Science Council of Asia

19th Science Councilof AsiaConference(2019), SpecialIssue 2020

Journal of the
Myanmar Academy of Arts and Science
ISSN 2520-0186, LCCN 2003-323143

Special Issue
2020

19th Science Council of Asia Conference
3-5 December, 2019, Nay Pyi Taw

RESEARCH AND INNOVATIONFOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN ASIA
SUB-THEME III
Diversify Utilization of Natural Resources
for Sustainable Development

Journal of the
Myanmar Academy of Arts and Science
ISSN 2520-0186, LCCN 2003-323143

Special Issue
2020

19th Science Council of Asia Conference
3-5 December, 2019, Nay Pyi Taw

SUB-THEME III
Diversify Utilization of Natural Resources for Sustainable
Development

Journal of the
Myanmar Academy of Arts and Science
ISSN 2520-0186

Special Issue
2020

Edition
2020, 400 Copies

Copyright
Ministry of Education

Published by
Dr Aung Min (00322) Chairman, Journal Publication Committee,
Myanmar Academy of Arts and Science

ISSN 2520-0186
ICCN 2003-323143

Printed by
U Win Aung (00171), Manager
Universities Press, Yangon, Myanmar

FOREWORD
We would like to thank His Excellency Dr. Myo Thein Gyi, Hon’ble Union Minister for
Education, for delivering the inaugural address at the Opening Ceremony of the 19th Science
Council of Asia Conference, and for the support His Excellency had given for holding thisinternational conference, for the first time, in Myanmar. We are also indebted to express ourheartfelt gratitude to His Excellency Dr Wang Xi, Vice Minister, Ministry of Science and Technology
of China, President, Science Council of Asia, and Vice President, China Association for Science andTechnology (CAST) for his presence at this opening ceremony. We would also like to extend our
gratitude to Professor Dr Hiroshi YOSHINO, the Secretary General/Treasurer of SCA. Special thanks
would go to Dr Juichi Yamagiwa, the President of SCJ and to all distinguished guests and scholars
from SCA member academies who, in one way or the other, contributed to the success of thisconference.
MAAS owes its apology to all participants for the delay in producing the papers presented at
SCA-19 Conference. The responsibility of opinions, statements, comments, etc. expressed in thepapers lie with those of the authors. The views expressed in the papers presented at the conference
did not reflect that of MAAS.

Dr Thet Lwin
President, Myanmar Academy of Arts and ScienceLists of Contributors
MessagesA

Dr. Myo Thein Gyi, Minister, Ministry of Education

Pages
i

B

Dr. Wang Xi, President, Science Council of Asia

ii

C

Dr. Thet Lwin, President of Myanmar Academy of Arts and Science

iii

D

Professor Hiroshi YOSHINO, Secretary General/ Treasure of SCA

Iv

1

Distribution and Status of Sarus Crane Grus Antigone in Wetlandsof Ayayarwady Region.
Dr Myo Sandar Win

1

2

Passiveness toward Drinking Water in Coastal Bangladesh Case
Study of Rainwater Harvesting
Shota Yamada

7

3

Production of Starch Based Bioplastic from Cassava Reinforced with
Microcrystalline Cellulose Using Sorbitol as Plasticizer
Dr. Yin Min

134

Study on Ion-exchange of Toxic Lead in a Model System by MetalHumate Complexes
Dr. Naw Aye Aye Thein

23

5

Modification and Enzyme Immobilization of Natural Cellulose Fiber
(Polysaccharide)
Dr Mya Mya Sainn

29

6

Preparation of microfibrillated cellulose from Bakong (Hanguanamalayana (Jack) Merr.) and its application as paper reinforcement
Mr.Glenn Christian35

7Morphological Study and Chemical Composition of Seeds of
Avocado Plant
Dr Khin Myo Thwet

43

8

Ecological Study on Clouded Monitor Lizard Varanus Nebulosus(Gray, 1831) in Hlawga Wildlife Park, Yangon Region
Dr Win Zaw

49

9Investigation of Phytochemicals and Some
Smallanthus Sonchifolius & (Yacon) Leaves
Dr Khin Chaw Win

of

57

10

Investigation of Chemical Constituents and Bioactivities of Some
Organic Compounds from Rhizomes of Boesenbergia pandurata(Roxb.) Schltr. (Seik-Phoo) (Red and Yellow Varieties)
Dr Aye Myint Sein

63

PapersBioactivities

Messages
11

12

Study on the Antimicrobial, Activity and Antioxidant Activity of
Myanmar Traditional Medicine (A-Phay-Kyaw) as Remedy for Food
Poisoning
Dr. Khin Htwe Kyaing
The Role of Career Development for Employee Job Satisfaction
Dr Khin Malar Maung

Pages
69

77

13

Natural Water Filter by using Plant Xylem from Pine Tree and H2SPaper-Strip Test
Dr. Khin Lay Thwe

83

14

Morphodynamics Modelling in a Data-Scare Environment: The
Chindwin River
Dr Khin Kyu Kyu

89

15

Spectral Analysis of Transition Metal Carbides for Sustainable
Industrial Development
Dr Thi Thi Lay

93

16

Distribution of Water Resources and their Management forSouthern Shan StateDr Saw Yu May

101

17

Synthesis and Characterization of Rice Husk Derived Bioactive
Glass Ceramic
Dr. Min Maung Maung

107

18

Antimicrobial Activity and Structure Elucidation of Isolated
Phenanthrene Derivative Compound from the Root of Atalantia
monophylla (Roxb.) DC. (Taw shauk)
Dr Thinn Myat Nwe

115

19

Tourism Development in a Nature Protected Environment: Indawgyi
Lake Area
Dr Zin Mar Than

125

20

Perceived Impacts of Tourism, Quality of Life and Support for
Tourism Development at Community Based Tourism in Myaing
Township
Dr Aye Thandar Soe

135

21

Socio-cultural Factors of Pathel Village, Falam Township in Chin
State in Myanmar
Dr Khin Saw Nwe

143

22

Isolation of Piperine from the Fruit of Piper longum L. (Peik-chin)
and Some Bioactivities of Piperine
Dr Ei Ei Khaing151Message

It is a great pleasure and inspiring experience to host the 19 th Science Council of
Asia Conference, held with the theme "Research and Innovation for Sustainable
Development in Asia" in Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar.
This conference is particularly timely as all Member States are unanimously
supporting research and innovation to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs) of the United Nations 2030 Agenda.
A comprehensive range of the conference sessions reflects a very topical agenda
as it provides a wonderful platform and opportunity for several experts, academia,
scholars and researchers to exchange their break-through ideas, profound knowledge
and invaluable experiences.
I sincerely hope this conference will help to identify ways to bring forward thetransformative sustainability agenda and better align research and innovation policies
with the SDGs, as set out in the United Nations Agenda 2030 for sustainable
development.
To all delegates, I would like to suggest that we adopt innovation in science,technology, engineering and mathematics as integral elements of the strategies for
SDGs. I would like to request you to produce action-oriented outcomes of theconference and keep supporting research and innovation for sustainable development in
Asia.
Before I conclude, I wish all delegates and participants an enjoyable stay in
Myanmar.
Thank you.
Dr Myo Thein Gyi
Union Minister for Education, Myanmar

Message

It is my great pleasure to welcome you all on behalf of Science Council of Asia(SCA) to the 19th

SCA conference that brings together experts of scientific organizations to discuss " Research andInnovation for Sustainable Development in Asia". I thank all the local conference hosts in Myanmar andthe SCA Secretariat. Thanks to their excellent effort, the SCA19 is organized jointly and successfully.
To a large extent, Asia's rapid economic development and subsequently booming consumption
have prompted critical challenge for environment sustainability. Recently, Oxford Dictionaries andCambridge Dictionary have named "climate emergency" and "upcycling" as their Word of the Year 2019,respectively. Change is necessary.
The 2030 Agenda, adopted at the United Nations Sustainable Development Summit in September
2015, positioned Science, Technology and Innovation as key means of implementation of the SDGs. Alsowith a new perspective of economic growth, there is a clear shift towards appreciating the adoption ofsustainability standards, which has a positive correlation with increased profit as demand for productswith sustainable credentials grows.
Many Asian countries have signed up to the SDGs, made growing commitment to address poverty,
clean energy and pollution. New science and technology achievements have been applied to solve specificissues, new approaches have been used towards more sustainable activities.
SCA provides such a collaborative platform for member organizations to promote scientificexchange and cooperation, and to reach mutual understanding. We will continue to play a central role toface the common challenges for sustainable development in Asia and lead to a bright future.
Wishing you all a fruitful and joyful stay in Nay Pyi Taw and looking forward to your active
participation in the Conference.
With best regards,

Prof. Dr. WANG Xi
President, Science Council of Asia

Message

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) came to an end in December 2015; certain agenda of
MDGs had been left unfinished. In 2015, UN General Assembly adopted the post 2015 Development Agenda
and set Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The 2030 Global Development Agenda came into effect onst

1 January, 2016 with the prospect of covering the five aspects: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace andProsperity. The approach to SDGs can be initiated through a different angle. For instance, People: End
Poverty and Hunger in all forms and ensure dignity and equality; Planet: Protect our planet's natural
resources and climate for future generations; Peace:

Foster peaceful, just and inclusive societies;

Prosperity: Ensure prosperous and fulfilling lives in harmony with nature.
Living beings inherited the earth, the only planet in the solar system, in which all known life forms
can flourish. Human beings are the most intelligent species on earth. Throughout history, they try tochange their environment to suit their needs and satisfy their desires. Among the continents, Asia happens
to be the most populous region in the world. China and India, each with one billion plus population, haveemerged as economic powers. Japan, Korea, Taiwan, and ASEAN TEN too witnessed economic growth.
Inventions and innovations contributed to industrial revolutions. The fourth forthcoming inventions of IT
and AI are expected to change traditional modes of manufacturing, transportation and urban amenities.
st

In 21 century, research across various countries in Asia highlight inter-linkages between natural
resources and sustainable development goals along with the impact of climate change. The human society
is seeking ways to safeguard human's wellbeing and to guarantee the sustainable use of resources. At thesame time, it also tries to conserve the environment from natural calamities like floods, earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, drought, etc. so that our future generations will be inherited with green and peacefulenvironment.
I, on behalf of Myanmar Academy of Arts and Science, would like to express my deep appreciation
to all those involved in making the conference a success. Special mention needs to be made to SCJ which
co-hosted the SCA19 conference with MAAS for their guidance, support, co-operation and coordination.
We fervently believe that the conference will provide our guests a cordial atmosphere for sharing
experiences and exchanging views. The deliberations from this conference are expected to bring into light,
effective means and ways for resolving common issues people are currently facing in Asia and elsewhere.

Dr. Thet Lwin
President of MAAS

Message

I am pleased to announce that the 19th Science Council of Asia (SCA) Conference is held in Nay
Pyi Taw, Myanmar. First of all, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Myanmar Academy of Arts
and Science (MAAS) for its enormous efforts to prepare for this Conference. I also would like to express my
deep appreciation to Member Organizations and SCA Secretariat for their cooperation and contribution inorganizing this Conference and all the people who support it.
th

The theme of the 19 SCA Conference is “Research and Innovation for Sustainable Developmentin Asia”. As you might already know, the purpose of SCA established in 2000 is “to facilitate scientificcooperation in Asia towards the progress in science and sustainable development of the region”. With thispurpose, SCA has contributed to society through the collaboration with academies in the region. Under
such circumstances, “Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development” with the 17
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and 169 targets was adopted at the UN General Assembly in 2015.
Since then, the efforts to realize the sustainable development in which a key principle is “no one will beleft behind” have started at global level. We must continuously and collaboratively address a wide range
of issues facing us since they are so challenging in the sense that human beings have never experienced
them before.
th

The 19 SCA Conference is held for 3 days and nearly 180 presentations (oral and poster) arescheduled. I am delighted to know that we have received many applications exceeding our expectation. It
indicates a high level of interest in this Conference’s theme, “Research and Innovation for Sustainable
Development in Asia”. In the Conference, there are four (4) sub-themes that are discussed in theirrespective sessions. The main theme and sub-themes of the Conference have been carefully selected inorder to inspire scholars and researchers in Asia to undertake interdisciplinary researches in partnership tocontribute to the realization of the 17 SDGs.
This Conference is an advantageous opportunity to build a network of scholars in and outside thecountry. I am sure that there would be abundant outstanding discussions at this Conference.
Professor Hiroshi Yoshino
Secretary General / Treasure of SCA

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)1

Distribution and Status of Sarus Crane Grus Antigone in wetlands of
Ayeyarwady Region
Myo Sandar Win1 et al
Abstract
The present research conducts with the distribution pattern and status of globally threatened
vulnerable species of Sarus Crane Grus antigone in Ayeyarwady Region. Data was recorded bydirect observation and interview survey method. Sarus Cranes have been distributed in 14
Townships (135 villages) in breeding season (June–October) and non-breeding season (NovemberMay) in four districts. According to the result, 395 individuals of Sarus Crane and 127 nests wererecorded in during the period of June 2015 to May 2018. Out of them, 245 individuals of adult and
54 individuals of juvenile were recorded in non – breeding season. Nests were recorded in 57
villages. During the study period, highest population number of Sarus Crane and their nests wererecorded in Wakhema and Maubin Township. Habitats were also recorded. Evaluating thebreeding status of Sarus Cranes by Mayfield (1979) method, hatching (80.1%), crude breeding
success (55.7%) and fledging success (69.6%) were calculated.
Keywords: Ayeyarwady, breeding, habitats, Sarus Crane, wetland

1.

Introduction (12P’t, Times New Roman)

Ayeyarwady Region has an area of 35,140 square kilometres (13,566 sq. miles). It is thevery vast region, there are 26 Townships comprising with 1913 villages under the six Districts.
Sarus Crane is currently listed as vulnerable species on the IUCN Red list. It is conspicuous andiconic species of open wetlands. Wetland – dependent birds need functional assess to a wetland
or wetland products almost totally for breeding, nesting, feeding, or shelter during their breeding
cycles. Wetlands are still being degraded in many parts of the world (Schuyt, 2005). The purposeof the research is to conduct the Sarus Crane distribution and status on population and habitats.

2.

Methods

Study area
Ayeyarwady region lies between north latitude 15° 40' and 18° 30' approximately andbetween east longitude 94° 15' and 96° 15'. Data were recorded in four districts (Maubin,
Myaungmya, Pyapon, and Latbutta).
Study period
The survey was conducted from June, 2015 to May, 2018.
Field data collection
Population surveys conducted towards the end of the breeding season. At each Crane
1

Dr Lecturer, Department of Zoology, University of Yangon, myosandarwinn@gmail.com
2.Tran Triet, 3.Theingi Soe Myint, 4. Ah Mar Yi, 5. Thet Naing, 6. Aung Aung, 7. Kaythi Khine, 8. Hele Swe Po,
9. Biak Khun Aye19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)2site, habitats were collected by rapid assessment by level 4 of Asian Wetland Inventory
Handbook (Finlagson et al., 2002). Data were collected using by direct observation and interview
survey method. Interviewed surveys conducted with a wide variety of people such farmers,
villagers, boatmen, fishermen and other local people who well known about the Crane.

Data analysis for breeding status
Breeding status was analyzed by method of Mayfield, 1979.
Hatching success (%)=

Fledging success (%)=

Crude breeding success (%) =

100
100
100

Figure 1. Map of the study sites

3.

Results and Discussion

Sarus Crane’ distribution and their status
The research was conducted in four districts of Ayeyarwady Region (135 villages in 14
townships). Sarus Cranes have been distributed in four districts in breeding season (June–
October) and non-breeding season (November-May). Highest population Crane numbers andnests were recorded in Wakhema Township and followed by Maubin Township (Figure 1). The
habitats of both townships were suitable habitats for Sarus Crane. According to the survey result,395 individuals (245 adult, 54 juvenile) of Sarus Crane and 127 nests were recorded in 14
Townships during the research period (Figure 2 and Table 1). Lowest population number and nest
were recorded in other Townships. In these Townships, habitats were not sufficient for roosting,foraging and nesting.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)3

Breeding status of Sarus Crane
During the research period, nests were recorded in 57 villages. Nesting sites were mostly
found in natural wetlands and flooded paddy field. The natural wetlands appear to be the most
preferred habitats for nesting and were crucial to ensure maximum breeding success of Sarus
Crane. The breeding period for Sarus Crane was June to October. The clutch size was one or two
eggs which were incubated by both the parents for about 30 to 31 days. The chalky white egg
was about 11cm long and 6.5 cm wide (Plate 1). Some breeding pairs breed in September thatfacing the threats by many factors such as set up the fish net, habitat loss and natural enemies due
to harvesting time. It may be assumed that, habitat quality often plays a major role until thefledging stage of the juvenile and adult Sarus Crane. Evaluating the breeding status of Sarus
Cranes by Mayfield (1979) method, hatching (80.1%), crude breeding success (55.7%) andfledging success (69.6%) were calculated.

Habitat utilization of Sarus Cranes in non -breeding season and breeding season
During the non-breeding season, Sarus Cranes’ seasonal movements were still need tosome observations in Ayeyarwady Region. After breeding period of Sarus Cranes, they reunited
their group. Breeding pairs with their chicks and non- breeding of Sarus Cranes used variety ofwetland habitats such as wet marshes of agricultural land, cultivated land in shallow water (after
harvesting), and reed bed mingled with lotus plant. According to the survey result, some breedingpairs used their breeding ground about three months with their chicks till fledging time. In thesehabitats, water were dried up and drained outside as well by farmer for seasonal crop planting.
Farmers were ploughed for another planting on the breeding ground while Crane family foraged
in these habitats. They eat snails, crustaceans, tuber roots and some invertebrates. According tofield and interview survey, some pairs and other flocks (group were consisted up to thirty
individuals) used wetlands and however they have a low preference for dry habitats even in nonbreeding season. They moved to wet habitats from breeding ground where can forage and roost.
According to the seasons and sites, it may be supposed that food sources were varies, especiallyforaging in complex habitats with water and the highest biodiversity value.
During the breeding season, breeding pairs and non-breeding pairs used different wetland
sites. Foraging, nesting, and roosting in seasonal wetlands, natural wetlands, flooded paddy fields
and lotus fields were observed. Sarus Cranes used various habitats which favorable for breeding
process and would have territories. Nesting sites were most found in natural wetlands andflooded paddy fields. A mosaic of surrounding paddy fields serves the territorial requirements ofthe breeding pairs.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

4

200
180
140
120
100
80

No. of nest

60

No. of individuals

40
20
0

Districts
Figure1. Recorded number of nest and individual of Sarus Crane in four districts

140
120
100

Number of nest

Number of nest and individual

160

80

1st week

60

2nd week

40

3rd week

20

4th week0MonthsFigure2. Recorded number of nest in breeding period of Sarus Crane19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

5

Table 1. Recorded number of Sarus Crane nest and individuals in four Districts
Name ofdistrict

Number oftownshipNumber of nest

Number ofindividual

Maubin652138

Myaungmya

5

67

187

Pyapon2

8

33

Labutta

1

-

12

Total

14

127

395

A.Jumping of Sarus Crane B. Dancing of Sarus Crane

D. Sarus Crane’ nest

E.Sarus Crane’ eggs

C. Bowing movement of Sarus Crane

F. Incubation of Sarus Crane

G. Swimming of Sarus Crane H. 25 days old chick of Sarus Crane I. A family of Sarus Crane

J. Hatching of Sarus Crane’ egg

K. Sarus Crane’ chick

L. Sarus Crane’ chicks

Plate I. Recorded Sarus Crane photos

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

6

4.

Conclusions

The expected outcomes of this research include a reliable estimate of the distribution,
population, and documentation of the Cranes’ habitats in Ayeyarwady Region. Scientific studies
have identified the Ayeyarwady Region as one of the most important areas for Sarus Cranes in
Myanmar. This research will be essential for the conservation effort of the fauna and theirhabitats in Ayeyarwady Region.

Acknowledgements
We are deeply indebted to Dr Thida Lay Thwe, Professor (Head), Zoology Department, University of
Yangon, who permitted to do this research. We would like to express our special thanks to Dr Tran Triet, Director ofSouth East Asia Program, International Crane Foundation (ICF), USA for his invaluable guidance and funding
throughout this research. Special thanks are due to U Tin Aung Tun, freelance conservationist for his invaluable
technical supporting during the survey period.

References[1] Finlayson, C. M., Begg, G.W., Howes, J., Davies, J., Tagi, K and Lowry, K. 2002. A manual for an inventory of
Asian wetlands, Version 1.0. Wetland International Global Series 10, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
87pp.
[2] IUCN, 2015. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2015.2. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded
on 03 September 2015.
[3] Mayfield, H. F. 1975. Suggestions for calculating nst success. Wilson Bulletin 87:456-466[4] Schuyt, K. D. 2005. Economic consequences of wetland degradation for local populations in Africa. Ecol. Econ.
53(2): 177-190.

7

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

Passiveness toward Drinking Water in Coastal Bangladesh Case Study ofRainwater Harvesting
Shota Yamada1

Abstract
Rainwater is one of the best solutions to the drinking water crisis in coastal Bangladesh, as it is safeand preferred by villagers. However, rainwater harvesting tanks (RWHTs) have not been distributed
widely in the area. This study aims to investigate why many villagers do not have RWHTs and thefactors that contribute to spreading RWHTs in this region. To this end, a field survey was conductedin a coastal village in Shyamnagar Upazila. The study found that only 34 of the 239 households inthe village had RWHTs. These households obtained RWHTs from NGOs, markets, and friends orrelatives, or made them themselves, as they faced drinking water limitation and wanted to increase
the amount of rainwater preserved. A total of 12 households with RWHTs reported that they would
not have obtained RWHTs had they not been prompted by NGOs, and 46 households with no
RWHTs stated that they lacked them because they had not been prompted. The study concluded
that, although many villagers experience drinking water shortages, they remain passive, awaiting
support from development agencies. The study also found that currently, only households who arefinancially stable could benefit from the development aid related to drinking water.
Keywords: development activities, sustainable development, salinity, NGO, aid dependency

1. Introduction
Surface and ground water are affected by saline intrusion in coastal Bangladesh [4] [8]due to the prevalent natural, socioeconomic, and political systems [7]. Therefore, this region
faces a scarcity of drinking water, and rainwater is, in many cases, the only source and solution of
choice for many villagers of drinking water. The harvesting technology is easy to utilize [3] andcoastal population prefer to intake rainwater [9]. Moreover, rainwater is safe enough to drink [5][6] when collected and stored properly. However, it is often not enough to meet a full year’s
drinking water needs [1] because it cannot be collected in the dry season, as annual average
rainfall ranges from 1,429 to 4,338 millimeters depending on the region, with most of it
occurring during the monsoon season (from July to October) [2]. Nevertheless, as few alternative
sources of potable water are available, concrete or plastic rainwater harvesting tanks (hereinafter:
RWHTs) have been distributed in the area through markets and development agencies, such as
governmental agencies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and social enterprises.
However, many households still do not have RWHTs and are struggling to meet their annual
drinking water needs.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the reasons why many villagers do not have
RWHTs, as well as the factors that contribute to spreading RWHTs in this region. This study
contributes to knowledge of development activities related to drinking water and, by extension,
to solving the drinking water crisis in the area.

1

Graduate School of International Relations, Ritsumeikan University, Japan, so0223xr@ed.ritsumei.ac.jp

819th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

2. Methods
A field survey was conducted in a coastal hamlet (total 239 households) in the
Shyamnagar Upazila of Satkhira District from April 1 to May 6, 2019. This hamlet was chosenbecause it faces a serious drinking water shortage, most notably caused by saline intrusion, anddevelopment agencies have distributed RWHTs to mitigate it. Moreover, villagers have knew
RWHTs made by plastic and cement not only through the activities and projects of development
agencies but also through markets that sell them. The survey included the 34 households that
owned RWHTs (hereinafter “tank holders”), as well as 51 randomly sampled households that did
not have RWHTs (hereinafter “non-tank holders”). Participants were asked questions related totheir incomes, the reasons that they had or had not obtained RWHTs, the places where they had
obtained them or the agencies that had provided them, and the prices that they had paid for them.
As the author do not have adequate knowledge of Bengali, the interviews were conducted withthe help of an English translator.
3. Results and Discussion
The survey revealed that 38 (74.5%) of the 51 non-tank holders harvested rainwater using
pitchers and other vessels, such as kolshi and motka (vessels traditionally used in Bangladesh), as
well as plastic pots. Although they collected rainwater during the rainy season (roughly from
June to September), they could not store enough for the rest of the year due to the insufficient
capacity of the pots. Regarding the tank holders, 29 (85.3%) of the 34 households reported facing
the same issue before they obtained RWHTs but 17 (50.0%) of the households reported annual
self-sufficiency after obtaining RWHTs.
The tank holders had either obtained RWHTs from NGOs, markets, and friends or relatives
or made them themselves (Table 1). Three households had more than one RWHT; twohouseholds had two, one from NGOs and the other homemade; and one household had three, one
from a market, another from relatives, and the other homemade.
Table 1. Numbers of Rainwater Harvesting Tanks, Tank Holders, and Tank Providers
NGO Market

Relatives orFriends

Homemade

Previous
Three*

Total

Numbers of Tank
Holders

18

10

4

1

1

34

Numbers ofRainwater
Harvesting Tanks

19

10

4

2

3

38

* Market, relatives or friends, and homemade.
NGOs provided RWHTs to 18 (52.9%) of the tank holders. Although a few tank holders
had obtained RWHTs from NGOs of their own accord, NGOs generally had been prompting
villagers to obtain them. Although several NGOs had been running RWHT distribution projects
in the study hamlet, two were particularly active; one sold plastic RWHTs on monthly
instalments through microfinance groups that it was operating, and the other sold cement RWHTs
through finding beneficiaries in the hamlet.

919th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)A total of 10 (29.4%) of the tank holders had bought RWHTs at the markets. Although
RWHTs were available at several markets, most of the tank holders had purchased them at themain market of Upazila, 16 kilometers from the study hamlet.
A total of 4 (11.8%) of the tank holders had obtained second-hand RWHTs from relatives orfriends who had gained access to new drinking water sources. One household (2.9%) had madeits own RWHT. Its owners reported that they had built it because they were envious of others
who had RWHTs.
Although RWHT prices varied depending on the distributor, they generally correlated with
their storage capacity. Plastic 1,000-liter RWHTs were sold by an NGO for 8,000 BDT (1 BDT =0.0118581 USD), but RWHTs of the same capacity were sold in markets for 7,000 BDT. The
difference of 1,000 BDT seemed to constitute interest on monthly payments. The net price of
cement RWHTs was higher than that of plastic ones, but the NGO sold them at a more affordable
price than the plastic ones by covering part of the cost. Therefore, cement RWHTs were sold3,000 BDT for 3,200-liter RWHTs built above ground and around 5,000 BDT for 12,000-liter
underground RWHTs by NGOs. Generally, the price was not significant; however, as some tankholders did not clearly remember it, and some RWHTs had been sold for a discounted price, astank sellers and tank holders were on good terms.
The majority of the non-tank holders (36 households, or 70.6%) stated that they had not
obtained RWHTs from NGOs or markets because they could not afford them. They particularly
cited the absence of a monthly payment system in markets and the extra 1,000 BDT that NGOs
charged as interest on monthly payments. In order to determine whether the relation between
ownership and non-ownership of RWHTs and average annual income is statistically significant,an unpaired t-test was performed using Excel 2016 at a significance level of p < 0.05 (Table 2).
The result showed that t (36) = −3.32 and p = 0.002, which clearly indicates that RWHTs were
owned by households with sufficient money.
Table2. Unpaired t-test Result for Ownership of Rainwater Harvesting Tanks and Annual Income

Tank Holders
Non-tank
holders

Numbers ofHouseholds

AnnualIncome(BDT)

34

201,88851

64,626t Value

Statistical
Degrees ofFreedom

p
Value

-3.32

36

0.002** p<0.05

A majority of the households that had obtained RWHTs from NGOs (18 households, or
66.7%) reported that they would not have obtained them had they not been prompted by theNGOs. In addition, 46 (90.6%) of the non-tank holders stated that they did not have RWHTs
because they had not been prompted by NGOs to buy them. In order to determine whether the
relation between households prompted and households not prompted to buy RWHTs from an
NGO and average annual income is statistically significant, an unpaired t-test was performed
using Excel 2016 at a significance level of p < 0.05 (Table 3). The result showed that t (20) =2.15 and p = 0.04, which clearly indicates that NGOs had prompted households with sufficientmoney to buy RWHTs.

