices. Fertilizer application is likely dependent upon the availability of on-farmresources and word-of-mouth. Nonetheless, the total paddy field per household significantly
correlated with rice yields (R2 = 0.275, p-value = 0.001). Although this finding implies that thelabor force may not differ across samples, it does limit household production and management
abilities.
Rice production costs of farming systems which experienced soil salinity were estimated at
10,770 Baht/ha. The highest spending was associated with farm maintenance, especially fromfarmers using chemical fertilizers. The costs from non-saline farming locations were 9,791 Baht/ha,with 39.75% also spent on farm maintenance (Table 4). Seemingly, farmers have adapted to soil
salinity by using on-farm resources, such as cow manure, compost, and green manure. Farmers also
raised the height of paddy borders, so that more rainwater could be stored, thus ensuring that therice paddies were continuously submerged. Clermont-Dauphin et al. (2010) reported thatapproximately 20% of rice yields decreased because of salinity, but 87% decreased due to drought.
Therefore, water management is very important for rice cultivation, especially in saline paddies.
Table 4 Rice production and farm management information of sampled households
Information
1) Averaged size of total paddies (ha/household)2) Averaged size of saline paddies (ha/household)3)  Household’s  total  rice  production  (tons/ha)4) Income (Baht/household)5) Labor force (persons/household)6) Total costs of rice production (Baht/ha)
6.1) Land preparation and rice growing(transplanting and sowing)
6.2) Maintenance costs
6.2.1) Chemical fertilizer application
6.2.2) Manure application
6.2.3) Pesticide application
6.2.4) Organic fertilizer application
6.2.5) Rice husk & mulch application
6.3) Harvesting costs
Note: USD1 a 30.64 Baht as of December 14, 2012.

Households without saline
paddies (6 households)
2.74
2.0
133,000
4.06
9,791
3,095 (31.61%)

Households with saline
paddies (34 households)
2.63
0.89
1.9
108,000
3.50
10,7702,618 (24.31%)

3,892 (39.75%)
3,022 (77.64%)
548 (14.07%)
323 (8.29%)
2,804 (28.63%)

4,771 (44.30%)
2,775 (38.15%)
451 (9.46%)
64 (1.35%)
1,294 (27.11%)
187 (3.93%)
3,381 (31.39%)

CONCLUSION
Soil salinity is a prolonged issue for many farmers in Northeastern Thailand. Its distribution is
likely to expand if deforestation in recharge areas continues to occur. Despite the low correlation
between soil ECe and distance from saline plots to the closest vegetation, high salinity frequently
occurs in lower elevations and areas farther away from forest cover. Approximately 34% of the ricepaddies with soil salinity issues also encountered low soil nutrients. The average rice yield of
farmers experiencing soil salinity is lower than the productivity from non-saline paddies. Thisfinding illustrates that soil salinity negatively affects rice production. However, household income
and labor force did not show significant correlations with farm management practices. FertilizerⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

application is likely dependent on available on-farm resources and word-of-mouth. As long as soil
salinity remains an issue, then farmers will be forced to adapt. Use of on-farm resources, such as
cow manure, compost, and green manure are environmentally sensitive ways to reduce soil salinity.
Another effective strategy is raising the height of paddy borders, so that rainwater capture cancontinuously submerge the rice paddies.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThe   authors   wish   to   thank   Nong   Due   village’s   leaders   and   all   villagers   who   participated   in   this  research project. Last but not least, the project could not be possible without the research grantfrom Khon Kaen University and Soil Problems in Northeastern Thailand Research Group, KKU.
REFERENCES
Arunin, S. 1996. Saline soil of Thailand. Land Development Department. Bangkok, Thailand.
Berrett-Lennard, E.G. 2002. Restoration of saline land through revegetation. Agriculture Water Management,
53(1-3), 213-226.
Clermont-Dauplin, C., Suwannang, N., Grunberger, O., Hammecker, C. and Maeght, J.L. 2010. Yield of rice
under water and soil salinity risk in farmer’s  fields in northeast Thailand. Field Crop Research, 118(3),289-296.
Hall, N., Greiner, R., and Yongvanit, S. 2004. Adapting modeling systems for salinity management of farms
and catchments in Australia and Thailand. Mathematics and Computers in Simulation, 64, 319-327.
Lakhdar, A., Rabhi, M., Ghnaya, T., Abdelbasset, Montemurro, F., Jedidi, N. and Abdelly, C. 2009.
Effectiveness of compost use in salt-affected soil. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 171, 29-37.
Land Development Department. 2009. Farmer manual: Management of soil salinity in the northeast of
Thailand. Soil Salinity Management Research and Development Division (in Thailand) (http://www.
ldd.go.th/web_ord/ORDGroup2010/ORD_G6/Document.html. Accessed on November 4, 2011)
Marschner, H. 1995. Mineral nutrition of higher plants. 2nd Edition. Academic Press, London, UK, 437.
Office of Agriculture Economics of Thailand. 2012. Agricultural production statistics: Rainfed riceproduction (in Thailand). (http://www.oae.go.th/download/prcai/DryCrop/majorrice52-54.pdf. Accessedon December 13, 2012)
Patel, A. D., Bhensdadia, H. and Pandey, A. N. 2009. Effect of salinisation of soil on growth, water status
and general nutrient accumulation of Delonix regia (Fabaceae). Acta Ecologica Sinica, 29, 109-115.
Ponnamperuma, F.N., Martinez, E. and Loy, T. 1966. Influence of redox potential and partial pressure ofcarbon dioxide on pH values and the suspension effect of flooded soils. Soil Sci., 101, 421-431.
Quantin, C., Grunberger, O., Suvannang, N. and Bourdon, E. 2008. Land management effects onbiogeochemical functioning of salt-affected paddy soils. Pedosphere, 18(2), 183-194.
Sayok, A.K., Chang, M. and Watter, K.G. 1993. Forest clearcutting and site preparation on a saline soil ineast Texas: Impact of element movement regions. In: Proceedings of the Yokohama Symposium, July
1993. Gladwell, J. S. (Ed.). International Association of Hydrological Sciences, UK. 125-133.
Soil Survey Division, Land Development Department. 1980. Manual of land suitability identification foreconomic crops, 28th edition (in Thai). Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives. 76.
Takuhito, N., Rodriguez, R., and Agbisit, R. 2006. Growth inhibition of rice by water drainage during fallow
at IRRI. JARQ, 40(4), 361-367.
Tulaphitak, D. 2002. Training documentation on soil chemical analysis. Agriculture Research andDevelopment Center in Northeast, Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Thailand.
United States Salinity Laboratory Staff. 1954. Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkali soils.
Agriculture Handbook No. 60, United States Department of Agriculture. Maryland, USA.
Wijnhoud, J.D., Konboon, Y. and Lefroy, R. D.B. 2003. Nutrient budgets: sustainability assessment of
rainfed lowland rice-based systems in Northeast Thailand. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment,
100(2-3), 119-127.
Yuvaniyama, A. 2003. Management of saline soil problem, academic paper of land development department.
Contributions/Technical information in management of land resources. (http://www.ldd.go.th/Thaihtml/work.htm. Accessed on June 29, 2012)Ⓒ ISERD

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Research article
erd

Climate Change Vulnerability: Household Assessment
Levels in Kampong Speu Province, Cambodia
NYDA CHHINH*Royal University of Phnom Penh, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Email: chhinh.nyda@rupp.edu.kh

HOEURN CHEBRoyal University of Phnom Penh, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Received 9 December 2012

Accepted 30 January 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Cambodia’s   Ministry   of   Environment   (MoE)   conducted   vulnerability   and  adaptation assessments using two different methodologies: the Global Circulation Model(MoE, 2001) and Household Surveys (MoE, 2005). They found that Cambodia isvulnerable to climate change and has a low adaptive capacity compared to other countries
in Southeast Asia. Flood and drought were identified as the climatic hazards that imposed
the greatest threats to rural farmers. This study, which assessed vulnerability at thehousehold level in the drought-prone Kampong Speu (KPS) province, calculates climatechange vulnerability based on the framework developed by the Inter-governmental Panelon Climate Change (IPCC). The results indicate that drought is the most severe climate
hazard experienced in KPS. Farmers reported that they regularly experienced irregular
rainfall distribution during cropping season that results in crop damage and/or loss.
Adaptations to drought adopted by farmers include water storage, introducing droughttolerant crop varieties, and improving knowledge about farming techniques. Other
mechanisms that are also feasible are providing or enhancing secondary income capacity.
Keywords climate change, vulnerability, adaptation, assessment, rural development

INTRODUCTION
Climate change is the term most frequently used in global studies to refer to significant and lastingchanges  in  the  Earth’s  weather  pattern  that  are  evident  in  effects  such  as worldwide changes in in
precipitation, and temperature (IPCC, 2007).  However,  ‘climate  change’  is  not  commonly used in
Cambodia,  where  this  phenomenon  is  instead  called  ‘climate  variability’.  The  impacts  of  climate  change can be seen spatially, temporally, socio-economically and through many other factors. An
assessment of vulnerability to climate change is required before any prescriptions are given to
mitigate and/or to adapt to climate change.
As defined in the IPCC report Climate Change 2001, vulnerability is a function of thesensitivity of a system to changes in climate (the degree to which a system will respond to a givenchange in climate, including beneficial and harmful effects), adaptive capacity (the degree to which
adjustments in practices, processes, or structures can moderate or offset the potential for damage ortake advantage of opportunities created by a given change in climate), and the degree of exposureof the system to climatic hazards (IPCC, 2001 , p. 89). The definitions of exposure, sensitivity, andadaptive capacity can be found in climate change literature (Adger, 2006; Fankhauser et al., 1999;
Eriksen and O'Brien, 2007). Explanations of how to quantify vulnerability can be found in Fussel(2007) and Hinkel (2011).
When studying vulnerability on a fine scale, for example at a household level, the study ofclimate change is associated with the outcomes of changes in climate in a particular geographicalarea such as a commune. A study may focus on a single element, such as changes in productivity,
economic loss, or local knowledge of adaptation.
This paper aims to estimate and quantify vulnerability to climate change in Cambodia usingⒸ ISERD

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household data and to identify the household characteristics that are most impacted by climatechange effects such as flood and drought.
Background
One study on vulnerability related to climate change at the household level in Cambodia wascompleted by the Ministry of Environment (MoE) in 2005. Climatic hazards including flood,
drought, and windstorms were studied. That study (MoE, 2005) demonstrates that Cambodians
have observed changes in weather patterns and experienced losses in farming production due toclimatic hazards because of their low adaptive capacity. A number of possible coping andadaptation mechanisms were identified by the study, which noted there were a number of
constraints to effectively adapting to climate change such as lacks in the financial, knowledge andskill  aspects  required  to  mitigate  impact.  Following  the  MoE’s  study,  there  have  been  a  number  of  studies related to climate change assessment that use different frameworks, such as Try Toun(2009) and Yusuf and Francisco’s  (2010) EEPSEA’s  study.  From  these  studies,  it  can  be  concluded  that Cambodia is exposed to climate variability and that even with low degree of exposure; ruralcommunities are highly vulnerable to changes in climate due to low adaptive capacity.
Fig. 1 shows the production lost due to flood and drought between 1984 and 2011. During the
1990s, droughts were more common than floods and occurred with very high severity, except for in
1996 when both disasters hit Cambodia at the same time during growing seasons. During the 2000s,
the both floods and drought occurred every year, with the highest concentration of disasters
occurring in the middle of the decade.
There was flooding in Cambodia every year between 1998 and 2011, with the most severe
floods occurring in the 2000-01 growing season, based on the average level of flooding in
Cambodia as recorded over the last 70 years (the 2011 flood is not included for the comparison due
to lack of literature). The 2000-01 floods caused extensive damage to many social infrastructure
systems, properties and agricultural plantations and during the wet season affected both people andanimals in 22 provinces.
The Kampong Speu (KPS) province is the second priority project implementation in the
National Adaptation Program of Action to Climate Change (NAPA) of Cambodia. The NAPA
priority for adaptation is consistent with the finding of EEPSEA vulnerability mapping study,
which identified that Kampong Speu is the third most vulnerable province of the 17 provinces in
Cambodia. As mentioned earlier, KPS has a high incidence of poverty, and experienced drought
more often and intensively than other provinces in Cambodia.

Fig. 1 Distribution of paddy rice destroyed by flood and drought in Cambodia, 1984-2011
Kampong Speu is about 40 km to the west of Phnom Penh. The province is comprised of 8
districts. The total population of the province is 716,944, of which 368,432 are female. Similar toother provinces in Cambodia, the economy of this province is agriculture-dominant and primarilyⒸ ISERD

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involved in rice production. The total paddy rice area of this province in 2007 was 78,000 ha,
which accounted for 3.81% of the total paddy rice in Cambodia. KPS produces 245,000 tons of riceannually, approximately 4% of  the  county’s  total  rice  production.
Data gathering
The household survey samples were selected from 6 communes in 6 districts within two
geographical areas: highland areas (2 districts/communes: Phnom Sruch/Morhasang, Oral/Tasal)
and lowland areas (4 districts/communes: Chbar Mon/Chbarmon, Oudong/Peng Lavea, Bor
Sedth/Kork, Somrong Tong/Rolang Chork). A total of 600 questionnaires were collected of which
200 from highland and 400 from lowland. The occurrence of natural hazards, including flash
flooding, drought and windstorm, were recorded based on yes/no questions. Other variables that
contributed to the index calculation were collected based on Table 1, 2 and 4.
METHODOLOGIESComposite indicators involve two steps. First, it involves in normalizing of each indicator based on
Eq. (1) and then, aggregating the indicators into one index as in Eq. (2).
The normalizing procedure is based on Eq. (1).

xi  x min / x max x min

Ii

(1)

Where Ii is the normalized value of indicator i, x is the original value for indicator forindividual household, and xmax and xmin are the highest and lowest values of the indicator.
In order to aggregate the indicators (as in Eq. 2), weighting among the indicators is employed.
The weights are obtained from focus group discussion, expert judgment and key informant
interview from the study site. This is to reduce subjectivity * . It is very important to quantify
vulnerability according to the different weights for each indicator and dimensions. The consensus
method was used to gather the weight of different determinants and indicators. Eight Focus Group
Discussions (FGDs) were conducted with participants from a range of backgrounds at theprovincial, district and commune levels in order to come up with different weights. Weights werethen averaged among all FGDs and levels.
Djn¦ IiWii 1(2)

Where Dj is the aggregate value from the product of normalized value of indicator, j is thename of index, n is the number of indicators within a particular index and Ii and Wi are thenormalized value of indicator and weight of each indicator respectively.
Exposure Index (EI)
Table 1 Example of Exposure Index calculation
HH No.
12
3
4
5
6

Number of hazard events
Drought
Flood
10
3
5
0
2
2
3
1
0
4
1
0

Windstorm
0
1
0
2
0
3

Normalized Value (index)
Drought
Flood
Windstorm
1.00
0.75
0.00
0.50
0.00
0.33
0.20
0.50
0.00
0.30
0.25
0.67
0.00
1.00
0.00
0.10
0.00
1.00

Hazard
Index
0.77
0.31
0.27
0.34
0.33
0.22

Exposure index in this study is composed of three hazards indicators: flash flooding, drought andwindstorms. Based on social perception of hazard, we recorded number of events that household*

In our study site, the weights are 0.53, 0.32, and 0.15 for drought, flash flood, and windstorm respectively.

Ⓒ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

experienced. For example, within 1990-2010 one household may experience 10 drought events, 3
flash floods and 1 windstorm. Different localities of household experienced differently (Table 1).
Each hazard event, such drought, is normalized to get the value between 0 and 1.
Sensitivity index (SI)
Sensitivity of a household composed of four dimensions (with different weight) namely: humancapital (0.23), livelihood (0.26), infrastructure (0.21), and financial capital (0.30). Meaning thatsensitivity index is the aggregated value of the four dimensions after applying weight. Eachdimension is measured by different indicator as in Table 2.
After normalizing the indicator based on (Eq.1), we aggregate the normalized value ofindicators with weighting of each indicator by their own dimension (Table 3). We assume that thehigher the weight, the more sensitive to natural hazard. For example, in human dimension, ahousehold may experience more hardship if there are more children compared to other households.
Table 2 Sensitivity indicators and weight
Dimension
Haman
Livelihood
Infrastructure
Financial

Indicator
Dependent ratio (S1)
Number of family laborers working in agriculture (S2)Percentage of annual income generated from agriculture (S3)Distance from household to a body of water (S6)Percentage of debt in (S9)

Indicator Weight
0.55
0.45
1.00
1.00
1.00

Table 3 Example of Sensitivity Index calculation
HH No.
1
2
3
4
5
6

Indicator
S1
25
20
14
33
16
50

S2
2
2
5
2
1
2

Normalized Value (index)
S1
S2
0.31
0.25
0.17
0.25
0.00
1.00
0.53
0.25
0.06
0.00
1.00
0.25

Weight Value
0.28
0.20
0.45
0.40
0.03
0.66

Adaptive capacity index (ACI)This index composed of five dimensions (with different weight) namely: infrastructure (0.19),
economics (0.21), technology (0.20), social capital (0.18) and human capital (0.22). The adaptive
capacity index is also based on the same principle as in sensitivity index. Each dimension has
different indicator with different weight as in Table 4.
Vulnerability index
Vulnerability assessment is based on Eq. 3. For a comprehensive discussion of the Indexes
Approach,   see   ‘Handbook   on   Constructing   Composite   Indicators:   Methodology   and   User   Guide’  jointly developed by OECD and JRC European Commission (OECD, 2008). The example related
to this approach can be found in Yusuf and Francisco (2010) and International Crop ResearchInstitute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (2009).
The Vulnerability Index (VI) is based on three-dimensional indexes (see the definition above)
including exposure index, sensitivity index, and adaptive capacity index. The VI’s formula isshown in Eq. (3).
VI

EI  SI  (1  ACI ) / 3(3)

Before aggregating vulnerability index (VI), there is a manipulation of adaptive capacity index(ACI) by ‘1   – ACI’ so that the direction of ACI is the same as exposure and sensitivity index,
meaning that for EI and SI the higher the value, the higher vulnerability while the higher the ACI,Ⓒ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

the low vulnerability. So, the manipulation of ACI will keep ACI value the same direction as EI andSI.
Table 4 Adaptive capacity and their weight
Dimension
Infrastructure
Economic

Indicator
Percentage of irrigated agricultural land of household
Income per headAmount of remittance per year
Percentage of income generated from non-agriculture
Number of TVs and radios
Number of line phones and cell phones
Number of motorcycles
Amount of money that can be borrowed from relatives and/or friends
in case of disaster
Number of laborers
Level of education

Technology
Social capital
Human

Indicator Weight
1.00
0.31
0.31
0.38
0.30
0.30
0.40
0.10
0.53
0.47

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Hazard exposure
Almost every household in the sample (574 out of 600 cases) reported that they were impacted bydrought at least once between 1999 and 2010. During this 12-year period, 20% of households
experienced drought once every two years. Flash floods and windstorms were very rare and, out of
600 cases, 540 were not impacted by flash floods and 558 by windstorms at all during the study
period. Compared to flash flooding and windstorms, drought is the major thread to rural households.
Table 5 shows the number of occurrence of natural hazards (windstorms, flash floods anddrought) reported by households from 1999 to 2011. It can be inferred from the data thatwindstorms occurred with a low frequency and had a greater effect on lowland communities morethan highland communities. Based on the FGD data, highland residents reported that windstorms
are not a major concern and only 6% of both highland and lowland respondents reported
experiencing windstorms over the last 12 years.
Table 5 Hazard events experienced by respondents in KPS, 1999-2010
Class
0-1
2-3
4-5
6-7
8-9
10-12

Drought
58
79
23
10
0
30

HighlandFlash flood
192
8
0
0
0
0

Windstorm
198
2
0
0
0
0

Drought
107
160
54
7
6
66

Lowland
Flash flood
378
20
1
1
0
0

Windstorm
393
7
0
0
0
0

Sensitivity
Figure 2 shows the comparison of the means of the four determinants of the sensitivity index andmeaning that the higher the value, the more sensitive to natural hazards. Horizontal axis is thesensitivity dimensions that will be composited into sensitivity index and vertical axis is the meanvalue of weighted of each dimension from highland and lowland. The livelihood determinant had
the highest mean value at 0.684, followed by human at 0.396. The other determinants were
negligible. This implies that the livelihood of households is highly sensitive to the changes causedby climatic events and that the ratio of dependency is also high.
The mean value of human sensitivity in the lowland area (N=400) was 0.26 compared to thehighland area (N=200) at 0.29 with the standard deviations of each commune at 0.10 and 0.01
respectively. The independent samples test found that the group means of sensitivity index ofⒸ ISERD

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highland community are significantly different as the value in the p-value at 0.001 (less than 0.05).
Therefore it can be concluded that the highland area is more sensitive to climate change impacts
than the lowland area. This is due to either highland households are highly depending on
agriculture.

Fig. 2 Comparison of sensitive indicators to climate change in the KPS province
Adaptive Capacity
Fig. 3 compares adaptive capacity dimensions which finally be composed into adaptive capacity
index. The values on top of the bar are the mean of the dimension, meaning that the higher thevalue, the higher adaptive capacity. The graph illustrates that the human component of adaptive
capacity is twice as significant as the other components (infrastructure, economics and technology).
It can be interpreted that labor is the best way to handle shock. Other factors, such as the level ofsocial capital, play an insignificant role compared to other determinants.
By disaggregating adaptive capacity index (ACI) into highland (N=200) and lowland (N=400),
the means of ACI of lowland and highland commune are at 0.77 and 0.83 with the standard
deviations of 0.11 and 0.09 respectively. The independent samples test shows that the group meansof the lowland and highland are significantly different as the p-value is 0.00 (less than 0.05). Basedon this statistics, we can conclude that highland community is statically lower than lowland
communes.

Fig. 3 Comparison of adaptive capacity of household in the KPS province
Vulnerability assessment
Figure 4 also presents the index of hazard, sensitivity, adaptive capacity by disaggregating theindex value into topographical areas (highland and lowland) based on household data. Both areas
experienced hazards to a similar degree. Given the index value of hazards is low, the main hazard
is drought, which is considered the most serious hazard among the three hazards studied in thispaper (drought, windstorms and flash floods).
There is a slightly variation between highland and lowland areas in term of adaptive capacity
index value. However, it is concluded that the highland area is more vulnerable than the lowland
area because of a lower adaptive capacity and higher sensitivity to climate stimuli. It is worth
noticing here that livelihood of households who are heavily depending on paddy rice is more
vulnerable than those with raising livestock and having engaging in non-agricultural activities.
Fig. 5 shows a comparison of households with the vulnerability index categorized into low andhigh vulnerability. The graph shows that 43% of households are in the medium vulnerability
category with 19% and 7% in the high and very high vulnerable categories respectively. By lumpⒸ ISERD36

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

summing these three categories it was found that there are 67% of household in the KPS provincethat are potentially impacted by hazards, while the rest are in the low vulnerability category.
From a qualitative point of view, natural disasters, particularly drought, have resulted in
insecurity amongst communities. Due to losses in rice production, some people turn to theft inorder to support their families. The FGDs disclosed this had happened in the Prekdey village(Rolang Chork commune, Somrong Tong district). FGDs in the Chrok Trach village (Morha Sang
commune, Phnom Srouch district) confirmed that some families were in hardship because of thedrought and did not have enough money for their children go to school. Some families, often theones who had suffered the most difficulties and who experienced serious damage to rice production
from drought, had decided to sell their properties and migrate other places, especially to Phnom
Penh. Moreover, the FGD in the Krang Troak village (Kok commune, Borsedth district) reported
that some families experienced increased domestic violence between husbands and wives which
was attributed to stresses caused by drought that damaged their rice production.

Fig. 4 Vulnerability comparison of high and lowland households of the KPS province(1999-2010)
Very High
High

MediumLow

Very Low
.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

Fig. 5 Vulnerability Index by Households
Adaptation identification
In this study, the practices of adapting to drought were determined through a household survey,
FGDs and expert recommendations. Some farmers stated they did not employ any adaptive
practices, while others protected their paddy rice from drought impacts by pumping water fromnearby water bodies such as ponds or wells and/or changing to drought-resistant practices (forexample by planting a short-duration rice variety). Some farmers also increased the amount of
fertilizer they used in order to maximize their yield, especially during years when drought occurred.
The key informant interviews also found that participants believed that modern crop varieties
should be and in some cases have been introduced to areas which experience frequent and/or severe
drought. This is one of the primary interventions of the Department of Agriculture at the provincial
level through their line authorities. While establishing a supplemental irrigation scheme is a longterm drought mitigation strategy, providing ad hoc water pumping to local community is a must
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during drought spells. The practice of water pumping has been used throughout Cambodia,
especially in Kampong Speu province, with the assistance of the Department of Water Resources
and Meteorology. Although it would involve many different government agencies, the next urgent
drought  mitigation  intervention  should  be  increasing  farmers’  knowledge  about  farming  techniques  including Systematic of Rice Intensification (SRI) and improving general education.
CONCLUSION
Cambodia is highly dependent on agriculture, therefore it is vulnerable to climate stimuli such as
flood and drought. Every province in Cambodia is vulnerable to climate change to some degree,
however some are more affected by flood and others by drought. This research found the Kampong
Speu province is prone to drought, with many residents reporting they experienced drought impacts
almost once every two years.
This empirical study reconfirmed that the present vulnerability of households in Kampong
Speu is high due to high sensitivity, low adaptive capacity and low exposure factors, and the study
identified that 67% of this province is in the medium to very high vulnerable range. People haveadapted to drought, but their practices are not productive. Therefore, enhancing adaptive capacity isvery critical, including promoting more drought-resistant crops, (perhaps, as suggested in theliterature, on a small scale) implementing an irrigation scheme, and improved knowledge about
how to use farming techniques to mitigate drought.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was carried out with assistance from a grant from the International Development
Research Centre (IDRC) in Ottawa, Canada and the Economy and Environmental Program forSoutheast Asia (EEPSEA). Thanks must be made to respondents participating in the survey,
government agencies in KPS, and students of the Royal University of Phnom Penh.
REFERENCES
Adger, W.N. 2006. Vulnerability. Global Environmental Change, 16, 268-281.
Eriksen, S.H. and O'Brien, K. 2007. Vulnerability, poverty and the need for sustainable adaptation measures.
Climate Policy, 7, 337-352.
Fankhauser, S., Smith, J.B. and Tol, R.S.J. 1999. Weathering climate change: some simple rules to guide
adaptation decisions. Ecological Economics, 30, 67-78.
Füssel, H.M. 2007. Vulnerability: A generally applicable conceptual framework for climate change research.
Global Environmental Change, 17, 155-167.
Hinkel, J. 2011. Indicators of vulnerability and adaptive capacity: Towards a clarification of the sciencepolicy interface. Global Environmental Change, 21, 198-208.
ICRISAT. 2009. Quantitative assessment of vulnerability to climate change: Computation of vulnerability
indices. (http://www.icrisat.org/what-we-do/impi/training-cc/october-2-3-2009/vulnerability-analysismanual.pdf. Accessed on 11 November 2011)
IPCC. 2007. Climate change 2007: Synthesis report. (http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/syr/ar4_
syr.pdf. Accessed on 15 May 2012)
MoE 2001. Vulnerability and adaptation assessment to climate change in Cambodia. Ministry ofEnvironment, Phnom Penh.
MoE 2005. Vulnerability and adaptation to climate hazards and to climate change: A survey of rural
Cambodia households, Ministry of Environment, Phnom Penh.
OECD. 2008. Handbook on Constructing Composite Indicators: Methodology and User Guide(www.oecd.org/dataoecd/37/42/42495745.pdf. Accessed 11 November 2011.)
Try, T. 2009. Mapping vulnerability to natural hazards in Mondulkiri, Phnom Penh.
Yusuf, A.A. and Francisco, H. 2010. Hotspots! Mapping Climate Change Vulnerability In Southeast Asia.
Singapore.

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Research article
erd

A Feasibility Study on Payment for Forest Environmental
Services in Cambodia
NYDA CHHINH*Royal University of Phnom Penh, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Email: chhinh.nyda@rupp.edu.kh

SOPHEAK KONG
Royal University of Phnom Penh, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Received 13 December 2012

Accepted 30 January 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The study conducted a feasibility study on payment for forest environmental
services in Cambodia, combining quantitative and qualitative data sources. Literature
reviews and interviews were conducted to determine conditions required for payment forecosystem service success, and focus groups discussion and household surveys were
employed to capture villagers’   behaviors   in   forest   management   and   payment   for   forest  environmental services. Results showed that conditions required for PES success include
clear defined ecosystem services; flexible contracts and payments; transaction costs that do
not exceed potential benefits: a reliance on multiple sources of revenue deliveringsufficient and sustainable money; a close monitoring of compliance, land use change andprovision of ecosystem services; and the flexibility to improve effectiveness and efficiency
and adapt to changing condition. PES-like failures in Cambodia resulted from inequity of
benefit-sharing, a lack of management committee capacity to monitor participants andcarry out punitive measures, and the poor quality of services and communication skills.
Factors contributing to PES-like successes were simple and local program organization,
low administrative costs, transparency of benefit-sharing to services providers, and active
participation from villagers in complying with the regulations of programs. PFES could be
integrated into the REDD finance mechanism. As a result, the case study in Chambok
exemplified a community-based forest suitable for PFES implementation and possibly a
joint program. This would lead to improved livelihood conditions of local communities
through forest cover protection, and increase the awareness of downstream and upstream
villagers in ensuring the sustainable provision of services.
Keywords Cambodia, feasibility, forest management, livelihood improvement, PESINTRODUCTION
Commercial logging, shift cultivation, wood harvesting for woodfuel and charcoal production, andhabitat destruction by local villagers and in-migrants are the major driver to deforestation andforest degradation, and great threat to biodiversity. Government policies or incentives for forest
management are urgently needed to secure sustainable use of forest resources and improve local
livelihoods. In light of the failure of the command and control approach, payment for forest
environmental services (PFES) may be considered a potential solution. There are number ofsuccessful studies on payment for environmental services (PES) from both other countries andCambodia. In Costa Rica, environmental services (ES) is being bought through biodiversity
conservation, carbon sequestration, watershed protection, landscape beauty and bundled services(Alcamo et al., 2008). The payment was made to water services at about (USD 40-43/ha/yr),biodiversity (grant from CBD, UNFCCC, Global Environmental Facility, CI and other bodies),
Carbon sequestration (based on Certifiable Tradable Offset, CDM) and landscape (paid by hotel,
tourists and other users) (Pagiola, 2008). In Cambodia, there are three types of PES-Like ranging
from community based ecotourism, agri-environmental, and bird-nest protection programs.
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OBJECTIVES
The overall objective of this research is to conduct feasibility study on payment for forest
environmental services in Cambodia. The specific objectives of the study are to: (i) determine
condition required for PES successes, (ii) identify factors contributed to PES-Like successes andfailure in Cambodia, and (iii) conduct a feasibility study of PFES in Chambok area in Kampong
Speu Province, Cambodia.
METHODOLOGY
The research combined quantitative and qualitative data sources from two different levels, national
and local. For national level, existing literatures was reviewed for accessing of what condition tosecurely require PES success with the experiences from other countries. Key Informant Interview(KII) were also conducted for capturing their perception associated with the failures or successes of
PES-Like schemes in Cambodia in relation to the factors driving forces to deforestation anddegradation of forests. Six KIIs, who had experiences and worked closely related to PES in
Cambodia, were planned for interview (two from government and four from NGOs); but only five
KIIs were available for interview (one NGO was unavailable.) A fixed set of questionnaires wereused and responses were recorded and later transcribed. Chambok area located in Phnom Srouch
District, Kampong Speu Provinces was selected as the case study for identifying the perceptions
and behaviours of villagers associated with forest management. In this regards, for local level, twosmall samples of twenties households were surveyed – one sample from an upstream communityand one from downstream community. All households sampled make daily use of forest. The
household selection was systematically selected (one household surveyed, four households missed,
next household surveyed) and interviewed face to face with the complete set of questionnaires.
With the purpose to capture more in-depth information, FGDs were conducted to recover the root
causes of deforestation and understand the livelihood option and forest management behaviours ofvillagers. Two FGDs (one at the upstream and one at the downstream community) wereinterviewed in order to evaluate the understanding of these two stakeholder groups. Questionnaires,
recorders, and flip chart were used during discussion.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Motivation of PES in Cambodia
From the forest resource point of view, PES appears necessary to ensure the forest coverage. The
constitution and forest law pave ways to sustainable use of forest while protected area policy
warranty the minimum forest coverage area. Forests in Cambodia fall under the general jurisdictionof the MAFF, with the FA charged as the responsible Government Authority (Forestry Law 2002,
Article 3), the MoE is responsible for Protected Areas (PA), and the FiA is responsible for flooded
forest and mangrove areas (Fisheries Law 2006, Article 3). Cambodian Law is hierarchical,
therefore all subsidiary regulations should respect to differentiation of responsibilities laid out in
the Forestry Law and other Laws. Even the law on PES is not legally regulated, the Royal
Government of Cambodia (RGC) has set numbers of policies to ensure forest coverage andsupported PES through REDD mechanism. For instance, the REDD project in Oddar Meanchey,
under the collaboration between the FA and PACT Cambodia through thirteen CF, used PES as amechanism for the distribution of benefits from the sale of carbon credits on the voluntary market(Chervier et al., 2010). About 7.1 million metric tons of carbon dioxides could be sequestered forover thirty years, while around 1,000 participated household were benefited (Poffenberger et al.,2008). The RGC has set policies to reform land administration and natural forest resource
management. The reform has focused on strengthening environmental protection and natural forest
resources through enhancing sustainable forest management, the use of forests to improve thelivelihoods of people, demarcated PA system to protect biodiversity and endangered species, andⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

decentralized forest management through community forestry program. The use and extraction offorest products are carefully regulated through the delivery of permits, regulation of guideline formanagement, prohibited activities, and endorsement. The RGC also encouraged manmade
plantation substitute for national forest demands, and created public awareness to replant and usedcommunity  plantations  for  ﬁrewood  and  charcoal  needs.    
Condition Require PES Success
PES schemes tend to perform successful under the conditions clear and mutual agreement linking
land uses to the provision of ES (Mayrand and Paquin, 2004); clearly defined ecosystem services(Wunder et al., 2008); flexible contracts (Sommerville et al., 2009) and payments and transaction
costs do not exceed potential benefits; a reliance on multiple sources of revenues deliveringsufficient and sustainable money; a close monitoring of compliance, land use change and provisionof ecosystem services (Arriagada and Perrings, 2009; Landell-Mills and Porras, 2002); and theflexibility to improve effectiveness and efficiency and adapt to changing conditions (Sommervilleet al., 2009). The conditions require PES successes are also depended on the successful completionof a series of steps (Fig 1). First, potential service providers must enroll in the program, andsecondly service providers must comply with the terms of their contract. Third, compliance must
result in a change in land use compared to what would have happened without the program(Wunder et al., 2008). The development framework for successfully ES market consist of six steps(Landell-Mills and Porras, 2002): (1) Identify benefits provided by a specific service and bydetermination of forestry activities that deliver this services, (2) Undertake a feasibility study, (3)Establish willingness to pay, (4) Formalize property rights, (5) Establish payment mechanism andsupporting institutions, and (6) Undertake pilot activities and feedback to market design. In thisregards, the needs to provide training or capacity building to PES providers are required in order toincrease the attraction from buyers and their willingness to pay for ecosystem services.

Condition Require PES
Successes

Identify benefits provided by a specificservice and by determination of forestry
activities that deliver these services

Potential service providers
must enroll in the program

Undertake a feasibility study

Service providers mustcomply with the terms of
their contract

Establish willingness to pay
Formalize property rights

Compliance must result in achange in land use
compared to what would
have happened without the
programEstablish payment mechanism andsupporting institutions
Undertake pilot activities and feedback tomarket design

Fig. 1 Conditions require PES successes and framework for successful ES market
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The failures and successes of PES-Like in Cambodia
The opportunities costs for livelihood improvement between replanting and conserving forest to
gain benefits and choosing alternative option by converting land-use to grow other crops is the firstand foremost factors contribute to PES-Like failure in Cambodia. The benefits generated from
replanting and conserving forests take long time while the villagers would prefer direct benefits inshort time to support their daily consumption. Consequently, they would either not willing toparticipate in the program or participate but not respect to the rules and regulation. The second
failure is induced by inequity of benefits sharing and lacking of capacity of the management
committees to implement, monitor, and punish to those break the rules and regulations. Third isderived from poor quality of provided services and communication skills in particular with English
language communication. When the service buyers need guides or rangers, the local villagers
cannot afford to do so and even few can but not well. These would discourage service buyers tocome, and then automatically fail the program through income generation shortage. Factors
contributing to PES-like successes are simple and local program organization, low administrative
costs, transparency of benefit-sharing to services providers, and active participation from villagers
in complying with the regulations of programs. The simple locally arrangement with lessadministrative costs can disburse higher payments to individual villagers who provide the services.
The transparency in benefits sharing to all beneficiaries can avoid jealousness and conflicts throughoperational management. The levels of participation and involvement from villagers and theircommitments to comply with the rules and regulations are significant to retain program successes.
Herein, the needs to build local support and understanding of rules and regulation for protected
forests and land-use plans are also required to ensure the sustainable operation. The rules andregulation should notably be developed locally and approved by the entire village and themonitoring and evaluation should also be done continuously to check with the current statuses andthe changes of existing resources.
Case study of PFES in Chambok area
The Chambok area is located on the outskirts of the Kirirom National Park about 110 kilometers
west of Phnom Penh Capital via national road No. 4 in Chambok Commune, Phnom Srouch
District, Kampong Speu Province. Chambok Commune administers nine villages with a total
population of 546 families. The Chambok CBE is initially developed in 2001 by a local
environment organization Mlup Baitong, in cooperation with the MoE. Villagers in Chambok
commune are farmers and around 94% of the populations are involved in forest resource extraction
activities, including firewood and charcoal trading and collection of bamboo shoots, mushrooms,
traditional medicine, and rattan. This unsustainable harvesting of forest products is leading to therapid degradation of the forest resources both inside and outside the national park. The main
challenges are generating additional incomes to support their livelihood. Based on the below quotefrom farmer, the forest resources in Chambok area are being threatened and urgently needmanagement tool to address this problem.
I am a farmer, but my incomes cannot support my family a whole year. I have to log trees to get money.
I  log  the  trees  not  because  I  don’t  know  the  values  and  advantages of forests,
but because I have no other income generating opportunities.
Villager in Chambok Village, Chambok Commune,
Phnom Srouch District, KampongSpeu Province (Interview on 19th May 2012)

PFES may be considered as the potential solution to overcome this problem and provide
additional incomes to villagers. Chambok area is appeared to be potential area for piloting programof PFES in Cambodia. First, the protected area of 1,260 hectare of forestland inside Chambok area
can secure forest resources from illegal logging or invades from powerful outsiders. Moreover,inside the Chambok boundary, there are three CF and they have played important roles in forestⒸ ISERD

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management. The CF enables villagers to understand clearly and recognize the benefit andimportance of forest resources through closely involve them in forest resources management andprotection. Second, the land uses of CF in Chambok area can potentially provide a variety of ES
ranging from the regulation of hydrological flows, bird watching, waterfall beauty, and carbon
sequestration potential from bamboo. The hydrological flows of waterfall in the upstream of
Chambok generate clean drinking water to the downstream and are being bought by nine villages in
Chambok Commune with an average expend USD 0.25 per month per household. Bird watching
and waterfall beauty have considered as the most attractive ES to attract visitors to Chambok area.
Third, the villagers are paid for providing forest conservation services if and only if they comply
with the commonly-agreed conditions stipulated in contracts of the regulation on land-use plans,
non-hunting and non-forest logging.
There is no single approach to require PES successes from theoretical and practical reviewing
existing literatures. PES schemes are adapted to the very specific conditions under which they are
established and to the specific characteristics of markets for different ES. The three program of
PES-Like in Cambodia identified by (Clements et al., 2010) was successfully implemented basedon its own specific characteristics of market for different ES and locations. However, mostly ofthem were heavily depended on funding project from donors. Can the program be sustained when
the project was stopped funded? For sure, it could not be sustained without funds. So, the linkage
of investors to invest in the program might be the best to sustain the program because their business
operation are for making profits, and do so the program can get continuously support. Even thecase study in Chambok shows the characteristics and ES trading inside Chambok area has compliedwith the criteria for implementing PFES, the knowledge and understanding on forest managementof villagers are remained poor. The upstream villagers tend to easily change their behaviour
through converting land-use for agriculture or encroaching forest lands for commercial and making
woodfuel and charcoal. They are not critically enough to think in a longer time the negative
consequences of doing so. The downstream villagers are still not aware that the services they used
are being provided by upstream villagers, and its qualities could be changed in accordance to theland-use management behaviours of the upstream villagers. This means that the implementation
program of PFES in context of Cambodia is not successful if the program depends on only
downstream villagers to compensate to the upstream villagers.
CONCLUSION
The major driven of deforestation and forest degradation in Cambodia are caused by institutional
fragmentation, limited institutional and individual capacities, unclear of tenure, limited livelihood
options, and lack of law enforcement. These five factors have contributed to ineffective ofsustainable forest management even policy related to land and natural resource management wasreformed by the RGC. The successful experiences from previous PES-Like in Cambodia draw
lessons for the future development of program on PFES. This is particularly based on the livelihood
impacts of land use change activities and the challenges involving in transferring conditional
payment across actors and scales. The diversification of revenues for villagers involved in PES
schemes through the creation of new markets for environmental goods and services is the key forsuccess of PFES implementation. In doing so, the villagers will actively involve in the programwith respected to non-hunting rules and non-logging regulation and not to turn their land-use easily
for other purposes. So, the future implementation of PFES should be jointly carried out with REDD
program in order to extend financing from PFES. In this regards, Chambok area is one of thetypical community forestry among the others that suitable for applying PFES and possibly joint
program between PFES and REDD. The implementation of PFES program in Cambodia should be
driven under the theme of improving livelihood of local communities through forest protection andenhancing forest covers in the protected area. The raising awareness for downstream villagers (thefuture buyers) and upstream villagers should be provided for ensuring the sustainable provision ofservices. The needs to support from NGOs as mediator in buying ES or/and linking the program tobusiness and private enterprise is very importance to secure PFES successes.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The research paper is made possible through many contributions. This paper is one of the outputs
from   the   a   research   project   “Evaluation   of   Pilot   Program   on   Payment   for   Forest   Environmental  Services  in  Vietnam  and  Policy  Implication  in  Lao  PDR  and  Cambodia”  jointly  implement  by  three  countries: Cambodia, the Lao PDR, and Vietnam by the Royal University of Phnom Penh, Hue
College of Economics from each country respectively. The authors are cordially pleased to thank to
Sumernet, Sida SWEDEN and CDKN for supporting fund in research activities. The authors also
express our sincere thanks to local institutions such as Ministry of Environment, Forestry
Administration, and local conservation NGOs such as WCS, FFI, CEPA where the research paper
obtained data.
REFERENCES
Alcamo, J., Acosta-michlik, L., Carius, A., Eierdanz, F., Klein, R., Krömker, D., et al. 2008. A new approachto quantifying and comparing vulnerability to drought. Regional Environmental Change, 8(4), 137-137149.
Arriagada, R. and Perrings, C. 2009. Making payments for econsystem services work: Ecosystem services
econommics. UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya.
Chervier, C., Neang, M. and Depres, C. 2010. Emergence of the notion of environmental services (ES) in
forest conservation policies and the international influence: field evidence from Cambodia.
Clements, T., John, A., Nielsen, K., An, D., Tan, S. and Milner-Gulland, E. J. 2010. Payments forbiodiversity conservation in the context of weak institutions: Comparison of three programs from
Cambodia. Ecological Economics, 69(6), 1283-1291.
Landell-Mills, N. and Porras, L. 2002. Silver bullet or fools' gold? A global review of markets for forest
environmental services and their impact on the poor. International Institute for Environment andDevelopment, London, U.K.
Landell-Mills, N. and Porras, T. I. 2002. Silver bullet or fool's gold? . Earthprint Limited, London,UK.
Mayrand, K. and Paquin, M. 2004. Payments for environmental services. A Survey and Assessment ofCurrent Schemes Unisféra International Centre.
Pagiola, S. 2008. Payments for environmental services in Costa Rica. Ecological Economics, 65(4), 712-724.
Poffenberger, M., Gryze, S.D., Durschinger, L. 2008. Designing collaborative REDD projects: A case study
from Oddar Meanchey province. Community Forestry International. Cambodia.
Sommerville, M.M., Jones, J.P.G. and Milner-Gulland, E.J. 2009. A revised conceptual framework forpayments for environmental services. Ecology and Society, 14, 1-14.
Wunder, S., Engel, S. and Pagiola, S. 2008. Taking stock: a comparative analysis of payment forenvironmental services programs in developed and developing countries. Ecological Economics, 65,
834-852.

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Research article
erd

Women’s  Roles  in  Fisheries  Governance  in  Ban  Laem,  Phetchaburi Province, Thailand
DARACHA THIAMMUEANG*
Faculty of Fisheries Technology and Aquatic Resources, Maejo University, Chiang Mai,
Thailand
Email: daracha@mju.ac.th

KUNGWAN JUNTARASHOTE
Coastal Development Center, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand

RATANA CHUENPAGDEE

Memorial  University  of  Newfoundland,  St.  John’s,  Canada
Received 16 December 2012

Accepted 30 January 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract In the past, men have been played key role in the way of life of small-scale
fishers. Because of their physical condition is more proper than women. Therefore, thewomen are mainly participating in fish processing and marketing. At present, participationof women in fisheries industry has increased day by day, particularly as a labor force infisheries production sector. In this study, women in Ban Panern, a fishing village in LaemPak Bia sub-district, Ban Laem district, Phetchaburi province was selected to examine thewomen roles that contributing to fisheries governance. Using key informant interviews andparticipant observation was carried out from August to September 2011. The results
showed that, the roles of women in this fishing village were more or less the same of
women’s   role   in   the   third   world.   These   roles   are   classified   into   3   categories,   i.e.,  motherhood role, labor in production role and community management role. Most of them
have been involved in all three categories particularly, contribution to the fishery
management in their community. They have participated in many activities that relating to
public utility development, they have established and conducted a fish central market in
the village in order to solve the unfair price of aquatic animal problem of the fishers. Thesedemonstrated that, women have a high potential in strengthen the capability of fishingcommunity in fisheries governance. The success of fisheries governance will lead to better
livelihood of fishing households and a sustainable of their fisheries.
Keywords woman’s role, fisheries governance, fisheries management, community fish
marketINTRODUCTION
For small-scale fisheries, man is major labor in this industry because of suitability in their physicalcondition (Arunpark, 1999). So that women have contributed to the processes after fishing work at
the sea such as selling their products or fish processing. They had played important role in onshore
activities. They undertook the administrative work of the fishing enterprise. In the past, most ofpeople have had valued and expected in men should be more significant role such as leader,
governor in society because men are physically stronger.   Due to sex gender are defined throughtwo factors including biological factor and social environmental as a psychological perspective.  
Biological factor concerns about the physical differences between male and female while social
environmental is the factor to influent the appearances of sex (Jittayasothon, 2008).
As same as fisheries sector, men have been played important role in fishing at the sea for along time while women have involved in activities after fishing including processing and selling.
At the present day, women have played role in their community increasingly, especially the
economical aspect. As the record of National Statistical Office, we found that 45% of Thai womenⒸ ISERD

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have been involved to contribute to the income of their households, communities and country(Piamsomboon, 2008). Studies on women in fisheries so far have been more or less focused onfish processing and preservation techniques and activities and socio-economic status of women.
This study aimed to examine the woman roles involving fisheries governance aspect besides theircontributions in fisheries economics section.
METHODOLOGY
Study area
In this study, Laem Pak Bia sub-district, Ban Laem District, Phetchaburi Province was chosen toinvestigate. Phetchaburi province is located in Western, Thailand at the northern end of the Malay
Peninsula, with the East of Gulf of Thailand. There are four of the eight districts located along thecoast that is why fisheries are economically important to the province. In 2010, fisheries provided
over 25,000 tons of products or approximately THB 1.5 billion (USD 50 million) in value (Officeof Phetchaburi Province). There are four villages in this sub-district including Ban Panern, Ban
Donnai, Ban Donklang and Ban Donkadee (Fig. 1). Marine fishing is a major occupation in all ofthese villages. Ban Panern is the center for fishers due to be the place where landing, fish market
and the crab bank project located.

Fig. 1 Study area: Laem Pak Bia sub-district, Ban Laem district, Phetchaburi
Data collection
This study was conducted using a mixed method of literature review, key informant interviews(Table 1) and participant observation. A series of open-ended question was used in the key
informant interviews. They consisted of questions related to the role of women to fisheries
governance in the study area.

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Table 1 List of key informants interviewed in this study
Category

Number of key informants
Male
Female
2
2
1
1
2
1
2
2
1
3
8
9

Fishers
Villagers who are not fishers
Housewives of fishers
Fish traders
Fisheries group leaders
Other group leaders
Governing officers
Total

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The natural system characteristic
Laem Pak Bia is one of the ten sub-district located in the southeast of Ban Laem district. This area
consists largely of mud flats and sandy beaches, with some mangrove forests (Pollution Control
Department, 2004) that serve as important habitats for juvenile fish and crabs and especiallydwelling animals like clams (Aksornkoae, 2007). Numerous aquatic species were found, such as
threadfin, longtail sard, sand whiting, mackerel, large-scale tongue sole, hard shell, blood cockle,
razor clam, banana shrimp, blue swimming crab, mud crab and squid according to the Office of theRoyal  Development  Project  Board  (1997).  Dolphins  and  Bryde’s  whale  could  be  found  in  the area
as well. In addition, artificial reefs had been installed in this area to help increase fisheries
productivity. There is also the waste water treatment system, which enhances the abundance ofcoastal fisheries resources, especially those in the benthic zone such as blood cockle and hard shell.
These natural characteristics have contributed to fishing for a long time even though some situation
happened such as mangrove forests were decreased during the aquaculture boom.
The socio-economic system characteristic
From the interviews and field observation, the study found that small-scale fishing was major
occupation. The other occupations consist of salt-farmer, labor and merchant. Small-scale fishers inthis area used multiple types of gear, targeting multispecies. The main type of gear were crab gillnets, fish gill nets, shrimp gill nets, octopus traps and collapsible crab traps. Large-scale fisheriesalso existed, to a lesser extent, using mackerel purse seine and squid nets. Most of this kind offisheries hired foreign labor. Some women gather hard clam and blood cockle using small handdredges and some go fishing with their husbands, in the case of small-scale fishers businesses. The
majority of small-scale fishers are members of three fisheries groups; the crab bank project, thecommunity  fish  marketing  group  and  the  community  boat  repair  service.  There  was  also  a  women’s  enterprise, which produced ceremonial flowers for funerals.
Women roles in fisheries governance
The study found that women in Laem Pak Bia sub-district, Ban Laem district, Phetchaburi province
had  collaborated  to  establish  the  group  named  “Woman  development  volunteer  group”  following  the  government’s  policy  that  desired  to  increase  woman participation in their community. However,this group had not been in any action which relate to community development. Until the women inthis sub-district, especially who were live in Ban Panern, had re-organized the group in order toencourage the alternative occupation for women through producing the local products or others forsell that mentioned earlier. Involving to fisheries, the some women in this community also hadjoined to community fish marketing community group under the leading from the mainstay
fishermen.
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As to consider following the woman role in the third world which were classified into 3
categories, i.e., motherhood role, labor in production role and community management role
(Wangpittaya, 2008 cited  Kittasanka,  2002), we found that the roles of women in this fishing area
were more or less the same. Most of them had been involved in all three categories particularly,
contribution to the fisheries governance in their community, namely:
1) Motherhood role: this role was considered as the biological aspect that women had pregnant,taking care for well-being of their children and family members.
2) Labor in production role: this role was concerned working in the way to earn their remuneration
either as a monetary compensation or non-monetary compensation. For example, gathering blood
cockle and hard shell using small hand dredges at the coastal area near their houses after
housework finished which had been doing for a long time until the present day. Some women were
hired from the large-scale fishers to sew the crab net, fish net and shrimp net. They would buy thenets, then sewn those together to the larger pieces and bounded the piece of lead at the lower net.
Many women were pleased to do this work since they could do it at home that also could take careof their children as well. Moreover, these women had collaborated as a group to produce theflowers for funeral ceremony under the Laem Pak Bia Sub-district Administration Organization
supporting through allocated the experts for demonstrating and training. On the other hand, some
women had work without returns in cash due to they had been as a labor in fishing with theirhusbands.
Most of the women in Laem Pak Bia sub-district had been played both motherhood role andlabor in production role because these roles were main role of general women in fishery families as
Nasae et al. (2002) examined the role of women in fishing community and found that women had
play important in motherhood role and labor in production role such as going out to fish at the sea
and selling their catches. In the past, fishing has long been considered a male occupation andwomen were thought to be involved only in post-harvest activities. However, there is growing
recognition  of  women’s  contribution  in  capture  fisheries  in  all  activities  (Kusakabe,  2003).    
3) Community   management   role:   it   involved   to   women’s   participation   in   planning   and   decision  making to improve the public utilities such as canal dredging, health and education development
activities etc. Some of women in this sub-district also had played this role in term of collaboratingin those activities i.e., cleaning public areas, participation in planning and decision-making onmonthly meeting through proposed their opinions in order to find the approach to solve theproblem in the villages. The obviously community management role of these women wereorganizing community fish marketing group. Actually, this group was originated by a group offishermen who wanted to solve the unfair price of fish. Cost in fishing, especially fuel, was high.
Their income was not covering their cost which induced them to take a loan from the middleman orfish market owner with the condition to sell the catches to creditor only. These fishermen realizedthat creating of the community fish marketing group could solve unfair price problem.
The community fish marketing group had administrated as cooperative with all of womenproceeding. The group was initiated through informal meeting of some fishermen to discussion
about unfair price problem with staff from the Thai Sea Watch Associate, a non-governmentalorganization (NGO) based in southern Thailand. The Thai Sea Watch Associate organized a visit
for a small group of women to observe an ongoing fish marketing group in Pattalung province.
Upon their return, the chair-person and the committee for this group were appointed. The
community fish marketing group started to proceed with private funding of the group members in
2009. Fishers who want to sell their catches must be a member to the group. Besides the fair priceof fish, they would receive dividend as well. Until now, this community fish marketing group has
been carried out continuously and smoothly. It demonstrated that women have potential togoverning the fisheries. As Limanon (1999) examined the women have an incentive to manage thatshowed their high enough potential to develop of the community.
For resource conservation concerns, from the study of The Environmental Fund of United
Nation in 2008   (Wangpittaya, 2008) found that women had more awareness in the problem andtend to do actions to protect the degradation of the environment and natural resource than men.
Also women often had better vision to how environment decaying. As though women in this study
area always had participated with community in resource conservation through attended a monthlyⒸ ISERD

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meeting in the their villages and encouraged her husband to donate gravid female crab to crab bankproject, including to join with the government campaign involving mangrove planting.
CONCLUSION
The results in this study showed that women in Laem Pak Bia sub-district had played importantroles in terms of taking care well-being of their households and economics aspect as wererecognized  that  women’s  economic  contribution  in  fisheries  is  divided  into  two  categories  namely;;  the recognized work in fishing or processing through formal employment and the unrecognized
work   by   fishers’   wives,   mothers   who   are   in   charge   of   different   tasks   within   the   family   business  (Frangoudes, 2011). Moreover, women in this community had played important role to community
management in term of participation and collaboration in community development activities andalso  organized  the  group  “Community  Fish  Marketing”  that  contributed  to  solve  the  unfair  price  of  fish   problem.   Growing   in   woman’s   role   on   management aspect is important part to drive tofisheries governing achieved.

Fig. 2 The community fish marketing group operation area
(The Thai Sea Watch Associate, 2011)

Fig. 3 The community fish marketing group members were classifying the fish
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to express their gratitude to the Laem Pak Bia Sub-district Administrative
Organization officers, the chairman of each villages, including the fishers and women in Laem Pak
Bia sub-district for the interviews.
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REFERENCES
Aksornkoae, S. 2007. Mangrove forest – the treasure of sufficient economy in coastal communities. J. Forest.
Manage., 1(1), 1-13.
Arunpark, K. 1999. Women's role in fishery community: A case study at Ban Koh-Jik Chantaburi province.
Master Thesis, Silpakorn University, Thailand.
Frangoudes,  K.  2011.  Women’s  contribution in the European Union. In: R. Chuenpagdee (ed). 2011. Worldsmall-scale fisheries contemporary visions. Eburon Publishers, The Netherlands, 101-116.
Kusakabe, K. 2003. Gender issues in small scale inland fisheries in Asia: Women as an important source of
information. In: New approaches for the improvement of inland capture fishery statistics in the Mekong
Basin Ad-hoc expert consultation Charoen Sri Grand Royal Hotel Udon Thani, Thailand 2-5 September
2002. RAP Publication 2003/01. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, MekongRiver Commission, Government of Thailand and Government of the Netherlands, 50-58.
Jittayasothon, D. 2008. Sex roles: a psychological perspective. University of the Thai Chamber of Commerce
Academic Journal, 328 (1), 195-208.
Limanon, P.1999. Gender role, status of women and development. College of Population Studies,
Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok.
Nasae, B., Phengnu, B., Chanachai, S., Nilphet, S., Kaewmahing, P., Tunsakun, R., Jitnirat, N., Kongpasert,
P., Songkhasarote, T., Jitpirom, S. and Sirichai, L. 2002. Community-based resource management. Casestudy from southern small-scale fisheries. southern coastal resource management project, Bangkok.
Office of Phetchaburi Province. 2010. General information of pietchaburi. (http://www.phetchaburi.go.th/data/dataphet_53.pdf. Accessed on 5 November 2010)
Office of the Royal Development Project Board. 1997. Her royal highness’s   mangrove forest: part 1
preliminary research. Office of the Royal Development Project Board. Bangkok.
Piamsomboon, S. 2008. Gender aspect to fisheries development. News Letter. 1(2). Department of Fisheries.
Bangkok. 1-8.
Pollution Control Department. 2004. Status of the marine environmental quality in Phetchaburi. Report 10/23,
Water Quality Management Bureau, Pollution Control Department. Bangkok. (in Thai)
The Thai Sea Watch Associate. 2011. Community fish market. (http://raktalaethai.com/paper/52. Sourced: 16
January 2011.)
Wangpittaya, A. 2008. Role and need for participation in community-based fishery management of female
fisher folks in the Pattani Bay: A case study of Da Toh village, Lampo subdistrict, Yaring district,
Pattani province, Thailand, Mastert Thesis, Kasetsart University, Bangkok.
Wangpittaya, A. 2008. Role and need for participation in community-based fishery management of female
fisher folks in the Pattani Bay: A case study of Da Toh village, Lampo subdistrict, Yaring district,
Pattani province, Thailand. Master Thesis, Kasetsart University, Bangkok. (Cited Kittasangka, M. 2002.
Encouragement of equality between women and men. Encouragement of equality between women andmen and women labor right in Thailand, Lampang, Thailand).

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Research article
erd

Acute Toxicity of Textile Metal Complex Dark Green Azo
Acid Dye (53) and Anionic Surfactant Oil on Nile Tilapia,
Oreochromis niloticus and Bioconcentration of Total
Chromium and Copper in Gill Tissues
HILMA RANTILLA AMWELE
Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

RAKPONG PETKAM*
Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Email: rakpong@kku.ac.th

FREDERICK WILLIAM HENRY BEAMISH
Burapha University, Bangsaen, Chonburi, Thailand

KANIT CHUKANHOM
Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Received 13 December 2012

Accepted 30 January 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The experiment was conducted on Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus todetermine the lethal concentration of textile metal complex dark green azo acid dye in thepresence and absence of anionic surfactant oil during an exposure period of 96 hr. The
design consisted of four treatments: control, metal complex dark green azo dye, a mixtureof metal complex dark green azo acid dye with anionic surfactant oil and anionicsurfactant oil; and each was applied at four concentrations (1%, 5%, 10% and 15% ofstock solution). Data were analyzed by using Probit analysis. The 96 hr LC50 was 7.25%(95% CL = 6.55-7.96) of stock solution for metal complex dark green azo acid dye, 2.85%(95% CL 2.14-3.90) for the mixture of metal complex dark green azo acid dye withanionic surfactant oil and 7.27% (95% CL = 6.45-8.43) stock anionic surfactant oil. Total
chromium concentration in the gill filaments of tilapia increased linearly with dyeconcentration and was independent of anionic surfactant oil. Contrary, total copper
concentration in the gill tissue increased linearly in with the present of anionic surfactant
oil. The lethal effect observed during the trial was dose depended, the mortality rateincreased with the increase in treatments concentration.
Keywords mortality rate, LC50, dyebath, surfactant oil, aquatic animal

INTRODUCTION
Synthetic dyes and anionic surfactant oil contain substances potentially harmful to the environment
and are important in the production of textiles (Christie, 2007). In Northeast of Thailand, there isevidence that the silk textile community discharge dye effluent without treatment, raising
environmental concern (Thailand Institute of Science and Technological Research, 2004). One of
the synthetic dye that cause environmental concern is a metal complex azo acid dye, commonly
called azo dye and classified as acid dye that contain the potentially toxic metals copper, cobalt,
aluminum, iron, nickel and chromium (Clark, 2011; Jo et al., 2010; Christie 2001; Hunger, 2003).
These metals bind with dye ligands such as sodium sulfate and provide colour stability and firm
attachment to the yarn (Clark, 2011; Adachi, 2004; Christie, 2001).
Metal complex azo acid dyes are commonly used to dye silk and cotton yarn and are appliedin neutral to weakly acidic baths (Christie, 2007). Surfactant oil is used for removing the sericin orsilk gum, improves the sheen, colour and texture of the silk yarn. In addition, it is also used forⒸ ISERD

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colour uniform and accelerates dye firm attachment to the yarn (Chen et al., 2010). Azo dyes havebeen associated with skin and eye irritations in humans and carcinogenic, mutagenic and lethal
effects in other organisms (Christie, 2007; Bae et al., 2006; Popma and Masser, 1999). Potentiallyharmful effect of metals, particularly the heavy metals, copper, and chromium, to aquaticorganisms include impaired growth, reproduction (Segner, 2011; Hayat, 2007) and in extreme
cause death (Eisler, 1998). This is explicit in water quality criteria (Eneji, 2007).
Acute lethal concentrations vary among metals, their chemical forms and other ambient
factors. In Thailand, maximum allowable concentrations of total copper (0.1 mg/L) and chromium(0.05 mg/L) for surface water (Pollution Control Department Ministry of Natural Resources andEnvironment, 2007). Some metals rarely, if ever, occur in water at lethal concentrations but even atlower concentrations may, impose chronic deleterious effects particularly in the presence of othersubstances (Eisler, 1998).
Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus, is a freshwater and tolerant to harsh condition such as
water relatively low in dissolved oxygen and high pH (Delong et al., 2009 and Popma and Masser,1999).
The objective of this study was to determine the lethal concentration (96 hr LC50) of textile
metal complex dark green azo acid dye (53), surfactant oil and a mixture of dye with surfactant oil
to Oreochromis niloticus and bioconcentration of total chromium and copper from the dye andanionic surfactant oil in gill tissues.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Nile tilapia (n= 630) of 6.4 to 7.9 g live weight and 7.5 to 8.3 cm total length, were obtained from
Khon Kaen University, fisheries farm. Fish were held in static dechlorinated water (50 L) that wascontinuously aerated for 7 days. Ambient conditions included Dissolved oxygen (≥4  mg/l), watertemperature (26.5 - 28.1 °C), pH (6.5 - 7.2), Total dissolved solids (89.4 mg/l) and salinity (0.09ppt), Alkalinity (47 mg/l), NH3 (0.01 mg/l) and NH4+ (0.74) (APHA, 2005). Fish were fed ad
libitum daily with commercial feed (Gorbest Cooperation Co. Company). No mortality wasrecorded during this period. After 7 days, fish were exposed to experimental concentrations ofsurfactant oil, dark green azo acid dye and a mixture of dark green azo acid dye with surfactant oil.
Metal complex dark green azo acid dye (53) and surfactant oil used in this study were obtained
from Chonnabot dye shop, (Khon Kaen Province, Thailand) and analyzed (EPA, 1996) for total
copper (1.09 mg/l) and chromium (5314 mg/l). Water solubility of the azo dye was 64.3 g/l wereanalyzed using methods EN 14362-1 described in (British Standard, 2003). Surfactant oil analyzed
for total copper was present at 0.002 mg/l and total chromium was present at 0.049 mg/l, sulfate (asSO42-) was present at 553.82 mg/l, alkyl benzene sulfonate was present at 3.57 mg/l (APHA, 2005)
and solubility of surfactant oil in water was > 1 kg/l.
A completely randomized design was applied and consisted of 3 replicates of each of 13
treatments. Fish were held in 39 plastic tanks, each containing 50 L of dechlorinated andcontinuously aerated water. Stocking density was 15 fish / tank (5 kg/m3).
The stock solution was prepared according to dyebath procedure used by community members
in Chonabot. Dye stock solution contained 65 g of metal complex dark green azo acid dye,
dissolved in 1 L of hot water and boiled for 5 minutes, allowed to cool at a room temperature andthe solution was made up to 30 L with tap water. Stock solution with mixture contained 65 g ofmetal complex dark green azo acid dye with 20 ml of anionic surfactant oil, while a stock solution
for anionic surfactant oil only contained 20 ml of oil. Experimental concentrations for each of thethree stock solutions (100%) were 15, 10, 5 and 1%. Control treatment was normal tape water.
Fish were not fed for 4 days during the trial. Number of dead fish were recorded and removed
at 24, 48, 72 and 96 hr. The 96 hr LC50 values were determined by Probit analysis (SPSS software
11.5 program).
Total chromium and copper were measured in gill tissue of fish from each of the threetreatments and four concentrations (1%, 5%, 10% and 15% of stock solution) and of control
treatment. After 96 hrs two fish that did not survived and two live fish that survived were collectedⒸ ISERD

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from each tank of three replicates, from which gill tissue were collected, from six of the 45 dead orlive fish. Ground gill tissues of 1 g was digested in a solution of 7 ml nitric acid (65%) and 1 mlhydrogen peroxide (30%), heated at 105 °C in a microwave, cooled, filtered (Whatman no. 1) andanalyzed for total copper and chromium using Inductively Coupled Plasma – Optical Emission
Spectroscopy (ICP-OES) (EPA, 1996; AOAC, 2005). Total chromium and copper
bioaconcentration factor was calculated according to the standard method of fish recommended by
OECD (1996) and USEPA, (1996): Bioconcentration factor (BCF) is a ratio of concentration of
metal in fish gills (µg/kg) / Concentration of metal in water (µg/l).
The LC50 value was determined by probit analysis method by SPSS software 14 program(Finnery,   1971).   The   percentages   for   corrected   fish   mortality   rate   were   determined   by   Abbot’s  formula (Abbott, 1925). Corrected mortality (%) = (X – Y / X) 100; Where, X = percentages of live
fish in control sample and Y = percentages of live fish in treatment sample.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Lethal toxicity
No mortalities occurred in any of the control tanks over the 96 hr experimental period. Exposure tometal complex dark green azo acid dye in the absence of anionic surfactant oil produced no
mortality rate at a concentration of 1 % and 36% fish mortality rate at 5 % concentration, while themortality rate was 91% at 10% concentration and 96% at 15% concentration within 96 hr. The fishmortality rate of fish exposed to a mixture of metal complex dark green dye with anionic surfactant
oil was 2% at 1% concentration and 100% mortality rate occurred at 5, 10 and 15 % concentrationsin 24 hr. No fish mortality rate occurred at the lowest concentration of 1% anionic surfactant oil
only, 2% mortality rate occurred at 5% concentration and 100% fish mortality occurred at 10 and
15 % concentrations within 24 hr. Clearly, the lethal effects of all treatments of metal complex darkgreen azo acid dye, the mixture of metal complex dark green azo acid dye with anionic surfactant
oil and anionic surfactant oil reflected a concentration rather than exposure time effect.
The 96 hr LC50 for dye without anionic surfactant oil was 4.71 g metal complex dark green
azo acid dye per liter, equivalent to 7.25% ( 95% CL = 6.56 - 7.96) of that in the stock solution.
The lethal toxicity of the mixture of dye and surfactant oil was calculated to contain 1.85 g metal
complex dark green azo acid dye per liter, equivalent to 2.85 % ( 95% CL = 2.14 - 3.90) of that in
the stock solution, much less than that in the absence of oil. The mixture of oil and dye wascalculated to contain 0.57 ml/l of oil at the lethal toxicity, equivalent to 2.85% of that in the stock
solution. The LC50 of anionic surfactant oil alone was 1.45 ml/l, equivalent to 7.27 % (95% CL =6.45-8.43) of that in the stock solution and well above that calculated at the lethal toxicity of the oiland dye mixture.
Acute toxicity of metal complex dark green azo acid dye increased in the presence of
surfactant oil. It is interesting that for each of metal complex dark green azo acid dye and anionicsurfactant oil the lethal toxicities represented almost equal proportions of their respective stock
solutions. This indicates the mixture to be proportionately more toxic than the additive toxicities ofmetal complex dark green azo acid dye and surfactant oil.
Water quality parameters in experimental tanks were in the range recommended for tilapia
survival rate and production (DeLong et al. 2009), where, dissolved oxygen 4.6±0.4 mg/l - 6.7±0.3
mg/l, pH 6.7 ± 0.1 – 7.1 ± 0.2, temperature 27.8±0.3 ºC – 28. 3 ± 0.0 ºC. Total dissolved solids
were the higher when dye was present and increased directly with concentration from 95 ± 0.3 to
165 ± 0.2 mg/l and similar pattern occurred with the concentrations of mixture of metal complex
dark green azo acid dye with anionic surfactant oil were 96 ± 0.2 to 161 ± 0.2 mg/l. The anionicsurfactant oil was expected to increases overall solubility of dye in solution. However, total
dissolved solids increased with dye concentration with values being almost identical to those for
mixtures of metal complex dark green azo acid dye and anionic surfactant oil at comparable
concentrations. Total dissolved solids associated with surfactant oil alone increased slightly from91 ±0.1 to 96 ± 2.4 mg/l with ambient concentration. This implies the toxic qualities of metalⒸ ISERD