10

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

Table3. Unpaired t-test Result for Prompts to Buy Rainwater Harvesting Tanks from NGOs andAnnual Income
NumbersofHouseholds

AnnualIncome(BDT)Households Prompted to
Buy Rainwater Harvesting
Tanks

20

197,495

Households Not Prompted
to Buy Rainwater
Harvesting Tanks

49

t
Value

Statistical
Degrees ofFreedom

p
Value

2.15

20

0.04*

64,846* p<0.05

Above all, this study concluded that villagers in coastal Bangladesh are passive toward
issues related to collecting drinking water by obtaining RWHTs even though they are aware of
the drinking water crisis, mainly caused by saline intrusion. In other words, they await support
from development agencies, and they only consider obtaining RWHTs when they are targeted byaid projects. As a large number and a wide variety of aid projects has been carried out in
Bangladesh, a certain mind-set has taken root among villagers that predisposes them to expect
everything, even such a basic need as water, from development agencies.
This study, however, found that only financially stable villagers could benefit from aid
related to drinking water. This means that poor villagers are largely excluded from thedevelopment assistance due to the monthly payment system that NGOs have introduced for the
goods that they sell in order to both sustain their projects and generate a sense of ownershipamong villagers.
The findings of this study suggest that agencies should make efforts to change the villagers’
passive attitude. At the same time, they should do more to help, especially the poorer villagers,
reducing the monthly payment amounts and the interest rate or donating RWHTs with free cost.
4. Conclusions
This study focused on a coastal village in Bangladesh to investigate why, amid a serious
drinking water crisis, some villagers own RWHTs, but many do not, as well as what factors
contribute to spreading RWHTs in this region. Although villagers are aware of the drinking watercrisis and have been harvesting rainwater using vessels of limited capacity, they are rather
passive in terms of making efforts to obtain RWHTs, awaiting support from development
agencies. This is due to a mind-set of aid dependency among villagers. Moreover, the poorer
villagers are excluded from water-related development aid from NGOs, as they cannot afford themonthly instalments and the extra costs of purchasing RWHTs from them. It is, therefore,
essential for NGOs to reduce the monthly payment amounts or donate RWHTs so that they canmake RWHTs more affordable. Development agencies should also take notice of the villagers’
passive attitude and adapt their strategies with an eye toward changing them so that villagers cando more to help themselves.

11

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support of the 2019 International Research Fund from
Ritsumeikan University, Japan. Thanks also go to Shushilan, a local NGO in Bangladesh, which supported the fieldsurvey. We also wish to thank Mr. Mohammed Arshad Hossain, a student of Urban & Rural Planning Discipline atKhulna University, who acted as a translator during the interviews. Finally, we would like to express our gratitude to
the community in the study hamlet for its cooperation.

References[1] Alam, M. A. and Rahman, M. M., “Comparative Assessment of Four Alternative Water Supply Options in
Arsenic Affected Areas of Bangladesh”, Journal of Civil Engineering, 2010, No. 38, Vol. 2, pp.
191-201.
[2] BBS, “Statistical Year Book Bangladesh 2018”, Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, 2019.
[3] Ghosh, G. C., Jahan, S., Chakraborty, B., and Akter, A., “Potential of Household Rainwater Harvesting for
Drinking Water Supply in Hazard Prone Coastal Area of Bangladesh”, Nature Environment and
Pollution Technology, 2015, No. 14, Vol. 4, pp. 937-942.
[4] Haque, S.A., “Salinity Problems and Crop Production in Coastal Regions of Bangladesh”, Pakistan Journal of
Botany, 2006, Vol. 38. No. 5. pp. 1359-1365.
[5] Islam, K. Z., Islam, M. S., Lacoursière, J. O., and Dessborn, L., “Low Cost Rainwater Harvesting: An Alternate
Solution to Salinity Affected Coastal Region of Bangladesh”, American Journal of Water
Resources, 2014, No. 2, Vol. 6, pp. 141-148.
[6] Jakariya, M., Chowdhury, A. M. R., Hossain, Z., Rahman, M., Sarker, Q., Khan, R. I., and Rahman, M.,“Sustainable Community-based Safe Water Options to Mitigate the Bangladesh Arsenic
Catastrophe: An Experience from Two Upazilas”, Current Science, 2003, No. 85, Vol. 2, pp. 141146.
[7] Mahmuduzzaman, M., Ahmed, Z. U., Nuruzzaman, A. K. M., and Ahmed, F. R. S., “Causes of Salinity Intrusion
in Coastal Belt of Bangladesh”, International Journal of Plant Research, 2014, No. 4, vol. 4A, pp.
8-13.
[8] Rahman, M. and Bhattacharya, A. K., “Salinity Intrusion and Its Management Aspects in Bangladesh”, Journal ofEnvironmental Hydrology, 2006, Vol. 14, pp. 1-8.
[9] Yamada, S., “Drinking Water Selection in Coastal Bangladesh: Focusing on Villagers’ Recognition of Safe
Drinking Water”, Collected Papers for Presentation In the 56th Annual Meeting of the Japan
Section of the RSAI, 2019, http://jsrsai.jp/Annual_Meeting/PROG_56/ResumeA/A02-1.pdf,
Written in Japanese, Final access date: 3rd September, 2019.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

Production of Starch Based Bioplastic from Cassava Reinforced with
Microcrystalline Cellulose Using Sorbitol as Plasticizer
Yin Min1, Naw Eh Htoo Phaw2

Abstract
The production of starch based bioplastics from cassava starch reinforced with microcrystalline
cellulose (MCC) using sorbitol as plasticizer was investigated. Physical properties of bioplastics
such as density, water uptake and tensile strength were determined. Bioplastics were preparedfrom cassava starch plasticized using sorbitol with variation of 20;25;30%(w/v of sorbitol tostarch) reinforced with MCC fillers with range of 0 to 6% (w/w of MCC to starch). The results
showed that the tensile strength was improved significantly with the addition of MCC but theelongation at break, density and water uptake of bioplastic film were decreased. The maximum
tensile strength obtained was 3.0 MPa on the addition of MCC by 6% and sorbitol by 25%. Basedon the data of FTIR, the produced film plastic did not change the functional group and it can beconcluded that the interaction in film plastic produced was only a physical interaction. Surface
morphologies of the bioplastic films were examined by scanning electron microscope (SEM).The
prepared films resist to water and almost acid and alkali. With good adhesion between MCC andstarch, the production of bioplastics could be widely used as a substitute for conventional plastics
with more benefits to the environment.

Keywords: Bioplastic, tensile strength, elongation at break, microcrystalline cellulose,
sorbitol

1. Introduction
As well known, synthetic polymer materials have been widely used in every field of
human activity during last decades [1]. The major sources of land pollution include plastics,
metal and glass containers, food wrapping, old furniture, garbage etc .Consumers today are themore concerned about the effects of petroleum based synthetic packaging film on theenvironment rather than their benefits due to their poor biodegradability, sustainability andbiocompatibility. Replacing synthetic polymers with biopolymers is one alternative to overcome
these problems. In resent year, biodegradable films have received great interest from the researchcommunity as they offer several advantages such as good biodegradability, biocompatibility,
environmental friendliness, availability and even edibility [2]. Starch has attracted attention as asuitable material for the production of biodegradable plastics due to its natural abundance andlow cost. Starch is mainly composed of two homopolymers of D-glucose [3]. Amylose, a mostly
linear α-D (1, 4’)-glucan and branched amylopectin, having the same backbone structure as
amylose but with many α-1, 6’-linked branch points. To improve starch-based plastic
characteristics and the mechanical resistance, many researchers have demonstrated the interest ofusing filler as reinforcement in thermoplastic matrixes and have shown that fibers incorporation
can increase films tensile strength and elasticity modulus and decreases their elongation capacity[4]. Inorganic fillers such as glass ﬁbers and ceramics have traditionally been used as thereinforcing ﬁller for composites. However, recently, the use of organic ﬁllers, such as
lignocellulose based ﬁbers, has been emerging into the market, as they give advantages over
1
2

Dr. Associate Professor, Department of Chemistry, East Yangon University, Myanmar, yinmin5143@gmail.com
M.Sc Student, Department of Chemistry, East Yangon University,

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)14

traditional inorganic ﬁllers such as being low-cost, light weight, renewable, abundantly available,
and biodegradable[5]. Reinforcing fibers such as cellulose has proven to be the most promisingmaterial. Microcrystalline cellulose used as reinforcement filler for starch based edible films wasanalyzed by Psomaidou et al (1996).MCC offers higher density of hydroxyl groups on its surface
that is available for hydrogen bonding. [6]Biopolymer films need a plasticizer to increase theintermolecular spacing and molecular mobility of the polymer chains. This will increase theﬂexibility and stretch ability of biopolymer ﬁlms [7].Without the plasticizers, biodegradable ﬁlms
are brittle due to extensive intermolecular force involving polymer chain-to-chain interactions[8]. The ability of a plasticizer to form a good biopolymer ﬁlm depends on its compatibility withbiopolymers, and appropriate amount of plasticizer as well as its number of free hydroxyl
groups. Main non-volatile plasticizers are glycerol and sorbitol [9]. Apart from glycerol andsorbitol, water is a ubiquitous natural diluent, which can act as a plasticizer. Plasticizers areabsorbed by starch granules and form hydrogen bonds with amylose and non-ordered
amylopectin. This facilitates increased amylose and amylopectin mobility in the amorphous
regions. Amylose and amylopectin rearrange, forming new intermolecular interactions.
Scientific Classification of Cassava
FamilyEuphorbiaceae
Genus

Manihot

Species

M. esculenta

Botanical Name

Manihot esculenta L.

English Name

Cassava

Myanmar Name

Pi-law-pi-num

Figure1. Photograph of Cassava

2. Methods
The present research was carried out in the Chemistry Laboratory, Department ofChemistry, East Yangon University. Cassava sample was purchased from Myoma market,
Thanlyin Township, Yangon Region. The collected samples were washed under running tap
water followed by washing with distilled water. Chemicals used in this experiment wereobtained from Sigma Company Ltd. The roots of cassava were washed, peeled and cut into
small pieces and blended with blender. The resulting paste was mixed with water and thesolution was filtered on a clean cotton cloth. The filtrate was then allowed to stand for 6 hours
followed by the removal of the supernatant. The white precipitate (starch) was then recovered,
air-dried and kept in the desiccator until constant weight and stored in polyethylene bags at room
temperature.
In the preparation of bioplastic film, 50 g of starch was dispersed in 200 mL of distilledwater in a beaker and 40 mL of sorbitol was added. The solution obtained was 0 % wt/wt of
microcrystalline cellulose to starch and 20% wt/v of plasticizer to starch. In this way, 50 mL and
60mL sorbitol was using to get 25% and 30% wt/v of plasticizer to starch solution. For the
preparation of 2%, 4% and 6% wt/wt of microcrystalline cellulose to starch, 1, 2, 3 g of
microcrystalline cellulose was added in the above solution, respectively[7].Then the solution
was placed into ultrasonic homogenizer tank and processed for about 50 minutes. After ultrasonication, solution was removed from the tank. 5 g of starch was added to the solution and19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)15

heated using hot plate while stirred until become gelatinized (70 ºC). After mixing, the solution
was cast onto flat and dried with 60 ºC for 24 hours. Once set, bioplastic was cooled to ambient
temperature before peeled off the flat.

Figure 2. Step by step preparation of bioplastic

Water absorption of bioplastic was investigated by cutting film with size approximately
2×2 cm and then weighed. Bioplastic film was put into a container filled with distilled water for
24 hours. After immersion in water, film was removed from the water and then, they weredabbed with tissue paper to remove the water from the surface. Each weighing was done intriplicate in order to ensure results.
Mechanical properties of bioplastic such as tensile strength and elongation at break were
examined based on the standard method ASTM D638-02A 2002 and ASTM D972-911991,
respectively at Rubber Research Development Centre, Ministry of Agriculture. Functional groupcontains in bioplastic was measured by FTIR and morphology of prepared bioplastic by SEM.
Solubility of prepared bioplastic in different solvents such as hydrochloric acid, nitric acid ,sulphuric acid, ethanoic acid , sodium hydroxide, and ammonium hydroxide were tested. In thisstudy, cutting film with size approximately 1×1 cm and then weighed. Bioplastic film was put
into a container filled with 0.1M of 25 mL of different solvents for one hour. After immersion,
film was checked whether the film was soluble or insoluble in the solvent. In biodegradability
test, 1.1 g of pure starch prepared bioplastic sample (untreated) and maximum tensile strength oftreated prepared bio-plastic sample was placed under the 1L beaker containing soil at a depth of 5
cm from the surface. Some amount of water was sprinkled on the soil to get bacterial enzymatic
activity. These samples were weighed at each 3 days of interval from the beaker until disappearof the sample. Each weighing was done in triplicate in order to ensure results.

3. Results and Discussion
The yield of cassava flour extracted from cassava root was 38.31% on the basic of dry
weight. Water absorption test is very important to determine the water absorptivity of material.
Table 1 shows the water absorption of prepared bioplastic. In this study, films were emerged inwater to verity the effect of plasticizer and concentration in the hydrophilic nature of starch based
film. Water diffuses into the network chains of the film, thus, causing the film to swell. The
swelling of all the films were rapid during the initial 6 hours and later followed by slower
swelling rate until they reach equilibrium. Water uptake increase without MCC content this may
be due to the fact that starch was more sensitive to water because of its hydrophilic nature thanthe cellulose.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

16

Table1. Water Absorption of Prepared Bioplastic
Water uptake of prepared bioplastic film(%)
Plasticizer (sorbitol)

Reinforcement (Microcrystalline cellulose)(w/v)%(w/w) %
0

2

4

6

20

43.41±0.095

37.00±0.100

35.06±0.081

31.71±0.115

25

55.35±0.045

42.96±0.105

32.89±0.075

22.76±0.095

30

34.14±0.082

35.18±0.075

31.23±0.096

28.90±0.284

In order to know the quality of resulted bioplastic film, several parameters which usuallyused to analyze resulted bioplastic are measured such as tensile strength, elongation at break. The
effect of addition of microcrystalline cellulose and sorbitol depend on the tensile strength of
prepared bioplastic were shown in Table 2 and Figure 3. The tensile strength of prepared films
was reasonably good. In this study, tensile strength of sorbitol plasticized film was necessary of
reinforcement like microcrystalline cellulose. The addition of MCC as reinforcement fillers
represented an improvement in tensile strength of sorbitol plasticized film. Thus bioplastic with
MCC content 6 % and 25 % sorbitol provided the maximum tensile strength for 3.0MPa. Thismay be due to the fact that the addition of MCC on gelatinized starch films resulted in groupingof intermolecular hydrogen bonding.
Table 2. Tensile strength of Prepared Bioplastic
Tensile strength of prepared bioplastic film(MPa)
Plasticizer (sorbitol)

Reinforcement (Microcrystalline cellulose)(w/v)%(w/w) %

20
25
30

0

2

4

6

0.23
0.54
0.50

0.62
0.70
1.10

0.81
0.92
1.20

2.5
3.0
2.20

Contrary to tensile strength value, the result of elongation at break decreased as the
addition of MCC content as shown in Figure 4. Results showed a decrease in elongation at breakwith the increasing MCC content from 0 to 6 %. It may be possible due to hydrogen bonding
between hydroxyl group (O-H) from starch and hydroxyl and carboxyl group (COOH) of
cellulose as a result of higher strength and lower elongating at break. Moreover, the addition ofplasticizer to bioplastic had decrease of elongation at break. Bioplastic with MCC content 0%
and 20% wt/v of sorbitol provided the maximum elongation at break value for 73%. The
observed increase in film elongation is plasticizer decrease because the intermolecular bond of
starch matrix was substitute instead of hydrogen bonds formed between plasticizer to starch
molecule. In this study, the role of decreasing reinforcement is more potent than increasing
plasticizer on maximum elongation at break.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

17

80.0
Sorbitol (% wt)

2.5
2.0
1.5

20%

1.0

25%

0.5

30%

0.0
0%

2%

4%

6%

Microcrystalline cellulose (% W)

Figure 3. Tensile strength of sorbitol- plasticized film

Elongation at break (%)

Tensile strength (Mpa)

3.0

70.0

Sorbitol

60.0
20%
25%
30%

50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0

0%
2%
4%
6%
Microcrystalline cellulose (% W)

Figure 4. Elongation at break of sorbitol- plasticized film

The interaction between bioplastic components can be identified from FT-IR. The
analysis of FT-IR showed the characteristics peaks concerned with bioplastics. If components
from immiscible blends, there is no appreciable changes can be found in FT-IR spectra.
However, if the components are compatible, there is chemical interaction between their chainsculminating in the change of FT-IR spectra. Figure5 showed the results of characteristics of peakfor cassava starch and pure starch bioplastics, the green line represented characteristic peak of
cassava starch. Pink line showed characteristic peaks for pure starch bioplastic film. Figure6
described the results of characteristics of peak of microcrystalline cellulose. Figure 7 represented
the results of characteristics of peak of starch/MCC/sorbitol bioplastic and starch/ sorbitol
bioplastic .The pale blue line represented starch/MCC/sorbitol bioplastic characteristic peaks andthe red line represented starch/sorbitol bioplastic characteristic peaks. From those figures could
be seen that characteristics peaks of bioplastic without adding MCC and plastic with adding
sorbitol have the same functional groups and no new cluster formed. The spectra of bioplastic
film produced from this study displayed the presence of four major absorption peaks which are
O-H stretching, C-H stretching, C=O stretching and C-O stretching and described in Table 3.

Figure 5. FT IR spectra of cassava starch and pure starch bioplastic

Figure 6. FT IR spectra of microcrystalline cellulose19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)18

Figure 8 showed the morphology of prepared bioplastic film. Morphology of bioplastic
film produced is closely related to the concentration of sorbitol and microcrystalline cellulosethat were added in synthesizing of the film plastic produced. Visually one of the results of
optimum condition of film plastic produced is not porous and it looks no cracks, the film
appearance is transparent. The morphology structure of prepared bioplastic film has not given
homogeneous morphology structure.

Figure 7. FT IR spectra of starch/MCC/sorbitol bioplastic

Figure 8. SEM image of prepared bioplastic film and starch/sorbitol bioplastic

Table 3: The main FTIR absorption peaks of cassava starch and pure starch bioplastic,
microcrystalline cellulose and starch/MCC/sorbitol bioplastic andstarch/sorbitol
bioplastic
Wave Number (cm-1)
Functional group

Observed value

Literature value

O-H stretching3373.04

3600-3300

C-H stretching of CH2 group

2931.60

2904

C=O stretching of CHO group1646.77

1637

C-O stretching of carbonyl group1026.981149

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)19

The solubility of prepared bioplastic film in different acid and alkali was tested and theresult was described in Table 4 and Figure 9. After one hour, bioplastic film was insoluble inhydrochloric acid, ,nitric acid and ammonium hydroxide solution however, it was partiallysoluble in sulphuric and, ethanoic acid and sodium hydroxide

Table 4: The solubility of acid and alkaline test for prepared bioplastic film
Solvent used
Property
Partially
Completely
Insoluble
Hydrochloric
Acid test
solublesoluble✓Sulphuricacid
Acid test
acid✓
Nitric acid
Acid test✓
Ethanoic acid
Acid test✓
SodiumAlkaline test✓
Ammonium
Alkaline test
hydroxide✓
The weight loss experienced by starch –based bioplastics in two weeks soil burial test washydroxide
described in Table 5 and Figure 10. The weight loss of plastic sheets during burial in soil
indicates the amount of degradation in natural environment by action of microorganisms. The
starch content consumed by soil microorganisms will fracture the polymer chain thus cause thebiodegradation. It was found that bioplastics with un-filler sample was rapidly degraded than thatof filler sample. So current research were benefits in findings the possible solution to theenvironmental tractability of biomaterials.
(b)

(a)

(c)

Figure 9.Solubility test of prepared bioplastic (a) initial test (b) and (c) after 1 hour

Table 5 Weight loss of Prepared Bioplastic
Bioplastic
Film

Without MCC

With MCC &sorbitolInitialweightWeight(g)after 6days

after 9days

after 12days(g)after 3days

1.1

0.53220.02580.031

Not observed

±

±

±

±

0.00040.00320.00010.00051.1

0.73970.08150.0134±±±±0.00030.00180.00160.0004

Not observed

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)20

Figure 10. Biodegradability of prepared bioplastic film during 2 weeks

4. Conclusions
From this study, it can be concluded that the starch-based bioplastic has been successfully
synthesized from cassava starch, MCC as reinforcing ﬁller and sorbitol as plasticizer. Results ofthis study showed that the addition of MCC and sorbitol, some changes in mechanical propertiesof bioplastic film such as being transparent, clear, homogeneous, flexible, and easily handled.
The optimum formulation composition has tensile strength value 3.0 MPa at concentration of
MCC by 6 % and sorbitol by 25 %. The improvement in bioplastics with reinforcing MCC could
be attributed to the strong hydrogen bond between hydroxyl groups of the interface of both MCC
fillers and starch matrix. Density of bioplastics decreased as MCC content increased.
Furthermore, the prepared bioplastic film was resistant to water, hydrochloric acid andammonium hydroxide and it was partially soluble in ethanoic acid, sulphuric acid and sodiumhydroxide. Based on the data of FTIR, the produced film plastic did not change the functionalgroup and it can be concluded that the interaction in film plastic produced was only a physicalinteraction. The morphology structure of prepared bioplastic film has not given homogeneous
morphology structure. These products have exceptionally high biodegradable properties withdecent mechanical properties and make them a suitable alternative for the existing conventional
plastics. Furthermore, starch is renewable resource, cheap and can be easily modified. With goodadhesion between MCC and starch, the production of bioplastics could be widely used as a
substitute for conventional plastics with more benefits to the environment. This means someday
it is unnecessary to rely on petroleum to prepare polymers, people may ‘plant’ polymers ofsuitable performances from the earth, and the environmental problems will be no longer as severe
as today.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to express their deep gratitude to the 19th Science Council of Asia Conference organizedby Myanmar Academy of Arts and Science. We were also indebted to Dr Kyaw Kyaw Khaung (Rector) and Dr
Nilar Aung (Pro-Rectors), East Yangon University. We warmest thanks are also extended to Dr Tin May San(Professor and Head), Department of Chemistry, East Yangon University for her effective suggestion, comments,
encouragement and allowing for submission of this paper.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

21

References[1] Michel Vert, Isabelle Dos Santos, Stephanie Pansart, Nathalie Alauzet, Jean-Louis Morgat, Jean Coudane, Henri
Garreau, “Degradable polymers in living environment: Where do you end up?” Polymer in theSociety of Chemical Industry, 3rd Millennium Conference,2002, vol 51,pp.840-844.
[2] Stephane Salmiei and Monique Lacroix,“Physicochemical Properties of Alginate /polycaprolactone – based film
containing essential oils”. J.Agric Food Chem, 2006.
[3] Rajesh A. Pareta, Mohan J.Edirisinghe, “A Novel method for the preparation of starch films and coatings”,
Carbohydrate polymers, 2006,vol 63, pp 425-431.
[4] Harunsyah,M Yunus and Reza Fauzan, “Mechanical Properties of bioplastics cassava starch film with zinc oxide
nanofiller as reinforcement”, Material Science and Engineering, IPO publishing 2017, vol210,conference. (Accepted paper received 6 June 2017. Published online 26 June 2017)[5] Clement Matthew Chan, Luigi-Jules Vandi, Steven Pratt, Peter Halley, Desmond Richardson, Alan Werker &Bronwyn Laycock” Composites of Wood and Biodegradable Thermoplastics”, Polymer
Reviews, 2017. (Accepted 25th sep,2017)[6] E Psomiadou, I Arvanitoyannis, N Yamamoto -, - “Edible films made from natural resources;Microcrystalline
cellulose(MCC), methyl cellulose(MC) and corn starch and polyols part 2, Carbohydrate
Polymers 1996.
[7] Maulida, M Siagian and P Tarigan ,” Production of Starch Based Bioplastic from Cassava Peel Reinforced with
Microcrystalline Celllulose Avicel PH101 Using Sorbitol as Plasticizer”, Journal of Physics
Conference series 710,2016.
[8] Nur Hanani Zainal, abed, et al.,”Effect of plasticizer content on the functional properties of extruded gelatinbased composite films”, Food Hydrocolloids, 2013, vol 31, pp 264-269.
[9]Pitchaya Treenate ,, Pathavuth Monvisade and Masayuki Yamaguchi ,” The Effect of Glycerol/Water andSorbitol/Water on the Plasticization of Hydroxy ethyl acryl Chitosan/Sodium Alginate Films”,
EDP Sciences, 2015.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

Study on Ion-exchange of Toxic Lead in a Model System by Metal-Humate
Complexes
Naw Aye Aye Thein1

Abstract
The removal of Pb2+ ions was studied by using ion-exchange properties of metal-humates suchas Fe-humate, Zn-humate and Mg-humate. Metal-humate complexes were prepared by using
humic acids with Fe2+, Zn2+ and Mg2+ ions. For the removal of Pb2+ ion, the ion-exchange
studies of different concentration of Pb2+ ions and metal-humates (Fe-humate, Zn-humate andMg-humate) were carried out. The ion-exchange abilities depend on pH, initial concentration of
Pb2+ ions, contact time, dosage of rnetal-humates and their ion-exchange capacities. The ionexchange studies for the removal of Pb2+ ions with various metal-humates indicated that eachhumate possesses different binding affinity. The order of binding affinity of Pb2+ to metalhumates are Fe-humate > Zn-humate ~ Mg-humate .The removal of Pb2+ ions with Fe-humate,
Zn-humate and Mg-humate ware characterized by EDXRF technique.
Keywords: humic acid, Fe-humate, Zn-humate, Mg-humate, Pb2+ ions

1. Introduction
Humic acid can be extracted from any material containing well decomposed organic
matter – soil, coal, composts, etc. Extraction is by way of treatment of these materials with asolution of sodium hydroxide. This dissolves much of the organic matter present. Then take thissolution and add enough acid to drop its pH-2 to about organic material will begin to flocculated
and can be separated from the liquid portion, The flocculated material is humic acid and remains
in solution is Fulvic acid.Humic acid is effective in removal of heavy metal ions[1]. Metals arebound to the carbon skeleton of humic substances through heteroatoms such as nitrogen, oxygenor sulphur. The cation exchange capacity of humic acid is 200-500 meq per 1100 grams.
Depending on the physical state of the humic acid, the binding mechanism may be different.
Binding is stronger with precipitate humic acid than with dissolved humic acid. Metals arebound to the carbon skeleton humic substances through heteroatom such as nitrogen, oxygen orsulphur. The most common metal binding occurs via carboxylic and phenolic oxygen, but
nitrogen and sulphur also have a positive effect on metal binding [2].