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complex dark green azo acid dye may not relate to its solubility but instead to total concentration.
Bioaccumulation of total chromium and copper in O. niloticus gills in 96 hr exposure periods
Table 1 Mean total chromium and copper concentration in pooled gill samples
from O. niloticus after 96 hr exposure to concentrations of metal complex dark green azo acid dye (D),a mixture of metal complex dark green azo acid dye with anionic surfactant oil (SOD) and anionic surfactant
oil (SO)

Total Cr concentration (µg/kg)
Concentration

D

SOD

SO

Cr

Cu

Cr

Cu

Cr

Cu

0

72

900

72

900

72

900

1%

354

809

300

862

191

704

5%

508

760

530

953

116

771

10%

534

713

600

999

92

1109

15%

757

994

750

1222

125

1042

Total chromium concentration in gill tissue increased with dye concentration between 0 and 15 %of stock solution in each of the two treatments containing metal complex dark green azo acid dye(Table 1). Some chromium was present in the gills of fish from untreated water (controls). Total
chromium concentration in gill tissue correlated significantly (P < 0.05) with dye concentration
when exposed only to metal complex dark green azo acid dye (n = 5, r = 0.91) and equally on
exposure to a mixture of metal complex dye and oil (n = 5, r = 0.93). These relationships aredescribed by the regressions: Metal complex dark green azo acid dye only: Cr (µg/kg) = 36.49
stock solution (% Total) + 218.79 (R = 0.82). The mixture of metal complex dark green azo aciddye with anionic surfactant oil: Cr (µg/kg) = 39.28 stock solution (% Total) + 206.87 (R = 0.86).
Thus, from the equations the rate of total chromium concentration is similar for the two treatments,on the contrary, in gill tissue exposed to anionic surfactant oil only (n = 5, r = 0.11) did notcorrelated significantly (P > 0.05) as expressed by regressions as Cr (µg/kg) = -0.81 stock solution(% Total) + 124.24 (R = 0.01).
Total copper was detected in the gills of fish exposed to normal condition. Total copper
accumulation in gill tissue correlated significantly (P < 0.05) in fish gills exposed to a mixture ofmetal complex dye with anionic surfactant oil (n = 5, r = 0.94) and those exposed to anionicsurfactant oil (n = 5, r = 0.74). These relationships are described by the regressions, where, amixture of metal complex dark green azo acid dye with anionic surfactant oil: Cu (µg/kg) = 21.06
stock solution (% Total) + 856.65 (R = 0.88) and the anionic surfactant oil: Cu (µg/kg) = 20.26
stock solution (% Total) + 779.57 (R = 0.55). Therefore, from the equations the rate of total copper
accumulation is similar to the treatment with a present of anionic surfactant oil. However, in gilltissue exposed only to metal complex dark green azo acid dye (n = 5, r = 0.26) did not correlated
significantly (P > 0.05) as described by regressions, where, Cu (µg/kg) = 4.77 stock solution (%Total) + 805.61 (R = 0.07).
Total copper and chromium concentrated in O.niloticus gills exposed to normal condition(Table 1) might come from the water as copper was detected at 0.4 µg/l which is below
recommended 50 µg/l for water consumption and 20 µg/l for aquatic animal production while
chromium was below detection level 50 µg/l recommended for water consumption in Thailand(Pollution Control Department, 2007). Generally metal occurs in naturally water from theweathering of rocks, industrial discharges and leakage (Eneji, 2011; Yilmaz et al. 2011). Fishuptake the metal across body surfaces and thin epithelium of gill filaments become concentrated ingills as their outer layer is negatively charged and attracts positively charged metallic ions (Heath,1995). Prior to the experiment fish were fed with commercial feed. Normally fish are supplemented
with copper and chromium in feed because essential elements for animal health at the low
concentration (Abdel-Baki et al., 2011; Watanabe, 1997) but can inflict deleterious effects at higherⒸ ISERD

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concentrations (Eisler, 1998).
Chromium concentration in the gill filaments of tilapia increased linearly with dyeconcentration and was independent of anionic surfactant oil. Total chromium bioconcentration
factor (BCF) in a present of metal complex dark green dye concentrations was 6.71 (1%), 2.03(5%), 1.22 (10%), 1.54 (15%) and in control was zero. Similar pattern occurred in fish exposed to
mixture of metal complex dark green dye with anionic surfactant oil concentrations were 5.18 (1%),
2.43 (5%), 1.55 (10%), 1.41 (15%), and in the present of anionic surfactant was zero. Hence, theconcentration of total chromium was higher in fish gills than in water. Despite similar chromium
accumulations in the gills at comparable dye concentrations the presence of anionic surfactant oil
increased lethality in a synergistic manner. It is interesting that Hickey (1990) found some heavy
metal toxic in the presence of SO42-. As noted earlier the surfactant oil used in this study contained
a considerable amount of SO42- which could relate to synergistic response of the mixture of metal
complex dark green azo acid dye and surfactant oil.
Contrary, total copper concentration in the gill tissue increased linearly in the present ofanionic surfactant oil and also increased lethality in a synergistic manner. In addition, the BCF for
total copper in the present of mixture of metal complex dark green dye with anionic surfactant oilconcentration at were 57 (15%), 38 (10%), 20 (5%) in a control and at 1% concentration was zero,in the present of anionic surfactant oil was 329 (15%), 38 (10%) but in control, 5%, and 1%
concentration was zero, while in a present of metal complex dark green dye at 15% was 147 and at
10%, 5%, 1% and 0% stock solution was zero. Similarly, the concentration of copper was higher infish gills than in water.
Generally, it is found that surfactant action activates Cu permeability through Na + uptake
pathway in gills (Grosell et al., 2007). In a present study lethal toxicity was supported by Sharma etal. (2009) finding that methyl red composed of Cd, Cu, Ni less toxic to fish. Sharma et al. (2006)
also found that the LC50 of methyl red dye to be 27.2 mg/l to Poecilia reticulate. Fish mortality rateoccurred during the exposure of period was not based only on copper and chromium but from theinteraction of chemical used during the study.
In Thailand the estimated contaminant from dyeing 1 kg silk yarn in Chonnabot community
was COD was 6315 mg, SS 121 470 mg and DSS 248 180 mg (Thailand Institute of Science andTechnological Research, 2004). The study indicated that waste from silk dyeing are harmful andcan accumulate in tissues to O. niloticus, the accumulated chemical can be transferred to humanthrough fish consumption that potentially caused negative effect on human health in a long run.
CONCLUSION
The metal complex azo acid dye and surfactant oil used by the community for silk dyeing areharmful to O. niloticus. Therefore, results of the present study strongly suggest that unmanaged
discharge of effluent from silk dyeing, especially those that employ azo dyes is likely to impose
harmful effects to aquatic ecosystems and recommend the wastewater to be handle with care.
Therefore, this warrants further research.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We express our sense of gratitude to Khon Kaen University, Thailand International Development
Cooperation Agency (TICA), Namibia National Council for High Education for financial support.
We also express our sincere appreciation to Dr. Peerapol Sukon for facilitation and guidance on
acute toxicity. Sincere thanks to Siriporn Tola for guidance and support.
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fish relevant to their concentration in water and sediment of Wadi Hanifah, Saudi Arabia. Afr. J.
Biotech., 10, 2541-2547.
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Entomology, 18, 265-267.
Adachi, M., Bredow, T. and Jug, K. 2004. What is the origin of color on metal complex dyes? Theoreticalanalysis of a Ni-coordinate azo dye. Dyes Pigm, 63, 225-230.
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Bae, J., Freeman, H.S. and Kim, S.D. 2006. Influences of new azo dyes to the aquatic ecosystem. Fiber
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Chen, K., Lin, L., Wang, C. and Hwang, M. 2010. Interactions between new multi-anionic surfactants anddirect dyes and their effects on the dyeing of cotton fabrics. Colloids and Surfaces A. Physicochemical
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DeLong, D. P., Losordo, T.M. and Rakocy, J.E. 2009. Tank culture of Tilapia. SRAC Publication, 282.
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Eneji,  S.I.,  Sha’Ato,  R.,  and Annune, P.A. 2011. Bioaccumulation of heavy metals in fish (Tilapia zilli andClarias gariepinus) Organs from River Benue, North - Central Nigeria. Pak. J. Anal. Environ. Chem.,
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Hayat, S., Javed, M. and Razzaq, S. 2007. Growth performance of metal stressed major carps viz. Catla catla,
Labeo rohita and Cirrhina mrigala reared under semi-intensive culture system. Pak. Vet. J., 27, 8-12.
Heath, A.G. 1995. Water pollution and fish physiology. 2 nd Edition. CRC press Inc., USA. 81.
Hickey, P.J. 1990. Estimation of inorganic species aquatic toxicity. Handbook of techniques in aquatic
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Hunger, K (Eds). 2003. Industrial dyes, chemistry, properties, applications. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co.
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Popma, T. and Masser, M. 1999. Tilapia life history and biology. SRAC Publication, 283.
Segner, H. 2011. Reproductive and developmental toxicity in fishes. Reproductive and Developmental
Toxicology. (Eds: Gupta CR ). Elsevier Inc, U.K. And U.S.A. 1145-1166.
Sharma, S.S., Singh, P.K., Swami, R.C. and Sharm, K.P., 2009. Exploring fish bioassay of textile dyewastewaters and their selected constituents in terms of mortality and erythrocyte disorders. Bull Environ.
Contam. Toxic., 83, 29-34
Sharma S., Sharma, S. and Sharma, K. P. 2006. Identification of a sensitive index during fish bioassay of anazo dye methyl red (untreated and treated). J. of Environ. Bio., 27, 551-555.
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Control Department (PCD). Bangkok, Thailand, 5-8.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1996. Ecological effects test guidelines. Washington, D.C.
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Yilmaz, A.B., Turan, C. and Toker, T. 2010. Uptake and distribution of hexavalent chromium in tissues (gill,skin and muscle) of a freshwater fish, Tilapia, Oreochromis aureus. J. Environ. Chem. Ecotox., 2, 28-33.

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Research article
erd

Understanding Socio-Ecological Production Landscapes in
the Context of Cambodia
KAORU ICHIKAWA*
United Nations University Institute of Advanced Studies, Yokohama, Japan
Email: ichikawa@ias.unu.edu
Received 15 December 2012

Accepted 30 January 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract In Cambodia, a large portion of the population engages in primary sector
production such as agriculture, forestry and fishery, and the people’s   livelihoods   are  directly dependent upon the availability of natural resources. The natural environment,
however, has been undergoing severe deterioration for several decades. Similar challenges
are being faced in many different countries and it is therefore of global importance toexplore  ways  to  conserve  the  environment  while  allowing  people’s  livelihoods  to  develop.
In this context, the term socio-ecological production landscapes and seascapes (SEPLS)
was coined to refer to areas shaped by production activities characterised by harmonious
human-nature interactions. The aim of this study is to deepen the understanding of
Cambodian production landscapes using three different perspectives drawing on the
SEPLS concept: structure, benefits and changes. Based on a literature review, key
characteristics of SEPLS were identified including their mosaic structure and the diverse
benefits they provide. Further study is needed to understand the significance of SEPLS in
Cambodia in terms of the biodiversity and environmental benefits they provide.
Keywords socio-ecological production landscapes and seascapes, mosaic structure,
ecosystem services, land use

INTRODUCTION
In   Cambodia,   people’s   livelihoods   are   highly   dependent   upon   access   to   natural   resources   from  agricultural lands, forests, rivers and lakes. One of the most important industries is agriculture, inwhich 66% of the total population was engaged in 2010 (FAO, 2010a). The natural environment,
however,  was  severely  damaged  during  the  country’s  civil  war  and the following years of politicalinstability, while today the environment is strained by the impacts of modernization andglobalization. In many parts of the world, recognition of the extent of damage humans have caused
to the environment, and the fact that  this  degradation  is  now  threatening  people’s  lives, has createdan understanding that it is essential to explore ways to conserve the environment while allowing
people’s  livelihoods  to  develop. The underlying conceptualization of this is to consider humans as
a part of nature, and that they have adapted to local ecosystems by carefully modifying theirfeatures, and derive their livelihoods from these close interactions with their surroundings. Suchinteractions have often maintained biodiversity while providing humans with a continuous supply
of goods and services. Such conceptualizations have begun to be applied in the research, policies
and practices dealing with environmental conservation and livelihood development, while leading
to the launching of new efforts such as the Satoyama Initiative, a global initiative aiming toconserve and revitalize landscapes and seascapes created through long-term human-natureinteractions around production activities such as agriculture, forestry and fishery (UNU-IAS, n.d.).
This paper aims to understand Cambodian production landscapes by using the concept ofsocio-ecological production landscapes and seascapes (SEPLS), a term coined to refer to the target
areas of the Satoyama Initiative. After introducing the Japanese satoyama landscape, from which
the Initiative and the term SEPLS originated, the characteristics of the Cambodian landscapes are
identified based on several points included in the description of SEPLS.

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SEPLS IN JAPAN: SATOYAMA LANDSCAPES
Historically, a large portion of Japanese landscapes has been under the influence of humanactivities, such as agriculture, forestry, and fishery. Adaptation to the surrounding environment
through such activities has created unique areas called satoyama landscapes, which arecharacterized by mosaics of paddy fields, upland fields, woodlands, grasslands, ponds and canals,
and settlements. Careful management of land uses based on knowledge accumulated acrossgenerations, has made it possible for satoyama landscapes to continuously provide humans withfood, fuel and building materials, while nurturing unique cultures. Management of woodland areas
includes collecting fallen leaves and grasses, which are used to maintain soil fertility in
combination with manure. A continuous supply of firewood was secured by coppicing of trees
where farmers left stumps to sprout again after cutting. After several years of management,
including removal of unnecessary branches and weeds, farmers could cut trees again for use as
firewood (Takeuchi et al., 2003).
Regular management practices in satoyama landscapes, including cutting of trees and mowing,
maintain favourable habitats for some plant and animal species, which have adapted to the natural
conditions created by such practices. Furthermore, the mosaic landscape has contributed to highlevels of biodiversity by including different land uses, each with its own associated vegetation,
constituting habitats for a wide variety of animals. This structure is also important for species suchas dragonflies and frogs, which need different habitat types during their life stages and for
obtaining different resources (Katoh et al., 2009).
Recognition of the importance of satoyama landscapes and recent negative trends such asdegradation due to urbanization, agricultural modernization and an aging population led to theJapan Satoyama Satoumi Assessment (JSSA), which is a thorough study of ecosystem services andtheir contribution to human well-being in Japan that included the involvement of more than 200
stakeholders. The assessment recognized  the  benefits  of  the  landscapes’  multifaceted  nature, which
produces a bundle of ecosystem services for human well-being (JSSA, 2010). It also recognized theglobal importance of the concept underlying satoyama landscapes, which assumes a mutually
beneficial relationship between humans and nature, if properly maintained. Based on the JSSA
results,  the  term  “socio-ecological  production  landscapes  and  seascapes  (SEPLS)”  has  been  applied  by the Satoyama Initiative to refer to its target areas around the world. Drawing on the similar
JSSA definition of satoyama landscapes, the Initiative describes SEPLS as “dynamic   mosaics   of  habitats and land uses that have been shaped by the interactions between people and nature in waysthat maintain biodiversity and provide humans with goods and services needed for their well-beingin  a  sustainable  way”.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  understand  various  production  landscapes  and  seascapes using the SEPLS concept (Gu and Subramanian, 2012; Ichikawa, 2012). Further study,
however, is needed to understand the characteristics and significance of SEPLS across various partsof the world. Drawing on the above description of SEPLS, the following sections describe
Cambodian production landscapes along three points: structure, benefits and changes.
SEPLS IN THE CONTEXT OF CAMBODIA
Structure:  “dynamic  mosaics  of  habitats  and  land  uses”  Situated in the tropics, Cambodia experiences a monsoonal climate with distinct wet and dry
seasons. A dry period starts in late November and lasts until April. Cambodia’s   topography   is  characterized by extensive areas of extremely flat floodplains containing the Tonle Sap Lake andriver  complex  at  the  country’s  centre, and hills in the south-western and north-eastern regions. The
Mekong River flows from Laos in the north and at Phnom Penh it converges with the Tonle Sap
River,   which   flows   from   the   Tonle   Sap   Lake.   The   Mekong   River’s   water   level   fluctuates   by  approximately 9 metres each year. During the wet season, some water flows back up the Tonle Sap
River into the Tonle Sap Lake, which can experience a tenfold increase in area to approximately
25,000 km2 between May and November (Nesbitt, 1997).
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A large portion of Cambodians live in lowland areas where their livelihoods have depended on
paddy rice cultivation for at least the last 2,000 years (McKenney and Tola, 2002). Other elementsof  Cambodia’s  lowland landscape include forests, settlements, rivers, ponds and lakes. One distinct
land use is called chamkar, a term which encompasses all agricultural land uses except paddy ricecultivation, basically areas where farmers grow cereals, vegetables, etc. (Chann et al., 2011). The
distribution of different land uses is directly affected by topography and associated water regimes.
For example, in one village in Kampong Cham Province, large areas are dominated by rice fields,
which are located in the lower part of the land, while vegetable fields are located in elevated landsurrounded by the paddy field (Siriwattananon et al., 2010).
There are several different types of paddy rice field, which vary according to different growing
conditions determined by micro-topography and water regime. Accordingly, each type of field
utilizes the appropriate variety of rice, which differs in terms of physiological properties such as
photo-sensitivity and elongation ability (Javier, 1997). Deep water (floating) rice is primarily
grown in areas that are submerged at a depth of 50-300cm for at least one month during the rice
growing period. In areas where the water is less than 50cm deep, field levels are further subdivided
into three different water levels, in which farmers grow rice varieties that mature at different times.
This allows farmers to reduce the risk of a total crop failure due to droughts and floods, optimize
labour resources, and increase food security (McKenney and Tola, 2002).
Forest vegetation also occurs in a mosaic pattern consisting of plants of different height andspecies, affected by seasonal water-level changes and different recovery stages from humandisturbance. For example, in the area near the Tonle Sap Lake in Siem Reap Province, forests
which are along the shoreline during the dry season and flooded during the wet season, experience
fewer disturbances by humans and have a relatively closed canopy of tall trees. Vegetation in
inland areas, however, is constantly disturbed due to the collection of firewood, and ischaracterized by low, sparse cover (Araki, 2007).
Studies on land use and livelihoods in hilly areas in Cambodia shows that landscapes consistof evergreen forests, semi-evergreen forests, deciduous forests, shrubs and grasslands, chamkar
areas, homegarden, cash crop fields, and settlements (e.g., Fox and Vogler, 2005). Wetland rice isless common in hilly areas (Evans et al., 2003), where chamkar has been practiced for centuries ina form of shifting cultivation by ethnic minorities such as the Phnong in Ratanakiri and Mondulkiri
Provinces. Shifting cultivation refers to the intermixing of upland rice and other crops (e.g.,soybean, sesame, banana, maize, sugarcane, and potato), and plots are usually cultivated for about
three years, after which they are left fallow. Old fallow is cleared by burning the trees and grasses(McKenney et al., 2004). Soil can rest and regenerate during the fallow period, and the ashes fromthe burning provide nutrients to the soil (Andersen et al., 2007). Through this sort of mechanism,shifting cultivation creates unique landscapes composed of a dynamic patchwork of crop fields,
fallows of various ages, secondary forest and remnants of the original vegetation.
Benefits:  “maintain  biodiversity  and  provide  humans  with  goods  and  services  for  well-being”
A set of different land uses provides a diverse range of goods, which are important for subsistence
and generating cash income. Historically, rice has been a staple food for Cambodians, and thecountry depends on rice as a strategic commodity for income growth, poverty reduction, andnational and household food security (Yu and Diao, 2011). Paddy fields can also provide a variety
of aquatic animals such as fish, crabs, shrimps, edible insects, and frogs, which are sources ofanimal protein for people, although their importance has not fully recognized in policies andresearch in Cambodia (Gregory and Guttman, 1997). More than one million Cambodians depend
on inland fisheries to support their livelihoods. The Great Lake and Tonle Sap River area producesroughly 50-60%  of  Cambodia’s  inland  commercial  fish  catch  (McKenney  and  Tola,  2002).
Forests provide villagers with a variety of goods known as non-timber forest products(NTFPs), such as firewood, food, and medicinal plants. An assessment conducted in four provinces
found that medium-income households obtain 30% (345 USD/year) of their total livelihood value
from NTFPs, while low-income households obtain 42% (280 USD/Year) (Hansen and Top, 2006).
Resin is recognized as one of the most important NTFPs in Cambodia, and is used domestically forⒸ ISERD

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sealing/waterproofing boats and is exported for these uses as well as for manufacturing paint andvarnish. It is tapped mainly from evergreen tree species such as Dipterocarpus alatus without
substantially damaging the trees, which allows for continuous yields across decades (Tola and
McKenney, 2003). Income generated from resin collection is estimated at 338 USD/year per familyin Ratanakiri Province, helping to cover the cost of buying rice, which runs short several months
after harvest (Evans et al., 2003). Firewood continues to be an important cooking fuel and is usedby 94% of the population in rural areas (NIS, 2009). Medicinal plants are also important, especiallyin remote and poor areas, because they help to significantly reduce healthcare costs (Laval et al.,2011). Kimhy et al. (1998) insist on the significance  of  different  “forests”,  including  trees  around  the households and paddy fields. The woodlands that are left around the dwellings can provide
villagers with a variety of food and materials, and contain various species such as neem, coconut,
palm, mango and bamboo (Siriwattananon et al., 2010). Trees that are scattered along dikes of rice
fields and uncultivated land are not only used for grazing, but also for improving soil fertility andproviding shade to people and animals (Kimhy et al., 1998).
Although the environmental benefits of the ecosystems in production landscapes have been
discussed in general, aside from the case of carbon sequestration, these issues have not been
extensively studied within the Cambodian context. For example, the function of forests inmaintaining water quality and flood mitigation is generally known, but the clear and quantifiablelink has not been made between deforestation and the change in water quality or flow (Hansen andTop, 2006). Regarding carbon sequestration, the Cambodian Government has made a strong
commitment to managing the forests under the anticipated new international climate change
agreement on the REDD+ mechanism. Estimation of potential carbon credits generated from
improved forest management is underway for existing forest (e.g., Ty et al., 2011).
Changes:  “shaped  by  the  interactions  between  people  and  nature”
It is believed that population densities were generally low in pre-colonial Cambodia and there wasabundant food coming from rice fields, forests and lakes. The farmers, however, also demonstrated
innovation by adopting rice production technologies to the poor soils, erratic rainfall, and complexhydrology of Cambodia (Helmers, 2007). This included, for example, subdividing the fields intolevels for growing different crops and varieties as mentioned above. The history of water
management in Cambodia goes back to before the Angkor period. Modern irrigation systems thatwere first developed from 1950-1953 by the French include the Colmatage canal system, whichuses dykes and sluices to provide controlled annual inundation, allowing a fertile layer of silt tosettle on the fields (FAO, 2010b).
The land and people of Cambodia were seriously impacted by the agricultural policy of the
Khmer Rouge regime (1975-1979), which aimed to increase rice production by expanding the area
under rice cultivation into cleared forest lands and developing irrigation systems, many of whichhave been assessed today as useless or unusable. The rural labour force was reorganized to conduct
collective agriculture, supplemented by people from urban areas, who were forcibly relocated(Helmers, 2007). During the 1980s, in accordance with socialist development policy, agriculturalland was collectivized and became state property. Solidarity groups known as krom samakki,
consisting of 20-25 families, were organized and constituted the basic unit of production, although
in practice collectivization was not vigorously pursued. In 1989, the State of Cambodia instituted a
new policy favouring a transition to a market economy. Private land tenure was established andmost communal lands were broken up and allocated to families (Helmers, 2007).
Fox and Vogler (2005) report that shifting cultivation has maintained a relatively stable
percentage  of  forest  cover  in  Southeast  Asia’s  montane  mainland  during  the  latter  half  of  the  20 th
century. However, there have recently been major shifts in land use in hilly areas. In the 1990s,
governmental forest management in Cambodia only focused on timber production from high value
forests managed by private companies under large-scale forest concessions (Hansen and Top,
2006). Concession forestry has, however, experienced implementation challenges, resulting in highlevels of illegal logging and corresponding degradation of forest resources. It has also caused
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from the concession forests (McKenney et al., 2004). In 1969, forests represented more than 74%
of the land area, which had changed marginally to 73% by 1990, but decreased drastically to 65%
in 2000 and is currently at 57% (Broadhead and Izquierdo, 2010). The advent of cash crop farming
by indigenous communities, which has largely emerged since 1993 when the government opened
up for international investment, has increased the rate of conversion from shifting agriculture to
cash crops. Other factors impacting land use change include the development of road networks,
population increase, inadequate enforcement of land laws, together with the dissolution of thecommunal system, which has led farmers to sell land to outsiders. In Ratanakiri Province, plantingof cashew by indigenous communities has increased in part to claim the land, and in part toincrease cash income (Ironside, 2010).
In lowland areas, forests in floodplains are decreasing due to exploitation for firewood andconversion to agricultural land (McKenney and Tola, 2002). In areas under rice cultivation, farmers
have begun to plant faster-maturing varieties in many areas previously cultivated for late-maturing
varieties, because the shorter the time that crops spend in the field, the lower the risk of crop failure(McKenney and Tola, 2002).
CONCLUSION
It was found that the SEPLS concept was applicable in the Cambodian context. Mosaic landscapes
were clearly identified in both the lowland and hilly regions. Although lowland areas arecharacterized by extensive flat areas dominated by paddy field, micro-topography and different
water regimes have created heterogeneity, which determines land use distribution, and has createddiverse rice growing conditions where appropriate rice varieties are grown. In hilly areas,
temporality has also created mosaic patterns of land uses due to shifting cultivation. Recent land
use changes seem to be creating more uniform landscapes, a common trend across many othercountries. A range of different land uses provides a variety of goods that are crucially important tolocal people as they directly contribute to their subsistence and cash income. Forests, in particular,
produce a variety of resources that supplement diets, provide traditional medicines and can be used
to construct shelter. Rice paddies not only produce rice, but also fish and other protein-rich aquatic
animals. Regarding the environmental benefits, the author could not find enough evidence thatthese issues have been studied in-depth within the Cambodian context. While local farmers havehistorically adapted and developed practices that are applicable to their unique local conditions, thepast several decades have seen frequent and dramatic changes in political and economic regimes,
which have affected production activities and land uses.
Although Cambodia has recently been experiencing a decline in natural resources, a relatively
large area of forests remains compared with the other Southeast Asian countries, and many people
depend directly on natural resources for their livelihood. Many studies exist on the various material
benefits that SEPLS provide, but in order to explore the paths towards sustainability, it is also
important to understand the landscapes holistically, including environmental functions as well as
the social and cultural benefits they provide.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author is grateful to the Institute of Environment Rehabilitation and Conservation for its
support  and  advice  during  the  author’s  stay  in  Cambodia, and to Hongyan Gu (Shanghai Academyof Social Sciences) for helpful comments on the earlier draft, and Robert Blasiak (The Universityof Tokyo) for editing the manuscript.
REFERENCES
Andersen, K.E., Sophorn, S., and Thornberry, F. 2007. Development of a sub-decree on shifting cultivation
under article 37 of the forestry law 2002, Cambodia. ILO Joint Office, Cambodia.
Araki, Y. 2007. Vegetation inventory and utilization pattern of plant resource on a tropical floodplain -A case
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study on the floodplain of Lake Tonle Sap, Cambodia-. Yokohama Journal of Technology Management
Studies, 6, 35-49.
Broadhead, J. and Izquierdo, R. 2010. Assessment of land-use, forest policy and governance in Cambodia.
Report prepared by FAO as a contribution to the Cambodia REDD+ readiness process. FAO-Regional
Office for Asia and the Pacific, Thailand.
Chann, S., Wales, N., and Frewer, T. 2011. An investigation of land cover and land use change in Stung
Chrey Bak Catchment, Cambodia, CDRI Working Paper 53, CDRI, Cambodia.
Evans, T.D., Piseth, H., Phaktra, P., and Mary, H. 2003. A study of resin-tapping and livelihoods in southern
Mondulkiri, Cambodia, with implications for conservation and forest management. Wildlife
Conservation Society, Cambodia.
FAO. 2010a. FAOSTAT. (http://faostat3.fao.org/home/index.html.)
FAO. 2010b. Aquastat. Cambodia.(http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries_regions/KHM/index.stm.)
Fox, J., and Vogler, J. B. 2005. Land-use and land-cover change in montane mainland southeast Asia.
Environmental Management, 36(3), 394-403.
Gregory, R. and Guttman, H. 1997. Capture and culture ricefield fisheries in Cambodia. In: Nesbitt, H. J. ed.,Rice Production in Cambodia, IRRI, Philippines. 99-106.
Gu, H., and Subramanian, S. M. 2012. Socio-ecological production landscapes: relevance to the green
economy Agenda. UNU-IAS Policy Report, UNU-IAS, Japan.
Hansen, K.K., and Top, N. 2006. Natural forest benefits and economic analysis of natural forest conversion
in Cambodia. Working Paper 33. CDRI, Cambodia.
Helmers, K. 2007. Rice in the Cambodian economy: past and present. In: Nesbitt, H. J. ed., Rice Production
in Cambodia, IRRI, Philippines. 1-14.
Ichikawa, K. ed. 2012. Socio-ecological production landscapes in Asia. UNU-IAS, Japan.
Ironside, J. 2010. The Outbreak of peace: communal land management and traditional governance in aremote Cambodian province. CAPRi Workshop on Collective Action, Property Rights, and Conflict inNatural Resources Management.
Javier, E.L. 1997. Rice ecosystems and varieties. In: Nesbitt, H. J. ed. Rice Production in Cambodia, IRRI,
Philippines. 39-82.
JSSA (Japan Satoyama Satoumi Assessment). 2010. Satoyama-Satoumi ecosystems and human well-being:socio-ecological production landscapes of Japan - Summary for decision makers. United Nations
University, Japan.
Katoh, K., Sakai, S. and Takahashi, T. 2009. Factors maintaining species diversity in satoyama, a traditional
agricultural landscape of Japan. Biological Conservation, 142 (9), 1930-1936.
Kimhy, L., Kalyan, H., Marona, S., Sereyrotha, K., Choir, R., Sethaphal, L., Kamnap, P., and Maredi, I. 1998.
Forest resource use by local communities in Cambodia. Ministry of Environment/ Ministry ofAgriculture Forestry and Fisheries, Cambodia.
Laval, P., Rakotoarison, H., Savajol, N., and Vanny, T. 2011. The contribution of wild medicinal plants
towards poverty alleviation and health improvements: a case study in two villages in Mondulkiri
Province , Cambodia. Cambodian Journal of Natural History, 2011(1), 29-39.
McKenney, B., and Tola, P. 2002. Natural resources and rural livelihoods in Cambodia: A baseline
assessment. Working Paper 23, CDRI, Cambodia.
McKenney, B., Chea, Y., Tola, P., and Evans, T.   2004.   Focusing   on   Cambodia’s   high value forests:
livelihoods and management. CDRI Special Report, CDRI, Cambodia.
Nesbitt, H.J. 1997. Topography, climate, and rice production. In: Nesbitt, H. J. ed. Rice Production in
Cambodia, IRRI, Philippines. 15-19.
NIS. 2009. General population census of Cambodia 2008, national report on final census results. National
Institute of Statistics, Ministry of Planning, Cambodia.
Siriwattananon, L., Mihara, M., and Ichikawa, K. 2010. Land use and natural resource utilization andmanagement in Kampong Cham, Cambodia. CBD Technical Series 52. CBD Secretariat, Canada. 116119.
Takeuchi, K., Brown, R.D., Tsunekawa, A., and Washitani, I. eds. 2003. SATOYAMA - the traditional rurallandscape of Japan. Springer, Japan.
Tola, P., and Mckenney, B. 2003. Trading forest products in Cambodia: challenges, threats, and opportunities
for resin. Working Paper 28, CDRI, Cambodia.
Ty, S., Sasaki, N., Ahmad, A. H., and Ahmad, Z. A. 2011. REDD development in Cambodia - REDD project.
FORMATH, 10, 1-23.
UNU-IAS, n.d. Satoyama Initiative. (http://satoyama-initiative.org/en/.)Yu, B., and  Diao,  X.  2011.  Cambodia’s  agricultural strategy: future development options for the rice sector.
A Policy Discussion Paper. CDRI, Cambodia.
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Research article
erd

Assessment of Local Livelihood of Forest-Dependent
Communities in Cambodia
KOY RAThe University of Hyogo, Kobe, Japan
Email: rarua03@yahoo.com

NOPHEA SASAKI*The University of Hyogo, Kobe, Japan
Email: nop.kankyo@ai.u-hyogo.ac.jp
Received 15 December 2012

Accepted 30 January 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Forests are important sources of ecosystem goods and services to billion people
around the world. As tropical forests are gradually disappearing while population isincreasing, the livelihood of forest-dependent communities is being threatened.
Cambodia’s   forest subsector contributed 8.4% to agricultural GDP over the period from1999 to 2008. Although this figure provides an indication of the importance of forest
resources in national development, assessment of the detailed contribution of forest goods
and services at the local level is urgently needed so that appropriate intervention anddevelopment policies could be introduced. The objectives of this study are to better
understand the contribution of forest resources to household livelihood by classifying suchcontribution to four main forest and non-forest products and to propose a policy
recommendation. Questionnaires were developed to interview 600 households in threecommunes, namely the Takaen, Sangke Satob, and Tumring in Kampot, Kampong Spoeu,
and Kampong Thom provinces, respectively. The interviews were performed quarterly
throughout the year so as to increase the accuracy of the responses from the households.
Our analysis found that forest income contributed 76,892±8,160 riel or 13% of the total
household incomes in the first quarter. However, forest income increased to 24%(142,645±17,540 riel), 33% (146,422±16,967 riel), and 31% (122,512±9,693 Riel) in thesecond, third and fourth quarters, respectively. Other sources of household incomes wereagriculture, outside forest, and other income, all together, contributing 87%, 76%, 67%
and 69% of the total incomes in the first, second, third, and fourth quarters, respectively.
These findings suggest that forest resources are important sources for the survival offorest-dependent communities. It is recommended that incorporating forest resources into
the development planning with the active participation of local people could contribute tosustainable development while protecting the forests.
Keywords forest income, dependence, livelihood, ecosystem

INTRODUCTION
Forests are important sources of ecosystem goods and services to billion people around the world.
As tropical forests are gradually disappearing while population is increasing, the livelihood offorest-dependent communities is being threatened. Foreseeing the urgent needs for forest protection,
roles of tropical forests for climate change mitigation and sustainable development have been
increasingly recognized by world leaders through their efforts to reducing deforestation and forest
degradation. The Copenhagen Accord of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC) recognized a new scheme, the REDD+ or reducing emissions fromdeforestation and forest degradation, conservation of forest carbon stocks, sustainable managementof forests, and enhancement of forest carbon stocks as cost-effective measures for climate change
mitigation and sustainable development (Sasaki and Yoshimoto, 2010). At the 16th and 17th
Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC, biodiversity and socio-economic safeguards was one ofⒸ ISERD

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the major components of the REDD+ negotiations because it is an important component forachieving the REDD+ objectives.
Extreme weather such as storm, floods, and droughts resulted from the impact of climatechange has resulted in decline of agricultural productivities compared to that in the normal year
(Heng and Pech, 2009). The decline in agricultural productivities causes more poverty to local
people. In order to cope with these natural disasters as well as to improve their livelihood, local
people adopted many strategies including increasing their activities for collecting various products
from forests and nearby. Activities of local people for collecting various products occur differently
throughout the year. For instance, in Kupe, the South of Cameroon, local people increased theiractivities for collecting forest and non-forest products during the rainy season after crop cultivation
because there was little work in the farms except waiting for food crops to mature (Ngane et al.,2012). The situation is not different from local people in Cambodia where about 85% of the total
population are farmers. Forests are also important for local livelihood in Cambodia. In addition toproviding services, forests are important sources of food, medicine, construction material, andfirewood   for   household   consumptions   and   income   generation   in   Cambodia.   Cambodia’s   forest
subsector contributed 8.4% to agricultural GDP over the period from 1999 to 2008 (Theng and Koy,
2011). Unfortunately, rapid deforestation and forest degradation driven by rapid economic
development and growing population have put pressure on the resource availability and therefore
assessment of the dependency of local people and how their activities for collecting forest and nonforest products is required so that appropriate policy interventions could be adopted.
OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this study are to assess the contribution of forest resources to household
livelihood and seasonal variation of this contribution throughout the year.
METHODOLOGIES
Study site: In order to reduce biases in our assessment, study sites were carefully selected taking
into account such factors as deforestation rate, threats from industrial cultivation, and distance of
local people to the forests. The three selected communes are Takaen, Tumring, and Sangke Satonin
Kampot, Kampong Thom, and Kampong Spoeu provinces, respectively (Fig. 1). It was observedthat a large rubber plantation has emerged in the site selected in Kampong Thom province while norubber plantations were found during field survey in other two sites. Based on forest cover changes
published by Forestry Administration (FA, 2011), annual deforestation rates in the three provincesfrom 2006 to 2010 were 0.8%, 0.7%, and 0.3%, respectively. In Tumring commune, some of forest
area was converted into rubber plantation.

Fig. 1 Map showing study sites
Household selection: National Institute of Statistic (NIS) defined household as a group of persons
who commonly live together and take their meals from a commons kitchen unless the exigencies ofwork prevented any of them from doing so (NIS, 2007). This definition was taken into account forⒸ ISERD

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identifying household for this study. Two hundred households were selected in each study site; andso a total of 600 households were interviewed for this study.
To facilitate the selection of household for survey in each study site, complete lists ofhousehold were obtained from village chief prior to carrying out the field work. The first household
was randomly drawn from the list while the subsequent households were selected based on theinterval of each site.
Interview justification and data collection: Local people in Takaen, Tumring, and Sangke
Satob communes have practiced many livelihood activities throughout the year. These activities
change seasonally as shown in Fig. 2.
Activities

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Takaen commune
Rice production
Vegetable and cash crop
production
NTFP collection
Fishing
Firewood collection andcharcoal production
Migration to sell labor,
seek employment

High Production

Low Production

Tumring commune
Lowland rice cultivation
Upland rice cultivation
Cassava cultivation
Soy bean cultivation
Mung bean cultivation
Maize
Non-timber forest productcollection
Selling labour

Sangke Satob commune
Timber harvesting
Rice production
Vegetable and cash crop
production
NTFP collection
Fishing
Firewood collection andcharcoal production
Selling labour

Fig. 2 Livelihood activities in Takaen, Tumring, and SangkeSatob Communes
As livelihood activities change seasonally, data on household income should be collectedseasonally. For this study, questionnaire was carefully designed to collect seasonal data of the same
household every 3 months (quarterly based interview). Therefore, better data and information werecollected. Questionnaire was designed to focus on income generation from four main income
sources: i) forest (direct, derived, service payment from forest income); ii) agriculture (crop andlivestock); iii) outside forest (fish, aquaculture, and other from non-forest area); and iv) other (wage,
own business, and other income). The first data collection was done in January for income
generation between October and December, the second, third and fourth interviews were done inlate April for income generation from January to March, July for income generation from April toJune), and October for income generation from July to September, respectively.
Data analysis: Although 600 households were interviewed in the first round, not all households
were interviewed at the subsequent rounds because some of them were not available during thefield surveys. For this analysis, only data of households that were interviewed at all four rounds
were analyzed. So far, 518 households or 86.3% were interviewed in all quarters.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Income generation in each study site: The study found that the annual average household incomeⒸ ISERD

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ranges from 1,797,000±44,000 Riel† (± refers to standard error) in Takaen commune of Kampot
province to 2,564,000±102,000 Riel in Tumring commune of Kampong Thom province (Fig. 3).
The contribution from forest to annual average household income ranges from 303,000±22,000
Riel or about 12% of the total income sources in Tumring commune of Kampong Thom Province
to 618,000±18,000 Riel or about 34% in Sangke Satob of Kampong Spoeu province. These results
confirm that forest resources play a very important role for the rural livelihood in Cambodia.
Specifically, forest was the main income source (618,000±18,000 Riel or about34% of theannual average income) followed by Agriculture (455,000±15,000 Riel or 25%), outside forest(138,000±4,000 Riel accounted to 8%), and other (613,000±23,000 Riel or about 34%), in Sangke
Satob commune of Kampong Spoeu province (Fig. 3). In Takaen commune of Kampot province,
agriculture was the main income source which contributed to 605,000±20,000 Riel (accounting for34%) and followed by forest which contributed 512,000± Riel (29% of the annual average income),
other (467,000±21,000 Riel or 26%), and income from outside forest (212,000±8,000 Riel or 12%).
Figure 3 also shows that the contribution from other to income source in Tumring commune wasvery high (1,370,000±54,000Riel or about 53% of the annual average income) and followed byagriculture (845,000±73,000 Riel or 33% of the annual average income), forest (303,000±22,000
Riel or 12%), and income from outside forest (45,000±2,000 Riel or 2%). This reflected that therural activities have a very strong link with natural resources, especially forest. The results of thisstudy showed that the contribution from forest to annual household income was lower thanprevious study which reported that the annual contribution from forest to household income ranged
from 668,000 Riel to 1,696,000 Riel (Kasper and Neth, 2006). This difference could be due to thedifferent methods used in our respective studies or forest condition. Development activities would
also have contributed to the variation of forest contribution to household livelihood. However, theresults of this study shows higher income contribution from forest than that in Malvi wherecontribution from forest to poor household was only 15% of the total income (Camanga et al.,2008) and quite similar with Ethiopia where income from forest contributed to 34% of household
per capita income (Yemiru et al., 2010). Thus, incorporating forest resources into development
planning with the active participation of local people could contribute to sustainable development
while protecting the forest.
Seasonal variation in income share: In order to understand the seasonal activities of the local
people, we further analyzed the data by four quarters as shown in Fig. 4. It is noted that income waspeak in the first quarter in which the average total income was 608,000 Riel and started to decreasein the subsequent quarter while the lowest income was in 4th quarter (392,000 Riel).The analysis
found that forest income contributed 76,892±8,160 riel or 13% of the total household incomes in thefirst quarter. However, forest income increased to 24% (142,645±17,540 riel), 33% (146,422±16,967
riel), and 31% (122,512±9,693 Riel) in the second, third and fourth quarters, respectively. Other sourcesof household incomes were agriculture, outside forest, and other incomes, all together, contributing to87%, 76%, 67% and 69% of the total incomes in the first, second, third, and fourth quarters,
respectively.
High income in the first and second quarters was contributed mainly by agriculture while
contribution from forest plays as a second main income source in quarter 3 and 4 which contributed
to 33% and 31%, respectively, to the average total household income. This is because first andsecond quarter covered the period from October to March which was in harvesting period of
agriculture crops while the third and fourth quarter people started investing on planting their crop,
especially rice in order to enable them to harvest it within the first and second quarters.
As mentioned previously, the annual average total income in Takaen commune was 1,796,000
Riel in which income share from agriculture was the first main income. The share of agriculturechanged seasonally being the first main income source in the first quarter but started to decline thesubsequent quarters this is because the first quarter is the rice harvesting period between October toDecember (Fig. 5). Households sold their agricultural products immediately after harvesting.
†

USD1 = 4,000 RielⒸ ISERD

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Riel
3,000

Thou s and s

2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
0
Outside forest

Q1
Other income

Tumring

ForestAgriculture

Q2
Outside forest

Q3
ForestQ4Agriculture

Fig. 4 Average total income by quarter

Q1
Other income

Q2

Q3

Outside forest

ForestT um r i n g

Sa tobS angk e

TakaenT um r i n g

T um r i n g

S a tob

T ak a en

S angk e

S angk e-200

T um r i n g

Riel

S a tob

1000
800
600
400
200
0

TakaenThou s and s

Fig. 3 Annual household income by sourcein each study site

S a tob

Other income

Sangke Satob

S angk e

Takaen

Riel
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0

T ak a en

Thou s and s

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

Q4
Agriculture

Fig. 5 Seasonal variation in income share in each study site
The average share of forest resources to household income in Takaen commune in the firstquarter was only 59,831±9,634 Riel (10%) 39% (160,000±35,283 Riel), 39% (187,000±40,023
Riel), and 33% (105,000±11,857 Riel) in the second, third, and fourth quarter, respectively.
Similar to that in Takaen’s  site,  the  income  share  from  agriculture  in  Sangke  Satob’s  site  was  highest in the first quarter, about 247,000±17,938 Riel (44% of average quarter income) andcontinued to decline, while the income share from forest increased from 104,000±14,657 Riel
(19%) in the first quarter to 171,000±21,800 Riel (37%), 158,000±19,389 Riel (43%) and
181,000±19,470 Riel (43%) in the second, third, and fourth quarters, respectively, (Fig. 5).
Unlike   the  two   sites   mentioned   above,  livelihood  in  Tumring’s   site   showed   more   livelihood
activities. In addition to producing rice, other cash crops such as maize, cassava, and mung bean
were also produced at this site. The annual average total income in this site is much higher than thatin the previous sites which was estimated at 2,564,000±102,000 Riel. The share of agricultural
income was high in the first and second quarters amounting to 342,124±93,174 Riel (49% of
average quarter income) and 451,211±166,026 Riel (48%), respectively. However, this income
share show negative (loss) during the third quarter; this is because of natural calamity occurred at
this site. Natural calamity disturbed the agricultural production on this site. It is noted that the sharefrom other income source in this study site was very high in almost all quarter if compared withincomes in other two sites. More specifically, the share from other income sources was the firstmain income source in the third and fourth quarters, respectively accounting for 82%(402,330±74,275 Riel) and 66% (285,825±39,810 Riel) of the total quarters’ income.
Our results suggest that collection of forest products varied seasonally across all study sites.
These variations were driven by time availability of household and natural resource condition.
These findings are similar to that reported by Neang (2009) who found that the quantity of resin
flow of individual tree depended on tree location and seasonality. Seasonal variation from forestⒸ ISERD

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contribution to household income found in this study is also the same with Ethiopia and Africa(Yemiru et al., 2010; Timko et al., 2010)
CONCLUSION
Forests have played important roles in local livelihood. Income from forest resource ranges from
12% to 34% of the total incomes depending on forest locations and seasonality. Income fromagricultural sources is higher compared to any other sources. However, such income would decline
if forests around the agricultural lands are cleared or degraded because forests regulatehydrological cycle and climate for agricultural cultivation. Our findings suggest that forest
resources are important sources for the survival of forest-dependent communities. It is
recommended that incorporating forest resources into the development planning with the active
participation of local people could contribute to sustainable development while protecting theforests. Furthermore as household activities are influenced by the resources availability and people
tend to focus on rice cultivation, creating more income generation opportunities for local people
after rice cultivation could discourage them from entering forests to collect various products, andtherefore deforestation and forest degradation could be reduced.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Cambodia’s   Leading   Independent   Development   Policy   Research   (CDRI)   and   the   Poverty  Environment Network (PEN) are acknowledged for the data used in this paper. The first author was
supported by the MEXT/JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number 24252002 for his research in Japan.
REFERENCES
Camanga, P., Vedeld, P. and Sjaastad, E. 2008. Forest incomes and rural livelihoods in Chiradzulu district,
Malawi. Ecological Economics, 68, 613-624.
FA. 2011. Cambodia forest cover 2010. Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
Heng, C.T. and Pech, R. 2009. Vulnerability and adaptation assessment to climate change in agriculture
sector in Cambodia. Workshop on building climate resilience in the agriculture sector of Asia and thePacific. ADB, Manila, Philippines.
Kasper, K.H. and Neth, T. 2006. Natural forest benefit and economic analysis of natural forest conversion in
Cambodia. Cambodia Development Resource Institute. Working Paper 33. Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
Neang, T. 2009. Liquid resin tapping by local people in Phnom Samkos Wildlife Sanctuary. Cambodian
Journal of Natural History, 1, 16-25.
Ngane, B.K., Ngane, E.B., Sumbele, S.A., Njukeng, J.N., Ngone, M.A. and Ehabe, E.E. 2012. Seasonality ofnon-timber forest products in the Kupe mountain region of South Cameroon. Scientific Research andEssays, 7, 1786-1797.
NIS.   2007.   General   population   census   of   Cambodia,   2008.   Enumerator’s   manual.   National   Institute of
Statistics, Ministry of Planning, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
RGC. 2006. National adaptation programme of action to climate change (NAPA). Phnom Penh. Cambodia.
Sasaki, N. and Yoshimoto, A. 2010. Benefits of tropical forest management under the new climate change
agreement - a case study in Cambodia. Environmental Science & Policy, 13, 384-392.
Theng, V. and Koy, R. 2011. Review of agricultural policy and policy research. A policy discussion paper.
Cambodia’s   leading   independent   development   policy   research   institute (CDRI). Phnom Penh,
Cambodia.
Timko, J.A., Waeber, P.O. and Kozak, R.A. 2010. The socio-economic contribution of non-timber forest
products to rural livelihood in Sub-Saharan Africa: Knowledge gaps and new directions. International
Forestry Review, 12, 284-294.
Yemiru, T., Roos, A., Campbell, B.M. and Bohlin, F. 2010. Forest incomes and poverty alleviation underparticipatory forest management in the Bale highlands, southern Ethiopia. International Forestry Review,
12, 66-77.

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Research article
erdUsing Chicken Manure Iin Vermicompost to Manage
7 Wastes
Different Agro-Industrial
NATTAKIT PETMUENWAI

d
e
n
t

Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University,
Thailand
4
Email: Nattakit@kkumail.com, chulee_b@kku.ac.th.
7

2
CHULEEMAS BOONTHAI IWAI*

Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Thailandwo
THAMMARED CHUASAVATHIr
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University,
Thailandds

MONGKON TA-OUN

Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Received 16 December 2012

Accepted 30 January 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The agro-industrial waste has been increasing every year. Without proper
management, it would cause problems to soil as well as water and air pollution to theenvironment. Thus, the objective of this study was to investigate the use of chicken
manure in vermicompost of agro-industrial waste. The vermicompost experiment was
conducted by using different agro-industrial wastes (cassava pulp, cassava peel, eucalyptus
peel and oil palm) and different rates of chicken manure (2.5%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, and25%). The qualities of each mixture and vermicompost in different treatments before andafter 30 days were analyzed. Earthworms (Eudrilus eugeniae) could survive 100% in thevermicompost of chicken manure at the rate of 2.5 - 25% in cassava pulp, cassava peel andeucalyptus peel treatments, but could not survive in the oil palm treatment. After 30 days,
the growth of earthworms in the vermicompost treatments with cassava pulp, eucalyptus
peel, cassava peel with chicken manure were increased at 134%, 188% and 167%,
respectively. Therefore, chicken manure can be used to increase the growth of earthworms
in vermicompost using industrial wastes (cassava peel, cassava pulp, and eucalyptus peel)
to produce biofertiliser and reduce environmental pollution problem.
Keywords chicken manure, earthworm, vermicompost
INTRODUCTION
The economy of Thailand is greatly expanding nowadays at the expense of natural resources. An
Agro industry, in particular, has consumed raw materials from those resources for production. With
industrial processes, there are byproducts of colossal wastes that pollute soil, water, and air.
Moreover, the large amounts of agro-industrial wastes produced bring about impact on ourenvironment and nature. Without proper management or the wastes are too great a quantity tohandle, the environment problems will be increasing. Furthermore, chicken manure is a cause ofenvironmental impact that highly pollutes the soil, water and air (Tacon, 1991). The problem
doubles during the rainy season when floodwater leaches the wastes to soil down into canals or
rivers. This affects every life that lives in soil and water. One way to manage organic wastes isusing earthworms to handle industrial wastes (Iwai et al., 2011; TonsCho,  2010).
Using earthworms does not cost a lot of money for waste treatment and does not disturb
nearby communities because manure from sludge waste can produce good vermicompost andearthworms transform the sludge to a good fertilizer (Suthar, 2007). Vermitechnology is a type ofcompost production from earthworm activities and the product is vermicompost, a solid thatⒸ ISERD

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includes vermicast and worm casting, decomposed organic fossil, and vermin-juice which is liquidfrom the earthworm and the fermentation process. Liquid is used in the production and liquid fromthe fermentation process is used to make manure (Iwai et al., 2011).
Chicken manure is an agro-waste that is filled with essential minerals which are important forplant growth (Garner, 1966; Edwards, 1988).   When chicken manure is mixed with organic
materials from many agro-industrial factories, vermicompost is the outcome. Vermicompost speeds
up the growth rate of earthworms. Hence, we were interested to study the use of chicken manure invermicompost production to manage agro-industrial wastes.
OBJECTIVE
This study was aimed at investigating the use of chicken manure in vermicompost to manage
different agro-industrial wastes.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Chicken manure makes good nutrient for earthworms that in turn increase the rate of compost
production. Our study comprised 4 trials of chicken manure blending: 1) with cassava pulp, 2) withcassava peel, 3) with eucalyptus peel, and 4) with oil palm.
Each agro-industrial waste was mixed with sandy soil (Yasotorn soil) by using 70:30 ratio andthe mixture blended with chicken manure at the rates of 0,  2.5, 5, 10, 15, 20 and  25% by weight.
The earthworm used in this trail was Eudrillus eugeniae species; its common name is African
Night Crawler.
The experimental materials, namely, chicken manure, cassava peel, cassava pulp, eucalyptus
peel and sandy soil were dried indoor for specific ratios of weight. Earthworms were selectedbased on similar size and explicit maturity based on Clitellum  (System of propagation species). The
moisture content of materials for feeding earthworms was maintained at 50% throughout the study.
Data was collected by recording the rates of survival of earthworms and their weights before
and after the experiments.
Table 1  Chemical characteristics of agro-industrial degradation (chicken manure, cassava
pulp, cassava peel, eucalyptus peel and oil palm)
Chemical characteristics

cassava pulp  Hydrogen ions (pH)Electric conductivity (EC)
Organic matter  (OM %)Total nitrogen  (%  N)
Available phosphorus (%  P)
Extractable potassium (%  K)
C/N ratio

4.95
0.67
89.57
0.24
0.02
0.36
220.87Natural Organic Adsorbents
eucalyptus
cassava peel  oil palm
peel  
5.45
7.47
5.32
1.25
0.34
5.92
58.00
38.96
78.11
0.49
0.25
0.92
0.05
0.08
0.41
0.51
0.18
1.23
69.05
89.64
45.03

chickenmanure  
8.80
6.20
24.50
1.50
5.10
2.40
9:1

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The survival rates of earthworms when using chicken manure blended with agro-industrial
wastesThe usage of cassava pulp blended with chicken manure: Earthworms could survive 100% in
various ratios of blending cassava pulp with chicken manure (0, 2.5, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25% byweight). However, the usage of chicken manure at the highest rate of 25% blended with cassava
pulp did not affect the rate of the survival of earthworms after 30 days. This suggests thatapplication of chicken manure at an optimum rate could increase reproductivity of earthworms.
Nevertheless, over-dose rate use of chicken manure could decrease earthworm growth. ThisⒸ ISERD

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resulted from high EC or salinity which was not suitable for earthworm living. Our result wasconsistent to the report of the Department of Public Work, Los Angeles County (2002) whichstated that in environment with high organic matter content, growth rate of juvenile L. rubellus was
better than E. eugeniae.
The usage of eucalyptus peel blended with chicken manure: Earthworms could survive 100% in
various ratios of blending eucalyptus peel with chicken manure (0, 2.5, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25% byweight). Similarly, the usage of chicken manure at the highest rate of 25% blended with eucalyptus
peel did not affect the rate of the survival of earthworms after 30 days (Mertus, 1993). Earthworms
are very sensitive to pH or H+ changes. Normally, earthworms can exist in environment that has pH
ranging from 4.2 - 8. However, pH 7 is the most suitable for earthworms (Edwards and Bohlen,
1996).
The usage of cassava peel blended with chicken manure: Earthworms could survive 100% in
various ratios of blending cassava peel with chicken manure (0, 2.5, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25% byweight). It was shown that the usage of chicken manure at the highest rate of 25% blended withcassava peel did not affect the rate of the survival of earthworms after 30 days. This can be
explained by higher electrical conductivity (EC) or salinity of the compost (Edwards and Bohlen,
1996). In addition, raw materials used in this study mainly contained organic nitrogenous
compounds that can be easily decomposed, which resulted in releasing large amount of NH4+
contributing to rapid pH increase that influenced earthworm existence.
The usage of oil palm blended with chicken manure: Earthworms could not survive in various
ratios of blending oil palm with chicken manure (0, 2.5, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25% by weight).
Although it did not have chicken manure (0%), the result showed that the oil palm blended withearthworm feed and chicken manure could not make the earthworms survive even for a short timeof just 1 week. This can be explained by higher electrical conductivity (EC) or salinity of thecompost (Edwards and Bohlen, 1996). In addition, raw materials used in this study contained
mainly organic nitrogenous compounds that can be easily decomposed, which resulted in releasinglarge amount of NH4+ that contributes to rapid pH increase influencing earthworm existence.
(Mertus, 1993).
The growth of earthworm when using chicken manure blended with agro-industrial wastes
The usage of cassava pulp blended with chicken manure: The blending of cassava pulp withchicken manure at 5% rate resulted in increased weight of earthworms (2.32 g). The highest weightof earthworms at 134% was changed from when earthworms were fed 1 month ago. They becameheavier than at the blending rates of 0, 2.5, 10, 15, 20, and 25%, or an increase of 22, 85, 105, 50,
35.4 and 11.8%, respectively (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2). Edwards and Lofty (1972) found that organic
matter content was a crucial factor affecting earthworm weight. In this study, cattle manure vs.
other materials added with P, K, Na, and Mg were compared for vermiculturing. It was found thatweight of earthworms cultured in cattle manure increased more than 75%.

Fig. 1 The weight of earthworms (g) while using of the cassava pulp blended with chicken
manure by ratios after 30 days

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Fig. 2 Change of the weight of earthworm (%) before and after experiment by using the
cassava pulp blended with chicken manure by ratios after 30 days

Fig. 3  The  increasing  of  the  earthworm‘s  weight  (g) while using cassava pulp blended withchicken manure by ratios after 30 days

Fig. 4 Change of the weight of earthworms (%) before and after experiment while using
cassava pulp blended with chicken manure by ratios after 30 days
The usage of eucalyptus peel blended with chicken manure: The blending of eucalyptus peelwith chicken manure at 10% rate showed an increase in the weight of earthworms (2.88 g). The
highest weight of earthworms at 188% was changed from when earthworms were fed 1 month ago.
They were heavier than when the rates were 0, 2.5, 5, 15, 20, and 25%, an increase of 85, 142.9,
134.8, 162.5, 88 and 25.3 %, respectively, as shown in Fig.3 and Fig.4. This might be caused byhigh EC, salinity (Edwards and Bohlen, 1996), and pH values resulting from release of NH4+ fromlabile organic nitrogenous compounds were not suitable for earthworm existence (Mertus, 1993).
The usage of cassava peel blended with chicken manure: The blending of cassava peel withchicken manure at 2.5% rate increased in the weight of earthworms (2.94 g). The highest weight ofearthworms at 167% was changed from 1 month ago; the weight was higher than at the blending
rates of 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25%, or an increase of 124, 91.5, 88.2, 35.8, 34, and 27.7 %,respectively (Fig. 5 and Fig. 6). This is consistent with Kwansod (2003) who reported that using
low ration of chicken manure led to high potential transformation of nutrients in raw materials inearthworm biomass.

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Fig.  5  The  increasing  of  the  earthworm‘s  weight  (g) while using cassava pulp blended withchicken manure by ratios after 30 days

Fig. 6 Change of the weight of earthworm (%) before and after experiment while using
cassava pulp blended with chicken manure by ratios after 30 days
CONCLUSION
The survival of earthworm when using chicken manure blended with agro-industrial wastes
The usage of chicken manure in all ratios (0, 2.5, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25% rates) blended withcassava pulp, cassava peel, and eucalyptus peel can increase % survival of the earthworms at 100%after 30 days. The chicken manure of the highest rate at 25% by weight with oil palm blended did
not make the earthworms survive; not even without chicken manure (0% rate). With timeproceeded, EC and salinity of vermicompost influenced earthworm survival. Edwards (1988)
reported that high salinity of the compost could reduce earthworm growth. Generally, the optimum
EC or salinity for earthworm survival ranges from 1.58 to 3.35 dSm-1 (Owojorl et al., 2008).
The growth of earthworm when using chicken manure blended with agro-industrial wastes
The usage of chicken manure at 5, 10 and 2.5% with cassava pulp, eucalyptus and cassava peel,
peel, respectively, better increased the weight per body than other chicken manure ratios. Thisshows that use of optimum rate of chicken manure could increase earthworm biomass. However,
employing over-dose rate (> 10%) of this material contributes to decrease in earthworm weight.
Our results suggest that poultry manures such as chicken manure are not suitable for vermiculture.
This is likely because these manures contain enriched ammonia and inorganic salts in which
earthworms cannot survive. However, if ammonia and inorganic salt contents can be reduced,
chicken manure is very appropriate for vermiculture. This is because chicken manure has a numberof nutrients, which can increase the compost value. (Edwards, 1988)Ⓒ ISERD73

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research project was funded by The National Research Council of Thailand (NRCT) andNational Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA), 2012, Integrated Water
Resource Management Research and Development Center in Northeast Thailand and GWRC,
Khon Kaen University. Thanks are extended to the Division of Land Resource and Environment,
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University for the support of equipment for laboratory testing.
REFERENCES
Department of Public Work, Los Angeles County. 2002. Types of worms. (http://smartgardning.com/types ofworms. htm. accessed March 15, 2013.)
Garner, H.V. 1966. Experiments on the direct, cumulative and residual effect of town refuse manure andsewage sludge at Rothamated and other. J. Agir. Sci., 67, 223-233.
Iwai, C.B., Ta-oun, M., Seripong, S. and Champar-ngam, N. 2011. Vermicomposting: good management
practice for waste, soil and yield safety. Department of Plant Sciences and Agricultural Resources, Land
Resources and Environment Section, Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kean University, Thailand. 171.
Edwards, C.A. 1988. Breakdown of animal, vegetable and industrial wastes by earthworms. SPB Academic
Publishing, Netherlands. 268.
Edwards, C.A. and Bohlen, P.J. 1988. Breakdown of animal, vegetable and industrial wastes by earthworms.
SPB Academic Publishing, Netherlands. 268.
Edwards, C.A. and Burrows, I. 1996. Biology and ecology of earthworms. Chaman and Hall, London, UK.
142-145.
Edwards, C.A. and Lofty, J.R. 1972. Biology of earthworms. Bookworm publishing Company.
Kwansod, T. 2003. Treatment and vermicomposting of chicken manure using Lumbricus rubellus andEudrilus eugeniae. Master of Science (Agriculture). Department of Animal Science, Kasetsart
University, Bangkok. Thailand.
Mertus, J. 1993. Earthworms.   (http://www. Mertus.org/gardening/worms/html. accessed March 15, 2013.)
Owojori, O.J. Reinecke, A.J., and Rozanav, A.B. 2008. Effects of salinity on partitioning, uptake and toxicity
of zinc in the earthworm Eisenia fetida. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 40, 2385-2393
Tacon, A.G.J. 1991. Standard methods for the nutrition and feeding of farmed fish and shrimp. Redmond,
Washington, USA.
TonsCho, A. 2010. Producing fertilizer from organic waste with earthworms. Department of Soil andEnvironment, Faculty of Agricultural Production. Maejo University. Thailand.
Ta-oun, M. 2007. Techniques and analysis in the laboratory of soil, water and fertilizer. Department of Land
Resources and Environment. Faculty of Agriculture. Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand.
Suthar, S. 2007. Microbial and decompositing efficiencies of monoculture and polyculture vermieactors
based on epigeic and anecic earthworms. Word J. Micro Biol. Biotechnol., Doi: 10.1007/511274-0079635-9.

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Research article
erd

Guidance of a Transplanting Skid Steer Vehicle with
Variable Center of Gravity
NOE VELAZQUEZ LOPEZ*
Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Email: noe.velazquez@gmail.com

KIYOSHI TAJIMA
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, JapanHIDEYUKI TANAKA
Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan

DO TUAN THANH
Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan

WATARU YUKUMOTO
Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan

MASATAKA JITSUNO
Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan

MASAYOSHI KATO
Faculty of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, JapanEIICHIRO SAKAGUCHI
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture,Tokyo, Japan

JUNYA TATSUNO
Faculty of Engineering, Kinki University, Hiroshima, JapanTADASHI ISHII
Jisedaitech L.P., Kanagawa, Japan
Received 17 December 2012

Accepted 30 January 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract In this study it is proposed a photovoltaic powered farming robot system thatconsists of a delivery vehicle and a working vehicle. The proposed system is designed
based on a newly proposed farming method called shaft tillage cultivation. So, we havedeveloped two automatic vehicles, as well as a 2-D localization method for positioning of
the working vehicle. In addition, we have developed an attachment for shaft tillage andtransplanting which is derived from commercially available transplanting machines. This
movable transplanting attachment was mounted over two rails which are disposedtransversally on the frame of the working vehicle which in turn permits transplanting
multiple rows. The working vehicle is based on a skid steer vehicle with independent left
and right motors that allow for motion direction control by turning the left- and right-side
wheels at different velocities. However, within the field, even if same turning velocities
are applied to both left- and right-side wheels a yaw angle is generated due to the sinkage
and rolling resistance. Additionally, controllability of the working vehicle is greatly
affected by variable changes of the center of gravity caused by lateral motion of thetransplanting attachment. So, this paper focused on the effect of the position of center ofgravity on the yaw angle in the working vehicle. The least square method was examined as
method to find out the instantaneous center of rotation (ICR) and its effectiveness was
confirmed. When the position of center of gravity was on the faster wheels the turning ofⒸ ISERD

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the skid steer vehicle was more difficult than in other positions. The ICR changed evenwhen the left- and right-side wheels were driven at the same velocities. Therefore,
considering the position of center of gravity in the skid-steer vehicle would allow arational guidance of the vehicle.
Keywords transplanting, skid steer vehicle, trajectory, variable center of gravity

INTRODUCTION
A current trend in agricultural area is the development of mobile robots and autonomous vehicle
for precision agriculture. These are usually required to travel across unpaved terrains to operate ortransport material. In this kind of terrains, the mobility and the controllability of the robot isstrongly influenced by the physical properties of the terrain (Gonzalez et al., 2009).
Authors are involved in the development of a photovoltaic powered farming robot system thatconsists of a delivery vehicle and a working vehicle (Tajima et al., 2008). The proposed system isdesigned based on a newly proposed farming method called shaft tillage cultivation method which
promotes weed and crop coexistence. Figure 1 shows an image of cross section of plants cultivatedwith the shaft tillage method. The tool has two different diameter sections as is shown in Fig. 1.
The principal characteristics of this farming method are to minimize the power required whentillage and weed control is done separately by trimming periodically (Tajima et al., 1996). Shaft
tillage cultivation method involves drilling a vertically shaped shaft with the rotary sinker that
achieves an effect of tillage and the soil is not exposed on the surface of the field (Tajima et al.,1997). As such, we have developed two automatic vehicles. Figure 2 shows the developed
photovoltaic powered farming robot system. Functions such as, transportation and positioning of
the robot system, electric power generation and storage, transportation and supply of seedling traysetc. were distributed in these two vehicles. The delivery vehicle is guided outside the field througha magnetic tape and has functions such as, positioning of the working vehicle, electric power
generation and storage as well as transport and seedlings supply. On the other hand, the working
vehicle receives control information, power and a seedling supply from the delivery vehicle, andhas function of positioning and transplanting of seedlings. Positioning of the working vehicle isbeing carried out by a 2-D localization system using a laser distance sensor (Tatsuno et al., 2005).
In addition, we have developed an attachment for shaft tillage and transplanting which is derived
from commercially available trans-planter. This movable transplanting attachment was mounted
over two rails which are disposed transversally on the frame of the working vehicle which in turn
permits transplanting multiple rows. The transplanting attachment is equipped with a tillage device
for transplanting and a seedling tray tank which also move transversally within the frame of theworking vehicle.

Fig. 1 Cross section of plant under cultivated by the shaft tillage method and the rotary
sinker for the shaft tillage cultivationⒸ ISERD

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Photovoltaic cell
Seedlings tray handlingdeviceSeedlings tray storage
deviceSeedlings handling device
driving motor
Charger controller
Control unit
Battery

Seedlings tray storage
device driving motor

Driving unit(a) Delivery vehicle
Attachment device Attachment
Seedling
control PLC
devicetrays rack
Reflector sheet for
positioning of theattachment
Cross-feed
motor

Right wheel
Left wheel
driving motor
driving motor
Shaft tillage Transplanting
devicehandlers

Water tank

Reflector mirror for
positioning of theattachment
Reflector sheet for
positioning of theworking vehicle

Power supply
plug(b) Working vehicle
Fig. 2 Photovoltaic powered robot system
The working vehicle is based on a skid steer vehicle with independent left and right motors(Tajima et. al. 2003). As the right- and the left-side wheels are driven independently, the wheel
speed and direction of rotation determine the direction of the skid steer vehicle. Skid-steer vehicle
is capable of zero-radius, "pirouette" turning. This is very important for positioning the skid steer
vehicle when transplanting due to its facility in correcting the position in polar coordinates. In otherwords, the vehicle can turn based on a specific vertical axis within the frame. This system isdesigned to carry out multitasking. So eventually, it would be possible to perform variable cultural
practices (by changing the attachment) using a manipulator, such as disease detection and control
by image processing (Velazquez et al. 2011) creating the necessity to combine the generalcoordinates system in the field with that in the image so a more accurate positioning of the working
vehicle could be achieved.
However, within the field, even if the same turning velocities are applied to both left- andright-side wheels a yaw angle is generated due to the sinkage and rolling resistance. Additionally,
mobility and controllability of the working vehicle is greatly affected by changes in the position ofcenter of gravity caused by lateral motion of the attachment. It is known that the turning
characteristics of a skid steer vehicle are highly dependent on the position of center of gravity,
especially for lateral changes (Sasaki et al. 2005), though enough knowledge has not been obtained
for the development of an algorithm to guide the proposed system where the center of gravity
moves transversally while traveling.
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OBJECTIVE
The objectives of this paper are to find out the effect of the position of center of gravity on the yaw
angle in the working vehicle and to consider a method to find out the instantaneous center ofrotation.
METHODOLOGY
In order to measure a turning circular trajectory, it takes a lot of time due to the velocity of our skid
steer vehicle is very slow, when the circular trajectory is large a wide area is needed and it isdifficult to maintain the same ground conditions. Therefore, an accurately method to find out the
ICR and the turning radius (R) from a small trajectory was necessary. In that respect, the leastsquared method was proposed.
Experiments were carried out inside a greenhouse using the skid steer vehicle showed in Fig.3.
This skid steer vehicle is based on the Agri-cart manufactured by Alumis Co., Ltd. Turning
experiments were carried out at very low speed. As power supply a regulated power DC supply wasused. PWM driver was used for control of the left- and right-side motors. A load of 196 N was used
for all experiments. Tires pressure was set to 196 kPa. 9 load conditions were set as is shown in Fig.
4. Driving speeds of the wheels were set as shown in Table 1. The turning direction was set tocounterclockwise. Experiments were conducted as follows: First the load on each wheel wasmeasured for each condition of the load. A mark was collocated each 90 degrees on the right-front
and left-rear wheels. Then after traveling a distance of 2 m, 8 m trajectory was plotted on the
ground. Plotted points were then measured in Cartesian coordinates with a tape.

Fig. 3 Skid steer vehicle

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Fig. 4 Load conditions (Top view)

Table 1 Driving setting speed of the wheels
Speed setting
1
2
3

Left-side angular Speed ωl (rad/s)
0
0.64
1.20

Right side Speed ωr (rad/s)
1.24
1.24
1.24

Least square method
The turning radius and ICR were calculated using the least square method. Eq. (1) represents theequation for a circle. This method is based on minimizing the mean square distance from the circle
to the data points
(1)
Where
represents the center of the circle andrepresents the radius. The
residual obtained from the circle trend line and data points, xi and yi, obtained from the trajectoryof the skid steer vehicle are expressed by Eq. (2).
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Then the squares of the residuals
are summed and A, B and C are determined so that thesum is minimized as shown in Eq. (3). Here, A=-2a; B=-2b and C=a2+c2-r2.
(3)
Particularly, the estimated values of A, B and C can be obtained by partial differentiation andequating to zero.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Figure 5 shows the load on wheels under the 9 load conditions (Fig. 4). The load was distributed
symmetrically for load condition 5 on the left-and right-sides of the vehicle with values from 201249N. The load moved to right-side for condition 6 and to left-side for condition 4 confirming thatthe center of gravity moved along with the load. Fitting the circle equation to plotted data points
with the least square method allowed calculating the ICR and turning radius, from a small
trajectory in a short time, confirming the effectiveness of the method.
1

4

2

5

3

6

Left front
wheel

Right front
Load
wheel
Condition

Left rear
wheel

Right rearwheel

300-325N
78

9

250-300N
201-249N
0-200N

Fig. 5 Load on wheels

Fig. 7 Relationship between ωl/ωrand 1/R for
Speed setting 2

Fig. 6 Relationship between ωl/ωr and 1/R for
Speed setting 3

Fig. 8 Relationship between ωl/ωr and 1/R for
Speed setting 1

Figures 6, 7 and 8 show the relationship between the ratios of ωl/ωr and 1/R. R represents theturning  radius  and  ωl and  ωr are the left- and right-side wheels angular speed, respectively. As it
can be observed in each figure the turning radius varied for each load condition even whenexperiments were carried out under the same speed and ground setting conditions. When the load
was on the faster wheel (right-side), braking effort on the slower wheel (left-side) reduced as aresult of wheels sinkage and rolling resistance making the turn more difficult. On the other hand,when the load was over the slower wheel (left-side) the braking effort increased facilitating the turn.
In other words, when the load is over the faster side the vehicle tends to travel straight and when
the load is over the slower side the vehicle tends to tight turn.
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CONCLUSION
The least square method fitting the circle equation was proposed and examined as a method to findout the turning radius and the ICR of the vehicle from plotted point data obtained from a short
trajectory and its effectiveness was confirmed. The ICR changed even when the left- and right-side
wheels were driven at the same speed. Considering the position of center of gravity in the skidsteer vehicle would allow for a rational guidance of the vehicle. Hence, analytical studies arenecessary in order to achieve a more accurate control for positioning of the skid steer vehicle. In
other words, mathematical modeling (equations of motion) and simulation of the working vehicle
taking into account changes in the position of the center of gravity are required. As a result,velocities for the left- and right-side wheels as well as the appropriate position of the center ofgravity could be obtained. Finally, in order to evaluate the accuracy of the mathematical model,
comparison between experimentally obtained data and those obtained by simulation is required.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We wish to acknowledge the support of Yuki Watanabe, Toshihiko Nishitani and Yuki Takeishi,
undergraduate students of the Laboratory of Farm Robotics at Tokyo University of Agriculture.
REFERENCES
Gonzalez, R., Rodriguez, F., Guzman, J.L. and Berenguel, M. 2009. Comparative study of localization
techniques for mobile robots based on indirect Kalman Filter. International Symposium on Robotics,
Barcelona, Spain.
Jitsuno, M., Tajima, K., Kato, M., Toyoda, N., Velazquez, L.N., Sakaguchi, E. and Tatsuno, J. 2012. The
possibility to adapt the shaft tillage cultivation method to arid land farming. Journal of Arid Land
Studies, 22(1), 341-344.
Tajima, K., Tamaki, K. and Tatsuno, J. 1996. A study on the shaft tillage cultivation system for anagricultural robot. IX. CIGR Congress and AgEng. 96. Conference on Agricultural Engineering,
PAPER 96-A101.
Tajima, K., Tatsuno, J. and Tamaki, K. 1997. A control of the agricultural robot with flexible boom
electrically driven by solar light power. ASAE annual international meeting.
Tajima, K., Tatsuno, J., Kato, M., Sasaki, Y., Kawashima, H., Ishi, T., Miyauchi, Y. and Kinoshita, E. 2008.
Development of automatic attachment for shaft tillage cultivation and transplanting. Japanese Journal of
Farm Work Research, 43(3), 135-141.
Tatsuno, J., Tajima, K., Terada, Y., Ishi, T., Kato, M. and K. Tamaki, K. 2005. 2-D Localization ofautonomous farm vehicle using laser distance sensor. JSAM, 67(5), 45-53. (In Japanese).
Tajima, K, Tatsuno J., Yoshimura M., Tamaki K. and Kato, M. 2003a. Development of solar electric farming
robot system. Proc. of the 39th Annual Report of KANTO Branch JSAM, 6-7. (In Japanese).
Sasaki, H. and Abe, M. 2005. A fundamental study on skid-steering vehicle dynamics. Transaction of Societyof Automotive Engineers of Japan, 36(1), 229-234 .
Velazquez, L.N., Sasaki, Y., Nakano, K., Mejia, M.J.M. and Romanchik, K.E. 2011. Detection of powdery
mildew disease on rose using image processing with open CV. Revista Chapingo, Serie Horticultura17(2), 151-160.

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Research article
erd

The Change of Phosphorus Form in Vermicompost Using
Cassava Pulp
NUNTAWUT CHAMPAR-NGAM
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Email: nantawut1987@gmail.com, chulee_b@kku.ac.th

CHULEEMAS BOONTHAI IWAI*
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

MONGKON TA-OUN
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

SURASAK SERIPONG
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Received 16 December 2012

Accepted 30 January 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The aim of this study was to investigate the change of phosphorus form invermicompost using cassava pulp. The ratio of cassava pulps: soil mix (sandy soil and cow
manure) were applied at 75%:25% (W/W) in compost (CP: without earthworm) andvermicompost (VCP: with earthworm). The qualities of vermicompost and the form ofphosphorus after 60 days incubation were analyzed. The results showed that the pH andEC (Electrical conductivity) were increased in CP and VCP. The water-soluble P in VCP
was increased by 21.55% from initial and higher than CP 16.07%. The exchangeable P in
VCP was increased by 39.57% from initial and higher than CP 24.25%. Total P in VCP
was increased by 21.55% from initial and higher than CP 16.07%. The total N in VCP wasincreased by 87.61% from initial and higher than CP 85.14%. Moreover, the decreaseof %OC (organic carbon), C/N ratio, C/P ratio were found in VCP more than CP, thepercentage of decreasing from initial was 76.93%, 97.27%, 82.15%, respectively. The
humic acid (%) content in VCP was higher than CP and the percentage of changing after
60 days of VCP was 56.41% and of CP was 32.83%. The growth and reproduction ofearthworm showed that the growth rates of earthworm were 10.75 worm-1day-1 (mg) andthe numbers of cocoons produced in vermicompost were 6.8 earthworm-1. Therefore, theactivity of earthworm and microbial was helpful to phosphorus available form and nutrient
fertilizer content in vermicomposting. These data suggest that vermicompost helps toenhance phosphorus availability in compost.
Keywords phosphorus, cassava pulps industrial wastes, vermicompost, earthworm

INTRODUCTION
There are many cassava agro-industrial factories in Thailand, large and growing industries. Whenthey finish the manufacture process with about 10 million tons of fresh cassava roots used for the
production of starch, generates at least 1 million tons of pulp annually (Sriroth, 1994). Cassava
pulps wastes can be used as nutrient fertilizer cycling and managing which is sustainable inagricultural systems. However, if cassava wastes were not be controlled and managed theenvironmental problem with disposal would happen. Therefore, the easy and fast management ofwastes is using earthworm to breakdown wastes and enhance nutrients fertilizer for compost.
Vermicomposting is normally more capable than composting because earthworms were feed onorganic and create conditions that favor the degradation of decomposed and fragmented organic
material by aerobic microorganisms (Edwards, 2004). The interactions between earthworms andmicroorganisms were the non-thermophilic biodegradation of organic wastes. (Arancon et al.,Ⓒ ISERD

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2004). Vermicomposting increases P bioavailability, microorganisms, and earthworms; includingorganic acid production, which solubilizes inorganic P (Scervino, et al., 2010). Saha et al. (2008)
showed that phosphatases was helpful on faster transformation of organic P by using of earthworm
casts in soil. Organic matter modifies supplement soil phosphatase activity. Phosphorus available
forms are important for plant production. Earthworm and microorganisms were helpful, changed
mineralization P of organic forms that transform P from non-available, organically bound forms,
into bioavailable phosphate ions (Eivazi and Tabatabai, 1977). In the study of Jader et al. (2012)
showed that vermicompost was an alternative technology for increasing P availability for plant
nutrition. Accordingly, the degradation of organic wastes by earthworm and microorganism were
helpful on the amount and quality of the humic acid. For example, this fraction in composts andvermicomposts are respected as important indicators of their biological perfection and successful
performance and insurance for a safe impact and chemical consistency in soil (Senesi et al., 2007;
Benítez et al., 2000; Atiyeh et al. 2000).
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this study was to investigate the change of phosphorus form as using cassava pulp
and relationship of nutrient cycle in vermicompost process.
METHODOLOGY
Cassava industrial wastes: cassava pulps located Kalasin province northeast of Thailand.
Earthworm: the earthworms (Eudrillus eugeniae) were carefully brought to the laboratory alongwith the moist soil and culture in laboratory and acclimatized for 1 month under laboratory
conditions in polyethylene buckets (culture pot) containing soil. Sandy soil (Nampong Soil) and the
fresh manure amendment, which material was collected form a local cattle farm were used in theexperiment.
Experiment design: The vermicompost (VCP) cassava pulp waste material in process was used.
Experiment plan was CRD (Completely Randomized Design), 3 replication, the experiment
repetitions were mixed in the rate of 75%:25% (cassava industrial wastes: soil mixture) for theexperiments compost (CP: without earthworm) and vermicompost (VCP: with earthworm). The
25% in compost process is Soil mix. It was featured Nampong soil, cow manure. VCP and CP
were decomposed cassava pulp waste; soil mix (soil and cow manure). The mixture was composted
for 15 day before earthworm addition at incubation. The fermentation processes have a hightemperature because of earthworm breakdown. The mixture of moisture content was adjusted to70-80% of WHC (Water Holding Capacity) by water and it keeps content in plastic black block 2 L
by adding 10 earthworm(Eudrillus eugeniae)/1 kg (mix waste), which was covered with a net toprevent direct exposure to sunlight(Maity et al, 2008). The times incubation of study were VCP andํ in laboratory.
CP at 0, 30 and 60 days. The temperature was 30±2 ◌C
Chemical analysis: The compost (CP) and vermicompost (VCP) were measured for pH using a
digital pH meter in 1/ 2.5 (w/v) by deionizered water. Total Organic carbon was determined by thepartially-oxidation method (Walkley and Black, 1934). Total N (Total nitrogen) was measured by
micro Kjeldahl method (Jackson, 1973; Bremner and Mulvaney, 1982). Total P (TP) was digested
with acid (HNO3: H2SO4:HClO4 (5:2:1)). The sample used 1 g / 10 ml (mix acid) (w/v). Water
soluble P (WSP) was measured in DI water extraction ratio VCP and CP 1 g/ 25 ml (W/V) andshaken for 2 hour (150 rpm). Exchangeable phosphorous (Exch. P) was determined by following
Bray II extraction method (Schroth et.al, 2003). The total form P solutions were determined theascorbic acid molybdenum blue method by UV spectrophotometer (Murphy and Riley, 1962). C:Nratio was calculated from the measured value of C and N. C:P ratio was calculated from themeasured value of C and P. TOC in the VC was estimated using the dichromate oxidation method(Nelson and Sommers, 1982; Walkley and Black, 1934). Humic acid extracted soil andvermicompost caste derived humic acids (HA) were extracted with a slightly HA modifiedⒸ ISERD

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procedure recommended and used by the IHSS to isolate standards of humic acid (Chen, et al.,1977).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSThe characteristic of cassava pulp wastes: the pH was 3.823±0.586, EC (mS/cm) was 0.867± 0.029,
Total P (%) was 0.063±0.001, Total N (%) was 0.206±0.016, Total K (%) was 0.322±0.004, and C:
N ratio 94.63±6.73. The characteristic of soil: the pH was 4.500 ±0.557, EC (mS/cm) was 0.357±
0.051, Total P (%) was 0.008±0.000, Total N (%) was 0.021±0.003, Total K (%) was 0.121±0.000,
and C: N ratio 9.432 ±0.165. The characteristic of cow manure: the pH was 9.233 ±0.029, EC(mS/cm) was 3.577± 0.025, Total P (%) was 0.664±0.178, Total N (%) was 1.350± 0.050, Total K(%) was 0.495±0.010, and C: N ratio 17.970± 1.251.
Changing of Phosphorus in CP and VCP: the result showed that changing of phosphorus form
comparing with CP and VCP in cassava pulps agro-industrial wastes in vermicomposting at time
incubation 0 day, 30 days and 60 days (Table 1). The total P in content initial wastes mixtures at 0
day CP and VCP were 0.54%, after that the end 60 day TP value was increased 16.07-21.55% in
both, but when the compare with CP and VCP that VCP was minimum increased than CP.
Similarly, there was about water soluble P (WSP) increase in VCP better than CP. Initial at 0 day
CP and VCP was value 0.037%, after that at 30 days and 60 days had increased water soluble P(WSP) in both. In VCP and CP, percentage of changing was increased 74.72% and 61.73%,
respectively. The study showed that vermicomposting helped to increase water soluble P (WSP)
higher than general tradition compost. Exchangeable P is important for growing plant, because it isavailable P form as plant was direct absorbed. The table 1 showed that exchangeable P content in
VCP was better than CP. Initial at 0 day CP and VCP was value 0.227%, after that at 60 day, it had
increased water soluble P (WSP) in both. In VCP and CP, percentage of changing was increased
39.57% and 24.25%. The C:P ratio (Table 1) showed that value content in VCP was decreased
which better than CP. Initial at 0 day CP and VCP was value 26, after that at 60 days, it had
decreased C:P ratio in both. In VCP and CP, percentage of changing was increased 82 % and 73%.
After earthworm and microorganism activity, Vermicomposting can be proficient technology fortransformation of unavailable forms of phosphorus to easily available forms for plants. Lee (1985)
the organic wastes passing thought the gut of worm was produced phosphatase and it was releasedof P may be microorganisms in casts. Ghosh et al. (1999) have reported that vermicomposting canbe an efficient technology for the transformation of unavailable forms of phosphorus to easily
available forms for plants and it can help to enhance the transformation of organic P into mineralforms, it also to release P into in soluble inorganic forms and to increase the availability of P
(Exchangeable P and WSP).
The result showed that the pH and EC in incubation at 60 day were increased in CP and VCP(Fig. 1). The pH of CP 0day value was 7.4. The pH of CP and VCP at 60 day value was 8.6 and 8.2,
respectively. Percentage of increased was 13.59% and 9.98% .The increase of pH may be attributed
to the decomposition of nitrogenous substrates resulting in the production of ammonia. Ammonia
which forms a large proportion of the nitrogenous matter was excreted by earthworms (Cohen andLewis, 1949). The total organic carbon (TOC) in VCP all time declined drastically compared totheir initial at o day; the maximum organic C loss was observed in VCP. The comparison with CP
and VCP were also calculated by using vermicomposting coefficient (VCP) that organic C loss
better than CP by percentage of loss CP:25% and VCP: 76.93%. Causing of the organic C loss wasvermicomposting process in organic C budget of the waste decomposition system and accelerates
the waste degradation process (Garg et al, 2005). The vermicomposting cause increased total N.
The comparison between CP and VCP, VCP was increased total N than CP. By percentage ofincreasing in VCP was 87.61%. Earthworms and microbial have an abundant impact on nitrogentransformation, by increasing nitrogen mineralization, therefore, mineral nitrogen was maintainedin the nitrate form (Atiyeh et al., 2000). However, the report of Viel et al., (1987) in the substrates
might be responsible for nitrogen addition stated, results to decrease in organic carbon. The
nitrogen through excretory products, enzymes, mucous and even by decaying worm tissue (TripathiⒸ ISERD

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and Bhardwaj, 2004). So that the value C:N ratio was decreased in VCP and CP (Fig. 1). C:N ratio
was important used indices for maturity of organic wastes, decreased with time for all the VCP and
CP. Initial C:N ratio was 128. Vermicompost can be attributed to initially lower content of nitrogenin these feeds. Final C:N ratios were 3.51 by percentage of decreasing was 97.27, whereas the final
C:N ratio of VCP was higher than CP feed.
Table 1 The result showed that changing of Phosphorus form compares with between CP and
VCP in Cassava pulps agro-industrial wastes vermicompost at time incubation 0 day,
30day, 60 day
Total P (%)
CompostVermicompost
Water Soluble P (%)
CompostVermicompost
Exchangeble P (%)
CompostVermicompost
C/P ratio
CompostVermicompost

TP(%)0d0.540±0.009
0.540±0.009
WSP(%)0d
0.037±0.001
0.037±0.001
Exch.P(%)0d0.227±0.010
0.227±0.010
C/P(%)0d
26.07±0.319
26.07±0.319

TP(%)30d
0.513±0.002
0.545±0.016
WSP(%)30d
0.076±0.006
0.091±0.006
Exch.P (%)30d
0.239±0.008
0.377±0.016
C/P(%)30d
19.75±2.997
20.22±4.978

TP(%)60d
0.643±0.043
0.688±0.067
WSP(%)60d
0.097±0.002
0.146±0.028
Exch.P(%)60d
0.300±0.004
0.376±0.024
C/P(%)60d
7.01±0.349
4.65±0.432% changing
16.07
21.55
% changing
61.73
74.72
% changing
24.25
39.57
% changing
73.09
82.15

Fig. 1 The picture showed that the comparing was pH, EC, TOC(%),Total N(%), C/N ratio
between CP and VCP with as cassava waste (cassava pulps) in compost at 0 day, 30
day, 60 day
The humic acid (HA) (%) contents showed in Fig. 2 the comparison between VCP and CP thatat 60 day after incubation, VCP was higher HA(%) than CP and ratio of humic acid (E4/E6) in
VCP was higher than CP. Percentage of changing after 60 day VCP was 56.41% and at CP was
32.83%. The HAs were one of most active fractions of OM, they improved the absorption ofnutrients by plants and soil microorganisms, there was a positive effect on the dynamic of N and P
in soil, stimulate plant respiration and the photosynthesis process, and favor the formation of soil
aggregates, etc (Hernandez et al., 2001). Chen et al., (1977) suggested and believes that themagnitude of E4/E6 was related to the degree of condensation of the aromatic C network, with aⒸ ISERD

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low ratio indicative of a relatively high degree of condensation of aromatic humic constituents.
Conversely, a high E4/E6 ratio reflects a low degree of aromatic condensation and suggests thepresence of relatively large portions of aliphatic structures. The values of E4/E6 ratio would
depend on the average molecular weight or particle size (negative correlation) and low degree ofaromatic C network content and low average molecular weight, probably due to a short period ofhumicfication that takes place in the composting process. This E4/E6 value suggested that during
the composting process the HAs produced were similar to fulvic fraction and in this way they cloudundergoes more microbial degradation. It had been demonstrated that the fluorescent intensity of
HAs and fulvic acid (FA) increase with decreasing molecular size (Edward et al., 1988; Aoyama,2001).

Fig. 2 The picture showed that humic acid (%) and ratio of humic acid (E4/E6) between CP
and VCP with as cassava waste (cassava pulps) in compost at 0 day, 30 day, 60 day
Table 2 Growth of Eudrillus eugeniae cassava pulp waste industrial
Treatment
Cassava pulp waste

Mean initial weight Maximum weight achieveddayearthworm-1 (mg)earthworm-1 (mg)323.43645.9660d

Net weight gain
earthworm-1 (mg)322.53Growth rateworm-1day-1 (mg)10.75

Table 3 Cocoon production by Eudrillus eugeniae in cassava pulp waste industrial
Treatment
Cassava pulp waste

Total no. of cocoons produced
after 60 day
68.0

No. of cocoons produced earthworm-1
6.8

CONCLUSIONSIn conclusion, the study observed the change of phosphorus form in vermicompost using cassava
pulp. The transformations that resulted in phosphorus available form in vermicompost was
generally more than efficient composting CP because of the activity of earthworm andmicroorganism that helped to change organic wastes and digestion wastes to phosphorus nutrient
fertilizer. Increasing inorganic P was exchanged to P, water soluble P and total phosphorus. The
vermicomposting process after 60 days was decomposing and changing, transforming bymineralization P into inorganic P nutrients form and was higher than general composting. Finally,
The study observed the change of phosphorus availability form as with cassava waste (cassava
pulps) in vermicompost on helping to change nutrient fertilizer: total N, C:N, total K, phosphorus
available form, Humic acid for plant, growth and reproduction of earthworm. Vermicompost was
encouraged as a disposal and management agro-industrial wastes which it decreases bio-wastes tochange valuable nutrient to plants, and to reduce environment pollutions.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was funding by Graduate research scholarship for graduate students of Khon Kean
University and the office of Higher Education Commission and Khon Kaen University under the
research  project  “Agro-Industrial Waste Management and Utilization”  and the National ResearchⒸ ISERD

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Council of Thailand (NRCT) and National Science and Technology Development Agency(NSTDA) and Integrated Water Resource Management Research and Development Center inNortheast Thailand and thanks to Prof. Dr. Machito Mihara for kind support.
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Research article
erdUsing Choice Experiment to Estimate the Value of
Sustainable Rattan Resource Management in Cambodia
OU RATANAK*WWF Cambodia Rattan Project Manager, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Email: ratanak.ou@gmail.com

MITSUHIRO TERAUCHITokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Received 12 December 2012

Accepted 30 January 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Rattan, which accounts of approximately USD 1.5 million of total revenue inCambodia, plays a crucial role in national and international trade for poverty reduction andconservation. Prek Thnot community, Kampot province was selected for implementing
sustainable rattan management approach 5 years ago including nursery management,enrichment planting and the development of a harvesting plan. Interviews with 324
families who have a forest dependence revealed that rattan is one of the top three options
for their livelihood improvement. The objective of this research is to establish the marginalutility of each attribute for sustainable rattan management. It was also used to estimate thepayment of each activity for sustainable management and productions. The results
revealed that 93% of local communities were willing to pay a tax fee through a revolving
fund for managing natural resources at their communities and only 7% rejected thepayment because they felt they did not gain profit from their contribution. All attributes
were found to be statistically significant at 1 and 5 percent except the benefit sharing from
Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD+), meaning that local
community are still not expected to get benefit from REDD+ or they did not well educatedon REDD+ in Cambodia. The marginal of willingness to pay of sustainable rattan
management shows that they are willingness to pay more for increasing endangered
species and recovering rattan resources in their communities through conservation andenrichment planting at degraded forest and over rattan harvesting areas. Hence, it can bestated the local community are well prepared for participating rattan management activities
and these results should be contribute to the making decisions by stakeholders at thecommunity of defining a new policy to be implemented by considering important on
biodiversity before implementing any activities.
Keywords choice experiment, choice modeling, endangered species, rattan coverage,
harvesting plan

INTRODUCTION
Forest  products  account  for  approximately  5%  of  Cambodia’s  Gross  National  Product  (GDP)  and  72% of the workforce is engaged in agriculture and forestry activities (FA, 2008; FA, 2010). NonTimber Forest Products (NTFPs) is the secondary in importance and contributes to livelihood
development and poverty reduction in the country with the total of approximately 70-90% ofhouseholds involved in collection and trade in forest products and NTFPs and the total income of
NTFPs is about USD 300 to USD 400 annually (McKenney et al, 2004). Rattan is one of the top
three of NTFPs in Cambodia with value of approximately USD 1.5million (Davies and Mould,
2010; WWF, 2010) and according to Forestry Statistics (2007), the main trading of NTFPs in
Cambodia, including resin, rattan and bamboo. During the last decade, the rattan trade has
decreased dramatically because of land conversion, over harvesting and unsustainable management(Vuthy and Hourt, 2006). Thus, the sustainable management of this resource is widely considered
to be a good strategy to both biodiversity conservation and livelihood improvement for the benefitⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1of the development of Cambodian economy. WWF Cambodia has selected this area for the piloting
a sustainable rattan productions program. It guides policy makers or stakeholders to learn local
community preferences and needed before implementing projects or activities. Main activities
contributing to sustainable rattan management are harvesting techniques and harvest planning ,enrichment planting native and economical rattan species in the community land and species
conservation in the sustainable harvesting areas by increasing endangered species. The three year
rattan harvesting plan was approved by the government in 2010 and stock, yields and location of
rattan harvested has been shown in the harvesting plan. Based on Prek Thnot community protectedareas roles and regulations, 5 percent of total value from selling rattan should be paid to acommunity trust fund for the benefit of their community development and biodiversity
conservation. Approximately 0.7 USD for 100 rattan canes has to be paid for community revolving
fund when they harvested rattan in sustainable management. The amount of money of local
communities who is willing to pay for biodiversity conservation and their livelihood development
is from the fee for harvesting rattan in their community land.
The application of non-market valuation technique to estimate benefits of alternativeenvironment management has been limited in Cambodia. The choice experience (CE) method, astate preference technique has been commonly applied in developing countries and recently, it has
been introduced in Cambodia. CE methods could also be useful in designing policies andimplementation of rural development project (Kohlm, 2001). The work of Ratanak and Yabe
(2009) in Mondulkiri province is one of a handful of studies employing the CE method to assess
the effect of environmental services on ecotourism development and management.
OBJECTIVE
The conditional logic model as an experimental method has been used to establish the marginalutility of each attribute for sustainable rattan management. It is also used to estimate the paymentof each activity for sustainable rattan management and productions. The data used in the empiricalpolicy evaluation literature came from a survey to collect information on household behaviors
before and during the project implementation.
METHODOLOGY
Choice models applied to non-marketed goods assume a specific continuous dimension as part of
the framework by using a discrete choice. They were inspired by the Lancasterian microeconomic
approach (Lancaster, 1966), in which individuals derive utility from the characteristics of the goods,
and the first study to apply choice models to non- market valuation was Adamowicz et al. (1994)
and Adamowicz et al., (1998). Recently, choice models have frequently been applied to thevaluation of non-market goods.
The stakeholder analysis, participatory tools and quantitative surveys underpinned all the
discussion of impacts, ensuring that differences between stakeholders identified and distribution of
costs and benefits assessed. The experimental design for both questionnaires were created using amain effect orthogonal statistical design generated using SPSS19. The alternatives for each choice
set were generated using a cycled design from the original fractional factorial design. In the
researcher selected questionnaire, a blocking strategy was used to reduce the number of choicetasks given to each respondent. In the respondent selected questionnaire prepared experimental
designs were used as templates as shown in Table 1. Respondents were advised that they could
choose to include any number or type of attributes in their choice decision. The one-on-one
interview survey took place at 4 villages in Prek Thnot community was conducted between Marchand April of 2012 with the total of 324 local community participants from local community, local
authorities include forest administration, park ranger and commune council. At first, respondents
received general information about the characteristics and management of community with posters,
maps, and photos of main rattan activities including rattan harvesting technique, nursery
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

traps in the national park. Following this, the second part of the survey included choice modelingquestions. The five attributes with four levels use to create choice sets using a 45 orthogonal main
effects design (Louvier et al., 2000), which produced 25 choice sets that were blocked into 5
versions of 5 choice sets (see Table 1). Finally, the questionnaire elicited information about nonattribute variables such as sex, age, education, income, attitude, perception and the main threat of
biodiversity conservation.
The choice Modeling (CM) technique requires respondents to choose only one among three
options from each of several sets. The resulting statistical model predicts choice behavior as afunction of the attributes and level that identify the different choice set. According to Lancaster(1966),  CM  is  consistent  with  Lancaster’s  theory  in  which  consumption  choices  are  defined  by  the  utility or value that is derived from the attributes of a particular good and random utility theory,
which describes discrete choices in a utility. The relationship of this variable can be introduced byassuming that the relationship between utility and characteristics follows a linear path, and byassuming that the error terms are distributed according to a double leg distribution; the choiceprobabilities have a convenient closed-form solution known as the multinomial logit model (MNL).
The conditional logit model used in this study is presented below. Because CE involves selection of
a substitute policy from several alternatives on the basis of the random utility model (Ben-Akiva
and Lerman, 1989), it can be expressed in equations, as shown below: When the i-th respondent
selects j from the set of alternatives, C, the utility uij can be defined by Eq. (1):uij vij  H ij

(1)where νij denotes the observable portion of the utility and εij indicates error term. When the i-th
respondent selects j, the utility uij of the selected alternative j is higher than the utility uik of theother alternatives, and its probability can be defined by Eq. (2):S ij

Pr(uij ! uik ; k  C )(2)

Pr(vij  H ij ! vik  H ik ; k  C )Pr(vij  vik ! H ik  H ij ; k  C )If this equation is subjected to total differentiation, deeming the utility level unchanged (dv = 0)
and fixing the attribute xk (other than attribute xj) also at the initial level, the amount of WTP for
one unit increase of attribute xj can be defined as follows in Eq. (3):MWTPx jdp
dx j

§ wv ·¸¨¨ wx ¸
j ¹©

§ wv ·¨¨ wp ¸
¸
©
¹



Ej
Ep

(3)

In  this  way,  MWTP  following  a  change  in  the  alternative  policy’s  level  can  be  calculated.
The Attributes with four levels such as Non Rattan Coverage (RC), Sustainable Rattan
Harvesting (SRH), Forest Management for REDD+ Benefit from government or donors, Increase
Endangered Species Conservation (IESC) and the price. The attributes for the C option were codedwith zero values for each of the attributes and the alternative specific constants (ASC) were equal
to 1 when either A or B option was selected. The Choice data of the conditional logit model andmarginal effects were analyzed using LIMDEP 8.0 NLOGIT 4.0 (Greene, 2002).
Table 1 Attributes and levels used in the choice models
Attributes
Rattan Coverage (RC)
Sustainable Rattan Harvesting(SNH)
Forest Management for REDD+
Benefit (FMRB)
Increase Endanger Species
Conservation (IESC)
Price

LevelsBasic Level
0 Seedling
500,000 canes

Level 1
10,000 Seedlings
19 million canes

Level 2
15,000 Seedlings
23 million canes

Level 320,000 Seedlings
28 million canes

0%

20%

30%

40%

5 species

10 species

15 species

20 species

USD30

USD50

USD70

USD90

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 2 shows the respondent profiles. Almost 55% were male and about 45% were female. The
majority of local communities were between the ages of 31-40 years (28.40%) and 41-50 years(25.31%). The lowest percentage was age of under 25 and over 51 years old. A high percentage of
respondents were farmers with the total almost 50%, followed by fisherman (28.70%), andgovernment staff (10.80%). The educational level of local community was very low with majority ofthem being between Grades 1 to 6, which accounted for almost 42%. More than 30% of interviewees
were uneducated. Nearly 90% of respondents were under Grade 9. Most of people living in remoteareas were strongly dependent on using natural resource as their income was low. Almost 60% ofthem had incomes between 51 USD to 100 USD and almost a quarter of respondents had incomes
below 50 USD. Almost 85 % were below 100 USD. The percentage of local community who werewilling to pay for sustainable rattan management and species conservation in the park was nearly
93% (302 respondents) and only about 7% of them were not willingness to pay for these activities
because they felt that they did not get any benefit from these activities as shown in Table 3. The
amount of willingness to pay for community development was from 1 USD to 7 USD and relied on
the number of time rattan was collected. Harvesters always collected rattan in the dry season fromJanuary to April and October to December. In the rainy season people rarely collected rattan because
they were busy with their agricultural practice. About 30% of people were willing to pay for thecommunity trust fund which was 3 USD per collecting time meaning that they could collect about
600 rattan canes per one time. Meanwhile approximately 21% of them were willing to pay 5 USD.
Almost 30% (88 people) of respondents were willingness to pay from 1 USD to 2 USD and only 11%of them preferred to pay between 6 USD to 7 USD.
The ASC found statically significant with positive sign implying that all attributes included in
the CE capture all systematic determinant of alternative choice. Most of attributes of major
activities contributing to sustainable rattan management were found to be statistically significant at
the 1 and 5% level. Table 4 reveals the estimate of coefficients of alternative specific constant;sustainable rattan harvesting; increase endangered species for conservation, and price were
statically significant at 1% level, while rattan coverage found statistically significant at the 5%
level. Only the attribute of forest management for Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and
Degradation (REDD+) benefit was not statistically significance.
Table2 Demographic information of respondents
Category
Male
FemaleAge
Under 25
26-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
Over 60
Occupation
FarmerFishermen
Government Staff
Student
Education Level
Under 1
Grade 1-6
Grade 7-9
Grade 11-12
Over Grade 12
IncomeUnder USD50
USD51-USD100
USD101- USD 200
USD201- USD 300
USD301-USD400
Source: Survey Data
GenderⒸ ISERD

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Number
178
146
48
52
92
82
38
12
159
93
35
37
108
135
53
20
8
80
193
43
6
2

Percent (%)
54.94
45.06
14.81
16.05
28.40
25.31
11.73
3.70
49.07
28.70
10.80
11.42
33.33
41.67
16.36
6.17
2.47
24.69
59.57
13.27
1.85
0.62

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

The marginal willingness to pay for sustainable rattan management is shown Table 5.
Interestingly, the results revealed that the local community was willing to pay the most for rattan
coverage (rattan enrichment planning) with the total of around 18 US$ per year; thus, the total
amount of financial contributions from villagers for enrichment planting was estimated to be
15,000 US$ per year if all community members were willingness to pay this amount. Their second
preferences were to pay for increasing endangered species for conservation, followed bysustainable rattan harvesting. The positive sign of these attributes indicated that probably the
respondents were probably interested in enjoying these activities and the negative sign of priceindicated  that  the  price  could  affect  respondents’  choice.
Table 3 Willingness to Pay for Sustainable Rattan Management
Category
WTP
Amount of WTP

Number
302
22
37
51
92
25
64
16
17

Yes
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Percent
93.21
6.79
12.25
16.89
30.46
8.28
21.19
5.29
5.63

Source: Survey Data

Table 4 Conditional logic results
Variables
Coeff.
Alternative Specific Constants
1.2149***Rattan Coverage
0.1097**
Sustainable Rattan Harvesting-0.0057***
Forest Management for REDD+ Benefit
0.0010
Increase Endangered Species for Conservation-0.0135***
PRICE-1.7040***
Parameters
6
Observations
1620
Log-livelihood-1716.98
Note: ***, **,* indicate statistical significance at 1%, 5%, 10%
Source: Survey Data

Std.Err.
0.13450.05560.00180.00250.00500.1792T-statistic
9.03701.9750-3.2030
0.4270-2.6860-9.5070

P-value
0.00000.04830.00140.66900.00720.0000

Table 5 MWTP of sustainable rattan management from multinomial logit modeling
Variables
Attribute
ASC
Alternative Specific Constants
BRC
Rattan Coverage
BSRH
Sustainable Rattan Harvesting
BFMRB
Forest Management for REDD+ Benefit
BIESC
Increase Endangered Species for Conservation
Source: Survey Data (95% confidence interval)

MWTP (USD)
71.2969 (44.9447, 97.6491)
18.6929 (7.8031, 29.5826)-0.3345 (-0.6873, -0.0183)
0.0587 (-0.4313, 0.5487)-0.7923 (-1.7723, 0.1877)

CONCLUSION
This study presents results from empirical application of choice experiment to valuation ofsustainable rattan management. The choice experiment aimed at identifying the preferences andbehaviors of local community and all stakeholders toward all activities for sustainable rattan
management both inside and outside protected areas. Each attribute that was found to bestatistically significant should be helpful to policy makers to see the appreciation of forest
dependent people for managing their resources. Additionally, the results showed that nearly 94% of
respondents were willing to pay for harvesting their resources and sustainable rattan managementin their communities with the majority of 3 USD per collection time. Thus, the government andⒸ ISERD

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other stakeholders can use this approach for better management of rattan and species conservation
for the benefit of poverty alleviation in rural economy.
In managerial terms, several implications for the planning and managing effectively from theresults obtained in this study. First, it was observed that enrichment planting is the first preference
so that they are keen on restoring and rehabilitation of their resources especially rattan. Second, it
was also observed that their marginal willingness to pay value is 18.30 USD, 0.33 USD, 0.0587
USD and 0.7923 USD per month, respectively. It means that the local community and stakeholders
are appreciating the benefits from sustainable rattan management. Third, among policy circle andthe wide public, for long-term sustainability there is a need to look outside the public sector for
additional funding for biodiversity conservation and environmental protection. Fourth, it is evident
that the primary target should be the improvement of sustainable rattan management for the benefit
of both conservation species and improve their living standard. Fifth, although sustainable
management provides insufficient funds for the conservation and management activities suggested,
the investigation of the local community shows the appreciation of the non-market value of all
attributes for sustainable rattan management. Finally, local communities are strongly support in theparticipating of rattan management and these results should be contribute to the decision makers todefine appropriated policy before implementing any projects.
Several research topics could follow up from this study in order to provide clearly insights into
the application of CE especially investigating the effects of payment to revolving fund and thebenefit from REDD+.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to gratefully acknowledge to Professor Dr. Mitsuhiro Terauchi at Tokyo University ofAgriculture, and Professor Dr. Mitsuyasu Yabe at Kyushu University, Mr. Thibault Ledecq, WWF
Cambodia Programme Manager, and Dr. Charles M. Peters and Dr. Andrew Henderson from the
New York Botanical Garden for their valuable comments, suggestions, discussion, and providing
some materials for research. I am grateful to the dedicated members of rattan team, WWF staff,
park rangers, park director, forest administration, authorities and local community for their support
during data collecting. I would like to also gratefully acknowledge Tokyo University of Agriculture
and SEARCA for sponsoring and helping various procedures required during my staying in Japan.
REFERENCES
Ben-Akiva, M. and Lerman, S. 1989. Discrete choice analysis, theory and application to travel demand, MIT
Press, Cambridge, USA.
Adamowicz, W., Louviere, J. and Swait, J. 1998. Introduction to attribute-based stated choice methods,
Report to NOAA resource valuation branch, Damage Assessment Centre, 12-16.
Adamowicz, W., Louviere, J. and Williams, M. 1994. Combining revealed and stated preference methods forvaluing environmental amenities. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 26, 271-292.
Davies, K. and Mould, A. 2010. A study on ways of stabilizing the Lpeak (Calamus salicifolius Becc.) Raw
material production in Siem Reap province and developing concepts for sustainable raw material
supply”,  prepared  for  GTZ  - Regional Economic Development Program (RED), Green Belt.
FA (Forestry Administration). 2007. Cambodia forestry statistics 2006.
FA (Forestry Administration). 2008. Cambodian country paper, Forestry outlook 2020, Phnom Penh,
Cambodia.
FA (Forestry Administration). 2010. Asia-pacific forest sector outlook study II, Cambodian forestry outlook
study, Working paper No. APFSOS II/ WP/ 2010/ 32, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
Greene, W. 2002. LIMDEP version 8.0 econometric modeling guide volume 2, Plainview. Econometric, 2-28.
New York.
Kohlin, G. 2001. Contingent valuation in project planning and evaluation-the case of social forestry in Orisa,
India. Environment and development economics, 6, 237-258.
Lancaster, K. 1966. A new approach to consumer theory. Journal of Political Economy, 74, 132-157.
Louviere, J., Hensher, D. and Swait, J. 2000. Stated choice methods, analysis and application, 58-137.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
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McKenney, B., Yim, C., Prom, T. and Evans, T. 2004. Focusing on  Cambodia’s  high  value  forest. In: CDRI
Working Paper No. 15. Phnom Penh.
Ou, R. and Yabe, M. 2009. Analyzing decision-making of tourists for ecotourism development in Cambodia,
Using latent segment model in Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary. In: Birol, E (Ed.), Choice experiments
in developing countries. Edward Elgar Publishing, Cheltenham, UK and Northampton, MA, USA.
Vuthy, V. and Hourt, K.E. 2006. Cambodia rattan status   report,   progress   report”. WWF Greater Mekong
Cambodia Country Programme, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
WWF. 2010. Cambodian market strategy WWF Greater Mekong Cambodia Country Programme, Phnom
Penh, Cambodia.

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Research article
erd

Effect of Organic Materials from Agro-Industrial Wastes(Molasses and Distillery Slop) on Earthworms under
Vermicomposting Using Cassava Waste
RATCHANEE WONGKOGSOONG
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Email: wks.ratchanee@gmail.com, chulee_b@kku.ac.th

CHULEEMAS BOONTHAI IWAI*
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Thailand

MONGKON TA-OUN
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Received 16 December 2012

Accepted 30 January 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The increasing of waste nowadays necessitates agro-industrial waste
management, and vermicomposting technology has been offered as a viable method.
However, before application of this method, a study of the effects of waste on earthworms
is required. The objective of this study is to investigate the effects of organic material onearthworms as a result of the vermicomposting process. The experiment was conductedusing completely randomized design with three replications. A toxicity test wasadministered to determine the effects of organic material (molasses and distillery slop
from cassava industrial wastes) on the survival and growth of earthworms invermicompost. The study found that after 7 days, 100% of the earthworms could survive
under concentrations of molasses at rates of 1.25 - 3.75% and concentrations of distillery
slop at rates of 6.25 - 25%. In addition, the application of organic materials (molasses anddistillery slop) mixed with cassava industrial wastes increased the growth of earthworms.
The earthworms had a survival rate of 67-100% after 4 weeks in the vermicompost
treatment when molasses was mixed with cassava pulp and cassava peel, but without
cassava pulp and cassava peel, the earthworms could not survive. Similar results were
found with the application of distillery slop mixed with cassava pulp and cassava peel.
Therefore, suitable rates of molasses and distillery slop use for earthworm survival are
1.25 - 3.75% and 6.25-25%, respectively. In conclusion, molasses and distillery slop canbe used with cassava industrial waste material in the vermicomposting process.
Keywords organic material, earthworms, vermicompost

INTRODUCTION
Agro-industry   has   been   expanding   rapidly   in   developing   countries   in   order   to   serve   peoples’  consumption. This expansion and its effects on the production process have led to increasing
amounts of industrial wastes and environmental pollution. Vermicomposting technology wasrecently offered as a viable method for organic waste management. After decomposition of waste
by earthworms, vermicompost is useful for agricultural sectors (Toncho, 2007; Iwai et al., 2011).
The use of earthworms for organic waste management is considered a brilliant means fordecomposition as their use is convenient and low cost. Vermicompost can be developed as highquality fertilizer and changes of chemical, physical and biological properties can be implemented.
In addition, it has been found that vermitechnology produces more nutrients: 26-82% nitrogen, 9094% phosphorus and 26-75% potassium (Iwai et al., 2011). Organic carbon is a food source that
increases the growth and reproduction of earthworms and microorganisms in compost and is an
important factor for organisms. A lot of molasses and distillery slop, currently, has been producedⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

from the sugar and ethanol industries.
OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this study are to investigate the effects on earthworms (Eudrillus eugeniae) ofusing organic material from agro-industrial wastes (molasses and distillery slop) for
vermicomposting using cassava waste; to determine effects on the growth of earthworms; and toanalyze the quality of vermitechnology fertilizer.
METHODOLOGIES
A toxicity test of organic material (molasses and distillery slop) to determine its effects on thesurvival of earthworms
A toxicity test of organic material (molasses and distillery slop) to determine its effects on thesurvival of earthworms was performed with concentrations of molasses at 1.25%, 2.5%, 3.75% and
5% and concentrations of distillery slop at 6.25%, 12.5%, 18.75% and 25% for a period of sevendays. Earthworms (E. eugeniae) used for this study were obtained from Research Developing and
Learning Centre on Earthworm for Agriculture and Environment. Adult earthworms (E. eugeniae)
of weights ranging from 0.34 - 0.45 g and lengths ranging from 15 - 18 cm were placed in plastic
containers divided into two sides with five earthworms per section. The control side was filled with
100 g dry weight of soil without contaminant and the other half of the plastic container was filledwith organic material (molasses and distillery slop) in different concentrations with 100 g dryweight of soil. Survival rate of earthworms was observed and data was recorded every day.
A study of the survival and the growth of earthworms as affected by organic materials(molasses and distillery slop) mixed with cassava industrial wastes
This study included 4 sub-experiments with 4 different organic material combinations: 1) Molasses
mixed with cassava pulp; 2) Molasses mixed with cassava peel; 3) Distillery slop mixed withcassava pulp; and 4) Distillery slop mixed with cassava peel. The ratio of cassava industrial wastes
to soil to cow dung was 7:2:1. In each experiment, this ratio was mixed with concentrations ofmolasses at rates of 1.25%, 2.5%, 3.75% and 5% and concentrations of distillery slop at rates of
6.25%, 12.5%, 18.75% and 25%. This experiment used Completely Randomized Design (CRD)with three replications. Adult earthworms (E. eugeniae) of weights and length ranging from 0.340.45 g and length 15 cm-18 cm were released into plastic pot containers containing 100 g dryweight of soil with five earthworms per container . All the containers were kept at a temperature of°
25 ± 3   C. The moisture content was maintained at 60–70% during the study  period. Survival rates
and weights of the earthworms were recorded before and after 30 days.
Statistical analysis: Differences among the treatments were assessed with analysis of varianceusing STATISTIC 8.
Table 1 Chemical characteristic of organic wastes
ParameterspH
EC (mS/cm)
Organic matter (%)
Total nitrogen (%N)
Phosphorus (%P)
Potassium (%P)

Cassava pulp
4.95
0.67
89.57
0.24
0.025
0.36

Type organic wastes
Cassava peel
Molasses
5.45
4.9
1.25
8.18
58
0.49
0.94
0.051
0.18
0.51
3.91

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Distillery slop
4.51
30.85
0.45
0.043
1.688

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A toxicity test of organic material (molasses and distillery slop) to determine its effects on thesurvival of earthworms
Toxicity tests of the various concentrations of molasses to determine its effects on the survival ofearthworms found that 100% of earthworms could survive under molasses concentrations of 1.25 3.75%, but 73.3% of earthworms could survive under molasses concentrations of 5 %. In addition,
the results of the different concentrations of distillery slop found that after 7 days of testing, 100%of earthworms could survive under concentrations of 6.25 - 25%. According to Toncho (2006), E.
eugeniae can survive at pH 7.0 - 8.0, but molasses has a low pH of 4.9. It also has a high electricalconductivity (EC) of 8.18 (Sharma et al., 2007), which is considered to be very salty. Distillery
slop was found to have an EC of 30.85 mS/cm, higher than molasses, but the earthworms could
survive because the pH was decreased to neutral by fermentation (Pundee,  2006).

Fig.1. The % toxicity test of molasseson the survival of earthworms

Fig.2. The % toxicity test of distillery slopon the survival of earthworms

A study of the survival and the growth of earthworms as affected by organic materials(molasses and distillery slop) mixed with cassava industrial wastes
The use of molasses mixed with cassava pulp and cassava peel: The results of both the use ofmolasses mixed with cassava pulp and mixed with cassava peel demonstrate that earthworm
survival decreases with increasing rates of molasses concentration. After 4 weeks, 100% ofearthworms could survive under molasses concentrations of 1.25% mixed with cassava pulp.
Earthworms could not survive under concentrations of 5 % molasses. On the other hand, the study
found that 100% of earthworms could survive molasses mixed with cassava peel under molasses
concentrations between 1.25 - 2.50% but under molasses concentrations of 3.75 - 5 %, earthworm
survival decreased to 55.56 - 33.33%. In other words, earthworms could survive under molasses
mixed with cassava peel at higher rates than molasses mixed with cassava pulp. The cassava peel
may have absorbed the molasses which would have decreased the toxicity of molasses (Cleasby,
1963). Earthworms could not survive 100% because the molasses has a high electrical conductivity(EC) of 8.18 mS/cm and a low pH of 4.9 (Pundee, 2006). According to Toncho (2006), E. eugeniae
can survive at pH 7.0 - 8.0, so these characteristics of molasses are not conducive to the survival ofearthworms.
The use of distillery slop mixed with cassava pulp and cassava peel: The results of the use of
distillery slop mixed with cassava pulp and cassava peel showed that earthworm survival decreases
with increasing rates of distillery slop concentration. After 4 weeks, 77.78% of earthworms could
survive under concentrations of 6.25 - 12.5% of distillery slop. Under distillery slop concentrationsof more than 18.75%, earthworms could not survive 100% because the distillery slop had a highelectrical conductivity (EC) of 30.85 mS/cm and a low pH of 4.51 (Soongsud, 2008). The pH of
cassava pulp was measured at 4.95 which is not conducive to the survival of earthworms. The useof distillery slop mixed with cassava peel found that earthworm survival declined with anincreasing rate of cassava pulp concentration. However, earthworms could survive 100% underⒸ ISERD

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concentrations of 6.25 -18.75% of distillery slop, but using distillery slop at concentrations morethan 18.75% led to lower survival rates. Cassava peel can absorb distillery slop more than cassava
pulp which decreased the toxicity of distillery slop.

Fig. 3 The % survival of earthworms in the different concentrations of molasses mixed withcassava pulp and cassava peel
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0

6.25

12.5

18.75

25

Distillery slop (%)

cassava pulp

cassava peel

Fig. 4 The % survival of earthworms in the different concentrations of distillery slop mixed
with cassava pulp and cassava peel.
CONCLUSION
The study of the survival of earthworms on organic materials (molasses and distillery slop) mixed
with cassava industrial wastes found that the use of molasses mixed with cassava pulp or cassava
peel at molasses concentrations lower than 2.5% resulted in an earthworm survival rate of 100%,
but the use of molasses at concentrations more than 3.75% resulted in lower survival rates. On theother hand, cassava pulp mixed with distillery slop at 6.25-12.5% concentration levels of distillery
slop promoted an earthworm survival rate of 77.78%. The use of distillery slop mixed with cassava
peel, with distillery slop concentration levels of 6.25-18.75% promoted an earthworm survival rateof 100%. High concentrations of molasses and distillery slop have high electrical conductivity(EC), or salinity, which affects the survival of earthworms. Therefore the use of molasses anddistillery slop should be kept at an optimum rate.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was supported by Khon Kaen University; thank to Association of Environmental andThis research project was funded by The National Research Council of Thailand (NRCT) andNational Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA) under 2012. Thanks areextended to the Division of Land Resource and Environment, Faculty of Agriculture, Khon KaenⒸ ISERD

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University for the conveniences and equipment in laboratory test and Integrated Water Resource
Management Research and Development Center in Northeast Thailand and thanks to Prof. Dr.
Machito Mihara for kind support.
REFERENCES
Cleasby, T.G. 1963. The feeding value of molasses. Proceedings of the South African Sugar Technologists'
Association (http://www.sasta.co.za.)
Iwai, C.B., Ta-oun, M., Seripong, S. and Champar-ngam, N. 2011. Vermicomposting: good management
practice for waste, soil and yield safety. Department of Plant Sciences and Agricultural Resources, Land
Resources and Environment Section, Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kean University, Thailand. 171.
Pundee, K. 2006. Influence of molasses on composting of cassava. Master of Science. Department of Natural
Resource Management, Faculty School of Bioresources and Technology, King Mongkut's University ofTechnology Thonburi. Thailand.
Sharma, P., Setia, R.K. and Dutta, S.K. 2007. Potential use of distillery effluent in agriculture, Indian Journalof Ecology, 34(1), 50-53.
Soongsud, P.    2008.    Utilization of spent wash liquor from ethanol factory for the sugar cane production.  
Master of Science thesis in soil science, Graduate School, Khon Kaen University. Thailand.
Toncho, A. 2007. Earthworm. National science and technology development agency, Patumthani. 260.

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Research article
erdEnhancing the Use of Value-Added Products from
Underutilized Fruit of the Endangered Mabolo (Diospyros
blancoi) Tree
REGUCIVILLA A. POBAR*
Bohol Island State University, Tagbilaran City, the Philippines
Email: regupobar@gmail.com
Received 14 December 2012

Accepted 30 January 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Mabolo fruit is from an endangered Mabolo tree in the Philippines. It is an ideal
source of calcium, vitamin B, iron and protein and contains numerous phenolic
compounds that provide powerful antioxidants. It is nutritious but it is underutilized as
human food because of its unpleasant odor comparable to rotten cheese or cat feces and iscovered with hair which is irritating to sensitive skin. Because of this, it got rotten, eatenby the birds, used as feeds to domestic animals and some were thrown as garbage. This
study aimed to produce Mabolo Cake, Mabolo Boat Tart, Mabolo Fritters and Mabolo
Pancake, and to determine their acceptability; to promote the nutritious products to thecommunity; to introduce them to the entrepreneurs; and to encourage everybody to have intheir snack boxes the value-added Mabolo products. This is an experimental study utilizing
the five-point Hedonic scale in assessing the acceptability of the products in six sensory
attributes; appearance, texture, odor, taste and overall liking. The products were assessedby twenty-five panelists. It was found out that Mabolo Cake and Boat Tart ranked first andsecond respectively in six sensory attributes, with a rating within the range of Like Very
Much while Pancake ranked third with a descriptive rating of Like in all attributes. Frittersranked fourth in all attributes with descriptive rating of Like in appearance and taste andNeither Like nor Dislike in Texture, Odor and Overall Liking. It can be concluded that the
products are generally acceptable. Proper promotion of Mabolo products can on one handprovide useful livelihood source while in the other hand provide incentive for communities
for protecting the endangered tree.
Keywords mabolo tree, mabolo cake, mabolo boat tart, mabolo fritters, mabolo pancake,hedonic scale sheet

INTRODUCTION
Mabolo (Diospyros blancoi) is an evergreen forest tree that belongs to the Ebenaceae (Ebony)family. In the Philippines, it is commonly identified by its wood locally known as Kamagong.
Because it is iron-like and nearly unbreakable, Kamagong is  popularly  called  “iron-wood”  and isoften used for furniture and carved into hair combs and knife handles (Bilton, 2012).
Like Narra and Molave, Kamagong is a premium wood. It is protected by Philippine laws by
regulating its extraction from the forest through a Special Private Land Timber Permit issued onlyby the Secretary of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR, 1990). Its
economic value however undermines such regulation so that by 2007, DENR issued Administrative
Order No. 01 declaring Mabolo Tree/Kamagong as one of the critically endangered species.
Mabolo bears fruit that is about the size of an apple. Its skin that turns into purple or maroon
when ripe is covered with hair. Its seeds are contained in its pulp.
The fruit itself lacks sweetness and is rather dry. However, it is highly nutritious. It is an ideal
source   of   calcium,   vitamin   B,   iron,   and   protein.   Research   shows   that   it   “contains   numerous  phenolic  compounds  that  provide  powerful  antioxidants  (Alvarez,  2012).”  The pulp of the Mabolo fruit emits a strong cheesy odor when opened thus, while bats, birds
and domestic animals feed on it, humans shy away from its foul odor leaving it to rot and beⒸ ISERD

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thrown away. This makes Mabolo fruit unpopular and underutilized for human consumption
despite its rich nutritive value.
It is in this context that the researcher was inspired to discover recipes using Mabolo fruit.
Acceptable Mabolo food products will lead to the utilization of the fruit as ingredient of humanfood thereby increasing its economic value. This will in turn encourage protection and propagationof the tree that has been mainly cut down for furniture or ornamental use of its wood.
Producing value-added food products from the underutilized fruit of the endangered Mabolo
tree reinforces the implementation of the Forestry Laws of the Philippines. Specifically, it supports
Presidential  Decree  No.  705  that  calls  for  the  “protection,  rehabilitation  and  development  of  forest  lands”   to   ensure   continuity   of   productivity.   Mabolo   fruit   food   items   could   encourage   locals   to  utilize Mabolo fruits instead of its wood as an alternative source of livelihood and thereby preserveand protect Mabolo trees. Likewise, this study generally supports the 1987 Philippine Constitution.
The use of Mabolo fruit as an ingredient to food products that become additional food items andthe bases for manufacturing and production directly responds to Section 10 Article 14 thatencourages  and  prioritizes  research  and  development  for  the  country’s  “productive  and  national  life  (Nolledo,  2009).”  As a development of food recipe, this study involves fortification or enrichment process
which  the  Food  and  Agricultural  Organization  (FAO)  of  the  United  Nations  define  as  “the  addition  of one or more essential nutrients to a food whether or not it is normally contained in the food(Codex  Alimentarius,  1991).”  The  addition  of  shredded  Mabolo  fruit  to  the  basic  cake  and  pancake  recipes; putting Mabolo filling to tart; and making fritters from Mabolo fruit increase nutrients andtherefore enhances the value of the food products.
The researcher fully believed that this study can significantly benefit the following:
Mabolo Growers. The findings of this study will make them realize that food products aside
from wood can be a source of income from Mabolo trees. This will refrain them from cutting andencourage them to grow more Mabolo trees.
Community. Mabolo fruit products which are highly nutritious are good additional items to thepeople’s  snack  or  meal.  
Entrepreneurs. This study provides them with the recipe of the value-added products ofMabolo fruit. It could enable them to mass produce new food items for another income.
Bureau of Forestry and the Department of Environment and Natural Resources of thePhilippines. As Filipinos could potentially be encouraged to protect and propagate Mabolo tree in
their locality, this study will support these two Philippine government agencies in enforcing the law
to protect the endangered Mabolo tree.
Food Technology Teachers and Students. The results of the study will inspire them to continue
to experiment and come up with more recipes utilizing Mabolo fruit.
OBJECTIVESThe study aimed to determine the acceptability of the value-added products of Mabolo fruit
developed at Bohol Island State University, Main Campus, Tagbilaran City, Bohol, Philippines for
Academic Year 2011-2012. It also aimed to introduce the food items from the seemingly worthless
Mabolo fruit to the community, to entrepreneurs and to consumers in general.
METHODOLOGYThis study used experimental method in formulating the recipes. After perfecting the recipes, thefinished products were subjected to sensory appraisal which is the scientific method to evoke,measure, analyze and interpret reaction to those characteristics of food materials as they areperceived by the senses of sight, smell, taste, touch and hearing. In this study the finished products
were evaluated by the panelists using the five point Hedonic scale sheet.
This study was conducted in the Food Technology Laboratory of Bohol Island State
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purposive sampling were the panelists/participants of this study. They were the fifteen third year
students from Bachelor of Science in Industrial Technology who come from rural communities, thefive Food Technology instructors and the five Food Technology graduates who are now practicing
their craft in rural communities. They were selected because of their expertise in food preparationand processing. The researcher used the 5-point Hedonic Scale comprising – 5- Like Very Much,
4- Like, 3 Neither Like nor Dislike, 2 Dislike and 1- Dislike Very Much was constructed based on
the work of Gatchalian et el. (2009). It was pilot tested to the second year Food Technology
students who were not the actual panelists of the study. After making the necessary improvement, it
was then finalized and reproduced for the purpose of the study.
After recipes utilizing Mabolo fruit were perfected, they were prepared and food products
were subjected to evaluation in three trials. The first trial was done right after cooking while theproducts were still hot; the second was in the afternoon when the products were already cold andthe third was in the following morning. Different trial times were intended to identify possible
change in the ratings of participants. The Hedonic scale was used in the evaluation. The weighted
mean derived from the assigned numerical and descriptive ratings was the basis of analysis.
Table 1 Range used to evaluate Mabolo food products
Numerical Ratings
4.50-5.00
3.50-4.49
2.50-3.49
1.50-2.49
1.00-1.49

Description
Like Very Much
Like
Neither Like nor Dislike
Dislike
Dislike Very Much

Source: The range is adopted from the 5-pont Hedonic Scale of M. Gatchalian.

Table 2 Mabolo fruit Products and Recipes
Name of ProductMabolo Cake

Mabolo Boat Tart

Mabolo Fritters

Mabolo Pancake

RecipeBeat 2 pieces eggs; add ¼ cup oil and ¾ cup sugar. Blend the mixture for
30 seconds. Mix together 1 cup all purpose flour, ½ teaspoon baking soda
and 2 teaspoons baking powder. Add the mixed dry ingredients to the egg
mixture then add ¼ cup evaporated milk and the 1 cup shredded mature
Mabolo fruit and blend well. Add 1 teaspoon vanilla. Pour the mixture intoa well-greased 31/2x9x3 inches loaf pan. Bake at 350 degrees Celsius until
done. Remove from oven and allow to cool. Slice and serve.
Tart filling: In a bowl, mix together 1 big can condensed milk, 1 cup all
purpose flour, 1 teaspoon vanilla, 1 piece egg, 1 cup shredded Mabolo
fruit, ¼ cup peanuts and ¼ butter. Mix well and cook in a double boiler
until mixture spreads consistently. When done, remove from fire and allow
to cool. Set aside.
Crust: Cream 1 cup butter until floppy. Add ¼ cup butter until floppy. Add¼ cup sugar and 1 piece egg, beat well. Add 1 cup flour and mix well.
Mold in well-greased tart shell molder. Bake until done. Fill the crust withtart filling. Wrap in colored cellophane.
Cut mature Mabolo fruit into serving pieces about 1/3 inch thick. Slightly
dust the fruit with flour. To make the batter, sift 2 cups flour, ¼ cup sugar
and 1 cup water and beat to form a smooth batter. Stream before using. Dip
fruit into batter and fry in hot oil until golden brown. Drain excess oil.
Arrange on serving platter. Sprinkle with sugar.
Sift together 2 cups flour, 1 teaspoon salt and 2 teaspoons baking powder.
Beat 2 pieces eggs and add to flour mixture. Mix 1 cup evaporated milk,flour mixtures and ½ cup butter. Add three cups shredded mature Mabolo
fruit and blend. Pour 1/2 cup of mixture into a shallow pan brushed withoil. Pan-fry until golden brown. Serve with syrup or honey.

*Perfected recipes after several trials conducted by the researcher in the university laboratory.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Acceptability of food is usually based on sensory attributes such as appearance, texture, odor, taste,
and overall liking. Appearance attribute includes color, size and shape. Texture covers the feel andtouch sensation and the viscosity and consistency of the product. On the other hand, the odor refers
to the smell while the taste refers to sweetness, bitterness, sourness, and saltiness of the snack item.
In this study, Mabolo snack products were assessed based on the cited five sensory attributes.
First sensory evaluation result
The results of the first sensory evaluation show that Mabolo Boat Tart was rated highest in
appearance and texture liking at 4.75 and 4.78 respectively. Both ratings have the qualitativedescription of Like Very Much. This is favorably influenced by the boat-like shape of the crust of
the Tart and its crunchiness and flakiness that caught the attention of the panelists.
Mabolo Cake was rated highest in odor and taste attributes at 4.86 and 4.56 respectively. Bothhave the qualitative description of Like Very Much. Odor and Taste sensations are the attributes offlavor which determine the acceptance or rejection of a food product (Gatchalian, 2009). In thisstudy therefore, Mabolo Cake is highly acceptable in flavor.
Among the food products, Mabolo Fritters is rated relatively lowest in all sensory attributes.
However, all the rates have the corresponding qualitative description of Like while its Overall
liking is Neither Like nor Dislike. This makes the fritters still generally acceptable.
The first sensory evaluation was carried out right after production of the food items.
Second sensory evaluation result
Results of the second sensory evaluation reveal that Mabolo Cake has the highest rates in texture,odor and taste attributes while Boat Tart is rated highest in appearance and overall liking.
Consistent with the first evaluation, Mabolo Pancake and Mabolo Fritters were rated third andfourth, respectively in all sensory attributes both with the qualitative description of Like.
This evaluation was done after the food items were allowed to cool.
Third sensory evaluation result
Third evaluation results identify Mabolo Cake being rated highest in appearance. This could befavorably brought about by the enhanced appearance of the cake that attracted the panelists due tothe shredded Mabolo fruit grains that became noticeable when the product was allowed to cool.
Overnight, the good taste developed while the texture remained soft so that the cake was likewise
rated highest in texture and taste liking. Meanwhile, Mabolo Tart was relatively rated highest onlyin odor attribute at 4.28.
Of the four products, Mabolo Fritter has the least rate in five sensory attributes. It has an
overall qualitative rating of Neither Like nor Dislike which may be brought about by theappearance, texture and odor of the product after one day. Upon examination, the product shrank,
became crumbly; the odor of the Mabolo fruit became noticeable and the taste changed as the oilstarted to appear in the surface.
Overall result of the three sensory evaluations
Putting together the results of the three evaluations, Mabolo Cake consistently ranked first,
followed by Mabolo Boat Tart, then Mabolo Pancake and Mabolo Fritters. None of the four valueadded Mabolo products were rated Dislike or Dislike Very Much.