2. Methods
2.1 Extraction of Humic Acid from Coal Sample and Preparation of Metal-Humate
Complexes
In the present work, humic acid was extracted from coal sample by using different
concentration of sodium hydroxide. Two fractions obtained after extraction materials and asupernatant consisting of a mixture of humic acid and fulvic acid .The separation of these two
acids are done at pH 2 where precipitation of humic acid occurred. All fractions were separated
by centrifugation and dried by vacuum oven at 70 C. The purified humic acid extracted from1

Dr. Lecturer, Department of Chemistry, University of Yangon, Myanmar

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)24

coal sample was dissolved in a 1M sodium hydroxide solution. Metal (II) solution was added todissolve humic acid, which were acidified with concentrated sulphuric acid to pH 2 and allowed
to standard for 24 hr. Metal- humate was separated by centrifugation and dried by vacuum ovenat 70 C.
2.2 Ion-exchange study for the removal of Pb2+ions by using Prepared Metal-humates
Effect of pH, Contacted Time and Dosage of Metal-humates
Fe-humate,Zn-humate and Mg-humate (1g) was treated with 100 mL of Pb2+solution.
The initial concentrations of Pb2+ solutions were varied in (200 to 1000) mgL-1. The pH values (3to 8) of the solution were adjusted by the addition of 0.1 M hydrochloric acid and 0.1 M sodiumhydroxide. The contact time was varied at interval of 3 to 60 mins. The solution was shaken witha shaker at room temperature for 1 hr. Then, the mixture was filtered through a filter paper.
Various amount of metal humate (1, 2, 3 and 4 g) were mixed with 100 mL of 1000 mgL-1 Pb2+
solution in each at optimum pH and then were shaken. After 60 min contact time, the mixture
was separated by filtration. The residual content of Pb (II) ions in filtrate were determined bycomplexometric titration [4]3. Results and Discussion
Characterization of extracted humic acid and Preparation of Metal-Humate Complexes
From EDXRF spectrum of extracted humic acid from coal sample was shown thepresence of relative abundance of elements such as S, Si and Mo in extracted humic acid.The
EDXRF spectra of Fe-humate,Zn-humate and Mg-humate indicated that the presence of relevant
metals ions (Fe2+,Zn2+ and Mg2+) were chelated to humic acid. The results were shown in Figures
3.1,3.2, 3.3 and 3.4.

Figure 3.1. EDXRF spectrum of extracted humic acid

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)25

Figure 3.2. EDXRF spectrum of Fe-humate

Figure 3.3. EDXRF spectrum of Zn-humate

Figure 3.4. EDXRF spectrum of Mg-humate

3.2 Study on removal of Pb2+ Ions by using Prepared Metal-humates
The effect of pH on the removal of Pb2+ ions was investigated at three pH regions, i.e., at
pH < 7, pH = 7 and pH > 7. Table 3.1 shows the percent removal of Pb2+ ions ranging from an
initial concentration of 200 mg L–1 to 1000 Mg L–1 by iron-humate at different pH values (3, 4, 5,
6, 7 and 8). Figure 3.5 depicts the percent removal of Pb2+ by Fe-humate as a function of pH. As
pH increases the percent removal also increases, until it reaches an optimum condition of pH 5.
From the optimum pH of 5 onwards, the percent removal of Pb2+ ions began to decrease to very
low values up to pH 8. The observation is not surprisingly because as a general rule ligands tend
to form protonated ligands at low pH and metal ions tend to form hydroxyl complexes at high
pH. Consequently, the reaction between the metal ion and the ligands is often most favorable atintermediate pH values.
Table 3.2 shows the percent removal of Pb2+ ions by zinc-humate at different pH value.
The initial concentrations are ranging from 200 mgL–1 to 1000 mgL–1. Figure 3.6 presents thepercent removal of Pb2+ ion as a function of pH. It can be seen that the profiles relevant to lead %removal by znic-humate depends on pH. for each initial concentration, the percent removal of
Pb2+ increases with increasing pH ranging from pH 3 to 6. The maximum percent removal isobserved at pH 6. After pH 6, the percent removal remains steady. The sorption process of zinchumates follows a similar trend as iron-humate.
Table 3.3 shows the influence of pH on the removal of Pb2+ ions by magnesium-humate
using initial concentrations of 200 mg L–1 to 1000 mg L–1 at different pH values. Figure 3.24
depicts the profiles of the removal of Pb2+ ions and as a function of pH. In view of the profiles of
the curves, high percent removal corresponds to low concentration of Pb2+ and low percent
removal as regard to high concentration of Pb2+. The removal of Pb2+ by magnesium-humates isaccompanied by complexation and ion-exchange. First at lower pH values up to 5, the process is19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)26

typically and adsorption process. At pH 5, maximum removal has taken place, but after pH 5, thepercent removal remains steady.
This may be attributed to ion-exchange and some complexation taking place provably at
the saturation time of 15 to 20 minutes. The major mechanism is ion-exchange between Pb2+ ion
ions in solution and Fe2+, Zn2+ and Mg2+ from humates. Table 3.4 and Figure 3.7 show thecomparison of the effect of contact time on ion-exchange capacities of various metal-humate(Fe2+, Zn2+ and Mg2+) towards initial concentration of Pb2+ ions (C0) of 200 mgL–1 at theiroptimal pH values. According to this Figure, within 10-20 minutes, maximum ion-exchange
capacities are achieved. A two stage kinetic behavior is observed, i.e., a very rapid initialexchange over a few minutes, followed by a long period of much slower uptake. The order ofmagnitude with regard to ion-exchange capacity of metal-humates towards Pb2+ ions may be as
follows: Fe-humate > Zn-humate  Mg-humate.
Table 3.1 The effect of pH on the removal of Pb2+ ion by Fe-humate(mgL–1)


pH 

3

4

5

6

7

8

200

35

55

78

74

64

50

400

33

52

75

60

67

45

600

30

48

73

58

54

43

800

25

40

70

64

52

38

1000

20

35

64.5

60

46

35

80
Percent Removal (%R)

Percent removal of Pb2+ at different
pH values

Intial conc: of
Pb2+

60
200
400
600
800
1000

40
20
0
3

4

5

6

7

8

Figure. 3.5 The effect of pH on the removal of Pb2+ ions by Fe-humate

Dosage = 1g Fe-humate,
Volume of Pb2+ solution = 100 mL
Table 3.2 Effect of pH on the removal of Pb2+ ion by Zn-humate
Percent removal of Pb2+ at different
pH values



3

4

5

6

7

8

pH 
200

30

46

64

70

63

50

400

28

44

60

62.5

58

40

600

24

38

51

53.5

50

33

800

19

35

49

50

47

27

1000

15

30

43

47

40

20

Dosage= 1g Zn-humate,
Volume of Pb2+ solution = 100 mL

80

Percent Removal (%R)

Intialconc: ofPb2+
(mgL–1)

70
60
50

200

40

400

30

600

20

800

10

1000

0
3

4

5

6

7

8

pH

Figure 3.6. Effect of pH on the removal of Pb2+ ions by Zn-humate

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

27

Table 3.3 The effect of pH on the removal of Pb2+ ion by Mg-humate
Percent removal of Pb2+ at different pHvalues80
Percent Removal (%R)

Intial conc: ofPb2+–1(mgL )

pH 

3

4

5

6

7

8

200

31

52

67.5

64

58

40

400

28

44

60

56

54

38

600

25

38

51.7

49

48

35

800

20

34

47

45

45

31

1000

17

30

45

42

40

25

70
60
50

200

40

400

30

600

20

800

10

1000

0
3

4

5

6

7

8

pH

Figure 3.7 Effect of pH on the removal of Pb2+ ionsby Mg-humate

Dosage= 1g Mg-humate,
Volume of Pb2+ solution = 100mL

Table 3.4 The Effect of contact time on the ion-exchange
capacities of metal-humates towards Pb2+ ions
Ions

pH

3*

6*

9*

12*

15*

20*

30*

40*

50*

60*

Fe2+

5

5

8

11

13

15.5

15.5

15.5

15.5

15.5

15.5

Zn2+

6

4

7

10

12

14

14

14

14

14

14

Mg2+

5

3

6

9

11

13.5

13.5

13.5

13.5

13.5

13.5

Ionexchange Capacity(mg/g)

Ion‐exchange Capacity (mg g–1)

Metal

20
15
Fe2+
5
Zn2
+6

10
5
0

3 6 9 12 15 20 30 40 50 60*= Time (min) of reaction mixture
Dosage= 10 gL–1 of each metal-humate,
Initial concentration of Pb2+ = 200 mgL-1
3.3 Characterization of Pb2+ on metal humates

Figure 3.11EDXRF spectrum of lead on Mg-humateTime (min)Figure 3.8The effect of contact time on the ion-exchange
capacities of metal-humates towards Pb2+ ions19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

28

Table 3.5 Relative Abundance of the Elements

Elements

Relative
Abundance (%)

Pb

82.737Pb

78.980Pb

71.282

4. Conclusion
The goal of this research work is to study the removal of toxic lead by ion-exchange withmetal-humates prepared from extracted humic acids of coal sample. Ion-exchange studies for theremoval of lead ions with iron-humate, zinc-humate and magnesium-humate indicated that eachhumate possesses different binding affinity relevant to pH, initial concentration, contact time andion-exchange capacity.. The order of reducing lead toxicity by metal-humates were Fe-humate >Zn-humate  Mg-humate. Hence, the findings of this work supplement the important of humic
substances which have specific properties such as a high cation exchange capacity and the ability
to chelate metal ions.

Acknowledgements
The author feel indebted to Professor and Head Dr Ni Ni Than, Department of Chemistry, University of
Yangon, Yangon, Myanmar, for her stimulating suggestions.

References[1] George R aiken, Diane M. Mcknight, Patrick MacCarthy, and R. L. Wershaw Weley. “Humic Substance in Soil,
Sediment and Water”. John Wiley & Sons, 1985
[2]E.Michael Perdue. “Effects of Humic Substances on Metal Speciation”. Review Article in Aquatic Humic
Substances, American Chemical Society,1989,pp. 281-296[3]John E Pahlman and Sanna.E. Khalafalia.“Use of Lignochemicals and Humic Acids to Remove Heavy Metals
from Process Waste Streams. Bureau Mines Report of Investigations”. Journal of the Chemical
Society,1988, vol .3,pp. 96-102[4] Arthur Isreal Vogel. “A Text Book of Quantitative Inorganic Analysis”. Longmans, Green & Co. Ltd ,1961[5] Musani, L.J.(1980).“On the Chelation of Toxic Trace Metals by Humic Acid of Marine Origin, Estuarine andCoastal Marine Science”. Journal of the Chemical Society , 1980,vol.2 ,pp.639-649

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

Modification and Enzyme Immobilization of Natural Cellulose Fiber
(Polysaccharide)
Mya Mya Sainn1 et al

Abstract
The coconut white meat from endosperm (after extracting coconut milk) is one of the waste
products in Myanmar. It is very cheap and readily available. In this present work, the coconut
white meat was selected for extraction of natural cellulose fiber. The aim of present work is to
study the modification and the possibility of enzyme immobilization on natural cellulosic material
by periodic acid .The natural cellulose fiber was extracted from coconut white meat powder (300 ~400µm) of mature endosperm by chemical method . The vicinal diol group of prepared cellulose
fiber was oxidized to dialdehyde group by NaIO4 solution .The aldehyde groups formed weredetected by different chemicals assays and confirmed by FT IR spectroscopy .The physical changeof activated cellulose fiber were performed by SEM and optical-microscopic images. The soluble
liapse enzyme was covalently link to dialdehyde group of modification cellulose fiber was tested
by Schiff’s base reaction. The enzyme immobilize cellulose fiber was then confirmed by nitrousacid test, FT IR spectroscopy and optical-microscopic images.
Keywords: cellulose fiber, immobilization, dialdehyde, Schiff's base

1. Introduction
Coconut white meat from endosperm (after extracting coconut milk) is one of the waste
product in Myanmar. It is very cheap and is readily available. In the present work, germinating
coconut endosperm as selected for extraction of lipase. It is consequently chosen as support
material sources for enzyme immobilization. Coconut is an important commodity in many
humid tropical regions of the world. It is also available and versatile in Myanmar. Cocos
nucifera L. (coconut) palm is a member of the Arecaceae family, subfamily Arecoideae which
is characterised by three called ovary drupaceous fruit with a woody or stony endocarp provided
with three germ pores, while the fruit is usually one seeded .The coconut fruits still possess theirouter layers, a smooth skin ranging colour from green to brown around a fibrous layer, which
is used commercially as coir. These layers surround the hard-brown shell, which encases thecoconut seed. The outer layer of the seed, the test, is the brown papery material that adheres tothe white flesh (endosperm) when it is removed from the shell [1]. The high level of lipid,
polysaccharide and high level of polyphenols were found in tissue of coconut [2].
Polysaccharides are carbohydrate which yield a large number of monosaccharide molecule onhydrolysis. The most widely spread polysaccharides have the general formula (C6 H10 O5)n eg.
Starch, cellulose. Cellulose (C6 H10 O5)n is the main constituent of the cell wall of plants andalso occur in certain animal tissues. It is the most widely distributed organic compound and it's
main source in cotton (almost pure cellulose) and wood . It is a hydrophilic linear glucose
polymer, a polyalcohol more or less uniformly composed of anhydroglucose units by 1, 4
glucosidic bonds. The linkages in cellulose cause the molecules to form hydorgen bonds.
Cellulose is a white solid, insoluble in water but soluble in water but soluble ammoniacal
1

Dr Lecturer, Department of Chemistry, University of Yangon, Myanmar, myams1974feb@gmail.com
2. Mya Thandar Aung, 3. Saw Hla Myint, 4. Aye Aye Myint30

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)copper hydroxide solution (Schwetzer's reagent). Fibrous polysaccharides support are very
popular for enzyme immobilization because they contain hydroxyl groups that can be activateddirectly by introduction of an electrophilic group, reactive towards enzyme, into the support[3].
Fibrous supports include such desirable characteristics as ultra-high specific surface area, goodchemical and thermal stability, hydrophilicity and insolubility [4].
Cellulose fibre were oxidized with sodium metaperiodate (10-4) at positions 2 and 3 ofthe anhydroglucose units to obtain diadehyde cellulose . The aldehyde groups of the dialdehyde
cellulose were able to react with amino group of enzyme to form covalent bonds and resulted ina dialdehyde immobilized enzyme [5]. IO-4 oxidation is a highly specific reaction andwidely used in the structure analysis of carbohydrates[6]. The aldehyde groups in the modified
cellulose fiber can be detected by chemical means and spectrophotometric method. The
functional aldehyds group can be introduced into a glycoprotein by oxidizing the carbohydrate
moiety by periodate oxidation without significantly affecting the enzyme activity. The enzyme
could then be covalently linked containing an alkyl amine group through the Schiff base[3].
Coconut white meat endosperm, after extracting coconut milk, is one of the cellulosic waste
products. It is very cheap and is readily available in Myanmar. These fibrous materials offer
versatile porosity and ultra high specific surface for superior enzyme binding and substrate
accessibility. It is consequently chosen as material in the present study on support for enzyme
immobilization [5]. Sodium metaperiodate treated cellulose fiber was used for immobilizationof lipase by covalent binding via Shiffs base linkages .
Fresh seeds of coconut should be placed on damp peat with the broadest surface
downwards at a temperature of 24- 27°C. The seed germinates slowly, taking up to 4 months
before the shoot appears. During germination, the single cotyledon (seed leaf) grows inside theseed activity. Its sheath protects the seedling root and shoot and grows with them through thesoftest of the three eyes at the base of the shell. Part of the cotyledon, the coconut apple,
enlarges -into the cavity inside the coconut and absorbs nutrients from the endosperm andcoconut water. The content of lipase was found to be the highest level in this stage. Because theseedling has accessed to the food source, it can grow for some time before making contact withthe soil [7].Lipase (Triacylglycerol acyl hydrolase (E.C 3.1.1.3) ) was extracted from
germinating coconut endosperm by acetone powder method[8] and partially purified byammonium sulphate [9].

2. Methods
Preparation of Cellulose Fiber
The seeds of coconut (Cocos nucifera Linn.) were collected from North. Oukalapa
market. The endosperm of matured coconut seeds were cut into small pieces. The pieces
were ground by blender which was kept chilled to prevent fermentation. First, coconut
milk was squeezed out and the residue was washed three times with distilled water. Then the
purified coconut white meat was dried in air oven at 40 - 60°C. The dried coconut whitemeat (200g) was defatted with Petroleum ether by the Soxhlet extractor. After complete
extraction of oil, the defatted white meat sample was removed from the extractor and air
dried at room temperature. The defatted coconut white meat was boiled three times with
1.5 L of distilled water for 1 hour and dried in air oven .The sample was purified by boiling19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)31

in 500 ml of 1.25% sulphuric acid and 500 ml of 1.25% sodium hydroxide for 1 hour
followed by washing with 500 ml of distilled water and 250 ml of ethanol. Then, it wasdried in hot air oven at 1 0 0 ˚ C for 3 hours. The purified samples were stored in an air-tightcontainer to prevent moisture changes and other contamination.
Preparation of Modified Cellulsoe Fiber by 2% Periodic Method
For immobilization of Lipase enzyme, coconut fibre was pretreated with 2% periodic
acid. A 10 g (oven dried weight) purified cellulose fiber was weighed into 250 ml conical flask
and presoaked with 2% w/w sodium metaperiodate solution. The conical flask was then andmixed for 2 hours in the dark place. At the end of reaction, the fibers were carefully
washed with 50 ml of ethylene glycol and washed with 50 ml methanol. The coconut fiber wasthen neutralized by repeated washing with deionized water.
Characterization of Modified Cellulose Fibre by Qualitative Chemical Assay
Qualitative chemical assay was carried out according to the standard procedure.
Investigation on the color changes and precipitation, it should be known whether a particularclass of aldehyde group was present or not. The aldehyde group in modified cellulose
fiber were qualitatively confirmed by the positive reaction of chemical assay (2, 4-DNP,
Benedict, Tollen, Fheling, Schiffs, and Benzedine) .
Immobilization of Liapse on Modified Coconut Fiber
1.0 g sample of dried oxidized cellulose fiber and standard cellulose was separately
immersed in 30 ml of purified lipase (0.4 g enzyme in 10 ml of pH (5.5) citrate-phosphatebuffer) and constant shaking with 150 rpm for 30 mins at room temperature. Then the two
types of cellulose fiber were individually filtered to remove excess enzyme and followed
by washing with 800 ml of distilled water. Next, the unimmobilized enzyme on supporting
material was washed again with 100 ml of distilled water till the enzyme activity in washedwater was found to be absent. The immobilized lipase on modified coconut cellulose fiberand on cellulose (BDH) was kept at 4°C.
Characterization of Lipase Immobilized Cellulose Fiber by Chemical Assay
0.2 g of immobilized and modified fiber was separately placed in the test tubes. Equal
amount of H20 and concentrated HCI were added to each test tube. And then the test tube wascold in ice and 10 drops of 10% NaNO2 (0°C) was added and cold to 0˚C for 15 mins. Finally,
2-4 drops of 20% NaOH was added to the cold mixture. The result of reaction was observed andrecorded .
Characterization of Various Cellulose Fiber and Immobilized Fiber
The Fourier transform infrared spectra of pure coconut fiber, modified cellulose
fiber and immobilized cellulose fiber were recorded on Fourier transform infrared
spectrometer, FTIR 8400 Shimadzu Hyper IR (Japan). The natural coconut fiber andmodified cellulose fiber were analyzed by SEM (Scanning Election Microscope). The
resultant Micrographs were presented in Figure (4).The samples were examined under optical
microscope (OLYMPUS B x 41, Japan) which was equipped with Wild MPS 45 Photo automat
Camera Controller.

32

3.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

Results and Discussion Characterization of Various Cellulose Fiber Chemical Assay

Qualitative chemical assay was carried out according to the standard procedure.
Investigation on the color changes and precipitation, it should be known whether a particularclass of aldehyde group was present or not. The results were present in table (1).
Table1. chemical assay of activated cellulose fiber
Reagents

Observation

Remark

2,4-DNPRed ppt

Aldehyde or Ketone

Tollensliver mirror

Aldehyde

Fehling’s

Yellow ppt

Aldehyde

Bendict’s

Orange ppt

Aldehyde

Schiff’s

Magenta color

Aldehyde

Benzidine

Reddish brown

Aldehyde

3.1 Comparison of FT-IR Spectrophotometric Characters between Coconut Cellulose
Fibre, Modified Cellulose Fiber and lipase immobilized Cellulose Fiber
Coconut cellulose fiber and modified cellulose fibers can be identified by infrared
spectrophotometric analysis. The characteristic bands of coconut white meat (fiber) was
observed: υO-H at 3380 cm-1, υC-H at 2923.9 cm-1, υc=o at 1654.8 cm-1, aromatic skeletal and υc=o at
1595 cm-1, aromatic skeletal vibration at 1519.8 cm-1, CH2 wagging vibration at 1319.2 cm-1, υc.o-1-1-1
c at 1153.3 cm , υc-o at 1033.8 cm , υc-o in cellulose at 941.2 cm and ߜ C-OH in cellulose at 670
cm-1 respectively. In FT-IR spectrum of modified cellulose fiber by I‫۽‬− the strong band ofaldehyde CH = O group was clearly observed at 1724 cm-1 Figure (2). Thus the I‫۽‬− agents
could be directly attached to C positions 2 and 3, forming dialdehyde group which were theactive site for immobilization of lipase by covalent binding. Furthermore, the FTIR spectrum
also confirmed the formation of C=N in immobilized fiber. The vibrational band of aldehydegroup (1724 cm-1) become weaker after immobilization and formation of new band of C=N at
1550 cm-1 were observed.

Figure 1. FT IR spectrum of cellulose fiber

Figure 2. FT IR spectrum of modified cellulose fiber

33

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

Figure 3. FT IR spectrum of immobilized cellulose fiber

3.2 Determination of Liapse Immobilized Cellulose Fiber by Chemical Assay, Optical
Microscopic Images and SEM,
The aldehyde groups of the dialdehyde cellulose were able to react with aminogroup of lipase to form covalent bonds and resulted in a dialdehyde cellulose immobilized
enzyme (Schiff's base formation support- CH = N-ENZYME).The Schiff based bond of
immobilized cellouse fiber reacted with NaNO2 and 20% NaOH to give green color andmodified cellouse fiber did not react. In SEM analysis , the different texture of fibers wererecognized in the micrograph as shown in Figure 4(a and b). Before treatment with NaIO4, thesharp edge with same units were observed at figure (a). After treatment, the deformation of
texture was noticed in the SEM due to changes of the chemical treatment figure (b).

(a)

(b)

Figure 4.Comparison of SEM of (a) coconut cellulose fiber (b) treated coconut cellulose fiber

The various types of coconut fiber were comparatively studied by Optical
microphotographs. The oil droplets were observed in natural coconut endosperm figure 5 (a) but
not found in purified coconut fiber figure5 (b). Deviation from the typically indicate alterationof fiber properties by chemical modification (i.e. I‫۽‬−) and chemically binding in enzyme
immobilization were clearly observed under microscope as shown in photomicrogram (c) and(d). In Figure (c), treated fiber can be seen as rough edge of thread-like tape. In contrast photo
image of enzyme immobilized fiber, Figure (d) the cylindrical form was exposed due to thelinkage of enzyme irregular form of cross bar at regular intervals along the length of fiber.

34

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Figure5. Comparison of optical microscopic images of modified cellulose fiber and enzyme immobilized cellulose (a)coconut endosperm (b) defatted cellulose fiber (c) treated fiber and (d) enzyme immobilized fiber

4. Conclusion
Coconut (Cocos nucifera. L) has been described as one of Nature’s greatest gifts to man
because almost every part of the tree is used in some ways or others. Defatted white meat(endosperm) is one of the waste products, very cheap and readily available. With this aspect, thecoconut endosperm was chosen as support materials for immobilization of Lipase. The preparedcoconut white meat was characterized as cellulose fibre by FTIR spectrum, SEM and OpticalMicroscopic images. In order to immobilize lipase enzyme, the cellulose fibre were modified by
NaIO4for cleaving vicinal diol groups of glucose units to form dialdehyde as active site. The
aldehyde group in modified cellulose fibre were qualitatively confirmed by the positive reactionof chemical assay (2, 4-DNP; Benedict; Tollen; Fheling; Schiffs, and Benzedine) andspectroscopic techniques such as FTIR, SEM and Optical-microscopic images.Positive result of
nitrous acid test indicated the presence of 3˚nitrogen immobilized cellulose fiber. Furthermore,
the FTIR spectrum also confined the formation of C=N in immobilized fibre. The vibrationalband of aldehyde group (1724 cm-1) becomes weaker after immobilization and formation of new
band of C=N at 1550 cm-1 were observed.
Acknowledgements
The author feel indebted to Professor and Head Dr Ni Ni Than, Department of Chemistry, University of
Yangon, Yangon, Myanmar, for his stimulating suggestions.