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Table 3 Overall rating of the three sensoryevaluations
Product

Evaluation
2nd

Rank

3rd

Overall
RatingDescription

1stMabolo Cake
Mabolo Boat Tart
Mabolo Fritters
Mabolo Pancake

4.57
4.75
4.0
4.0

4.8
4.87
4.0
4.16

4.88
4.6
3.16
4.16

4.75
4.74
3.72
4.11

Like Very Much
Like Very Much
Like
Like

1
2
4
3

Texture Liking
Mabolo Cake
Mabolo Boat Tart
Mabolo Fritters
Mabolo Pancake

4.17
4.78
3.80
4.00

4.14
4.13
3.6
3.8

5.0
4.0
3.0
4.0

4.44
4.30
3.46
3.93

Like
Like
Like
Like

1
2
4
3

Odor Liking
Mabolo Cake
Mabolo Boat Tart
Mabolo Fritters
Mabolo Pancake

4.86
4.29
3.63
4.02

4.75
4.6
3.83
4.17

4.0
4.28
3.0
4.0

4.54
4.39
3.49
4.06

Like Very Much
Like
Neither Like Nor Dislike
Like

1
2
4
3

Taste Liking
Mabolo Cake
Mabolo Boat Tart
Mabolo Fritters
Mabolo Pancake

4.56
4.5
3.8
4.0

4.56
4.43
3.75
4.0

5.0
4.14
3.0
4.0

4.71
4.36
3.51
4.0

Like Very Much
Like
Like
Like

1
2
4
3

Overall Liking
Mabolo Cake
Mabolo Boat Tart
Mabolo Fritters
Mabolo Pancake

4.88
4.67
3.6
4.17

4.5
4.57
3.75
4.25

4.13
4.25
3.0
4.0

4.50
4.49
3.45
4.14

Like Very Much
Like Very Much
Neither Like Nor Dislike
Like Very Much

1
2
4
3

Appearance Liking

Shelf life
Samples of the products were allowed to stand at room temperature to observe the changes that
may take place. Fritters and Pancake were observed to have oil appearing on the surface on thesecond day but they were still edible. On the third day, they were already watery and should bediscarded as molds began to appear. The cake on the other hand, had changes on the third day as
the texture began to soften and molds appeared on the fourth day which makes it unfit for humanconsumption. Only Boat Tart survived until the seventh day.
Boat Tart thus ranked first in shelf life as it lasted for seven days. It was followed by cakes,
pancakes and fritters which can only be eaten safely until the second day. However, remedy can bedone in cake since it can still be toasted to last for a little longer and can be stored for future use.
Marketability
The four value-added products from Mabolo were displayed at the school cafeteria of Bohol island
State  University  Main  Campus  for  sale.  It  was  observed  that  in  one  week’s  display of the products,
cakes, pancakes fritters and boat tarts were all sold. It was noted that the product were saleable
among people of all ages since the products were bought by faculty members and college and highschool students. Fritters and pancakes were the favorites of high school students while it wasobserved that faculty members ordered cake and boat tart as their present for their children andloved ones.
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CONCLUSION
Mabolo fruit can be eaten by any person without noticing its unpleasant smell. Its foul cheesy odor
can be dissipated by removing the skin and by processing it adequately. It can therefore be fully
utilized as food for humans and not only as animal feeds.
Snack items from Mabolo fruit were generally acceptable and they can be made more
nutritious with other flavorings.
It is recommended that dissemination of this study be done to promote the use of Mabolo fruit
for food items. This should specifically be introduced as an alternative source of livelihood in therural community where Mabolo trees are still found in substantial number. The snack items are
nutritious and easy to prepare. Mabolo Cake and Mabolo Boat Tart can be cooked with the use ofnative or clay oven while fritters and pancake can be cooked using frying pan or carajay which are
the commonly used kitchen equipment and utensil in those areas.
This study should also be disseminated to entrepreneurs. The nutritive value and availability offruit supply could convince them to mass produce the food items for commercial purposes.
Finally, food technologists should be informed of this study to inspire them to conduct
experiment for other products that could be derived from Mabolo fruit.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This research undertaking comes into fruition with the kind assistance from Bohol Island State
University administration, Faculty and Food Technology students. In particular, the researcher isgrateful to Dr. Elpidio T. Magante, CE, Ed.D., University President, for the permission and warm
support in the conduct of the study. Acknowledgement is likewise due to Prof. Lucia J. Poyos, herresearch assistant.
REFERENCES
ASTM MNL. 14. The role of sensory analysis in quality control. (Retrieved from www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensory-analysis).
Food fortification. (Retrieved from www.Wikipedia.org/wiki/cake. November 27, 2012).
Alvarez, A. Mabolo. (Retrieved from http://www.philippineherbalmedicine.org. November 20,2012).
Bilton, P. 2012. The tropical fruit mabolo: nutrition, culinary uses and kamagong hardwood. (Retrieved fromfood nutrition.knoji.com/the-tropical-fruit. November 16, 2012).
Castella, K. 2010. A world of cake. (Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/cake. November 29, 2012).
Davidson, A. 2010 .The oxford companion to food, SV tart. (Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Tart. November 29, 2012).
Gatchalian, M. and G. Brannan. 2009. Sensory quality measurement: statistical analysis of human response.
Quality Partners Company. Quezon City, Philippines. 187, 1-3, 29-43.
Pancake history pancakeology. (Retrieved December 3, 2012 from http://enwikipedia.org/wiki /Pancake).
Nolledo, J. and Nolledo, M. 2009. The constitution of the republic of the Philippines explained (EnglishFilipino Version). National Bookstore. Mandaluyong City, Philippines. 344.
Mabolo-healthy benefits of. (Retrieved from www.healthybenefitsof.com/p/mabolo.html. November 15,2012).

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Research article
erd

Pilot Case Studies of Climate Risk-coping Strategies of
Small-scale Farmers in Cambodia
ROBERT J. MARTIN*
Agricultural Systems Research Cambodia Co. Ltd. Battambang, Cambodia.
Email: bob@mjpasia.org.

VAN TOUCH
Universtiy of New England, Armidale, Australia
Received 15 December 2012

Accepted 30 January 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Climate predictions for Cambodia are for increases in temperatures and rainfallwith the likelihood of wetter monsoon seasons and less rainfall in the dry seasons.
Developing countries such as Cambodia have few resources and capacity to adapt toclimate change and are therefore considered to be the most vulnerable. Attention so far inCambodia has focused on technical interventions and disaster relief rather than on planned
adaptive responses. The aim of this study was to gain insights on how individual farmhouseholds cope with and adapt to climate variability and change. Here we present theresults of pilot case studies to document climate risk-coping strategies currently employedby small-scale rice farmers in Cambodia. Community consultations and in-depth
interviews with selected participants were conducted in the Communes of Trapeang
Ruessei in Kampong Thom Province and Snam Krapeu in Kampong Speu Province in2011. Data   were   collected   by   writing   down   notes   to   form   the   basis   of   the   respondent’s  narrative. Two in-depth interviews were done in each Province. It was immediately
obvious from the narratives that the households studied could not survive from on-farmincome alone especially during droughts. Our pilot interviews indicated that off-farmincome might be the predominant coping strategy in the rice-based farming system. Thereappears to be a need for researchers and policy makers to shift from an agricultural
systems/commodity mind-set to a household livelihood mind-set with regard to the abilityof households to cope with climate variability and climate change. A complete breakdownof household income sources is an essential baseline requirement before an assessment ofclimate change resilience in the rice-based system can be made. A baseline assessment ofvulnerability at the household level should be considered an essential prerequisite fordeveloping research priorities and designing interventions.
Keywords climate change, adaptation, risk, vulnerability, household, livelihood

INTRODUCTION
Climate predictions for Cambodia are for increases in temperatures and rainfall with the likelihoodof wetter monsoon seasons and less rainfall in the dry seasons. Temperature is expected to rise by
0.7 to 2.7 °C by the 2060s and annual rainfall to increase with shorter-wetter rainy seasons andlonger-drier dry seasons (Mac Sweeny et al., 2008). Anecdotal evidence suggests the frequency andintensity of floods, droughts and windstorms have increased in Cambodia since the year 2000
(NAPA, 2006).
Developing countries such as Cambodia have few resources and capacity to adapt to climatechange and are therefore considered to be the most vulnerable (McCarthy et al., 2001). In response,
The Cambodian National Adaptation Programme of Action to Climate Change (NAPA) wasestablished in 2006 (NAPA, 2006). However, as with elsewhere in Southeast Asia, attention so far
in Cambodia has focused on technical interventions and ex post disaster relief rather than onplanned (ex ante) adaptive responses (Resurreccion et al., 2008).
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Researchers are now beginning to give attention to climate change adaptation in Cambodia(Roth et al., 2009). However, the emphasis remains on exploring agricultural enterpriseinterventions without reference to the climatic risk-coping strategies that are currently being
employed at the household level. This is consistent with the conventional narrow focus on
exploring changes to the agricultural enterprise mix on-farm and excluding non-farm activities andincome (Ellis, 2000). Sakurai (2009) posed that from the viewpoint of resilience, it is important toinvestigate how a farm household copes with shocks that negatively affect income. It was foundthat most of the households studied in Zambia used non-agricultural work as an ex post risk-coping
strategy to respond to crop production shock in the previous cropping season.
OBJECTIVE
The aim of this study was to gain insights on how individual farm households cope with and adapt
to climate variability and change and the basis for decision making at the household level.
METHODOLOGY
During 2011, a pilot project was conducted to evaluate options for improving adaptive capacity forclimate variability and climate change in Cambodian rice-based systems. Community consultations
were held in the Communes of Trapeang Ruessei in Kampong Thom Province and Snam Krapeu in
Kampong Speu Province. The purpose of the consultations and in-depth interviews was to gain an
insight into the current climate risk-coping strategies of small-scale farmers in Cambodia.
Community consultations were held with 30-40 farmer participants at each Commune. The
consultations were conducted according to guidance and monitoring by commune officials. On
completion of the group consultations, in-depth interviews were conducted with volunteer
participants. The methods were adapted from Roth (2008) and Ramamasy and Baas (2007).
The in-depth interviews were informal and included timeline analysis and narrative. The
timeline analysis helped draw out a narrative from the respondent on the events leading to goodtimes, successes, bad times and failures. Questions were structured to draw out information on thehousehold’s  ability  to  cope  with  climatic  events.  The  questions included: what was the reason forsuccess; how did they cope/adapt; and reasons for not coping/adapting.
It was expected that this process could identify opportunities to improve coping/adaptive
capacity. Some of the key driving forces could include health, climatic events, access to resources,
assistance and new technology. Data were collected by writing down notes to form the basis of the
respondent’s   narrative.   Two   in-depth interviews were done in each Province. A 0-100 scoring
system was used for scaling time line events and for proportioning household income.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Ms. Yam Pon, Kampong Thom Province: Ms. Yan Pon, 43, lives in Trapeang Krasang
Commune, Kampong Thom Province. Her village, is a small distance from the Kampong Thom
capital.  There  are  six  members  of  the  household.  Yam  Pon’s  timeline  is  strongly  affected  by  family  tragedy with the death of her husband in 1996; her grandmother in 2001; a brother in 2004; and her
youngest brother in 2010 (Fig. 1). Her life has been very difficult since her husband passed away as
this made her the primary supporter for the household.
On the positive side, her 1995-2001 rice income enabled her to buy an extra 0.5 ha of land.
From 2001-2008 her income increased after she got a job in Phnom Penh as a garment factory
worker. She received USD 40-100 per month from the off-farm work. Her cousin is also working
off-farm as a hotel cashier with a monthly income of USD 80.
By  2006,  Yam  Pon’s  income  from  work  at  the  garment  factory  had  raised  the  quality of life in
the household. In 2009 her income from rice and livestock enabled her to buy a new motorbike. In
2010, the rice yield enabled her to buy another 0.5 hectare of land. Yam Pon has health problemsⒸ ISERD

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and when she gets sick she cannot work and her son and aunt need to work on her behalf.
Yam  Pon’s  soil  is  sandy  and  poor  in  nutrients,  she  grows  rice  one  time  per  year  in  the  main  wet season but growing rice can be affected by drought. The average rice yield is about 1 - 2 t/ha.
She has two hectares of land and harvests around 3 tonnes of rice each year.
Yam Pon has access to finance at 1.5% per month. This is considered to be a very low interest
rate for households with low income. The common interest rate within the region is about 3% permonth. Her family income is derived from rice, other crop, livestock (four cattle), and on-farm andoff-farm labour. She and her cousin migrate off-farm for work in times of drought. The average
income for the family is around USD 40-70 per month.
In summary, when Yam Pon is faced with disasters such as drought or flood, she resorts tooff-farm activities to gain income to support her family. Thus it is very hard for her to cope withthe problems. To support her family, she would like to increase her rice yield and expand othersources of income.
Mr. So Chhoey, Kampong Thom Province: Mr. So Chhoey is 55 years old and a key farmer
living in Serei Vong village, Trapain Russei Commune, Kampong Svay District, Kampong Thom
Province. He has nine children with five already married and four remaining in his household. In
1995, after he stopped working as a soldier, his livelihood was difficult but not so serious (Fig. 1).
He mainly relied on rice and a small income from livestock and vegetables. Growing rice is mainly
for household consumption. If the rice yield is high, then the surplus can be sold; however, if therice yield is low, the household needs to buy rice to make up the deficit.
In 2000, due to sickness in the whole household, their livelihood was very badly affected.
They received a very low yield of rice because of insufficient labour to maintain the crop. To
survive, he borrowed money from rich local people at high interest rates and sold some property.
He also rented some land from a neighbour to grow vegetables for one season.
In  2005,  Chhoey’s  livelihood  improved  because  the  health  of  the  household  improved.  At  that  time, he had received some support that enabled him to earn some money from various agriculturalactivities such as vegetables, fish and fruit trees. However, his livelihood was not much better
because he had two years of drought. His rice crops during that time completely failed. His family
was dependent on homestead activities of vegetable, fish, fruit trees and livestock production.
In 2010, things   were   good   and   Chhoey’s   standard   of   living   improved.   He   had   learned   and  adopted some agricultural techniques which provided him with greater yield compared to his
traditional practice. In conclusion, his life has not been easy and he has had to cope with manydifficulties. When he is faced with drought, he is dependent on homestead activities and his income
is reduced.

Fig. 1 Timelines for Ms. Yam Pon (left) and Mr. So Chhoey (right)
Ms. Keo Sokhom, Kampong Speu Province: Keo Sokhom is 50 years old, and a key farmer
living in Snam Krapeu Commune, Kampong Speu Province. She has two daughters. In 1995 herlivelihood was difficult but not so serious. It was mainly reliant on livestock (cattle), rice andvegetable.
In  1996,  due  her  mother’s  sickness,  her  livelihood was difficult because she had to spend a lotof money on medical treatment and other expenditure for the household (Fig. 2). They receivedⒸ ISERD108

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very low yield from their rice because of insufficient labour to maintain the crop. To survive, sheborrowed money at high interest rates.
In 1998, her livelihood was a bit better because the general household health had improved
although her sister remained sick. At that time, she worked at needle craft which enabled her toearn some money. Her daughter also commenced migrant labour at a garment factory in Phnom
Penh. Her husband is disabled but can take the cattle to grass fields off-farm. Her livelihood has
been made difficult because of successive droughts and floods (1999-2004).
Droughts and floods resulted in almost complete failure of the rice crop and loss of
productivity from livestock. During these times, her household was dependent on migrant labor andlivestock and some on homestead activities of vegetable or fruit tree. Her land is less than 1 hectare
which produces enough rice for family consumption but no surplus to sell.
In  2010,  things  were  better  and  Sokhom’s  standard  of  living  was  improved.  She  had  learned  some new agricultural techniques that resulted in better yield compared to traditional practice.
In  conclusion,  Sokhom’s  life  is  not  easy  and  she  has  to  cope  with  many  difficulties.  When  she  has a problem with drought, she depends on off-farm income and homestead activities. The biggest
challenges for her life are drought and flood.

Fig. 2 Timelines for Ms. Keo Sokhom (left) and Mr. Bun Marn (right)
Mr. Bun Marn, Kampong Speu Province: Bun Marn is 42 and lives in Cham Bok Khae village,
Toek La Ok Commune, Kong Pisey District, Kampong Speu Province. There are five members in
the household, two daughters, one son, his wife and himself. He stopped studying after he was ingrade 7 of the secondary school. His village is a long way from Kampong Speu capital and it takes
around one hour to travel there.
Bun   Marn’s   health   is   not   good   and   when   he falls ill, he cannot work, and this is a major
problem because his whole family is dependent on him (Fig. 2). In addition, his medication costs
around USD 40 per year with the total cost for family health care being about USD 75-100 per year.
The soil is a sandy loam poor in nutrients and he can grow only one rice crop per year in themain wet season. He would like to grow rice two times per year but there is not enough water. The
average rice yield is about 1 - 2 tonnes per hectare. He has only 0.4 hectares of land and receives arice yield of around 800 - 900 kg. Within the village, there is no irrigation infrastructure or water
resources. But in some other villages within the commune, some channels have been dug bygovernment projects. Marn has access to credit but with an interest rate of 3% per month which isconsidered excessive for people on low incomes.
Marn’s  family  income  is  derived  from  rice,  motor  taxi,  small  store  and  making  Khmer  noodles.  
He  doesn’t  do  off-farm labour or migrate for work. He has one cow which has not yet produced acalf. In the past, he had several cows but sold all because he needed money for family medical
expenses. The household has a small number of chickens. He does not keep pigs because it is hardto supply feed. The average income for the household is around USD 40 – 50 per month.
When Marn is faced with disasters such as drought or flood, he is forced to resort to off-farmactivities to gain income to support the household. He has also had to mortgage his farm to get aloan during periods without income. To support his family, he has had to increase the time driving
his moto-taxi and expand other sources of small income.
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Discussion
Ellis (2000) contended that most rural families have multiple income sources including off-farmwage work in agriculture, non-agricultural wage work, trading and remittances from urban areas
and from abroad. In sub-Saharan Africa, between 30 and 50 per cent of household income isderived from non-farm sources (Ellis, 2000).
A similar situation exists in Cambodia. A survey of households in Preah Nipean and Angk
Popel Communes in Kampong Speu Province in 2011 showed that the average number of persons
per household was 5.65 with 55 percent of households owning less than 0.5 ha of land, 35 percent
having a non-farm business, 67 percent reliant on credit and 88 percent receiving remittances from
migrant labour. Clearly these households do not have the capacity to survive on agricultural
pursuits alone even during periods of favourable climatic conditions.
It was also immediately obvious from the narratives of respondents in our study that theirhouseholds could not survive from on-farm income alone especially during droughts. We therefore
introduced retrospectively, a question about the income sources that the household relied on. This
yielded the dramatic results presented in Fig. 3. Three of the four farmers relied heavily on off-farmincome during periods of climate stress and this ranged up to 93%.
(a)

WetWetseasonseasonrice
rice

Other
Other

Mixed crop
Mixed
crop

Migrant labor
Migrant
labor

(c)

Loan
Loan

pond
FishFishpond

WetWetseasonrice
season rice

(b)

Mixed
cropcrop
Mixed

Motor
taxi
Motor
taxi

Livestock

Live stock

Sale of produce

Livestock

Live stock

Sale of prduce

WetWetseasonseason rice
rice

(d)

Mixed cropcrop
Mixed

Off-farmlabourOff-farm labour

Livestockproduce
SaleSaleof ofprduce

Live stock

WetWetseasonrice
season riceMixedcropcrop
Mixed

Live stock

Livestock

Fig. 3 Sources of household income in normal and drought years for Yam Pon (a),So Chhoey (b), Keo Sokhom (c) and Bun Marn (d). Normal year (solid line),drought year (dotted line).
CONCLUSION
In-depth  farmer  interviews  revealed  that  coping  strategies  of  households  in  “the  rice-based farming
system”  did  not  always  include  rice  or  on-farm diversification options. Production from other crops,
chickens, pigs and cattle suffer in the drought the same as the rice. There appears to be a need forresearchers and policy makers to shift from an agricultural systems/commodity mind-set to ahousehold livelihood mind-set with regard to the ability of households to cope with climate
variability and climate change. In the in-depth interview pilot case studies, the rice-based systemappeared to be systemically inadequate to cope with regular droughts.

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It appears that natural disasters such as drought and poor health are causing significant
livelihood problems for Cambodian rural households. To cope with the difficulties, somehousehold members migrate for off-farm income, while others diversify their agricultural crops andlivestock in order to secure their income. Based on this case study, access to micro-finance atreasonable interest rates would greatly assist rural households especially to reduce the impact ofnatural disasters and family sickness.
Access to better health care and health information is crucial. The households interviewed
appeared to be having serious problems with their heath and are spending significant amounts ofmoney on medication. Construction of irrigation infrastructure where appropriate could help
farmers in coping with drought.
The   concept   of   a   “rice-based   system”   in   the   Cambodian   rainfed   lowlands   appears   to   be   a  dogmatic construct which seems to have been unquestioningly accepted by researchers and policy
makers with the potential for application of inappropriate interventions. Although the majority offarmers in the Cambodian rainfed lowland grow rice, it is not possible to determine from national
statistics the proportional contribution that rice makes to the household income.
A complete breakdown of household income sources is an essential baseline requirement
before   an   assessment   of   climate   change   resilience   in   the   “rice-based   system”   can   be   made.   A  baseline assessment of vulnerability at the household level should be considered an essential
prerequisite for prioritizing research projects and designing interventions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This project was hosted by the General Directorate of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture,
Forestry and Fisheries, Royal Kingdom of Cambodia and funded by the FAO/European Union
Food   Facility   Project   for   Cambodia   GCP/CMB/033/EC:   “To   Improve   Food   Security   of   Farming  Families  Affected  by  Volatile  Food  Prices”.
REFERENCES
Ellis, F. 2000. The determinants of rural livelihood diversification in developing countries. Journal of
Agricultural Economics, 51, 289-302.
McCarthy, J., Canziani, N., Leary, N., Dokken, D. and White, K. (eds). Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability.
In: Climate Change 2001. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Mac Sweeney, C., New, M. and Lizcano, G. 2008. UNDP climate change country profiles: Cambodia.
School of Geography and the Environment, University of Oxford. UNDP. Oxford 27.
NAPA. 2006. National adaptation programme of action to climate change (Cambodia). (http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/napa/khm01.pdf. Downloaded 18 August 2012.)
Ramamasy, S. and Baas, S. 2007. Climate variability and change: adaptation to drought in Bangladesh. Asian
Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC), Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations(FAO).
Resurreccion, B.P., Sajor, E.E. and Fajber, E. 2008. Climate adaptation in Asia: knowledge gaps and researchissues in South East Asia. ISET International and ISET-Nepal. Kathmandu, 76. (http://
community.eldis.org/.59bcf9f5. Downloaded 8 August 2012.)
Roth, C., Brown, P., Gaydon, D., MacLeod, N., McDonald, C., Khan, I. and Ratna Reddy. 2009. Developing
research options to mainstream climate adaptation into farming systems in Cambodia, Laos, Bangladesh
and India. Final Report LWR/2008/015.ACIAR, GPO Box 1571, Canberra ACT 2601. Australia.
Sakurai, T. 2009. Off-farm labor supply as a risk-coping strategy - preliminary evidence from household
survey in the southern province, Zambia. Vulnerability and Resilience of Social-Ecological Systems,
FY2008 FR2 Project Report. 29-40.

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Research article
erd

Improving delivery of technical information to farmers inNorth - Western Cambodia
ROBERT J. MARTIN*
Agricultural Systems Research Cambodia Co. Ltd., Battambang, Cambodia
Email: bob@mjpasia.org

STUART BROWN
Camag Consulting, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

ROUJA JOHNSTONE
Boeung Keng Kang, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Received 15 December 2012

Accepted 30 January 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract This paper presents the results of a survey of farm households carried out inNorth-Western Cambodia in early 2012 to gather baseline data for a new agricultural
production and marketing research project. One of the objectives of the survey was torefine dissemination and communication strategies for project outputs and delivery ofplanned impacts. The survey gathered information about maize production issues, sourcesof information, training needs, as well seeking to identify ways to improve the delivery of
relevant technical information and research findings to individual farmers. The survey
revealed that farmers rely almost completely on each other for information about maize
inputs especially seed for sowing and herbicides. The majority of training (68%) was
provided by Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) with Provincial Departments ofAgriculture (PDAs) providing 10% and input suppliers 7%. We put forward a conceptualcommunication and dissemination strategy that could be used to promote adoption ofproject results. It involves integrated roles based on comparative strengths for public,
private and non-government organizations to achieve adoption of new technologies andbetter practices by farmers.
Keywords dissemination, communication, impacts, adoption, pathways

INTRODUCTION
Historically, in developing countries, governments assumed responsibility for agriculturalextension but during the last 10-15 years, governments and international donors have reduced theirinvestment in agricultural extension. Filling the void, non-government organisations and the private
sector have become important alternatives to public agricultural extension (Swanson and Samy,
2002). This is also the case for agricultural extension in Cambodia.
In Cambodia, public sector agricultural extension is focused on the provision of an extension
system rather than an extension service with a system being put in place by the Ministry ofAgriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF) down to the District level (Anon., 2000). Transfer of
information at the Commune and Village level is expected to occur through farmer to farmer links
with District extension staff acting as facilitators in the process. However, there is evidence tosuggest that this system is not functioning (Anon., 2010).
Such a system would require strong links between the extension department and otherproviders such as other government departments, private sector organizations, farmer organizations,international donors and NGOs (Anon., 2000).  According  to  Cambodia’s  Strategy  for  Agriculture  and Water (Anon., 2010), MAFF lacks the facilities and networks to disseminate technologies, andthe linkages between research, development and extension remain weak. Hence, extension servicesⒸ ISERD112

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are weak overall, and farmers have limited awareness of and access to agricultural management
technologies, and poor skills in agricultural production.
OBJECTIVESThis paper presents the results of a survey of farm households carried out in North-Western
Cambodia in early 2012. One of the objectives of the survey was to refine dissemination andcommunication strategies for outputs and delivery of planned impacts in a new research project
funded by the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR).
METHODOLOGY
The survey gathered information about maize production issues, sources of information, training
needs, as well as examining ways to improve the delivery of relevant technical information andresearch findings to individual farmers. The survey involved 832 farm households in Samlout
District in Battambang Province (455 households) and Sala Krau District in Pailin Province (377households). Three Communes were selected in each District on the basis of the density ofhouseholds growing maize. In Samlout the Communes selected were Mean Chey, Samlout andSung encompassing five Villages in each Commune. In Pailin the Communes selected were Sala
Krau, Stueng Kach, and Ou Andoung and five villages were surveyed in each Commune (Fig. 1).
The farmers were interviewed individually based on invitations referred to by the Commune
Chief in each Commune within each District and through collaboration with the previous ACIAR
project partners. The farmers were assembled at a common area each day and the interviews were
performed by a team of two interviewers per farmer.

Fig. 1 Geographic location of communes and villages included in the survey
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Household profiles
On average in the study population, there were 5.25 people per household, of which 3.13 were
working age adults. The average area of cropped land per farm was 4.21 ha (4.04 ha in Sala Krauand 4.35 ha in Samlout). In terms of wealth ranking, only 11% of the interviewed households
considered   themselves   as   ‘better-off’,   64%   as   ‘average’   and   25%   ‘as   poor’.   Female-headedhouseholds tended to be marginally poorer and more economically vulnerable and among them
32% were poor, 60% average and 9% were better off. 65% of households have not had anyⒸ ISERD

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technical training, while 33% said they have had some training in maize production.
Cropping practices
Samlout and Sala Krau had distinctly different cropping patterns. Both had a similar proportion of
the farm under maize (62-63%). However the crop diversity was much greater in Samlout with
25% of the cropped area planted to legumes (mungbean, soybean, peanut). In Sala Krau, thesedesirable rotation crops have been largely replaced by expansion of cassava (26%) since 2009. The
reasons behind the diverging cropping practices between the two Districts will be studied in the
new project.

Fig. 2 Area devoted to different crop species on the farm (%)
Source of information about maize production inputs
Close to 100% of the farming households in both Samlout and Sala Krau purchased both seed andherbicide for the main wet season (MWS) crop in 2011. Very few farmers used fertilizer, fungicide
or insecticide. In both Samlout and Sala Krau farmers are most likely to source their crop inputs
from   “Village   sellers”   or   “Outside   sellers”   with   seed   companies   registering   a   response   from   a  limited number of farmers. Seed companies provided 11.8% of farmers with seed directly.
The  choice  of  seed  (crop  species  or  variety)  is  an  important  ‘strategic’  decision  and  once  this  decision  has  been  made,  most  of  the  decisions  that  follow  in  growing  the  chosen  crop  are  ‘tactical’with   regard   to   the   farmer’s   demand   for   advice   and   information.   The   technical   advisor   needs   to  intervene  at  the  ‘strategic’  level  if  the  objective  of  the  intervention  is  a  change  in  farming  practices.
For maize production inputs (seed, fertilizer, pesticide) most farmers rely on their own
knowledge (45%) or seek information from neighbouring farmers (45%). Therefore 90% of
farmers relied on their own knowledge or that of a neighbouring farmer to apply input technologies.
Six percent of farmers sought information from sellers of inputs. Advice on crop inputs soughtfrom the Provincial Department of Agriculture (PDA) or NGOs was negligible.
Farmer training and information needs
The survey participants were asked whether they had participated in any training in 2011, whoprovided the training, what the training was about, was it beneficial and what subjects they required
training in.
An average of 33% of farmers received training related to maize and this was provided byvarious institutions and sector actors. The majority of training was provided by NGOs (68%) with
PDA providing 10% only. Input suppliers provided maize training to 7% of farmers (Fig. 3). It
should be noted that the PDA provided more training in Sala Krau in Pailin Province (13%)Ⓒ ISERD

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compared to Samlout in Battambang Province (7%). In Pailin, the PDA provided training to 23% of
farmers not affiliated with the previous ACIAR project. Pailin is a much smaller Province than
Battambang and the PDA office is in close proximity to the Communes and Villages targeted in thissurvey.
In Samlout and Sala Krau, 35% and 39% of survey respondents respectively said they wereparticipants in the previous ACIAR project. The previous project was active in formation of farmer
cooperatives and in the provision of training to farmers. This is reflected in the partner membershipof cooperatives (74-79%) compared to non-partners (35-45%). Similarly, project partners (53-65%)
were more likely to participate in training compared to non-partners (14-22%).

Fig. 3 Providers of training for maize farmers

Fig. 4 Farmer training needs in relation to training received
Ninety percent of farmers indicated that they needed more training in specified subject areas.
They ranked soil management, crop production and crop rotation as the top three priority training
needs (Fig. 4). Other priority subjects were crop residue management, fertilizer, harvesting andIntegrated Pest Management (IPM). Training needs for varieties and pesticides were ranked lower
than for training received in these subjects.
Farmers were also asked if they changed practices after the training and whether they shared
the information with other farmers. As a result of training 88% of farmers reported they hadⒸ ISERD

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changed their maize practices and 79% of those trained in new maize practices shared theiracquired knowledge and skills with their neighbours. However, results show that while in Samlout
76%  of  maize  farmers  shared  their  ‘know-how’;;  in  Sala  Krau  only  62%  did  the  same.  
Importance of factors in farmer adopting new practices
Farmers were asked to rank the importance of different factors for adopting new practices. The
three biggest constraints to adoption of new practices were lack of capital (89%), availability oflabour (68%) and knowledge (61%). Because of the capital constraint, new technologies requiring
additional input costs are not likely to be adopted unless the economics can be demonstrated.
Herbicides represent an input cost but result in a labour cost saving so have been readily adopted.
Farmers are aware of the economic advantage of using hybrid maize seed so hybrids have beenreadily adopted.
Discussion
Farmers claimed to know how to deal with biotic impacts on their maize crops such as from insect
pests, diseases and weeds but few said they had solutions to deal with abiotic impacts such as floodor drought. The survey revealed that farmers rely almost completely on each other for information
about crop inputs especially seed for sowing and herbicides. The sellers of the inputs accounted for
only 5% of information sourced. Similarly PDA and NGOs were not sources of information for useof crop inputs.
Decisions such as changing maize variety or replacing hand-weeding with herbicides is arelatively simple process (Pannell et al. 2006). Simple substitutions are often easily adopted if they
have   a   high   ‘relative   advantage’,   are   readily   ‘trialable’   or   easy   to   test   and   learn   about   before  adoption. Changing management practice to improve water-use efficiency as a droughtmanagement strategy for example is more complex and the farmer is likely to seek more
information to be certain about the consequences of adopting it (Pannell et al. 2006). A
participatory action research approach is more likely to be successful in achieving crop
management practice change.
Table 1 Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats for potential extension partners
Strengths

Weaknesses

Opportunities

Infrastructure at Districtlevel and staff available

Government Extension
Lack of funds to mobilise
Strengthen links withDistrict staff
NGOs and private sector

Integral part of the wider
government agenda

Lack of networks to delivertechnologies

Projects participatory andbased at community level

Narrowly focused shortterm agendas

Staff well resourced often
seconded from PDA

Insular, unwilling to sharewith other NGOs

Lack of long-term
objectives and followthroughInfrastructure and teachersat Village level

Lack of training andDevelop and implement
resources in rural subjects‘Life  Skills’  for  agriculture
Input Supply Network

Lack of government
investment  in  ‘Life  Skills’

Outlets at Village levelwith 1:1 contact with
farmers

Lack of training andpotential lack of credibility

Focus on sales and not on
information delivery

Become warehouse of
public good extension
information
Non Government Organisations
Rollout of research findings
to other communities

Provision of strategic
longer-term support to
PDAs
Government Education

Trained to become Village
extension 'retailers'Ⓒ ISERD

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Threats
Lack of credibility – nofarmer feedback
mechanism
Diversion of extension
staff to regulation

Conflicting missions andmessages

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Swanson and Samy (2002) observed that in other developing countries, alternative
organizations have emerged to fill the information and training void left by withdrawal ofgovernment extension services. Similarly, in this survey, NGOs were the most important actors in
the provision of training and delivered 68% of all training to farmers. However, NGO programs
can be short-term in nature and can cause confusion among farmers by inadvertently deliveringconflicting messages. If better resourced, the public sector extension service has an important
potential role as an independent broker and warehouse of information that can provide continuity as
well as a filter to reconcile conflicting messages being delivered by NGOs and the private sector.
Generally,  farmers’  training  needs  recorded  in  the  survey  were  in  line  with  the  subject  areas  in  which training was provided. However, farmer training needs in sustainable management practices
such as soil management, and crop rotation took precedence over needs for training on simple
inputs such as varieties, and pesticides. Input sellers were minor providers of training (7%) andmight also have concluded that farmer training would not increase product sales.
In an earlier study in the research target area, Martin et al., (2010) highlighted the importanceof primary schools as a fourth avenue of delivery of agricultural information into rural households.
As with input suppliers, primary schools are likely to reach almost all farm households. Based onstrengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (Table 1), we put forward a conceptual frameworkthat suggests roles based on comparative strengths for public, private and non-governmentorganizations to better integrate delivery of technology information to farmers.
CONCLUSION
This paper puts forward a conceptual framework that suggests roles based on comparative strengths
for public, private and non-government organizations to better integrate delivery of information of
new technologies and better practices to farmers. We conclude that there are four main avenues forreaching farmers in NW Cambodia —through provincial government extension offices, NGOs, thelocal agricultural input sellers and the local primary schools. They all have different strengths andweaknesses but collectively, the four groups have all of the elements required for integrated
technology transfer. The challenge is to find a mutually beneficial or symbiotic framework for
integrated delivery of new technologies and better practices to farmers via these pathways.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to acknowledge the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research(ACIAR) for funding this research.
REFERENCES
Anon. 2010. Program design document for strategy for agriculture and water 2010-2013. Ministry ofAgriculture, Forestry and Fisheries and Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology. 216.
(http://www.gafspfund.org/gafsp/sites/gafspfund.org/files/Documents/Cambodia.)Martin, R.J., Matthews, W., Bognar, S., Ourm, N. and Keo, K. 2010. The 'Jorani Project': Incorporating
principles of sustainable rural development into the education system of Cambodia. International
Journal of Environment and Rural Development, 1, 181-187.
Pannell, D.J., Marshall, G.R., Barr, N., Curtis, A., Vanclay, F. and Wilkinson, R. 2006. Understanding andpromoting adoption of conservation practices by rural landholders. Australian Journal of Experimental
Agriculture, 46, 1407-1424.
Swanson, B.E. and Samy, M.M. 2002. Developing an extension partnership among public, private, andnongovernmental organizations. Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education, 9, 5-10.

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Research article
erd

Growth Performance of Planted Indigenous Trees 12 years
from Establishment
RUMILA C. BULLECER*
Bohol Island State University, Bohol, Philippines
Email : mslling@yahoo.com

LORETO SOCORIN
Bohol Island State University, Bohol, Philippines
Received 20 December 2012

Accepted 30 January 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract This tree domestication research is an ex-situ conservation effort aimed to findout the growth performance of some indigenous timber species planted outside theirnatural forest habitat in Bohol Island, Central Philippines. Specifically, the study sought tocharacterize the growing conditions of the sites and the biometrics of the trees in threesites   after   12   years   of   growth.   We   also   wanted   to   find   out   the   best   “performers”   when  grown outside the natural forest habitat. Only indigenous trees were used and planted in amixed manner. Most of the planting materials were selected wildlings from the local
forests. A few were brought in from the nearby island of Leyte. Standard biometrics oftrees were taken of all trees. A total of 1,040 trees belonging to 49 species and 25 plantfamilies in 3 land parcels were inventoried. The three sites totaled 2.5 hectares locatedwithin the same village and similar growing conditions. These were typical degraded karst
areas: shallow soils with pebbles and rock outcrops dotting the landscape. Scrubby
vegetation and few scattered trees were the precursor vegetation. The sites used to becogonal for a long time before scrubby vegetation set in. Annual rainfall is about 2,000mm; flat to rolling topography; elevation of 320 meters above sea level. Daytime
temperature ranges from 24-28 degrees Celsius most of the year and 28-33 degrees during
summer (March-May). The standout performers were Terminalia microcarpa, Shorea
contorta, Vatica mangachapui, Shorea palosapis, Parashorea malaanonan, andDracontomelon dao. The biggest Terminalia microcarpa area measured 48 cm in diameterat breast height (dbh). Shorea contorta had a dbh of 29 cm and had a total height of 29
meters. Shorea assamica did not do well in the sites, and was stricken by dieback of
unknown cause. Quisumbing guisok was noted to be very sensitive to moisture stress fromseedling to the sapling stage. At 12 years, many forest-based timbers including
dipterocarps responded well to domestication or ex-situ conservation even in a degradedkarst land in tropical Philippines.
Keywords domestication, indigenous, karst, ex-situ conservation, rainforestation

INTRODUCTION
The Philippines needs an ideal 54% of forest cover to maintain its natural ecological processes.
(Sajise, 1996). Disastrous logging and changing land uses have reduced the original amount of 17
million ha of forested area in the Philippines to 5.5 million ha (18% of total land area) during thelast 40 years. This has also earned notoriety in Southeast Asia as the country with the thinnest
forest cover (Ong, 2004). Less than 6% of the originally 60% of the total forested land area haveremained as prime habitats for wildlife and genetic conservation. Bohol in particular had aremaining natural forest of only 4% from its original full forested area. The island is blessed,
among many other indigenous timbers, some 16 endemic dipterocarp species (Fernando et al,2008).
Among  the  governing  state  policies  of  the  Philippines  is  “to  protect  and  advance  the  right   ofⒸ ISERD

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the  people  to  a  balanced  and  healthful  ecology”  (1987 Philippine Constitution). The latest policy
support at the national level was the issuance of E.O. No. 26 in February of 2011 which launched a
new National Greening Program for the planting of 1.5 billion trees covering about 1.5 million
hectares for a period of six (6) years from 2011 to 2016 in lands of the public domain. The National
Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS) Law or Republic Act 7586 mandates that only
indigenous species should be used in the rehabilitation of Philippine watersheds. The maintenanceof sufficient forest cover in Bohol Island is not only ecologically and economically of the utmost
importance but also to keep its banner, nature-based tourism industry alive and productive. For
local policy support, Section 10 of the Revised 2011 Bohol Environmental Code calls for
Boholanos to be self-sufficient in wood needs through tree farming for domestic wood needs, thus
reducing the dependence on commercial fuel as well as to conserve the naturally growing trees.
In support of the national and local policies, and as the leading higher educational institution(HEI) on natural resources management (NRM) in Bohol, Bohol Island State University has longsince taken significant steps to increase its role in biodiversity conservation and poverty reductionin the island -province through in-situ and ex-situ conservation. One of these is the domesticationof forest-based valuable timber species in three sites with a total area of 2.5 hectares which were
established in 1997- 1998 within the land of the University. These were planted with more than 40
tree  species  taken  from  the  island’s  remnant  forests.  Raising  these  trees  in  farms  or  in  homesteads  would ease up the pressure of extraction from their present natural forest habitat and could also
save them from eventual local extinction (Bullecer and Stark, 2002). Part of the domestication
program is to come up with species-site compatibility recommendations for possible wider
community adoption.
OBJECTIVE
The main aim of the study was to find out the domestication potential after more than a decade of
growth of some forest-based tree species in Bohol Island, Philippines. Specifically, it sought tocharacterize the growing conditions of the domestication sites, the biometrics of the trees andidentify the best performers after over decade of growth.
METHODOLOGY
The study sites are located the interior portion of the island- province of Bohol in the central part of
the Philippine archipelago.
Site selection: The domestication sites were in 3 parcels of land, totaling 2.5 hectares, within thesame village and with similar growing conditions. Climatic and elevation data were taken fromexisting secondary data. Edaphic and landscape characteristics were determined by fieldobservation.
Planting stock sources and farm establishment: Wildlings of indigenous trees from nearby
forests were collected and nurtured until they were big enough for field planting. Other seedlings
were obtained from nearby Leyte Island. Adopting the rainforestation technology, the seedlings
were planted in mixed manner, 1.5 to 2.0 meters apart.
Data collection and analysis: A 100% inventory was conducted. Total and merchantable heights
were taken with the use of the Abney hand level and fiber glass tape. Diameter at breast height(dbh) was taken using diameter tape and crown diameter with the fiber glass tape.
Total height was determined by the following formula:
H= tan0 (D) + eye level height(1)0

where H is the height in meters; tan = the angle reading from the eye level mark the stem to thetip of the tree; D = distance from the base of the tree to the spot where the researcher stood.
The merchantable height was measured from the base of the tree up to the portion just before
the heavy branching started. It was obtained using the following formula:Ⓒ ISERD

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H=tan0= (d) + eye level height(2)

where tan0 = the angle reading from the eye level mark to the merchantable top; d = distance fromthe base of the tree to the spot where the researcher stands.
The diameter at breast height was measured at the standard point of 1.3 meters from theground or base. Crown cover or crown area was obtained by getting the average crown diameter of
each tree and calculate the radius there from. Individual crown cover was computed using thefollowing formula:A = ∏ r2

(3)

where, A: crown area, ∏  is the pi (3.1416) and r = radius
Merchantable volume was obtained by making use of the dbh and merchantable height values.
Qualitative description of biometric data was employed in determining the growth performance. No
other statistical analysis was made. Periodical field observations were made on species reactions
during summer or dry conditions.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Biophysical conditions of the tree domestication sites
The domestication sites, with a total land area of 2.5 hectares, were typical degraded karst areas asevidenced by shallow soils and rock outcrops. Soil depth was less than 10 cm in most (about 90%)
areas. After a decade some ground litter began to occupy the ground. The prior vegetationconsisted of scrubby plants, viny thickets and a few scattered mahogany trees at the pole and young
timber stage. The soil texture is silty-clayloam in all three sites. The limestone soils were generally
shallow (less than 10 cm) and slightly alkaline. Annual rainfall is about 2,000 mm; flat to rolling
topography; elevation of 320 meters above sea level. Daytime temperature ranges from 24-28
degrees Celsius most time of the year and 28-33 degrees during summer (March to mid-May).
Species composition and family distribution of the tree domestication farms
Table 1 lists the species at the research sites. A total of 49 species belonging to 25 plant families
were planted in the three land parcels. Dipterocarpaceae was the most represented family with 7
species, followed by Fabaceae, 5 species and Moraceae, 4 species. Most (37%) families had only
one species representative. Two of the species, Vitex parviflora and Artocarpus heterophyllus are
already known to be thriving in open areas or outside natural forest stands.
Overall biometrics of the domesticated indigenous trees
Table 2 shows the overall list of the domesticated species with their corresponding biometrics. A
total of 1,040 individuals belonging to 49 species representing 25 families were inventoried in thethree domestication areas. The domesticated trees have the following biometrics: The trees had amean dbh of 10.8 cm; mean total height of 9.0 m; mean merchantable height of 5.4 m; total
merchantable volume of 47.9 cu m; mean crown diameter of 4.5 m and a total crown area of
11,608.8 sq m or 1.2 hectares. Terminalia microcarpa and Shorea contorta were among the top
performers in diameter and total height growth. The biggest Terminalia microcarpa measured 48
cm in dbh while the biggest Shorea contorta had a dbh of 29 cm and had an impressive total heightof 29 meters. Some 604 dipterocarps consisting of 8 species dominated (58%) the domestication
farms. Myristica philippinenses came second with 50 individuals. The stand of trees in eachdomestication land parcel had provided a good ground cover through its close canopies.

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Table 1 Species composition of the Treedom or Rainforestation ex-situ conservation sites in
Bilar, Bohol, Philippines which were established in 1998-1999
Species
1. Albizia procera
2. Antidesma subolivaceum
3. Artocarpus blancoi
4. Artocarpus heterophyllus
5. Artocarpus nitidus
6. Artocarpus sericicarpus
7. Barringtonia racemosa
8. Bischofia javanica
9. Callophylum blancoi
10. Callophylum inophyllum
11. Cananga odorata
12. Canarium luzonicum
13. Casuarina nodiflora
14.Cinnamomum microphyllum
15. Cynometra ramiflora
16. Diospyros copelandii
17. Diospyros copelandii
18.Discocalyx cymbianthoides
19, Dracontomelon dao
20. Dracontomelon edule
21. Elaeocarpus macranthus
22. Gomphandra luzoniensis
23. Guioa koelreuteria
24. Hopea philippinensis
25. Hopea quisumbingiana

FamilyFabaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Moraceae
Moraceae
Moraceae
Moraceae
Lecythidaceae
Fabaceae
Clusiaceae
Clusiaceae
Anonaceae
Burseraceae
Casuarinaceae
Lauraceae
Caesalpiniaceae
Ebenaceae
Ebenaceae
Myrsinaceae
Anacardiaceae
Anacardiaceae
Elaeocarpaceae
Icacinaceae
Sapindaceae
Dipterocarpaceae
Dipterocarpaceae

Species
26.Horsfieldia megacarpa
27.Intsia bijuga
28.Madhuca Betis
29.Mangifera altissima
30.Myristica philippinensis
31.Ormosia calovensis
32. Parashorea malaanonan
33. Planchonella duclitan
34. Podocarpus rumphii
35.Pometia pinnata forma repanda
36. Pouteria macrantha
37. Pterocarpus indicus
38. Pterocymbium tinctorium
39. Pterospermum celebicum
40. P. diversifolium
41. Pygeum coccineum
42. Shorea assamica
43. Shorea contorta
44. Shorea palosapis
45. Strombosia philippinensis
46. Syzygium brevistylum
47. Terminalia microcarpa
48. Vatica mangachapui
49. Vitex parviflora

FamilyMyristicaceae
Fabaceae
Sapotaceae
Anacardiaceae
Myristicaceae
Fabaceae
Dipterocarpaceae
Sapotaceae
Podocarpaceae
Sapindaceae
Sapotaceae
Fabaceae
Malvaceae
Sterculiaceae
Sterculiaceae
Pittosporaceae
Dipterocarpaceae
Dipterocarpaceae
Dipterocarpaceae
Olacaceae
Myrtaceae
Combretaceae
Dipterocarpaceae
Lamiaceae

A decade of difference and initial impacts
Aside from garnering data and some learning in tree domestication and species potentials forwatershed rehabilitation, the Tree Dom farms had gradually transformed what used to be a
degraded landscape to a wooded land as shown in Fig. 1. In 2004, the provincial ResearchConsortium, where BISU is a member, put up the Bohol Biodiversity Complex (BBC) adjacent to
one of the tree farms for a learning continuum in nurserying and tree farming. The Consortium andthe Complex do biodiversity research, trainings and indigenous tree seedlings production. In thelast 5 years, the Tree Dom farms have been part of the regular alternative ecotourism route in theisland. The tree farms have become a learning area for students, farmers, policy makers,
researchers and other environment advocates from the local, national and international community.
Standouts in domestication and species enrichment
Based on growth performance and general vigor, some of the tested species for domestication havestood out as having domestication potentials. These were Terminalia microcarpa, Shorea contorta,
Vatica mangachapui, Shorea palosapis, Parashorea malaanonan, Dracontomelon dao, Syzygium
brevistylum, Vitex parviflora, Gomphandra luzoniensis, Cinnamomum microphyllum, Callophylum
blancoi and Elaeocarpus macranthus. Except for Shorea assamica, the rest of the plants are
exhibiting acceptable survival and growth rates. The problem with Shorea assamica seems to berelated to fungal infection causing dieback. Hopea quisumbingiana at the seedling and pole stage
seemed very sensitive to moisture stress. In the last three years, Rainforestation Sites 2 and 3 hadbeen enriched with the planting of more dipterocarps and other trees which are endemic to Bohol
island. These are Shorea palosapis, Hopea acuminata, Dipterocarpus kerril, Shorea malibato,Ⓒ ISERD

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Shorea falciferoides and Vatica mangachapui. They were not included in this inventory, yet at thisearly stage, the new additions have manifested promising growth performance.
Table 2 Biometric summary of the planted indigenous timber species at 12 years of age
SpeciesN

Mean
DBH(cm)Albizzia procera (topped off)
Antidesma subolivaceum
Artocarpus blancoi
Artocarpus heterophyllus
Artocarpus nitidus
Artocarpus sericarpus
Barringtonia racemosa
Bischofia javanica
C. inophyllum
Callophylum blancoi
Cananga odorata
Canarium luzonicum
Casuarinas nodiflora
Cinnamomum microphyllum
Cynometra ramiflora
Diospyrus copelandii
Discocalyx cymbianthoides
Dracontomelon dao
Dracontomelon edule
Elaeocarpus macranthus
Gomphandra luzoniensis
Hopea philippinensis
Hopea quisumbingiana
Horsfieldia megacarpa
Instia bijuga
Kamagong-like
Litsea glutinosa
Madhuca betis
Mangifera altissima
Myristica philippinensis
Ormosia calovensis
P. celebicum
Parashorea malaanonan
Planchonella duclitan
Podocarpus rumphii
Pometia pinnata
Pouteria macrantha
Pterocarpus indicus
Pterocymbium tinctorium
Pterospermum diversifolium
Shorea assamica
Shorea contorta
Shorea palosapis
Shorea polysperma
Strombosia philippinensis
Syzygium brevistylum
Terminalia microcarpa
Vatica mangachapui
Vitex parviflora

1
14
7
12
4
23
23
9
27
3
16
3
3
1
5
2
33
1
8
31
148
152
4
5
1
1
1
5
50
1
14
73
3
3
7
1
7
11
13
2
68
100
16
1
3
34
45
45

9.5
11.0
9.5
14.7
11.8
10.3
11.0
16.0
9.0
18.0
19.2
14.3
14.4
5.1
9.7
7.8
15.3
8.5
13.5
10.2
7.1
6.2
16.7
17.2
5.4
10.5
13.4
9.0
8.5
10.5
10.3
7.8
8.9
5.6
13.0
5.7
10.2
10.3
15.5
6
14.6
6.9
5.4
4.1
9.0
21.7
7.1
13.3

4.0
8.6
8.4
9.6
10.3
9.8
7.1
12.0
7.0
14.6
13.4
12.9
6.3
5.4
9.9
5.0
11.0
14.3
10.7
5.3
7.1
6.6
10.4
11.8
5.5
9.4
5.2
8.2
7.2
9
11.6
8.6
9.1
5.5
13.1
9.2
9.5
9.0
15.1
3.2
12.1
6.1
5.3
4.3
11
16.3
7.4
9.0

4.4
6.8
5.2
4.7
3.6
5.7
4.0
4.8
3.7
8.3
6.8
6.0
2.8
5.4
4.6
2.8
6.6
11.4
6.5
5.7
4.5
4.1
4.3
6.8
3.9
4.8
9.3
4.6
4.2
5.9
7.7
4.0
6.7
2.3
8.6
4.8
5.1
5.4
6.7
5.3
8.6
4.3
2.0
6.9
8.1
4.9
4.2

16.8

1,040

10.8

9.0

5.4

Total / Mean

Mean Total Mean Merchantable
Height(m)Height (m)Ⓒ ISERD

122

Total Mer.
Volume(m)Mean Crown Total Crown
Diameter (m) Area (sq. m)

2.3

1.8
4.6
7.7
3.2
5.7

12.2
247.8
75.6
272.8
94.7
71.2
397.7
353.2
343.6
60.6
407.9
57.0
15.2
9.1
44.3
20.4
465.2
26.2
231.3
633.3
284.7
89.7
157.5
206.2
9.3
17.1
24.6
68.3
1,836.1
8.6
277.8
22.5
624.1
19.1
184.3
6.7
171.8
241.9
468.1
38.7
216.3
94.2
2.6
8.8
22.0
1,093.6
288.8
1,286.1

47.9

4.5

11,608.8

1.8
0.1
0.8
0.1
1.0
3.0
0.9
0.6
0.7
0.2
0.01

4.4
1.8
0.1

0.3
0.8

2.7
0.7

0.6
0.2
0.7
2.9
4.4

3.9
3.8
3.8
5.8
5.5
4.2
4.0
5.5
3.8
4.6
6.0
7.3
2.6
3.4
3.8
3.6
5.3
5.8
5.1
5.1
3.8
3.0
7.0
10.0
3.4
4.7
5.6
4.0
4.3
3.4
4.7
4.3
2.5
2.8
5.2
2.9
6.2
4.3
6.0
3.1
3.8
3.0

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

Fig. 1 A changed landscape from being a scrubland in 1998 to woodland after a decade
CONCLUSION
Many indigenous forest timbers can be successfully conserved through domestication even indegraded karstic upland environment of Bohol, Central Philippines. Except for two species, the restof the 49 domesticated indigenous timbers studied have adapted very well after 12 years to growing
conditions outside the forest habitat. Some species like Shorea contorta and Terminalia
microcarpa manifest outstanding growth performance than others. Domestication of selected tree
species is imperative especially in regions where communities are heavily dependent on the natural
resource for daily survival.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
1. ViSCA (now Visayas State University) Institute of Tropical Ecology / GTZ - for therainforestation Technology (1996) and for the initial fund assistance in 1998
2. Bohol Island State University - for the support in sustaining the Project
3. Bohol Provincial Government - for the establishment of the Bohol Biodiversity Complex
4. The Bohol Biodiversity Conservation Consortium - for the collaborations in advocacy,training research especially with these Consortium members: Bohol Environmental Management
Office (BEMO) and the Soil and Water Conservation Foundation (SWCF)
5. The Environmental Leadership and Training Initiative [ELTI] - Yale School of Forestry andEnvironmental Studies & Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute for the technical and leadershiptrainings in Rainforestation
REFERENCES
Bullecer, R.C. and Stark, M. 2002. Local knowledge on indigenous trees  in  the  Central  Philippines”.  A  study
conducted under the ICRAF Tree Domestication Program. Summary submitted to ICRAF Southeast
Asia Regional Office, Bogor, Indonesia. 12-14.
Fernando, E.S., Bande, M.J.M., Piollo, R.A., Sopot, D.D., Dolotina, N.E. and Granert, W.G. 2008.
Dipterocarpaceae of Bohol Island, Philippines. Asia Life Sciences Suppl. 4.
Ong, P. 2010. State of Philippine biodiversity: Changing mindscapes amidst the crisis.
Sajise, P. 1996. Sustainable agriculture in the marginal uplands of Southeast Asia. Bohol Environmental
Code (2011 edition) .Philippine Constitution. (1987. Article II, Sec. 16.RA 7586. The NIPAS Law of1991).

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Research article
erdAgri-Supply Chain in Tourism Market: A Case Study of
Koh Trong Ecotourism Community and Market in Kratie
Province
SAUT MOEUN*Royal University of Phnom Penh, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Email: moeun.saut@gmail.com

MASAAKI YAMADATokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Tokyo, Japan
Received 15 December 2012

Accepted 30 January 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Stable supply of agricultural products into tourism business is a key for the both
sectors to sustainably grow together; however, rural farmers still face challenges in
effectuating such a goal. The current research addresses how agri-supply chain exists intourism market and issues on such a chain in Cambodia through a case study inNortheastern Region. The triangulation methods were employed. Surveys were conductedon farmers, hotels/restaurants and vegetable sellers, whereas semi-structured interviews
were done with middlemen, community chiefs, NGOs and local authorities. The farms of
Koh Trong are operated with family labors. Most farmers do not have advanced
knowledge on farming techniques. Little pesticides are applied, while chemical fertilizers
are most commonly used. Most vegetables and fruits are shipped from Koh Trong bymiddleman across the Mekong River to town market, where they meet with the customers,
hotels and restaurants. While middlemen are the price setters, farmers are the price takers.
Tourism market consumes less than half of the total vegetables produced by Koh Trong
farmers. Besides, agri-products are brought in from other places and imported from
Vietnam. Koh Trong responds fairly little to the market demand. Small-scale farms of KohTrong are less competitive in terms of product variety; however, they are morecompetitive in terms of high quality and unique products. Major issues affecting the
supply chain include limited knowledge, limited transportation, supply irregularity, limited
market access and imbalanced power among chain actors. Tourism is yet a small market
for agri-products from Koh Trong, but implies a potential one. While conventional supply
chain is adequate, there is a barrier to overcome in making the chain more equitable for all
market actors.
Keywords supply chain, vegetables and fruits, farmers and tourism market

INTRODUCTION
Different researchers defined supply chain. “Supply chains are networks of firms interacting todeliver  a  product  or  service  to  a  predefined  market  segment” (Lockamy, Beal and Smith, 2000:23).
It contains network firms which are the suppliers, market which is the demand side, the products,
and services. Supplying products is done in accordance with service performances because theycannot be separated in sales. Some authors such as Cooper, Lambert, and Pagh (1997) cited in
Zhang, Song and Huang (2009) stated that supply chain occurred by a forward flow of products
and a backward flow of information. Meanwhile, Chen and Pauraj (2004) defined supply chain as a
network of materials, information, and services linked with the characteristics of supply,transformation and demand. These authors emphasized the flow of products, services and theinformation, which can be inferred that the producers supply based on demand. They also focused
partly on the relationship between product supply and information, while Lockamy et al., (2000)
paid more attention on the products and services.
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Some authors highlight the difficulties for local farmers to access the market. In the article“Supply  Chain  Models  for  Small  Agricultural  Enterprises,”  Jang  and  Klein  (2009)  concerned that
small farmers were not included in the coordinated supply chains. Similarly, Roekel et al., (2002)
identified the problems related to the small scale farmers in supply chain that challenge of the newmarket adjustment, least organized group and small capital were the constrains for small scale
producers, leading them to be the losers in market competition, while those accessing capital,technology and logistics enjoyed earning benefits. These issues are more severe for the businesses
occurring in agriculture in terms of  farmers’  environment,  especially  the  small  farmers  as  Jang  and  Klein pointed out because farmers had low knowledge on business.
Some models can be used for chain analysis. Supplier models are important for supply chain.
According to Philip (2006), there were several supplier models: traditional model, vertical
integration, cooperatives, and marketing companies. Out of the four models, marketing companies
are less applicable for the supply chain in which local farmers do the supplies. The relationshipbetween suppliers and customers were analyzed in three levels (Croom et al., 2000). First, dyadic
level referred to the relationship between only two parties, that of supplier and manufacturer or
manufacturer and retailers/ distributors. Second, chain level covered all the relationships in dyadic
levels. Last, network level involved the network of operations including upstream/downstream or
total/immediate. Besides, Roekel, Willems & Boselie in 2002 discussed the chain knowledge (insupply chain, and the actors in chain, especially the suppliers, are required to have the chain
knowledge.
There were a number of terms reflecting the linkage of tourism with agriculture. These terms
are farm tourism/farm based tourism (Dernoi, 1983; Hjalarger, 1996; Ramon et al., 2000 cited in
Sarpley and Vass, 2006; Busby and Rendle, 2000; Brandth and Haugen, 2011), Agro-or agritourism (Koc, 2008; Phillip et al., 2010), food tourism (Halloran and Deale, 2004; Ruben et al.,2006). Such terms illustrated the integrated development of tourism and agriculture. Farms wereused as the main tourist attractions with the accommodation, food and beverage provided by
farmers.
The interrelationship also occurred in terms of the supplies of the local products into
hotels/restaurants.  “The use of local foods in restaurants is a growing trend that reflects the desire
by many visitors to experience a culture through its footways” (Hjalagar, 2002; Fields, 2002 citedin Murphy and Smith, 2009). The statement showed how important the supply of local food is in
attracting tourists and the relationship between restaurants and local farmers as well. Some otherstudies illustrated the supplies of local agri-products to hotels/restaurants (Belisle, 1984; Torres,2003). Farmers sold their products directly to hotels/restaurants or by means of middlemen.
Farmers had relationship with hotels/restaurants in terms of fruit supply and hotels/restaurants sent
their  trucks  to  transport  the  fruits  from  famers’  fields  during  the  harvesting  seasons  (Verddouw  et  al., 2010 cited Torres, 2003). He also indicated that most of the hotels in Cancum had experience
with direct supply contracts with local growers.
Three factors affected the relationship of hotels and local famers (Torres, 2003). First was the
supply and production-related factors including poor local growing condition, growing insufficient
year-round quantities of products to supply, competition of labour between tourism and agriculture,inconsistent and/or poor quality of local production, poor economies of scale of local enterprises,
climate of uncertainty land tenure and limited local processing. Second was demand-related factors
related to tourist types, tourist food preference, and the concern of tourists and chefs on health andsanitation. Last was farmers’  marketing  difficulty,  which  might  be  the  serious  problems  for  local  farmers to access tourism market. Market-related factors included singular marketing; lack of tax
payment; lack of communication and deep trust between producers, enterprisers, tourism suppliers,and hotels; and infrastructure limitation. He also mentioned various supplies done in accordancewith the different sizes, grades, franchises, and the nationalities of the owners, managers and chefsof the hotels, which might consist of a variety of supply patterns.
The convenience and sanitation of products for cooking was another option for hotels/restaurants. Belise in 1985 stated that canned or frozen food was frequently used by hotels because
it was more convenient and saved time for cooking. In relation to sanitation, Torres (2003) statedthat the chefs of hotels chose the frozen foods on the simple consumption with higher sanitation,Ⓒ ISERD

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and   in   his   study   on   “Linkages   between   tourism   and   agriculture   in   Mixico”,   41   %   of   the   chefs  imposed the lemmatization procurement directly from local producers owing to the concerns ofhealth and sanitation. If hotels/restaurants use the local products, they need to spend longer timecleaning and/or preparing before cooking. However, the price of canned food may be higher, and it
depends  on  customers’  preferences.    
OBJECTIVES
1. To overview family farms of Koh Trong island in the Mekong River
2. To identify the structure of agri-supply chain at the local tourism market of Kratie Town
3. To analyze the factors affecting the supply chain of Koh Trong vegetables and fruits to Kratie
tourism market
METHODOLOGYBoth qualitative and quantitative methods were employed in the research. Questionnaire survey,
semi-structured interview and observation were used as the methods for primary data collection.
Surveys were conducted on 118 local farmers selected by simple random sampling, 23
hotel/restaurant owners chosen by convenience sampling and 61 vegetable sellers at market
selected by simple random sampling. Semi-structured interviews were done with local authority,
NGOs, chairmen of communities, local farmers, selected by purposive sampling, and middlemen,
selected by snowball techniques. Observation was done on the situations of the site and activities ofactors involved in the supply chain. Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was
employed for analyzing quantitative data, while content analysis was used for analyzing qualitativedata.
The research was conducted in Kratie province, located in the north-eastern area of Cambodia,
about 240 km from Phnom Penh. Town centre is located next to Mekong River. It had 8 hotels, 18
guesthouses and 21 restaurants registered with the government (Department of Tourism, 2009). On
the other side of the river is Koh Trong, one of communes (Sangkat) gown. Koh Trong is an island
surrounded by the Mekong River. Boats were the only modes of transport between town and KohTrong. The total area of the island is 223 hectares with 383 families, who mainly lived on
agriculture (National Committee for Sub-National Democratic Development, 2009). This island isalso one of tourism sites in Kratie.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Cultivation and sales
Majority of farmers (82.6%) on Koh Trong have education lower than upper secondary school,small sizes of farming lands and traditional tools in cultivation. Pesticides are used for cropping by
the higher percentage of farmers (64.1%), while chemical fertilizers are most commonly applied by
the lower percentage of the farmers (35.9%). Furthermore, 29.1 % of farmers used only own keptseeds for growth, with illiteracy of how such seeds may provide different yields from those boughtfrom market. Besides, they lack knowledge on business related to their products.
Most of the vegetables and fruits flowed from local famers to hotels/restaurants throughintermediaries. Most farmers (82.2%) sold their agri-products to middlemen. Middlemen collected
the products from farmers to sell in both wholesale and retail market of the town. They were theprice setters. Tourism market consumed less than 50% of the total vegetables produced by farmers
on Koh Trong, while the rest were consumed by household consumers. Besides Koh Trong, thevegetables were taken from other places and from Vietnam to the market. Thus, farmers on KohTrong have to compete with the suppliers of these vegetables and fruits, especially those fromⒸ ISERD

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Vietnam; however, they were more competitive in terms of high product quality and in particular,
unique sweet pamelos.
Supply responds fairly less to demand. In comparison between the top five vegetables: longstring bean, salad, tender green, leak and tomato farmers at Koh Trong grew with the top fivevegetables: carrot, tomato, cucumber, cauliflower and cabbage consumed by hotels/restaurants,
only tomato was supplied by farmers matched the demand by hotels/restaurants, so the other fours
consumed by the demand from households. Meanwhile, these hotels/restaurants bought tomato
supplied from other places and Vietnam. More remarkably, carrot was the special vegetable from
Vietnam that domestic farmers could not grow. Therefore, farmers of Koh Trong still supply
vegetables into hotels/restaurants fewer in variety than other places and Vietnam.
Supply chain
The whole supply chains of vegetables and fruits exist in two types of structures (figure 1). The
first type comprises of 5 groups of actors: farmers, hotel/restaurant owners, middlemen, NGOs andlocal authority. Second type consists of all actors, except middlemen. Farmers are the suppliers,
whereas hotel/restaurant owners are their final customers. Middlemen play crucial roles inconnecting suppliers and customers, but in second type, supply and demand connects with eachother directly. NGOs and authority play roles as facilitators because they support the local farmers
through the activities of community establishments, trainings, policy making, small fund, capitaland technical provision and promotion through tourism. However, core actors in chain are farmers,
middlemen and hotel/restaurant owners, which are similar to the statement of Lockamy et al.,(2000) that in supply chain, services and products flowed from suppliers and/or producers tocustomers directly or indirectly through distributors and/or retailers.
The current research illustrated some relationships partly similar to the supplier models byPhillip (2006). It found that local farmers grew and sold vegetables and fruits to local middlemen
after harvesting. The middlemen packed and took the products to markets to sell in both wholesale
and retail-sales. This phenomenon is relevant to what Phillip described as traditional model.
Moreover, some farmers, especially some middlemen, packed and took their vegetables and fruits
to sell in the retail markets. Such a phenomenon occurs in somewhat Philip called vertical
integration model. There are vegetable community and pamelo community on Koh Trong, of which
purposes to croup local farmers to grow and sell their produces cooperatively. Though it has notworked well yet, it works to some extent with pamelo community as Cambodia Center for Studyand Development in Agriculture (CEDAC) collected pamelos from Koh Trong through thecommunity to be on sales in its shop located in the town. However, there is a trend towards
cooperative model. Marketing company is not applicable.
Agriculture and tourism
The relationship between agriculture and tourism can be illustrated through the supply ofagricultural products with three forms (Fig. 1). The first form is Farmer-MiddlemanHotel/restaurant (FMH). FMH refers to the supply of vegetables and fruits done from local farmers
to hotels restaurants through middlemen. This is similar to the findings of some previous researches,by Belise, (1984), Field, (2002), Torress (2003) and Murphy, (2009) in relation to the supply of
local agricultural products to hotels/restaurants. Differently, the research illustrated that local
famers took their vegetables and fruits to hotels/restaurants through intermediaries. These showthat the different supply chains may vary according to classes and sizes of hotels/restaurants.
Second form is Farmer-Hotels/restaurants (FH). FH refers to the supply of vegetables andfruits from local farmers on Koh Trong to hotels/restaurants directly. This relationship is also
supportive of the previous researches in first form. It demonstrates the direct sales and/or
cooperation between local farmers and hotels/restaurants, and this is more similar to what Torres(2003) found. As stated in the first form, hotels sent their trucks to carry out the fruits from farms,
and he further said that most hotels in Cancum, Mexico, had direct supply contact with localⒸ ISERD

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growers. The present research found that some hotels bought fruits, especially pamelos, directlyfrom farmers on Koh Trong. They also had oral contracts with local farmers on the island forpamelo supply.
Compared with FMH, FH provides more advantages for the local farmers andhotels/restaurants. First, it provides more economic benefits i.e. the cross margins earned bymiddlemen can be divided for farmers and hotel/restaurant owners. Second advantage is building
the relationship. Selling and buying directly could make local farmers and hotel/restaurant owners
more understandable of each other. This also may lead local farmers to succeed largely in market
access and be more competitive in market. However, it contains some disadvantages. Without
middlemen, farmers have to take their vegetables to hotels/restaurants, or hotel/restaurant owners
have to buy on farms, in which either needs to spend extra money and time. There are someproblems including supply regularity, transportation, quantity, and seasonality, which is supportiveof the issues raised by Torres (2003).
3

NGOs 2(4a)2NGOs 1

Tourists

MarketCommunities

Farmers

1

Hotels/restaura
nt/home-stays

MiddlemenCommune councils

Provincial Departments(4b)

Flow of most vegetable and fruits within tourism market
Flows of small amounts of vegetables and fruits within tourism market
Flows of smallest amounts of vegetables and fruits within tourism market
Direct flow of fruits to tourists
1 = Agri-supply chain into tourism market
2 = Actors involving in supply side
3 =Tourism market (demand side)
4a = NGOs supporting

4b= Authority supporting
NGOs1= Local NGOs
GNOs2 = International NGOs

Fig. 1 Supply of vegetables and fruits with chain actors
Third form is Farmer-Tourist (FT). FT refers to the relationship in which local farmers supply
their agri-products directly to tourists or they do businesses on their own farms based on tourism,
known as farm tourism or farm based tourism.
CONCLUSION
The farms on Koh Trong are small-scale and family-oriented farms. Tourism is yet a small market
for agri-products from Koh Trong, but implies a future potential one. While conventional supply
chain is adequate, there is a barrier to overcome in making the chain more equitable for all market
actors. Limited knowledge, limited transportation, irregular supply done by Koh Trong farmers,Ⓒ ISERD

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limited market access and imbalanced power among the chain actors are the issues affecting the
supply chain. Farmers should increase growing crops to supply more regularly and build group for
supplying their agri-products so that they can gain more power in negotiating the price of the
products with middlemen.
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Belisle, F.J. 1984. Food production and tourism in Jamaica: Obstacles to increasing local food supplies tohotels. The Journal of Developing Areas, 19, 1-20.
Busby, G. and Rendle, S. 2000. Research note: The transition from tourism on farms to farm tourism.
Tourism Management, 21, 635-642.
Chen, I.J. and Paulraj, A. 2004. Towards a theory of supply chain management: The constructs andmanagement. Journal of Operations Management, 22, 119-150.
Croom, S. Roman, P. and Giannakis, M. 2000. Supply chain management: An analytical framework forcritical literature review. European Journal of Purchasing & Supplying Management, 6, 67-83.
Department of Tourism. 2009. Tourism statistics in Kratie province. Kratie, Cambodia.
Flick, U. 2005. An introduction to qualitative research. California: SAGE Publication Inc, USA.
Hjalarger, A.M. 1996. Agricultural diversification into tourism: Evidence from a European community
development program. Tourism Management, 17-2, 103-111.
Holleran, R.M.O. and Deale, C.S. 2000. Food tourism: Creating and positioning a supply chain. (http://libra.
acadiau.ca/library/ASAC/v25/articles/Ohalloran-deale.pdf. Accessed on Dec.15, 2010)
Jang, W. adn Klein, C.K. 2009. Supply chain models for small agricultural enterprises. 1-1.
Koc, E. 2008. The new agri-tourism: Hosting community versus tourist on your farm. In: Adams, B.B. (e.d.).
Annals of Tourism Research, 35, 1083-1093.
Kumar, R. 1996. Research methodology: A step-by-step guide for beginners. Addison Wesley Longman
Australia Pty Limited, Australia.
Lockamy III, A., Beal, R.M. and Smith, W.I. 2000. Supply-chain excellence for accelerated improvement.
Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences, 22-31.
Murphy, J. and Smith, S. 2009. Chefs and suppliers: An exploratory look at supply chain issues in an upscale
restaurant alliance. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 28, 212-220.
National Committee for Sub-National Democratic Development. 2009. Krachesh Krong data book 2009.
(http://www.ncdd.gov.kh/ Accessed on Feb. 12, 2010.)
Phillip, C. 2006. Supply chain efficiencies and the growth of category management in the horticulturalindustry. A Report for Nuffield Australia Farming Scholars, 1-38.
Phillip, S., Hunter, C and Blackstock, K. 2010. A typology for defining agri-tourism. Tourism Management,
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Royal Government of Cambodia. 2010. National strategic development plan update 2009-2013. Phnom Penh.
Roekel, J.V., Willems, S. and Boslie, D.M. 2002. Agri-supply chain management: To stimulate cross-border
trade in developing countries and emerging economies. World Bank Paper Cross-border Agri Supply
Chain Management, 1-28.
Roben, R. Slingerl, M. and Nihoff, H. 2006. Agro-food chains and networks for development: Issues,
approaches and strategies, Springer, The Netherlands. 1-25.
Sharpley, R. and Vass, A. 2006. Tourism farming and diversification: An attitudinal study. Tourism
Management, 140-152.
Torres, R. 2003. Linkages between tourism and agriculture in Mexico. Annals of Tourism Research, 30(3),546-556.
Zhang, X., Song, H. and Huang, G.Q. 2009. Tourism supply chain management: A new research agenda.
Tourism Management, 30, 345-358.