References[1] John Simmons, “Useful Plants in the Kew Gardens Books of Indoor Plants”, George Philip& Son, 1988, pp. 186200[2] Jorge Gil C Angeles, Antoni C Laurena, Evelyn Mae Tecson-Mendoza, “Extraction of Genomic DNA from the
Lipid-polysaccharide and Polyphenol Rich Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.)”, Journal of Molecular
Biology, 2005, vol.23, pp.297a- 297 i[3]Agata R Rodrigues, Joaquim Cabral, M Angela Taipa, “Immobilization of Chromobacterium Viscosum lipase on
Eudragit S-100, Coupling Characterization and Kinetics Application in Organic and Biphasic
Media”, Journal of Enzyme and Microbial Technology, 2002, vol.31, pp.133-141 [4]You-Lo
Hsieh, Albert G Abbott, Heidi L Schreuder - Gibson, “Functional Fibers for Immoblization of
Biomolecules “ , National Textile Annual Report ,University of California, 2002
[4] Saiyavit Varavinit , Narisa Chaokosem , Sujin Shobsngob , “Immoblilizatio of a thermostable α–amylase “,
Journal of Scienceasia ,2002, vol. 28 ,pp.247-251[5] Lemeune S, Hasan Jameel, Chang H M, Kadla J F, “Effect of Ozone and Chlorine Dioxide on the Chemical
Properties of Cellulose fibers”, Journal Applied Polymer Science, 2004, vol.93, pp.1220-1222[6] Leslie S Cobley , William O Steele ,”An Introduction to the Botany of tropical Crops”, Longman Press , 1976
[7] Ejedegba B O, Eusebius Chukwu Onyneneke , Phili Oviasagia , “ Characteristics of Lipase Isolated From
Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) Seed under Different Nutrient treatment, "Africa Journal of
Biotechnology , 2007 ,vol.6, pp.723-727[8] William B Jokoby,“Crystallization as a Purification Technique in methods in Enzymology”, Methods in
Enzymology , 1971, vol.22, pp.248-252

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

Preparation of Microfibrillated cellulose from Bakong (Hanguana malayana(Jack) Merr.) and its Application as Paper Reinforcement
Glenn Christian P. Acaso1 et al

Abstract
One promising source of cellulose is Hanguana malayana (Jack) Merr., commonly known as
Bakong, due to its abundance in one region of the Philippines. In this study, microfibrillated
cellulose (MFC) was produced from ground Bakong fibers. The fibers were ground using a
Wiley mill, pulped using 10% sodium hydroxide, and then bleached with 5% sodium
hypochlorite. The process was able to reduce the lignin content from 13.19% to 1.42%. The
bleached pulp was then subjected to mechanical grinding using a Masuko Supermasscolloider at
1500 rpm. The overall MFC yield was 41.57% after 15 passes. The MFC was characterizedusing optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and dynamic light scattering. The MFC
was then used as an additive to paper sheets produced from Bakong unbleached soda pulp. The
burst index, tensile index, tear index, and folding endurance of the 80 g/m2 handsheets without
MFC were 5.98 kPa/m2-g, 112.09 N-m/g, 6.41 mN-m2/g, and 621.14 double folds, respectively.
The addition of MFC did not significantly affect tensile index and folding endurance. However,burst index decreased with increasing MFC while tear index improved with the addition of
MFC.
Keywords: microfibrillated cellulose, paper, non-wood fibers

1. Introduction
Nanocellulose is a highly desirable material due to its abundance, sustainability, andmechanical properties [1]. Upon treatment with mechanical refining equipment, cellulose
microfibrils get delaminated. This process is usually accompanied by a significant increase inviscosity of the cellulose suspension after several passes through the equipment [2]. Thismechanical disintegration produces microfibrillated cellulose (MFCs), due to the disruption of
the intermolecular hydrogen bonding. [1].
Cellulose is very versatile and has been used in pulp and paper industries, textile
industries, as building materials, food additives, etc. However, there is an increasing demand foralternative sources of cellulose since the demand for pulp is larger than the wood supply
available [3] Several alternative sources of cellulose from biomass and waste products have beenstudied. [4].
Hanguana malayana, commonly known as Bakong, is a species of perennial herbaceous
plant that can be found in Laguna de Cagayan in the town of Santa Teresita, Cagayan. Bakong isa novel and abundant non-wood cellulose source, so soda pulping was used to produce Bakong
pulp and microfibrillated cellulose [5, 6].

1

Student, University of the Philippines Los Banos, Philippines
2. Veronica P. Migo, 3. Ramon A. Razal, 4. Catalino G. Alfafara, 5. Adela S. Torres

36

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

2. Methods
Material
Bakong stem fibers were collected from Laguna de Cagayan Handicrafts Association.
The fibers had moisture, ash, extractives, and lignin content of 13.12%, 7.09%, 11.03%, and13.19% respectively. The fibers were cut by hand to lengths of 25 and 50 mm. The 25 mm longfibers were ground using a Wiley mill to lengths less than 2 mm long.
2.1 Pulping of the Bakong fibers
Pressure cooker pulping
200 grams of air-dried 2 mm long Bakong fibers and 20 grams NaOH in 2200 mL
distilled water was cooked in a pressure cooker at 120°C for 3 hours. The fibers were thendisintegrated using a commercial blender for 1 minute and then bleached by treating with 5%
sodium hypochlorite solution at a ratio of 10 grams per 100 mL for 30 minutes.
Digester pulping
600 grams of air-dried 50 mm long Bakong fibers and 120 grams NaOH in 4200 mL
distilled water was cooked in a laboratory digester at 170°C for 2.5 hours. The pulp fibers were
subjected to disc refining at 0.1 clearance for 2 passes, then beaten using a Valley beater for 5
minutes without load, and another 5 minutes with 5 kg load.
2.2 Production of microfibrillated cellulose (MFC) by friction grinding
Two liters of distilled water was added to 20 grams of bleached pulp sample. The
suspension was subjected to a mechanical grinding process using the Masuko
Supermasscolloider model MKCA6-2 operated at a speed of 1500 rpm. The suspension was
subjected to grinding for 10 and 15 passes, labelled MFC-10 and MFC-15 respectively. Every 1
to 2 passes, the grinder clearance was reduced until a clearance of -10 was reached at the 15th
pass. With every pass, the instrument was opened to remove any remaining slurry in the grind
stones.
2.3 Incorporation of MFC into Bakong handsheets
The production of the Bakong handsheets was based on the TAPPI Standard T205. 30
grams of digester pulp and MFC at 2%, 6%, and 10% w/w of pulp was diluted in 2000 mL ofwater and disintegrated using a standard disintegrator at 3000 rpm for 10 minutes. Using a 159
mm diameter TAPPI handsheet former cylinder, 80 g/m2 handsheets were produced. The
handsheets were pressed for 10 minutes at 50 psi and dried at room temperature for 24 hours. The
handsheets were then conditioned at an atmosphere with temperature of 23±1°C and 50±2%
relative humidity
2.4 Characterization of Samples
Infrared Spectroscopy
The Bakong pulp, bleached Bakong pulp, and Bakong MFC were subjected to FourierTransform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) to detect the presence of the characteristic functionalgroups.

37

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

Surface morphology
An optical microscope and a scanning electron microscope were used to capture highmagnification photographs of the surface of the MFC and the Bakong handsheets. Due to theirorganic and non-conductive nature, the samples were ion-coated prior to viewing under the
microscope.
Dynamic Light Scattering
MFC at 0.1% consistency was diluted with HPLC grade water at a concentration of 20%v/v and were subjected to sonication for 10 minutes at ambient temperature. A Malvern
Instruments Zetasizer Nano-ZS90 was used to analyze the samples.
Handsheet testing
The grammage of the produced handsheets was determined using ISO standard 534. For
testing the mechanical properties, the handsheets were cut according to TAPPI T220. The burst
index, tensile index, tear index, and folding endurance of the handsheets were tested according to
ISO standards 2758, 1924-2, 1974, and 5626 respectively.

3. Results and Discussion
3.1 Pulping and bleaching of the Bakong fibers
A summary of pulping and bleaching yields is shown in Table 1. The pulping procedureusing a pressure cooker was based on a previous study of Mirando [7] performed at the samelaboratory. The pulping method resulted in 71.45% yield which is slightly lower than the 77.33%
obtained by Jimenez et al. [5]. The lignin content of the resulting Bakong pulp was found to be
8.76%.
Table1. Pulping and bleaching yields, and corresponding lignin content of pulp
Yield

Lignin content

(%)

(%)

Pressure cooker pulping

71.45 ± 4.89

8.76 ± 1.60

Bleaching of pressure
cooker pulp

66.47 ± 3.95

1.42 ± 0.0745

Digester pulping

48.85 ± 3.34-

Process

The yield of the bleaching method was 66.47% on average. Some of the losses may be
attributed to lignin removal. The lignin content of the bleached pulp decreased to 1.42% after theprocedure. In addition, the process may have also removed the ash content of the pulp. Some of
the losses may be attributed to cellulose oxidation since the reaction pH was not kept above 8. At
pH below 8, hypochlorite is in equilibrium with hypochlorous acid, which is considered a
powerful carbohydrate oxidant [8].

38

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)For digester pulping, pulping yield using the laboratory digester was 48.85% on average.
This is much lower than the yield by pulping using the pressure cooker. This may be due to thehigher level of alkalinity in the pulping liquor.
3.2 Production and yield of MFC
Table 2 shows a summary of the yields, and consistencies of the MFC produced after 10(MFC-10) and 15 (MFC-15) passes. With each pass, the grinder was opened and the remaining
slurry in the stones was discarded to ensure that all the fibers underwent the same number ofpasses through the grinder. The yield after producing MFC-10 and MFC-15 was 91.50% and87.52% respectively. Considering the pulping and bleaching yields, the total yield of MFC
production is 43.46% and 41.57% for the MFC-10 and MFC-15 respectively. Increasing the
MFC production yield is still very likely, as further improvements in the pulping and bleachingprocesses may still be done.
Table2. Yields and consistencies of MFC after friction grinding
Yield

Consistency

(%)

(g/L)

MFC-1091.50

9.23 ± 0.056

MFC-1587.52

8.86 ± 0.061

MFC type

3.3 Infrared Spectroscopy
Figure 1 shows the FTIR spectra of the pressure cooker pulp, bleached pulp, and the
MFC. The characteristic peaks are compared to the nanocellulose peaks described in the study of
Sofla et al.[9]. The samples had broad peaks at the 3200 to 3400 cm-1 range, specifying the freeO-H groups. At 2896 to 2900 cm-1, there were peaks for C-H stretching vibration. In the 1424 to1427 cm-1 and 1368 to 1370 cm-1 region, there were peaks corresponding to C-H bending
vibrations, while C-H stretching peaks were present at 2896 to 2900 cm-1. The peaks at 900 to1100 cm-1 corresponds to C-O stretching vibration of the pyranose rings and the alcohol groups.

Pulp
Bleached
3600

2600
1600
600
Wavenumber (cm-1)

MFC

Figure1. FTIR spectra of the pressure cooker pulp, bleached pulp, and the MFC

The functional groups present in the spectra confirm that the pulp, bleached pulp, andmicrofibrillated cellulose are made up of cellulose. It was observed that there were no significant
differences in the FTIR spectra of the three different samples. Thus, based on the peaks present,
it can be concluded that the cellulose backbone of the Bakong fibers was not altered significantly
during the pulping, bleaching, and grinding process. One peak at around 1600 cm-1 corresponded
to O-H bending of water, showing that the materials had residual moisture even after drying.

39

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

3.4 Morphology of the MFC
Figure 2 shows the optical microscope images, and SEM images of the MFC-10 and
MFC-15. It was observed that large fibers 700 μm long and 20 μm wide are still present in thesuspension, but much smaller fibers and evidence of microfibrillation were visible. No further
treatment was performed to improve the size distribution. The structures surrounding the large
fibers suggest that significant defibrillation occurred during grinding. However, the drying
method was not able to successfully isolate the individual microfibrils, agglomerating andforming the sheet-like structures.

Figure 2. From left to right: optical microscope images (scale bars: 0.02 mm) of MFC-10 and MFC-15; and SEM images (scalebars: 200 µm) of MFC-10 and MFC-15

3.5 Size Analysis by Dynamic Light Scattering
Table 3 shows the average particle diameters and polydispersity indices (PDI) of theMFC-10 and MFC-15. Since there were no further treatments to improve the size distribution, thesamples had high polydispersity index (PDI) values, and may not be suitable for the DLS
technique. However, the technique was only used to observe the difference between the MFC-10
and MFC-15. It was observed that the average size of the suspended MFC-10 was greater thanthat of the suspended MFC-15, indicating that the increased passes through the grinder further
disintegrated the cellulose fibers into smaller particles.
Table 3. Average particle sizes and polydispersity indices
MFC type

Particle size(nm)

Polydispersity Index

MFC-10857.5 ± 25.55

0.945

MFC-15537.7 ± 84.57

0.713

The size distribution peaks of the suspended particles are shown in Figure 3. For eachtype of MFC. The suspended particles from the MFC-10 had two peaks. The peaks for the lower
sized particles were at 143.3 nm, 304.2 nm, and 97.57 nm for each of the three trials. While forthe higher sized particles, the peaks were at 736.6 nm, 1004.2 nm, and 526.8 nm. For the MFC15, three peaks were present. The lowest sized peaks were at 345.2 nm, 336.5 nm, and 272.1 nm.
The mid-sized peaks were at 1101 nm, 1379 nm, and at 905 nm. The largest sized peaks were at
5255 nm, 5232 nm, and 5160 nm. The relative intensities of the peaks near the 1000 nm region
decreased, while the relative intensities of the peaks near the 300 nm region increased as thenumber of passes of the MFC increased suggesting that the friction grinder was able to reduce thesize of the cellulose fibrils.

40

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

Figure 3. Size distribution of MFC-10 (left) and MFC-15 (right)

3.6 Mechanical Properties of Handsheets with MFC
Figure 4 shows the mechanical properties of 80 g/m2 handsheets with 0, 2, 6, and 10%
MFC-10 and MFC-15 (generated using Design-Expert® Version 11, Stat-Ease, Design Expert
V.11.0.3.0 32-bit, Evaluation License, License No. 5611-4228-0954-EVAL, Minnesota, USA).
The burst index of the handsheets decreased with increasing MFC content. This may be
due to the MFC not being able to reinforce the inter-fiber bonding in the sheet. The digester pulp
was still dark in color so it might have contained a significant amount of lignin which may havenot interacted well with the MFC.
130

8

120

7

110

One Factor

One Factor

One Factor

One Factor
9

1400

14

5

2

2

4

100
2

10

8

90

800
600
400
2

200
0

4

70

1000

2

6

80

3

Folding Endurance

6

Tear Index

Tensile Index

Burst Index

1200
12

10% MFC-10

6% MFC-15

6% MFC-10

2% MFC-15

2% MFC-10

0% MFC

10% MFC-10

6% MFC-15

6% MFC-10

2% MFC-15

2% MFC-10

0% MFC

10% MFC-10

6% MFC-15

6% MFC-10

2% MFC-15

2% MFC-10

0% MFC

10% MFC-10

6% MFC-15

6% MFC-10

2% MFC-15

2% MFC-10

0% MFC

Figure 4. Mechanical properties of 80 g/m2 paper with MFC

The tensile index of the handsheets did not change significantly with the addition of up to
6% MFC. However, when 10% MFC was added, the tensile index dropped significantly. Thisfurther suggests that the inter-fiber bonding was not reinforced; instead, the MFC acted as a filler
material that negatively affected bonding. This was like a case in the study of Viana et al. [10],wherein they did not observe any significant improvement in the mechanical property ofnewsprint with the addition of nanofibrillated cellulose.
As for the tear index, it was observed that the addition of MFC also does not have any
significant effect. However, it was observed that the addition of MFC-15 resulted in a better tearindex than the addition of MFC-10. This may be due to the MFC-15 being able to occupy thevoids between the fibers better than MFC-10, thus adding resistance to tearing.
Lastly, there was no observed improvement in the folding endurance of the handsheetswith increased addition of MFC. This may likely be because folding endurance is mostly
dependent on fiber length and fiber type, and not on inter-fiber bonding.

41

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)4.

Conclusions

Handsheets and microfibrillated cellulose were produced from Bakong (Hanguanamalayana (Jack) Merr.) fibers. Soda pulping was found to be effective in isolating the individual
plant fibers. The pulping yields were high, but the pulp still had high lignin content. Bleachingwith commercial sodium hypochlorite was effective in further lignin removal. Microfibrillated
cellulose (MFC) was produced from bleached Bakong pulp using friction grinding. Grinding
yields were 91.50% after 10 passes, and 87.52% after 15 passes. Optical microscopy andscanning electron microscopy supported that microfibrillation occurred, and FTIR analysis
showed that the cellulose backbone of the pulp, bleached pulp, and the MFC. Dynamic lightscattering analysis was performed and a noticeable decrease in size occurred with increasing
passes through the friction grinder. The high yields obtained showed that the method used for
producing the microfibrillated cellulose was promising.
The MFC was incorporated at 2, 6, and 10% concentration into the digester pulp slurry
during disintegration and it was observed that the burst index of the pulp decreased withincreasing MFC loading. However, tear index was slightly improved by incorporating MFC-15
instead of MFC-10. The MFC had no significant effect on the folding endurance and tensile
index but at 10% loading, the tensile index dropped significantly, suggesting that the MFC acted
more as filler instead of reinforcement. Overall, the Bakong fibers showed promise as a source ofpulp for both microcellulose production and papermaking. The MFC yields were relatively highand the handsheets had good mechanical properties.

Acknowledgements
The author would like to acknowledge the Wood Science Laboratory at the Department of Forest Products
and Paper Science of the College of Forestry and Natural Resources of the University of the Philippines Los Baños
and the Pulp and Paper Laboratory of the Department of Science and Technology Forest Products Research andDevelopment Institute for the reagents, chemicals, and equipment used. The author would also like to acknowledge
the Design Center of the Philippines under the Department of Trade and Industry for providing the raw materials
used in the study.

42

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

References[1] Borjesson, M., & Westman, G. (2015). “Crystalline nanocellulose – preparation, modification, and properties.” In
M. Poletto (Ed.), Cellulose – Fundamental Aspects and Current Trends, (pp. 159-191). London,
United Kingdom: InTech.
[2] Kargarzadeh, H., Ioelovich, M., Ahmad, I., Thomas, S., & Dufresne, A. (2017). “Methods for extraction of
nanocellulose from various sources.” In H. Kargarzadeh, I. Ahmad, S. Thomas, & A. Dufresne(Eds.), Handbook of Nanocellulose and Cellulose Nanocomposites, (pp. 1-49). Weinheim,
Germany: Wiley-VCH.
[3] Laftah, W.A., & Rahaman, W.A.W.A. (2015). “Chemical pulping of waste pineapple leaves fiber for kraft paper
production.” Journal of Materials Research and Technology, 4(3), 254-261. doi:
10.1016/j.jmrt.2014.12.006[4] Berglund, L., Noel, M., Aitomaki, Y., Oman, T., & Oksman, K. (2016). “Production potential of cellulose
nanofibers from industrial residues: efficiency and nanofiber characteristics.” Industrial Crops
and Products, 92, 84-92. doi: 10.1016/j.indcrop.2016.08.003[5] Jimenez, L., Ramos, E., Rodriguez, A., De La Torre, M.J., & Ferrer, J.L. (2005). “Optimization of pulping
conditions of abaca: an alternative raw material for producing cellulose pulp.” Bioresource
Technology, 96, 977-983. doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2004.09.016[6] Wunna, K., Nakasaki, K., Auresenia, J.L., Abella, L.C., & Gaspillo, P.D. (2017). “Effect of alkali pretreatment on
removal of lignin from sugarcane bagasse.” Chemical Engineering Transactions, 56, 1831-1836.
doi: 10.3303/CET1756306[7] Mirando, S.M.D. (2018). “Characterization of Kawayan Tinik (Bambusa blumeana Schult.f.) handsheets
reinforced with cellulose nanofibrils obtained via friction grinder supermass colloider.”Unpublished undergraduate thesis – Chemical Engineering, University of the Philippines, Los
Baños, College, Laguna.
[8] Biermann, C.J. (1996). “Handbook of pulping and papermaking (2nd ed.).” Oregon: Academic Press.
[9] Sofla, M.R.K., Brown, R.J., Tsuzuki, T., & Rainey, T.J. (2016). “A comparison of cellulose nanocrystals andcellulose nanofibres extracted from bagasse using acid and ball milling methods.” Advances in
Natural Sciences, Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, 7(3), 1-9.
[10] Viana, L., Potulski, D., Muniz, G., Andrade, A., & Silva, E. (2018). “Nanofibrillated cellulose as an additive forrecycled paper.” Cerne, 24(2), 140-148. doi: 10.1590/01047760201824022518

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

Morphological Study and Chemical Composition of Seeds of Avocado Plant
Khin Myo Thwet1

Abstract
Avocado plant (Persea Americana Mill.) is an important economic tree, belonging to the family
Lauraceae. The morphology of this plant was studied and the chemical composition of avocado
seed was investigated. Persea americana Mill. is an evergreen tree with alternate leaves, panicle
cyme with deciduous bracts. Avocado fruit is single seeded berry, which has a large central seed.
The chemical results showed that the investigated seeds contain phytochemicals such asalkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, saponin, phenolic compounds, cyanogenic glycoside and steroid.
The content of heavy metals were analyzed by using AAS, these results showed higher content ofcalcium (Ca). The nutritional value from powdered seeds of this plant was revealed the highest
content of carbohydrate. According to this research, this avocado seeds contain medicinal andvaluable chemical contents.
Keywords: Avocado seed, phytochemical, elemental, nutritional

1. Introduction
The avocado (Persea Americana Mill.), a tree with probable origin in South Central
Mexico, is classified as a member of the flowering plant family Lauraceae. The fruit of the plant,also called an avocado (or avocado pear or alligator pear), is botanically a large berry containing
a single large seed. Avocados are commercially valuable and are cultivated in tropical andMediterranean climates throughout the world. The species is variable because of selection
pressure by humans to produce larger, fleshier fruits with a thinner exocarp.[14] Mexico has thelargest production, most of the crop being consumed within the country. Other important
producers are: Brazil, United States, Dominican Republic, Indonesia, Peru, Israel and Haiti.[17]This fruit is high calories, contains vitamins A, B and E and is a good source of folic acid,riboflavin, niacin, thiamin, iron and potassium. It is eaten in salads and desserts and used as a
sandwich filling and an ingredient in dips and spreads, ice-creams and milkshakes. Kew
botanist William Milliken has studied the traditional anti-malarial plants in the state of Roraima
in Brazil.[19] The seed is ground and made into an ointment used to treat various skin afflictions,such as scabies, purulent wounds, lesions of the scalp and dandruff. The flesh is also used in
traditional medicine. Researches have shown that avocado seeds may improve
hypercholesterolemia, and useful in the treatment of hypertension, inflammatory conditions anddiabetes. Seeds have also been found to possess insecticidal, fungicidal, and anti-microbialactivities. The avocado seed is rich in phenolic compounds, and these may play a role in theputative health effects.[10]Avocado was introduced into Myanmar over 60 years ago and it was first planted at Pyin
U Lwin. The area of avocado was first expanded to the neighbouring towns of the northern Shan
State and later to Southern Shan State; also, to Kayah and Chin States. Geographically, all thesestates are in the hilly regions which have relatively lower temperatures, with favourable annual
rainfall. Avocado continues to be cultivated by the farmers as a backyard crop and nocommercial plantations exist in the country. The existing scattered trees are classified into three1

Dr. Botany Department, Taunggyi University, Taunggyi, Shan State, khinmyothwet227@gmail.com, 09251824918

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)44

categories, which the local people consider as local varieties. These are: a) Anyo Myo, with darkcoppery-coloured fruits; b) A Sein Myo, with round green-coloured fruits; and c) Buthi Pon Myo,with oval-shaped and small neck fruits.[3]In this research, the avocado (buthi pon myo), with oval-shaped and small neck fruit was
selected. This fruit is Myanmar namely called htaw bat thi.[5] The seeds of this fruit were
investigated for phytochemical tests.
In Myanmar, avocado is not grown for commercial purposes, grown only for
consumption within the locality. They are used as fencing trees in home gardening andplantations. This fruit was used as Traditional Burmese avocado salad at Inle Lake, Shan State,
Myanmar. Avocados have long been cultivated for their edible fruits, the flesh is highly
nutritious and has a composition different from that of other fruits. This plant is important for
nutritional and medicinal values. The present research studied the presence of phytochemicals
and nutritional values of Persea Americana seed.

2. Methods
The specimens of avocado plant used in this research were collected from Taunggyi
University Campus, Taunggyi Township, Southern Shan State and studied from May to August,2019. The fresh parts of this plant were used for morphological characters studies. In
morphological study, the fresh plant parts were thoroughly examined and described according to
the standard used in Department of Botany, University of Taunggyi.[8] The plants were recordedby taking photographs. The fresh specimens of leaves were washed with water to remove
impurities. After washing, the specimens were weighed and air dried at room temperature andweighed intermittently. When constant weight was obtained the samples were completely dried.
Then specimens were pulverized by grinding machine and store in air tight containers to prevent
moisture changes, contamination and kept for phytochemical screening. Atomic Absorption
Spectrometry (AAS) was carried out at University of Research Center, University of Yangon andphytochemical screening was carried out at the Department of Chemistry, Taunggyi
University.[12] The nutritional values of this powdered leaves was determined by using Kjeldahl
method.

3. Results and Discussion
3.1 Morphological Studies
Family- Lauraceae

Scientific Name

- Persea americana Mill.

Common Name

- Avocado

Myanmar Name - Htaw bat thi
Habit: evergreen tree, up to 22 m tall. Leaves: simple, alternate, margin entire, 10-20 cm
long, blade elliptic to lanceolate, leathery above, dark green with prominent midrib.
Inflorescence: panicle cyme with hairy flowers, clusters at the ends of branches. Flowers:
bisexual, trimerous, greenish yellow; perianth two whorls, 3 outer and 3 inner tepals, 4-5 mm
long, tomentose; stamens 9, 3 whorls, 3 staminodes in 1 whorl, 2 orange nectaries at the base of19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)45

each inner whorl; carpel with 1 ovary, style slender and stigma capitate. Fruit: fleshy berry,
single seed, oval-shaped, 7-15 cm long. Seed: globose, 3.5-4.5 cm in diameter, covered with firmskin. Flowering period: March-June

a

c

b

d

e

f

g

Figure 1 Persea Americana Mill. a) habit, b) inflorescence, c) flower, d) stamens, e) gynoecium, f) fruit, g) seed

3.2 Chemical Studies
Table 1 Preliminary phytochemical screening of powdered seed from Persea americana Mill.
No.

Test

Extract

Test reagents

Observation

Results1

Alkaloid

1%HCl

Dragendorff's reagent

Orange ppt.

+

2

Amino acid

H2O

Ninhydrin reagent

Violet color+

3

Carbohydrate

H2O

Benedict's solution

Red color+

4

Flavonoid

EtOH

Mg turning + Conc: HCl

Reddish-pink color+

5

Glycoside

H2O

10% Lead acetate

White ppt.

+

6

Phenolic
compound

EtOH

10% FeCl3

brown color+

7

Reducing sugar

H2O

Benedict's solution

red color+

8

Saponin

H2O

Conc: H2SO4Forthiness+9

StarchH2O

Iodine solution and potassium iodide

deep blue color+

10

Steroid

EtOH

Acetic anhydride + Conc:H2SO4

Green color–

11

TanninEtOH

NaCl, 1% Gelatin

deep blue color+

12

Terpenoid

EtOH

Acetic anhydride + Conc:H2SO4pink color+

13

Lipophilic group

H2O

0.5M KOH

deep color–

14

Polyphenol

EtOH

1%FeCl3+1%K3Fe(CN)6

greenish-blue color+

15

Protein

H20

NaOH solution, CuSO4 solution

red ppt.

+( + ) = presence,( - ) = absence,
ppt = precipitate
Phytochemicals are important chemicals which found actually in plant parts. Table 1
show below the present of alkaloid, amino acid, carbohydrate, flavonoid, glycoside, phenolic
compound, starch, tannin, terpenoid, saponin, polyphenol and protein in powdered seed ofPersea America Mill. Some phytochemicals stimulate the immune system and others slow thegrowth of cancer cells or prevent DNA damage. [19] Flavonoids are a group of bioactive
compounds that are extensively found in foodstuffs of plant origin. Various studies in vitro and invivo showed that flavonoids possess antimicrobial, anticancer, antidiarrheal and radio protective
activities.[12] Clinical studies have suggested that saponins affect the immune system in ways that
help to protect the human body against cancers and also lower cholesterol levels. Saponinsdecrease blood lipids, lower cancer risks and lower blood glucose.[23]19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)46

Table 2 Nutritional value of powdered seed of Persea Americana MillNo.

Experiment

Present Chemical
Analysis Results

1

Moisture ( % )

16.88

2

Ash ( % )

0.01

3

Fat ( % )1.75

4Fiber ( % )

4.70

5

Protein ( % )

5.40

6

Carbohydrate (%)

71.26

The determination of nutritional values was revealed at table 2. Protein, fiber, fat, ash andmoisture, carbohydrate present in the powdered seed of Persea americana Mill. was analyzed.
Carbohydrate was present higher percent than the others. Carbohydrates are one of the mostimportant food groups in the diet. They provide essential elements that the body needs for instantenergy production and various vital functions. Carbohydrate help maintain a healthy blood sugar
level.[21] Fiber is important to digestion and regularity, weight management, blood sugar
regulation, cholesterol maintenance. According to some scientists, fiber could actually help
people live longer.[24]Table 3 Elemental analysis of powdered seed of Persea Americana MillNo.