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Research article
erd

Off-Farm and Non-Farm Activities Development in Rural
South-Eastern Bosnia
SINISA BERJAN*
Faculty of Agriculture, University of East Sarajevo, East Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Email: sinisaberjan@yahoo.com

HAMID EL BILALI
Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Bari (CIHEAM-MAIB), Valenzano, Bari, Italy

BORKO SORAJIĆ
Faculty of Agriculture, University of East Sarajevo, East Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina

NOUREDDIN DRIOUECH
Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Bari (CIHEAM-MAIB), Valenzano, Bari, Italy

ALEKSANDRA DESPOTOVIĆ
Biotechnical Faculty, University of Podgorica, Podgorica, Montenegro

JASMINA SIMIĆ
Cooperative Union of the Republic of Srpska, Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Received 15 December 2012

Accepted 30 January 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Agriculture represents about 9% of the Bosnian gross domestic product andemploys almost a fifth of the labor force. Agriculture is no more sufficient to ensure thedevelopment of Bosnian rural areas; where lives around 61% of the population.
Diversification issue can be considered in terms of resources (land, labor or capital),
location (on-farm or off-farm) and output (farm or non-farm). The paper aims at analyzing
income-generating activities diversification in rural south-eastern Bosnia with a focus on
motivations and barriers. It discusses the main factors affecting off-farm and non-farmactivities development, including policies, and provides some recommendations. The
paper is based on an extended secondary data analysis and semi-structured interviews,
conducted in March-April   2012,   with   104   households’   heads   from   Foca,   Rogatica,   Han  Pijesak, Vlasenica, Sekovici, Milici and Bratunac municipalities. Almost a half of thesurveyed households characterized themselves as mixed (46.1%), 41.3% as farm, and12.6% as non-farm. Income is generated mainly from agricultural products sale (76%),
off-farm activities (52.9%) and pensions (44.2%). Motivations for engaging in off- andnon-farm activities are not always purely financial and also reflect societal changes. In thelast five years, 21.6% of the households started new income-generating activities - mainly
related to services provision and on-farm processing - but gave up while 22.6% of themstill deal with new activities. The main barrier is the lack of financial resources (39.7%)
and time (12.1%). Weak business skills are also a limiting factor. Development of newactivities  raises  farmers’  income  and  contributes  to  a  healthy,  diversified  and  viable  rural  economy. Public institutions need to make sure that policies in place, whether sectoral or
broader, do not put obstacles in the way of diversification and improve rural planning andservices delivery. Creating an enabling environment for diversification requires the efforts
of many public and civil society actors.
Keywords non-farm, off-farm, motivations, barriers, BosniaⒸ ISERD

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INTRODUCTION
Agriculture share in GDP was 8.1% in 2011 (EC, 2012). According to the Labor Force Survey for
2012, the agricultural sector employs 167,000 persons i.e. 20.6% of the total labor force (ASBiH,
2012). Rural areas (81%) lag behind in terms of socio-economic development and still face many
problems. Around 61% of the total population can be classified as rural. Agriculture provides asource of income for about 50% of the total population of the country. The Agro-food processing
industry is recovering following a decade of under-investment and its share in GDP is increasing(about 8%) (Kurbanova et al., 2011).
Despite its declining gross value added, agriculture continues to have an important influenceon the rural economy (OECD, 2006). Generally speaking, as an economy grows the non-farmeconomy also grows in importance within the rural economy (Valdés et al., 2008).
It is clear that nowadays agriculture is not sufficient to insure the sustainable development ofrural  areas  that’s  why  rural  economy  should  be  diversified  (Antonelli  et al., 2009; Haggblade et al.,2007; OECD, 2006). The framework provided by OECD (2009) considers the issue of farmhousehold diversification by differentiating between activities in terms of resources (factors of
production: land, labor or capital), location (on-farm or off-farm) and output (agricultural or nonagricultural) (Fig. 1). The major row differentiation between activities is made on the basis of thelocation of the activities, either on-farm or off-farm. Within each location, diversification activities
are further differentiated as to the type of output, whether: agricultural production (e.g. growing
crops or raising livestock); continuation (e.g. processing of food or providing contracting services
to other farmers); or other (OECD, 2009).
OBJECTIVE
The paper aims at analyzing off-farm and non-farm activities development in rural south-eastern
Bosnia with a focus on motivations and barriers.

OFF-FARM

LOCATION

ON-FARM

FACTORS OF PRODUCTION
LAND

LABOR

CAPITAL

Within agriculture,including specialty
crops, organic andbiomass production

Agriculture-related
e.g. direct sales andcontracting (fencing,
crop harvesting, etc.)

Agriculture-related
e.g. processing offarm products
including cheese

Other e.g. forestry,wind-turbine,recreation, andaquaculture

Other e.g. handicraft,
farm tourism,
contracting (snowclearing, etc.)

Other e.g. biomassenergy generation,
wood processing

Agriculture e.g. land
rented to otherfarmers

Agriculture-related,
e.g. employment onanother farm

Agriculture, e.g.
purchase ofadditional farmland

Other e.g. land
rented to others forforestry, windturbineOther e.g. school
teacher, nurse,
government official

Other e.g.
investment income,pensions

Source: Adapted from OECD, 2009.

Fig. 1 A framework for classifying farm household income diversification activitiesⒸ ISERD

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METHODOLOGY
The paper is based on an extended secondary data analysis and field research. The field survey
analyses the diversification of activities by farm households in Bosnia. Semi-structured interviews
were conducted in March - April  2012  with  104  households’  heads  randomly  chosen from seven
undeveloped and mid-developed municipalities: Foca, Rogatica, Han Pijesak, Vlasenica, Sekovici,
Milici and Bratunac. Semi-structured interviews (SSI) were conducted in local languages. The
checklist prepared for SSI included 40 questions dealing, among others, with types of households(farm, mixed, non-farm),  household  structure,  employment  and  income  for  households’  members,  microfinance and access to loans and diversification of income-generating activities.
The average age of households’   heads   is   46.9   (age   range:   29-67). Almost all interviewees(93.2%) were men. Average number of household members is 4.3. About a tenth of the household
members (8.5%) are illiterate while only 8.85% of them have high education. The highest
percentage of the surveyed households have income from 5,000-15,000 BAM (67.3%) while morethan 12% have good or quite good income (more than 15,000 BAM, Bosnian Convertible Marks).
The general poverty line in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) is 2,857 BAM per capita and per year
(ASBiH, 2008). Taking into account this criterion, more than 50% of surveyed households are theunder poverty line.
The various factors enhancing or limiting farm household diversification into off- and nonfarm activities are discussed in this paper. In the light of available evidence on the role ofagriculture and farm household diversification in the Bosnian rural economy, some initial policy
implications are drawn and some recommendations provided to speed up the pace of Bosnian rural
economies diversification.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Almost a half of the surveyed households characterized themselves as mixed households withdiversified income-generating activities. The livelihood strategy for about two fifths of thesurveyed households is focused on agriculture. The high percentage of mixed and non-farmhouseholds means that rural economy is diversified but the high percentage of farm households
clearly shows that agriculture is still important in livelihood strategies of the rural population insouth-eastern Bosnia. Mixed households have better education level compared with farm and nonfarm households. Furthermore, their members accept easier new technologies and other innovations
in rural areas and they are more engaged in social life within the community. In the case of mixed
and non-farm households, income is mostly provided from salaries of full time employees that deal
with the off-farm sector. Nevertheless, the percentage of households relying on income from farm
activities is quite high. In fact, a large number of households indicated primary agricultural
production as a main or an additional income (51.9%) while only 15.4% do not have any farmincome (Table 1). A large share of income from farm shows that agriculture is still the main
activity in rural areas of south-eastern Bosnia and it characterizes households with lower educationlevel and older members. This is at least to a certain extent due to the fact that because of the civil
war many big companies - that employed large number of people from rural areas of south-eastern
Bosnia - were destroyed or closed so that rural people are obliged to insure their subsistence
dealing with agriculture. For the same reason the percentage of pension income is high as many of
the rural people were retired after the civil war after engagement in army and also because almost athird of the surveyed household members (29.3%) are over 50 years.
Among the reasons for which many households did not start any new income-generating
activities can be mentioned the lack of financial resources or time and the difficulty to find suitable
markets. Other barriers include: high taxes, lack of experience, difficulties in finding partners,
complicated administration issues, etc. (Fig. 2).
The most frequent businesses that the surveyed households have tried out are related to wild
fruit and herbs collection (19.2%) and services provision on equipment and machines (15.4%).
Activities related to rural tourism are not enough developed. New processing and packagingⒸ ISERD

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activities regard dairy products, meat, strawberries and cereals. Other new farm income-generating
activities include: wood processing, piglet breeding, sheep breeding, beekeeping, dairy products
sale and raspberry growing.
Table 1 Types of households, income sources and new income-generating activities
Specification
Type of household
Income sources

New income-generating
activities in the last five
years

Percentage of the surveyed households
Mixed: 46.1%
Farm: 41.3%
Non-farm: 12.6%
Sale of agricultural products: 76%
Off-farm activities: 52.9%
Pensions: 44.2%
Other: wages, providing services on equipment and machines, social
programs and help, family and friends, renting land and property.
Did not develop any activity or start a new business: 55.8%
Started but gave up: 21.6%
Still deal with new activities: 22.6%

Fig. 2 Main problems and constraints faced by rural households in their attempts to develop
new farm, non-farm and off-farm income-generating activities
Financial reasons are key constraints in starting   up   households’   own   business   activities   and  diversification of livelihoods. Taking into consideration that money is the main problem, one way
to cope with this problem is to get a loan. Almost twenty eight percent (27.9%) of the surveyed
households have never applied for a loan mainly for the lack of collaterals. Others applied for loans
for many reasons: construction and maintenance of buildings (24.0%), buying animals (12.5%),
buying machines and equipments (11.5%), buying seeds and fertilizers (4.8%), etc.
Many factors influence the diversification of farm households into non-farm activities,
including government intervention. If governments want to foster diversification, they would needto make sure that policies in place, whether sectoral or broad, do not put unintended obstacles in
the way of diversification. Providing the services needed to foster business in rural areas - such as
telephone and internet coverage, training and information - also help to create an environment
conducive to diversification (OECD, 2009). Prerequisites for encouraging private investments
include improving the business climate, and providing business development and financial servicesⒸ ISERD

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suited to the needs of rural entrepreneurs. Acquiring a labor force with appropriate skills is crucial(IFAD, 2010).
As for human capital, the major part of respondents stated that they possess certain skills,
especially in food processing. Some of them mentioned also fruit production, beekeeping, organic
production and animal husbandry. Older members of households have more experience incollecting wild fruits and mushrooms and producing medicinal and aromatic plants. Strengthening
the  rural  people’s  capabilities  to  take  advantage  of  opportunities  in  the  rural  non-farm economy isessential. Education and skills are particularly important (IFAD, 2010).
Motivations for engaging in non-farm activities are not always purely financial, but also
reflect societal changes. In terms of the farm household, a financial motivation appears to be thestrongest driver for diversification in general, although social motivations are shown to beimportant for farm tourism. However, it appears that weak business skills are limiting the extent ofdiversification. Women play a more important role in the diversification of the farm into non-farmactivities than in the primary agricultural activities (OECD, 2009).
Differences also appear in terms of the size and type of farm operation. In general, off-farmdiversification activities are undertaken by smaller farms, for which they are more financially
important. A number of factors would explain this including the existence of less utilized farmresources and greater financial pressure. The location of the farm also plays an important role indetermining the extent of diversification activities. In general, the further a farm is away from aurban area, lower is the opportunity to diversify into non-farm activities (OECD, 2009).
The challenges of income diversification have a strong regional character or lie in thecharacteristics of the farm or farm household. According to the Working Group on Diversificationof the British Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA, 2007), key barriers tofarm diversification include validity of market research, capacity to develop a considered businesscase, quality of business skills and training, availability of appropriately skilled personnel andregulatory controls, and access to specialist business advice. Access to finance was also identified
as a potential barrier.
A range of policy measures have been introduced in various countries to assist farm household
diversification into non-farm activities. These measures involve grants, training and facilitation.
The diversity of measures reflects not only differences in policy objectives and country approaches
but also differences in terms of the barriers that the policy tries to overcome or correct. In somecountries, diversification activities appear to reduce access to some types of agricultural support.
Regulations governing tax, social security, land zoning and labour markets may complicate
diversification in countries where agriculture is not treated the same as other sectors. Farm
households, who engage in non-farm activities, may have to maintain two separate registration anddeclaration systems for tax and social security purposes, and may lose the benefits of being"farmers" (e.g. if there is preferential treatment in the social, tax system, or access to some farmsubsidies, such as investments) if the income they derive from non- farm activities becomes higher
than the income from agricultural activities (OECD, 2009).
The impact of labour regulations and the social security and tax systems on diversification
essentially depends on how agriculture is defined under those regulations/systems. Often a broad
definition of agriculture is used, allowing many forms of on-farm diversification activities to beclassified as agricultural or farming, and thus permitting a continuation of the status quo in terms ofadministration requirements and special concessions (OECD, 2009).
The heterogeneity of farm operators and the variety of non-farm activities mean that, at any
one time, there will be sets of circumstances that are highly favourable to diversification and others
where there are insuperable obstacles. This has a number of policy implications for countries
wishing to encourage farm diversification. The DEFRA Working Group on Diversification
recommends modifying rural actor skills as well rural development planning and service delivery
systems so that they do not pose such a substantial barrier to diversification (DEFRA, 2007).

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CONCLUSION
Rural economies in south-eastern Bosnia are quite diversified but agriculture is still the maineconomic activity for many households. Many households have started new income-generating
activities such as services provision and on-farm processing but they had to tackle many problems
and constraints such as the lack of financial resources. Harnessing farm diversification especially inthe non-farm economic activities requires improving the environment, thus strengthening
incentives and reducing risks for the actors. This involves improving rural infrastructure andservices as well as governance and the business climate to encourage private investment. Creating
an improved environment for farm activities diversification requires the efforts of many actors. The
roles of government actors are often critical.
Diversification of farm households into other activities on and off the farm affects the rural
economy, by raising the level of farm income and the viability of farms. However, household
livelihoods’   diversification   depends   on   the   existence   of   a   healthy   and   diversified   rural   economy,  which provides off-farm work opportunities as well as services. For rural policy to be more
effective, small fragmented programmes should be replaced by an integrated rural development
policy, that rural farm and non-farm households can benefit from, which requires a strong
horizontal coordination effort at all governance levels. In fact, it is necessary to reframe andredesign the rural development policy as agriculture is no more the only way to alleviate poverty
and to improve rural living standards. Fully exploiting rural economy diversification potential in
Bosnia   requires   also   improving   rural   governance,   upgrading   rural   people’s   human   capital,  strengthening rural social capital and improving physical capital as well as access of the rural
population to finance. That requires also a favourable and enabling legal and legislativeenvironment fostering farm activity diversification.

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DEFRA. 2007. Barriers to farm diversification. Report of the Joint Industry-Government Working Group.
Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA), London, UK.
EC. 2012. Bosnia and Herzegovina: 2012 Progress report. European Commission (EC), SWD(2012),
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Haggblade, S., Hazell, P. and Reardon, T. 2007. Transforming the rural non-farm economy. International
Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and Johns Hopkins University Press, Washington D.C, USA.
IFAD. 2010. Rural poverty report 2011 - New  realities,   new  challenges:  new  opportunities  for  tomorrow’s  generation. International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), Rome, Italy.
Kurbanova, J., Lonc, T. and Szentpali, G. 2011. Overview on vulnerability to food security in Bosnia andHerzegovina. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy.
OECD. 2006. The new rural paradigm: policies and governance. OECD Rural Policy Reviews; Organisation
for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Paris, France.
OECD. 2009. The role of agriculture and farm household diversification in the rural economy: evidence andinitial policy implications. Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Paris,
France.
Valdés, A., Foster, W., Anríquez, G., Azzarri, C., Covarrubias, K., Davis, B., DiGiuseppe, S., Essam, T.,
Hertz, T., A.P. de la O, Quiñones, E., Stamoulis, K., Winters, P. and Zezza, A. 2008. A profile of therural poor. Background paper for the IFAD (International Fund for Agricultural Development) Rural
poverty report 2011. (http://www.ifad.org/rpr2011/background/2.pdf Accessed on July 25, 2012).

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Research article
erd

Agricultural Extension and Advisory Services in Bosnia
SINISA BERJAN*
University of East Sarajevo, East Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Email: sinisaberjan@yahoo.com

HAMID EL BILALI
Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Bari (CIHEAM-MAIB), Valenzano, Bari, Italy

ALEKSANDRA  DESPOTOVIĆ
Biotechnical Faculty, University of Podgorica, Podgorica, Montenegro

JASMINA  SIMIĆ
Cooperative Union of the Republic of Srpska, Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina

MIRKO KULINA
University of East Sarajevo, East Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina

NOUREDDIN DRIOUECH
Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Bari (CIHEAM-MAIB), Valenzano, Bari, Italy
Received 15 December 2012

Accepted 30 January 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) consists of two governing entities; the Federationof Bosnia and Herzegovina (FBiH) and the Republika Srpska (RS). Agriculture employs
almost a fifth of the total labor force. Around 61% of the population lives in rural areas.
Easy and timely access to reliable and updated information provided by extension services
is crucial for agricultural and rural development. The paper aims at analyzing the public
agricultural extension and advisory services (AEAS) in Bosnia. In particular, it analyses
governance; human resources; gender; cooperation projects; decentralization; financing;role in building social capacity as well as advisory approaches, methods and media. Some
recommendations to improve the AEAS performance are made. The paper is based on aliterature review and semi-structured interviews as well as focus group discussions carriedout in March 2011 with agricultural advisors in the RS. Modern AEAS started to exist in
BiH in 2002 and are organized on entity level: the Agency for Providing Services inAgriculture in the RS and cantonal agricultural extension services in the FBiH. The
National Extension Services for BiH project helped establishing cantonal and regional
offices. The Advisory Services Agency has five regional offices. Advisors use many group(e.g. lectures, seminars, field days) and individual (e.g. farm visits, phone calls) extension
methods and media (e.g. internet, leaflets, posters, brochures, mass media). Advisors focus
mainly on crop and animal production, processing and marketing. They also assist
producers to gather in cooperatives. Advisory services face many financial, management
and technical problems. The traditional top-down approach is still widely used. Bosnian
AEAS should be supported by providing them with the necessary means and resources aswell as technical, managerial and soft skills to fully assume their crucial role. That isnecessary to develop a well performing pluralistic, participatory, bottom-up, decentralized,
farmer-led and market-driven advisory system.
Keywords agricultural extension, performance, governance, Bosnia

INTRODUCTION
Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) consists of two governing entities i.e. the Federation of Bosnia andHerzegovina (FBiH) and Republika Srpska (RS); and a self-governing administrative unit i.e.
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Brčko  District  (BD),  under  the  State  sovereignty.  During  the  post-war period, the rural scenario in
BiH has changed dramatically. Rural economy in BiH is getting more diversified but agriculture
still plays an important socio-economic role. Agriculture share in GDP was 8.1% in 2011 (EC,2012). Agriculture employs a fifth (20.6%) of the total labor force i.e. 167,000 persons (ASBiH,
2012).   Rural   areas   cover   81%   of   the   country’s   territory   and   approximately   61%   of   the   total
population can be classified as rural (Lampietti et al., 2009).
Easy and timely access to reliable and updated information is crucial for agricultural and ruraldevelopment  (ARD).  The  term  “extension”  was  first  used  to  describe  adult  education  programs in
England   starting   in   1867   (Swanson   and   Rajalahti,   2010).   One   can   simply   say   that   “extension isgetting knowledge to farmers so that they will make a positive change”  (USAID,  2012).  Advisory  service is commonly used as an alternate term for extension services. Apart from their conventional
function of providing knowledge and technology to improve agricultural productivity, agriculturaladvisory services are also expected to link farmers to markets, promote sustainable production
techniques, etc. (Swanson and Rajalahti, 2010).
Good extension is recognized as a key to agricultural development (USAID, 2012).
Agricultural extension is the defining metaphor for all technology transfer activities and models.
However, too few farmers have access to the extension services they need and extension workers
themselves cannot easily tap all the information they need to help farmers (USAID, 2012).
According  to  Leeuwis  (2004),  extension  as  a  communication  for  innovation  should  serve  as  a  “twoway”   or   “multiple–way process”,   which   may   have   implications   for   all   involved   parties   (farmers,  researchers, extension agents, policy makers, agricultural industries, etc.). In fact, agricultural andrural extension needs to provide a wider range of services to a more diverse clientele to improvetheir capacity to access, adapt and use knowledge, inputs and services (World Bank, 2008). For
extension to be successful, it needs to include credible content, effective delivery and be relevant toand applicable by clients (USAID, 2012).
In the Western Balkans, current agricultural extension structures have been developed mainly
within the last two decades with the help of international donors. Public extension structures exist
besides other providers such as NGOs and commercial extension agents (FAO, 2011).
OBJECTIVE
The paper aims at analyzing the public agricultural extension and advisory services (AEAS) in
Bosnia and Herzegovina.
METHODOLOGY
The paper is based on a review of secondary data from different sources such as the FAO Regional
Office for Europe and Central Asia; Agency for Statistics of BiH; USAID; the European
Commission (EC); Arcotrass GmbH; the Institute for Statistics of the RS; the International Bankfor Reconstruction and Development (IBRD); the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Water
Management of the RS (MAFWM-RS); the World Bank; etc.
Primary data were collected by semi-structured interviews as well as focus group discussions
carried out in March 2011 with agricultural advisors in the RS. The prepared checklist dealt withmany issues regarding the AEAS in BiH and the RS such as (i) governance; (ii) human resources;(iii) gender; (iv) main cooperation projects; (v) decentralization; (vi) financing; (vii) role inbuilding social capacity; and (viii) advisory approaches, methods and media.
Taking into consideration the problems and weaknesses that were identified somerecommendations were made to improve the Bosnian AEAS performance.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Generally speaking, the performance of the agricultural extension system is strongly correlated tothat of the research, development, education (formal, non-formal and informal) and trainingⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1(including vocational training) systems. As for existing agricultural training and education
capacities, seven agricultural (cantonal level in the FBiH and regional level in the RS) faculties
provide agricultural studies in BiH (FAO, 2011). The main agricultural research institutes andfaculties in BiH are (Arcotrass et al., 2006): Agricultural Faculty in Sarajevo (FBiH); Agricultural
Faculty in Banja Luka (RS); Veterinary Faculty in Sarajevo (FBiH); Faculty of Technology inBanja Luka (RS); and Agricultural Institutes in Sarajevo, Mostar (FBiH) and Banja Luka (RS).
Agricultural extension and advisory services, as known in practice worldwide (cf. Swanson
and Rajalahti, 2010) started to exist in BiH in 2002. They are organized on entity level: Agency forproviding services in agriculture in the RS, cantonal agricultural extension services in the FBiH andthe Department of Extension Services in Brcko District. Responsibility for extension activities in
the FBiH is in the hands of cantonal ministries in charge of agriculture. In Brcko district, the Officeof Agricultural Extension Services operates within the Department of Agriculture and Forestry.
With the strong support of international donor projects the establishment of advisory services
in BiH started after the civil war. A World Bank project is still active at national level (FAO, 2011).
Within the EU PHARE pilot project (Co-ordination, Institutional Development and Advisory
Services to Support Private Farmers; 1998-2000), extension service offices were foundedthroughout BiH (Arcotrass et al., 2006). In the RS, PHARE project financed the establishment of
seven advisory services in Banja Luka region with a central office in Banja Luka. In the second
phase (2000-2002), five regional centers have been established covering the entire territory of RS.
Funds were provided also through the National Extension Services for Bosnia and Herzegovina(EU-ESP) project (MAFWM-RS, 2010).
In May 2002, the Agricultural Extension Service of the RS (Official Gazette of the RS, No 36,
June 21, 2002) was established within the Ministry of Agriculture. Two years later, theGovernment of the RS established the Agency for providing services in agriculture, as a separate
professional and legal organization, with a wide range of activities including agricultural extension
services. The Agency is headquartered in Banja Luka and has five regional offices i.e. Banja Luka,
Doboj, Bijeljina, Sokolac, and Trebinje; where work 21 advisors and administrative staff (about
48% female) for 221,000 rural households in the RS. All regional offices are financed by thegovernment of the RS and each one of them covers from 9 to 21 of municipalities (MAFWM-RS,
2010).
The agricultural extension system in the RS includes municipal based advisers - within the
Department for Economic and Social Affairs - supported by a central support unit with specialist
adviser capacity, based in Banja Luka (Arcotrass et al., 2006). The number of officers for
agriculture in municipalities in each region ranges from 9 (Trebinje) to 28 (Banja Luka)(MAFWM-RS, 2010). The Advisory Services Agency (ASA) in the RS is financed by the Entity
budget but can also apply for funds from development projects. Seven municipal offices in Banja
Luka area (i.e. Kozarska Dubica, Gradiska, Prijedor, Novi Grad, Laktasi, Prnjavor and Kotor
Varos), are financed by municipalities. Generally the service appears to be well appreciated andused, though it remains poorly equipped, under-funded and generally under-manned (Arcotrass etal., 2006). The fact that extension is managed by a state agency provides some space for extension
management and maintaining distance from day-to-day political decisions (FAO, 2011).
The EU-ESP project helped also establishing cantonal agricultural advisory services in theFBiH. The extension system was established at canton level but the commitment of most cantons
was minimal and no central services were established to support the system (Arcotrass et al., 2006).
Field advisors are part of the municipal administration (FAO, 2011). With this organizational setup
extension superiors in the cantonal ministries of agriculture usually have little say regarding theextension service managed by municipalities. The relative advantage of having advisors who areclose to the field and its actors, as well as the apparently positive ratio of farmers to advisors, isquite often counteracted by a deficiency of funds for transport and a great burden of administrative
tasks, minimizing the time available to carry out advisory work. This has led to an almost
asphyxiation of advisory work since the end of the last EU-funded project (FAO, 2011).
All services provided by the public advisory systems in BiH are free; the work of the advisors
is paid for with entity, canton or municipality money (FAO, 2011) (Table 1).
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As for agricultural extension methodological procedure, more or less clearly defined
individual contact farmer approach has been implemented, focusing the advisory contacts on 40-50
example farms per extension agent (FAO, 2011). Advisors use many group extension andcommunication methods (e.g. lectures, seminars, demonstrations, field days, events, etc.) andindividual methods (e.g. farm visits, contacts at extension offices, phone calls). The main media
used are the internet, leaflets, posters, brochures, and mass media (Table 1).
Table 1 Characteristics and methodological procedure of the public advisory services in theentities of the FBiH and RS
Characteristics
Institutional
Setup
Field advisors
FinanceResources of field advisors
Approach to farm families
Media
Priority setting

RS
FBiH
State agency: Advisory Services
Under responsibility of cantons
AgencyField advisors are agency
Field advisors are part ofstaff (agriculture administration) municipality administration
Agency  budget  (300.000  €  in  Cantonal budget
2009)
Office, telephone, PC, Internet
Office, telephone, PC, Internet
access, vehicle
accessIndividual contacts (sample farmer)
Leaflets, brochures, Radio, TV
No defined procedure/ policy dependent

Source: Adapted from FAO, 2011

Advisors provide services dealing mainly with agriculture production, processing andmarketing (i.e. vegetables and fruit growing, animal husbandry, processing and quality of agrofood products, agro-economy). In the RS, most of extension agents are agriculture engineers thathave general educational orientation (e.g. crop production, livestock production, fruit growing)
while the number of specialists e.g. plant protection, irrigation, agricultural machinery, is modest.
The fact that the majority of the field staff are agricultural experts induces a strong focus on
production techniques and a relative preference given to large farms (FAO, 2011). The target group
includes mainly farmers eligible for incentives. Extension generally lack market or farmmanagement focus (Arcotrass et al., 2006). According to Swanson (2008), in most developing
countries,   extension’s   focus   has   concentrated   on   technology   transfer   for the major food crops.
Extension agents also assist agricultural producers to gather in cooperatives and associations, help
them to prepare business plans and to apply for credits. However, such an ambitious plan is far
from matched by personnel, technical equipment and financial resources.
The Bosnian public agricultural extension service is strongly focused on production
techniques, while farm management, markets and marketing, regional rural development and thepromotion of producer organizations are only partially served. Extension agents are only able tothinly cover the areas of farm economy and farm development planning. Bosnian farmers’  knowledge and skills requirements encompass issues of production, farm management (e.g. data
recording), marketing and rural development. Rural development is not systematically supportedby the public advisory systems due to an overload of work, and to the general lack of knowledge(on projects and programs) and skills (on group facilitation and group management) (FAO, 2011).
Advisory services face many finance, management and technical support problems as well as
those related to mentality, low motivation and enthusiasm, overload with non-advisory activities,
etc. According to the MAFWM-RS (2010), the main problems faced by the public extension
system are: low number of extension agents; limited funding; lack of information flows between
the advisory services and the Ministry of Agriculture; weak participation in international projects;
confusion about the role and functions of the Agency; low interest of farmers for training; lack oflong-term agricultural policy; and lack of specialized research institutions.
Advisors spend most of their working hours doing administrative tasks, first of all thoserelated to incentive measures. According to FAO (2011), the handling and the administration ofregional and national support programs dominates part of the activities of the public extensionⒸ ISERD

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services (FAO, 2011). Moreover, there is still a strong legacy of the former Yugoslav socialist
system and the traditional top-down approach is widely used while the Agricultural Knowledge andInformation System (AKIS) (Engel, 1997; Röling, 1996) and, the more recent, Agricultural
Innovation System (AIS) (World Bank, 2006; Hall et al., 2006) concepts diffusion is limited.
Besides public extension services, many institutions provide advisory services such as
cooperatives, agricultural and veterinary institutes and stations as well as private actors. In general,
there are four types of private actors in agricultural extension: input suppliers; agricultural products
purchasers; private trainer-advisor-outreach agencies; and mass media (Neuchatel Group, 1999). In
BiH, communication and cooperation between the public, semi-public and private actors involvedin the agricultural extension system is generally weak and unsystematic. In fact, Bosnian extension
agents have no regular cooperation with the applied research institutes, universities, NGOs, andprivate extension providers. Meanwhile, they have poor cooperation with input suppliers andprocessors  while  cooperation  with  farmers’  groups  and  associations  is  sporadic  (FAO,  2011).
Bosnian extension agents lack systematic offers of professional training as there is no
systematically planned and performed in-service training program. However, there are donor
projects that provide training on a broad range of agriculture and rural development issues.
Nevertheless, these trainings are not coordinated and planned, nor institutionalized at national
and/or regional level and are thus potentially not accessible to all agricultural advisors. Agriculturaladvisors need training regarding the following issues: farming systems approach; extension
methodology; farm economy and management; marketing, market development and value chains;environmental impacts of farm production; EU regulations; etc. (FAO, 2011).
In future, the agricultural knowledge system including education, research, extension andagribusiness needs to focus on how to improve the farm household’s  income,   as   opposed   to  just  improving production. This requires a much sharper focus on the economics of technology andinvestments and on risk acceptability to farmers. In the reorganization of the extension services it
must be realized that the technologies devised for the social farms are inappropriate for the private
farms. A complete reversal of production technologies is now required (Arcotrass et al., 2006). The
extension system must be flexible, user-driven, and focused on local problems (World Bank, 2008).
Both public and private extension resources should be fully used; accountability to clients
increased and more responsibilities transferred to the private sector (Arcotrass et al., 2006).
Linkages between advisory services and public stakeholders as well as research and education
institutions dealing with ARD should be strengthened. Agricultural education, training and researchsystems should be strengthened as well. It is essential that the research system engages universities,
private sector research and civil society organizations, and stimulates the scaling-up of innovations(Hall et al., 2006 and World Bank, 2008). Research needs to be more integrated into the agricultural
sector transformation by moving from agricultural research and development to Agricultural
Research for Development (AR4D). The agricultural education and training system needs to adapt
as well to meet the new dynamics of agricultural innovation. Education institutes, both higher andvocational, have to offer more relevant subject matters for agricultural innovation (Daane, 2010).
CONCLUSION
Access to information and knowledge is crucial for the development of Bosnian agriculture andrural areas. Modern agricultural extension and advisory services in BiH are organized on entity
level. There are also cantonal (FBiH) and regional (RS) offices. Bosnian advisors use many groupand individual extension methods and media. However, advisors focus mainly on crop and animal
production. They also assist producers to gather in cooperatives.
Advisory services face many financial, management and technical problems. The traditional
top-down approach is still widely used. Funds available for field-level extension activities and inservice training courses for the extension staff are very limited. For all these weaknesses andproblems the involvement of other actors in the extension work is crucial if the system is to keepwith   rural   people’s   expectations   and   to   meet   their   needs.   In   the   framework   of   the   agricultural  innovation system, there is a clear role for public, private and civil society organizations to work
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together in providing extension services to rural households.
Higher attention should be paid to modernizing and supporting Bosnian advisory services toallow them to assume fully their role as a main bridging actor in the dissemination of knowledge
and the promotion of rural innovation, diversification, multifunctionality and sustainability. It isnecessary to develop a pluralistic, participatory, bottom-up, decentralized, farmer-led and marketdriven advisory system. The agricultural extension system should use advice, non-formal educationand facilitation paradigms not only to achieve food security but also to manage natural resources;
improve rural livelihoods; and build rural social capital. Well-performing agricultural advisory
services are indispensable for achieving sustainable agricultural and rural development.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors would like to thank all the extension agents that participated to the semi-structured
interviews and took part in focus group discussions.
REFERENCES
Arcotrass, et al. 2006. Study on the state of agriculture in five applicant countries: Bosnia and Herzegovina
country report. Study undertaken by Arcotrass GmbH (Germany), in association with Vakakis
International SA (Greece), EuroCare GmbH (Germany) and AKI (Hungary).
ASBiH. 2012. Anketa o radnoj snazi 2012 (Labour Force Survey 2012). Agency for Statistics of BiH(ASBiH), Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Daane, J. 2010. Enhancing performance of agricultural innovation systems. Rural Development News,
1/2010, 76-82.
EC. 2012. Bosnia and Herzegovina: 2012 progress report. European Commission (EC), Brussels, Belgium.
Engel, P. 1997. The social organization of innovation. Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
FAO. 2011. Assessment of the human capacity development needs for, and gaps in, the Agricultural
Advisory Services in Western Balkans. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations;Regional Office for Europe and Central Asia, Budapest, Hungary.
Hall, A., Mytelka, L., and Oyeyinka, B. 2006. Concepts and guidelines for diagnostic assessments ofagricultural innovation capacity. United Nations University, Maastricht, the Netherlands.
Lampietti, A.J., Lugg, D.G., Van der Celen, Ph., and Branczik, A. 2009. The changing face of rural space:
agriculture and rural development in the Western Balkans. Directions in Development (DID) Agriculture and Rural Development. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development(IBRD), Washington D.C., USA.
Leeuwis C. 2004. Communication for rural innovation: rethinking agricultural extension. Blackwell
publishing, Oxford, UK.
MAFWM-RS. 2010. Strategija savjetovanih aktivnosti u poljoprivredi (Strategy for the development ofAgricultural Advisory Service in the RS). Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Water Management of
the Republika Srpska (MAFWM-RS), Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Neuchatel Group. 1999. Common framework on agricultural extension. Paris, France.
Röling, N. 1996. Towards an interactive agricultural science. Journal of Agricultural Education andExtension, 2/4, 35-48.
Swanson, B. 2008. Global review of good agricultural extension and advisory service practices. FAO, Rome.
Swanson, B., Rajalahti, R. 2010. Strengthening agricultural extension and advisory systems: procedures forassessing, transforming, and evaluating extension systems. Agriculture and Rural Development
Discussion Paper 45. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, Washington D.C.,
USA.
USAID. 2012. Expert consultation on the G8 new alliance for food security and nutrition ICT extension
Challenge. October 11-12, 2012; Final report. Washington D.C., USA.
World Bank. 2006. Enhancing Agricultural Innovation: how to go beyond the strengthening of researchsystems. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), Washington D.C., USA.
World Bank. 2008. World development report 2008: Agriculture for development. World Bank, Washington
D.C., USA.

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Research article
erdThe  Study  on  Flood’s Impact on Rice Production in Sandek
Commune Bathay District Kampong Cham
SOEUNG LYLY*
Faculty of Agricultural Economics and Rural Development, Royal University of Agriculture,
Cambodia
Email: lylysoeung@gmail.com
Received 16 December 2012

Accepted 30 January 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Flood is regarded as the most serious natural disaster that affected the economy
of Cambodia. As the consequence, flooding has caused the loss of many lives, and has
addressed impacts on social welfare and damaged the public and household properties.
Livestock and crops were also destroyed. It has caused not only on the economic impact,
but also on social and environmental problems of the nation. Seeing this serious problem
which is an obstacle for the development of Cambodia, this study have been conductedwith  three  main  objectives  are  (1)  to  identify  the  extent  of  flood’s  impact  on  rice  yields  of  farmers, (2) to assess the economic impact of rice production, and (3) to explore thefarmer’s   adaptation   capacity   on   rice   pattern   to   the   flood.   To   achieve   those   objectives,  structured questionnaires were used with 96 who participated in the interview. The Study
showed that the major flooding event in the last twenty years, worst flood in history instudy site was the flood in 2011. Indeed, all respondents have evaluated there 2000, 2001,
2002 and 2011. Flood causes the most negative impact to their rice and mixed crops
productions. The flood of 2011 has badly affected to   economic   value   of   farmer’s   rice  production, which total average yield 3.862 tones/ha were lost. Rice crop is the main
source  of  farmer’s  living,  so  this  is  the  serious  problem  to  their  livelihoods.  Low  education  of farmers was seen as the cause of low adaptation to flood. Most illiterate people (98%)
were worst affected among the others in the study site. Recently, around a half of
respondents grow dry season rice instead. Migration after that the flood in 2011 has
become the popular way to generate more income. Conclusion, flood in 2011 is the worst
impact on rice production in the study area. Further adaptation strategy is strongly needed
for local people.
Keywords impact, flood, rice production, adaptation

INTRODUCTION
Natural disasters are key factor in rural people becoming poor and destitute in Cambodia and in thepersistence of poverty (MoE and UNDP, 2011). The main natural disaster in Cambodia is flood(CRC, 2003a, 2003b). As the consequences, flooding had caused the loss of many lives, impact ofsocial welfare and damaged the public and household's properties. Livestock and crops were also
destroyed. Moreover, flooding not only caused of economic impact, but also to social andenvironmental problems of the nation. Flooding have caused loss of lives, affected social welfare
and damaged public and household's properties, livestock and crop. Moreover, flooding makepeople suffer, afraid and migration. According to (NCDM and MoP, 2008) showed that from 1997
flooding increase and happen almost every years. (NCDM and MoP, 2008) also add that major
flooding events affecting a significant population occur in 1961, 1966, 1978, 1984, 1991, 1996,
2000, 2001, and 2002. Although the flood in 2011 damaged rice paddy 267,184 hectares, othercrops 17, 264 hectars and 250 people were killed (NCDM, 2012). Agriculture is the source for rural
livelihoods, and for Cambodia are relying in rice production (RGC, 2010 and MoE, 2002). But,
Cambodia   agriculture   is   extremely   affected   by   climate   change.   The   flood’s   impact   on   riceproduction was cause of food security problems and around 18% of total Cambodia people hadⒸ ISERD

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food   insecurity   almost   every   year   (NGO   ESCRMC,   2002).   By   the   ways,   flood’s   impact   on   rice  production is the obstacles and difficulty to achieved the government strategy in order to increaserice yield and rice export 1 million tones in 2015 (ACIAR, 2009). Moreover, it is the obstacle inpoverty alleviation program and in achieving the millennium development goals.
METHODOLOGY
Bathay District

Fig. 1 Bathay district
Household level study was conducted in tree villages: Savay Prey village, Po Stiang village, andTang Grey village, Sandek Commune, Bathay District, Kampong Cham Province. Major
occupations for the people live in the commune who the rice growers. Mapping, seasonal calendar,
time line and semi structure interviewer were used in qualitative methodology. There were 96
farmers who participated in the interview for quantitative approach. All data from quantitative wereentry into SPSS program for this analysis.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Households’  survey  and  group  discussion  showed  the  events  flood  at  the  study  area  in  2000,  2001,  2002   and   2011.  The   worst   floods   in   the   study   area’s   history   occurred   in   2011.  This   result   is   not  different from data of (NCDM, 2012) which reveals that in some areas, the flood in 2011 was lesssevere than the flood in 2000. However, the other areas were worse than the flood in 2000. Table 1
shows 77% of the total respondents (n=96) caused impact and another 21% caused the medium
impact. The rest, around 2% got less impact. For the flood in 2000 in the study area 69% got theworst impact. 23% got medium impact and another 6% got less impact. Only 2% of the total of the
respondents is normal. Remarkably, the event flood in 2002, only 1% of the total respondents got
the worst and medium impact. 11% was less impact and another around 13% normal. Meanwhile,around 17% of the household survey was less impact and around 24% was less potential. The rest,around 33% was the best potential from flood in 2002. Therefore, the event flood in 2001 around of
the total of the respondents (n=96) at the study area around 8% got the worst impact by flood. The
household’s   survey   shows   24% was less impact and another around 17% normal. Meanwhile,around 7% of the total respondents is less potential and another around 11% mediums potential.
The rest, around 33% is the best in the flood in 2001. Flood in 2011 had caused the loss of many
lives, impact of social welfare and damaged the public and household's properties. Livestock andcrops were also destroyed.
Agriculture  is  the  foundation  of  farmers’  livelihoods  in  study  site,  and  rice  paddy  is  the  core  cropping of respondents. It is the most important occupation for their living standard. But flood in2011 damaged the public and household's properties and damaged on the livestock especially riceproduction. The survey result showed the rice paddy around 95% of the total respondents (n=96)
got the worst impact by flood in 2011. They got nothing of rainy season rice yield because theⒸ ISERD

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farmers growed raining rice at the same time during the flood period and flood in 2011 submerged
before harvest 3.1% got medium impact. Most of the respondents got a little of raining rice yield
and another 1% got less impact, they lost a little of their rainy season rice yield. The rest, no one inthe  respondents  did  not  have  an  impact  by  flood  in  2011  (Table  2).  And  Flood’s  Impact  on  plant  around houses was 83.3% of the respondents got the worst impact. 9.4 % got medium impact and7.3% of them got less impact by flood in 2011. Livestock rearing is a key part of rural livelihood,providing  a  mean  for  saving,  source  of  income  and  food.  But,  Looking  into  the  flood’s  impact  on  livestock of the respondents around 35.4% got the worst impacted by flood in 2011. Moreover,around 43.8% got medium impact and another 7.3% got less impact. Only 3.1% of the total
households did not get impact. So, flood in 2011 really affected to their livelihood and saving.
Remarkably, only 7.3% of houses of respondents the worst and medium impact. 58.3% got less
impacted. The rest, approximately 27.1% was not affected by flood in 2011. During and after flood,the diseases always happen on human and animal. Most of local people have recognized theincreasing  cases  of  family’s  health  problems and insect.
Table 1 Flood situation in the last 20 years in the study area
Worst impact (%)
Medium impact (%)
Less impact (%)
Normal (%)
Less potential (%)
Medium potential (%)
The best potential (%)
Source:  Households’  survey,  2012

2011
77
21
2
-

2000
69
23
6
2
-

2002
1
1
11
13
17
24
33

2001
8
24
17
7
11
33

Table  2  Flood’s  impact  on  livelihood
Level of Impact
Worst (%)
Rice
95.8
Plant near house
83.3
Livestock
35.4
Houses
7.3
Source:  Households’  survey,  2012

Medium (%)
3.1
9.4
43.8
7.3

Less (%)
1.0
7.3
17.7
58.3

No Impact (%)
3.1
27.1

The economic impact of rice production
The survey showed that the people in the study site were farmers who grow rice paddy. this result
is similar to the commune data book 2011 shows majority occupation of all of people lives in thecommune are farmers which growing rice paddy. But, flood in 2011 almost damaged their riceproduction in the study site. And the total average yield only 0.119 tone/ hector .It was not enougheven  to  home  consumption.  So,  this  was  the  serious  problem  to  their  livelihoods.  Flood’s  impact  on  rice production was the obstacles and difficulty to achieved government strategy (ACIAR, 2009).
Therefore, the survey result showed the economic value of rice production 3.682 tones/hectare wasloss by flood in 2011. So, it really the obstacles to Achieved government strategy in order toincrease rice yield and rice import 1 million ton in 2015.
Local knowledge to flood information
The   Information   of   the   water’s   level   is   vital   for   people   especially   farmers   who   live   in   the  vulnerable area.  Household’s  survey  showed  98% of the total respondents (n=96) do not know thewater’s  level  beneficial for cropping matures at Chorlar Sas station. Remarkably, only 2% of thetotal respondents know the water level matures at Chorlar Sas station that beneficial for cropping.
According  to  households’  survey  and  household’s  group  discussion  shows  the  study  area’s  history  events flood in 2000, 2001, 2002 and 2011. Therefore, farmer used to get negative impact by flood.
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In contrast, almost respondents in the study area did not make attention to water’s  level  or  flood  information. It is the serious problems for people who lived in the vulnerable area. We also can say
that,   do   not   make   attention   on   water’s   level   or   flood   information   is   also   another   cause   of   badly  impact by flood. In contrast, if they make attention on flood information they can reduce the levelof worst impact by flood and they can prepare before flood. So, they have capacity to recover theirfarm after flood. Flood it is the serious problems and serious concern.
Level impacts of literacy respondents
Survey result showed that 98% of the total literacy respondents in the study place (n=96) was worst
impacted by flood in 2011. Looking to the medium impact of the literacy respondents is only 2%.
Due to the result shows among literacy respondents all of them were impacted by flood in 2011.
The education has play main role in adaptation capacity to flood. Low education may the cause of
low adaptation. By the ways, low adaptation is another cause of got worst impacted by flood.
The  farmer’s  adaptation  capacity  on  rice  pattern  to  the  flood
Generally, rice farming in the study site takes 7 months which started from June to December. By
the ways, flood in 2011 submerged rice paddies about 3 months which started from middle
September to middle December (Table 3). Group discussion and the result of interview 96
households showed farmers growing raining rice paddy at the same time during the flood period
and flood in 2011 submerged before harvest. Therefore, almost the raining rice paddy of the
farmers at the study area was damaged by flood in 2011. The average raining rice yield of the total
respondents (n=96) in the year 2011 is only 0.118 tones/hectares. The green color showed the cycleof rice production and yellow color was the period of flooding and the red color was the worst
flood. According to the timetable of crop calendar of rice production and flood duration, we canconclude  that,  the  farmer’s  adaptation  capacity  on  rice  pattern  to  the  flood  before  2011  is  low.  
Table 3 Flood duration and rice production cycle

Percent

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Rice
Flood
Source:  Households’  survey,  2012

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Set

Oct

Nov

Dec

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
ChangeCropestablish
small
irrigation

establish
irrigation

Cropingfromfind job Rent land Imigration
to Raise rianing to non-farmanimal dry paddy
ChangeNot Change

Fig. 2 Farmers’  adaptation  to  flood
Survey result showed that 90% of total interview households has change crop. They changed
many kind of rice while only 10% has not. 12% of the total respondents (n=96) was establishedsmall irrigations. They build ponds and wells near their farm. According to  household’s  interviews  only 3% is establish irrigation. It does not mean that local farmers build new irrigations they all
together just rebuilds and clean some irrigation that too old and can not content the water.
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Therefore, around 3% has changed rent their land to another. Most of the people do not like thisway. However, they still grow rice event they do not know does the flood can damage their rice
yield or not. They are farmers so they have no choice and they really want to grow rice two or threetimes per year, but lack of irrigation. Moreover, around 30% is change from raining to dry paddy
and another round 60 % has migrated. Remarkably, there is no respondent change cropping to raiseanimal (Fig. 2). Agriculture is the foundation of rural livelihoods and rice production is the
majority crop for rural people. Flood in 2011 is the worst impact on rice production in the place
study is also another cause of blocked the development of Cambodia. Further adaptation strategy isstrongly needed for local people.
CONCLUSION
Flooding had caused the loss of many lives, impact of social welfare and damaged the public andhousehold's properties. Livestock and crops were also destroyed. Moreover, flooding not only
caused of economic impact, but also to social and environmental problems of the nation. The major
flooding event at the last twenty years worst flood in history in particularly study site was the flood
2011. Indeed, all respondents had evaluated there 2000, 2001, 2002 and 2011. The flood was themost negative impact on the rice and mixed crops productions. Particularly, the flood of 2011 had
bad impact to economic value of  farmer’s  rice  production,  which  consisted  of  total  average  yield  3.862   tones/ha   were  lost.  Rice   crop   was   the   main   source   of   farmer’s  consumption,   so  this   was  a  serious problem on their livelihoods. Around a half of respondents grow dry rice season instead.
Migration to another place becomes the popular way to generate more income. Low adaptation of
the farmers is another cause of worst impact especially on rice production. Therefore, the extent offlood’s  impact  on  rice  yields  of  farmers  is  the  main  consequence. In conclusion, flood in 2011 is
the worst impact on rice production in the place study. Moreover, it is the obstacles in poverty
alleviation program and in achieving the millennium development goals. Further adaptation
strategy is strongly needed for local people.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I wish to express my sincere thanks to Center for Agricultural and Environmental Studies for its
financial support and Faculty of Agricultural Economics and Rural Development of Royal
University of Agriculture for their generous provision of facilities to enable this research to be
carried out. Many thanks go to the farmers at the study sites. Special thanks go to the Lecture Chou
Phanith is appreciated while preparing this manuscript.
REFERENCES
Australian Center for International Agriculture Research (ACIAR). 2009. Developing option to mainstream
climate adaptation in to framing systems in Cambodia, Laos, Bangladesh and India. ACIAR, Camberra.
Cambodian Red Cross. 2003a. Summary of flood situation report. CRC, Phnom Penh.
Cambodian Red Cross. 2003b. Summary of flood situation report. CRC, Phnom Penh.
MoE and UNDP. 2011. The future of rural livelihoods in the face of climate change. The Cambodia Climate
Change Alliance. Phnome Penh.
MoE. 2002. Cambodia's initial national communication. MoE. Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
NCDM. 2012. Flood situation in 2011. NCDM, Phnom Penh.
NGO ESCRMC. 2002. Parallel report under international covenant on economic, social and cultural rights.
Food Security.
NCDM and MoP. 2008. Stratigic national action plan for disaster risk reduction. NCDM and MoP. Phnom
Penh.
Royal Gonvernment of Cambodia (RGC). 2010. Policy document on promotion of paddy rice prodution andexport of milled rice. Office of Council of Minister, Phnom Penh.

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Research article
erd

Dietary Exposure Assessment of Benzylpenicillin Residue inPork Consumed by Age and Gender Groups in thePhilippines
VENN VUTEY*
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Royal University of Agriculture, Cambodia
Email: vennvutey@gmail.com

LOINDA R. BALDIAS
College of Veterinary Medicine, University of the Philippines Los Baños, Philippines

BILLY P. DIVINA
College of Veterinary Medicine, University of the Philippines Los Baños, Philippines

RIO JOHN T. DUCUSIN
College of Veterinary Medicine, University of the Philippines Los Baños, Philippines
Received 16 December 2012

Accepted 30 January 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Exposure assessment is one of the most important key components of the risk
assessment process. Dietary intake of significant amounts of residue can lead to adverse
health effects and development of antimicrobial resistance in the population. The study
was conducted to determine exposure risk to antibiotic drug residues in pork consumed in
the Philippines. The specific aim was to estimate dietary exposure of Benzylpenicillin
residues by age and gender groups. Parameters such as food consumption, substances
residue, body weight, ages, and gender groups were gathered from local and international
institutions. Mathematical equations were used to calculate for Dietary Exposure fromamount of drug residue multiplied by the mean food consumption and adjusted by bodyweight. The present study; dietary exposure of Benzylpenicillin residue for children from 1
to <3 years old had the highest exposed followed by adolescents, adults and infants whilemales were significantly higher than females (p<0.05). This is the first attempt todetermine risk assessment of dietary exposure to antibiotic residue of different populationgroups in the Philippines. Improvement of mathematical models used in this study is
proposed to better prioritize exposure assessment models for veterinary drug residues toensure the safety of food produced from farm to table.
Keywords exposure assessment, drug residues, age-gender groups, consumption

INTRODUCTION
The use of risk assessment has gained steadily in importance and recognition as a scientificallybased approach for the development of food safety and quality standards. During recent years there
has  been  increasing  use  of  the  word  “risk”  in   connection with food safety (Sumner et al., 2004).
Consequently, a risk assessment of the food safety implications (Gehring et al., 2005) may be madeon the potential harm or risks of veterinary drug residues to the human consumer. The importanceof risk assessment lies not only in its ability to estimate human risk, but also in its use as aframework for organizing data, as well as for allocating responsibility for analysis. As suchaccording to World Health Organization (1995), it is important to understand that risk assessment
is a process that can include a variety of mathematical models to estimate risks. Risk assessments
also promote international trade by addressing new safety and quality challenges (Graf, 2005).
Exposure assessment is among the components of risk assessment (Codex Alimentarius
Commission, 1999). Dietary exposure to veterinary drugs occurs when residues remain in foodⒸ ISERD

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products derived from animals treated with a veterinary drug (Health Canada, 2003a). Dietary
exposure models have been developed to predict human exposures to chemicals resulting from theconsumption of contaminated food and residue levels and also for substances naturally occurring inthem   (Fryer,   2006).   In   2003b,   Health   Canada   primer   on   “Assessing   exposure   from   pesticides   infood”  indicated  that  risk  exposure  from  food  can  either  result  in  short-term (i.e., acute) or long term
(i.e., chronic) effects. In actual risk equations, it is possible that toxicity may be computed utilizing
the estimation of consumer intake of drug residues in foods of animal origin, hence, this study on
exposure assessment.
Thorough literature search revealed no available study on exposure assessment on veterinary
drug residues in the Philippines. With the increase in reports of occurrence of risk of veterinary
drug residues in foods of animal origin in the last two decades (Health Canada, 2003a; Sumner etal., 2004), there is a strong need to study exposure assessment of antibiotic residues. To date, there
is no local study conducted on the exposure risk assessment for residual antibiotics in thePhilippines.   Thus,   this   study   aims   to   make   a   “Dietary   Exposure   Assessment   of   Benzylpenicillin  Residues  in  Pork  Consumed  by  Age  and  Gender  Groups  in  the  Philippines”.
The overall objective of the study is to determine exposure risk to antibiotic drug residues inpork consumed in the Philippines. The specific aim is to estimate the dietary exposure of
Benzylpenicillin residues by ages and gender groups.
METHODOLOGY
The study was conducted using secondary data collected from local and international institutions
for estimating dietary exposure assessment. For instance, local data like the report on veterinary
drug residue (2003-2008) from National Meat Inspection Service, recommendation on Maximum
Residue Limit (MRL) published by Bureau of Aquaculture Fisheries and Product Standard, thereport of Food Consumption Survey in 2003 and Recommended Energy and Nutrient Intake in2002 published by Food and Nutrition Research Institute (FNRI, 2003), the development of
antimicrobial resistance from Research Institute for Tropical Medicine, Philippines. International
data came from Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) on amount of antibiotic drug residues, theprocedural guidelines on residues of veterinary drugs in food from JECFA, and from an updated
report of the 32nd session of the Codex Veterinary Drug Residues in Food 2009.
Dietary modelling combines food consumption data with food chemical concentration data toestimate dietary exposure to food chemicals, or intake of nutrients. The Eq. (1) below, the basic
dietary exposure model is of the form:
Dietary Exposure

Food Consumption u Amount of drug residure
Body weight(1)

where food consumption is the amount of food people eating per capita per day expressed in
mg/kg/day and amount of drug residue expressed in µg/kg BW/day.

RESULTSThe benzylpenicillin antibiotic have been test for consecutive years from 2006 to 2008 in thePhilippines. The number of violations was determined using Microbial Inhibition Test and wasmeasured using caliper method (NMIS, 2008). Positive benzylpenicillin residue results in NMIS
were assumed to equivalent to HPLC LOQ 400 µg/kg (Heitzman, 1995) and dietary exposure wascalculated using the following equation (3) which regarded computed using equation (2).
Eq. (2) the Mean Food Consumption Difference Age Groups is as follows;
The mean food consumption difference age groups =average weight difference age groups × the mean food consumption per capita in the Philippines
average weightsⒸ ISERD

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Eq. 3 Dietary Exposure of Benzylpenicillin Residue is as follows;
DEPEN =
amount of benzylpenicillin residues of 3% positive results × mean food consumption difference age groups
average weights differences age groups(3)

Based on an update as of the 32nd session of the Codex Alimentarius Commission in 2009 firstdraft prepared by Dr. Macneil, a typical recommended dose by intramuscular injection (IM) in
swine, cattle, horses, and sheep of a 300,000 unit/mL formulation is 6,600 units/mL BW. As a feed
additive, a typical dosage for swine or poultry is 55 mg/kg in the diet. Intramammary treatment istypically by administration of 100,000 units per quarter. In the studies reported, 1 mg procaine
benzylpenicillin is equivalent to 1667 IU (international units).
As at 50th report of JECFA in 1999, the Committee considered residues of procaine
benzylpenicillin to be equivalent to residues of benzylpenicillin. Dietary Exposure (DE) was
calculated using equation (1) following the mean one-day per capita food consumption in thePhilippines and by island groups, food groups and adjusted 55-kg person. The DE ofBenzylpenicillin Residue was calculated by the amount of benzylpenicillin of 3% positive results
multiplied the food consumption difference age groups and adjusted by average weight difference
age groups.
Table 1 shows that DE of benzylpenicillin residue for children from 1 to 3 years old had thehighest value at 0.002923 µg/kg bw/day. Such value was calculated as 5 µg/kg of amount residues
× mean one-day per capita pork consumption of 0.0076 kg ÷ 13 kg of average children weights.
Likewise, average DE for children (0.002913 µg/kg bw/day) was higher than adolescents(0.0029096 µg/kg bw/day), followed by adults (0.002909 µg/kg bw/day) and infants (0.002903µg/kg bw/day). Also, DE for males was significantly lower than females (p-value=0.034).
Table 1 Dietary exposure of benzylpenicillin residue of 3% of positive results intake of fresh
pork in the Philippines
Age Groups
1.
2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Infants, month
Birth- <6 (3)
6-<12 (9)Children, year
1-3 (2.5)
4-6 (5.5)
7-9 (8.5)
Adolescents, M, year
10-12 (11.5)
13-15 (14.5)
16-18 (17.5)
Adolescents, F, year
10-12 (11.5)
13-15 (14.5)
16-18 (17.5)
Adults, M, year
19-49
50-64
65 and over
Adults, F, year
19-49
50-64
65 and overAverage
Weight(kg)

AmountResidue(µg/kg)6
95

Mean One-Day
Per Capita Pork
Consumption (g)Dietary
Exposure (µg/kg bw/day)

3.5
5.2

0.002917
0.002889

13
19
24

5

7.6
11.1
13.9

0.002923
0.002921
0.002896

34
50
58

5

19.8
29.1
33.7

0.002911
0.002910
0.002905

35
49
50

5

20.4
28.5
29.1

0.002914
0.002908
0.002910

59
59
59

5

34.3
34.3
34.3

0.002907
0.002907
0.002907

51
51
51

5

29.7
29.7
29.7

0.002911
0.002911
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DISCUSSION
To determine the risk of dietary exposure of DEPEN residue using mathematical model gives anestimate of the risk of having toxicity among the populations. In the present study is a first step indetermining the most important fields for generation new data to estimate more accurately the
proportion of the population at risk of toxicity and development of antimicrobial resistance due to agiven the amount of antibiotic residue of dietary intake in pork consumption.
Exposure was calculated for the populations in the Philippines based on the consumption percapita (as a major factor), followed by the amount substance residue and body weight. For instance,
Steve (2009) and Kroes et al., (2002) where dietary exposure assessments have been taken, relevant
food consumption data have been utilized. E.g., Ock and Hee (2002) reported estimation of dietary
pesticide risks, following the setting up of food consumption and pesticide residue levels in thecalculation of toxicological risk. E.g., assessment on dietary melamine exposure based on the
maximum consumption of melamine and the median levels of melamine detected in the mostcontaminated food (Xu et al., 2009). This dietary modeling combines food consumption data withfood residue concentration data to estimate dietary exposure level to contaminants heavy metal(Haeng et al., 2005).
The present study found that DEPEN residue for children from 1 to 3 years old is the highest
exposed followed by adolescents, adults and infants whilst males are significant for females in thePhilippines. For instance, Kroes et al., (2002) reviewed on children, because of its higher foodconsumption rates per kg bw, is generally expected to have a higher exposure level and is therefore
higher risk of the population. In this respect, children may be of special interest because of theirhigher intake level per kg bw due to growth processes (Kroes et al., 2002). A similar study on
dietary exposure of children and teenagers to benzoates, sulphites, butylhydroxyanisol andbutylhydroxytouen found that between 2 groups of students the younger subjects are more exposed
when the exposure is expressed in kg of bw (p<0.01) (Soubra et al., 2006). Another possible
example was conducted on cumulative risk assessment of the exposure to organophosphorus andcarbamate insecticide in the Dutch diet by Boon et al., (2008). For children the exposure (57 vs. 25µg/kg BW/day) was higher than the total population (18 vs. 23 µg/kg BW/day). The resulting in
exposure levels equal to 11% and 25% of the acute reference dose for the total population andyoung children respectively. Another similar study, Caldas et al., (2006) found that children
exposure to acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition pesticides is also of additional concern, as thispopulation might be more sensitive to these compounds than adults. For children, the exposures
were, on average, 2.4 times higher than the exposure found for the general population. Since thedetermination of dietary exposure to antibiotic residues in the present study shows no zero risk, i.e.,there is a risk for possible adverse effects on the population. Another concern for use of antibiotics
in agriculture and aquaculture is the risk for development of antimicrobial resistance. Currently, anantimicrobial resistance surveillance reference laboratory has been prepared with 435 isolates by
the Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance Program of Research Institute for Tropical Medicine. It
is clear that the percentage of penicillin resistance is 25% Salmonella sp. (RITM, 2009).
CONCLUSION
Based on the finding of the present study, dietary exposure of benzylpenicillin have been detectedin pork which children from 1 to 3 years old is more exposed and more risk, because of their higher
food consumption rates per kg body weight, is generally expected to have a higher exposure level
due to physical activity.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
My special thanks go to Veterinary Drug Residue Section (NMIS-DA). I am thankful to
Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance Program Team (RITM) and National Epidemiology CentreⒸ ISERD

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and I also wish to thank for Food of Nutrition Research Institute Team in the Department ofAgriculture, Department of Health in the Philippines.
REFERENCES
Boon, P.E., Van der Voet, H., Van Raaij, M.T. and Van Klaveren, J.D. 2008. Cumulative risk assessment of
the exposure to organophosphorus and carbamate insecticide in the Dutch diet. Food and Chemical
Toxicology, 46 (2008), 3090-3098.
Caldas, E.D., Boon, P.E. and Tressou, J. 2006. Probabilistic assessment of the cumulative acute exposure toorganophosphorus and carbamate insecticide in the Brazilian diet. Toxicology, 222 (2006), 132-142.
Codex Alimentarius Commission. 1999. Procedural manual, tenth edition, Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards
Programme, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1997. Definitions for "riskmanagement" and "risk communication" were adopted as revised texts at the Twenty-third Session of
the Codex Alimentarius Commission, July 1999.
FNRI. 2003. Food consumption survey. Food and Nutrition Research Institute. Philippines.
Fryer, M., Chris, C., Ferrier, H., Colvile, R. and Nieuwenhuijsen, M. 2006. Human exposure modelling forchemical risk assessment: a review of current approaches and research and policy implications.
Environmental science and policy, 9 (2006), 261-274.
Gehring, R., Bayaes, R. and Riviere, J. 2005. Application of risk assessment and management principles tothe extra label use of drugs in food-producing animals. College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina
State University, Raleigh, N.C., U.S.A.
Graf, L. 2005. Introduction to chemical risks in food. Chemical Risk Analysis. Food Standard Australia and
New Zealand.
Lee, H. S. Cho, Y.H., Park, S.O., Kye, S.H., Kim, B.H., Hahm, T.S., Kim, M., Lee, J.O. and Kim, C. 2005.
Dietary exposure of the Korean population to arsenic, cadmium, lead and mercury. Journal of Food
Composition and Analysis, 19 (2006) , S31-S37.
Health Canada. 2003a. Setting standards for maximum residue limits (MRLs) of veterinary drugs used infood-producing animals. Health Canada. Ontario, Canada.
Health Canada. 2003b. Assessing exposure from pesticides in food. Pest Management Regulatory Agency.
Health Canada. Ontario, Canada.
Kroes, R., Muller, D., Lambe, J., Lowik, M., van Klaveren, J., Kleiner, J., Massey, R., Mayer, S., Urieta, I.,
Verger, P. and Visconti, A. 2002. Assessment of intake from the diet. Food and Chemical Toxicology,
40 (2002), 327-385.
NMIS. 2008. Veterinary drug residue monitoring program. Veterinary Drug Residue Section, Laboratory
Services Division. NMIS. DA.
Ock Kyoung Chum and Hee Gon Kang. 2002. Estimation of risks of pesticide exposure, by food intake, toKoreans. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 41 (2003), 1063-1076.
RITM, 2009. The report on antimicrobial resistant surveillance program. Research Institute for Tropical
Medicine. Philippines.
Sumner, J., Ross, T. and Ababouch, L. 2004. Application of risk assessment in the fish industry. Fisheries
technical paper 442. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation. Rome, Italy.
Soubra, L., Sarkis, D., Hilan, C. and Verger, Ph. 2006. Dietary exposure of children and teenagers tobenzoates, sulphites, buthylhydroxyanisol (BHA) ad buthylhydroxytoluen (BHT) in Beirut (Lebanon).
Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 47 (2007), 68-77.
WHO, 1995. Application of risk analysis to food standards issues. WHO/FNU/FOS/95.3, World HealthOrganization, Geneva, Switzerland.

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Research article
erd

I
The Difference of AgriculturalLand Use in Watersheds and7d the River Water Quality
Long Term Fluctuation onent

YURI YAMAZAKI

4
Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary
Medicine, Hokkaido, JapanTOSHIMI MUNEOKA*.
7
2

Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, Japanw
Email: muneoka@obihiro.ac.jpor
SACHIYO WAKOUd
Ibaraki Prefectural Government, Ibaraki, Japans

MOTOKO SHIMURA
National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Hiroshima, JapanKUNIHIKO YOSHINO
Faculty of Engineering, Information and Systems Division of Policy and Planning Sciences,
University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki, JapanOSAMU TSUJI
Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, JapanTOSHIO TABUCHI
Former professor of the University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
Received 15 December 2012

Accepted 30 January 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract This study was conducted to determine the relationship between thecharacteristics of fluctuations in river water quality at the normal water level and the
proportion of agricultural land in watersheds of Eastern Hokkaido that have different
agricultural land use, based on the 20 years observations. The investigations were carriedout during late August to early September in 1992, 2003 to 2006, and 2012 at 35
watersheds in two areas, and NO3-N, EC of river water and river discharge were measured.
The Tokachi area (24 watersheds) is located in the northwestern part of the Tokachi
General Subprefectural Bureau, the main land uses are upland and dairy farming. The
Nemuro area (11 watersheds) is located in the western part of the Nemuro Subprefectural
Bureau, the main land use is large-scale dairy farming. In the 20 years since 1992, NO3-N
concentration and EC have shown increasing tendency in some of the investigated riverwatersheds. The river water quality in some watersheds investigated in 2004, immediately
before the full implementation of “The Law on   Animal   Waste   Regulation”, greatly
differed from the observation results of several years before and after 2004. When the twoareas had the same proportion of agricultural land, the NO3-N concentration in the riverwater tended to be higher in Tokachi area than in Nemuro area. This is attributed to the
proportion of upland fields, which require large inputs of chemical fertilizer in the Tokachiarea. EC, however, tended to be high in the Nemuro area, even for watersheds with similar
proportion of agricultural land. This suggests that the river water in the Nemuro area
contains many materials of geological origin, in addition to containing NO3−.
Keywords NO3-N concentration, EC value, agricultural land use, long-term fluctuationⒸ ISERD

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INTRODUCTION
Large-scale farming under harsh climatic conditions has long prospered in Eastern Hokkaido,
whose natural environment differs from those of other Asian monsoons regions. In recent years,
water contamination including nitrate pollution of river water and groundwater has been pointedout (Tabuchi et al., 1995; Matsumoto and Tou, 2006).
In the Tokachi district, large-scale upland and dairy farming were established early years
before World War II. In the Kushiro and Nemuro districts, however, agricultural land has expanded
only   since   the   1960’s,   with the large-scale reclamation of wilderness to grassland. As the landdevelopment expands, the varieties of cultivated crops have been reduced and agricultural land use
has been unified for grassland. Several studies have conducted to determine the influence of thedrastic land use changes on the river water quality there  since  the  1990’s (Kuramochi et al., 1994;
Nagasawa et al., 1995; Inoue et al., 1999; Muneoka et al., 2001). In the Tokachi district, however,studies on agricultural land use and river water quality have only just begun (Okazawa et al., 2011;
Muneoka et al., 2012).
Tabuchi et al., (1995) conducted investigations of the river water quality at the normal waterlevel in watersheds of an extensive area of Eastern Hokkaido in the summer of 1992. They had
shown that there was a positive correlation between the nitrate nitrogen concentration in river waterand the extent of agricultural land use in each investigated area. Based on this study, the authors
have conducted investigations in the Tokachi and Nemuro areas during the same periods at normal
water level. There has been no similar research anywhere in which to weigh the river water quality
in two large areas with the different agricultural land use over a long period.
Thus, the objective of this study was to evaluate the impact from the different agricultural land
use of watersheds on the river water quality at the normal water level, based on a 20-year
observation.
METHODOLOGY
The outline of this study sites are shown in Fig. 1. The Tokachi area, which consists of 24
watersheds on the Tokachi River system and the Shikaribetsu River system (No. 1 to 24), is locatedin the northwestern part of the Tokachi General Subprefectural Bureau, and it is an area withupland and dairy farming. The Nemuro area, which consists of 11 watersheds on the Shibetsu Riversystem, the Tokotan River system and the Nishibetsu River system (A to K), is located in thewestern part of the Nemuro Subprefectural Bureau, and it is an area mainly of dairy farming. In
both of these areas, large-scale farming has been operated, and there have been no considerable
changes in agricultural land use in either area since 1985.
For the years 1981 to 2010, the annual mean air temperature and the yearly precipitation were
5.9 ℃ and 840.7 mm at Komaba in the Tokachi area, and 5.4 ℃ and 1158.0 mm at Nakashibetsu in
the vicinity of the Nemuro area. Both areas have a relatively cold climate with less rainfall.
The investigation of the river water quality was conducted at the normal water level at 35
sampling points. Electric conductivity (EC) and water temperature were measured at sampling
points. And discharge was also measured on the rivers in small watersheds (varied between 22 and25 by year). The indices and the methods used for water quality analysis varied with each year,
nitrate nitrogen (NO3-N) concentration and EC as indices in this study. The investigations werecarried out during late August to early September in 1992, 2003 to 2006, and 2012.
The GIS software application ArcGIS Desktop (Ver. 10, ESRI) was used for analyzing landuse  in  the  study  sites.  The  data  were  “rivers”,  ”watershed boundaries”  and “detailed land use mesh”
from digital national information that used to determine the proportion of agricultural land inwatersheds. The detailed land use mesh (100 m × 100 m) shows 11 types of land uses; however, we
redefined the mesh into the three items of “agricultural  land”, “forest” and “other”. The proportionof agricultural land was determined for each watershed by overlaying the watershed map created
for the sampling points on the detailed land use mesh.

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Sampling
River name
Point

N

Bridge nameArea
Land use ( %)(km2 ) Agricultural land Forest

Tokachi area

Hokkaido

Nemuro Area

Tokachi Area
Shibetsu River

Tokotan River

Shikaribesu River
Tokachi River

Nishibetsu River
Agricultural land
ForestOther
River
Sampling point

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24

TokachiOojika632
PenkenaiPennai23
Penkenikorbetsu Penkenikorobetsu
48
Penkenikoro
Minamiiwamatsu
72
TokachiNakajima
1798
Shikaribetsu
Urimaku
217
Sikanosawa
Kikuchi5Kamihoronai
Kamihoronai
3
Shikaribetsu
Momiji256
Minami1sen
Nakashikakann2gou 13
Iketo
Minamisawa
9
Pankebibaushi Kousui
27
Urimaku( no bridge )9Poronai( no bridge )3
Urimaku
Mutsu
49
Penkeutorei
Honnmaki
3
Pankeutorei( no name )5Pankeutorei
Komadome
17
Penkechin
Okuyama26
Ponchin
Kamimaki
13
Penkechin
Isami
63
Pankechin
Sinnei10
PankechinTaneuma
72
Shikaribetu
Kunimi
667

1
0
2
2
21
4
83
88
13
72
95
90
13
90
58
88
93
65
22
75
46
52
72
48

94
98
96
97
70
91
13
12
81
17
2
7
66
7
32
11
6
25
49
18
33
32
15
45

4
7
32
3
22
32
49
81
10
54
73

71
81
57
91
72
64
46
14
60
32
21

Nemuro area
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K

Kanjiushi
KenekaKenekaShibetsu
Shibetsu
Masu
Masu
TokotanNishibetsu
Nishibetsu
Pononnebetsu

Yourouushi
MinoriHakuyou
Nagori
Kamisibetu
Masukawa
Kenebetsu
Houtoku
Kousai
Nishisyunnbetsu
Akashi

11
41
82
54
82
10
28
12
19
149
19

Fig. 1 Outline of the Tokachi and Nemuro areas
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The characteristics of long-term fluctuations at the 35 locations in the two areas, which areindicated by using the NO3-N concentration and the EC of the river water as indices, are shown in
Fig. 2.
The NO3-N concentration in 1992 were <0.1 to 3.9 mg/L for Tokachi area and <0.1 to 2.0
mg/L for Nemuro area. In and after 2003, a tendency of year-on-year increase in the maximum
value of NO3-N concentration was observed for both areas. The maximum NO3-N concentration
was 7.2 mg/L in Tokachi area and 2.6 mg/L in Nemuro area.
The tendency of increase in NO3-N concentration was noticeable at four sampling points inTokachi area (No. 10, 11, 12 and 17) and at three sampling points in Nemuro area (G, H and K).
These seven points were distinctive that they were small watersheds of 5 to 28 km2 in area and they
had high proportions of agricultural land (49 to 95%). It is worth noting that the NO3-N
concentration showed drastic decreases in 2004 at six points (No. 7, 8, 14, 15, 23 and 24) inTokachi area and at three points (C, G and J) in Nemuro area, irrespective of the watershed size andthe proportion of agricultural land (Fig.2 (a), (b)).
The EC in the two areas in 1992 were 5.1 to 23.3 mS/m in Tokachi area and 5.8 to 18.6 mS/min Nemuro area. However, the maximum values of EC tended to show slight increases in both areasin the 20-year period. The maximum EC was 26.8 mS/m in Tokachi area and 20.4 mS/m in
Nemuro area for the period from 2003 to 2012. EC showed drastic increases at one point (No. 8) inTokachi area and at three points (D, E and G) in Nemuro area in 2004 (Fig.2 (c), (d)).
Based on these data, it can be assumed that the fluctuations in river water quality, which areindicated by the decrease in NO3-N and the increase in EC in 2004, reflect the changes in the
behavior of farmers, including the management of livestock manure, that resulted from the full
implementation of “The Law on  Animal  Waste  Regulation” in November 2004.

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8.0

2

4.0

2'
3

(b) Nemuro area(a) Tokachi area

3'
4

NO3-N (mg/L)

NO3-N (mg/L)

6.0

4.0

2.0

4'

3.0

5
5'
6
6'

2.0

7
7'
8
8'
9

1.0

9'
10
10'

0.0

11

0.0
1992

2003

2004

2005

2006

2012

11'

1992

2003

2004

Investigated year

2005

2006

2012

Investigated year

12
12'
13
13'
14

Tendency of increase

14'

Drastic decreases in 2004

15
15'
16

30.0

16'

30.0
(c) Tokachi area

1717'(d) Nemuro area

18
18'

20.0

EC (mS/m)

EC (mS/m)

19

10.0

19'

20.0

20
20'
21
21'
22
22'

10.0

23
23'
24
24'

0.0

0.0
1992

2003

2004

2005

2006

2012

1992

Investigated year

2003

2004

2005

2006

2012

Investigated year
Drastic increases in 2004

Fig. 2 Long-term fluctuation on the NO3-N concentration and the EC of the river waterin the Tokachi and Nemuro areas
Fig. 3 shows the regression lines and the results of calculation for the coefficients ofcorrelation r, which indicate the relationship between the NO3-N concentration of the river waterand the proportion of agricultural land and that between the EC of the river water and the
proportion of agricultural land in watersheds at the two areas.
From the relationship between the NO3-N concentration (Y) and the proportion of agriculturalland (X) in the watershed is expressed as Y = a X. The slopes “a”,  which  indicates impact factor(IF) values, were 0.030 to 0.055 in Tokachi area and 0.020 to 0.031 in Nemuro area during theperiod. When two watersheds, one from the Tokachi area and the other from Nemuro area, that had
similar proportions of agricultural land were compared, the NO3-N concentration in the river water
tended to be higher in Tokachi area. In the Tokachi area, land use was for dairy farming and thefarming of various upland crops. In addition to livestock manure, the loading source includes
chemical fertilizers that were applied in large quantities to the upland fields. It is assumed that theuse of chemical fertilizers contributed to the higher concentration of nitrogen in river water.
From the relationship between the EC of the river water (Y) and the proportion of agriculturalland (X) in the watershed is expressed as Y = a` X + b`. The slopes “a`” were 0.102 to 0.150 inTokachi area and 0.119 to 0.149 in Nemuro area during the period. The intercepts “b`” of the areas
were 6.11 to 6.65 for Tokachi area and 6.81 to 8.78 for Nemuro area. As shown above, when thewatersheds in Tokachi area had the same proportion of agricultural land as that in the Nemuro area,Ⓒ ISERD

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the EC of the river water tended to be higher in Nemuro area. It is assumed that the river water in
the Nemuro area contains considerable amount of dissolved ions derived from geologic material, in
addition to the nitrate ions (NO3-) from farmland.
When the coefficient of correlation r was examined by using NO3-N concentration as theindex, r for Tokachi area was 0.65※※ to 0.89※※, and r for the Nemuro area was 0.85※※ to 0.97※※.
When EC was used as the index, r for Tokachi area was 0.70※※ to 0.82※※ and r for Nemuro area
was 0.77※※to 0.89※※. As described above, r for Nemuro area was constantly higher during theperiod. A factor contributing to this result could be that the agricultural land in Nemuro area isunified into grassland, whereas the agricultural land uses in Tokachi area are more diverse.
30.0(a) NO3-N (2012)

6.0
4.0

EC (mS/m)

NO3-N (mg/L)

8.0

Y = 0.049 X
r = 0.84 ※※20.0(b) EC (2012)

Y = 0.134 X + 7.88
r = 0.86 ※※

10.0

2.0

Y = 0.132 X + 6.65
r = 0.75 ※※Y = 0.029 X
r = 0.97 ※※

0.0
0

0.0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Proportion of agricultural land (%)

20
40
60
80
100
Proportion of agricultural land (%)

Tokachi area
NO3-N (mg/L) [ Y = a X ]Investigatedyear

Nemuro area

EC (mS/m) [ Y = a` X + b` ]Tokachi areaar

Nemuro area
a
r

1992

0.031

0.88 ※※

0.020

0.85 ※※

0.111

6.29 0.76 ※※0.127

7.09 0.86 ※※

2003

0.036

0.84 ※※

0.022

0.96 ※※

0.102

6.39 0.70 ※※0.124

6.81 0.88 ※※

2004

0.030

0.65

※※

0.022

0.93

※※

0.133

6.63 0.77

※※

0.119

8.78 0.77 ※※

2005

0.051

0.89 ※※

0.024

0.95 ※※

0.150

6.11 0.80 ※※

0.132

7.73 0.84 ※※

2006

0.055

0.89 ※※

0.031

0.96 ※※

0.148

6.28 0.82 ※※0.149

6.85 0.89 ※※

2012

0.049

0.84 ※※

0.029

0.97 ※※

0.132

6.65 0.75 ※※

0.134

7.88 0.86 ※※ (a), (b)a`Tokachi area
b`
r

a`

Nemuro area
b`
r

N.B

significance of 1%※※

Fig. 3 Relationship between the NO3-N, the EC of the river water and the proportionof agricultural land in watersheds at the Tokachi and Nemuro areas
CONCLUSION
Fluctuations in river water quality at the normal water level were investigated during a period of 20
years at 35 sampling points in two areas in Eastern Hokkaido, with a focus on the differences inagricultural land use between the watersheds. This study evaluated that, in the Tokachi area,
upland-field-derived NO3-N constantly flowed into the rivers in high concentrations at the normal
water level. As a result of the long-term observation, the concentration of river water quality hasn’t  drastically decreased in spite of the full implementation of “The Law on  Animal  Waste  Regulation”
in November 2004. Toward improving the river water quality in extensive agricultural areas fromthe standpoint of conserving the water environment, it is necessary to evaluate and review the
management of livestock manure by individual farms as well as examining the relative positions offarmland and rivers and the land in between these.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to express my gratitude to the staffs, the University of Tokyo. The authors are also
grateful for the research assistance provided by the students, the University of Tokyo and Obihiro
University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine.
REFERENCES
Inoue, T., Yamamoto, T. and Nagasawa, T. 1999. River water quality and landuse of watersheds inHamanaka, eastern Hokkaido, Japan. Trans. of JSIDRE, 200, 85-92. (in Japanese with English abstract)
Kuramochi, K., Nagata, O. and Sakuma, T. 1994. Nitrogen and phosphorus contamination of ground waterand drainage water in the grassland area - A case study in Konsen upland I -. Jpn. J. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr.,
65, 522-529. (in Japanese with English abstract)
Matsumoto, T. and Tou, S. 2006. Risk assessment of nitrate pollution in groundwater based on theenvironmental nitrogen-assimilation capacity of agricultural lands in Hokkaido. Jpn. J. Soil Sci. Plant
Nutr., 77, 17-24. (in Japanese with English abstract)
Muneoka, T., Okazawa, H., Tsuji, O. and Kimura, M. 2012. The nitrate nitrogen concentration in river waterand the proportion of cropland in the Tokachi River watershed. IJERD, 3-2, 193-199.
Muneoka, T., Tsuji, O. and Tsuchiya, F. 2001. Landuse and river water quality in dairy farming area of
eastern Hokkaido. GGAA, 2001, 453-456.
Nagasawa, T., Inoue, T., Umeda, Y. and Muneoka, T. 1995. River water quality of daily farming area ineastern Hokkaido, Japan. J. Japan Soc. Hydrol. and Water Resour., 8-3, 267-274. (in Japanese withEnglish abstract)
Okazawa, H., Muneoka, T., Kudo, Y. and Takeuchi, Y. 2011. Effect of land use agglomeration on nitrogenconcentrations in river water in the Tokachi River. IJERD, 2-1, 37-42.
Tabuchi, T., Yoshino, K., Shimura, M., Kuroda, S., Ishikawa, M. and Yamaji, E. 1995. Relation between
land use and nitrate concentration of outflow water from watersheds of agricultural and forest area,
Japan. Trans. of JSIDRE, 178, 129-135. (in Japanese with English abstract)Ⓒ ISERD

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Research article
erd

E-Learning Solution on Good Agricultural Practices (GAP)for Students of Higher Learning in Cambodia (Focus
Vegetables)
ARUNA RAJENDRAM*
Malaysian Institute of Information Technology, University Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Email: arunarajendram@miit.unikl.edu.my

SHANMUGA VIVEKANADA NADARAJAN
Malaysian Institute of Information Technology, University Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

DAHLAN ABDUL GHANI
Malaysian Institute of Information Technology, University Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

LOR LYTOUR
Graduate School, Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Received 21 December 2012

Accepted 27 March 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Food security is one of the critical development issues faced by several
developing countries. One avenue of yielding quality crops is by ensuring that good
agricultural practices are followed throughout the entire farming cycle. This research
focuses on educating students of higher learning on good agricultural practices associatedwith growing vegetables. Research target are students who are currently pursuing tertiary
education in the field of agronomy and agroindustry, as it is expected that upon graduation,
they will represent the frontlines of various agricultural concerns. As such, students form
the basis for sustainable education as they can replicate knowledge gained and impact
farmers on good agricultural practices through proper education, as well as enforcement.
For the purpose of this research, students from Royal University of Agriculture, Cambodia
are identified as participants. The electronic learning method (e-Learning) is deployed to
expose students to new mechanisms of teaching and learning, as well as to encourage
students to be more active in independent studying. As teaching material, interactive
multimedia videos canvassing the general farming guidelines, production and post harvest
practices pertaining to the cultivation of vegetables are produced and distributed to
students through workshops. A web portal is also developed to form an online communityof students and promote interaction through forums, live chats, news updates and social
networking platforms.
Keywords good agricultural practices, e-learning, sustainable education, safe vegetables

INTRODUCTION
Food security remains as one of the critical development areas faced by many developing countries
all over the world. Food security   is  said   to   be   a   country’s   capacity   to   provide  and   ensure   people  have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietaryneeds and food preferences for an active and healthy life. Reduced and inadequate food supply
versus  increasing  demand  from  a  growing  population  is  the  simple  imbalanced  equation  to  today’s  global issue of food shortage, with developing countries worst hit in spite of agriculture
contributing a rather significant percentage to their respective GDPs.
While there are many undergoing efforts and research to improve agricultural produce,
effective educational efforts at grass root levels is necessary to ensure the success of these
improvement efforts. One of the measures to improve food security is by adhering to goodⒸ ISERD

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agricultural practices or commonly known as GAP. GAP involves taking all possible procedures
recommended before, during and after the growing period to ensure that optimum quality andquantity of yield can be produced. The procedures cover a wide spectrum of farming activities,
ranging from soil management, irrigation and fertilization to harvesting as well as packaging andstorage.
There are several benefits of implementing GAP as highlighted by the Caribbean Agricultural
Research and Development Institute (CARDI) and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO):
x The appropriate adoption and monitoring of GAP helps improve the safety and quality offood and other agricultural productsx By improving the quality and quantity of yield, farmers are able to increase their income
and living conditions. In the long run, poverty levels can be reduced
x It may help reduce the risk of non-compliance with national and international regulations,standards and guidelines, regarding permitted pesticides, maximum levels of contaminants
in food and non-food agricultural products
x Adoption of GAP helps promote sustainable agriculture by preserving the environment (nocontamination of water and soil)
Good agricultural practices is a very wide field and its application differs depending on the type ofcrop. For the purpose of this project, vegetables are selected as the focus area because they areeasily susceptible to diseases which either damage the crop or render it unsafe for consumption. As
such, complying with GAP for this type of crop is crucial.
Case Study: Cambodia
The Kingdom of Cambodia, is a developing country located at the southern section of Indochina inSoutheast Asia. From its population of 11.5 million people, 84% are working in the agriculture
sector.   Cambodia’s   main   produce   include   rice,   cereal   grains,   vegetables,   fresh   fruits   and   sea  products.
For the purpose of this project, Cambodia has been chosen as the country of study due to its
deep involvement in agriculture activities. Additionally, University Kuala Lumpur (UniKL) andRoyal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh (RUA) have been collaboration partners on various
projects pertaining to Information Technology and student exchange programmes. For thesereasons and familiarity, both universities are collaborating on this project to develop e-Learningmaterials for students of RUA to educate them on GAP.
PROJECT BACKGROUND
Education on GAP has been implemented in developing countries for many years. The traditional
approach (for developing countries) has been top-down, where agencies involved in formulating
the practices train extension staff, and the latter is deployed to agricultural farms to educate farmers.
Methods of teaching could be verbal, written literature and demonstrations. Literature suggests thatwith this traditional approach of educating farmers from some developing countries such as
Cambodia have some limitations and the results of growing by adhering to GAP procedures takes along time. This may be due to several challenges, such as the ones mentioned as follows.
Poor lteracy levels
In Cambodia, 77% of adults either have no education or only have primary school level education.
In fact, 47% did not even have the opportunity to complete primary education (www.
cambcomm.org.uk). As GAP generally involves specific procedures, measurements andinstructions, one would require written manuals for reference. However, with low literacy levels,
farmers in developing countries such as Cambodia may have difficulty reading and following allpractices outlined.
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Lack of expertise to monitor farmers
Implementing and complying with GAP procedures on a day-to-day basis is not an easy feat as
there  are  many  different  guidelines  to  follow  at  different  stages  of  a  crop’s  growth  cycle.  GAP  is  the result of much scientific research and development activities performed by agricultural experts
to continuously improve the quality and quantity of yield. Nevertheless, actual execution is at farmlevel and in the hands of the farmers. Sufficient specialists from agricultural ministries andagencies trained in GAP must be deployed to provinces and farms to not only educate farmers, but
be available to provide hands-on assistance and monitor the cultivation activities of the farmers.
Difficulty in reaching farmers
Most farms and farmers are wide spread all across Cambodia and physically reaching out andcommunicating with them can be a challenge. In 2010, based on the ASEANGAP, the Ministry ofAgriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of Cambodia issued Proclamation No. 099 MAFF on GAP inthe  Production  of  Fresh  Fruit  and  Vegetables.  However,  until  today,  it’s  unclear  how  many  farmers  have heard of this initiative and implemented it. More manpower and effort is required to not only
reach the farmers, but constant follow up is required to ascertain that they follow the GAP
guidelines.
Farmers’  reluctance to change
Very often, farming is a livelihood inherited from one generation to another and over thegenerations, farmers are accustomed to their legacy farming habits which may not be the best
approach  in  today’s  conditions  due  to  changes  in  agricultural  inputs,  climate  and  land  conditions.  
GAP will help farmers deal with these changes and perform farming in a more contemporary way.
However, because these farmers are acclimatized to ancient farming habits, they may not be willingto learn the latest farming methodologies.
Educating students of higher learning on good agricultural practices
Instead of directly coaching farmers at ground level, this project focuses on educating students ofhigher learning on good agricultural practices associated with growing vegetables. The projecttargets students who are currently pursuing tertiary education in the field of agronomy andagroindustry for two reasons. Firstly, upon graduation, these students will be attached to various
agricultural agencies and they can be sent out to the ground level to train and monitor farmers
closely on the implementation of GAP. Secondly, these graduates can be empowered as
enforcement officers. After a period of learning, the Ministry of Agriculture can impose regulations
to compel farmers to adhere to GAP procedures. Subsequently the enforcement officers (who havebeen educated on GAP since tertiary studies) can supervise farms and farmers under theirjurisdiction to ensure GAP-based regulations are followed.
SOLUTION: e-LEARNING FOR AGRICULTURAL STUDENTS
Aside from contriving an alternative approach to strengthen GAP implementation efforts in
Cambodia that is to expose university students to good agricultural practices, the purpose of thisproject is to expose these students to new mechanisms of teaching and learning via e-Learning andassess their acceptance of such teaching and learning systems.
E-learning is referred to as instructional content or learning experience which is delivered
through electronic technologies. Delivery methods can be as advanced as satellite broadcast orinteractive TV or even more practical such as through the Internet or CD-ROMs. E-learningmodels for higher learning were initially introduced to facilitate distance learning to allowⒸ ISERD

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individuals in remote areas to gain access to higher education. However, in present times, eLearning has been manipulated to inject variety in teaching as well as to expose students to
independent studying.
According to Abdon, Ninomiya and Raab, e-Learning is increasingly being adopted indeveloped countries, however, it is still relatively unknown and unused as an educational approachin developing countries. e-Learning is emerging as the next explosion in teaching and learning forsome of these reasons:x Portability – students are not confined to the classroom to learn, instead by just owning a
PC or a laptop, they can learn anytime, anywhere or even while on-the-go.
x Improves comprehension – e-Learning content can be developed with rich videos, graphics
and  audio  elements  and  this  improves  a  student’s  ability  to  understand.  
x Consistent – An unavoidable weakness of humans is inconsistency. With e-Learning,
content is standardized and regardless the number of students, everyone receives the same
information in the same manner.
x Flexibility – Students are able to learn at their own pace and not at the pace of the fastest or
slowest learner in class. They can spend more time on topics they are weak in or even skip
topics which are known or not required.
Components and methodology
The e-Learning solution developed will comprise of two components – web portal and multimedia
interactive CD. Figure 1 gives the framework summary of this solution. As this project focuses on
GAP pertaining to the cultivation of vegetables, the entire e-Learning solution will cover thefollowing categories and modules.
Web portal
The web portal is being developed using Joomla Content Management System (CMS), a free andopen source CMS for publishing various content. Joomla is written in PHP and supports MySQL
database. Joomla is selected as it has a variety of web templates available for selection. Various
content, from text, photos, music, video and documents can be conveniently placed within thetemplate and managed. Another advantage of using Joomla is that it requires almost no technicalskill or knowledge to manage. Once the project is complete, it can be handed over to web
administrators of RUA and they will easily be able to administer and update the website regularly.
The web portal will be developed based on the rapid application development (R.A.D)
methodology,  which  uses  minimum  planning  in  favor  of  quick  prototyping.  With  RAD,  the  portal’s  planning stage is interleaved with the coding process, thus making development faster and easier tochange requirements. The process can also be turned back if changes are required prior to testingand implementation. Feedback from users and testers can be incorporated without changing too
much of the template design. Figure 2 shows the home page of the web portal.
Table 1 Categories and modules
General Guidelines
Planning Practices
Soil Management
Irrigation Practices
Fertilization Practices

Production
Planning the Garden
SowingWatering
Fertilizing
Pest Control
Disease Control
Weeding

HarvestHarvest HandlingContainers
Tools
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Post Harvest
CuringPre-packaging (cleaning,
disinfection, artificial waxing)
Packaging
Cooling methods &temperature
Storage
Pest Control & Decay

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Fig. 1 Framework for e-Learning Solution on Good Agricultural Practices

Fig. 2 Screen shots of the Web Portal Homepage (left) and one of the videos from theinteractive CB (right)
Multimedia interactive CD
The multimedia interactive CD will hold individual videos/animations for each module covered
under  GAP.  From  the  home  screen,  students  will  be  able  to  select  which  module’s  video/animation  they  wish  to  view  (for  example  ‘Fertilizing’  under  ‘Production’).  At  the  end  of  the  video/animation,
they can attempt available questions to test their understanding.
The development of the CD content involves three phases, as outlined below:
1. Pre-production - This phase involves idea generation and brainstorming activities on how
to turn information gathered on GAP into suitable graphical content. This is done throughsketches formulating layout with flowcharts and storyboards.
2. Production - Production involves execution from the pre-production phase with the design
ID of the user interface (UI) using creative designing software and programming.
3. Post-implementation - This stage involves system testing on CD Rapid Prototyping to test
the application/system functions and rectify errors.

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CONCLUSION
This project is currently in development phase and is expected to be implemented in RUA in March
2013. This is the first time an e-Learning solution for GAP is developed for students of higher
learning  in  Cambodia.  As  such,  upon  successful  implementation,  students’  acceptance  levels  will  be  gauged and their feedback will be gathered for further improvement.
One of the drawbacks of this solution is that it is fully developed in English and language canbe a barrier to the students fully understanding the content. At the point of writing this paper, due tolack of funding, we are not able to translate and develop this solution in Khmer, which is the
Cambodian national language.
REFERENCESIFPRI (International Food Policy Research Institute). 2002. Reaching sustainable food security for all by
2020. Getting the priorities and responsibilities right. IFPRI, Washington, D.C., USA.
CARDI (Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute). 2010. Good agricultural practices(GAP) / Farm management manual.
Izquierdo, J., Fazzone, M.R. and Duran M. 2007. Guidelines   “Good   agricultural practices for family
agriculture”.  Food  and  Agriculture  Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy.
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). 2003. Development of a good agricultural practice approach.
Concept paper for the FAO Expert Consultation on Good Agricultural Practices, 10-12 November 2003.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy.
Trienekens, J. and Zuurbier, P. 2008. Quality and safety standards in the food industry, developments andchallenges. Wageningen University, Netherlands.
Abdon, B.R., Ninomiya, S. and Raab, R.T. 2007. E-learning in higher education makes its debut in
Cambodia: The provincial business education project. University of Tsukuba, Japan and Sustainable
Development e-Learning Network, USA.

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Research article
erd

Utilization of Inoculated Eri Cocoon for Water Pollutant
RemovalCARLOS ONAN MENDOZA TOVAR
Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Email: onan14@yahoo.com

KUMIKO KAWABE
Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan

HIROMU OKAZAWA
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan

MACHITO MIHARA*
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan /Institute of Environment Rehabilitation and Conservation, Tokyo, Japan
Email: m-mihara@nodai.ac.jp
Received 18 December 2012

Accepted 27 March 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The eri cocoon may have the potential to immobilize effective microorganisms
although it needs to be tested in order to be used as a method to remove pollutants fromwater. Lactobacillus acidophilus has proven to be capable of removing up to 60% of
Arsenic (III) from water within 3 hours. The main objective of this study was to quantify
the amount of glucose absorbed by inoculated eri cocoon as an indicator of the capacity forpollutant removal. Lactobacillus spp. was incubated at 37 oC for 48 hours. By microscopic
observation, structures were described. The rate of inoculation was calculated as colony
forming units (cfu) in the eri cocoon divided by cfu of the inoculation solution times one
hundred. An absorption trial was set up. The absorption rate was calculated as final
glucose concentration minus initial divided by time. The untreated (UT) eri cocoonpresented nano-tubes where bacteria can easily penetrate. By soaking eri cocoons in
distilled water (WS), cavern-like structures appeared within the silk fibers. When the ericocoon was autoclaved (AC), the cavern structures were more frequent. The twisted yarn
(TY) showed almost no difference with the fibers in the UT eri cocoon. The sample counts
gave no statistical differences between UT and AC. Eri cocoon has the natural structures toaccommodate microorganisms within its fibers. In the inoculation rate there was nodifference between UT and AC treatments. The consumption of glucose showed nodifference between UT, AC and WS; but there was a significant difference between thefirst three and TY. TY had the lowest glucose consumption.
Keywords pollutants, eri cocoon, lactobacillus, glucose, absorption

INTRODUCTION
Sericulture is defined as the breeding and raising of silk worms for the production of silk. There aredifferent species of silk worm used for this purpose. This study will be focused on the eri silk worm
(Samia cynthia ricini). The eri culture, as is called the rearing of eri silk worm, takes place indifferent areas of Asia and India.
In the North-East region of India, eri farmers adopt various traditional indigenous practices forrearing (Sarmah et. al., 2010). Eri culture has different uses such as a poverty alleviation strategy(Ramalakshmi, 2009) and the use of the eri pupa as a food for human consumption (Sarmah, 2011).
But the main purpose of eri culture is for the production of silk.

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Some studies on the structure of the silk fiber have been conducted. However, these studies
have focused on the protein structure rather than the physical structure (Asakura and Nakazawa,
2004). In another study the eri cocoon was analyzed in an aqueous solution and dry-frizzed toobtain a fibroin powder to be used for its thermal properties and protein structure study (Yaowalak
et. al., 2009). Asakura and Nakazawa (2004) concluded that the silk fiber has a spiral protein
structure focusing in poly-Alanine chain and Glycerine areas with a Carbon and Nitrogen terminals.
Structural studies of the filaments have been done by Akai and Nagashima (2001, 2002) on
different silk moths. Porous and compact filament formations are caused or regulated by continued
lysosome releases which are affected by the progress of silk gland degradation (Akai andNagashima, 2001). These porous structures and shell holes, as described by Akai and Nagashima(2001, 2002), can supposedly be present in other Saturniids as well and used as a niche for
effective microorganisms.
The use of different methods for water pollutant removal has been considered one of theimportant actions taken to protect the environment. There have been some experiments toimmobilize microorganisms and used for bioremediation (Krumme et. al., 1994; Arango, 2004;
Hosseini et. al., 2007; Singh and Sarma, 2010). Most of the substrates used to immobilize effective
microorganisms are non-biological porous materials. The eri cocoon has the potential toimmobilize effective microorganisms and from there be used as a method to remove pollutantsfrom water. A study with Lactobacillus acidophilus has proven that this bacteria is capable ofremoving, at a concentration of 2 mg dry wt/ml biomass, up to 60% of Arsenic (III) from a 1000
ppb water solution at pH 7 within 3 hours (Singh and Sarma, 2010). In another experiment,
Lactobacillus spp. isolated from shrimp farm water samples was capable of simultaneous removalof pathogenic bacteria and nitrogen (Ma et al., 2009).
OBJECTIVE
The main objective of this study was to quantify the amount of glucose absorbed by inoculated eri
cocoon as an indicator of the capacity for pollutant removal. Secondary objectives were: todescribe the structures that eri cocoon present in order to be a niche for microorganisms; to observe
the effects of different treatments on the physical structures of the cocoon fiber; and to determine
the ability of eri cocoon to allocate Lactobacillus spp. within its structure.
METHODOLOGY
The experiment was done in a two stages stile. Stage one the description and inoculation, and stage
two the glucose consumption. When analyzing the inoculation the treatments was cocoon
treatments only and when analyzing the glucose consumption the statistical differences were
calculated based on cocoon treatments and glucose concentration levels.
Physical description: Microscopic images were taken from different treatments of eri cocoon.
From the images, physical description and differences were observed to determine the space thatmicroorganisms could inhabit. The treatments were untreated cocoons (UT); the pupa was removed
and only the silk cocoon was utilized. 1 week soaked in water (WS); the cocoon was soaked in
distilled water for seven days without stirring at 25 oC. Autoclaved (AC); the eri cocoon were
immersed in destilled water and autoclaved at a temperature of 110 oC and at a pressure of 152 kPa.
Twisted yarn (TY); an already processed silk yarn was used.
Inoculation: Lactobacillus spp. was incubated and inoculated to calculate the ability of thetreatments to allocate bacteria by the cocoon. The inoculation solution was added directly to thetreatments by 6 ml per sample in order to cover half of the sample and allowing the other half toabsorb by capillarity. The inoculated eri cocoon was incubated for 72 hours at 37 oC. Five countrepetitions were made to get an average of colony forming units (cfu) per milligram of eri cocoon
in order to observe the differences between treatments.
Glucose consumption: Two levels of glucose solutions were used: a high concentration of 15 g of
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water, which equals 15% glucose solution and 5% glucose solution respectively. The inoculated eri
cocoon treatments were placed in 60 ml of glucose solution and sampled at 3, 24, 48, 72, 120, 192,
288, 360, 408, 480 hours. The four treatments had four repetitions and two repetitions of control.
The control treatment was distilled water instead of the glucose solution. The glucose consumption
was recorded and analyzed by the SPSS 15 for windows system in a two factorial analysis. The
treatments resulted in UT15%, UT5%, WS15%, WS5%, AC15%, AC5%, TY15%, and TY5%.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Physical description
The UT presented entrances and nanotubes where bacteria can easily penetrate (Fig. 1a). Afterusing a filter to observe the spaces within fibers the nanotubes were easily observed (Fig. 2). After
treating the cocoon by soaking it for seven days cavern like structures began to appear within thesilk fibers (Fig. 1b). Although no entrances where observed, these cavern-like structures present
more suitable and larger spaces than those on the normal nanotubes present on the UT. When theeri cocoon was autoclaved the cavern-like structures were more frequent and entrances to themwere observed. These cavern-like structures presented more space within the fiber and also werelonger that those present on the WS treatment (Fig. 1c). The twisted yarn showed almost no
difference to the fibers in the untreated, the only difference was the order that they aligned witheach other making a lower exposure area (Fig. 1d).
Inoculation
In Fig. 3, the inoculation data are shown. The inoculation solution showed an average of 1.15 x1016 colony forming units (cfu) per milligram of cocoon. UT and AC were not statistically different
and had the higher inoculation count in cfu per milligram of cocoon. WS and TY had the lowest
inoculation and were statistically different from AC and UT.

a

b

c

d

Fig. 1 Fig. 1 Microscopic cross-sectional views of eri-cocoon(a untreated, b 1week soaked in water, c autoclaved, d twisted yarn)Ⓒ ISERD

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Fig. 2 Negative light filter fiber picture
2000000a**

CCFU/mg
FU /m g

1500000a**

1000000

500000b**b**

0Untreated(cfu/mg)

Water Soaked(cfu/mg)

Autoclaved(cfu/mg)

Twisted Yarn
(cfu/mg)

Fig. 3 Average colony forming units per milligram of eri cocoon
The alignment in TY and the treatment that it received beforehand may be the cause of such low
cfu/mg count. It is also possible that if the TY was soaked in water before the inoculation this might
have given a similar result to WS. WS and TY were not statisticalyl different; nevertheless, they bothhave the capacity to allocate a certain amount of Lactobacillus spp. within their structures.
Glucose consumption

CConsumedo n s um e d G
l u c o s e( (g/ml)
g /m l )GlucoseThe glucose consumption was taken and corrected against the control samples. There was astatistical difference in glucose consumption between UT15%, AC15%, WS15% and TY15%,
UT5%, AC5%, WS5%, TY5%; TY15% was statistically different from UT5%, AC5%, WS5%,
TY5%. There was no statistical difference between UT15%, AC15%, and WS15%. Within the
UT5%, AC5%, WS5%, TY5% there was no statistical difference. Fig.4 shows the net consumptionof glucose per treatment over time.

-100

5
UT 15%4

UT 5%
WS 15%

3

WS 5%
AC 15%2

AC 5%
TY 15%

1

TY 5%

0
0

100

200

300

400

500

Time(hours)(hours)Time

Fig. 4 Net glucose consumption by Lactobacillus spp. inoculated eri cocoonⒸ ISERD

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CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Eri cocoon has the natural structures to accommodate microorganisms within its fibers. Applicationof treatments such as soaking the eri cocoon in distilled water, or using an autoclave can improve
the structures. Creation of yarn appeared to reduce the ability of eri cocoon fiber to accommodate
bacteria. Eri cocoon inoculated with Lactobacillus spp. is able to absorb up to 29% of glucose outof a glucose solution at 15g/100ml or 15% glucose solution within 450 hours; and up to 26%
within the first 3 hours.
Comparing physical structures, as the amount of space observable by microscopic imaging,and inoculation rate, the AC treatment presents the best structures and the highest rate of colony
formation. Regarding inoculation rate there was no statistical difference between UT and AC which
infers that the cheapest and best option for inoculation is the UT.
When comparing glucose consumption, the treatments AC15%, UT15%, and WS15% present
the highest consumption. Nevertheless, using the inoculation rates as a reference point, the mosteffective treatments are AC15% and UT15%. Even though AC presents all the advantages for a
filtering system, the use of UT is recommended to make a nitrogen absorption trial replacing
glucose in the solution. The combination of UT and TY may give a better result when used together
to make a net for water pollutant removal.
REFERENCES
Akai, H. and Nagashima, T. 2001. Structural characteristics of cocoon filaments from rothschildia silkmoth.
International Journal of Wild Silkmoth & Silk, 6, 25-32.
Akai, H. and Nagashima, T. 2002. Structural characteristics of cocoon filaments of the African silkmoth
Argema mimosa. International Journal of Wild Silkmoth & Silk, 7, 47-52.
Arango, A. 2004. La biofiltración, una alternativa para la potabilización del agua. Revista Lasallista deInvestigación, 7.
Asakura, T. and Nakazawa, Y. 2004. Structure and structural changes of the silk fibroin from Samia cynthia
ricini using nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Macromolecular Bioscience, 4, 175-185.
Hosseini, M., Mahmoudi, M. and Mohammadi, M. 2007. Removal of benzene emission by a bio filter withimmobilized bacteria. American-Eurasian Journal of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, 2(6),756-760.
Krumme, M.L., Smith, R.L., Egestorff, J., Thiem, S., Tiedje, J., Timmis, K. and Dwyer, D. 1994. Behavior ofpollutan-degrading microorganisms in aquifers: predictions for genetically engineered organisms.
Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 28, 1134-1138.
Ma, C. W., Cho, Y. S. and Oh, K.H. 2009. Removal of pathogenic bacteria and nitrogens by Lactobacillus
spp. jk-8 and jk-11. Aquaculture Journal, 287, 266-270.
Ramalakshmi, C.S. 2009. Potentiality of eri culture for poverty alleviation in dry land areas of andhra
pradesh, An economic analysis. Department of Sericulture, Jubilee Hills, Hyderabad, India. 11.
Sarmah, M.C., Rahman, S. and Barah, A. 2010, Traditional practices and terminologies in muga and eri
culture. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, 9, 448-452.
Sarmah, M.C. 2011. Eri pupa: a delectable dish in north east india. Central Muga Eri Research And Training
Institute, Current Science, 100, 3.
Singh, A.L. and Sarma, P.N. 2010. Removal of arsenic (III) from waste water using Lactobacillus
acidophilus. Bioremediation Journal, 14 (2), 92-97.
Yaowalak, S., Wilaiwan, S. and Prasong, S., 2009. Preparation and characterization of eri (Philosamia ricini)silk fibroin powder. Journal of Applied Sciences, 9(16), 2992-2995.

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Research article
erdManagement of Municipal Sewage Sludge by
Vermicomposting Technology: Converting a Waste into a
Bio fertilizer for Agriculture
CHULEEMAS BOONTHAI IWAI*
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Email: chuleemas1@gmail.com; chulee_b@kku.ac.th

MONGKON TA-OUN
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

THAMMARED CHUASAVATEE
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

PRAWEENA BOONYOTHA
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Received 5 January 2013

Accepted 27 March 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract This paper reports on the feasibility of utilization of vermicomposting
technology using the earthworm Eudrilus eugeniae for managing municipal sewage sludge
by conversion into beneficial bio-fertilizer. Sewage sludge was used at various
concentrations 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25% to test for avoidance behavior of the earthworm.
The mix of sewage sludge with cassava wastes and cow dung was subjected to compost
treatment with and without earthworm treatment for 30 days. During the study period data
was collected on the surviving earthworms, biomass together with chemical analysis ofwastes before and after treatment. The results indicate that 5% concentration of sludge
mixed with cassava waste was ideal for Eudrilus eugeniae to treat. There was a decrease inpH, organic carbon concentration, C:N ratio, and an increase in electrical conductivity(EC), nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus concentrations in all the vermireactors. Total
Kjeldhal nitrogen (TKN), available phosphorus and potassium concentrations wereincreased compared to compost without earthworm treatment at 50, 24, and 10%
respectively. The heavy metal concentrations (Cr, Cu, Cd, Pb and Hg) in final
vermicomposts were lower than in initial feed mixtures. The earthworm biomass wasincreased 40-90% and could survive 60% from the beginning. Therefore, the present study
showed that vermicomposting of municipal sewage sludge into bio-fertilizer is feasible
and provides a safe, simple, economic and practical alternative method to resolve theproblem of management of sewage sludge.
Keywords waste management, safe fertilizer, agriculture

INTRODUCTION
In Thailand, municipal sewage sludge from domestic wastewater treatment is generated in large
quantities, is hazardous and creates problem for safe disposal due to the presence of certain soil
contaminants, such as organic compounds, heavy metals, and human pathogens. Sewage sludge
generated in huge quantities has led to indiscriminate and inappropriately timed application of
untreated sludge to agricultural fields as fertilizer because of its nutrient content, especiallynitrogen and phosphorus. The problem of sludge disposal and management exists in otherdeveloping countries and probably prevails also in other parts of the world. Indiscriminate disposalof sewage sludge on agricultural fields induces soil and plant toxicity and creates depressive effects
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biological environments of soil. Therefore it is absolutely essential for sewage sludge to undergo
additional stabilization treatment prior to agricultural use (Hait and Tare, 2011).
The organic matter and high nutrient contents of municipal sewage sludge have promoted its
application to agricultural land as an organic fertilizer. However, heavy metals in domestic andindustrial wastewater are concentrated in sewage sludge at high levels with the total content
ranging from 0.5 to 2% on a dry weight basis and at 6% in extreme conditions (Gupta and Garg,2008). Therefore, concerns for the safe application of sewage sludge are mainly focus on the heavy
metal contamination that can arise. Copper and cadmium often have high concentrations in sewage
sludge and may affect the health of people and animals through the food chain if sludge is applied
improperly. Methods for decreasing the contents and bioavailability of these elements in sewage
sludge are worthy of research. Unlike organic compounds, metals cannot be degraded (Lasat, 2000).
To decrease the contents and bioavailability of heavy metals usually requires their removal. Suchan approach can be prohibitively expensive. Also, the metal removing process often employs
stringent physicochemical agents, which can dramatically inhibit soil fertility with subsequent
negative impacts on the ecosystem. Another method is to use chemical immobilization
amendments to reduce metal bioavailability. The addition of chemical immobilization amendments
may only immobilize lethal levels for restricted periods of time and introduce other harmful
chemicals. Phytoremediation is recognized as the most commercially and environmental friendly
technology available (Lasat, 2000), but up to now, only a limited number of plants have been foundto have the phytoaccumulation ability and much less can be used for field phytoremediation
because of low biomass production. There is a need for ecologically as well as economicallysustainable technologies which enable recovery of recyclable constituents from sewage sludge as it
is rich in nutrients and has high organic matter content. Vermicompost technology is ecologicallyand economically sustainable and has been widely used for processing of sewage sludge over theyears (Sinha et al., 2010). Therefore, this study aimed to assess the feasibility of utilization ofvermicomposting technology by using the earthworm (Eudrilus eugeniae) for ameliorating themunicipal sewage sludge by conversion into beneficial bio fertilizer.
METHODOLOGY
Earthworms and substrate: Earthworms, Eudrilus eugeniae, were randomly obtained from stock
cultures maintained in the earthworm culture laboratory at Khon Kaen University. Stockearthworms were cultured in the laboratory on partially decomposed cow dung mixed with cassava
waste. Sewage sludge with approximate water content of 75-85% was taken directly from the SiPhaya Wastewater Treatment Plant in Bangkok, Thailand. The sludge was shade dried in thelaboratory to remove excess water. The chemical characteristics of the sewage sludge and bulking
materials are shown in Table 1.
A study of the toxicity of sewage sludge on the survival of earthworms: The study of the
toxicity of sewage sludge on the avoidance behavior of earthworm was performed with different
concentrations of sewage sludge at 1, 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25% using 10 earthworms in a plastic
containers containing 100 g of (dry weight basis) substrate material; avoidance behaviour ofearthworms was observed every day.
A study of the survival and the growth of earthworms affected by sewage sludge mixed withcassava industrial wastes: This study included 4 sub-experiments; 1. Vermicompost mixed withcassava pulp 2. Vermicompost+ 5% sewage sludge mixed with cassava pulp 3. Vermicompost withcassava peel 4. Vermicompost + 5 % sewage sludge mixed with cassava peel. This experimentused   a   “Completely   Randomized   Design”   (CRD)   with   three   replications.   Ten   earthworms   were  released into plastic pot containers containing 100 g (dry weight basis). The weight of earthworms
was recorded before and after 30 days. After 7 days, the survival rate of earthworm was measured.
Cassava waste was chosen in this study because cassava industry is main industry in this area andproduces a considerable amount of waste per day.

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Vermicomposting process
Experiment design: The vermicompost (VCP) (with earthworm) and compost (without
earthworm) experiment was conducted in plastic buckets (35 cm diameter and 40 cm depth) andused cassava pulp, cassava peel and 5% sewage sludge in the process. The experimental design was
CRD with 3 replications with the mixture at a rate of 75%: 25% (cassava industrial wastes: soil
mixture). The 25% in soil mixture was composed of Nampong soil and cow manure. The moisture
content in the mixture was adjusted to 70-80% of WHC (Water Holding Capacity) by water and 10
earthworms/1 kg were added to the mixed material which was covered with a dark net to prevent
earthworm escape and direct exposure to light (Wang et al., 2012). The time of study were 0 and 30
days at room temperature between 28±2 OC
Chemical analysis: The weight of the system and chemical parameters of substrate were measured
in all treatments before introducing earthworms and after vermicomposting for 30 days. The
earthworms were separated by hand at the end of the period. The growth rate of composting
earthworms in this system was then analyzed according to the method described by Suthar (2009).
(1) Analysis of sewage sludge and earthworms; A total of 40 g compost and vermicompost wascollected from each container using multi-point sampling at random. The samples were
homogenized, dried at 40°C in a ventilated oven, and then passed through 100-mesh sieves after
grinding into small pieces. The pH of compost (CP) and vermicomposting (VCP) was measured
using a digital pH meter in 1/2.5 (w/v) deionized water. Total organic carbon was determined by
the partial-oxidation method (Walkley and Black, 1934). Total N (total nitrogen) was measured by
the micro Kjeldahl method (Jackson, 1973; Bremner and Mlvaney, 1982). Total P (TP) was
determined by digestion with acid (HNO3: H2SO4:HClO4 (5:2:1). The sample used 1:10 mixed acid(w/v). Water-soluble P (WSP) was measured in Deionized water extraction ratio VCP and CP 1:25
(W/V) and shaken for 2 hours. Exchangeable phosphorous (Exch. P) was determined using the
Bray II extraction method (Schroth et al., 2003). The totals from P solutions were determined using
the ascorbic acid molybdenum blue method by UV spectrophotometer (Murphy and Riley, 1962).
(2) Heavy Metal Analysis; Total heavy metals (Cr, Cu, Cd, Pb and Hg) concentrations were
determined by the HF-HNO3-HClO4 digestion method and HNO3-H2SO4 digestion method,respectively. The heavy metals were extracted using the diethylene-triaminepentaacetic acid
(DTPA) extraction method. The heavy metal concentrations of all extracts were determined byatomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS). About 20 g of initial earthworms in stock culturesand final earthworms at each treatment with equal weight were separated from containers and thenkept in culture dishes in the dark for two days to empty their gut content, after which they were
washed in distilled water to remove excess material from their bodies. Next, the earthworms weresacrificed by freezing and dried at 105 °C for 24 hours in a ventilated oven. Prior to analysis, theearthworms were cooled to room temperature, then ground and passed through a 20-mesh sieve.
The metals concentrations (Cr, Cu, Cd, Pb and Hg) in earthworm tissue from different treatmentgroups were analyzed using the same method as described for sludge metal contents.
Statistical Analysis: One-way ANOVA was used to analyze the significant differences among
different vermicomposters   for   studied   parameters.   Tukey’s   test   was   performed   to   identify   the  homogeneous type of vermicomposters for the various parameters. The probability levels used forstatistical significance of tests were p < 0.05.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Sewage sludge had negative impact on earthworm. Avoidance behavior of the earthworm  Eudrillus
eugeniae (% avoidance) when exposed to different concentrations of sewage sludge was showed inTable 2. However, when mixed sewage sludge with cassava waste, earthworms   could   survive   in  vermicompost  at  5%  sewage  sludge  and  also  increased  weight.  After  30  days,  vermicompost  with  cassava   pulp   could   increase   nutrients   and   reduce   Cr, Cu, Pb and   Hg concentrations in   sewage  sludge  by  2.31, 14.03, 1.80 and  33.75% , respectively and vermicompost  with  cassava  peel  could  reduce   Cu and   Hg by 34.270 and   14.504%, respectively. The results are shown in Tables 1-6.
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Cassava peel could help to reduce heavy metal by addition to vermicomposting and was better thancassava pulp. Vermicomposting resulted increase in total N (TN), total P (TP) and total K (TK) as
compared to the initial compost material depending on different bulk material. The study showedthat the vermicomposting significantly improved the availability of nutrients in sewage sludge.
Moreover, vermicomposting considerably reduced the availability of heavy metal presumably byforming organic-bound complexes. The environmental conditions and characteristics of eachmaterial in general showed significant effect on the transformation and availability of nutrients andheavy metals (Hait and Tare, 2012). Cassava pulp is acidic with low electrical conductivity (EC)and is distinct from Cassava peel which has higher pH and EC (Table 1) and cow dung had both
high pH and EC together with high available-P (Table 1).
Table 1 Physico-chemical characteristics of primary sewage sludge and bulking
material for vermicompost
Material
Cassava  pulp
Cassava  peel
Soil
Cow  Dung
Sludge  100%
Sludge  5%pH
4.21 ± 0.11
6.72 ± 0.08
7.76 ± 0.03
8.09 ± 0.12
6.13 ± 0.03
6.81 ± 0.06

Material
Cassava  pulp
Cassava  peel
Soil
Cow  dung
Sludge  100%
Sludge  5%

TP (%)
0.083 ± 0.001
0.208 ± 0.006
0.034 ± 0.002
0.080 ± 0.001
0.191 ± 0.001
0.044 ± 0.003

EC (µS/cm)
328.33 ± 22.30
666± 26.66
543.33 ± 7.57
5263.33 ± 234.59
1446± 44.51553± 95.82
TN (%)
0.205 ± 0.008
0.133 ± 0.016
0.044 ± 0.002
0.927 ± 0.012
2.710 ± 0.020
0.119 ± 0.007

Avail-P (%)
0.002 ± 0.00
0.010 ± 0.00
0.002 ± 0.00
0.033 ± 0.00
0.020 ± 0.00
0.011 ± 0.00

OM (%)
70.072 ± 3.50
8.552 ± 0.45
0.585 ± 0.07
32.092 ± 3.90
26.908 ± 0.95
1.713 ± 1.31

K (%)
0.174 ± 0.006
0.213 ± 0.006
0.038 ± 0.000
1.719 ± 0.081
0.088 ± 0.000
0.048 ± 0.003

Table  2  Avoidance  behavior  of  earthworm,  Eudrillus eugeniae (% avoidance) exposed
to different concentrations of sewage sludge
Concentration  of  sewage  sludge (%)
1
5
10
15
20
25

%  Avoidance  of  Eudrillus eugeniae
20
100
100
100
100
100

Table 3 Earthworm weight in different vermicomposting treatments
Treatment
Vermicompost  +  cassava  pulp
Vermicompost  +  cassava  pulp  +5%  sludge
Vermicompost  +  cassava  peelVermicompost  +  cassava  peel  +5%  sludge

Earthworm  weight  (g/earthworm)
0 day(g)
0.413
0.499
0.433
0.482

30 day(g)
0.000
0.765
0.475
9.005

Increased  weight (%)
0.00
34.76
8.83
94.65

Table 4 Earthworm survival in different vermicompost treatments
Treatment
Vermicompost  +  cassava  pulp
Vermicompost  +  cassava  pulp  +5%  sludge
Vermicompost  +  cassava  peelVermicompost  +  cassava  peel  +5%  sludgeⒸ ISERD

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Table 5 Physico-chemical characteristics of initial waste mixtures, compost andvermicompost obtained from different vermicomposters (g/kg) by earthworm  after 30 days
Initial
0 day

pH
CP*
30 dayVCP**
30 dayVermicompost  +  cassava  pulp

8.06 B

8.91 B

9.26 A

Vermicompost  +  cassava  pulp  +5%  sludge

8.31 A

9.06 A

8.96 B

Vermicompost  +  cassava  peel

8.07 B

8.38 C

7.62 D

Vermicompost  +  cassava  peel  +5%  sludge

8.00 B

8.12 D

7.79 C

Initial0 day
0.160 C

TN (%)
CP*
30 day0.310 B

VCP**
30 day0.210 D

0.351 A

0.524 A0.136 D
0.207 B

Treatment

Treatment
Vermicompost  +  cassava  pulp
Vermicompost  +  cassava  pulp  +5%  sludge
Vermicompost  +  cassava  peelVermicompost  +  cassava  peel  +5%  sludge

Treatment
Vermicompost  +  cassava  pulp
Vermicompost  +  cassava  pulp  +5%  sludge
Vermicompost  +  cassava  peelVermicompost  +  cassava  peel  +5%  sludge

EC (µS/cm)
CP*
30 dayVCP**
30 day2660.00 A

2019.00 D

2666.67 A

2630.00 B

2306.67 B

2830.00 A

2280.00 B

2176.67 C

Initial
0 day
12.872 A

OM (%)
CP*
30 day21.148 A

VCP**
30 day6.219 C

0.343 B

14.016 A

17.364 AB

12.835 B

0.206 C

0.261 C9.590 BC5.740 D

6.193 C

0.300 B

0.594 A

7.974 C5.934 D11.814 B

Initial0 day
0.012 D

Avail-P (%)
CP*
30 day0.023 A

VCP**
30 day0.018 C

Initial
0 day
0.015 BTP (%)
CP*
30 day0.575 D

VCP**
30 day0.496 C

0.017 A

0.023 A

0.024 B

0.036 A

0.978 A

0.819 A

0.016 B

0.002 C

0.015 D

0.009 C0.590 C0.497 C

0.015 C0.019 B

0.025 A

0.034 A

0.699 B

0.785 B

Initial0 day
1712.67A
1446.00
C
1434.33
C
1598.33
BK (%)
Initial
CP*
VCP**
0 day
30 day30 dayVermicompost  +  cassava  pulp
0.375 B
0.426 B
0.396 C
Vermicompost  +  cassava  pulp  +5%  sludge
0.411 A
0.541 A
0.524 A
Vermicompost  +  cassava  peel0.304 C0.280 C
0.332 D
Vermicompost  +  cassava  peel  +5%  sludge
0.280 D
0.401 B
0.449 B*CP = Compost without earthworm **VCP = Vermicompost with earthworm
Mean values followed by different letters in the same column are statistically different(ANOVA;;  Tukey’s  test,  p  <  0.05)
Treatment

Table 6 Heavy metal concentration (mg/kg) in initial sewage sludge and compost,
vermicompost and earthworm after 30 days2/
2/
2/
Heavy  metal  in  S1
S2
  Earthworm
initial  sewage  sludge
CP*
VCP**
CP*
VCP**
S1
S2
(mg/kg)Cr
73.533
9.736
9.516
9.680
5.237
2.051
2.351
Cu
667.628
40.24235.29036.79827.406
7.746
4.815
Cd
1.189
0.088
0.108
0.079
0.086
0.172
0.172
Pb
113.904
11.24911.050
7.724
7.884
2.351
1.786
Hg
4.450
0.321
0.240
0.150
0.131
0.038
0.048
*CP = Compost without earthworm **VCP = Vermicompost with earthworm
S1=  Vermicompost  with  cassava  pulp  +5% sludge. S2=  Vermicompost  with  cassava  peel  +5% sludge  1/
Test  method: In house method based on EPA 3052 2/  Manual on Fertilizer Analysis, APSRDO.DOA; 4/2551

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CONCLUSION
This study indicates that sewage sludge at 5% could be managed by earthworm treatment throughvermicompost technology, which could be a potential technology to convert toxic organic waste
into nutrient rich biofertilizer. The feasibility of using earthworms to mitigate the metal toxicity
and to enhance the nutrient profile in sludge might be useful to improve the sustainability of land
restoration practices on a low-input basis.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research project was funded by The National Research Council of Thailand (NRCT) andNational Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA) in 2012 and Research Center
for Environmental and Hazardous Substance Management (EHSM), Khon Kaen University.
Thanks are extended to the Division of Land Resource and Environment, Faculty of Agriculture,
Khon Kaen University for use of the research facility, Integrated Water Resource Management
Research and Development Center in Northeast Thailand and GWRC. The authors would like tothank Prof. Barry Noller, University of Queensland, for English editing and suggestions for the
manuscript.
REFERENCES
Black, C. A., Evans, D. D., White, J. L., Ensminger, L. E. and Clark, F. E. 1965. Chemical andmicrobiological properties. In: Methods of Soil Analysis. 1965. Medison, Wisconsin, USA.
Bremner, J. M. and Mulvaney, C.S. 1982. Total nitrogen. Methods of soil analysis. Part 2. Agronomy
monograph 9. American Society of Agronomy, WI, 595-624.
Gupta, R. and Garg, V. K. 2008. Stabilization of primary sewage sludge during vermicomposting. Journal ofHazardous Materials, 153, 1023-1030.
Hait, S. and Tare, V. 2011. Optimizing vermistabilization of waste activated sludge using vermicompost as
bulking material. Waste Management, 31, 502-511.
Hait, S. and Tare, V. 2012. Transformation and availability of nutrients and heavy metals during integrated
composting-vermicomposting of sewage sludges. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 79, 204224.
Jackson, M. L. 1973. Soil chemical analysis. Pranctice Hall of India, New Delhi. India.
Lasat, M. M. 2000. Phytoextraction of metals from contaminated soil: a review of plant/soil/metal interaction
and assessment of pertinent agronomic issues. Journal of Hazardous Substance Research, 2, 1-25.
Murphy, J. and Riley, J. P. 1962. A modified single solution for the determination of phosphorus in natural
waters. Anal. Chem. Acta, 27, 31-36.
Schroth, G., Lehmann, J. and Barrios, E. 2003. Soil nutrient availability and acidity. CABI Pub.Wallingford.
93-190.
Sinha, R. K., Herat, S. Bharambe, G. and Brahambhatt, A. 2010. Vermistabilization of sewage sludge(biosolids) by earthworms: converting a potential biohazard destined for land disposal into a pathogenfree, nutritive and safe biofertilizer for farms, Waste. Manage. Res., 28, 872-881.
Suthar, S. 2009. Vermistabilization of municipal sewage sludge amended with sugarcane trash using epigeic
Eisenia fetida (Oligochaeta), J. Hazard. Mater., 163 (2009), 199-206.
Suthar, S. and Singh, S. 2008. Feasibility of vermicomposting in biostabilization of sludge from a 478
distillery industry. Sci. Total. Environ., 394, 237-243.
Walkley, A., and Black, I.A. 1934. An examination of the dichromate method for determining soil organic
matter, and a proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method. Soil Sci., 34, 29-38.

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Research article
erd

The Role of Organic Farming in Providing Ecosystem
Services
INSA KÜHLING
Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Landscape Architecture, University of Applied Sciences
Osnabrück, Germany
Email: i.kuehling@hs-osnabrueck.de

DIETER TRAUTZ*
Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Landscape Architecture, University of Applied Sciences
Osnabrück, Germany
Email: d.trautz@hs-osnabrueck.deReceived 1 February 2013

Accepted 27 March 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Ecosystem Services (ESS) are defined as the benefits humans derive from
ecological processes and the ecosystem functions (MA, 2005). The functionality of agroecosystems is strengthened through ES like pollination, biological pest control orhydrological services provided by natural ecosystems (Sandhu et al., 2010). Agroecosystems also produce several ESS such as carbon sequestration, regulation of soil andwater quality and support for biodiversity (Power, 2010). On the other hand agriculture
may have a negative impact on neighboring natural ecosystems. Organic farming is themost sustainable and environmentally compatible way of agricultural land use, by using
biological methods for regulation of pest and diseases instead of chemically-synthesizedpesticides and mineral fertilizers. Thus organic agriculture minimizes negative impacts onnature-related ecosystems while simultaneously providing positive ESS like biodiversity.
Keywords ecosystem services, agro-ecosystems, organic farming, sustainability

INTRODUCTION
Stable ecosystems are required for a functioning natural balance. That is necessary for naturerelated as well as for anthropogenically influenced systems. Essential goods like food, forage, fueland fiber are provided by agricultural ecosystems (Power, 2010; Porter et al., 2009). For asustainable production of these products fertile agro-ecosystems are needed, especially to cover theincreasing demand due to a growing world population.
There are several interactions between natural and agro-ecosystems which can be illustrated
and also valuated by the concept of ecosystem services (ESS). ESS is defined as the benefits
humans obtain from ecosystems and their functions (MA, 2005). With regard to agro-ecosystems it
is necessary to take both aspects into account: consumption as well as provision of ESS. This
document research deals with the description of these interactions and especially with the effect ofdifferent land use intensities (conventional vs. organic farming). Unlike conventional agriculture,
the use of chemically-synthesized pesticides and mineral nitrogen fertilizers in organic farming is
excluded. For this comparison the concept of ESS is used (Swinton et al., 2006).
ECOSYSTEMSThe term ecosystem includes i.a. both natural and agricultural systems. They have basically acomparable structure, consisting simplified of producers, consumers and destruents with closeinteractions to each other (Fig. 1). The system is self-regulating and in the long run in equilibrium(Fig. 1a). Depending on the intensity of use, agricultural systems have various effects on different
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intensive use of synthetic chemical fertilizers and pesticides, the biomass of consumers (pests etc.)
is selective decreased (Fig. 1b). Organic farming as a sustainable form of agriculture is anintermediate position, by using biological cycles for the regulation of the agro-ecosystem instead ofchemicals (Fig. 1c).

Fig. 1 Schematic types of ecosystems with their different dimensions of producer (P),consumer (C) and destruents (D)THE THEORY OF ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
Defined as the benefits people obtain from ecosystems, ESS includes supporting, provisioning,
regulating and cultural services (Figure 2, left side; MA, 2005). Supporting services are i.a.
pollination, biological control, soil formation, carbon sequestration or nutrient cycling, which areall vital for supplying food and other raw materials (Sandhu et al., 2010) and mentioned asprovisioning services. Regulating services affects e.g. hydrological flows, floods, water quality,
climate conditions or diseases. There is also a cultural dimension of ESS that provides aesthetic,
recreational or spiritual benefits for the people.

Fig. 2 Ecosystem services and their connections to human well-being
Source: adapted from (MA, 2005)

Well-being of human species is fundamentally dependent on the flow of ecosystem services(MA, 2005).  People’s  well-being is assumed to have multiple constituents, including security, basic
material for a good life, health, good social relations and freedom of choice and action (Fig. 2, rightside). Security means secure access to natural and other resources, personal safety as well as
safeness from human-made and natural disasters. Aspects like adequate and secure livelihoods,
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material for a good life. Under health factors like feeling well and having a healthy physicalenvironment and access to clean air and water are summarized. Good social relations include
mutual respect, social cohesion and the ability to help others and provide for children. Freedom of
choice and action means the opportunity to achieve what an individual values doing and being. It is
influenced by all other constituents of well-being and is also a precondition for achieving othercomponents (MA, 2005).
ECOSYSTEM SERVICES AND AGRICULTURE
Agriculture represents humankind's largest engineered ecosystem which is embedded into a web ofnatural ecosystems (Zhang et al., 2007). The effects and direction of the strong interactions
between managed an untouched ecosystems depend on the agricultural production system. Adapted
management practices are able to diminish many of the negative impacts of agricultural land use
without reducing the provisioning services (Power, 2010). Otherwise utilizes intensive agriculture
large quantities of fertilizers and pesticides and acts as a major driver for land uses change anddegradation of ecosystems (Sandhu et al., 2010). By using the concept of ESS it is possible to get
an indicator for long-term sustainability of agricultural production balancing between ESS demandand supply (Björklund et al., 1999).
Conflicts through agriculture
In particular, under intensive conventional management practices neighboring natural ecosystems
may be damaged, also known as ecosystem disservice, which can lead to increasing production
costs or reduced productivities (Zhang et al., 2007). For example the biodiversity of unmanaged
ecosystems provides important services to agriculture while extensive application of fertilizer andpesticides have adverse effects. Also the groundwater related to intensive agricultural usage often
contains high concentrations of nutrients and pesticides which affects human’s  well-being (Tilman,
1999). Furthermore unsustainable farming practices encourage problems like soil degradation,
meaning a reduction of nearly all ESS for the future.