Elements

Mg / L

1

Calcium (Ca)

2.051

2

Manganese (Mn)

0.539

3

Lead (Pb)-0.764

4

Magnesium (Mg)

1.778

5

Cronium (Cr)

1.063

6

Cadmium (Cd)

0.466

7

Zinc (Zn)0.22

8Copper (Cu)

0.141

The elemental analysis of powdered leaves sample showed above table 3 that thepresence of high elemental concentration was Calcium (Ca) and the lowest concentration was
Lead (Pb). Calcium is very essential in muscle contraction, oocyte activation, building strong
bones and teeth, blood clotting, never impulse, transmission, regulating heart beat and fluidbalance within cells. Long term of calcium deficiency can lead to oestoporosis in which the bonedeteriorates and there is an increased risk of fractures.[9] Exposure to high levels of lead may
cause anemia, weakness and kidney and brain damage. Very high lead exposure can cause
death.[22]19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)47

4. Conclusion
Morphological characters and phytochemical composition of Persea americana Mill.
have been studied in this research. According to phytochemical investigation, the importantchemical composition was found in powdered seed of this plant. Seeds have also been found topossess insecticidal, fungicidal, and anti-microbial activities. The avocado seed is rich inphenolic compounds, and these may play a role in the putative health effects.[10] Thus, further
researches concerning with the seed of Persea americana will be continuously performed. Also
in Myanmar, avocado will be widely grown for more consumption and commercial purposes.

Acknowledgements
I would like to express my profound to Dr. Mu Mu Myint, Rector and Dr. Win Win Ei, Pro-Rector,
Taunggyi University for their invaluable suggestions and constant encouragement from the beginning to perform thisresearch. I am greatly indebted to Dr. Aye Aye Win Kyi, Professor and Head, Department of Botany, University of
Taunggyi, for her kind permission undertakes and suggestion of this research and to make use of departmental
facilities in Botany Department.

References[1] Anonymous. 1987. Central Council for Research in Unani Medicine. 1987. Physico -chemicinal Standards ofUnani Formulation. India: New Delhi, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.
[2] Anonymous. 2008. Flora of Hong Kong. Vol. II. Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation. Department,
Government of the Hong Kong Administrative Region, Hong Kong.
[3] Aung Soe, U., “Avocado Production in Myanmar”, Horticulturist, Myanmar Agriculture Service, Yangon,
Myanmar.
[4] Hooker, J.D. 1885. Flora of British India. Vol. V, L. Reeve & Co. Ltd., London.
[5] Kress, J. and Yin Yin Kyi. 2003. A Checklist of Trees, Shrubs, Herbs and Climbers of Myanmar. Washington
D.C., New York.
[6] Lawrence, G. H. M. 1963. Taxonomy of Vascular Plants. 9th Ed. New York, USA. The McMillian Company.
[7] Marini Bettolo et. al. 1981. Plant screening by Chemical and Chromatographic Procedure, under field condition
J. Chromatography.
[8] Nyo Maung. 2012. Taxonomy of Angiosperms. Yangon University, Yangon, Myanmar.
[9] Pravina, P and D. Sayaji, 2015. International Journal of Research in Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences. P.
G. Department of Chemistry, Y. C. Institute of science, satara, Maharashtra, India.
[10] Rachel, M. S., Gregory, R. Z. & Joshua, D. L., 2013. Avocado (Persea Americana) Seed as a source of
Bioactive Phytochemicals. Pennsylvania State University.
[11] Santra, S. C., T. P. Chatterjee & A. P. Das. 1999. College Botany Practical. Volume I. For Degree Students ofIndian University. New Central Book Agency (p) LTD. 8/1 Chitamons Das Lane, Calcutta 700
009, India.
[12] Shantabi, L.,G.C. Jagetia, M. Vabeiryureilai and K. Lalrinzuali. 2014. Phytochemical screening of certain
medicinal plants of Mizoram. Department of Zoology, Mizoram University. India.
[13] Trease, G.E & W. C. Evans. 1978. Pharmacogonsy. 11th Ed, Baillier Tindall, London.
[14] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avocado#Botany[15] http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:325643-2[16] http://old.worldagroforestry.org/treedb/AFTPDFS/Persea_americana.PDF

48

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)[17] https://uses.plantnet-project.org/en/Persea_americana_(PROSEA)[18]https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235755293_Avocado_Persea_americana_Seed_as_a_Source_of_
Bioactive_Phytochemicals[19] http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0[20] http://www.sharecare.com>health[21] https://www.news-medical.net/health[22] https://www.cdc.gov>niosh>topics.
[23] https://www.ncbi-nlm.nih.gov>pub[24] https://livescience.com

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

Ecological Study on Clouded Monitor Lizard Varanus Nebulosus (Gray, 1831)
In Hlawga Wildlife Park, Yangon Region
Win Zaw1, Thet Naing (1)2, Mae May Phaw3

Abstract
A total of nine specimens were recorded by means of both captured and visual encountered in the
25 sample plots of Hlawga Wildlife Park from July 2018 to January 2019. Distinctive charactersand morphometric data (Weight, Snout-Vent length, Tail length, Head length, and Head width) of
the recorded species were given systematically. Population status of Varanus nebulosus wasanalyzed by Quadrat Sampling method, and estimated to the 0.36 individual per plot area (900 m²),
400 individual per square kilometer, and 2496 individuals per study area. The sex ratio of male tofemale specimen was found to be nearly 1:1. Chi square test (x²) showed that the sex ratio of thestudied specimens was not significantly different (P˃0.05). Five types of habitats were categorized
in the study area, ground hole (16.1 %), concrete pipe (9.7 %), dump hole (6.5 %), tree-hole (48.4%), and canopy (19.3 %). The highest frequency of habitat type used was observed for tree hole(TH). Twelve plant species were recorded to be utilized by the species in the study area: the most
preferred plants were Albizia procera and Pterospermum acerifoium. The habitat types of tree-holeand plant canopy were dominantly utilized by the study specimen.
Keywords: Wildlife, population, morphometric data, sex ratio, habitats

1. Introduction
Varanids are an exclusively Old World group of predominantly tropical and subtropicallizards occurring throughout Africa, southern Asia from the Mediterranean coast to southern
China, and south to and through most of Australia. Presently, more than 70 species arerecognized, and all are contained within the genus Varanus. A dozen or so of these monitors havebroad distribution, including Varanus niloticus throughout much of Africa and V.salvator from
India and Sri Lanka through Southeast Asia to Sulawesi. All monitors are carnivores, and mostare active foragers that search for their prey by sight and smell, having a snake-like long, forked
tongue. Varanids are generally solitary and they are almost exclusively diurnal, although somerock- dwelling species may occasionally be crepuscular.
All varanids are oviparous. Captive animals are able to produce two clutches in a year,
and wild varanids apparently breed only once a year. Some species (V.rosenbergi, V.varius,
V.giganteus, V.albigualris, V.niloticus, and V.bengalensis) lay their eggs in termite mounds which
maintain their temperature above 25˚C, with high humidity, throughout winter. Other species
simply bury their clutch deep in the soil, while V.olivaceus reportedly lays its eggs in hollow
trunks and limbs of trees. The age of sexual maturity for most species is most known, but itprobably occurs at an older age in large species than in small species. Estimate of V. komodoensis
takes about five years to mature.
According to [1a], of all the varanids, five species (V. dumerilii, V. rudicollis, V. salvator,
V. bengalensis, and V. nebulosus) are found in Myanmar and Southeast Asia countries. Once, V.
nebulosus was a subspecies of V. bengalensis (V. bengalensis nebulosus).

1

Dr, Lecturer, Department of Zoology, University of Yangon; Ph: +959 250186475
Dr., Lecturer, Department of Zoology, University of Yangon; thetnaing681971@gmail.com
3Dr., Lecturer, Department of Zoology, University of Yangon; maephawuy2018@gmail.com
2

50

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)The present work was conducted on the aim of contributing field data regarding thefollowing objectives:-to assess the population status of Varanus nebulosus in Hlawga Wildlife Park,-

to record the morphometric data and sex ratio of the studied species,-

to examine the habitat types and usages of the recorded species, and-to provide the data for the assessment of National Red List in Myanmar and IUCNRed List.

2. Materials and methods
Hlawga Wildlife Park is situated in Mingaladon Township, Yangon Region and locatedbetween Latitude 17 02 N to 17  04 N and Longitude 96 05 E to 96  08 E (Fig. 1). The
whole area of the park was about 6.24 kilometer square. The field study was carried out from
July 2018 to January 2019. Data collection was undertaken 2-3 days per week with the help of
the research members and residential staffs. The specimens were collected alive from the studied
habitats by hand capturing, noosing, and visual encountered survey methods. Identification of thestudied species was after [2], [3a], [1b] and [4a].
A total of 25 plots (30m × 30m) were randomly set up as sampling plots along both sidesof the vehicle road-transect, within 50 m from the road. The distances between plots were notcloser than 150 m, and not farther than 1000 m. GPS points were recorded at the centers of all
sample plots (Plate. 1). The observation was done in pair of plots with overlaps per a day (forexample, No.1 and 2, 2 and 3, 3 and 4, etc.) from 7:00 am to 5:30 pm. The population status forthe studied species was investigated and assessed by means of direct observation of the plot pairs.
Quadrat sampling method used to estimate the population status of the species.
The body weight (BW), snout-vent length (SVL), tail length (TL), head length (HL), andhead width (HW) of the captured specimens from sampling plots were recorded by a digitalbalance and digital caliper or measuring tape to the nearest gram and millimeter. Unfortunately
monitor lizards are notoriously difficult animals for sex differentiation. Sex of monitor lizards isoften determined on the basis of hemipenal eversion.
Habitat utilization of the studied species was recorded by their occurrence frequency indifferent types inhabited by both visual encountered and captured specimens within the wholestudy area. Five types of habitats were categorized in the study areas as ground hole (GH),concrete pipe (CP), dump hole (DH), tree hole (TH), and canopy (C). Identification of plant
species was followed after [5].

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

51

Figure 1. Map of Hlawga Wildlife Park (Source: Topographic map and Google image, 2018)

Plate 1. Map showing the plot setting as study sites in Hlawga Wildlife Park (Source: Google Earth Pro. Image © 2019 Maxar
Technologies © 2018 Google)

3. Results and Discussion
Population status
In the present study, a total of nine specimens (Varanus nebulosus) were observed bymeans of both captured and visual encountered specimens in the sample plots of Hlawga Wildlife
Park. Of the 25 sample plots, the plot numbers 3, 5, 14, 17, 20, 21, and 23 were recorded as
captured specimens, and 4 and 22 as visual encountered specimens (VES) respectively. Only one
specimen per plot was occurred in these recorded plots. According to the result, the population
status of study species was 0.36 individual per plot area (900 m2), meaning 400 individuals per
square kilometer.
The specimen occurrence of the sample plots were plot number 3, 4, 5, 14, 17, 20, 21, 22
and 23. Any specimens were not observed in remaining plots. This was assumed that specimen
observed plots were far from human visiting places where monkey population was dense.
Morphometric data of recorded specimens
The morphometric parameters of captured specimens were recorded in this study. The
weights and lengths of the collected specimens were recorded to the nearest gram and millimeter.

52

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)In this study, the recorded morphometric data of the captured specimens were 451.3±163.41(232-624) in BW, 273.4 ± 40.4 (230-310) SVL, 416.8 ± 68.2 (340-470.3) TL, 40.4±8.0 (32.248.2) HL, 21.2±5.2 (16.3-26.7) HW of males (n=3) and 244.0±36.45 (162-303) BW, 225.4±17.6(200-240.5) SVL, 367.8±34.0 (320.3-400) TL, 37.2±5.7 (30-43.2) HL, 23.0±2.6 (20.5-24.3) HWof females (n=4) respectively. The 624 g of BW, 310 mm of SVL, 470.3 mm of TL, 48.2 mm of
HL, and 26.7 mm of HW were recorded in the largest male specimen; 303 g of BW, 240.5 mm of
SVL, 400 mm of TL, 43.2 mm of HL, and 24.3 mm of HW in the largest female Varanus
nebulosus in Hlawga Wildlife Park. According to the morphometric data, males were found to begenerally larger than females in the present study area.
The mean morphometric measurements of adult male Varanus bengalensis reported to beabout 58 cm in SVL, 150 cm in TL, and 2.7 kg in weight, and of females at 46 cm in SVL, 120
cm in TL, and 1.5 kg in body weight [6]. The mean sizes of adult V. bengalensis in southern Sri
Lanka were recorded as 50 cm in SVL and 2.5 kg in weight, but about 11kg in weighted
specimen had been reported by [7], [8]. In Malaysia, wild Varanus species were stated to havemorphometric ranges from 20.0 cm to 40.5 cm in SVL and 109 g in body weight [9]. [10a]reported that the mean snout- vent length in Varanus giganteus was recorded to be 800 mm, V.
glebopalma 350 mm, V. semiremex 206 mm, V. glauerti 230 mm, V. gilleni 190 mm, V.
pilbarensis 170 mm, V. storri 130 mm, V. kingorum 120 mm, and V. primordius 110 mm. [1c]expressed that mean snout to vent length of Varanus nebulosus was 1200 mm. In Java, themaximum SVL of male and female Varanus nebulosus reached to 750 mm [4b]. [11a] statedthat the morphometric ranges of Varanus bengalensis nebulosus in Hlawga Wildlife Park, wererecorded as body weight (BW) from 400 to 3500 g, snout-vent length (SVL) from 290 mm to 490
mm, tail length (TL) from 320 mm to 790 mm, head length (HL) from 85 mm to 315 mm, andhead width (HW) from 18 mm to 37 mm.
As shown in the present results, the maximum morphometric data of weight, snout ventlength, head length, and head width were shorter than those recorded by [11b] in the Hlawga
Wildlife Park. Besides, the maximum measurement of SVL in the present study was shorter thanthe mean snout vent lengths of Varanus spp. reported by [1d] and [4c].
Sex ratio
Sex differentiation of the captured specimens was followed after [3b]. In the present
study, sex ratio of all the captured clouded monitor lizard specimens could not be seasonallyanalyzed. The sex ratio of male to female specimens in this study was calculated to be 1:1. Chi
square test (2) showed that the sex ratios reflecting the number of males to females of thestudied species was not significantly different (p>0.05) (Table 1). Hence, the sex ratios wererecorded for the present is close to unity (i.e., female: male ratio, 1:1).
Table1. Variation in sex ratios for males and females of the recorded species
Male

Female

No.

%

No.

%

Chi square
value

3

43

4

57

0.14

P-value

Sex
ratio

0.705

1:1.3

53

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

Habitat types and utilization
Habitat utilization of the study species was recorded by occurrence frequency andpercentage in each habitat types inhabited by both visual encountered and captured specimens
observed within the whole study area. Five types of habitat were recorded in this study as groundhole (GH), concrete pipe (CP), dump hole (DH), tree-hole (TH) and canopy (C). Different habitat
types inhabited by the clouded monitor lizard were recorded together with their frequencies andpercentages of utilization (Table 2). Occurrence of habitat types utilized by clouded monitor
lizard in the studied plots was also recorded. Among the 25 plots, nine were observed and shownin Table 3. According to the data, the tree-hole and canopy were predominant habitats.
[3c] expressed that the clouded monitor lizard had more arboreal than terrestrial habit,
unlike Bengal monitor lizard (Varanus bengalensis). [11c] investigated that two different types ofniche utilization such as arboreal niche on the trees (n= 86, 78.9%) and on the ground (n= 23,
21.1%) were recorded. They were found to prefer tree hollows, or cavities of the trunk of live anddead trees or twigs due to thermo regulation.
Many varanid lizard species are arboreal as adults, particularly the smaller species. Someof the larger species, such as Varanus tristis, and V. varius, also climb trees, and arboreal habitats
are common in some young specimens of the larger species, including V.komodoensis ([12]) andV. varius ([13]). Varanus varius, V. tristis, V. scalaris, V. gilleni and V. caudolineutus often use
tree holes and loose bark as shelters and V. prasinus is aided by its prehesite tail when climbing([14]). Varanus glacerti, V. glebopalma, V. kingorum, V. primordius, and V. storri occur in rocky
habitats, although V. semiremex inhabits of coastal mangrove forests ([10b]). [15] stated that
Varanus salvator, water monitor lizard, was observed in sandy and ground habitats inKyaikhtiyoe Wildlife Sanctuary, Mon State. According to the present study, the tree holes(48.4%), canopy (19.3%), ground hole (16.1%), concrete pipe (9.7%), and dump hole (6.5%)
were observed as habitats of the study specimens recorded by means of hand capturing and visual
encountering frequencies. Since tree-hole habitat was observed in nine plots, the studied lizard
may more prefer than those of other types. The tree-holes inhabited by each studied specimen
were two in number and not equal in height. The orientation of tree-holes inhabited by the study
species was observed not in uniform. Therefore, it may be assumed that the tree hole used by thisspecies may be the remains of other species.
Table2. Frequencies and percentage of different habitat types utilized by study species
Habitat Types
No. of frequency
Percentage
Ground hole

5

16.1

Concrete pipe

3

9.7

Dump hole2

6.5

Tree hole

15

48.4

Canopy

6

19.3

Total

31

100.0

54

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

Table3. Occurrence of habitat types utilized by clouded monitor lizard in the studied plots
Plot No.

GH

Plot 3
Plot 4

CP

DH

TH

√

√

√

√

Plot 5√

Plot 14√Plot 17√

Plot 20√

Plot 21

√

C

√

√

√

Plot 22√

Plot 23√

Plant species utilized by Varanus nebulosus
Regarding plants used by the study specimen for the tree holes and canopy, a total of
twelve plant species were recorded to be inhabited by the during the study period (Table 4). The
different frequencies of plant varieties utilized by V. nebulosus were shown in Table 5. The
highest frequency of use was Albizia procera and Pterospermum acerifolium as the same
frequency of (19.05%), following by Streblus asper (14.29%) at the second highest frequency.
Tree-hole was the highest utilized (15 and 48.4%) part of the trees. In the habitat utilization, thetree species of Albizia procera and Pterospermum acerifolium were the most utilized by theclouded monitor lizard, Streblus asper was the second most used tree species in the Hlawga
Wildlife Park. This may be due to easy penetration of these plants than those of other plant
species.
Table4. Plant species utilized by the clouded monitor lizard in Hlawga Wildlife Park
Sr.No.

Scientific Name

1.
2.
3.

Melanorrohoea usitata Wall.
Alstonia scholaris (L.) R.Br
Markhamia 54tipulate (Wall.) Seem.
exK. Schum.
Elaeocarpus robustus Roxb.
Albizia procera (Roxb.)
Senna siamea Lam.
Samanea saman (Jacq.) Merr.
Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub.
Tectona grandis L.F
Pterospermum acerifolium (L.) Willd
Streblus asper Lour
Anthocephalus morirndaefolius Korth.

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

MyanmarNameThitsiTaung-mayo
Ma-hlwa

Anacardiaceae Tree
Apocynaceae TreeBignoniaceae
Tree

Taw-magyi
Sit
Mezali
Kokko
Pauk
Kyun
Nagye
Okhne
Ma-u

Elaeocarpaceae Tree
Fabaceae
Tree
Fabaceae
Tree
Fabaceae
Tree
Fabaceae
Tree
Limaceae
Tree
Malvaceae
Tree
Moraceac
Small Tree
Rubiaceae
Tree

FamilyHabitat55

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

Table 5. Frequencies and percentage of plant species utilized by the study species
Sr.No.

Plant species

Tree hole Canopy

Total

(%)

1

Melanorrohoea usitata

1

1

2

9.52

2

Alstonia scholaris

1

0

1

4.76

3

Markhamia stipulate

1

0

1

4.76

4

Elaeocarpus robustus

1

0

1

4.76

5

Albizia procera

2

2

4

19.05

6

Senna siamea

0

1

1

4.76

7

Samanea saman

1

0

1

4.76

8

Butea monosperma

1

0

1

4.76

9

Tectona grandis

1

0

1

4.76

10

Pterospermum acerifolium

3

1

4

19.05

11

Streblus asper

2

1

3

14.30

12

Anthocephalus morirndaefolius

1

0

1

4.76

15

6

21

100.00Total
4. Conclusions

In this study, a total of nine specimens of the clouded monitor lizard Varanus nebulosus
were recorded from 25 sample plots (22500 square meters). According to the analyzed data, thepopulation density of the studied species was estimated as 0.36 individual per plot area (900square meters), and 400 individuals per square kilometer. According to the present result, thepopulation status of the studied species was estimated to be 2496 individuals inhabiting in the
study area (6.24 kilometer square).
Because the recorded maximum morphometries (BW, SVL, TL, HL, and HW) of thelargest specimen in the present study were shorter than that of the specimens recorded by [11d],and the maximum measurement of SVL was shorter than the mean snout vent lengths of Varanus
spp. reported by [1e] and [4d]. Thus all the captured specimens of Varanus nebulosus in thisstudy were concluded to be juveniles and sub-adults. Because the study period covered only theraining season and the early cold season, the adult Varanus nebulosus could not be caught in thisstudy.
The Chi square test (p>0.05) of the sex ratio 1:1 revealed the captured number of male tofemale specimens in this study were not significantly different and close to unity.
Although five habitat types were utilized by the clouded monitor lizards, the most
preferred habitat type was the tree-hole in twelve tree species of the study site.

56

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)The present work hoped to impart some information on the population status and habitat
utilization of Varanus nebulosus which could partially contribute to data base for conservation of
the wildlife.

Acknowledgements
Firstly, I wish to express my sincere thanks to the professors of zoology department in University of
Yangon. Then, I am grateful to the officers and staffs of Hlawga Wildlife Park, who kindly assisted me in specimen
collection, retrieval and release in this park.

References[1] Das, I. 2010 (a, b, c, d, e). A Field Guide to the Reptiles of South-East Asia. Asia Books Co. Ltd., Thailand.
[2] Boulenger, G.A. 1890. The Fauna of British India Including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Batrachia, Taylor
and Francis Press, London.
[3] Bennett, D. 1995 (a, b, c). A Little Book of Monitor Lizards: A Guide to the Monitor Lizards of the World andTheir Care in Captivity, Viper Express, UK.
[4] Grismer, L.L. 2011 (a, b, c, d). Lizards of Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore and their Adjacent Archipelagos.
Department of Biology, La Sierra University, Riverside, California. USA.
[5] Kress, W.J., Defilipps, R.A. and Farr, E. 2003. Checklist of the Tree, Shrubs, Herbs, and Climbers of Myanmar.
Department of Systematic Biology-Botany. National Museum of National History. Washington,
45:1-590.
[6] Auffenberg, W. 1979. Intersexual difference in behaviour of captive Varanus bengalensis. J. Herpet. 13(3):313315.
[7] Wikramanayake, E.D. and Green, B. 1989. Thermoregulatory influences on the ecology of two sympatricvaranids in Sri Lanka. Biotropica 21(I):74-79.
[8] Deraniyagala, P.E.P. 1931. Some Ceylonese lizard, Spoloa zeylanica 16: 139-180.
[9] Auffenberg, W. 1983. The burrows of Varanus bengalensis: characteristics and use. Records of the Zoological
Survey of India. 80:375-385.
[10] James, C.D., Losos, J.B. and King, D.R. 1992 (a, b). Reproductive biology and diets of goannas (Reptilia:
Varanidae) from Australia. Journal of Herpetology, 26(2): 128-136.
[11] Htar Htar Hlaing 2014 (a, b, c, d). Some ecological aspects of Clouded Monitor Lizard Varanus bengalensis
nebulosus (Gray, 1831) in Hlawga Wildlife Park. Ph.D. Thesis. Department of Zoology,
University of Yangon.
[12] Auffenberg, W. 1981. The Behavioral Ecology of the Komodo Monitor. University of Florida Press. Gainesville406pp.
[13] Weavers, B.W. 1983. Thermal ecology of Varanus varius (Shaw), the Lace Monitor. PhD Thesis, Australian
National University, Canberra.
[14] Greene, H.W. 1986. Diet and Arboreality in the emerald monitor, Varanus monitor, Varanus prasinus, withcomments on the study of adaption. Fieldiana Zoology 31:1-12.
[15] Khin Than Kywe 2010. Species Diversity of Reptilian Fauna In Kyaikhtiyoe Wildlife Sanctuary, Mon State.
PhD Thesis. Department of Zoology. University of Yangon.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

Investigation of Phytochemicals and Some Bioactivities of Smallanthus
sonchifolius (Yacon) Leaves
Khin Chaw Win1, Ni Ni Than2, Hla Ngwe3
Abstract
This research aims to investigate phytochemical constituents and some biological activities fromthe leaves of Smallanthus sonchifolius (Yacon). The sample was collected from Ywar-nganTownship, Southern Shan State. The preliminary phytochemical tests revealed the presence ofalkaloids, -amino acids, carbohydrates, flavonoids, glycosides, organic acids, phenolic
compounds, reducing sugars, saponins, steroids, tannins and terpenoids in Yacon leaves,however, cyanogenic glycosides and starch were found to be absent. Nutritional values such as
moisture (9.19 %), fat (3.08 %), ash (15.96 %), fibre (11.75 %), protein (11.77 %), carbohydrate(48.25 %) and energy value (247 kcal/100g) of leaves were determined by AOAC methods.
Antimicrobial activity of pet-ether, ethyl acetate and ethanol extracts of leaves of Yacon
inhibited all species of microorganisms such as B. subtilis, S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, B. pumilus,
C. albicansand E.coli with the inhibition zone diameters in the range between13~25 mm. The
watery extract (IC50 = 4.54 g/mL) was found to be the slightly more potent than ethanol
extract (IC50 = 5.71 g/mL) in antioxidant activity. The 50 % α- amylase inhibition
concentrations (IC50) of water and ethanol extracts were respectively to be 290.60 and342.90
g/mL indicating these two extracts possessed -amylase inhibition activity.
Keywords: nutritional values, antioxidant, antimicrobial, -amylase inhibition activity

1. Introduction
Yacon is a plant, a species of the family Asteraceae (Compositae), with the botanicalname Smallanthus sonchifolius. The aerial part is formed by large leaves and a flower withyellow, radially arranged petals [1]. Antidiabetic medicinal properties were attributed mainly to
Yacon leaves. Yacon water extracts induced an increase in the plasma insulin concentration [2].
It is cultivated up to a height of 3, 200 m above sea level. Yacon cultivation has been expanded
to several countries such as Japan, New Zealand, Czech Republic, Brazil [3]. In Myanmar,
Yacon was cultivated in Ywar-ngan Township, Southern Shan State. In the research was aimed
to study the biological investigation including antioxidant activity, antimicrobial activity, amylase activity and chemical investigation such as phytochemical tests and nutritional values, ofleaves of Smallanthus sonchifolius (Yacon)
2. Methods
Sample Collection and Preparation
In this research, leaves of S. sonchifolius (Yacon) were collected from Ywar-nganTownship, Southern Shan State. Then, the sample was identified at the Department of Botany,
University of Yangon. The collected samples were cleaned by washing them with water and airdried at room temperature for two weeks. The air- dried samples were ground into power bymeans of a grinding mill and stored separately in air-tight containers to prevent the moisture and1

Lecturer, Department of Chemistry, University of Yangon, khinchawwin476@gmail.com, +9595053118
Professor and Head, Department of Chemistry, University of Yangon, ninithan234@gmail.com
3
Professor (Retired), Department of Chemistry, University of Yangon,drhlangwe@gmail.com
2

58

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)other contaminations. The dried powdered sample was used to investigate for their chemical andbiological activities
Preliminary Phytochemical Tests
A few grams of each sample were subjected to the tests of alkaloids, -amino acids,
carbohydrates, cyanogenic glycosides, flavonoids, organic acids, phenolic compounds, reducing
sugars, saponins, starch, steroids, tannins and terpenoids as the preliminary phytochemical test
according to reported methods.
Nutritional values
Nutritional values such as moisture content, ash content, fat content, fibre content, protein
content, carbohydrate content and energy value of the selected sample were determined by
AOAC method [4].
Antimicrobial activity
The antimicrobial activity of five crude extracts as petroleum ether, chloroform, ethyl
acetate, ethanol and water from the leaves of Yacon was determined against six strains of
microorganisms such as Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa,
Bacillus pumilus, Candida albicans and Escherichia coli by employing agar well diffusion
method [5].
Procedure for antioxidant activity
The free radical scavenging activity of crude extract of leaves of Yacon was measured
using DPPH free radical scavenging assay [6]. The control solution was prepared by mixing 1.5
mL of 0.002 % DPPH solution and 1.5 mL of ethanol in the brown bottle. The sample solution
was also prepared by mixing 1.5 mL of 0.002 % DPPH solution and 1.5 mL of test sample
solution. These bottles were incubated at room temperature and were shaken on shaker for 30
minutes. After 30 minutes, the absorbance of different concentrations (1.25 µg/mL, 2.5 µg/mL, 5µg/mL, 10 µg/mL and 20 µg/mL) of tested sample was measured at 517 nm using UV-7504
spectrophotometer. Absorbance measurements were done in three times for each concentrationand the mean value so obtained were used to calculate percentage of radical scavenging activity(% RSA) by the following equation. % RSA = [ADPPH - (ASample-A Blank) / ADPPH  100
Where, % RSA = % radical scavenging activity of test sample ADPPH = absorbance of DPPH in
EtOH solution ASample = absorbance of sample+ DPPH solution
ABlank = absorbance of sample + EtOH solution
The antioxidant power (IC50) is expressed as the test substances concentration (g/mL)that result in a 50 % reduction of initial absorbance of DPPH solution and that allows todetermine the concentration. IC50 (50 % inhibition concentration) values were calculated bylinear regressive excel program.

59

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)In Vitro α-Amylase Inhibitory Assay
In Vitro α-amylase inhibitory assay, 3,5- dinitrosalic acid (DNS) method was used toestimate -amylase inhibition activity, by the reducing sugar (maltose) liberated under the assay
conditions. The enzyme inhibition activity was described as a decrease in units of maltose
liberated [7].
3. Results and Discussion Preliminary Phytochemical Investigation
From the preliminary phytochemical investigation, it was found that alkaloids, -aminoacids, carbohydrate, flavonoids, glycosides, organic acids, phenolic compounds, reducing sugars,
saponins, steroids, tannins and terpenoids were present in leaves of S. sonchifolius, however,cyanogenic glycosides and starch were found to be absent.
Nutritional Value
The nutritional values: 9.19 % of moisture, 15.96 % of ash, 3.08 % of fat, 11.75 % offibre, 11.77 % of protein, 48.25 % of carbohydrate and 247 kcal/100g of energy value were
determined in leaves of Yacon. The leaves of Yacon are rich sources of protein andcarbohydrates.
Antimicrobial Activity
Antimicrobial activity was determined by agar well diffusion method. PE, EtOAc and
EtOH extracts of leaves of S. sonchifolius inhibited all species of microorganisms such as B.
subtilis, S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, B. pumilus, C. albicansand E.coli with the inhibition zone
diameters in the range between 13~25 mm. However, H2O extract exhibited five species of
microorganisms except C. albicanswith the inhibition zone diameters in the range between 11~13mm. From this investigation, it could be deduced that leaves of Yacon may be effective for thetreatment of some diseases such as skin rashes, kidney failure or neurologic problems anddiarrhea infected by the test microorganisms. These results are showed in Table 1.
Table 1 Antimicrobial Activity of Leaves of Yacon against Six Microorganisms
Organisms

Bacillus subtilis
Staphylococcus aureus
Pseudomonaus aeruginosa
Bacillus pumilus
Candida albicans
Echerichia coli

Inhibition zone diameter of extracts(mm)Pet-ether Ethyl acetate Ethanol water
19
19
25
20
15
20

14
15
16
18
15
15

18
17
18
15
13
23

12
11
12
11
13

Diameter of agar well=10mm, 10mm  14mm = resistant, 15mm  19mm =intermediate, 20mm
above = susceptible, No activity = (-)

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)60

Antioxidant Activity
The antioxidant activity was studied on 95 % ethanol and water extracts of leaves of
Yangon by using DPPH assay according to the spectrophotometric method. In this experiment,
five different concentrations (1.25µg/mL, 2.5µg/mL, 5µg/mL, 10µg/mL and 20µg/mL) of each
crude extract in 95 % ethanol solvent were used. Ascorbic acid was used as standard and ethanol
without crude extract was employed as control. From these experimental results, IC50 values
were found to be 5 .71 µg/mL for 95 % ethanol extract and 4.54 µg/mL for water extract.
However, it was observed that these two extracts have the lower antioxidant activity thanstandard ascorbic acid (IC50 = 1.92 µg/mL). The water extract (IC50 = 4.54 µg/mL) is higher
potency than ethanol extract (IC50 = 5.71 µg/mL) in the antioxidant activity. These results are
showed in Table 2 and Figure 1.
Table2. Radical Scavenging Activity (% RSA) and IC50 Values of
Crude Extracts from Leaves of Yacon and Standard Ascorbic Acid
% RSA±SDof different concentrations (µg/ml)

Extracts

Water

EthanolStandard

IC

1.25

2.5

5

10

20

37.96

42.43

51.72

63.42

76.15

± 0.49± 1.62

±2.76

±1.78

± 3.57

39.98

43.99

48.38

59.73

72.33

± 2.02± 2.83± 0.13± 2.43± 1.62

45.58

55.53

64.82

73.32

75.23

Ascorbic
Acid(µg/mL)
4.54

5.71

1.92
Figure 1. IC50 value of water and ethanol± 2.88± 1.13± 3.59± 5.78± 6.81extracts from leaves of Yacon andbd-Amylase Inhibition Activity
Hyperglycemia has been a classical risk in the development of diabetes and thecomplications associated with diabetes. Therefore control of blood glucose levels in critical in theearly treatment of diabetes mellitus and reduction of macro and microvascular complications.
One therapeutic approach is the prevention of carbohydrate absorption after food intake, which isfacilitated by inhibition of enteric enzymes including - glucosidase and -amylase present in
the brush borders of intestine. In this study, the -amylase inhibitory activity of leaves of Yacon
was investigated. The inhibitory effect of ethanol extract and water extract were analyzed. The
percentage inhibition of -amylase by ethanol and water extracts were studied in a concentration
range of 25-400 µg/mL. The percentage inhibition of the samples on -amylase enzyme activity
increased with increasing the concentrations. The ethanol and water extracts of leaves of Yacon
was also explored for the in vitro -amylase inhibition and their activity was compared withstandard antidiabetic drug, acarbose. The IC50 values of ethanol and water extracts of leaves of
Yacon were observed to be 342.90 and 290.60 µg/mL. These two extracts possessed -amylase
inhibition activity. However, these two extracts exhibited lower potent -amylase inhibition

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)61

activity than acarbose (IC50=168.02 µg/mL). These observations are dedicated with a bar graphdiagram in Figures 2 and Table 3. This results suggested that crude extracts inhibited blood
glucose elevation by inhibiting -amylase activity.
Table 3. Amylase Inhibition Activity of Ethanol and Water Extracts of Yacon Leaves andStandard Acarbose% Inhibition (mean  SD) in different
concentrations (g/mL)
25

50

100

200

400

Watery 19.73

23.40

29.39

42.59

58.97

IC50

31.67

37.79

43.36

52.66

40
0

290.60 2.91  1.89  3.38  0.96  1.09
ethanol 24.39

290.6(g/mL)342.90IC50 (µg/mL)

Sample

168.0

30
0

 1.74  1.89  1.05  0.65  0.53
Std.

15.72

29.18

39.78

54.80

60.34

168.02

Acarbose  2.18  2.77  1.33  0.88  0.39
4. Conclusions

Figure 2. IC50 value of water and ethanol
extracts from leaves of Yacon andstandard acarbose

From these observations, Yacon leaves exhibited promising antimicrobial, antioxidant
and in vitro -amylase inhibition activities. Yacon leaves were generally found to possess α–amylase inhibitory effect and they may be useful for the formulation of α– amylase inhibitors tomanage the Type 2 diabetes mellitus. Therefore, this research work is hoped to contribute to thedevelopment of Myanmar traditional medicinal formulation using plant sources for the treatment
of Type 2 diabetes, non-insulin dependent diabetes.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Education, Yangon,
Myanmar, for the permission of doing this research.

References[1] Silmara Baroni, Fumie Suzuki-Kemmelmeier, Silvana Martin Caparroz-Assef, Raberto KeniiNakamura, “Effectof, crude extracts of leaves of Smallanthus sonchifolius (yacon) on glycemia in diabetic Rats”,
Brazilia Journal of Pharmaceutical Science, 2008, vol. 44 (3), pp. 521 – 528[2] K Valentova, J Uitrichova, “Yacon (Smallanthus sonchifolius) and Maca (Lepidiummeyenii), Traditional
Andean Crops as New Functional Food on the European Market”, Chem. Listy, 2001, vol. 95, pp.
594-601[3] M Geyer, I Manrique, L Degan and C Beglinger, “Effect of Yacon (Smallanthus sonchifolius) on ColonicTransit Time In Healthy Volunteers”, 2008, vol. 78(1), pp. 30-33[4] A.O.A.C., “Official Method of Analysis”, International Food Research Journal, 2002, vol. 17, pp. 426 – 432[5] Mar Mar Nyein, Chit Maung, May Bwin, S J Tha, “In vitro Testing of Various Indigenous Plant Extracts on
Human Pathogenic Bacteria”, Myanmar Hlth. Science Research Journal, 1991, vol. 3, pp. 89-99[6] G Marinova, V Batchvarov,“Evaluation of the Methods for Determination of the Free Radical Scavenging
Activity by DPPH”, Bulgarian Journal of Agricultural Science, 2011, vol. 17, pp. 11 – 24
[7] Bhimraj Gawade, Mazahar Farooqui, “Alpha-Amylase Inhibitory Assay of Argemone Mexicana L. Leaves,
Journal of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Research, 2017, vol. 9(12), pp. 25-29

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

Investigation of Chemical Constituents and Bioactivities of Some Organic
Compounds from Rhizomes of Boesenbergia pandurata (Roxb.) Schltr.
(Seik-Phoo) (Red and Yellow Varieties)
Aye Myint Sein1, Saw Hla Myint2

Abstract
The present work deals with the screening of antimicrobial activity and antioxidant activity of B.
pandurata (red and yellow) rhizomes. Moreover, isolation of some bioactive compounds was
obtained from B. pandurata (yellow) rhizome. These compounds were characterized by colour
reactions, UV and FT-IR, 1D and 2D NMR. These compounds may be deduced as pinostrobin(5-Hydroxy-7-methoxy Flavanone), panduratin A, pinocembrin (5,7-dihydroxy Flavonone), 2',
6' dihydroxy-4'-methoxy chalcone, cardamonin (4', 6' dihydroxy-2'-methoxy chalcone), alpinetin(7-hydroxy , 5-methoxy flavanone) and helichrysetin (4,4',6' trihydroxy-2'methoxy chalcone)
respectively. Antimicrobial activity of four extracts (PE, EtOAc, EtOH and H2O) of both B.
pandurata (red and yellow) rhizomes was studied on 12 strains of microorganisms by agar discdiffusion method. In antioxidant activity, EtOH and EtOAc extracts of both plants and isolated
compounds from B. pandurata (yellow) rhizome were measured the antioxidant activity by
DPPH staining method.
Keywords: Boeseribergia panadurata (Roxb.)1, Antimicrobial activity 2, Antioxidant activity 3

1. Introduction
Boesenbergia species is a member of Zingiberaceae. It is composed of approximately 80
species worldwide and 27 species of the genus from Indochina. Boesenbergia pandurata (Roxb.)
Schltr. (Seik-Phoo) belongs to the Zingiberaceae family. It is one of the ginger plants that arefound in South East Asia. This ginger found from some tropical countries including Indonesia,
Malaysia, Thailand and Myanmar (Ching et al., 2007). Flavonoids are large secondary
metabolites found in rhizome of B. pandurata. More than 51 flavonoid compounds from B.
pandurata rhizome have been isolated. Three classes of main flavonoids are chalcones,
flavanones and flavones classified according to their skeletons. The rhizomes are given as tonics
and skin liniment. It has been widely used as a medicinal plant, was reported to possess
significant anti-oxidative properties. This rhizomes contain essential oil component such as
metylcinnamate, champhor, cineole. B.pandurata rhizomes also contain saponin and flavonoid
such as pinostrobin, pinocembrin, alpinetin, cardamonin, and panduratin (Ching et al. 2007).
Phenolic compounds such as flavonoid which contain hydroxyls, are responsible for the radical
scavenging effect in the plants. B. pandurata rhizomes is used to treat some diseases such as
stomach disorders, reproductive infections, kidney stones, or laxative. It has been widely used asa medicinal plant, was reported to possess significant anti-oxidative properties (Chahyadi, 2014).
2. Material and Methods
Collection of Plant Samples
The rhizome of B. pandurata (red and yellow) was collected from Yangon and Bagodivision from October to March. The collected sample was identified by authorized botanists, in
1

2

Dr, Associate professor, Department of Chemistry, Maubin University, ayemyintsein2018@gmail.com
Professor and Head (retired), Department of Chemistry, University of Yangon, drshmyint@gmail.com

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

64

Department of Botany, University of Yangon. The cleaned and air dried rhizome was made into
powered and stored in air tight container.

Figure1. Boesenbergia pandurata (Roxb.) Schltr. (a) yellow plant (b) red plant

Screening of Antimicrobial Activity on Effects of Crude Extracts
Crude extract samples were investigated by were determined by 12 strains of which
include Proteus morganii, three species of E. coli, two species of Salmonella, two species ofVibrio , two species of Staphylococcus, Shigella dysenteriae and Candida albican by agar discdiffusion method (R. Cruickshank,1975).

Isolation of some Organic Constituents from B. pandurata
The dried powder sample of rhizome of B. pandurata (500g) was firstly extracted bymaceration with 70 % ethanol for two weeks. This ethanol extract was filtered and thenconcentrated under reduced pressure at 45 ºC using rotatory evaporator. A chromatography was
carried out by elution with the solvent system petroleum ether and ethyl acetate ratios of 9:1 toincreasing polarity. B. pandurata rhizome have proved to be a rich source of flavanones andchalcones including pinostrobin (5-Hydroxy-7-methoxy Flavanone), panduratin A, pinocembrin(5,7-dihydroxy Flavonone), 2', 6' dihydroxy-4'-methoxy chalcone, cardamonin (4', 6' dihydroxy2'-methoxy chalcone), alpinetin (7-hydroxy,5-methoxy flavanone) and helichrysetin (4,4',6'
trihydroxy-2'methoxy chalcone) respectively .
Rapid Screening of Antioxidant by Dot-Blot and DPPH Staining
3 mg of plant extract was dissolved with 6 ml of suitable solvent and was carefully loaded
on a 6 cm x 6 cm TLC layer (Silica gel 60 F254: Merck) and dried for 3min. Drops were loaded inorder of increasing amount along the plate, 50-400 µg. The sheet bearing the dry spots wasplaced upside down for 10 seconds in a 0.4 mM DPPH solution. Then the excess solution wasremoved with a tissue paper and the layer was dried with a hair-dryer blowing cold air. The
stained silica layer revealed a purple background with yellow spots at the location of the drops,
which showed radical scavenger capacity. The intensity of the while color depends upon theamount and nature of radical scavenger present in the sample (Heng-Yuan Chang, 2007).

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)65

3. Results and Discussion
Screening of Antibacterial Activity on Effects of Crude Extracts
Water, petroleum-ether, ethyl acetate and ethanol extracts ( red and yellow rhizome) havebeen tested against E.coli species, Salmonella species, Staphylococcus species, Vibrio species,
Shigella dysenteriae, Candida albican and Proteus morganii (zone of inhibition ranged from 14
to 23 mm). Water extract did not show any significant activity on all test organisms.
Identification of Some Phytoconstituentspinostrobin (compound-1) was colourless crystal from ethanol extract. uv-vis (MeOH
and MeOH/NaOH, max/nm) 288, 325 (sh) and 288, 357 (sh); (AlCl3 and AlCl3/HCl, max) 293,
324 (sh) and 307, 385 (sh); (NaOAc and NaOAc/H3BO3) 288, 325 (sh). FT-IR (KBr, cm-1): 3459
(OH), 2973, 2939 (CH), 1651 (C=O), 1583, 1444 (C=C), 1383, 1340 ((ip-CH3), 1210, 1159 (as C1
O-C), 1092 (s C-O-C). H NMR (CDCl3, 300 MHz, /ppm) : 7.3-7.6 (5H, m), 6.1 (2H, d, J=2.72
Hz), 5.4 (1H, dd, J=12.84 Hz, 2.76 Hz), 3.8 (s, OCH3), 3.06 (1h, dd, J=15.14/12.84 Hz), 2.9 (1H,
dd, J=14.68/2.76 Hz). 13C NMR (CDCl3, 125 MHz, ppm): 79.22 (C-2), 43.34 (C-3), 195.8 (C4), 164.2 (C-5), 95.15 (C-6), 167.9 (C-7), 94.27 (C-8), 162.8 (C-9), 103.2 (C-10), 138.4 (C-1),
126.1 (C-2', C-6'), 128.9 (C-3', C-4', C-5'), 55.68 (OCH3); in HMBC (CDCl3, ppm) correlation
assignments of H-3 (cis) and H-3 (trans) at  3.06, 2.9 and C-2 at 79.22, C-4 at 195.8, C-1' at
138.4, H-6 and H-8 at  6.1 and C-5 at 164.2, C-6 at 95.15, C-7 at 167.9, C-8 at 94.27, C-9 at
162.8, C-10 at 103.2; 1H-1H COSY (CDCl3) the correlation between H-3 and H-2 was observed;
in HMQC (CDCl3, ppm) correlation assignments of H-2, H-3 (Cis) H-3 (trans), H-6, H-7, 7OCH3 at  5.4, 2.9, 3.06, 6.08, 6.1, 3.8 and C-2 at 79.22, C-3 at 43.34, C-6 at 95.15, C-8 at 94.27,
O-CH3 at 55.68 were observed.
panduratin A (compound-2) was obtained from ethanol extract and recrystallized withmethanol to give colorless solid. uv-vis (MeOH and MeOH/NaOH, max/nm) 229. 290; (AlCl3
and AlCl3/HCl, max) 322; FT-IR (KBr, cm-1): 3444 (OH), 2937 (CH), 1631 (C=O), 1463
(C=C), 1383, 1342 ((ip-CH3), 1210, 1180 (as C-O-C), 1109, 1029 (sy C-O-C), 933 (oop-CH). 1H NMR(400 MHz, CD3OD, ppm), 5.96 (H-3, br, s), 5.79 (H-5, br, s), 3.71 (4-OMe, S), 4.52 (H-1', m),
2.52 (H-2', m), 1.78 (3'-Me, s), 5.43 9H-4', m), 2.32 (H5'(a), m), 2.07 (H-5'(b), m), 3.37 (H-6', br
ddd, J=4.6/11.6/11.6 Hz),2.32 (H-1", m), 2.24 (H-1"(b), m), 4.89 (H-2", m), 1.50 (3"-Me, s), 1.50
(H-4",s), 7.02-7.19 (m, H-4"', 5"', 6"', 2"', 3"'). 13C NMR (CD3OD, 400 MHz, ppm): 106.1 (C1), 168.5 (C-2), 97.2 (C-3), 165.9 (C-4), 56.2 (4-Ome), 92.2 (C-5), 164.4 (C-6), 55.5 (C-1'), 44.1
(C-2'), 138.4 (C-3'), 23.2 (C-3'-Me), 122.1 (C-4'), 37.2 (C-5'), 38.6 (C-6'), 29.9 (C-1"), 125.7 (C2"), 132.5 (C-3"), 18.1 (3"-Me), 25.9 (C-4"), 149.5 (C-1"'), 128.2 (C-2"', C-6"'), 125.6 (C-4"'),129.2 (C-3"', C-5"'), 207.4 (C=O) were observed.
pinocembrin (compound-3) was yellow needle-shaped crystal from ethanol extract. uvvis (MeOH and MeOH/NaOH, max/nm) 290, 325 (sh) and 246, 323 (sh), (AlCl3 and AlCl3/HCl,max/nm) 307, 373 (sh), (NaOAc and NaOAc/H3BO3, max/nm) 253 (sh), 324 and 291, 325; FTIR (KBr, cm-1) : 3450 (OH), 2973, 2939 (CH), 1634 (C=O), 1616, 1580, 1480, 1435 (C=C),
1361, 1302 ((ip-CH3), 1212, 1181 (as C-O-C), 1109, 1092 (sy C-O-C), 837, 769 (oop-CH), 1H NMR(300 MHz, CD3OD, ppm): 7.3-7.6 (5H, m), 5.9 (2H, H-8, H-6, d, J=1.84 Hz), 5.4 (1H, H-2, dd,
J=12.84/3.68 Hz), 3.1 (1H, H-3, dd, J=17.4/12.88 Hz), 2.7 (1H, H-3, dd, J=16.96/3.68 Hz); 13C
NMR (CD3OD, 125 MHz, ppm) : 80.44 (C-2), 44.19 (C-3), 197.31 (C=O), 165.49 (C-5), 96.23

66

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)(C-6), 168.44 (C-7), 97.18 (C-8), 164.62 (C-9), 103.38(C-10), 140.43 (C-1'), 129.62 (C-3', C-5'),
129.70 (C-4'), 127.34 (C-2', C-6'); in HMQC (CD3OD, ppm), C-6 and C-8, correlated to H-8
and H-6, C-2 and C-3 correlated to H-2 and H-3 (cis), H-3 (trans), 1H-1H COSY (CD3OD) the
correlation between H-2 and H-3 was observed. 2', 6'-dihydroxy, 4'-methoxy chalcone(compound-4) was pale yellow needle-shaped crystal from ethanol extract. uv-vis (MeOH and
MeOH/NaOH max/nm) 288 (sh), 344 and 290 (sh), 383, (AlCl3 and AlCl3/HCl, max/nm) 291(sh), 345 and 291 (sh), 386, (NaOAc and NaOAc/H3BO3, max/nm) 291 (sh), 336. This data are
identical with the reported data (Markham and Jaipetch, 1982); FT-IR (KBr, cm-1) : 3447 (OH),
2995 (CH), 1620 (C=O), 1589, 1490, 1435 (C=C), 1361, 1305 ((ip-OCH3), 1212, 1180 (as C-O-C),
1110, 1072, 1056 (sy C-O-C), 987, 956, 895 (oop-CH) were observed.
cardamonin(compound-5) was yellow needle-shaped crystal from ethanol extract. uvvis (MeOH and MeOH/NaOH, max/nm) 288 (sh), 342 and 322 (sh), 382 (AlCl3 and AlCl3/HCl,max/nm) 313 (sh), 366, (NaOAc and NaOAc/H3BO3, max/nm) 300, 345 and 300, 341. This data
are identical with the reported data (Markham and Jaipetch, 1982); FT-IR (KBr, cm-1): 3416
(OH), 2972 (CH), 1627 (C=O), 1573, 1543, 1485 (C=C), 1341((ip-OCH3), 1256, 1225, 1210 (as CO-C), 1112, 1041 (sy C-O-C), 997, 972, 866, 824 (oop-CH) were observed.
alpinetin(compound-6) was colourless needle-shaped crystal from ethanol extract. uvvis (MeOH and MeOH/NaOH max/nm) 285, 315 (sh) and 247, 322 (sh), (AlCl3 and AlCl3/HCl,max/nm) 285, 315 (NaOAc and NaOAc/H3BO3, max/nm) 247, 322 and 288, 316 (sh). This data
are identical with the reported data (Markham and Jaipetch, 1982); FT-IR (KBr, cm-1): 3471
(OH), 2973, 2939 (CH), 1621 (C=O), 1581 (C=C), 1361, 1318, 1308 ((ip-OCH3), 1213, 1182 (asC-O-C), 1110 (sy C-O-C), 837, 769, 702 (oop-CH) were observed.
helichrysetin(compound-7) was colourless needle-shaped crystal from ethanol extract.
uv-vis (MeOH and MeOH/NaOH max/nm) 269, 360 and 262 (sh) 425, (AlCl3 and AlCl3/HCl,max/nm) 258, 342 and 258, 360; FT-IR (KBr, cm-1) : 3394 (OH), 3008 (Ar-CH), 2927, 2858
(CH2,CH3),1635 (C=O), 1601, 1446, 1423 (ar C=C), 1373 ((ip-CH3), 1161 (as C-O-C), 1107, 1061
(sy C-O-C). 1H NMR (400 MHz, CD3OD, ppm): 7.59 (1H, H-7, d, J=15.6 Hz), 7.39 (2H, H-3, H6, d, J=8.5 Hz), 7.34 (2H, H-2, H-6, d, J=8.5 Hz), 6.87 (1H, H-8, d, J=15.6 Hz), 6.1 (1H, H-3', d,J=2.76Hz), 6.05 (1H, H-5', d, J=2.76 Hz), 3.88 (3H, OCH3, s) were observed.