Thickness of the green and orange arrows symbolize the significance
Source: adapted from (Sandhu et al., 2010)

Fig. 3 Interaction between ecosystem services and different agricultural systems
Services from agriculture
Of course the main ESS from agro-ecosystems is the provision of classical products (food, fuel,fibre etc.). But farmers also help to maintain several other services that make agriculture productive(Fig. 3).
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Regulating and cultural services flows from agro-ecosystems vary greatly depending on the
management system. Besides there are also supporting ESS such as pollination, biological pest
control, carbon sequestration or soil nutrient renewal supported by agricultural usage (Swinton etal., 2006; Power, 2010).
Benefits from organic farming
Even if the amount of provisioning services in terms of yields per acreage is smaller than underconventional regimes, the balance of all services and disservices is better in organic managed agroecosystems (Fig. 3). Especially the damage of neighboring natural systems is less pronounced.
Thus supporting ESS can increase by promoting the nature cycle through organic farming. Also theregulating and cultural services within organic production systems are higher due to wide and morediverse rotations, no monocultures and often more small-scaled structures.
CONCLUSIONSAs shown, agriculture does not only have negative impacts on nature-related ecosystems but also
generates own positive ESS. Particularly favorable becomes the balance in agro-ecosystems underorganic farming practices. For a secured worldwide food supply long term productive ecosystems
are needed. Organic agriculture fully matches these conditions as the most sustainable way for
production of food and other raw materials.
REFERENCES
Björklund, J., Limburg, K.E. and Rydberg, T. 1999. Impact of production intensity on the ability of the
agricultural landscape to generate ecosystem services: An example from Sweden. Ecological
Economics, 29, 269-291.
MA, Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005. Ecosystems and human well-being: Synthesis report. Island
Press, Washington, D.C., USA.
Porter, J., Costanza, R., Sandhu, H., Sigsgaard, L. and Wratten, S. 2009. The value of producing food, energy,
and ecosystem services within an agro-ecosystem. AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment, 38,
186-193.
Power, A.G. 2010. Ecosystem services and agriculture: tradeoffs and synergies. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B, 365,2959-2971.
Sandhu, H.S., Wratten, S.D. and Cullen, R. 2010. Organic agriculture and ecosystem services. Environmental
Science & Policy, 13, 1-7.
Swinton, S.M., Lupi, F., Landis, D.A. and Robertson, G.P. 2006. Ecosystem services from agriculture:
Looking beyond the usual suspects. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 88, 1160-1166.
Tilman, D. 1999. Global environmental impacts of agricultural expansion: The need for sustainable andefficient practices. PNAS, 96, 5995-6000.
Zhang, W., Ricketts, T.H., Kremen, C., Carney, K. and Swinton, S.M. 2007. Ecosystem services and disservices to agriculture. Ecological Economics, 64, 253-260.

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Research article
erd

Pre-Planting Treatments of Stem Cutting with
Vermicompost Tea Affecting Rooting and Growth Yields ofDifferent Cassava Varieties
JIRAPHON CHOEICHIT
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Email: chulee_b@kku.ac.th

CHULEEMAS BOONTHAI IWAI*
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

MONGKON TA-OUN*
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Received 16 December 2012

Accepted 27 March 2013(* Corresponding Author)

Abstract This study investigated the effects of the pre-planting treatment of stem cuttingwith different vermicompost tea concentrations on the rooting, budding, and root biomassof cassava. The completely randomized design (CRD) was used with three replications.
The stem cutting of three cassava varieties (Rayong 7, Rayong 9 and Kasetsart 50) were
soaked into the different solutions consisting of un-treated (control), 0% VM tea (distilledwater), 50% VM tea, and 100% VM tea. Root and bud number and root dry weight weremonitored at 7, 14 and 21 days after planting. Results showed that the numbers of cassava
root pre-treated with vermicompost tea treatments were significantly increased compared
to control. The number of cassava root grown in soil amended with 50% and 100% of theoriginal vermicompost tea concentration were increased by 41.69% and 36.56%,
respectively and the buds were increased by 44.09% and 44.18%, respectively comparedto the control. The dry weights of root were also increased significantly average 213% and292%. Therefore, this study indicated that pre-treating cassava stem cutting of threevarieties with vermicompost tea before planting had a positive effect on initial root
development, bud and root growth. Because of vermicompost tea had organic substances:humic acids, fuvic acids and plant- growths regulators hormone and plant nutrients on
cassava growth.
Keywords budding and rooting of cassava, pre-planting treatment, root growth,vermicompost tea

INTRODUCTION
Cassava is an important economic crop of Thailand, which this crop occupies the largest planting
area in northeastern part accounting for approximately 54.7% of those of the whole amount of thecountry (Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, 2008). Productivity and commercialization
targets of this crop contribute to concentrate uses of many kinds of chemicals, e.g., pesticides,
herbicides, and plant growth promoting compounds. These chemicals may accumulate in cassava
stem. Additionally, they may lead to negative effects on the environment and also physical,
chemical, and biological properties of soil (Warburton and Pillai-McGarry, 2002).
Vermicompost (VM) tea is known to have positive effects on plant growth as it contains plantessential elements (including both macro- and micronutrients) and growth regulators (e.g., indole
acetic acid, gibberellins, and cytokinins) (Arancon et al., 2005). A number of soil scientists foundthat there were abundance of microorganisms which promoted plant growth and yield.
Additionally, humic acid contained in VM tea can improve soil properties (Atiyeh, 2001).

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OBJECTIVES
Objectives of this study were to evaluate effects of pre-plating treatments of cassava cutting withdifferent VM tea concentrations on their rooting, budding, and root growth.
METHODOLOGY
Vermicompost tea preparation: The VM tea was prepared from soil:cattle manure:cassava pulp
mixture (2:1:7 ratio). Total amount of the mixture was equal to 1000 kg. One hundred individualsof earthworm (Eudrillus eugeniae) were fed in a 1 m2 cement tank. After 30 days of thecomposting, liquid solution, extracted from the vermicompost, was collected as VM tea, and was
pH (8.11), EC (0.69%), OM (0.08 %), Total N (0.0045%), Total P (0.0058%), Total K (0.14 %)and  C/N (10.71 %) in VM tea.
Experimental design: A pot experiment was conducted under greenhouse conditions. A factorial
treatments structure was used with three cassava varieties (Rayong 7 (RY7), Rayong 9 (RY9), andKasetsart 50 (KU50)) and four pre-planting treatment media (un-treated (control), 0% VM tea(distilled water), 50% VM tea, and 100% VM tea). The 12 treatment combinations were arranged
in a completely randomized design (CRD) with three replications for a total of 36 experimental
units.
Statistical analysis: All data were analyzed by two-way analysis of variance using Statistix 8
program   (Analytical   Software,   2003).   The   treatment   means   were   compared   using   Fisher’s   least  significant difference (LSD) for the main effects of cassava varieties, pre-plating treatment media,
and their interactions. The significant difference was accepted at P ≤  0.05.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Influences of vermicompost tea on cassava budding
There was significant difference of cassava bud number between all pre-planting treatments (i.e.,0%, 50%, and 100% VM tea) and control (P ≤  0.005)  since  7  days  after cassava planting (DAP)(Table 1). At 7 DAP, bud numbers of all cassava varieties which were treated with 50% VM tea (7,5, and 4 buds for RY7, RY9, and KU50, respectively), were significantly higher than the controls(1, 0, and 0 bud for RY7, RY9, and KU50, respectively). VM tea contained plant available
nutrients, organic acids, and plant growth regulators (Edwards et al., 2006) as well as humic andfulvic acids (Arancon et al., 2005), which these compounds might accelerate budding and increase
bud number of these cassavas. During 14 – 21 DAP, no significantly different bud number among
the varieties, which were treated with all pre-planting treatments, were observed. Because, the stem
cutting lengths (25 cm length) and nod numbers (4-7 nods) of all studied varieties were equivalentso that the maximum bud number per each stem cutting of these cassavas were already obtained at
14 DAP. However, these treatments were still significantly higher than the controls.
Influence of vermicompost tea on cassava rooting
No significant difference of cassava root number among all treatments were found at 7 DAP (Table2). However, the root numbers of the three cassava varieties treated with 50% and 100% VM teassignificantly higher than 0% VM tea and the control were observed at 14 DAP and 21 DAP. At
these growth stages (14 DAP and 21 DAP), root numbers of RY7, RY9, and KU50 weresignificantly higher than their controls. These can be explained that the germination of cassava root
generally appears at approximately 2 - 3 weeks after cassava planting (Montaldo, 1972). Increases
in cassava root number when treated with VM tea is confirmed by Edwards et al., (2006) who
found that VM tea had positive effects on plant growth (including root) at the early stage. However,
the rooting period depends substantially upon cassava stem cutting quality and varieties(Department of Agriculture, 2002).
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Table 1 Bud number of cassava with different varieties(Rayong 7 (RY7), Rayong 9 (RY9), and Kasetsart 50 (KU50)) treated with four pre-planting treatment media (un-treated(control), 0% VM tea (distilled water), 50% VM tea, and 100% VM tea) at 7, 14, and 21 days after planting

Pre-planting treatment

7
DAP
1e
4 cd
7a
6 ab

RY7
14
DAP
2d
4c
7a
6 ab

21
DAP
2 d
4 c
7 a
6 ab

7
DAP
0 e
3 d
5 bc
3 d

Bud number
RY9
14
21
DAP
DAP
2d
2d
4c
4c
6 ab
6 ab
5 bc
5 bc
*

Control
0 % VM tea
50 % VM tea
100 % VM tea
F- test (cassava variety; a)
F- test (pre-planting*
treatment; b)
F- test (a × b)ns
CV (%)
23.94*significantly  different  at  P  ≤  0.05;;  and  ns:  not  significantly  different  (P  >  0.05)
DAP = day after cassava planting

7
DAP
0e
3 cd
4 b-d
4 b-d

KU50
14
DAP
1d
4c
5 bc
5 bc

21
DAP
1d
4c
5 bc
5 bc

Table 2 Root number of cassava with different varieties(Rayong 7 (RY7), Rayong 9 (RY9), and Kasetsart 50 (KU50)) treated with four pre-planting treatment media (un-treated(control), 0% VM tea (distilled water), 50% VM tea, and 100% VM tea) at 7, 14, and 21 days after planting

Pre-planting treatment

Root number
RY9
7
14
21
DAP
DAP
DAP
2 a-c
12 f
15 f
2 ab
15 de
18 de
2 ab
17 c-e
20 de
2 ab
15 e
25 b-d

RY7
7
DAP
2 a-c
2 a-c
3a
3a

14
DAP
23 ab
17 c-e28 a
23 a-c

21DAP
23 c-e
17 e
34 a
30 ab

Control
0 % VM tea
50 % VM tea
100 % VM tea
F- test (cassava variety;**a)F- test (pre-planting**
treatment; b)
F- test (a × b)**
CV (%)
22.72**significantly  different  at  P  ≤  0.01;;  *significantly  different  at  P  ≤  0.05;;
DAP = day after cassava planting

7
DAP
1c
1 bc
2 a-c
2 a-c

RY7
14
DAP
10 f
17 c-e21 b-d
15 de

21
DAP
12 f
20 de
28 a-c25 b-dTable 3 Root fresh- and dry biomasses of cassava with different varieties(Rayong 7 (RY7), Rayong 9 (RY9), and Kasetsart 50 (KU50)) treated with four pre-planting treatment media (un-treated(control), 0% VM tea (distilled water), 50% VM tea, and 100% VM tea) at the harvest day (21 days after planting)
Root fresh biomass (g pot-1)
RY7
RY9
KU50
2.29 b-c
1.55 d
1.09 dControl
1.17 d
1.11 d1.53 cd
0 % VM tea
2.77 b-c
3.13 bc
5.99 a
50 % VM tea
5.96 a3.91 b
2.47 b-d
100 % VM teans
F- test (cassava variety; a)*
F- test (pre-planting treatment; b)
F- test (a × b)*
CV (%)
41.89*significantly  different  at  P  ≤  0.05;;  and  ns:  not  significantly  different  (P  >  0.05)
Pre-planting treatment

Root dry biomass (g pot-1)
RY7
RY9
KU50
0.15
0.12
0.09
0.09
0.09
0.23
0.44
0.37
0.47
0.57
0.59
0.44
ns
*
ns
59.47

Influences of vermicompost tea on root biomass
No significant difference of root dry biomass among treatments was found. Nevertheless, root fresh
biomasses of RY7 treated with 0% (1.17 g pot -1) and 100% (5.96 g pot-1) VM teas weresignificantly higher than the control (2.29 g pot-1) (Table 3). Meanwhile, root fresh biomass of RY9Ⓒ ISERD

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treated with 50% (3.13 g pot-1) and 100% (3.91 g pot-1) VM teas significantly increased relative tothe control (1.55 g pot-1). In KU50, only 50% VM tea (5.99 g pot-1) was significantly higher thanthe control (1.09 g pot-1). Significant decrease in root dry biomass in KU50 treated with 100% VM
tea suggests that this VM tea might has plant diseases and toxic compounds which exerted thenegative effects on root growth. Frederickson (2002) found that VM tea decreased seedgermination and plant growth. Therefore, dilution of VM tea for pre-planting treatment of cassava
stem cutting should be critically considered. However, this practice may decrease plant nutrients,and hence cassava root biomass.
CONCLUSION
Pre-treatment of cassava stem cutting with VM tea before planting could accelerate rooting andbudding of all three cassava varieties (RY7, RY9, and KU50). This was due to VM tea containing
plant essential elements and growth regulators which promoted cassava rooting within 7 DAP.
We recommend that 50% VM tea is the optimum concentration for pre-planting treatment of
the cutting as this concentration contributed to the highest cassava root and bud numbers comparedto others. Therefore, use of VM tea is an alternative choice for stem cutting pre-treatment, which
can substitute chemical uses, and also accelerate rooting and budding of cassava.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research project was funded by The National Research Council of Thailand (NRCT) andNational Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA) under 2012. Thanks areextended to the Division of Land Resource and Environment, Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen
University for the conveniences and equipments in laboratory test and Integrated Water Resource
Management Research and Development Center in Northeast Thailand.
REFERENCES
Arancon, N. Q., Edwards, C. A., Bierman, P., Metzger, J. D. and Lucht, C. 2005. Eﬀects of vermicomposts
produced from cattle manure, food waste and paper waste on the growth and yield of peppers in theﬁeld. Pedobiologia, 49, 297-306.
Atiyeh, R. M., Edwards, C. A., Subler, S. and Metzger, J. D. 2001. Pig manure vermicompost as acomponent of a horticultural bedding plant medium: Effects on physicochemical properties and plant
growth. Bioresource Technology, 78(1), 11-20.
Department of Agricuture. 2002. Good agriculture practice (GAP) for cassava.
Edwards, C. A., Arancon, N. Q. and Greytak, S. 2006. Effects of vermicompost teas on plant growth anddisease. BioCycle, 17, 28-31.
Frederickson, J. 2002. Vermicomposting trial at the worm research centre: Part 1 Techical evaluation.
Integrated Waste Systems Open University.
Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives. 2008. Good agricultural practice for cassava. Thailand.
Montaldo. 1972. Vascular streaking of cassava root tubers. Trop. Sci., 19, 39-46.
Toncho, A. 2007. Earthworm. National Science and Technology Development Agency. Patumthani. 260.
Warburton, K and Pillai-McGarry, P. 2002. Executive summary of InFoRM 2000. Integrated biosystems andsustainable development. the University of Queensland.

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Research article
erd

Water Quality Preservation Effect of Riparian Forests inWatersheds with Dairy Farming Areas in Eastern
Hokkaido
OKAZAWA HIROMU*
Faculty of Regional Environmental Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Email: h1okazaw@nodai.ac.jp

YAMAMOTO TADAO
Research Faculty of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, Hokkaido, Japan.

INOUE TAKASHI
Research Faculty of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, Hokkaido, Japan.

NAGASAWA TETUAKIEmeritus professor, Hokkaido University, Hokkaido, Japan.
Received 14 December 2012

Accepted 27 March 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The effects of riparian buffer zones consisting of forest and wetland on water
quality functions were investigated by comparing the river water quality in two watershedswith dairy farming grassland in a large-scale dairy farming area of Eastern Hokkaido. The
nitrogen, phosphorus and suspended solids (SS) components from the two watersheds, one
without riparian buffer zones (MB) and the other with riparian buffer zones (HY), werecompared at normal flow and at rainfall runoff periods. Total nitrogen (T-N) and NO3−N
concentrations were lower in the water from the river with riparian buffer zones. For thewater sampled during the rainfall runoff period, all the water quality indicators showed
lower concentrations for the river with riparian buffer zones than for the river without
riparian buffer zones. The amount of nitrogen that flowed out of land into the river(nitrogen load) in the watershed with riparian buffer zones was 70% of that of thewatershed without riparian buffer zones. The differences in water quality between the twowatersheds are assumed to have resulted from water purification by the riparian bufferzones on one of the rivers. It is assumed that the riparian trees adsorbed nitrogen and thatthe riparian wetlands removed nitrogen and captured suspended solids, both of which
contributed to purifying the runoff water. Based on the above findings, it can be
determined that the conservation of riparian buffer zones is effective in preserving theriver water quality on a watershed-wide scale in watersheds consisting of dairy farming
grassland.
Keywords riparian, forest, river, nitrogen, phosphorus

INTRODUCTION
In Japan, measures against river water contamination caused by pollutants including nitrogen (N),phosphorus (P) and suspended solid (SS) from upland fields and dairy farming grassland has beencalled for since the 1980s. The authors have been examining water quality conservation measures
based on land use by conducting studies on the relationship between river water quality and land
use in watersheds with upland fields and grassland in Hokkaido, Japan (Okazawa et al, 2010, 2011
and 2012). We have reported that a major factor in river water contamination is the expansion of
farmland in agricultural watersheds, that the location and scale of farmlands and forests influence
the nitrogen concentration of river water, and that forests and wetlands along rivers, which arecalled riparian buffer zones, are effective in conserving the quality of river water.
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The ability of riparian buffer zones to conserve the water environment has attracted attention
in the US and Europe since the 1980s (e.g. Lowrance et al., 1984; Hill et al., 2000). It has beenclarified that the nitrogen concentration of runoff from farmlands in the shallow groundwater
decreases when it passes through riparian buffer zones. In Japan, Hayakawa et al. (2001) andKanazawa and Hayakawa (2001) examined the relationship between the topographic linkage andthe nitrate nitrogen concentration in groundwater, and clarified that the nitrate nitrogenconcentration in runoff water from upland fields decreases when that water passes though
grasslands. Nakamura and Ishida (2001) examined the effectiveness of riparian buffer zones inconserving the water quality on a watershed-wide scale in a small watershed with dairy farming
grassland in Eastern Hokkaido, and they clarified the relationship between the changes in the water
environment by ground freezing and the water quality conservation of buffer zones. In Japan andother regions that experience Asian monsoons, few studies have addressed the functions of riparianbuffer zones, and proposals for measures for conservation and restoration of riparian buffer zones
are not easily accepted. Even though riparian buffer zones have been recognized as conserving thewater quality, few studies have evaluated the phenomenon on a watershed-wide scale.
OBJECTIVE
This study investigated the influence of riparian buffer zones on the water environment of awatershed by examining a dairy farming area with grassland in Eastern Hokkaido, where relatively
natural riparian buffer zones consisting of riparian forests and wetlands are found. The river waterat the normal flow and rainfall runoff periods was investigated in two watersheds with different
conditions of rivers and surrounding areas: The river in one watershed was artificially modified andthe areas along it was mainly grassland, and the river in the other watershed was natural, with
forests and wetlands along it. By comparing the river water quality of the two watersheds using
statistical method, the effects of riparian buffer zones on water quality functions were clarified on awatershed-wide scale.
METHODOLOGY
The subject area
The  survey  was  done  in  Hamanaka  Town  (E145°13′,  N43°07′),  which  is  in  a  dairy  farming  area  of  Eastern Hokkaido. Hamanaka is located in hills at Konsendaichi in the Nemuro-Kushiro Tableland,
which has a geological basement of pyroclastic deposits and a thick surface layer of black volcanic
ash soil. The daily mean temperature in Hamanaka averages 4.9 °C; it is -12.3 °C in February and19.8 °C in August 2003. The annual precipitation in 2003 was 1,178 mm, and rain frequently falls
in the period from August to October. The snowfall season is from November to April. On theKonsen Plain (Nemuro-Kushiro Plain), where Hamanaka Town is located, large-scale pilot farms
with pasture that are mainly for dairy farming were established during the period from 1950 to2000. The main agriculture in this area is livestock and dairy farming, with upland cultivation alsodone in some parts.
The surveys were done on the two tributaries of the Furen River, which flows throughHamanaka Town (Fig. 1, Table 1). The watersheds are indicated as MB and HY. The watersheds
are similar in area and in proportions of land uses. The locations of grassland and forest relative tothe rivers and the degree of river modification differed between the watersheds. In MB, thegrassland comes very close to the riverbanks and 71% of the river has been modified, which isrelatively high compared to HY. The riverbed and riverbanks are covered with concrete blocks. In
HY, riparian forests of Japanese ash (Fraxinus mandshurica) and alder trees (Alnus japonica) andwetlands are found along the river. This river remains in its natural, unmodified state. The riparian
forests are 30 - 100 m wide. There are livestock barns scattered in both watersheds. The cattle
densities are 91 head/km2 for MB and 85 head/km for HY. The livestock manure is spread on thegrasslands after being composted or processed as slurry.
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Cattle shedRiver
WetlandForestland
Grassland●
Monitoring
point

Fig.1

Landuse map of the MB watershed (Left) and the HY watershed (Right)
Table 1 General description of the two watersheds
Name of the watershed
Watershed area (km2)Land use percentage in the watershed
Grassland (%)
Forestland (%)
Wetland (%)
Others (%)
Length of river (km)River density (km･km-2)
Percentage of improvement length (%)
Stocking density of cattle (Head･km-2)

MB
10.9
72
23
0
5
8.26
0.76
71
91

HY
8.9
70
23
6
1
6.23
0.70
0
85

Survey technique
The survey periods were from September 5 to November 16 2002 and from June 6 to November15
2003. Continuous monitoring was done for precipitation, river water level and water quality
indicators by installing a rain gauge, a water-level gauge and an automatic water sampler at eachmonitoring point.
River discharges were determined from an H-Q equation obtained from the relationshipbetween the measured discharge (Q) and the water level (H). The continuous values for waterlevels collected at 10-minute intervals were converted into discharges. The survey periods wereclassified into that with normal flow (during clear weather) and that with rainfall runoff.
River water was collected using automatic water samplers. Two samples per week werecollected from June 6 to August 4 in 2003, and one sample per day (at 12:00 noon) was collected in
the survey period in 2002 and from August 5 to November 15 (a period with frequent rainfalls) in2003. In addition to the regular water sampling, 24-hour continuous sampling at 1-hour intervals
was done whenever the rainfall reached 5 mm/h or more. The number of samples collected during
the survey periods were 119 (MB) and 109 (HY) for the normal flow period; and 290 (MB),including 10 for flooding, and 340 (HY), including 12 for flooding, for the rainfall runoff period.
The water quality indicators analyzed were T-N (total nitrogen), TON (total organic nitrogen),NO3-N, NO2-N, NH4-N, total phosphorus (T-P), PO4-P and SS (suspended solids). Ion components
were analyzed by ion chromatography, and SS was analyzed by suction filtration. TON was
determined by subtracting NO3-N, NO2-N, and NH4-N from T-N.

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Calculation method of nitrogen load
The area-specific load of nitrogen flowing out into the rivers in the two watersheds during theperiod from June 2 to November 14 in 2003 was determined for the normal flow period and therainfall runoff period (Fig.2). The area-specific load is expressed by Eq. (1).
L = ( Q･C ) / A

(1)
-1

-2

3

-1

where L is the Area-specific load (g ･ s ･ km ), Q is the river discharge (m ･ s ), C is theconcentration (mg/L) and A is the area of watershed (km2). The area-specific load of nitrogen
expresses the flux of nitrogen that flows out of a watershed.
As the changes in nitrogen concentration were smaller during the normal flow period than therainfall runoff period (see Table 2 and 3), the area-specific load for the normal flow period was
obtained by multiplying the average nitrogen concentration of river water at the normal flow periodby the discharge. The area-specific load during the rainfall runoff period was obtained based on thewater quality data collected every hour and the discharge data collected during the rainfall runoff
period. For rainfall events for which water sampling using the automatic water sampler was notdone, the load was estimated by obtaining an equation for the relationship between the riverdischarge (Q) and the load (L) (L-Q formula) from existing data (Fig.2).

Area-specific load of T-N (g･s-1･km-2)

100

10

MB
HY

1

L-Q formula
0.1

MB: y = 6.14x1.35
R² = 0.95**
HY: y = 3.44x1.34
R² = 0.94

0.01

0.001
0.001

0.01
0.1
1
River discharge (m3･s-1･km-2)

10

Fig.2 Relationship between specific load of T-N (L) and river discharge (Q) during rainfall
runoff period
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Characteristics of river water quality at normal flow and rainfall runoff periods
The concentrations of water quality indicators (discharge-weighted average) for the two watersheds
during the normal flow period and those during the rainfall runoff period are shown in Tables 2 and3. During the normal flow period, statistically significant by using t-test statistics differences
between the watersheds were found in the concentrations of T-N and NO3-N, and theseconcentrations were lower in MB than in HY. For other water quality indicators, the differences intheir concentrations between the two watersheds were small, and no significant differences
between the two watersheds were found.
Based on the above findings, it can be thought that NO3-N, which readily eluviates from thegrassland soil at normal water level, was purified in the riparian forests, and made theconcentrations of water quality components in MB low.
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During the rainfall runoff period, the concentrations of all the water quality indicators werehigher in MB than in HY. The difference in concentrations of TON, NH4-N, T-P and SS, whichreadily flow with the suspended components, were great between the watersheds. During therainfall runoff period, soil erosion occurs in grassland, and contaminants are adsorbed by sediments
and flow out into rivers. That the concentrations of water quality indicators were lower in HY thanin MB was attributed to the catching, by the riparian forests and wetlands, of contaminants
generated during the rainfall runoff period, which thus kept them from flowing into the river.
Table 2 Mean concentration in normal flow period
MB
T-N
TON
NO3-N
NO2-N
NH4-N
T-P
PO4-P
watershed
M.C.
1.14
0.30
0.80
0.02
0.02
0.08
0.03
S.D.
0.35
0.30
0.16
0.02
0.03
0.05
0.02
C.V.
31
99
20
122
165
66
52
HY
T-N
TON
NO3-N
NO2-N
NH4-N
T-P
PO4-P
watershed
M.C.
0.79
0.30
0.46
0.01
0.02
0.09
0.04
S.D.
0.41
0.24
0.30
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.03
C.V.
52
80
65
120
181
74
75
M.C.:Mean concentration (mg/L), S.D.: Standard division (mg/L), C.V.: Coefficient of variation (%)

SS
12
12
99
SS
10
11
109

Table 3 Mean concentration in rainfall runoff period
MB
T-N
TON
NO3-N
NO2-N
NH4-N
T-P
PO4-P
watershed
M.C.
4.66
3.63
0.63
0.04
0.35
0.61
0.30
S.D.
3.05
2.88
0.36
0.06
0.41
1.23
0.20
C.V.
66
79
57
139
117
200
68
HY
T-N
TON
NO3-N
NO2-N
NH4-N
T-P
PO4-P
watershed
M.C.
2.52
1.89
0.47
0.03
0.14
0.58
0.22
S.D.
1.50
1.45
0.15
0.04
0.16
0.53
0.15
C.V.
59
77
31
159
118
91
70
M.C.:Mean concentration (mg/L), S.D.: Standard division (mg/L), C.V.: Coefficient of variation (%)
1600

SS
107
110
103

Rainfall runoff period
Normal flow period

1400
Area-specific load of T-N (kg･km-2)

SS
204
274
135

1200
1000
800

1298

600

907

400
200
0

170

125

MB

HY

Fig.3 Specific load of T-N during 3 June to 14 November 2003
Nitrogen loading reduction by riparian buffer zones
Figure 3 shows the relationship between area-specific load of T-N in the MB watershed and the HYwatershed. The area-specific load of T-N showed lower values in HY than in MB for both thenormal flow period or the rainfall runoff period. The two watersheds differed in whether they hadⒸ ISERD

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riparian forests and wetlands or did not have these. Therefore, the difference in the area-specific TN between the two watersheds can be attributed to reduction of nitrogen by the riparian forests andwetlands. It can be assumed that the low levels of nitrogen concentration were the result of
purification by the riparian forests and wetlands. Because, many researchers reported that thesurface water, which contained nitrogen components flowing out from grasslands into the riparian
forests and wetlands, was purified when the trees adsorbed nitrogen components and the wetlands
removed nitrogen components (e.g. Takahashi et al., 2003). The area-specific load of T-N in HY
for the normal flow period was 125 kg･km-2, which is 74% that in MB, and for the rainfall runoff
period it was 907 kg･km-2 which is equal to 70% that in MB. This result clarifies that the riparian
forests and wetlands reduced the nitrogen load by 26% during the normal flow period and 30%
during the rainfall runoff period.
CONCLUSION
The water conservation effects of riparian buffer zones (riparian forests and wetlands) were
examined by comparing the water qualities of rivers in two similar dairy farming grassland
watersheds that had different degrees of artificial modification of the rivers and different riparian
environments. Data suggest the concentrations of river water quality indicators, including nitrogen,phosphorus and SS, in the water of the river with such zones to be lower than in the water of theriver without such zones. The zones were found to significantly reduce such load from grasslands,
particularly during the rainfall runoff period. It was clarified that about 30% of the nitrogen load in
runoff was reduced by the riparian buffer zones.
This study was able to clarify the water quality conservation effect of riparian buffer zones ona watershed-wide scale. It also clarified that the water quality functions of riparian buffer zones
differed for every water quality component by flow regime (normal vs. rainfall runoff).
In recent years degradation of the water environment in agricultural watersheds has been a concern
in Hokkaido. It can be said that including the conservation of riparian forests and wetlands inenvironment improvement plans is effective in conserving the water environment of rivers.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was supported by Grant-in-Aid for Young Scientists (B) from The Ministry of
Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), Japan and by Important Point
Project of Graduate School of Agriculture by Tokyo University of Agriculture. We would like toexpress our gratitude to Prof. Dr. Yasushi TAKEUCHI (Tokyo University of Agriculture) and Dr.
Keiji UNOKI (Civil Engineering Research Institute for Cold Region). The authors are also gratefulfor the research assistance provided by the students of the Laboratory of Land Improvement andManagement, Graduate School of Agriculture, Hokkaido University.
REFERENCES
Hayakawa, Y., Kanazawa, K. and Hojito, M. 2001. Nutrient retention in grassland buffer strip. Proceedingsof the International Workshop on Efficiency of Purification Processes in Riparian Buffer Zones Their
Design and Planning in Agricultural Watersheds. National Agricultural Research Center for Hokkaido
Region, Japan. 67-76.
Hill, A.R., Devito, K.J., Campagnolo, S. and Sanmugadas, K., 2000. Subsurface denitrofication in a forest
riparian zone: Interactions between hydrology and supplies of nitrate and organic carbon.
Biogeochemistry, 51, 193-223.
Kanazawa, K. and Hayakawa, Y. 2001. Denitrification in grassland buffer strip. In: Proceedings of theInternational Workshop on Efficiency of Purification Processes in Riparian Buffer Zones Their Design
and Planning in Agricultural Watersheds. National Agricultural Research Center for Hokkaido Region,
Japan. 133-139.
Lowrance, R.R., Todd, R.L., Fail, J., Hendricson, J.O., Leonard, J.R. and Asmussen, L. 1984. Riparian
forests as nutrient filters in agricultural watersheds. BioScience, 34, 374-377.
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Nakamura, K. and Ishida, T. 2001. Impact of the forest buffer zone on the water quality of the dairy farmland,
Proceedings of the International Workshop on Efficiency of Purification Processes in Riparian Buffer
Zones Their Design and Planning in Agricultural Watersheds. National Agricultural Research Centerfor Hokkaido Region, Japan. 35-44.
Okazawa, H., Yamamoto, D. and Takeuchi, Y. 2010. Influences of riparian land use on nitrogenconcentration of river water in agricultural and forest watersheds of northeastern Hokkaido, Japan.
International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development, 1(2), 1-6.
Okazawa, H., Muneoka, T., Kudo, Y. and Takeuchi, Y. 2011. Effect of land use agglomeration on nitrogenconcentrations in river water in the Tokachi River. International Journal of Environmental and Rural
Development, 2(1), 37-42.
Okazawa, H., Yamamoto, T., Inoue, T. and Nagasawa, T. 2012. Water quality improvement by natural
meandering river surrounded by woods in agricultural watersheds. International Journal of Environment
and Rural Development, 3(1), 137-143.
Tkahashi, K., Hayashi, S., Nakamura, F., Tsuji, T., Tsuchiya, S. and Imaizumi, H. 2003. A review on buffer
width required for ecological functions of riparian forests. Ecol. Civil Eng., 5(2), 139-167.

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Research article
erdIntegrating Plant Genetic Resources Conservation andManagement into the State  University’s  Mandates:  An Initiative for Sustainable Development
MARINA A. LABONITE*
Bohol Island State University, Philippines
Email: mtalabonite@yahoo.com.ph
Received 15 December 2012

Accepted 27 March 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Plant genetic resources (PGR) are plant materials of actual or potential value forthe present and future generations. (Borromeo, 2007). Its conservation, management andsustainable utilization are important in environmental protection, crop improvement andfood security. In the Philippines, the National Plant Genetic Resources Laboratory, ensuresthat a number of accessions of crops species are secure and accessible. (Hautea, 1998);
Philippine Coconut Authority, Davao National Crop Research and Development Center,
Bureau of Plant Industry (Bautista, 1994); and International Rice Genebank Collection(IRRI, 2012) also maintain germplasm collections. Foregoing institutions are nonacademic. Hence, Bohol Island State University (BISU) in Bohol, Philippines with SouthEast Asia Regional Initiative for Community Empowerment (SEARICE) worked on PGR
conservation through Farmers Field School (FSS) and Agriculture Curriculum Enrichment(ACE) Projects purposely to mainstream the principles of sustainable agriculture anddevelopment through conservation, improvement and utilization of PGR in thecommunities. Participatory basic needs assessment; FFS curriculum formulation; ACE
following protocol and networking with Local Government Units, Department ofAgriculture line agencies, non-government  and  peoples’  organization  were  employed.  As  a  result, 16 FFS were conducted while ACE project successfully integrated Plant Genetic
Resources Conservation and Management (PGRCM) into the two Agriculture curricular
programs of BISU. Seventy-five students passed the PGRCM course who also graduatedfrom FFS with 290 farmers, five faculty-trainers and nine agricultural technician-trainers
with skills in participatory varietal trials, selection and plant breeding that raised ricediversity in villages by 25-33 percent, produced three stable rice accessions, 25 selections
and 18 breeding lines at F3 today apart from a number of bonus accomplishments. Thesedevelopments are realities justifying that PGRCM can be successfully integrated into thestate   university’s   mandates:   instruction,   research,   extension   and   production   and   be  capitalized as valuable initiative for sustainable development in the communities which theacademe serves.
Keywords plant genetic resources, plant genetic resources conservation and management,
farmers field school (FFS), state university, mandate, sustainable development

INTRODUCTION
The Philippines is one of the mega diverse countries in the world both at ecosystem, species andgenetic level. Nevertheless, it is also one of the hot spots. For this reason, agencies responsible on
the Philippine fragile super-diverse ecosystem that houses animal and plant genetic resources are
calling to pool in efforts on its conservation and management. Like other government entities,
higher education institutions like BISU unifies with other agencies on this noble task of managing
life indispensable reserves.
For relevance to local and global trends on sustainable development, BISU has collaborative
endeavors with SEARICE, an institution advocating Sustainable Agriculture (SA) and Community
Biodiversity Conservation and Development (CBDC). From this partnership emerged the initiativeⒸ ISERD

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of integrating plant genetic resources conservation and management into the state university’s  functions empowering is faculty and students on this very important task commonly carried out by
non-academic institutions.
The objective of this initiative was to mainstream the sustainable agriculture principles andapproaches into the curricular, research and extension programs of the academe, hence, this reality
project on the integration of PGR conservation, improvement and utilization at the BISU-Bilar,
Bohol, Central Philippines since 1998 to the present.
OBJECTIVE
The main purpose of the project is to mainstream the principles of sustainable agriculture anddevelopment particularly on the conservation, development and utilization of plant genetic
resources  into  the  university’s  mandates.
The initiative has the following specific aims:
1. To integrate the course PGRCM into the Bachelor of Science in Agriculture (BSA) andBachelor in Agricultural Technology (BAT) curricular programs of BISU;
2. To produce Agriculture graduates with knowledge and skills in PGRCM;
3. To organize and implement a research program on PGRCM at BISU;
4. To empower farming communities in Bohol on rice PGRCM; and5. To document the issues and lessons learned during the project implementation.
METHODOLOGY
The project was planned and implemented in partnership with SEARICE. To attain its objectives,
the project team utilized a combination of strategies.
PGRCM integration into the instruction mandate through ACE was made by reviewing andrevising the BAT and BSA Curricular Programs in coordination with the Curriculum Committee of
BISU following the Guidelines on Curriculum Enrichment of the university and the Circular
Memorandum Order (CMO) of the Commission on Higher Education (CHED). Implementation in
BISU-Bilar where the programs are offered followed after its approval and preparation of its
syllabus. Class enrolment and activities were monitored and recorded.
PGRCM integration into the research mandate was organized through the genetic diversity
conservation (GDCon) project implementation. Center-based and on-farm research projects on
PGRCM were conceptualized and conducted like the Participatory Varietal Selection (PVS) andParticipatory Plant Breeding (PPB) along with FFS. Experimental research techniques, datacollection and analysis were employed for completed studies while monitoring was made for ongoing activities.
For the extension function, FFS on Community-based Organic Rice Diversity andDevelopment (CORD) was conducted by the team in selected rice farming communities of Bohol.
On-farm experiments were utilized for the hands-on activities of the FFS. The BISU-SEARICE
dual collaboration was also expanded for a better and wider implementation.
Issues and lessons from the integration were also documented. Most of the data collection anddocumentation were prepared by a team member teaching and implementing the PGRCM researchand extension activities. This has been done for six year years now.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
BISU envisioned to be a premier Science and Technology university for the formation of a worldclass and virtuous human resource for sustainable development in Bohol and the country. Attaining
this requires the university to operate its mandates along with this vision. This endeavor hadconceptualized initiatives which partly generated results that manifest its realization.
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ACE Initiative
Based on the curricular review conducted in 2003, BISU offered BAT major in Crop Production
Technology and Animal Production Technology and BSA with specialization in Crop Science,
Animal Science and Crop Protection. The BAT curriculum was introduced by the Agricultural
Technology Education Program of the government since 1990 while the BSA was based on certain
DECS and CHED Memorandum Orders. Both programs contained important courses but short ofthose related to sustainable agriculture and development which are the cry of the times since thelate 80s. Hence, Sustainable Agriculture and PGRCM were recommended for integration to makethe programs relevant to the needs.
Following the university protocol on curricular changes, the integration was approved by the
Board of Trustees in 2004 placing PGRCM as an elective subject in the fourth year Crop Science
and Crop Production Technology specialization. The course was offered and Table 1 shows its
successful takers. By this, BISU manifested support on the international concerns likeenvironmental health, biodiversity conservation for food security and sustainable development
through its flagship program in Agriculture.
Table 1 Population of Agriculture student-enrollees and passers of the PGRCM course andits percentage from the roster of graduates, AY 2007-2012
AcademicYears

Total Agriculture(BAT & BSA) Students

Total (BAT & BSA)PGRCM Students*% Agriculturists withPGRCM Knowledge &SkillsEnrolled
Graduated
Enrolled
Passed2007-2008
83
83
21
21
25.30
2008-2009
54
53
22
22
41.50
2009-2010
37
37
8
8
21.62
2010-2011
31
29
16
16
55.17
2011-2012**
63
62
1
1
1.61
2012-2013**
53
53***
11
10
18.87 ***
TOTAL
321
317***
79
78
24.61 **** BSA - Crop Science major, BAT-Crop Production Technology major students***projected**year when BAT was revised into a generalist program
Source: Office of the Registrar

PGRCM research projects
Apart from the rice PVS and PPB, the FFS participants were exposed to the projects establishedand sustained by BISU-Bilar to level up their PGRCM knowledge and skills in industrial and othereconomic crops. Table 2 shares data on these projects.
The FFS manifests the super-imposing services in research, instruction and extension. Before
the FFS, a benchmark study on the diversity of rice in area was done, then a monitoring activity
through the local technicians. Table 3 reveals the seed increase at the FFS sites for a period of six
years implying a considerable increase in rice diversity in the areas.
The  FFS  participants  were  able  to  produce  “rice  selections”  and  breeding  lines  from  their  PVS  and PPB activities. The teaching-learning exercises of FFS partakers have already developed rice
breeding lines at F3 as initial products of participatory research as presented in Table 4.
FFS- on community-based organic rice diversity and development (CORD)
BISU organized with the Bohol-Provincial Agriculture Office (PAO) a season-long FFS-CORD forvillages that need it. This was tapped as the laboratory field for PGRCM students. The 14-session
FFS provided a shared experiential learning opportunity among students, partners like farmers,
LGU technicians, faculty-trainees on PGRCM, SEARICE staff and BISU traineers on actual PVS,PPB, vrietal rejuvenation, characterization and other field demonstration on ecological pest
management and soil fertility management using organic fertilizers. Table 5 presents the venues
and number of FFS participants.
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Table 2 Functional PGRCM research projects at BISU-Bilar, Zamora, Bilar, Bohol,
Philippines useful for instruction, extension and income generation
No. ofSpeciesNo. ofAccessions

Year
EstablishedUtilization

Clonal Nursery

22

35

2012

Source of planting materials for the
National Greening Project of thePhilippines; instruction, research

Sweet Sorghum

1

6

2010

Abaca Nursery
Molave Provenancecum Progeny Trial

1

3

2009

1

5

2008

Fruit Genebank

11

27

2005

Anthurium

2

33

2003

Rice Seedbank

2

240

2001

Timber Genebank

60

65

1998

Coconut Genebank
1
TOTAL
105
Source: Project In-Charge

5
229

1983

PGRCM Projects

Tourism, instruction, researchShow-window for enterprise development
Instruction, research, source of planting
materials for farmers
Instruction, research, source of planting
materials for farmers
Source of gene/seeds; source of planting
materials for the clonal nursery; income
Instruction, research, show-window forenterprise development
Back-up supply of organic rice seeds forfarmers & breeders;
Agro-eco-tourism, instruction, researchShow-window for farmers
for income-generating project (IGP);
Source of organic rice seeds for farmers &breeders
Source of genes/seeds; source of planting
materials for the clonal nursery
Instruction; research; source of gene;incomeTable 3 Rice seed increase in the FFS-CORD and PGRCM laboratory/demo sites in
Bohol, Philippines, Academic Years 2007-2013
Years/ Season

Locationsin Bohol, Philippines

2007-2008
Campagao, Bilar
2008-2009
San Miguel, Dagohoy
2009-2010
Untaga, Alicia
2010-2011
BISU-Bilar, Zamora
2011-2012
Poblacion, San Isidro
2012-2013
BISU-Bilar & Loboc
Source: RDE Library, 2012

No. of Varieties/ Accessions
Used
OnUsedBefore FFS
Trial
After FFS
16
20
11
8
25
10
9
25
10
15
160
21
10
30
12
11
45
9

%
Seed Increase
145.45
80.00
90.00
71.43
83.33
122.22

Table 4 Number of rice breeding lines produced by FFS participants and facilitators during
the PPB activities in Bohol, Philippines, Academic Years 2007-2013
AcademicYears
2007-2008
2008-20092009-20102010-20112011-20122012-2013

FFS Sitesin Bohol, Philippines
Campagao, Bilar
San Miguel, Dagohoy
Untaga, Alicia
BISU-Bilar, Zamora
Poblacion, San Isidro
BISU-Bilar & Loboc
TOTAL
Source: RDE Library, 2012

Number Involved
Students
Farmers
Trainers
21
10
3
22
25
3
8
10
3
16
0
1
1
28
3
11
17
4
79
90
17
*breeding lines at F 3Ⓒ ISERD

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No.of BreedingLines/Selections
6
4
2
13
6*
18*
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Table 5 Venues and partners/graduates of the off -campus PGRCM activities with the FFSCORD in Bohol, Philippines, Academic Years 2007-2013
Academic
Year/Crop
Ping Season

Locationsin Bohol,Philippines

Number of Partners/Graduates
Students

Farmers

TechniciansFacultyTrainees

LGU
PAO
Campagao, Bilar
21
10
0
0
2
San Miguel, Dagohoy
22
25
1
2
2
Untaga, Alicia
8
10
1
2
2
BISU, Zamora*
16
0
0
0
0
Poblacion, San Isidro
1
28
3
3
1
BISU-Bilar & Loboc
11
17
3
3
0
TOTAL
79
90
8
10
7
Source: RDE Library, 2012*- The batch decided to have the in-campus activities only due to conflicting schedules with the farmers
2007-2008
2008-20092009-20102010-20112011-20122012-2013

GO &NGO
Trainers
3
3
3
1
3
4
17

Issues and lessons learned
Despite the significance of PGRCM to food security, it is only recognized as an Elective subject
where only limited number of Crop major students will enroll, thus the need for it become a basic
subject so all Agriculture students will take. The non-production of stable materials by the students
due to too many activities they have for a limited time was noted. Besides, space and seed bankfacilities are inadequate for the very delicate work of growing and handling selections and breedinglines, hence, the need for a wider handling area.
A highly appreciated observation was the great synergy that developed among the young
inquisitive students vis-as-vis the adult, experienced practical farmers as well as the technicalexperts which provided scientific basis on the practices and beliefs that demand for it.
FFS participants also automatically become partners in the disseminating the planting
materials, thus, diversifying their farms in dispersing information on sustainable organic farming
techniques including indigenous repellents for pest management.
CONCLUSION
1. The PGRCM was successfully integrated into the BAT and BSA curricular programs of BISU
as an Elective subject of the students with major in Crop Production Technology and Crop
Science respectively;
2. For a period of six years, BISU has produced 78 out of the 317 equivalent to 24.61% of theAgriculture graduates major in Crop Production/Crop Science with knowledge and skills in
PGRCM;
3. BISU was able to organize and implement one research program with eight component
projects that advocate PGRCM;
4. Through the FFS initiative, the university was able to empower six farming communities in
Bohol with 90 farmer-graduates on rice PGRCM apart from training eight LGU technicians, 10
PAO staff and seven faculty; and5. The most important issue noted during the project implementation was the recognition of thesubject PGRCM as an Elective where only few will enroll and the lesson learned during the
project implementation was the synergy of the FFS participants advocating PGRCM.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author highly recognized the active participation of the PGRCM students, the rice farmers ofBilar, Alicia, Dagohoy, San Isidro and Loboc, Bohol, for their time and cooperation; the LGU
technicians of the same municipalities, PAO staff, the interested BISU faculty, SEARICE staff,Ⓒ ISERD

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facilitators and the collaborating institutions of the project for their technical and financial support;
the BISU administration for the all-out support in the project implementation.
REFERENCES
Bautista, O.K. 1994. Introduction to tropical horticulture. Second edition. SEAMEO SEARCA andUniversity of the Philippines Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines.
Borromeo, T. 2007. NPGRL. Lecture guide on plant genetic conservation and management. IPB, UPCA, Los
Banos, Laguna, Philippines.
Hautea, R.A. 1998. NPGRL. Protocols on genebank operations. Institute of Plant Breeding, College ofAgriculture, University of the Philippines, Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines.
IRRI. 2012. Rice world. Internationl Rice Research Institute. University of the Philippines. Los Banos,
Languana, Philippines.

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Research article
erd

Development of Organic Animal and Crop Production in
BosniaNOUREDDIN DRIOUECH
Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Bari (CIHEAM-MAIB), Bari, Italy

VESNA  MILIĆ
Faculty of Agriculture, University of East Sarajevo, East Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina

HAMID EL BILALI
Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Bari (CIHEAM-MAIB), Bari, Italy

ALEKSANDRA DESPOTOVIĆ
Biotechnical Faculty, University of Podgorica, Podgorica, Montenegro

JASMINA SIMIĆ
Cooperative Union of the Republic of Srpska, Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina

SINISA BERJAN*
University of East Sarajevo, East Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Email: sinisaberjan@yahoo.com

MIRKO KULINA
Faculty of Agriculture, University of East Sarajevo, East Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Received 18 December 2012

Accepted 27 March 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract About 35 million hectares of agricultural land are managed organicallyworldwide by 1.4 million producers. Bosnia has a big agro-ecological potential and natural
capital for organic production (OP) as traditional small-scale agriculture can be easily
converted to organic. Agricultural land covers 50% of the total area. The paper aims at
giving an overview of the current situation of the Bosnian organic sector especiallypotential, animal and crop production, governance, legal framework and market. Somesolutions to overcome the main barriers to OP development are discussed. The paper isbased on a secondary data review and exploratory semi-structured interviews - dealing
mainly with reasons for converting to organic; marketing channels; problems; impacts;
access to agricultural extension - conducted in July 2012 with 20 organic producers from
Sarajevo, Banja Luka, Mostar, Bihac, etc. Organic area represents less than 1% of the total
agricultural area. Plant production - mainly cereals - is more significant than animal
production. Wild collection plays an important role. The complex political structure
renders organic sector governance difficult. There is no national action plan and nonational law on OP was enforced. Only the Republika Srpska entity has a law on OP.
Organska Kontrola is the first local certification body. The organic movement isexperiencing new dynamics, pushed by farmer and consumer associations and market
actors. Organic market is relatively young and small. Supply chains are generally short.
Two marketing channels grow slowly: direct selling (on-farm, farm gate, green/farmer
markets) and conventional retail. Certified organic products are exported primarily to theEuropean Union. Further organic sector growth is more than likely. OP represents a valid
instrument for sustainable natural resources management and rural development. For
allowing organic farming to express all its potential domestic market should be developed;
legal framework and governance enhanced; and institutional and financial support secured.
Keywords organic farming, extension, organic market, BosniaⒸ ISERD

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INTRODUCTION
Thirty-five million hectares of agricultural land are managed organically by almost 1.4 million
producers especially in Oceania (12.1 million ha), Europe (8.2 million ha) and Latin America (8.1
million ha) (Willer and Kilcher, 2010). In Western Balkans Countries (WBC) the debate on organic
agriculture development is taking place, with the involvement of public and private actors, withinvarious cooperation projects and consultation networks operating at different levels (MAIB, 2008).
Organic markets in the WBC in general and in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) in particular are,compared to some of the organic markets in Western Europe, relatively young, very small and in an
early stage of market development (Renko et al., 2010). During the last years, domestic market
actors and their associations as well as foreign market actors and policy makers often pushed theorganic sector evolution with regard to different aspects: official regulation, certification andlabeling of organically produced and processed products. Significant influence on organic
movements in most WBC countries comes from the legal framework of the EU (Renko et al., 2010).
Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of two governing entities namely the Federation of Bosnia
and Herzegovina (FBiH) and Republika Srpska (RS). Agriculture share in GDP was 8.1% in 2011
(EC, 2012). Agriculture employs a fifth (20.6%) of the total labor force i.e. 167,000 persons(ASBiH, 2012). Agricultural land covers 50% of the total area (MoFTER, 2009). Bosnia andHerzegovina has good preconditions for organic animal and crop production and wild collection(Dimitrije and Tomic, 2010; Renko et al., 2010) but a series of problems hinder further
development of the sector.
OBJECTIVE
The paper aims at giving an overview of the current situation of organic farming in Bosnia andHerzegovina.
METHODOLOGY
The work is based on a secondary data review and exploratory semi-structured interviews. The
main secondary data sources were ministries, specific organic statistics, certification bodies,professional organizations, the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements(IFOAM), the Mediterranean Organic Agriculture Network (MOAN), etc.
Semi-structured interviews (SSI) were conducted in July 2012 with 20 organic producers
randomly chosen from nine cities/municipalities all over BiH: Sarajevo, Banja Luka, Mostar, Bihac,
Ribnik, Petrovac, Kozarska Dubica, Knezevo and Konjic. The checklist prepared for SSI included
33 questions dealing mainly with: reasons for converting to organic farming; organic animal andcrop production as well as beekeeping; main marketing channels; problems and constraints; maineconomic, social and environmental impacts of organic agriculture; access to agricultural extension
and subsides; main sources of information about organic agriculture; involvement in organic
agriculture projects and initiatives; social capital of organic producers; collaboration and contact
with other institutions and actors (e.g. certification bodies; public institutions; research institutes;
donors); etc. Some solutions and recommendations to overcome the main barriers to organic
production development provided by the interviewed organic operators are discussed.
The average age of the interviewed organic operators is 46.4 (age range: 27-80). Almost allinterviewees (90%) are men. Among the interviewees there are no illiterate, half of them (50%)
have secondary education while 20% of them have high education. The surveyed rural households
generate income mainly through farming, pensions and salaries from the public sector. Farm
surface ranges from less than one to about 100 hectares. Land use is dominated by arable land andpermanent grassland and grazing land while land surface dedicated to organic permanent crops,
aquaculture and apiculture is quite limited.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Bosnian agricultural production is more traditionally oriented, and the use of pesticides is lower
than elsewhere in Europe (Stanojcic-Eminagic, 2010; EC, 2009). There are also few industrial
polluters (Stanojcic-Eminagic,  2010).  In  fact,  only  20%  of  BiH’s  agricultural  surface  is  suitable  for  intensive  farming  (EC,  2009).  Because  of  the  low  consumption  of  fertilizers  and  pesticides,  BiH’s  traditional small-scale agriculture can quite easily convert towards organic farming (Renko et al.,2010). The average farm size is 3 ha. Large parts of the country are uncultivated land or forests
while two thirds of the territory are considered mountainous or hilly. Wild collection of fruits,
herbs and mushrooms is an important traditional activity (Dimitrije and Tomic, 2010). Additional
advantages are the relatively low labor costs (EC, 2009).
The exploratory field survey showed that the main reasons for converting to organic farming
are: economic profit; personal satisfaction; environmental protection; and healthy production. Theinterviewed organic operators believe that organic agriculture bring multiple benefits. Some of theinterviewees (15%) consider that organic agriculture has not brought about any economic impacts.
They   very   likely   refer   to   their   household’s   financial   situation.   Nevertheless,   most   of   the  interviewees consider that organic agriculture has generated multiple economic benefits to theirrural households and communities. These include higher prices (premium prices) and income,lower production costs and local economy revitalization. The main social impacts of organic
agriculture are social capital strengthening; better relationship with neighbors; and increased
membership in cooperatives and associations. The main environmental impacts are reduced soil
and water pollution and the conservation of biodiversity (e.g. local and traditional varieties).
Organic agriculture is at an early stage of development in BiH and there are no national
standards yet being enforced. A national Law on Organic Farming is in the phase of adoption. The
law  is  fully  harmonized  with  the  new  European  Union’s  regulations  on  organic  farming  (834/2007  and 889/2008). Currently only in the Republika Srpska a Law on organic food production exists.
Organska   Kontrola   (OK)   is   the   first   certification   body   in   BiH,   established   in   2004   by   the   “OK  Association”.  OK  has  developed  organic  certification  standards  in  accordance  with  the  IFOAM’s  basic standards and EU regulations (Dimitrije and Tomic, 2010). The certification bodies
mentioned by the interviewees are OK, ECON, ECOline and BeHaBioCert.
In BiH, organic area is 200-400 ha which represents less than 0.1% of the total agriculturalarea. The number of organic farmers is about 300. The average organic farm size is 1.2 ha. Morethan 440,000 ha are certified as surfaces for wild collection of medical and aromatic plants, andmushrooms. Wild collection makes up a significant share of total organic sector. Production isgeographically concentrated in Sarajevo region, central Bosnia region, Herzegovina region andnorth-western Bosnia. These regions are suited for wild collection (Dimitrije and Tomic, 2010).
All the interviewed organic operators were crop and animal producers. Nevertheless, some ofthem deal also with other activities such as beekeeping or over other part of the supply chain e.g.
processing and direct sale. There was also a fish producer. The field survey showed that a wide
range of crops is grown organically in BiH. The most common organically grown crops are: pepper,
onion, potato, tomato, linseed (common flax), rye, maize, buckwheat and barley. As for livestock,
the most important reared species are pigs, bovines, sheep and chicken. The interviewed organic
operators have about 80 beehives.
A relatively well-organized supply chain already exists for export high-value organic products
such as medicinal herbs, honey, berry fruits and wild collection products; that are sold on European
markets (MAIB, 2008). The major exported Bosnian organic products are tea, dried mushrooms,
dried forest fruits, essential oils and raw plant material (sage for teas). Approximately 50-60
products of different kinds of herbs and tea are also being produced and exported, mostly towestern European markets. The main imported organic products in BiH are Kiwi, biscuits, juices,various flours and meals, and pasta (Dimitrije and Tomic, 2010).
Organic food processing started in 2001 mainly based on essential oil production, forest fruit
processing (mushrooms, berries, cranberry, blueberry, rose hip, etc.). The sector is still underdevelopment and involves some 20 small and medium enterprises (Dimitrije and Tomic, 2010).
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wheat, maize, buckwheat); production of wine (blackberry), liqueur (blackberry) and rakija(blackberry); oil extraction; jam and fruit juice production; bakery; etc. Some of them deal alsowith bottling and packaging.
The organic market in BiH is very small mainly because of the low purchasing power of the
population. It is estimated that only around 3% of the population can afford buying organic
products (Stanojcic, 2004). In some cases producers sell their certified organic products atconventional prices. This is foremost the case for all unprocessed items of agriculture and wildcollection. Furthermore, the so-called healthy food is often misinterpreted as organic food. The
organic sector production is still very small and therefore the supply chains are not developed. The
organic market represents only about 0.4% of the total food market value. However, according tosome sources, the organic market in BiH is growing at an annual rate of 10 to 20%. Organic
wholesale is at the beginning of development. Specialized outlets for organic products do not exist.
Generally, the distribution channels for organic products in BiH are: conventional supermarket
chains (Mercator, Tempo); drugstores; pharmacies (herbal teas); green markets in Sarajevo, Banja
Luka and Mostar; and direct selling (Dimitrije and Tomic, 2010). The main marketing channel usedby the interviewed organic producers is on-farm   direct   sale.   However,   also   farmers’   market   and  wholesale to processors are relevant. Other marketing channels include box schemes.
Most of the interviewed organic operators (75%) think that the decision to convert to organic
was appropriate as production of healthy food is a good way to increase household income and to
make agricultural production more sustainable. Nevertheless, it is important to consider that 15%of the interviewees answered that they regret that decision. That is, according to them, mainly due
to the current conditions in BiH making organic agriculture not sustainable. The main problem
faced by the interviewed organic operators is the lack of support from municipalities and otherpublic institutions. They mentioned also other constraints such as very rigid regulation; high pricesof organically allowed inputs; high certification costs; difficulty to find organically allowed inputs
on the market; marketing/sale difficulty; pollution and negative externalities caused by neighbors;lack of training on organic farming; and low prices of organic products. Other problems include
lack of financial resources and difficult access to credits; market insecurity and demand volatility;
weak organization at the state level; irregular and delayed payments; and problems with pests andclimatic disasters. Organic prices are only about 20% higher than prices paid for conventional
products; which does not allow covering higher production costs.
A series of major problems still constitute hindering factors for further development of theorganic sector: lack of information about organic products; the distrust to the information on thelabel; lack of promotional activities; little acceptance of paying price premiums for organic
products; low availability of the organic products; and lack of domestic supply chains. Hinderingfactors include as well the strong export-orientation of the supply chains, insufficient domestic
infrastructure, lack of expertise among farmers and processors, and costly and complicatedcertification (Renko et al., 2010).
According to the organic operators, institutions that should make more efforts to solve theproblems they face are: the State, municipalities/cantons, entities, cooperatives, and the extension
service. Other interviewees pointed out that it is necessary to increase engagement of scientificresearch institutions to demonstrate the benefits of organic farming in order to attract relevant
institutions and foreign investors. It is clear from the provided answers that a concerted effort ofmany institutions is necessary.
All organic operators in the RS declared that they received subsidies. In the FBiH only someorganic producers have access to subsidies and incentives. The main subsidies and incentives
needed by the interviewed Bosnian organic operators change from an entity to another. In the FBiH
they are mainly related to easier access to funds and loans with low interest rates. Also in the RS
the same type of incentives is needed. However, additional requests concern support for getting
financial subsidies; supporting organic farms mechanization (cf. weed management); and support
for storage, processing and irrigation facilities. They also insisted on the fact that the new Law onorganic farming should be enforced as soon as possible.
As for the social capital of organic operators, 70% of the interviewees are members either ofassociations (e.g. Animal Husbandry Association) or cooperatives (e.g. Ecoline, ECON, Sunce,Ⓒ ISERD

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Tresnja). It should be highlighted that 15% of the interviewed organic operators are members ofboth of them. Some organic producers are also members of other participatory and civil society
groups or organizations such as hunting associations.
Two fifths of the interviewees do not have any ongoing collaboration with other institutions.
The remaining deal with many institutions depending on where they operate (FBiH or RS). All inall,   organic   operators   deal   with   the   following   institutions:   municipalities;;   entities’   ministries   of  agriculture; cooperatives (e.g. Ecoline, ECON, Sunshine and Cherry Product); research institutes(e.g. Agricultural Institute at Butimir (Sarajevo); Agro-Mediterranean Faculty (Mostar); Institute ofAgriculture in Bihac; Institute for Agriculture in Unsko-Sanski canton (FBiH); Agricultural
Institute of the Republic of Srpska); certification bodies (e.g. OK; BeHaBIOCert); extension
service; etc. Some of them have contacts with organic producers from other countries e.g. Croatia.
The interviewees get information about organic agriculture through attendance of courses andconferences or via the Internet; TV; trips and visits to other organic farms; magazines andnewspapers; and the radio. Other information sources include friends and professional advisers.
The high percentage of organic producers that rely on these alternative information sources can be
explained by the fact that only less than a fifth on the interviewed organic producers (15%) has
contact with the agricultural extension staff and uses services provided by them. Used extension
services and information are related to production methods, optimal sowing and planting time,
agro-technology and animal husbandry. According to MAIB (2008), most organic producers andprocessors in the WBC complain about the lack of adequate extension and advisory services which
are crucial for the well-functioning of the whole supply chain. The creation and improvement of
supporting structures and services for production and market development is crucial.
Almost a third of the interviewees (30%) do not know anything about organic agriculture
programs and projects while only 15% of them have been involved in previous ones. Donors,
governmental and non-governmental organizations have been active in supporting the organic
sector.   Currently,   a   project   called   the   “Development   of   Organic   Agriculture   in   BiH”   is   being  supported by the Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA) (Dimitrije and Tomic, 2010).
The interviewed organic producers provided many recommendations for fostering thedevelopment of OA in BiH: better organization at the state level; improving protection of organic
producers’  interests;;  increasing  state  and  public institutions’  assistance  and  support;;  better  access  to  markets; better market control; increasing organic producer income through guaranteed premium
prices and subsidies; increasing awareness about the safety and quality of organic food products;
increasing availability of organic inputs; simplifying certification procedures and reducing
certification costs; and increasing involvement of public and civil society organization in theorganic sector. In particular, agricultural research and scientific institutes should help organic
farmers by exploring new possibilities of application of various plant-based pesticides, in order toreduce the use of harmful chemicals, as well as the selection and breeding of crop varieties that are
more adapted to local conditions (climate, soil, pests, etc.). These can include also autochthonous
varieties thus contributing to biodiversity conservation.
In BiH there is a need to enhance understanding and provide more information on the wholeconcept of organic agriculture production and also to secure institutional and financial support todevelop the sector. There is also a need to raise public awareness to appreciate the positive
externalities  of  organic  farming.  This  should  be  done  through  media  promotion,  and  farmers’  fairs  and local markets organization (Dimitrije and Tomic, 2010). Options and solutions to overcome themain barriers to the development of organic agriculture include as well (Renko et al., 2010):
organizing producers in associations and cooperatives; know-how transfer; teaching organic
farming in schools and universities; encouraging vertical and horizontal integration in the supply
chain; fostering aggregation; clarifying labeling and certification procedures; and providing online
information. Strengthening intra-WBC cooperation, exchange and networking is also a highly
appreciated area of intervention. Better and thoughtful synergy in policy-making processes could
foster the mainstreaming of organic agriculture and integrate its future development trajectories
into the wider rural development context and dynamics. The role of the state as well as national
movements is important in the development of the organic sector (MAIB, 2008).
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CONCLUSION
Further growth of the organic sector is more than likely as Bosnian organic producers are highly
motivated and committed. BiH has all the natural prerequisites for organic food production butvery  important  is  farmers’  willingness  to  produce  organic  food  and  consumers’  willingness  to  pay  premium prices. Bosnian organic market is relatively young and small but is dynamic and linked up
internationally. The scope of production is very wide, with a lot of different products, but often
small quantities. Wild collection plays an important role in the overall organic raw material
production, mostly dominating the agricultural production. Furthermore, plant production is moresignificant than animal production. Organic food processing sector has been improved in terms ofquantity and quality. Supply chains are generally short, with much direct selling on the domestic
market. Domestic supply chains do often still have pioneer character and are still in an early stageof development. Producers and consumers are often aware of organic farming benefits andconsumption trends are in favor of the sector. However, the development of the organic sector ishindered by many problems. Due to the complex politico-administrative situation of the country, aharmonized national legal framework for the organic sector still does not exists.
There is a need to enhance understanding of the whole concept and philosophy of organic
agriculture and also to secure the state institutional support as well as domestic and foreigntechnical and financial assistance. In order to raise public awareness the concept of organic foodproduction needs to be promoted amongst general public especially women and young people. The
practices of organic production, handling and processing and the quality of products have still to be
improved. Diffusion of organic good practices requires innovative ways for organic-specificknowledge generation and dissemination and long-term investments especially in the agricultural
education-research-development-extension system. Moreover, organic product diversification andstructuring of related supply chains is needed to foster further development of organic agriculture.
REFERENCESASBiH. 2012. Anketa o radnoj snazi 2012 (Labor Force Survey 2012). Agency for Statistics of BiH (ASBiH),
Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Dimitrije, M. and Tomic, L. 2010. The organic sector in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In: Renko, N. et al.
National report per country on the organic production on the basis of bibliography and data collection.
Deliverable N° 7.1, Focus-Balkans project (FP7 KBBE 2007 2.1-02).
EC. 2009. Bosnia and Herzegovina: Agriculture and enlargement. European Commission (EC). (http://ec.
europa.eu/agriculture/enlargement/countries/bosnia_herzegovina/profile_en.pdf.)
EC. 2012. Bosnia and Herzegovina: 2012 progress report. European Commission (EC). Brussels, Belgium.
MAIB. 2008. Organic agriculture in the Balkan area: a comparative analysis. The Mediterranean Agronomic
Institute of Bari (MAIB). Bari, Italy.
MoFTER. 2009. Policy analysis in the field of agriculture, food and rural development in BiH. The Ministryof Foreign Trade and External Relations of BiH (MoFTER). Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Renko, N., Renko, S., Butigan, R., Vuletic, A., Schaer, B. and Berner, N. 2010. National report per country
on the organic production on the basis of bibliography and data collection. Deliverable N°7.1 FP7
KBBE 2007 2.1-02 -Focus-Balkans: Food Consumer Sciences in the Balkans: Frameworks, Protocols
and Networks for a better knowledge of food behaviors.
Stanojcic, S. 2004. Bosnia and Herzegovina: organic products. Agricultural Situation and Markets Update.
GAIN (Global Agriculture and Information Network) report Number: BK4003. United States
Department of Agriculture (USDA) Foreign Agricultural Service. Washington D.C., USA.
Stanojcic-Eminagic, S. 2010. Food and agricultural import regulations and standards - Narrative FAIRSCountry Report: Bosnia and Herzegovina. GAIN (Global Agriculture and Information Network) report
Number: BK1005. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Foreign Agricultural Service.
Washington D.C., USA.
Willer, H. and Kilcher, L. 2010. The world of organic agriculture: statistics and emerging trends 2010.
International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM), Bonn (Germany) and ResearchInstitute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL). Frick, Switzerland.

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Research article
erd

The Study on Conventional Farming Practice- A  Case  Study  of  Farmers’  Practice  in  Samroung  Village,  Cambodia
SOKORNTHEA PIN*
Institute of Environment rehabilitation and conservation, Cambodia Branch
Email:sokornthea.pin@gmail.com

MACHITO MIHARA
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan /Institute of Environment Rehabilitation and Conservation, Tokyo, Japan
Received 15 December 2012

Accepted 27 March 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Agrochemicals application has been rapidly popularized in Cambodia due toagricultural development technologies. Although agrochemicals utilization has
significantly increased crop production, it has negative impact on human health,sustainability of land use and ecosystem. Therefore, this study has been focused onconventional farming practice in Samroung village of Kampong Cham province,
Cambodia. The main objectives of this study are 1) to understand current situation offarming practices in the village and 2) to identify the condition of agrochemicals applied at
farmlands. To access the objectives of this study, various participatory researches, bothquantitative and qualitative have been conducted. Semi-structured interviews, in-depth
interviews, focus-group discussion were conducted, and secondary data were used in thisstudy. Data was summarized and analyzed to observe the significant difference and highconfident correlation of these variables by using One-way ANOVA and Regression
Analysis. The result of the study showed that rice and vegetable production is main
sources of farmers in Samroung village. In addition, chemical fertilizer and pesticide areapplied for increasing crop production. The amounts of chemical fertilizer and pesticides
applied did not correlate with the level education of famers, also with the size of farmland
as well (P > 0.05). In addition, the amounts of pesticide applied did not correlate with thetotal annual household income. However, the amounts of chemical fertilizer applied
showed slight correlation with the total annual household income from agriculture (P <0.05). Also, increasing expenses of agrochemicals application, especially chemicalfertilizer   application,   affects   to   the   farmer’s   annual   income.   Moreover, it affects to theirlife that depends on low income from their agricultural products. Furthermore, the survey
indicated that 92% of farmer in the village want to change their practice to sustainable
practice in the future. Therefore, agricultural education such as providing technicaltraining, workshop is necessarily required for promoting sustainable use of agrochemicals
as well as alternative ways based on organic farming practices and farming practice withlow chemical input.
Keywords conventional farming practice, agricultural education, agrochemical application,
Cambodia

INTRODUCTION
Cambodia is located in the Southeast Asia region, and its topography has enormous potential for
agriculture development. Agriculture is vitally important for economic growth and eradicating
poverty of the people. According to the statistics of Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheriesof Cambodia in 2009, agriculture productions share 34.4% of total GDP, in which rice andvegetable represented 54% and 8% of total annual crop production. Increasing crop productivity isⒸ ISERD

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a  main  factor  that  increases  farmer’s  income  as  well  as  national  economy.  In  view  of  this,  farmers  apply agricultural chemicals, such as chemical fertilizers, herbicide or pesticide, to maintain highlevels of crop yields. In 2001 chemical fertilizer and pesticide were imported into Cambodia, which
represented 45,335 tons and 200 tons respectively (MoE, 2004). The tendency of agrochemicals
application has been rapidly popularized in the country. In 2010, 245,854 tons of chemicalfertilizer was imported into the country (MoE, 2010).
Kampong Cham province is a main agricultural development zone in Cambodia. The major
activity of the people in this area is agriculture, mainly cultivating rice and vegetable. Agricultural
history of this area tends to change from traditional farming to conventional farming, and theamounts of agricultural chemicals applied to farmlands are increasing every year. According to
Ngo and Siriwattananon (2009) more than 60% of farmers in Prey Chhor district, Kampong Champrovince, have applied agricultural chemicals without understanding their impact. Although
agrochemicals utilization has significantly increased crop production, it has negative impact onhuman health, sustainability of land use and ecosystem.
This study has been focused on conventional farming practice in Samroung village of
Kampong Cham province. The main objectives of this study are 1) to understand current situationof farming practices in the village and 2) to identify the condition of agrochemicals applied at
farmlands.
METHODOLOGY
Study site
The study was focused in Samroung village consisting of 196 households in Samroung commune,
Prey Chhor district, Kampong Cham province about 17 km from Prey Chhor Centre. Samroungcommune consists of 11 villages with 8,111 people in 1,714 households which account for 93 % of
total population, all of whom depends on agricultural sector, mainly on rice cultivation and cash
crops for living (CDB, 2010). Most farmers in Samroung village cultivate rice and vegetable. The
agriculture situation in the village converted from traditional practice to conventional farming
system.