Figure 2. (a) 1H NMR spectrum of isolated compound A-1 (b) 13C NMR spectrum of isolated compound A-1

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

67

Figure 5.(a )1H NMR spectrum of compound -3 (b)13C NMR spectrum of compound-3

Figure 6. (a1H-1H COSY (300 MHz, CD3OD)
spectrum of isolated compound A-3(b) HMQC (300 MHz, CD3OD)
spectrum of isolated compound A-3

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

68

Rapid Screening of Antioxidant by Dot-Blot and DPPH Staining
Ethyl acetate and ethanol extracts from B. pandurata (red and yellow) rhizomes weredetected in the TLC plates by DPPH staining method. The appearance of yellow spot has
potential value for antioxidant activity (Change et al., 2002).In the According to this result, ethyl
acetate extract showed the more potent antioxidant activity followed by ethanol extract.
Antioxidant activity of isolated compounds from B. pandurata (yellow) rhizome was detected on
TLC plate by Dot-Blot and DPPH staining. In DPPH staining, compound-2 (panduratin A),
compound -3 (pinocembrin), compound-5 (cardamonin) and compound -7 (helichrysetin) showed
the radical scavenging activity at lowest amount ranging from 50 g g to 400 g g. However,compound compound-1 (pinostrobin) and compound-6 (alpenetin) did not show antioxidant
activity (see Figure 3).
4. Conclusions
By silica gel column chromatographic separation technique, seven compounds namely;
pinostrobin (5-Hydroxy-7-methoxy Flavanone), panduratin A, pinocembrin (5,7-dihydroxy
Flavonone), 2', 6' dihydroxy-4'-methoxy chalcone, cardamonin (4', 6' dihydroxy-2'-methoxy
chalcone), alpinetin (7-hydroxy,5-methoxy flavanone) and helichrysetin (4,4',6' trihydroxy2'methoxy chalcone) were isolated from (yellow) rhizome of B. pandurata. The structures of allthese compounds were identified and elucidated by Co-TLC method and Joint application ofmodern spectroscopic techniques. In antimicrobial activity, water, petroleum ether, ethyl acetate
and ethanol extracts (red and yellow rhizome) have been tested against on 12 strains of
microorganisms by agar disc diffusion method. Among four extracts of B. pandurata (yellow)
rhizome, petroleum ether and ethyl acetate extracts were the more active against 9 stains of
microorganism (ID 14-23 mm) than that extract of red rhizome showed potent antibacterial
activity against 4 strains of microorganism (ID 14-16 mm). Therefore, B. pandurata (Roxb.)(yellow rhizome) may possess higher antimicrobial potency than that of red rhizome. In
antioxidant activity, ethanol and ethyl acetate extracts of both rhizomes and isolated compounds
were detected in the TLC plates by the DPPH staining method. Ethanol and ethyl acetate extractsof both rhizomes showed potent activity at the dry matter amount (50 g – 400 g). Pinocembrin,cardamonin, panduratin A and helichrysetin showed high radical scavenging activity (50 g-400
g). 2', 6'-dihydroxy-4' methoxy chalcone showed radical scavenging activity (100 g – 400 g).
Therefore, the phytoconstituents may contribute significantly to potent antioxidant activity.
Acknowledgements
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to the 19th Science Council of Asia (SCA) Conference
Committee 2019, Department of higher education of the Ministry of Higher Education, Myanmar.

References[1] Agus Chahyadi, Rika Hartatia, Komar Ruslan Wirasutisnaa, Elfahmia, “Boesenbergia pandurata Roxb., An
Indonesian Medicinal Plant: Phytochemistry, Biological Activity, Plant Biotechnology’, Agus
Chahyadi et al. /Procedia Chemistry, 2014, vol 13, pp.13 – 37
[2] Amy Yap Li Ching, Tang Sook spollah Sukari, Gwendoline Ee Lian, Mawardi Rahmani, Kaida Khalid,"Characterization of Flavonoid Derivatives from Boesenbergia rotunda (L.)", The Malaysia
Journal of Analytical Sciences, 2007, vol.11, pp.154-159[3] Heng-Yuan Chang, Yu-Ling Ho, Ming-Jyh Sheu, Yaw-Huei Lin, Mu-Chuan Tseng, Sheng-Hua Wu, Guan-Jhong
Huaung, Yuan-Shiun Chaung, “ Antioxidant and free radical scavenging activities of phellinus
merrillii extracts”, Botanical Studies, 2007, vol. 48, pp. 407-417[4] R. Cruickshank, J.P. Duguid, B.P. Marmior, R.H.A. Swain, (1975). “Medical Microbiology”, London: Churchill,
1975 Livingstone Ltd.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

Study on Antimicrobial Activity and Antioxidant Activity of Myanmar
Traditional Medicine (A-phay-kyaw) as Remedy for food Poisoning
Khin Htwe Kyaing1, Thida Kyaw2

Abstract
In this research work, one of the Myanmar traditional herbal medicine A-Phay-Kyaw (A-P-K)
used as remedy for food poisoning was chosen to determine antimicrobial and antioxidant
activities. Elemental constituents of sample (A-P-K) were determined by WDXRF
spectrophotometer. From the mineral analyze, the results showed the highest percent of calcium
and potassium present in APK medicine. In addition, two kinds of drug extract such as ethanolic
and actone were tested for their antioxidant activities. Antioxidant activities were performed by
DPPH (1-1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl) radical scavenging method for different extracts ofmedicine which showed that this medicine on higher concentration possess better antioxidant
potential when compare to standard ascorbic acid. Furthermore the antimicrobial activities of the
drug extracts were studied by Agar well diffusion method on five tested organisms such as
Eschericha coli, Enterococous faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus and Candida
albicans.
Keywords: WDXRF, DPPH, Antioxidant activities, Agar well

1. Introduction
Traditional medicine comprises medical aspects of traditional knowledge that developed
over generations within various societies before the era of modern medicine. In a number ofindustrialized countries many people regularly use some form of traditional complementary andalternative medicine (TCMA). The World Health Organization (WHO) defines traditional
medicine as the sum of the knowledge, skills and experiences indigenous to different cultures,
whether explicable or not, used in the maintenance of health as well as in the prevention,
diagnosis, improvement or treatment of physical and mental illness/ disorders. Traditional
medical systems are challenging because their theories and practices strike many conventionallytrained physicians and researchers as incomprehensible. The dependence of man on nature forfood and medicines goes back to primitive times. The oldest civilizations have indication ofplants being worshiped by man and different forms of grain are found associated with humanbeing globally. Initially, man was dependent on plant system for its medical needs vitality andcure of diseases1. Around 200 people suffered from food poisoning each year but grateful no-one
died. Harmful, ingestible substances can be grouped into three distinct categories, chemical
threats, physical hazards and biological contamination. According to nutritionists, most foodpoisoning in Myanmar is caused by biological contamination such as bacteria or viruses(website-2). A-P-K medicine was prepared by many herbal based materials with significant
activity. This medicine was taken easily everybody. This medicine used for the diseases such as
diarrhea, diabetic, hypertension, nausea and gastritis due to contaminated food. It is also usefulfor skin diseases such as allergy and poisonous animals. The drug has been reported that it has
1

Dr, Lecturer, Department of Chemistry, University of Yadanabon, Mandalay, Myanmar,
KhinHtweKyaingk@gmail.com
2
Dr, Associate Professor, Department of Chemistry, University of Yadanabon, Mandalay, Myanmar,thidasein27@gmail.com

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)70

antidiabetic, antiacid, antidote properties. This medicine has also food digestibility. So, it was
selected for investigation of antioxidant activity, antimicrobial activities and elemental contents
in this sample.
2. Material and Method
Sample Collection
A-phay-kyaw medicine was purchased from Myanmar Tradition Medicine Shop, Zaycho
Market, Mandalay, Myanmar.
Preparation of Sample Powder
Myanmar Traditional drug of A-P-K is made to powder by using blander and the powders
were stored in screwed-capped.

Figure 1. A-phay-kyaw Medicine Tablet and Powder

Determination of pH of the sample
Sample 2g was dissolved into the beaker 100mL of distilled water. It was heated on the
hot plate for 15 minutes. After cooling, the solution was filtered. The pH of the filtrate wasdetermined by using PH paper and PH meter.
Extraction of Sample
Preparation of Ethanolic Extract (Cold Method)
100 g of sample was dissolved in 300mL of ethanol. It was stored at room temperature forone month and it was filtered. The solvent was evaporated at room temperature. The ethanolic
extract was used to determine the antioxidant and antimicrobial activities.
Preparation of Actone Extract (Cold Method)
100 g of sample was dissolved in 300mL of actone. It was stored at room temperature forone month and it was filtered. The solvent was evaporated at room temperature. The ethanolic
extract was used to determine the antioxidant and antimicrobial activities.
Preparation of Watery Extract
Sample 3g was dissolved in 90 mL of distilled water. It was heated in a water bath for six
hours and then filtered. The water content in filtrate was evaporated with water bath. The wateryextracted of the sample was determined by antioxidant activity.
Determination of Elemental Contents
Qualitative determination for elemental contents of A-P-K was studied at Yadanabon
University by applying Wavelength Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence (Rigaku Supermini200WDXRF) method.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

71

Determination of Antimicrobial Activities
The antimicrobial activities of ethanol, water and actone extracts of medicine were done byAgar well diffusion method on five organisms in Biotechnology Research Department (BRD),
Kyaukse, Mandalay Division, Myanmar. The selected organisms are Eschericha coli,
Enterococous faecalis, Staphylococcus, Bacillus cereus and Candida albicans.
Determination of Antioxidant Activities
In order to evaluate the antioxidant potential through free radical scavenging by the test
samples, the change in optical density of DPPH radicals is monitored. The sample extract (0.2g)
is diluted with ethanol and (2.5 mL) DPPH solution is added. After 30 mins, the absorbance ismeasured at 517 nm by using method3. (Manzocco el al., 1998). In this experiment threesolutions were prepared, DPPH solution, standard solution, and various concentration of sample
solution.
Calculation of Half Maximal Inhibition Concentration
IC50 values were obtained from the best- fit line plotted concentration versus absorbance.
Ascorbic acid was used as a positive control in the bioassay. IC50 value was calculated by using
linear regressive equation2.

3. Results and Discussion
Elemental Contents of Myanmar Traditional herbal based medicine (A-P-K)
Table1. Mineral Content of A-P-K by WDXRF
No.

Element

Symbols

Concentration (%)

1.

Calcium

Ca

38.6

2.

Potassium

K

23.4

3.

Chlorine

Cl

18.2

4.

Silicon

Si

5.41

5.

Magnesium

Mg

4.54

6.

Iron

Fe

3.86

7.

Phosphorus

P

2.16

8.

Sulfur

S

1.90

9.

Aluminum

Al

1.38

10.

Manganese

Mn

0.416

Table (1) shows the high percent of some minerals were found in sample. Among them,calcium is the highest amount in the sample and the second is potassium content. The cation'scontribution to blood pressure regulation is most prominent in its influence on vascular
resistance.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)72

pH, Moisture and Ash analysis
Table 2. pH values of medicine( A-P-K)
No. ofexperiment

pH

1

7.34

2

7.32

3

7.34

A-P-K medicine has slightly basic character and traditional physician describe this type of
medicine is used as cold/hot medicine. The moisture content of medicine changes with theweather. Myanmar traditional medicine (A-P-K) can absorb the moisture from its environment.
The moisture content of A-P-K was found to be 6.52 to. 6.72 %.
Table 3. Moisture content of medicine( A-P-K)
No. ofexperiment

Wt of sample(g)

Wt of loss(g)

Moisture
(%)

1

1.00

0.652

6.52

2

1.00

0.661

6.61

3

1.00

0.672

6.72

The ash content is a measured of the total amount of minerals present within a drug,
whereas the mineral content is a measured of the amount of specific inorganic components
present in medicine such as Ca, Na, K, Cl.(websute-3)
Table4. Ash content of medicine (A-P-K)
No. of experiment

Ash content (%)

1

29.01

2

29.02

3

29.00

Antioxidant Activity
Ascorbic acid was used as a positive control for DPPH radical scavenging assay. IC50
value of Ascorbic acid is 84.78 g / mL.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)73

Table 5. % inhibition of various concentration of Sample (A-P-K)
Sample concentration

Mean % inhibition

100

70.03

90

61.60

80

58.58

70

56.71

60

53.79

50

46.30

40

28.71

30

15.12

IC50 (g/mL)% inhibition

60.37

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

y = 0.7245x + 6.2625
R2 = 0.7334

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

concentration (ߤg / ml)

80

90

100

Figure3. % Inhibition in Different Concentration (EtOH Extract)

Figure4. Test for Antioxidant Activity of ethanol and actone extracts of A-P-K

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)74

Antimicrobial Activity

E. coliB. cereus

S. aureus

E. faecalis

C. albicans

Figure5. Antimicrobial Activities of Medicine (A-P-K)

Table 6. Antimicrobial Activities of Medicine (A-P-K)
Inhibition zone diameter (mm)SampleEscherichia
coliEnterococcus
faecalis

Staphylococcus
aureusBacillus cereus

Candidaalbicans

Water Extract

0

0

0

0

0

Ethanol Extract

11

13

14

13

15

Acetone Extract

12

12

10

12

12

Agar well – 8mm

The inhibition zones of various extracts are shown in table.4. It was clearly noted thatethanol and actone extract of sample possessed antimicrobial activity against all strains tested.
Especially, ethanol extract was more active against Candida albicans and Staphylococcus aureus
species.
4. Conclusion
The result from PH analysis indicates A-P-K have slightly basic character. The moisture
content of the medicine can change with the weather. Myanmar traditional herbal based medicine
can absorb the moisture from its surroundings. So the medicine should be carefully stored tomaintain the quality of medicine. From the qualitative determination of elemental contents of thismedicine was known that 38.6% of calcium, 23.4% of potassium, 18.2% of chlorine, 5.41% ofsilicon, 4.54% of magnesium and 3.86% of iron include in the sample. Among these elements,
the amount of calcium and potassium were the highest percent in the sample. Calcium isimportant to bone growth and formation, blood clotting, nerve and muscle functioning.
Potassium is one of the seven essential macro-minerals. The human body requires at least 100
milligrams of potassium daily to support key processes. It also decreases the risk of stroke andlower blood pressure (websit-1). The antimicrobial activities of the medicine of A-P-K were
tested by Agar-well diffusion method on five tested organisms. It is clearly noted that ethanol andactone extract of sample possessed antimicrobial activity against all strains tested. Especially,
ethanol extract was more active against Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans species
than other. But, water extract was not active against on all organisms. The lower the IC50 value
shows the higher radical scavenging activity. According to the antioxidant activity, IC50 value of19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)75

A-P-K was found to be 60.37 g/mL. Ascorbic acid was used as a standard and the IC50 value
was 84.78 g/mL. Therefore, the ethanol extract of sample is higher antioxidant activity thanstandard ascorbic acid.
So, A-P-K medicine should be used safety for abdominal pain due to infected withdisease by eating improperly prepared or unclean food/ contaminated food. Further investigation
the cyto-toxicity of this medicine by using in vivo method should be pursued.

Acknowledgements
I would like to express our profound gratitude to Dr Maung Maung Naing ( Rector, Yadanabon University),
Dr Si Si Khin (Prorector, Yadanabon University) , Dr Tint Moe Thu Zar (Prorector, Yadanabon University), and Dr
Hlaing Hlaing Myat, (Professor and Head of Chemistry Department, Yadanabon University) for their suggestion andpermission. We also convey special gratitude to chairperson and committee members of SCA 2019. Myanmar.

References[1] Aung Kyaw Soe, Study on the Antioxidant Activity and Cyto-Tocity of Myanmar Traditional Medicine (No.16)
Used as Antitumor Drug, MRes (Thesis), university of Mandalay, March,2016.
[2] Aye Mon Thwe, Study on Antioxidant Activity, Antimicrobial Activity and Determination of Functional Groupsof Isolated Compounds from the Stem of Plumbago rosea Linn., MSc(Thesis) University of
Mandalay, October,2018.
[3] Manzocco L., Anese. M., Nicoli, M.C.,(1998). Antioxidant properties of tea extracts as affected by processing
Lebens-mittel-Wissen- schaft Und-Technology 31(7-8), 694-698.

Online Materials
1.

http://www.medicalnewstoday.com>art

2.

http//definedterm.com

3.

https://www.mmtimes.com

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)The Role of Career Development for Employee Job Satisfaction
Khin Marlar Maung1

Abstract
The strong competitive environment demands both manufacturing and service organizations to
attract skillful and talented employees for long-term success. The study explored the effects ofcareer planning and career motivation on career development and employee job satisfaction.
Several strategies including career development are applied to attract and retain the key
employees. As the antecedents of career development, career planning and career motivation are
considered to develop different competencies of employees. As main analysis, Structural
Equation Modeling (SEM) with Linear Structural Relationships (LISREL) 8.72 is utilized. The
sample of 206 employees from Nature Timber Trading (NTT) Co., Ltd. manufactured plywood in
Mandalay was selected as the respondents. The results reveal that career planning and career
motivation have direct and significant effects on career development and career development has
direct and significant effects on employee job satisfaction. The importance of career development
and its antecedents should be emphasized by organizations to upgrade employee job satisfaction.
Empirical research on career development has not been conducted among the plywood factories
in Mandalay.
Keywords: career planning, career motivation, career development, job satisfaction

1. Introduction
In the strong competitive business environment, attracting and retaining talented andskillful employees is essential for success of any organization. Human resources managers must
set actions and decisions to upgrade the long-run performance of business. Among the practices,
career development is strongly demanded in improving employee satisfaction and performance.
Employees with strong career insight would be likely to engage in trying to obtain career
opportunities and establishing realistic goals and action plans to upgrade their level of career
satisfaction [1].
This study aims to fulfill the human resource management literature by investigating theimportance role of career planning and career motivation and their association with careerdevelopment and employee job satisfaction of Nature Timber Trading (NTT) Co., Ltd. in
Mandalay, Myanmar. The specific objectives are to analyze (a) the effects of career planning andcareer motivation on career development and job satisfaction, (b) the effects of careerdevelopment on job satisfaction and (c) the mediating effect of career development.
Career planning means matching individual strengths and weaknesses with occupational
opportunities and threats [2, p.328]. [3] also defined career planning as an ongoing process
whereby an individual sets career goals and identifies the means to achieve them. The importantof career planning for career development and job satisfaction is demanded to be explored. The
following hypotheses are tested to prove the role of career planning.

1

Dr. Lecturer, Meiktila University of Economics, khinmarlarmaung78@gmail.com

78

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

H1a: Career planning has direct effect on career development.
H1b: Career planning has direct effect on job satisfaction.
The career motivation theory is used to understand career related attitudes and behaviorof employees. Career development theories attempt to explain various careers and work related
behaviors to fit the present job and career goals. The following hypotheses are tested in this study
to prove the effects of career motivation on career development and job satisfaction.

H2a: Career motivation has direct effect on career development.
H2b: Career motivation has direct effect on job satisfaction.
According to [3], career development is to ensure that people with the properqualifications and experiences are available when needed. Career development is the lifelong
series of activities that contribute to a person’s career exploration, establishment, success, andfulfillment [2]. Based on the results of previous studies, the present study tests the effects ofcareer development on employee job satisfaction and the mediating role of career developmentby the following hypotheses.

H3: Career development has direct effect on job satisfaction.
H4: Career development mediates the relationship between career planning, career
motivation and job satisfaction.
Job satisfaction is defined as “the extent to which people like (satisfaction) or dislike(dissatisfaction) their jobs” [4]. Additionally, job satisfaction will vary directly with the needs ofindividual employees and their expectation to satisfy their needs. According to [5], careerdevelopment is one of the essential requirements related to the job of employee and it creates job
satisfaction. In the present study, the different effects of career planning, career motivation andcareer development on job satisfaction are explored to fulfill the research gap of plywood factoryin Mandalay, Myanmar.

2. Methods
Structured questionnaire was used to collect primary data. In this study, 27 measured
variables are included. According to [6], the required sample size is at least 270 andquestionnaires were distributed to the selected sample from Nature Timber Trading (NTT) Co.,
Ltd. manufactured plywood in Mandalay. 206 complete set of questionnaires were included in
the final analysis of the study. The response rate is 76.29%. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM)with Linear Structural Relationships (LISREL) 8.72 was used as the analytical tool to test theresults of the proposed hypotheses. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was carried out in orderto validate the relationship among the measurement variables and the latent factors in the model.
Some items were deleted to meet the reliability analysis.

79

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

3. Results and Discussion
The results of the variables exceeded the minimum acceptable reliability level are shownin Table 1.
Table1. Means, reliability and correlations of variables
Variables

Mean

CP

CM

CD

Career planning (CP)

3.72

_

Career motivation (CM)3.79

.331**_

Career development (CD)4.11.705**.726**_

Job satisfaction (JS)

3.98

.585**.491**.773**

JS

_

Alpha

Item

.843

6

.871

6

.896

7

.901

6

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed);
Source: Survey data (May, 2019)

As the first stage of analysis, model fit statistics was tested. The model fit was assessed
through multiple fit indexes: based on the values of χ2/df; comparative fit index (CFI);
incremental fit index (IFI); normed fit index (NFI); Non-normed fit index (NNFI); root meansquare error of approximation (RMSEA) and standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) [7][8]. The proposed model was measured with twenty seven items for all latent variables. Becauseof the poor model fit statistics, the revised model with twenty five items showed the acceptablemodel fit statistics in Table 2.
Table 2. Models and fit statistics
χ2

df

CFI

IFI

NFI

NNFI SRMR

Proposed model

283.96

74

0.92

0.93

0.93

0.92

0.11

0.15

Revised model

63.48

42

1.00

1.00

0.99

0.99

0.03

0.02

Suggested values

χ2/df < 2

≥ 0.95 ≥ 0.95

≥ 0.95≤ 0.08≤ 0.05Models≥ 0.95RMSE
AAll χ2 values are significant at p < 0.05. df = degree of freedom,
The results revealed that career planning had significant direct effect on career development (γ =0.63, t = 3.295). Career motivation had significant direct effect on career development (γ = 0.76, t= 4.626). Career development had significant direct effect on job satisfaction (β = 0.89, t =7.213). The final results of the structural model with direct, indirect and total effects of the latentvariables are shown in Table 3 and Figure 1.

80

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

Table 3. Summary of effects
Variables

Career development

Job satisfaction

DE

IE

TE

DE

IE

TE

Career planning

0.63**

0.04

0.67**

0.10

0.53**

0.63**

Career motivation

0.76**

0.01

0.77**

0.05

0.69**

0.74**

Career development

-

-

-

0.89**-

0.89**

Source: Survey data (May, 2019)**p < .01; DE = Direct effect; IE = Indirect effect; TE = Total effect

Careerplanning
0.63** (3.295)

0.10 (0.421)
Career

0.89** (7.213)

developmentJobsatisfaction

0.76** (4.626)
0.05 (0.548)
Careermotivation
P< 0.05
Figure 1: Results of structural model (t value with bracket)

According to the results, hypothesis 1(a), 2(a) and 3 were supported. On the other hand,
there is no significant direct effect of (a) career planning on job satisfaction and (b) career
motivation on job satisfaction. Hypothesis 1(b) and 2(b) were not supported. According to theresults of hypothesis 1(a), 1(b), 2(a), 2(b) and 3, it is concluded that career development full
mediated the relationship between career planning, career motivation and job satisfaction.
According to the mediating result, hypothesis 4 was supported.
The objectives of this study are to explore the effects of career planning and career
motivation on career development and job satisfaction and the mediating role of careerdevelopment between career planning, career motivation and job satisfaction. The correlation
results revealed that career planning and career motivation have strong correlation with careerdevelopment and career development has strong correlation with job satisfaction. It is concluded
that the more the company effectively practice career planning and motivation, the more thecareer development and job satisfaction can be yielded as the outcomes. The effective career plan

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)81

for employees and motivation should not be ignored for career development and job satisfactionof employees. The direct effect of career motivation on career development is more than careerplanning. The results showed that the employees expect valuable and attractive career motivation
to learn more about the job-related knowledge. The company should review career plan to beeffective for career development.
On the other hand, the direct effects of career planning and career motivation on job
satisfaction cannot be explored in this study. The importance of these two latent variables in theworkplace is the area to be reviewed to gain job satisfaction. The effective implementation ofcareer planning and career motivation is not only for career development but also for job
satisfaction of employees. The organization should review the awareness of employees aboutcareer plan and motivation.
The direct and significant positive effect of career development on job satisfaction was
also explored in this study. The result supports findings of previous empirical studies. The
successful career development activities attract employees and create job satisfaction. The absent
of career development at job will create negative perception of employees on job satisfaction.
Thus, the role of career development should not be ignored by organizations because job
satisfaction depends on career development.
The mediating effect of career development is also explored in this study. Careerdevelopment fully mediated between career planning, career motivation and job satisfaction. It is
proved that career planning and career motivation are not enough to create job satisfaction
without career development. This study shares the knowledge that career planning and career
motivation are the antecedents of career development and also job satisfaction is the outcome ofcareer development.

4. Conclusion
In conclusion, job satisfaction of employees is expected through career development.
Career development is influenced by career planning and career motivation. The results revealed
that career planning and career motivation have significant effects on career development andcareer development creates job satisfaction. Moreover, career development is a full mediator andthus, career planning and career motivation are the requirement for job satisfaction throughcareer development. It can be concluded that human resources managers need to find the best andmost possible ways to have career plan with the awareness of employees and to support career
motivation among their employees among employees to yield job satisfaction and performance
improvement.
The limitations of the study will be fulfilled by further research. In this study, as one
limitation, career planning and career motivation are only selected as the two factors to shapecareer development. The other significant factors such as job rotation, coaching, mentoring,training, etc. can create career development. Another limitation is that primary data was collected
only from Nature Timber Trading (NTT) Co., Ltd. located in Mandalay. Different manufacturing
and service organizations from other areas should be tested. Further research will provide
valuable and unexpected results to improve career development and job satisfaction of
employees.

82

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)Acknowledgements
I would like to offer my deepest gratitude to our Rector, Professor Dr Tun Aung, Meiktila University of
Economics; Assoc. Professor Dr Sujinda Chemsripong, (Retired) Dean, Faculty of Business, Economics, andCommunications, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok, 65000, Thailand; Head of Department of Commerce, Professor
Dr Winne Tun, Meiktila University of Economics; the people who help me to collect the data and the staff whopatiently answered my questionnaires by giving their time. I also owe a great of thanks to my parents.

References[1] Manuel London, Emily Bassman, “Retraining Midcareer Workers for the Future Workplace”. ln Goldstein. LL.
et al. (eds.) Training and Development in Organization, 1989, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
[2] Gary Dessler, “Human Resource Management” (13th ed.), 2013, Pearson Education Inc., Prentice Hall.
[3] R. Wayne Mondy, Joseph J. Martocchio, “Human Resource Management” (14th ed., Global Edition), 2016,
Pearson Education Limited.
[4] Paul E. Spector, “Job Satisfaction”, 1997, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA.
[5] Alam Sageer, Sameena Rafat, Puja Agarwal, “Identification of variables affecting employee satisfaction and theirimpact on the organization” IOSR Journal of Business and Management (IOSR-JBM), 2012, vol.
5, pp.32-39.
[6] Rex B. Kline, “Principles and practice of structural equation modeling” (3rd ed.), 2011, New York: The Guilford
Press.
[7] Peter Bentler, “Comparative fit indexes in structural models”, Psychological Bulletin, 1990, vol. 107, pp. 238246.
[8] Joseph F. Hair Jr., William C. Black, Berry J. Babin, Rolph E. Anderson, “Multivariate data analysis: A global
perspective” (7th ed.), 2010, New Jersey: Pearson Education.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

Natural Water Filter by Using Plant Xylem from Pine Tree and H2S PaperStrip Test
Khin Lay Thwe1, Su Su Hlaing2, Hone Bu3

Abstract
A simple natural water filter is constructed by using plant xylem from pine tree. The plant xylem
tissue is the most suitable for filtration. Plant xylem from the pine trees – a readily available,
inexpensive, biodegradable and disposable material – can remove bacteria from water by simple
method. And the filtered water quality is examined by the low-cost hydrogen sulphide (H2S)
paper-strip test which is simple to use and easy to interpret. It indicates whether the presence orabsence of faecal coliform bacteria in the sample after filtration and the filtered water is safe todrink or not. In the present work, the microbiological and chemical water quality of water
samples from the lake, tap water and purified drinking water are tested.
Keywords: Natural water filter, Plant xylem, (H2S) paper-strip test, Faecal coliform bacteria

1.