Kampong Cham

Fig. 1 Location of Samroung village
Data collection and analysis
Secondary data collection: Existing relevant documents were collected from research institutions,journals and reports of experts who had carried out studies in the project area to better understandthe issues involved.
Primary data collection: Two steps were used in primary data collection. Firstly, focus group
discussion was carried out among7 key persons from the village. A semi-structured questionnaire(a) was used for key informant interviews; a structured-questionnaire (b) was designed for aⒸ ISERD

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household survey on 51 farmers who were selected randomly for interview. This method focused
mainly on socio-economic and agricultural situations of the households, cultivation techniques andfarmers' perception on the tendency of converting from conventional farming to sustainable
farming practices.
Data analysis: The data was summarized; and descriptive statistics, including percentages, meanand standard deviations were used to analyze the data. Also, inferential statistic, including One-way
ANOVA and Regression Analysis were used to analyze the significant difference and high confident
correlation of these variables.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The current situation of conventional farming practices in Samroung village
According to the result of focus group discussion, it was included that rice is a main crop in
Samroung commune and is cultivated 2 to 3 times a year. Besides rice cultivation, cash crops arecultivated rotationally for the whole year depending on the water sources. The main cash crops inthe village are cultivated for additional income (Table 1).These vegetables are planted in 4
rotations at upland fields all year round, and a peak season of harvest is from August to October.
The results of the household survey showed that 63% of the households cultivate rice, 34%
cultivates rice and vegetable, and 3% does not conduct farming. The average total paddy fields andvegetable fields are 1.5 ha (SD = 1.05) and 0.04 ha (SD = 0.08), respectively.
Table 1 Crop calendar in Samroung village
Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

1) Rice2) Onion
3) Lettuce
4) Chinese Kale
5) Cucumber
6) Chinese cabbage7) Bitter melon
8) Long bean9) Tomato10) Eggplant
11) Chili
Source: ERECON, 2012

Fig.  2  Percentage  of  farmer’s  applying                                          Fig.  3  Time  of  applying  agrochemicals  andagrochemicals and organic materials
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The result of study also showed that cow manure, compost, and waste from bio-gas areapplied to improve soil condition as well as agrochemicals, fertilizers and pesticides to increase
crop production. According to the result of the survey, 100% of famers in the village have appliedchemical fertilizer, pesticide, and manure on both paddy fields and vegetable fields. Also, 10% of
the respondents applied organic pesticide, and 90% does not apply organic pesticide (Fig. 2).
Besides, organic materials have been applied on their farmland such as manure with 8510 kg a
year and only 10% of farmers applied organic pesticide with 44000ml a year. In addition, 75% of
respondents applied chemical fertilizers with 2 to 4 times a year and 61% of farmers applied
pesticide 2 to 4 time a year (Fig. 3). However, organic fertilizer and bio-pesticide is limited source
for the farmers to apply on their farmlands. In addition, most farmers said organic pesticide is lesseffective than chemical one.
Markets of agricultural products in Samroung village
Main agricultural products, especially rice and vegetable are sold to the markets throughmiddlemen who come from inside or outside the commune. The middlemen come to buy somekinds of vegetables almost all day. Some middlemen sell vegetables to local market such as Skun
market, Prey Torteng market and Kampong Cham market or other markets in Siem Reap province.
Before selling vegetable to the middlemen, farmers clean and sort their produce without grading bysize and classification. In addition, some vegetable farmers are collecting the vegetable from theirvillage and neighboring villagers and selling it to the local market.
The results of the survey showed that 98% of farmers in the village sell their rice production to
the middlemen, and 93% of vegetable growers also sell the vegetable to the middlemen; only 7%
bring their vegetable production to the local market directly (Fig. 4). In addition, price of the
products depend on middleman.
The survey also indicated that price information sources of farmers in the village are obtained
from the middlemen, farmers in the village, mobile phone, radio/TV and NGO officers,
representing 62%, 16% and 10%, 6% and 4%, respectively (Fig. 5)

Fig.  4  Percentage  of  farmers’  selling  the                            Fig.  5  Farmers’  sources  of  price  information
agricultural products to market
for selling the products
Linkage between socio economic conditions and agrochemical application
The main indicators of socio economic such as the level of education, the size of farmland, and thetotal annual household income were selected to determine the sinificant differnce of amounts ofchemical fertilizer and pesticide application by using one-way ANOVA. Also, the relationship ofeach variable were analyzed by regression analysis.
An annual total household income is 606.93 USD (SD=55.20), and annual average ofchemical fertilizer and pesticide application is 321.76 kg (SD=154.81) and 1.12 L (SD= 0.95)
respectively. The result of analysis indicated that the amounts of chemical fertilizer and pesticides
applied  did  not  have  significant  difference  between  each  level  of  farmer’s  education  as  well  as  size  of farmland and total annual household income (P > 0.05). Moreover, the amounts of chemicalfertilizer and pesticide application did not correlate with the level of education of farmers and withⒸ ISERD

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the size of farmland as well (R2=0.0926, P > 0.05). However, the amounts of chemical fertilizer
application correlated slightly with size of farmland (R2=0.1913, P < 0.05) as well as with total
annual household income (R = 0.1913, P <0.01) (Figs. 6, 7).
Fig. 8 showed that the total income from agriculture is not significant difference between eachgroup  of  farmers’  expense  on  chemical  fertilizer  application. As a result, it could be concluded that
farmers need to buy chemical fertilizer very year to increase their crop production. Therefore, theannual household income from agriculture will be low if the farmers increase expense ofagrochemical application every year.
Possibility of changing from conventional farming practice to sustainable farming practice
According to the result of the survey, 53% of respondents did not know about sustainableagriculture, and 39% knew less about sustainable agriculture (Fig.9). In addition, responding to thequestion   "do   you   want   to   convert   conventional   farming   to   sustainable   farming   practice?”   The  results indicated that 92% of the farmers want to change to sustainable farming practice (Fig.10).

Fig. 6 Correlation of size of farmland with chemical fertilizer and pesticide application

Fig. 7 Correlation of household income with chemical fertilizer and pesticide application

Non-significant difference between each group of annul expenses of chemical fertilizer application (P>0.05)

Fig. 8 Comparison of annual expense of chemical fertilizer application and total incomeⒸ ISERD

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Fig. 9 Percentages of farmers know about Fig. 10 Percentages of farmers want to changesustainable agriculture practice
conventional to sustainable practiceFig. 11 Percentages of farmer want to reduce amount of agrochemical application
Figure 11 showed the expectation of farmers who wants to reduce chemical fertilizer andpesticide through alternative agriculture. 40% of respondents want to reduce chemical fertilizer by
40% to 60%, 30% wants to reduce by 60% to 80% and 23% wants to reduce by 80% to 100%. In
addition, 40% of respondents want to reduce pesticide by 60% to 80%, 23% wants to reduce by
80% to 100%.
CONCLUTION
The study found that rice and vegetable production is main sources of farmers in Samroung village. In
addition, chemical fertilizer and pesticide are applying for increasing crop production. The amounts ofchemical fertilizer and pesticides applied did not correlate with the level education of famers, also withthe size of farmland as well. The amounts of pesticide applied did not correlate with the total annual
household income. On the other hand, the amounts of chemical fertilizer applied showed slightcorrelation with the total annual household income from agriculture. In addition, increasing expense ofagrochemicals application, especially expense of chemical fertilizer application,  affects  to  the  farmer’s  annual income. Moreover, it affects to their life that depends on low income from their agricultural
products. Furthermore, the survey showed that 92% of farmer in the village want to change theirpractice to sustainable practice in the future. Therefore, agricultural education such as providing
technical training, workshop is necessarily required for promoting sustainable use of agrochemicals aswell as alternative ways based on organic farming practices and farming practice with low chemical
input.

ACKNOWENEDGEMENTS
The authors are deeply grateful to Institute of Environment Rehabilitation and Conservation(ERECON)   and   ERECON’s   staffs   for   supports  and   assistance in conducting the survey. Without
these kinds of supports, this paper would not be completed.

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REFERENCES
Commune database (CDB). 2010. Commune database of Samroung commune from Sumroung commune in
Khmer version. Cambodia.
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery (MAFF). 2009. Annual report of activites and achievement
2008-2009 and plan 2009-2010 of agriculture, forestry and fishery. Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
Ministry of Environment (MoE). 2004. National profile on chemicals management in Cambodia. Phnom
Penh, Cambodia.
Ministry of Environment (MoE). 2010. Unsustainable agricultural practices (unpublished handout, on
Cambodia. National Environmental Performance Assessment (EPA) at Sunway Hotel. Phnom Penh,
Cambodia.
Ngo, B. and Siriwattananon, L. 2009. Suitable timing of application of pelletized compost and farmers’  acceptance in Cambodia. J. ISSAAS, 15(1), 91-100.

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Research article
erd

Alternative Cropping Systems for North-West Cambodia
I
7de
STEPHANIE C. BELFIELD*n
University of New England, Armidale, Australiat
Email: smontgom@myune.edu.au
4.
Agricultural Systems Research Cambodia
7 Co. Ltd, Battambang, Cambodia
2

ROBERT J. MARTIN
J. FIONA SCOTTw
New South Wales Trade & Investment, Tamworth,
Australia
Received 15 December 2012or
Accepted 27 March 2013ds(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract A field research program commenced in north-west (NW) Cambodia in 2012 totest the feasibility of including a dry season crop for this upland area, increasing the
cropping intensity from 2 to 3 crops per year. Dual purpose crop options that can be
harvested for fresh forage or silage in the event of crop failure due to drought will also be
evaluated. Forest clearing after 1998 has been followed by the expansion of uplandcropping in NW Cambodia. Major threats to sustainable agricultural production in theregion are: (a) rapid soil degradation, soil fertility decline, loss of crop diversity; and (b)poverty and lack of income diversity for small-holder farmers. Access to improved
agricultural technologies could provide solutions to these problems. Current farmer
practice involves growing two crops per year, with an early wet season crop (March-June)and followed by a main wet season crop (July-October). Land is ploughed after the main
wet season crop or left fallow from November to February. Due to high rainfall in NW
Cambodia in September and October, there is significant residual water remaining in thesoil after the wet season that could be exploited by crops rather than weeds as it currently
is. The risk of growing dry season crops would be reduced if tillage was eliminated andsurface crop residues were retained to conserve soil water. Small-holder farmers in NW
Cambodia struggle to cover household expenses with crop income. Annual gross margins
from growing two crops of maize (USD 874/ha) are declining and farmers are turning to
cassava (USD 1,066/ha) to increase income and reduce labour costs. Replacing early wet
season maize with peanut is more profitable (USD 1,447/ha); moreover adding dry season
sunflower into the peanut-maize rotation to grow three crops per year could return a grossmargin of USD 1,888/ha.
Keywords upland cropping systems, land use efficiency, maize, sunflower, Cambodia

INTRODUCTION
North-West Cambodia has seen rapid expansion of rainfed upland cropping as a result of largescale land clearing since the end of the Khmer Rouge civil war in 1998. Unfortunately thisdevelopment has been associated with excessive cultivation and burning of crop residue which has
led to rapid soil fertility decline and soil erosion. The Australian Centre for International
Agricultural Research (ACIAR) has funded research since 2003 to address these problems and todevelop more sustainable upland cropping systems for NW Cambodia.
CROPPING SYSTEMS TRENDS
The rapid expansion of maize and cassava area, which began in 2006, has led to a loss of crop
diversity in the region (Fig. 1, Fig. 2). Maize yields are declining as soil fertility declines and thismay be one of the reasons why farmers have begun to increase the area of cassava at the expense ofⒸ ISERD

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maize (Fig. 2). The expansion of cassava could also be due to the need for less labour andopportunity for household members to earn off-farm income.

2005

2011

Fig. 1 Cropping trends in Battambang Province based on area of production(Data source: pers comm. Battambang Provincial Department of Agriculture)

Fig. 2 Trends in the area of red corn and cassava in Battambang Province
Data source: Battambang Provincial Department of Agriculture

CLIMATE AND SOIL
NW Cambodia has a monsoonal climate with a rainy season between May and October and a
distinct dry season between November and March (Fig. 3). The average annual rainfall at
Battambang is 1,247 mm with 101mm, 391mm and 755 mm falling in the dry season (DS), early
wet season (EWS) and main wet season (MWS) respectively.

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Dry Season

Early Wet Season

Main Wet Season

Fig. 3 Average seasonal rainfall distribution at Battambang Town
(Data source: Battambang Office, Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology)
The average temperature at Battambang is 28.0 oC. April is the warmest month with anaverage maximum temperature of 36.1 oC and December the coolest with an average minimum
temperature of 19.7 oC. Average relative humidity at Battambang is 80% rising to 86% in
September-October and falling to 72% in March.
The main soils where upland crops are grown in NW Cambodia are known locally as
Kampong Siem (Vertosol) and Labanseak (Ferrosol) (White et al., 1997). The Kampong Siem soils
are black self-mulching clays and the Labanseak are red friable clay-loams. Martin et al. (2005)
reported analyses for 25 ferrosols and 25 vertosols in crop fields in Ratanak Mondul District,Battambang Province. On average, the vertosols are higher in organic carbon and total nitrogen andhave higher pH than the ferrosols (Table 1). These clay and clay-loam soils have the capacity toretain significant quantities of plant-available water in dry periods between rainfall events.
Table 1 Organic carbon, total nitrogen and pH (0-15cm) of ferrosols and vertosols in Ratanak
Mondul District, Battambang
Soil
Organic carbon (%)
Ferosol
2.07 (1.36-3.81)
Vertosol
2.46 (1.45-4.50)
Data source: Martin et al. 2005

Total nitrogen (%)
0.176 (0.115-0.258)
0.181 (0.105-0.342)

pH (water)
5.5 (5.0-6.0)
6.5 (5.0-8.0)

ALTERNATIVE CROP OPTIONS
The main crops grown in the early wet season (March-June) include sesame, maize, mungbean andpeanut, while the principal crops grown in the main wet season (July-October) are maize andsoybean. Cassava is grown over a 12 month period.
There is potential for drought tolerant crops such as sunflower and sorghum to be grown
during the dry season (November - February) on residual soil moisture after harvest of the main
wet season maize crop, especially if the dry season crop could be sown at the end of October (Fig.
3). The success of the dry season crop is likely to be enhanced by no-till seeding into chopped
maize residue to better retain residual soil water from the main wet season rains.
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Inclusion of a dry season crop allows the potential for three crops to be grown during the year
compared to the current practice of growing one (cassava) or two crops per year: early wet season(March - June) and main wet season (July - October) (Fig. 4). The three crop option is only
possible if tillage is eliminated between crops to conserve soil moisture and enable timeliness ofoperations.

Fig. 4 Current upland crop calendar for NW Cambodia incorporating proposed dry season
sunflower (Data source: pers comm. B. Martin)
Technically both mungbean and soybean can be grown in the early and main wet seasons.
However, soybean is not drought tolerant and can fail in the early wet season. Mungbean crops
often fail in the main wet season because of fungal infection of the pods in the humid conditions.
Therefore it is recommended mungbean be planted only in the early wet season and soybean in themain wet season. Sesame is best grown in the early wet season to avoid attack from the sesame
webworm (Antigastra spp.)
Apart from the problems of soil degradation and lack of crop diversity, maize and cassava
fields in NW Cambodia are being invaded by tall grass weeds such as Sorghum halepense (Johnson
grass), Sorghum bicolor (wild sorghum) and Pennisetum polystachyon (mission grass). If left
uncontrolled after maize harvest, these grasses continue to grow throughout the dry season andconsume the residual soil moisture from the main wet season rains. This gives a strong indicationthat there is sufficient residual soil moisture to grow a dry season crop. Farmers in this region havealready experimented successfully with growing sunflower and sorghum in the dry season.
A challenge for introducing the dry season crop option is to successfully manage the maizecrop residues and weeds at harvest without losing valuable soil water. A maize stalk chopper and ano-till planter have been imported from the USA to enable small plot replicated on farm trials of
direct seeding of the dry season crop into the maize/weed residue. This will require chopping of themaize stalks and killing the weeds with a broad-spectrum herbicide (glyphosate) before direct
seeding the dry season crop. As part of research for a PhD and the afore mentioned ACIAR project,
trials with this system focusing on crop sequencing, cropping intensity and effects of maize residue
as a mulch under a no till farming system will commence in 2013 in collaboration with farmers.
Until the machinery is ready to use, trials will be hand planted following no till farming principles.
The important elements that a resilient crop sequence in NW Cambodia could include are:
1. A   ‘grass’   crop   such   as   maize   which   can   provide   sufficient residues to maintain groundcover mulch through the annual crop cycle;
2. A legume crop such as mungbean, peanut or soybean that can increase soil nitrogen
fertility through fixation of atmospheric nitrogen; and3. Other crop species such as sunflower or sesame to help to break disease, insect and weed
cycles.
ECONOMIC ANALYSISIn Battambang Province in 2011, maize and cassava were the dominant crops grown. Grossmargins have been calculated for cassava, maize, peanut and soybean based on interviews with
farmers in Samlout/Pailin in 2010/11 as part of the ACIAR project ASEM/2010/049 (Table 2). In
this case, crop gross margins are calculated (on a per hectare basis) as the gross income from thecrop less the variable costs incurred in achieving it, such as seed, fertilizer, in-crop weed control
and harvesting costs. The potential gross margin for sunflower was calculated based on yield
estimates and prices from Thailand and the prices being aligned with those for soybean.
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Table 2 Gross margin sensitivity for cassava, maize, peanut, soybean and sunflower
Cassava fresh tuber.
USD32
USD77
USD115
USD154

Price (USD/t)
USD64
USD711
USD1,066
USD1,422

USD95
USD1,345
USD2,017
USD2,690

USD127
USD76
USD280
USD483

Price (USD/t)
USD159
USD171USD437
USD704

USD191
USD265
USD595
USD925

USD604
USD123
USD710USD1,297

Price (USD/t)
USD762
USD273
USD1,010
USD1,747

USD921USD423
USD1,310
USD2,197

Price (USD/t)
USD450
USD178
USD568
USD957

USD500
USD228
USD668
USD1,107

Price (USD/t)
USD450
USD126
USD453
USD780

USD 500
USD164
USD528
USD893

Yield (kg/ha)
20,00030,00040,000
Maize on cob
Yield (kg/ha)
3,000
4,500
7,000
Peanut in shell
Yield (kg/ha)
1,000
2,000
3,000
Soybean kernel
Yield (kg/ha)

USD400
1,000
USD1282,000
USD4683,000
USD807
Dry season sunflower (low input, estimated)
Yield (kg/ha)
750
1,500
2,250
Data source: Anon. (2012)

USD400USD89
USD378
USD668

Table 3 Gross margin comparison for cassava, maize, peanut, soybean and sunflower
Crop sequence
Average Annual Gross Margin (USD/ha)
Maize-Maize
USD874
Cassava
USD1,066
Peanut-Maize
USD1,447
Sunflower-Maize-Soybean
USD1,458
Sunflower-Peanut-Maize
USD1,888
Data source: pers comm. K. Kynal 2010, University of Battambang students 2011

Table 3 shows the comparison of potential average annual gross margins (using the average
yields and prices) between the crop sequences under evaluation. At a first glance, farmers seem tobe justified in switching from maize-maize to cassava as the gross margin for cassava is higher
based on average yields and prices (Table 3). However, ACIAR research in Samlout/Pailin between
2008 and 2012 has shown that peanut can be a very profitable crop. A peanut-maize sequence could
give a much higher gross margin than maize-maize or cassava. The peanut-maize sequence is also a
better option to maintain soil fertility.
The addition of dry season sunflower to the peanut-maize cropping sequence would give an
estimated annual gross margin of USD1,888, which is more than double that for maize-maize andalmost double that for cassava. Another rotation option is sunflower-maize-soybean which is agood rotation option agronomically but might be less profitable than sunflower-peanut-maize(Table 3). However, this assumes relative crop prices remain the same. A disadvantage of thesunflower-maize-soybean option is that there is very little crop residue remaining after the soybean
crop and there would be less ground cover for the dry season crop.
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An important marketing consideration for sunflower, as with other crop species, is that thematurity of the NW Cambodian crop does not coincide with the harvest timing of the same crop
species in Thailand. Lopburi Province is the main sunflower production area in Thailand. The peakmonthly rainfall is September for Lopburi and October for Battambang so it is expected that the
Cambodian crop would be planted one month later than the bulk of the Thai crop. Battambang also
receives marginally more dry season rain (101 mm) than Lopburi (70 mm) meaning that dry season
sunflower production might be safer in NW Cambodia compared to Thailand.
The average yield of sunflower under rainfed conditions in Australia is around 1,700 kg/hawith a realistic range from 700 to 2,400 kg/ha (Serafin et al., 2011). It is expected that dry season
sunflower in Battambang Province could average up to 1,500 kg/ha. If the area of sunflower in
Battambang Province expanded to 50,000 ha then the potential production would be at least 50,000
tonnes of sunflower seed per annum assuming a more conservative average yield of 1,000 kg/ha.
CONCLUSION
The current upland cropping system in north west Cambodia is facing many challenges including aloss in crop diversity, declining soil fertility, extensive soil erosion and continued deforestation.
Soil characterisation in this region is not well determined but soils are generally inherently fertile,
friable, well-structured soils, which if managed in a sustainable manner could greatly assist in
alleviating rural poverty. Research is ongoing into sustainable cropping systems for this region.
This research will provide the basic information required to improve soil management and wateruse  efficiency  in  upland  areas  of  NW  Cambodia.  It  will  also  develop  ‘response  cropping’  planting  guidelines to reduce the risk of crop failure due to drought and demonstrate to farmers alternative
cropping options on their land. The research will also identify the most suitable dual purpose cropsthat can be harvested for fresh forage or silage in the event of crop failure due to drought.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to acknowledge the financial support of the Australian Centre for International
Agricultural Research (ACIAR).
REFERENCES
Anon, 2012. Unpublished data from Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research project
ASEM/2010/049.
Martin, R.J., Belfield, S.C. and Holland, J.F. 2005. Farming systems research for crop diversification in
Cambodia and Australia. Report by on travel to Vietnam and Cambodia in July-August 2005. ACIAR.
(Project ASEM/2000/109)
Serafin, L., Byrne, R. and Jenkins, L. 2011. Summer crop production guide 2011. New South Wales
Department of Primary Industries.
White, P. F., Oberthur, T. and Pheav, S. 1997. Soil used for rice production in Cambodia. A manual for theirrecognition and management. International Rice Research Institute. P.O.Box 993, Manila, Philippines.

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Research article
erd

Economics of Weed Management in Maize in Pailin
Province Cambodia
VAN TOUCH*
Post-Graduate Student, University of New England, Armidale, Australia.
Email: van.touch84@gmail.com

ROBERT J. MARTIN
Agricultural Systems Research Cambodia Co. Ltd., Battambang Cambodia

J. FIONA SCOTTNew South Wales Department of Primary Industries, NSW, Australia
Received 15 December 2012

Accepted 27 March 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract In Pailin Province, Cambodia, small-holder farm households derive most of theirincome from upland cash crops such as cassava, maize, soybean, mungbean and sesame.
Since the end of the Khmer Rouge civil war in 1998, large areas of rainforest have beencleared opening the way for rapid expansion of cropping, especially maize. The crop
expansion has occurred on ferrosols and vertosols which had high initial fertility after
clearing. Continuous cropping with maize has resulted in a decline in soil fertility and anincrease in losses due to biotic factors, especially weeds which have contributed to a
decline in maize yields. Due to the increased cost of agricultural labour, farmers have
rapidly taken up the use of herbicides for weed control in maize. A survey of 88
households in 6 villages was carried out to determine the effectiveness and economics ofweed control methods for maize, being used by farmers. The results indicate that farmers
are moving away from the traditional two cultivations for land preparation and two in-crop
hand weedings. This has been due to replacement of the second ploughing with presowing glyphosate, and the replacement of hand-weeding with selective in-crop herbicides
in response to the cost and scarcity of labour. Although the current herbicide-based system
for maize is working well, it is not likely to be sustainable without crop rotations and useof a wider range of herbicides. Maize crops in Pailin are being invaded by Sorghum weed
species, and these species are not controlled by the commonly used atrazine. Rotation ofcrops and herbicides will be necessary to prevent a build up of naturally resistant weeds
and development of genetic herbicide resistance in weed populations.
Keywords weed, management, maize, survey, rotation, economics

INTRODUCTION
Pailin town (12°50’47”   N,   102°36’48”   N)   is   located   in   North-Western Cambodia on the borderwith Thailand. The majority of farm households in Pailin Province depend on production of cash
crops such as cassava, maize, soybean, mungbean and sesame. However, the most common crop ismaize and production has expanded significantly since the end of the Khmer Rouge civil war in
1998.
Farmers usually grow two crops of maize in the rainy season. Early Wet Season (EWS) maizeis planted in March-April and in the Main Wet Season (MWS), the crop is usually planted in JulyAugust (Chan et al., 2009).
Much of the land under production of maize has been cleared of rainforest or forest regrowthover the last 20 years. Most of the soils used for cropping are derived from basalt or limestoneparent material and have high natural fertility. The grain yield potential for maize in the region is 8
- 10 t/ha (Belfield and Brown, 2009). However, the average maize grain yield was estimated at 3.2
t/ha in 2011, less than half of the potential (Brown and Johnstone, 2012).
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There are a number of factors such as abiotic (light, water, temperature and nutrient) andbiotic (weeds, insects and pathogens) that contribute to decreased crop yields (Oerke, 2006). Weeds
are one of the major causes of poor yields on small-holder farms in Pailin. Due to the increased
cost of agricultural labour (USD 1/day in 2002 to USD 3/day in 2010) and shortage of labour,
farmers have rapidly taken up the use of herbicides for weed control in maize.
OBJECTIVE
The aim of this study was to document weed management practices and to identify the social,economic and environmental constraints to the adoption of better weed management practices in
Pailin Province, Cambodia.
METHODOLOGY
Data were collected from maize growers in six villages in Boryakha Commune in Pailin. A total of
88 households were selected randomly for the study. Sample size was determined using the Yamane
formula (Yamane 1967) to give a 10% margin of error. Households were selected from the Villagesof Borhuy (22), Boryakha (15), Rong Chak (11), Bortainsou (16), O Chra Lech (14), and O Sngout(10).
Qualitative data were obtained from the respondents using a pre-tested, structured interview
conducted by enumerators who were familiar with the existing social settings. The interview
schedule included both open-ended and closed-ended questions.
Descriptive statistical tools were used to analyze the quantitative data. The important statisticalmeasures that were used to summarize and categorize the data were means, percentages,
frequencies and standard deviations using Excel and the IRRISTAT statistical package was used for
regression analysis (Anon., 2011).
Farmers were asked about the yield obtained, the price received for the crop and the variable
costs of land preparation, seed, planting, weed control, harvesting, threshing and transportation.
These data were used to calculate the gross margin (income minus variable costs).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The average household size in the study area is 5.25 people, of which 3.13 are working age adults
and the average area of crop fields per household is 4.04 ha (Brown and Johnstone, 2012). Thismeans that all of the activities such as planting, weeding and harvesting cannot be completed
manually by family members. As a result Pailin farmers have begun to mechanize land preparation,and planting and have replaced in-crop hand weeding with selective herbicides.
The average yield was 4.07 t/ha and the average price was USD 172/t giving a total income of
USD 700/ha. The average total cost of inputs for maize was USD 275 per hectare, and the highest
and lowest costs were USD 491 and USD 143 respectively. The average gross margin was USD
425 per hectare, and some farmers had gross margins up to USD 1,152 while the others madelosses of as much as USD 62. On average, farmers obtained a return of USD 1.54 per USD 1 spent
which was considered a good return on investment. Break-even yield is the yield at which the grossmargin equals zero and is calculated by dividing variable costs by the expected price (Table 1).
Table 1 Economic analysis of maize production in Pailin (per hectare)
Costs
Yield
IncomeVariable costs
Gross margin
Gross margin/USD cost
Break-even yield

Average

Maximum

Minimum

Median4.07
USD 700
USD 275
USD 425
USD 1.54
1.60

8.27
USD 1,422
USD 491
USD 931
USD 2.35
2.86

1.05
USD 180
USD 143
USD 37
USD (0.43)
0.83

3.97
USD 682
USD 271
USD 411
USD 1.15
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The breakdown of variable costs is given in Table 2. The traditional practice for land
preparation is for two ploughings and often a harrowing. Pailin maize farmers have reduced theamount of cultivation where only 59% are ploughing the field a second time. This reduction isconsistent with the number of farmers using glyphosate which is 33%. It is assumed from thesedata that farmers are beginning to replace the final cultivation with a glyphosate application. This isa positive trend because reduced cultivation reduces the potential for soil degradation, increases theconservation of soil moisture for the crop and can improve the timeliness of sowing.
Table 2 also shows that there has been a strong trend away from hand planting with 44% of
farmers hand planting compared to 52% machine planting. There is also a minority of farmers
using hand-weeding for weed control: 34% for one hand-weeding and only 16% hand-weeding asecond time.
The reduction in hand-weeding is associated with a high adoption of selective in-crop
herbicides with 80% of maize farmers using atrazine and 78% using 2,4-D; with more than 97% of
the two herbicides being mixed together and spayed at one time. The study also showed that a few
farmers had used Atrazine alone to control weeds without the combination of 2,4 D. There are also
68% of farmers using paraquat as a late post-emergence directed in-crop spray.
Table 2 Breakdown of variable costs for maize production in Pailin
Input
1st ploughing
2nd ploughing
Seed
Hand planting
Machine planting
1st hand weeding
2nd hand weeding
Atrazine
2,4-D
Paraquat
Glyphosate
1st spraying
2nd spraying
3rd spraying
HarvestThreshingTransport
Total variable costs

Farms (%)
98
59
100
44
52
34
13
80
78
68
33
39
85
76
100
2
80
100

Average input cost
USD 43.29
USD 20.86
USD 59.96
USD 15.39
USD 14.97
USD 6.58
USD 1.62
USD 3.69
USD 2.46
USD 9.18
USD 3.71
USD 2.37
USD 7.23
USD 6.58
USD 58.49
USD 0.59
USD 18.10
USD 275.37

The overall average input costs do not give an accurate idea of input costs for the different
cultivation and weeding strategies. Therefore the data were re-analyzed according to the followingclassifications:Replacement of the second cultivation with glyphosate with treatments being:
1. No second cultivation and no glyphosate;
2. Second cultivation and no glyphosate;
3. Second cultivation plus glyphosate;
4. Glyphosate only.
Replacement of hand-weeding with in-crop herbicides with treatments being:
1. Hand-weeding only;
2. Hand-weeding plus in-crop herbicide;
3. In-crop herbicide only.
This analysis confirmed the trend for pre-sowing glyphosate being used to replace the second
cultivation (Table 3). The input cost for glyphosate (USD 19.95/ha) was significantly lower thanfor cultivation (USD 34.69/ha). The cost of a second cultivation plus glyphosate (USD 47.22/ha)
was significantly greater than cultivation or glyphosate alone. There were no significant effects oncrop yield or gross margin for the substitution of the second cultivation with glyphosate. However,Ⓒ ISERD

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reduction in cultivation is likely to reduce soil fertility decline and soil erosion and therefore
deliver economic benefits in the future (Kelley, 1983).
Table 3 Effect of substitution of the second cultivation with pre-sowing glyphosate on yield,
input costs and gross margin per hectare
2nd ploughing

Glyphosate

No. of farms

No
No
Yes
Yes

21
38
14
15

No
Yes
Yes
No
SE
5%LSD
SignificanceYield (kg/ha)

Input cost

3,986
4,181
4,309
4,032
317
892
NS

0.00
34.69
47.22
19.95
1.31
3.69
0.01

Gross margin
400.75453.39355.72451.6559.80
168.17NS

A total of 9 households (10%) practiced hand weeding only (Table 4) and the average cost of
weed control for hand weeding only was USD 35.19/ha. Twenty two households used both hand
weeding and herbicide at a cost of USD 53.71/ha. The majority of households (57) used herbicide
only for weed control at a cost of USD 36.53/ha. Although there was a higher yield (NS) for handweeding plus herbicide, the cost was significantly greater than for hand-weeding or herbicide alone.
Although not significant, the gross margin for herbicide alone was the highest.
Table 4 Effect of replacing hand-weeding with in-crop herbicides on yield, input costs andgross margin per hectare
Hand-weeding
Yes
Yes
No
SE
5%LSD
Significance

Herbicide
No
Yes
Yes

No. of farms
922
57

Yield (kg/ha)
3,596
4,343
4,132
273
767
NS

Input cost
35.19
53.71
36.53
5.10
14.33
0.01

Gross margin369.73412.22438.6552.09
146.46NS

Table 5 Regression of gross margin on the components of variable costs
TermConstant
Yield (kg/ha)
1st ploughing
2nd ploughing
Seed
Hand planting
Machine planting
1st hand-weeding
2nd hand-weeding
Atrazine
2,4-D
Paraquat
Glyphosate
1st spraying
2nd spraying
3rd spraying
HarvestThreshingTransport
Price per tone

Coef.
-729.36
0.1625-1.1686-1.1747-0.5087-0.3599-0.9734-1.2092-0.06812.1125-8.6845-0.6807-0.1541-4.4487
0.6463-3.6185-0.4189-0.3736-0.55074.0713

SDEV
61.7903
0.00600.56930.47690.60000.44430.42190.59101.91545.6101
6.47350.79911.67903.19092.4113
1.40810.39682.2482
0.52270.1633F-value
139.3280
723.3630
4.21406.06800.71900.65605.32204.18600.00100.14201.80000.72600.00801.94400.07206.60301.11400.02801.1100621.7920

P
0.00000.00000.04200.0160NSNS
0.02300.0420
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
0.0120NS
NS
NS
0.0000Multiple regression analysis (Anon., 2011) was used to determine if individual variable costand income components had an effect on the gross margin (Table 5). The cost of ploughing,machine planting, hand-weeding once and the third spraying all had a significant negative effect onⒸ ISERD218

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

gross margin. Therefore the farmers should concentrate on reducing these costs to improve
profitability.
Grain yields ranged from 900 to 8,333 kg/ha with an average of 4,130 kg/ha. The regressionof gross margin on maize yield shows that, on average, for every extra tonne of yield the grossmargin increased by USD 130. The price received for maize varied between USD 70 and USD 250
per tonne with an average of USD 172 per tonne.
93% of farmers used herbicides and 68% of these were satisfied with this method because
their fields were mostly large and they had insufficient labour for hand-weeding. 87% of herbicide
users reported good herbicide efficacy and quick action, 11% reported ineffective control, and 3%
were concerned that herbicide application could have negative effects on soil and human health.
There were three main reasons that led farmers to apply herbicide: less costly than hand-weeding;convenience and fast action; and labour shortage.
CONCLUSION
This study documented trends in practices for weed management in Pailin Province Cambodia. The
main drivers for change appear to have been the cost and availability of hand labour. This has led
to mechanization of land preparation, and sowing and to the replacement of in-crop hand weedingwith selective herbicides.
Although the current herbicide-based system for maize is working well, it is not likely to besustainable without crop rotations and use of a wider range of herbicides. Maize crops in Pailin arebeing invaded by Sorghum bicolor (Shattercane) and S. halepense (Johnson grass) that are notcontrolled by atrazine. Rotation of crops and herbicides will be necessary to prevent a build up of
naturally resistant weeds and development of genetic herbicide resistance.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to acknowledge the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research(ACIAR) for funding this research.
REFERENCES
Anon, 2011. IRRISTAT Windows 4.0. Tutorial manual. Biometrics Unit International Rice ResearchInstitute.
(http://sirpabs.ilahas.com/ebooks/Computer%20&%20Technology/Irristat%20Tutorial.pdf.
198 pp. Downloaded 13 December 2011.)
Belfield, S. and Brown, C. 2009. A guide to upland cropping in Cambodia: maize. ACIAR Monograph, 140,
43.
Brown, S. and Johnstone. 2012. ASEM-2010-049  “Market-focused integrated crop and livestock enterprisesfor  NW  Cambodia”.  Baseline  Survey  Report.  49  pp.
Chan, P., Martin, B., Farquharson, B., Ung, S., Pol, C. and  Pin,  T.  2009.  Farmer’s  challenge  in  improving  upland farming systems in Cambodia. Cambodian Journal of Agriculture, 9, 8-23.
PDA. 2008. Pailin provincial department of agriculture annual report for 2008. Cambodia.
Kelley. 1983. Keeping the land alive: Soil erosion - its causes and cures. FAO Soils Bulletin 50.
Oerke, E.C. 2006. Crop losses to pests. Journal of Agricultural Science, 144, 31-43.
Yamane, T. 1967. Statistics, an introductory analysis. 2nd Ed. Harper & Rowe. New York, U.S.A. (Available
at http// edis. ifas/images/1418304213.)Ⓒ ISERD

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Research article
erd

Impacts of an Agricultural Water Use Restructuring
Project on the Water Quality of Oxbow LakeYAMAMOTO TADAO*
Research Faculty of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, Hokkaido, Japan
Email: tady@env.agr.hokudai.ac.jp

OKAZAKI HIROKI
Graduate School of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, Hokkaido, Japan
Received 14 December 2012

Accepted 27 March 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Oxbow lakes in the Ishikari River Basin, Japan, are used as irrigation water
sources, flood control ponds, and waterside parks, etc. In this study, we monitored water
quality over the course of the restructuring project at Lake Chashinainuma. In thiscatchment area, irrigation water was pumped from the lake until 2010, but is now drawn
from a distant river. As a result, the total nitrogen load balance changed from an outflow
type to a storage type due to decreased removal of water from the lake. The lake water
retention time also increased significantly. However, total nitrogen concentration
decreased after the pumping station was abolished. We suggest that this reduction in total
nitrogen concentration after 2011 reflected decreased particulate nitrogen due to biologicalpurification effects that are expected with increased chlorophyll concentration. Hence, thechange in load balance to an accumulation type may have been influenced by changes inagricultural water management and transformation of paddy fields into upland.
Keywords water quality paddy field, load balance, agricultural land improvement project

INTRODUCTION
Oxbow lakes are remnants of meandering floodplain rivers that have been cut off and physicallyisolated from their respective main river channels (Cullum et al., 2006). There are many oxbow
lakes in the Ishikari River basin, and both naturally and artificially formed lakes are used as
irrigation water sources, flood control ponds, and waterside parks. Hence, they are recognized asregional resources with multiple functions (Yamamoto et al., 2001). Many oxbow lakes are closed
type waterways in which eutrophication occurs easily. Because oxbow lakes originate from rivers,
much drainage water flows into them, and their water quality is strongly influenced by humanactivities, including agriculture in the catchment area. Yamamoto et al. (2002, 2004) studied theeffects of nutrient inflow from an agricultural area in Hokkaido on the water quality of an oxbow
lake.
Currently, land improvement projects, including land partition, enlargement, andrearrangement, creation of multipurpose paddy fields, and restructuring of irrigation and drainage
facilities are ongoing in the Lake Chashinainuma watershed in Bibai, Hokkaido. These projects
incur changes of land use and water management, and hence, influence water quality and thehydrological environment. However, few studies have examined the relationship between humanactivities, including land improvement projects, and water quality of oxbow lakes.
OBJECTIVE
This study object is to determine the impacts of the water use restructuring project on the physicaland   chemical   water   properties   of   the   oxbow   lake   “Chashinainuma”   in   terms   of;;   (1)   Changes   of  nitrogen concentration in the lake and drainage water, (2) Impact of pumping station on waterbalance and water quality in the lake and (3) Evaluation of water balance and total nitrogen load
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balance of the lake.
And this investigation contributes to the evaluation of changes in water quality following land
improvement projects.
METHODOLOGYThis survey was performed at Lake Chashinainuma between 2007 and 2012. Lake Chashinainuma
is located in the middle stream of the Ishikari river Basin. It has a water surface area of 13.1 ha andan average depth of 1.02 m. The size of the catchment area changed from 106 to 127 ha with the
improvement project (Table 1, Fig.1), and the land is mainly used as farmland. In this watershed,irrigation water was pumped up from the lake until 2010, when the pumping station was abolished,
and is now drawn from a distant river via open channels and pipelines. In addition, a new drain(D4) was constructed and the land use and crops were changed each year of the project. There are
four direct drainage and inflow points from the farmland. In the restricting area, the drainage waterfrom the fields cannot flow directly into the lake. The pressure-controlled tank for pipeline
irrigation (T) and the surplus water from this tank drain into the lake via the D3 water management
facility.

Fig. 1 Outline figure of catchment area and sampling points
To measure water quality, water was drawn from outflow drainage and inflow drainage
sampling points in the lake. Water sampling was conducted about two times per month during
irrigation periods, and once per month during non-irrigation periods from April 2007 to August
2012. Water sampling was performed two times a day during the paddling period (May) and once
per day during normal irrigation periods (June–August) using an automatic water sampler (ISCOInc.) from 2009 to 2012. Total nitrogen (TN), dissolved total nitrogen (DTN), nitrate nitrogen(NO3-N), nitrite nitrogen (NO2-N), and ammonium nitrogen (NH4-N) contents were determined.
These analyses conformed to Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS). Dissolved inorganic nitrogen(DIN) was calculated as the sum of NO3-N, NO2-N, and NH4-N. Total organic nitrogen (TON) wasⒸ ISERD

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estimated by subtraction of DIN from TN. Particulate organic nitrogen (PON) was estimated bysubtraction of DTN from TN. Dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) was calculated as the difference
between DTN and DIN.
Table 1 Changes of land use and projects in the investigated area
Year
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
Catchment area (ha)
112
112
112
112
106
Crop type (ha) Paddy
64
N.D.*
42
45
24
Upland crop
42
N.D.*
59
60
71
Water body2009; Water supply changes in a part of D1 catchment area
Plantation
2011; Pumping station stopped and land arrangement in D4 catchment area
Upland paddy 2012; Land arrangements in parts of D1 and D3 catchment area

2012
127
60
67

* Crop type investigation was not carried out in 2008 because it was considered same in 2007.
Precipitation data were used in the Automated Meteorological Data Acquisition System(AMeDAS) at Bibai and Iwamizawa cities. Evapotranspiration was calculated according toPenman’s  method.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Changes of water quality in the lake

Fig. 2 Changes in TN concentration in the lake and its drains
Figure 2 shows monthly changes in TN concentration in the drains (D1–D4) and in the lake. When
more than three samples were taken in a month, data are presented as the mean ± standard
deviation. The concentration of TN in the lake changed periodically, with high values during April
and May, low values during the normal irrigation period, and a concentration rise again in thewinter. This trend was reflected in samples from the drains. Compared with D1 and D3, theconcentration of TN in D2 was markedly increased. In the D2 catchment area, paddy fields areprevalent in the downstream and influence the water quality easily. Accordingly, the concentrationsof TN in samples from D4 were high during the paddling period.
Figure 3 shows the changes in concentration of each nitrogen form in lake water. TN iscomprised mainly of TON and NO3-N. Concentrations of TN exceeded those allowed by theJapanese agricultural water use standard and environmental standard for environmentalⒸ ISERD

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conservation  (≤1.00  mgL−1) for most of the study period. Comparison of TN concentrations before
and after the pumping station was abolished show that TN concentrations decreased. Figure 3
shows that this is reflected by decreased TON concentrations. Changes in NO3-N concentration
could not be confirmed.
During the years 2011 and 2012, approximately 70% of TON (40% of TN) was composed ofPON, indicating a significant influence of PON on TN concentrations in this lake.

After pumping
station abolishment

Fig. 3 Changes in nitrogen component of the lake water
Changes of water balance and total nitrogen balance during irrigation periods
Water balance during irrigation periods was calculated using the relation expression (Equation 1).
The inflow discharge in 2011 decreased compared with levels seen in 2009 and 2010 (Fig. 4) due
to advance of the pipeline and consequent decreases in paddy field area. Prior to 2010,
approximately 40% of the lake water was left via the pumping station, thus abolishment of thepumping station caused significant changes in water balance during 2011. In addition, thetransformation from paddy fields to cultivated area was accompanied by decreased inflow andoutflow, and the retention time of the lake water increased from 3.37 day in 2009 to 5.98 day in2011.

'h Qin  Qout  R  E r G  S  P(1)∆h, change in storage discharge; Qin, discharge of inflow into the lake; Qout, discharge from thelake outlet; R, precipitation; E, evapotranspiration; S, surplus water from pressure control tank; G,
groundwater balance; P, discharge of intake water by pumpstation.

Fig. 4 Water balance of the lake

Fig. 5 Nitrogen Load balance in the lake

Total nitrogen balance during the irrigation periods of 2009–2011 was calculated from waterbalance and concentration. The concentration of TN in the lake water was used to calculate that of
the intake water for the pumping station, and changes in nitrification and outflow through theground were considered constant. The difference between input and output loads wasapproximately 110 kg day−1 and did not differ with that in 2009 and 2010. TN load balance duringⒸ ISERD223

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irrigation periods changed from an outflow type to a storage type due to decreased removal bypumping (Fig. 5), suggesting that TN may accumulate in the future.
Changes in water quality factors under the agricultural water use restriction project
We predicted that decreased water removal after the pumping station was abolished would cause
increased TN concentrations in the lake water. Though removal of water by pumping tends to takepollution from the lake, total nitrogen concentrations fell in 2010. Thus, changed inflow volume
appears to be the main factor that influenced water quality in the lake. Although inflow water
volume and load decreased after 2011, TN retention in the lake increased. Therefore, anotherprocess in the lake may also affect changes in water quality.
Consistent with the phenomena observed in Lake Chashinainuma, a study of Lake
Kasumigaura confirmed that increasing retention time caused load removal from the lake
(Nakamura and Amano, 2007). We suggest that extension of retention time may cause (1)sedimentation of particulate matter, (2) nitrogen fixation by phytoplankton or aquatic plants, and(3) organic matter decomposition due to microbes. Moreover, drawdown of the water level in thelake during the irrigation period was confirmed after 2011, and expansion of the habitation area for
emerging plants was observed. On the other hand, increasing retention time may advance theorganic decomposing effect, thereby increasing DIN by decomposing DON or organic matter inbottom sediments. However, exuberant reed growth was seen in 2011 and 2012 on the northernpart of the lake and may have lowered concentrations of dissolved water items by absorbing DTN.
CONCLUSION
The results indicate that the water inflow volume from the catchment area decreased after the
project, and the TN load balance of the lake changed to storage type despite decreased input load at
Lake Chashinainuma. This decreasing of water inflow volume could be caused by changes of landuse. The pumping station abolishment and the changing of water balance could affect the change of
TN load balance. Interestingly, the concentration of TN in the lake water decreased after the project,largely due to fixation of TON. This decrease in TN concentration is attributed to physicalbiological phenomenon that stem from changes in the hydrological environment and crop types.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank the Foundation of Hokkaido Agricultural Modernization Technology Research Center
for making arrangements with the Hokkaido prefecture and the Naie branch office of the Hokkai
land improvement district. Analysis was supported by Akiya ODA was our graduate student.
This work was supported by a Kurita Water and Environment Foundation Research Grant, anda JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number 23580324.
REFERENCES
Cullum, R.F., Knight, S.S., Cooper, C.M. and Smith, S. 2006. Combined effects of best management
practices on water quality in oxbowlakes from agricultural watersheds. Soil and Tillage Research, 90,
212-221.
Nakamura,  K.  and  Amano,  K.  2007.  Performance  of  lacustrine  “Artificial  Lagoon”  for  the  control  of  diffuse  pollution. Civil engineering journal, 49, 40-45. (in Japanese)
Yamamoto, T., Nagasawa, T., Inoue, T. and Kusa, D. 2001. Evaluation of Oxbow Lakes in Ishikari River
Basin for its function of water quality conservation. Journal of Rural Planning Association, 3, 49-54. (inJapanese)
Yamamoto, T., Nagasawa, T. and Inoue, T. 2002. Effect of lake utilization and watershed agricultural
landuse on water quality in Oxbow Lakes of Ishikari River Basin. Journal of Rural Planning
Association, 4, 157-162. (in Japanese)Ⓒ ISERD

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Yamamoto, T., Kanbe, T., Nagasawa, T. and Inoue, T. 2004. Water environment of Oxbow Lake and landuseof its watershed in the Ishikari River Basin. Journal of Rural Planning Association, 23, 67-72. (inJapanese)Ⓒ ISERD

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Research article
erd

Behavioural Factor of Boiling Drinking Water
in Rural India
SATO MORIO*
Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Chiba, Japan
Email: moriozisan@gmail.com

YAMAJI EIJI
Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Chiba, Japan
Received 15 December 2012

Accepted 27 March 2013(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract In India, 0.4 million children die from diarrhoea which is a particularly alarming
figure. There are several kinds of water sources in rural India, but most of them arecontaminated. Boiling is an effective way to purify water and improve its safety for
drinking. The objective of this study was to reveal the behavioural factor of boiling. A
village near Sompeta city in Andhra Pradesh, India was selected as a survey site of thisstudy. On-site surveys were conducted from 14th to 29th April and from 23rd September
to 5th October in 2012. The surveys consisted of a water quality test of boiling andinterviews with all 53 households that had a child of 3 or 4 years old. The contents ofwater quality test were coliforms, iron and total hardness, and the interview questions wereabout habits and thoughts relating to boiling. The effect of boiling, the reduction of
infection risks, could be observed by the test. However, the evaluation of the taste ofboiled-water was worse than non-boiled-water, even though iron could be removed.
Thirty-two per cent households always use boiled-water and 15% use it only in rainyseason. The main reason for boiling was to prevent infections. They knew boiling is aneffective way to reduce the risk of infection and thus use boiled-water daily. On the other
hand, 42% households use boiled-water only when they get sick and 11% of households
do not use it. The reason for not boiling was not the cost and trouble but a lack ofawareness of the necessity for it. In this area, doctors had given advice to boil water for thesake of children’s health. Some households followed the advice and used boiled-water;
however, there were a number of households that did not follow the advice and still usedwater without boiling.
Keywords drinking water, boiling, diarrhoea, child health, India

INTRODUCTION
About 1.5 million children aged five and below die from diarrhoea every year. This is the second
cause of death in children (WHO, 2008). The most seriously affected country is India, in which
about 0.39 million children die from diarrhoea (UNICEF and WHO, 2009). Pathogens which cause
diarrhoea are spread from excreta to new patients through hands, animals, water, etc. (Carr et al.,2001). Building toilets, developing water sources, improving water quality, and improving hygiene
habits can relatively reduce the risk of diarrhoea (Fewtrell et al., 2005). In order to preventchildren’s death from diarrhoea, the United Nations set a goal to “halve, by 2015, the proportion of
the population without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation”   inMillennium Development Goals, and many kinds of activities were conducted all over the world.
Now 84% people have sustainable access to safe water in rural India (WHO and UNICEF,
2010) but it is not always safe and many people do not use it because of wrong recognition about
the safety of the water source and bad taste (Sato and Yamaji, 2012). Furthermore, there is a highpossibility that water is not safe at the point of use, even if the water source is safe (Wright et al.,2004). Household water treatment and safe storage (HWTS), including boiling, chlorinating, andⒸ ISERD

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filtering water at home, can be effective to improve the quality of drinking water and prevent
diarrhoea (Fewtrell et al., 2005). Boiling is the most common method of treating water at home andthe effect is evident in India (Clasen et al., 2008), but a number of households do not boil water for
drinking purposes. There are some studies concerning the promotion of boiling behaviour, forexample,   promotion   through   school   (Freeman   and   Clasen,   2010)   and   women’s   self-help groups(Freeman et al., 2012), but the behavioural factor of boiling drinking water is not made explicit.
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this study was to reveal the behavioural factor of boiling drinking water, that is,
the reason why a number of people don’t boil it, in rural India. In order to discuss the most feasible
method there, the effect of boiling at the site was presented first. Subsequently, the behaviouralfactor was examined.
METHODOLOGY
A village near Sompeta, in the city of Srikakulam district in Andhra Pradesh state, India wasselected as the survey site of this study (Fig. 1). People in this village use three kinds of drinking
water sources: (i) temple well that it is in the temple and has been used for a long time; (ii) bore
well, of which there were 11 in this village and they were built by the state government about 10
years ago; and (iii) private well that was built in a house lot, of which the number are increasing.
About 80% of households do not have a toilet thus surface water and ground water of unconfined
aquifer are contaminated.
On-site surveys were conducted from 14th to 29th April 2012 and from 23rd September to 5th
October in 2012. The survey consisted of a water quality test of boiling and an interview survey inhouseholds. All 53 households in this village that had a child of 3 or 4 years old were interviewed
about their way of thinking regarding boiling. The boiling test was conducted on the temple well, abore well in an elementary school, and a private well, by using a pot and gas stove in a  household’s  kitchen. One litre of water was put into the pot and heated on the gas stove. Water was taken tomeasure water quality four times: before heating; 0 minutes after start of boiling; 5 minutes after
start of boiling; and 10 minutes after start of boiling. The contents of the measurement werecoliforms, Fe (iron) and TH (total hardness). The Sun Chemical Co. Ltd. detection paper was used
for coliforms, and the Kyoritsu Chemical-Check Lab. Corp. test kit was used for Fe and TH.

Fig. 1 Survey site
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Boiling habit for child is showed in Fig. 2. Thirty-two per cent of households always used boiled water
for their child and 15% of households only used boiled water in rainy season. They use boiled water
before the child becomes sick to prevent disease. On the other hand, 42% households used boiled waterto relieve disease only when the child becomes sick. Furthermore, 11% of households never boiled
water for their child.
The results of the boiling test for density of coliforms are shown in Fig. 3. According to theWHO’s   guidelines for drinking water quality, coliforms should not be detected in 1mL of sampledⒸ ISERD

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water. Water from all sources had coliforms before boiling and this means all sources contained risks ofdiarrhoea. In particular, the temple well and private well had more coliforms as their depth is shallower
than the bore well. However, water from all sources contained no coliforms after 10 minutes of boiling.
Coliforms were killed by boiling therefore it can reduce risk of diarrhoea.
Table 1 shows the numbers and ratios for the frequencies of infection with cholera and typhoid thatwere added up by households' boiling habit. The households that did not have a habit of boiling water
for their child before becoming sick tended to be infected with cholera and typhoid more often than thehouseholds that regularly boiled water. These results also suggest that boiling can reduce the risk ofdiarrhoea.
Figure 4 shows the results of the boiling test for the density of Fe, and Fig. 5 shows the same
results for TH. A bore well with an iron pipe often makes the Fe density of its water high and makes its
taste worse. According to the WHO’s guidelines on drinking water quality, there is a reference value
about Fe from a viewpoint of taste and colouring, though not from a viewpoint of safety. It specifies thatthe density of Fe should be under 0.3 mg/L. After boiling, Fe cannot be detected: the density was
0mg/mL. At that time, there was some white powder at the bottom of the pot which may have contained
Fe. Boiling makes it possible to remove Fe from water. TH was often used as an indicator to check thetaste of water, but it is not specified in the WHO’s  guidelines because the preference toward it depends
on the person and region. TH tended to decrease by boiling, as Fig. 5 indicates.

Fig. 2 Boiling habit for childFig. 3 Results of boiling test for coliforms

Fig. 4 Results of boiling test for Fe

Fig. 5 Results of boiling test for TH

Table 1 Frequency of infection with Cholera and Typhoid by households' boiling habits

Occasionally
Once
Never
I don't know
Total

Always / Seasonnally
CholeraTyphoid
1
4%
1
4%
0
0%
4 16%
23 96%
20 80%
1
0
25
25

Only when sick / Never
CholeraTyphoid
3 13%
2
8%
1
4%
8 33%
19 83%
14 58%
5428
28Ⓒ ISERD

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Total
CholeraTyphoid
4
9%
3
6%
1
2%
12 24%
42 89%
34 69%
6
4
53
53 100%IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

Each household evaluated which water was tastier: before boiling or after boiling. Table 2 presents
the results that were added by households' boiling habits. Most of the households evaluated that waterthat was not boiled did not taste better than boiled water, regardless of the habit of boiling. Table 3
shows the results of the evaluation of the taste of boiled water. Households with a daily boiling habit
tended to set a high value on the taste of boiled water compared to those without this habit. The taste ofwater may improve after boiling because Fe can  be  removed  by  boiling,  but  people’s  evaluations  did notcorrespond with this. During the survey, some households said that boiled water was not tasty because it
is warm. This suggested the possibility that boiling makes water taste worse by raising the watertemperature. Indeed, most of households in this area do not have a refrigerator thus it is difficult forthem to have cold water at home.
Table 4 shows the numbers and ratios of the reasons for not boiling that were added by households'
boiling habits. Some households without a boiling   habit   answered   “Bad   Taste”   as   the   reason.   But  according to this information alone, it is not clear why the mothers were not willing to give boiled water
to their child, despite the fact that boiling  water  is  safer.  Two  households  answered  “Cost”  as  the  reason  for not boiling. During the survey, they said that they want to boil but they do not have enough money
for it. Figure 6 is a boxplot about household income that was added by boiling habits. The exchange rate
was Rs 1 equals about USD 0.02 on 14th Dec 2012. The average income of all households was Rs
23,000. The households with high income tended to have a habit of boiling. However, the number ofhouseholds with boiling habits that have a smaller income than the median income of households
without boiling habits was not a few. It is possible for households with a small income to boil water
daily. Boiling habit may also depend on whether they have a gas stove or not because it is related toincome, costs, and labour. In this village, 62% of households had a gas stove for cooking and 38% did
not have a gas stove. Figure 7 illustrates a comparison of boiling habits between households with gas
stove and those without. There were small differences between them therefore the ownership of a gas
stove does not have a significant effect. According to Table 4, all households that boil water in rainyseason alone think boiling is not needed except in this season, and most of households that boil water
only when their child is sick think that it is unnecessary to boil water before sickness occurs. The maincause of not boiling water for their child is a lack of awareness of its importance and necessity.

Table 2 Preference taste of water between before boiling and after boiling
BeforeAfter
No answer
Total

Always
14
82%
3
18%
0
17

Seasonally
Only when sick
8
100%
19
90%
0
0%
2
10%
0
1
8
22

Never
4
100%
0
0%
2
6

Total
45
90%
5
10%
3
53
100%

Never
0
0%
0
0%
1
20%
4
80%
1
6

Total
2
4%
15
29%
13
25%
22
42%
1
53
100%

Never
3
75%
0
0%
1
25%
2
6
100%

Total
3
14%
2
9%
17
77%
14
36
100%

Table 3 Evaluation about the taste of boiled water
Very GoodGood
Not BadBad
No answer
Total

Always
0
0%
8
47%
5
29%
4
24%
0
17

Seasonally
Only when sick
0
0%
2
9%
3
38%
4
18%
1
13%
6
27%
4
50%
10
45%
0
0
8
22

Table 4 Reason for not boiling water
Bad taste
Cost money
No needNo answer
Total

Seasonally
0
0%
0
0%
8
100%
0
8
100%

Only when sick
0
0%
2
13%
14
88%
6
22
100%

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Table 5 shows the numbers and ratios of the reason for boiling that were added by households'
boiling habits. Most of the households with a habit to boil water always or seasonally answered"Prevention from disease" as the reason. On the other hand, half of the households that boil water only
when their child is sick answered "Relieve disease," while the remaining half answered "Doctor's
advice”  as  the  reason. They boil water only for the treatment of disease, not for the prevention.
Each household evaluated which water is safer, before boiling or after boiling. Table 6 shows theresults that were added by households' boiling habits. The option of "No answer" was not shown as all
households answered this question. All of the households with a boiling habit who stated that they boil
water for the prevention from disease evaluated that boiled water is safer than non-boiled water. On theother hand, some of the households without daily boiling habits evaluated that non-boiled water is safer
than boiled water. Furthermore, 23% of households that boil water only when the child is sick follow
the  doctor’s  advice  and boil water for the treatment of disease in spite of the fact that they think nonboiled water is safer than boiled water.
Numbers and ratios of households that have been advised by a doctor to boil water were added byhouseholds’  boiling  habits, as shown in Table 7. Almost all households have been advised by a doctor;
however there were still households without a boiling habit, regardless of the fact that they were advised
by a doctor to do it. Doctors can influence people to enhance their awareness of child health, but not all
people.

Fig. 6 Household income by boiling habit

Fig. 7 Comparison of boiling habit between
households with gas stove and without it

Table 5 Reason for boiling water
Prevention from disease
Relieve disease
Doctor's advise
Warm body
No answer
Total

Always
15
100%
0
0%
0
0%
0
0%
2
17
100%

Seasonally
6
86%
0
0%
0
0%
1
14%
1
8
100%

Only when sick
0
0%
8
50%
8
50%
0
0%
6
22
100%

Total
21
55%
8
21%
8
21%
1
3%
9
47
100%

Table 6 Comparative evaluation of the water safety between before boiling and after boiling
BeforeAfter

Always
0
0%
17
100%

Seasonally
Only when sick
0
0%
5
23%
8
100%
17
77%

Never
2
33%
4
67%

Total
7
13%
46
87%

Table 7 Numbers and ratios of households that have been advised by a doctor to boil water
Yes
No

Always
17
100%
0
0%

Seasonally
8
100%
0
0%

Only when sick
21
95%
1
5%

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Never
6
100%
0
0%

Total
52
98%
1
2%

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

CONCLUSIONThe  effect  of  boiling  water  was  observed  and  people’s  behavioural  factor  of  boiling  was  examined  in rural India. The risk of diarrhoea could be reduced by boiling. Water from a bore well with aniron pipe has a high level of iron which worsened its taste; however boiling could remove it.
Nevertheless, evaluation of its taste was not good because the water temperature may increase after
boiling. The main reason for boiling was the prevention of infection. Households with boiling
habits knew that boiling was an effective way to reduce the risk of infection and consequently
boiled water for their child daily. On the other hand, the reason for not boiling was not the cost andtrouble, but a lack of awareness of necessity for it. This lack of awareness made difference inpeople’s boiling behaviour.
In this survey site, doctors had advised mothers not to use water without boiling. Somehouseholds followed it and started boiling water, but a number of households ignored it. Doctors
have contacts with almost all households and thus have the opportunity to enlighten them about thecorrect knowledge and habit of children’s   health,   but   some households doesn’t follow   doctors’  advice.  The  type  of  households  that  tend  to  follow  doctors’  advice  and  the  ways  in  which  doctors  can enlighten all households on the necessity of boiling water should be examined after this study.
Furthermore, there are other ways besides the doctor to enlighten households on the benefits ofboiling  water  for  children’s  health  and  these  methods  also  require  further  investigation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank Indian NGO, Green Basics, for assisting in the conduction of the on-site survey.

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Clasen, T., McLaughlin, C., Nayaar, N., Boisson, S., Gupta, R., Desai, D., and Shah, N. 2008.
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Freeman, M. and Clasen, T. 2010. A cluster-randomized trial to assess the impact of a school-based safe
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Freeman, M., Trinies, V., Boisson, S., Gregory, M., and Clasen, T. 2012. Promoting household water
treatment  through  women’s  self  help  groups  in  rural India: assessing impact on drinking water quality andequity. PLoS ONE, 7, e44068.
Sato, M. and Yamaji, E. 2012. Safety of drinking water  source  and  people’s  choice  behavior  in  rural  India.
International Journal of Environmental and Rural development, 3, 43-48.
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Ⓒ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

erd

International Society ofEnvironmental and Rural Development

Philosophy of ISERD:
Recently, in developing countries, subsistence agriculture is being converted to export-oriented mono-culture,and the amounts of agricultural chemicals applied to the farmland are increasing every year. The appliedchemicals in farmland cause serious environmental problems downstream such as eutrophication, unusual
growth of aquatic plants, decrease in dissolved oxygen and accumulation of bottom mud in water resources.
Also, there seem to be many cases in which people apply agricultural chemicals without understanding its
impact to health and food safety. Therefore, it is necessary to promote and enhance understanding ofsustainable rural development among local stakeholders including farmers.
Sustainable rural development aims to meet human needs while preserving the natural environment. As
it should cover not only social and economic development but also natural environment conservation, no
single organization can achieve sufficiently the aspirations of sustainable rural development. Collaboration
among international, governmental and non-governmental organizations, together with the academe andscientific sector, is indispensable.
The knowledge and intelligence accumulated in universities and research institutions are also expected
to make the programs facilitated by the international, governmental and non-governmental organizations
more adequately implemented and meaningful to societal development. However, these cases especiallythose implemented locally have been scattered without having been summarized well or recorded in annals
academic or scientific societies.
So, the International Society of Environmental and Rural Development founded in 2010, aims to discussand develop suitable and effective processes or strategies on sustainable rural development focusing on
agricultural and environmental aspects in developing countries. The ultimate goals of the society are tocontribute to sustainable rural development through social and economic development in harmony with thenatural environment, and to support the potential or capacity building of local institutions and stakeholders in
the rural area with academic background.
Purposes of ISERD:
The primary purposes of ISERD are to contribute to sustainable rural development through social andeconomic development in harmony with the natural environment and to support the potential or capacity
building of local institutions and stakeholders in the rural area with academic background.
In order to enhance the realization of the primary purposes of ISERD, the secondary purposes are;- to facilitate interaction among international, governmental, non-governmental organizations and local
communities,- to hold conferences or symposia on environmental and rural development,- to publish the International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development, and- to encourage and develop local awareness concerning sustainable rural development.
Membership:
There shall be two categories of membership.
(a) Individual(b) Organizational
An application for membership of ISERD shall be submitted to the secretariat of ISERD, Institute ofEnvironment Rehabilitation and Conservation (Japan) or Association of Environmental and Rural
Development (Thailand) by writing or by other appropriate means.
Council of ISERD:
The affairs of ISERD shall be governed and managed by the ISERD Council. The councilors are as follows.
President
Prof. Dr. Mario T. Tabucanon, United Nations University, Institute of Advanced Studies, Japan
Deputy President
Prof. Dr. Bunthan Ngo, Royal University of Agriculture, Cambodia

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2013) 4-1

Prof. Dr. Anan Polthanee, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Executive Secretary
Prof. Dr. Machito Mihara, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Editor-in-ChiefProf. Dr. Eiji Yamaji, The University of Tokyo, Japan
Managing Editors
Prof. Dr. Machito Mihara, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Dr. Yoko Mochizuki, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, France
Dr. Muhammad Aqil, Indonesian Center for Food Crops Research, Indonesia
Dr. Lalita Siriwattananon, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, Thailand
Treasurer
Dr. Lalita Siriwattananon, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, Thailand
Regional Vice Presidents
Prof. Dr. Robert J. Martin, University of New England, Australia
Prof. Dr. Mom Seng, Royal University of Agriculture, Cambodia
Prof. Dr. Dieter Trautz, University of Applied Sciences, Germany
Dr. Siaw Onwona-Agyeman, African Program on Field Oriented Leaders in Environ. Sectors, Ghana
Dr. Muhammad Aqil, Indonesian Center for Food Crops Research, Indonesia
Dr. Hiromu Okazawa, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Dr. Junaid Alam Memon, Pakistan Institute of Development Economics, Pakistan
Dr. Elpidio T. Magante, Bohol Island State University, Philippines
Dr. Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Prof. Dr. Murari Suvedi, Michigan State University, USA
Dr. Vo Quang Minh, Cantho University, Vietnam
ISERD Secretariats:
Institute of Environment Rehabilitation and Conservation (ERECON)
2987-1 Onoji Machida-Shi, Tokyo 195-0064, Japan
Tel/Fax: +81-42736-8972
E-mail: iserd.secretariat@gmail.com
Webpage: www.iserd.net
Association of Environmental and Rural Development (AERD)
93/64 Moo.3, Sinsab village 2, Bungyeetho sub-district, Thanyaburi district,Pathum Thani 12130, Thailand
Tel/Fax: +66-2957-8064
E-mail: iserd.secretariat@gmail.com
Webpage: www.iserd.net

All articles and reports published in this journal were accepted through a peer-review process. However,most articles and reports published in this journal were presented at the International Conference on
Environmental and Rural Development that was co-organized by United Nations University, Institute ofAdvanced Studies.