Introduction

Effective point-of-use devices for providing safe drinking water are urgently needed toreduce the global burden of waterborne disease. Plant xylem from the sapwood of pine trees – areadily available, inexpensive, biodegradable and disposable material can remove bacteria fromwater by simple filtration. Approximately 3 cm3 of sapwood can filter water at the rate of several
liters per day, sufficient to meet the clean drinking water needs of one person. The results
demonstrate the potential of plant xylem to address the need for pathogen-free drinking water indeveloping countries and resource-limited settings. A small piece of sapwood can filter out morethan 99 percent of the bacteria E. coli from water. The size of the pores in sapwood - whichcontains xylem tissue evolved to transport sap up the length of a tree - also allows water throughwhile blocking most types of bacteria [1].
But micro-biological and chemical testing of drinking water quality should be performed
to indicate whether the water is safe to drink or not. Typically, the key water quality parameterthat indicates safety is the absence of faecal coliform bacteria in the sample [2]. An alternative
low-cost test for faecal contamination in drinking water which is simple to use and easy tointerpret is the hydrogen sulphide (H2S) paper-strip test. There are many advantages of this testfor use in rural and remote communities particularly where conventional monitoring is notpossible or too expensive. So in the present work, a simple, low-cost and useful natural water
filter is constructed by using plant xylem from pine tree. The three water samples: lake water, tapwater and purified drinking water are examined by using low-cost hydrogen sulphide (H2S)
paper-strip test before and after filtration to indicate whether the water is safe to drink or not.

1

Dr Lecturer, Environment and Water Studies Department, University of Yangon Research Center, Inya Road,
Yangon. khinlaythwe@gmail.com, Ph: 0925419142
2
Assistant Lecturer, Department of Physics, University of Yangon
3
MSc Student, Department of Physics, University of Yangon

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)84

2. Methods
2.1 Construction of a Natural Water Filter
The xylem filter device was constructed by simply peeling off the bark from the pinebranch shown in Figure 1(a). Then 1 inch-long section was cut from a pine branch with 1.5 cm
diameter. The section was soaked in 10 ml of deionized water before the experiment. Care should
be taken to avoid drying of the filter. Wood section was inserted into the end of 1.6 cm internal
diameter PVC tubing, sealed with epoxy, secured with hose clamp and allowed to cure for ten
minutes before the experiment as shown in Figure 1(b), (c) and (d). In the present study, the threewater samples: lake water, tap water and purified drinking water were used to test. The water
sample was poured into the tube and flow down through the xylem filter. The filtered water wascollected in a bottle and sealed it to test. The water samples were examined by using H2S paperstrip test before and after filtration with plant xylem filter. The water filtration set up by using
plant xylem natural water filter was shown in Figure 2(a), (b) and (c).

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Figure 1. (a) Pine branch (b) 1 inch-long cut section (c) Soaking in deionized water and (d) Fastening in the tube

(a)

(b)
Figure2.

Water filtration set up by using plant xylem filter(c)19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)85

The H2S Paper-Strip Test
The test tubes were first cleaned by washing in detergent, rinsing with tap water anddrying in air. The medium used in the test was prepared from the following chemicals, as shownin Table 1, which were dissolved into distilled water. Then the mixture was stirred to dissolve thechemicals. To make the paper-strip, 99.9% germ-free Cellox tissue was used to place a measured
quantity of media onto the paper. Each paper strip for a 10 ml test sample needs to contain 0.5 mlof media (50 ml sample will use 2.5 ml of media and a 100 ml sample will require 5 ml of mediaetc.). The Cellox tissue was cut to a size that has absorbed 0.5 ml of media. Then the paper strip
was wet by 0.5 ml of media. The strip was dried in the sunlight for 30 min. These reagentimpregnated strips can be stored dry (in an envelope or preferably a zip-locked bag) for several
months – until ready for use. Before conducting the test, a strip or strips were introduced into theappropriate clean sample bottle. The tubes or bottles should be stored in a dark place until readyfor use. It was found that they can be stored for at least 5 years in this manner. The steps for
preparation of H2S paper-strip is shown in Figure 3.
After sampling, the test sample was placed in a dark place for a few days. Every 12 hours
examine the samples for changes in color. The observations were recorded as follows: (–) = nochange; (+) = slight change, the paper strip or water has turned gray; (++) = the paper strip ispartially black; (+++) = the strip and the water sample itself are noticeably black [3]. As noted
above, a color change indicates the presence of bacteria of faecal origin. The speed of thereaction will determine the density of organisms present; i.e. the quicker the reaction the higher
the number of faecal organisms presence. This can also be interpreted in terms of a risk factor.
For example, a slight color change (+) on day three indicates a lesser risk than a strong (+++)
change on day 1.
Table1. The chemicals used in preparing the medium
1

Bacteriological peptone

20 g

2

Dipotassium hydrogen phosphate

1.5 g

3

Ferric ammonium citrate

0.75 g4

Sodium thiosulphate

1g

5Liquid detergent

1 ml

6

Distilled water

50 ml

7

Citrate1g

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)86

Figure 3. The preparation of H2S paper-strip

3. Results and Discussion
In woody plants, the xylem tissue is called the sapwood, which often surrounds theheartwood and is in turn surrounded by the bark as shown in Figure 4(a). The xylem structure isshown in Figure 4(b). Figure 5(a) is the SEM image showing pits and pit membranes and Figure5(b) is the SEM image showing bacteria accumulated on the pit membranes after filtration. But
these xylem filters could not filter out 20 nm nanoparticles, which is a size comparable to that of
the smallest viruses. It will be interesting to explore whether there exist any coniferous species
that have pit membranes with smaller pore sizes that can filter out viruses.

(a)

(b)
Figure 4. The Xylem structure

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

87

(b)

(a)

Source: Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA. [1]Figure 5. (a) SEM image showing pits and pit membranes. Scale bar is 20 m and (b) SEM images showing
bacteria accumulated on the pit membranes after filtration

An alternative low-cost test for faecal contamination in drinking water which is visualand simple for people to understand is the hydrogen sulphide (H2S) paper-strip test. If the sample
contains hydrogen sulphide producing organisms, the pad and water turn black. With such anindicator it is not difficult to convince uneducated villagers that the water may not be safe todrink [4]. The hydrogen sulphide (H2S) paper-strip test is the presence/absence test. The H2S test
just indicates whether there is a risk, not the degree of risk. However, the speed of the reaction(color change from clear to black) indicates bacterial density. The faster the reaction, the greater
the numbers of organisms present.
Figure 6 shows the H2S testing of three water samples before and after filtration withplant xylem filter. Before filtration, the color of lake water and tap water samples turned black on
day 2 and day 3 respectively. It means these water were not safe to drink. At that time thepurified drinking water sample turned grey only on day 5. It showed that the density of bacteria ismore in lake water and the tap water than purified drinking water. So care should be taken not todrink directly the lake or tap water without purification. After filtration with plant xylem filter, it
was found that all the water samples were pathogen free and it is safe to drink. Therefore, plant
xylem can be used as a natural water filter.

Before filtration

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)88

After filtration(a) Lake Water
Figure6.

(b) Tap Water(c)Purified Drinking Water

H2S testing of water samples before and after filtration with xylem filter

4. Conclusions
Plant xylem is a porous material with membranes comprising nanoscale pores. Xylem
from the sapwood of pine trees is suitable for disinfection by filtration of water. The xylem filter
could effectively filter out bacteria from water. It was learnt that the natural plant xylem water
filter can trap any bacteria and producing fresh, uncontaminated water. So, sapwood is apromising, low-cost and efficient material for water filtration, particularly for rural communities
where more advanced filtration systems are not readily accessible. The hydrogen sulphide (H2S)
paper-strip test is an alternative low-cost test for faecal contamination in drinking water which isvisual and simple for people to understand. If the sample contains hydrogen sulphide producing
organisms, the pad and water turn black. The black color and the rotten egg smell of hydrogensulphide clearly indicate that there is a problem. The three water samples: lake water, tap waterand purified drinking water are examined by low-cost hydrogen sulphide (H2S) paper-strip test
before and after filtration with plant xylem. It was found that the density of bacteria is more inlake water and the tap water than purified drinking water. So care should be taken not to drink
directly the lake or tap water without purification. After filtration with plant xylem filter, it was
found that all the water samples were pathogen free and it is safe to drink. Therefore, plant xylem
can be used as a natural water filter.

References[1] Sperry J. S., “Evolution of water transport and xylem structure”, Int J Plant Sci, 2003, vol. 164, pp. 115-127.
[2] Manja K. S., Maurya M. S. & Rao K. M., “A simple field test for the detection of faecal pollution in drinking
water”, Bulletin World Health Organisation, 1982, vol. 60, pp. 797-801.
[3] Martins M., Castillo G. & Dutka B. J., “Evaluation of drinking water treatment plant efficiency in microorganism
removal by the coliphage, total coliform and H2S paper strip tests”, Water Sci Technol, 1997,
vol. 35, pp. 403-407.
[4] Gadgil A., “Drinking water in developing countries”, Annu Rev Energ Env, 1998, vol. 23, pp. 253-286.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)89

Morphodynamics Modelling in a Data-Scarce Environment:
The Chindwin River
Khin Kyu Kyu1, Khin Kyi Cin Linn2
Abstract
The Chindwin River is the major tributary of Ayeyarwady River. It is rich in natural resources
and is also often the only means of transport connecting the upper and central regions ofMyanmar. Understanding the morphdynamics processes of this river would be useful to devise
better strategies for the improvement of navigational channel and the prevention of severe riverrelated problem. Studies on the nature of this river are also facing with problems of data
insufficient. The objective of this present paper are to identify the main causes of the problem in
the Chindwin River and propose potential solutions. A sediment transport model is designed
using not only the currently available dataset but also making numerical assumptions. The analysis
is confirmed by the applications of several modelling packages including Delft3D, QGIS, andHEC-HMS. From the simulation and results, morphodynamics patterns of the Chindwin Rivercan be explained, main causes of sediment budgets are mentioned and the proper solution may be
explored. This paper will be able to support in future research works such as navigation channel
improvement, land use/cover changes and flood protection which play as important roles in the
integrated water resource management of the Chindwin River Basin.
Keywords: The Chindwin River, morphodynamics, sediment transport, modelling packages

1. Introduction
The Chindwin River, the most dominant tributary of the Ayeyarwady River, belongs to arich natural resources. It plays not only as a vital passage for transportation connecting theupper and central region of Myanmar, also as a source of water for drinking, domestic,
agriculture, aquaculture and livelihoods. Morphodynamics of this river have changed seasonallyand influenced by tropical monsoon climatic condition, in addition to the result of rapid
economic development. Only a very few research works have been done in this river comparedwith others because of the scarcity of data and being difficult to attain.

2. Methods
The land use/ cover and soil type were analyzed by using Google Earth Engine (GEE), andthe part of navigation channel was examined by Delft-3D, QGIS and HEC-HMS. A 30x30
morphologic grid was created in Delft-3D based on the land boundary of the Chindwin River.
Bathymetry of the selected channel was digitized to be able to use in the software. All the depth
points used in the software were triangular interpolated and other parameters such as viscosity androughness were assumed as default. Time frame for simulation was set as for only one week andthe initial discharge was 1750 m3/s.

1

Dr, Professor & Head, River & Coastal Engineering Department, Myanmar Maritime University,
khinkyu.mmu@gmail.com
2
Instructor, River & Coastal Engineering Department, Myanmar Maritime University Master Candidate, Master ofEngineering (River & Coastal), khinkyicinlin.rc.mmu@gmail.com

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)90

Figure 1. Morphologic grid and digitized bathymetry of Alone Waterway in the Chindwin River

3. Results and Discussion

Figure 2. Land cover types of the Chindwin River Catchment (July, 2019) using GEE

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)91

Figure3. Land cover types of the Chindwin River Catchment (July, 2019) using GEE

According to figure 2 and 3, the research showed that the basic geographic and topology
along the Chindwin River makes itself to be sensitive with the high flow. The strength of
sedimentary rock is originally weak that may lead to the bank and bed of the river more erodible
and instable. That can be determined as the main point of the source of landslide during heavy
rain in the Chindwin River Catchment.
Moreover, other researches showed that the Chindwin River have been faced with theeconomic development which causes the severe deforestation in the whole catchment area. Thisis also the focal problem source of the morphologic problems, such as sedimentation anderosion and navigation problems along the river.

(a)Figure4. (a)Initial water depth, (b) Water depth after simulation for one week(b)

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)92

Figure5. Depth-averaged velocity after simulation for one week

The results showed that for only the discharge of 1750 m3/s, the velocity near erodedbank was running between 0.6-1 m/s. The highest velocity was 1.2-1.4 m/s and it was located at
the confluence with North Yama Stream but did not effect on the sand bar. Dredging process
was proposed by DWIR and the model should be run again with the resultant water depth.

4. Conclusion
This is the research paper using Delft-3D FLOW resulting only the depth, flow
magnitude and direction. Simulation should be included other parameters such as sediment.

Acknowledgements
The author would like to express wholeheartedly her voluminous gratitude everyone who kindly andwarmly heaped in writing this research paper. The author would like to pay her unassuming homage to her
respectful teachers Dr. Khin Kyu Kyu, Dr. Htike Htike and Dr. Kyi Kyi Lwin who always keeps an eye on her
progress and shares invaluable instructions about the research.

References[1] Delft3D-FLOW, Simulation of multi-dimensional hydrodynamic flows and transport phenomena, including
sediments, User Manual[2] Numerical modelling of river morphodynamics: latest developments and remaining challenges, Annunziato
Sivigliaa, Laboratory of Hydraulics, Hydrology and Glaciology, Swiss Federal Institute ofTechnology. Honggerbergring 26, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)Spectral Analysis of Transition Metal Carbides for Sustainable Industrial
Development
Thi Thi Lay1 et al
Abstract
Surface properties of various transition metal carbide (T-M-C-) materials were analyzed using X-ray
photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). XPS spectra were accumulated according to ISO standards
measurement procedures and techniques such and binding energy calibration and sample cleaning.
Among (T-M-C) materials, VC, HfC and Cr3C2 spectra data were compare taking into an accountthe effect of Ar+ ion sputtering in cleaning process. Single crystal VC (100) as well as sinteredsamples VC, HfC and Cr3C2 were used in the experiment for comparing the differences of sputter
effect. Relative intensity ratio in atomic concentration of C/M was compared for sputter effect. The
relative intensity ratio(C/M) showed constant nature and the effect of remained surface contaminatedspecies such as oxide were not observed after saturated sputter time. The Ar+ ion sputtering method
can be use as practical tools as simple method for sample cleaning in analysis of XPS. The
instrument binding energy calibration was carried out according to ISO standards and calculated
ΔEcorrection value was -0.6796eV. This correction values was used in calibration of the measured
data and photoelectron peaks were well matched with reference data.
Keywords: Transition metals carbides (T-M-C), XPS, Spectral Analysis,

1. Introduction
Development of transition metals carbides (T-M-C) in industrial become importance due toits unique properties such a s hardness, metallic conductivity and high temperatures capability[1, 2, 3, 4]. There have been widespread in applications of T-M-C compounds as catalysis, hardcoatings, wear-resistant components and electron emitter devices in car industry, constructions andmicroelectronics [5, 6, 7]. Consequently, the usage of these industrial materials is expected toincrease in developing countries such and Myanmar and others Asia countries. Proper usage ofthese industrial materials depends on basic research data as well as proper education andknowledge sharing to achieve sustainable and safe industrial development inside Asia as well as
global. From this point of view, surface properties of these industrial materials such as elemental
states, binding energy and chemical composition become important in international standards. In
this work, the development of spectral data base for (T-M-C) by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy(XPS) will be presented. The data base spectra were accumulated according to ISO standards
measurement procedures and techniques such as binding energy calibration and sample cleaning.
Among (T-M-C) materials, VC, HfC and Cr3C2 are of high possibility for many applications infuture industry due to their unique physical properties like hardness, high melting temperature andhigh thermal expansion coefficient [8,9,10]. Spectral analysis for database of these materials will
be discuss in detail.
2. Experimental
The experiments were carried out with ULVAC PHI 5500 XPS system equipped with ahemispherical energy analyzer (PHI model 10-360) along with monochromatic Al-kα (hν=1486.6eV) X-ray source, a differentially pumped ion gun (04-303), electron flood gun (04-090).
Base pressure of ultrahigh vacuum system during analysis was 2.8x 10-8 Pa. Pass energy 11.75eV
1

Dr. Department of Physics, Josai University Japan
2. M. Imamura 3. N. Matsubayashi 4. Khin Khin Win

94

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)and energy step 0.1eV were used throughout the measurements. A vanadium carbides single crystal
VC (100) (Ma Teck GmbH) with 5mmφx 1mmt in size and a VC sintered sheet (99% purity,
Furuuchi Chemical Co.) with 10 x 10 x 1mmt in size are used in the experiments. The sample
cleaning was done with Ar+ ion gun sputtering. The sputtering conditions used were emission
current 25mA at 1kV, raster size 2 x 2mm and Ar pressure at 20 x 10-3 Pa. An electron flood gun
and a thin Al foil were used for compensation of charge effect. The energy calibration of an
instrument was carried out before measurements started using the standard metals Au, Ag and Cu.
The details of binding energy calibrations steps were as follows. Standard metal Au, Ag and Cu
samples (purity 99.99%, Furuuchi Chemical Co.) with 7 x 7 x 1mmt in size were prepared in one
sample holder in order to get accuracy as much as possible. Sputter cleaning was done before
measurements and confirmed to be clean by survey spectra in which the heights of the C1s and O1s
peaks were less than 1% of the main metal peaks. Photoelectrons peaks of Au4f7/2, Cu2p3/2 andAg3d5/2 were analyzed accordingly and measurements were repeated for 7 times. From themeasurements results of Au4f7/2, Cu2p3/2 and Ag3d5/2 binding energy peaks the instrument
linearity, uncertainty at 95% confidence and correction factors A (energy scaling errors) and B(zero offset errors) were calculated. The detail of analysis procedures and the calibrations
procedures were carried out according to ISO15472 [11, 12]. The calculated energy calibration
value ΔEcorrection was found to be -0.6796eV. The results of calibration and value ofphotoelectron peaks after energy calibration were shown in Table 1. In the present work, aiming forhigh accuracy, ΔEcorrection value was used in binding energy corrections for obtained data.
3. Results and Discussion
In the figures (a) and (b) and (c) represent spectra of V2p, C1s and O1s peaks respectively
while [I] and [II] represent the spectra taken before and after sputtering. Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 compared
the typical XPS spectra of V2p3/2, V2p1/2, C1s and O1s obtained from VC (100) and VC sinteredsamples.
Fig. 1 (a) showed the V2p photoelectron peaks of VC (100) sample before and after
sputtering. V2p3/2 and V2p1/2 photoelectron peaks at 513.32eV - 520.8eV and 516.786eV 523.95eV were assumed as metallic and oxide peak. It is likely that the sample surface wascomposed with both vanadium carbide and vanadium oxide at as-received condition. M.D Antonik
etc. [13] have carried out the oxidation behaviour of VC (100) and similar XPS spectra wereobtained. After sputtering for 2 minutes, well-resolved photoelectron peaks appeared. The energy
separation between two photoelectron peaks 513.02eV and 520.68eV was 7.68eV, which
confirmed the spin orbit component of V2p3/2 and V2p1/2. The reference value of energy
separation was 7.7eV for vanadium metallic peak [14]. The third peak appeared at 530.8eV was
assigned as O1s peak. In (b), C1s spectra before sputtering showed three photoelectron peaks at
282.41eV, 284.42eV and 288.21eV, respectively. A similar XPS spectrum of C1s in VC sample
was reported by J.G. Choi etc. [15]. In this report three carbon peaks were assigned ashydrocarbons adsorbates on surface (Ca) such as CO, CO2 and at 285.6eV, free carbon
contaminated on carbide surface (Cf) at 284.3eV and carbidic carbon (Cc) at 282.4eV fromvanadium carbide lattice. Photoelectron peaks at 282.41eV and 284.42eV obtained in present work
were well-matched with ref. [15], assuming carbidic carbon (Cc) from vanadium carbide lattice andfree carbon (Cf) which was graphite-like carbon contaminated on carbide surface. The third peak
288.21eV has different binding energy compared to ref [15]. However, at (b), after 2 minutes
sputtering the spectra showed 288.21eV peak disappeared completely suggested that this third peak
was surface adsorbates which is similar to ref. [15]. In (II), only 282.41eV peak remained withwell-resolved and other two peaks disappeared. At this state, the ratio of V2p3/2 and carbidic
carbon (Cc) intensity (in peak area) was 1.27 ≅ 1.3. This suggested photoelectron ejected at

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)95

513.2eV was ascribed to V1.3+. This value indicated that the absolute magnitude of charge transferfrom V 3d states to C2p states is 1.3 electrons per vanadium in vanadium carbides [15]. In (c), O1s
spectra before sputtering showed the convoluted photoelectrons peak. The deconvoluted peaks at
531.49eV and 529.92eV were assigned as chemisorbed or lattice oxygen dissolved into thevanadium carbide (Oa) and oxygen in vanadium oxide (Oo) such as VO2 and V2O5 [15]. After
2minutes sputtering the intensity of O1s peak decreased. Photoelectron peak at 531.49eV and
529.92eV was likely convoluted and appeared at 530.91eV. This result suggested that after 2
minutes sputtering the oxide peaks decreased distinctly and appeared at 530.91eV.
Although, there was small amount of oxide remained the sputtering was stopped to preventthe change in surface morphology of sample.
VC Sintered sample

Figure1. Typical XPS spectrum of V2p3/2, C1s and O1s
core levels for VC (100) sample. (a) V2p3/2 spectra. (b)C1s and (c) O1s. In the figure [I] represent spectra
taken before sputtering and [II] represent spectra taken
after 2 minutes sputtering.

Figure2. Typical XPS spectrum of V2p3/2, C1s and O1s corelevels for VC sintered sample. (a) V2p3/2 spectra. (b) C1s and(c) O1s. In the figure [I] represent spectra taken before
sputtering and [II] represent spectra taken after 2 minutes
sputtering.

96

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)In Fig. 2, XPS spectra obtained from VC sintered sample were analyzed. In (a),photoelectron peaks at 517.28eV-524.83eV has energy separation 7.55eV suggested the V2O5
oxide state. Different from VC (100) sample, there was no vanadium carbide related peaks in the
spectra. It is likely that the sample surface was strongly covered with oxide at this state. After 20
minutes sputter cleaning convoluted peaks appeared rather similar to spectra of VC (100) sample
before sputtering. Five deconvoluted peaks of vanadium oxide and vanadium carbide wereobtained and summarized in Table 2. It is likely that during sputtering vanadium oxide changed
to vanadium carbides. At the same time the oxygen dissolved in the vanadium lattice increased
due to increase of high surface area vanadium carbide. In (b), two photoelectron peaks appearedin C1s spectra after 20 minutes sputtering and the third peak assigned as surface adsorbates wasalmost disappeared. Different from single crystal, the free carbon contaminated with carbides at
285.05eV remained together with vanadium carbide photoelectron peak at 282.69eV. In (c), O1s
peak appeared at (a) were taken as narrow scan again. It was appeared that O1s photoelectron
peak consist two deconvoluted peaks before sputtering. After 20 minutes sputtering photoelectron
peak at 531.92V appeared assuming it was originated from lattice oxygen dissolved in vanadium
carbide. Fig. 3 showed the deconvolution of V2p peaks for VC (100) and VC sintered sample
before and after sputtering. Multipak (Ver.5)
PHI software with Shirley background subtraction method was used in data analysis. The
photoelectron peaks obtained before and after sputtering were compared. All the other obtained
results were also done by Multipak software and the binding energy of deconvoluted peaks weresummarized in Table 2. The results showed 513.32eV-520.80eV attributed to carbide and516.78eV-523.95eV attributed to oxide. The oxide shifted to carbide during sputtering resulted as(516.76➝ 514.08➝ 513.02eV). In the sintered sample oxide phase changed to carbide after
sputtering at (517.28➝515.65➝513.52eV)
Table1. Calculated binding energy calibration values from data obtained by 7 times repeatedmeasurements of standard metals Au, Ag and Cu.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

97

Table2. XPS binding energies (eV) of V2p3/2, Hf4f7/2, Cr2p3/2, C1s and O1s core levels for
VC (100) single crystal, VC, HfC and Cr3C2 sintered samples.

Table 2 summarized the binding energy (eV) of deconvoluted core-level photoelectron
peaks of V2p, Hf4f, Cr2p, C1s and O1s of all samples. In the present work, energy calibrated
correction factor ΔEcorrection was applied to measured data for accuracy and binding energy forcore-level photoelectron peaks were well matched with reference data.

Figure3. XPS spectra of deconvoluted peaks for V2p before sputtering. (a) VC (100) sample and (b) VC sintered sample.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)98

Fig. 4 showed the relative intensity ratio (in atomic concentration) Carbon/Metal (C/M) forVC (100) as well as VC, HfC and Cr3C2 sintered samples. In VC sintered sample C/M value
reached to 0.67 after 10 minutes sputter time and become constant. In case of VC (100) sample
the same value 0.67 was obtained after 2 minutes sputter time. For HfC this value was 0.24 andfor Cr3C2 it was found to be 1. Compare to VC and HfC, Cr3C2 showed different situation
which has large carbon concentration at 5minutes sputter time. The reason for this was not clear
at the moment. One possible reason might be as received condition of sample was different fromother.

Figure4. Relative intensity ratio

Fig. 4 Relative intensity ratio (atomic concentration) of carbon/Metal (C/M) for VC (100)sample as well as VC. HfC and Cr3C2 sintered However, after sputter for 10minutes the C/Melement ratio was quite stable and constant. These results showed the effect of remained species
on surface such as oxide were not observed in present work.

4.

Conclusion

XPS analysis of transition metal carbides (T-M-C) samples, VC (100) and VC sintered+samples was carried out and surface properties changes due to the Ar ion sputtering wascompared with HfC and Cr3C2. Aiming for the practical usage of spectra data of T-M-C, thesurface cleaning was done using Ar+ion sputtering attached in instruments and no other cleaning
process such as chemical treatment or sample heating were carried out. In VC (100) sample wellresolved V2p and C1s photoelectron peaks were obtained after 2 minutes while for sinteredsamples the surface composition changes until 10minutes sputtering. Ar+ion sputtering was
carried out to take into an account that surface morphology has less effected. Although, there wassome amount of surface contaminated O remained relative intensity ratio (in atomic
concentration) Carbon/Metal (C/M) showed the constant nature and the effect of remained
surface contaminated species such as oxide were not observed. During sputtering, oxides
transformed to carbide and charge transfer occurred at early stage of sputter time. The carbidic
carbon peaks observed were 282.4±0.3eV, 282.69±0.2eV, 292.26±0.4eV and 283.12±0.2eV forsingle crystal VC (100), sintered sample VC, HfC and Cr3C2, respectively. The instrument

99

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)binding energy calibration was carried out according to ISO standard and calculated ΔEcorrection
value was -0.6796eV. This correction value was applied to measured data and ejected
photoelectron peaks were well matched with reference data. The Ar+ion sputtering method can be
use as practical tools as simple method for sample cleaning in analysis of XPS.

Acknowledgements
This work was financially supported by New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization(NEDO) (The Material Nanotechnology Program, 2001)

References(1) H.P.Liermann, A.K. Singh, B. Manoun. Int. J. Refract. Met. Hard Mater. 2004; 22: 129(2) R.D.K. Misara, Acta Mater. 1996; 44: 4367
(3) H. Preisis,D.Schultzeb,K. Szulzewsky. J.Eur. Ceram.Soc. 1999; 19: 187(4) W.Reichl, K. Hayek. J. Catal. 2004; 53: 222(5) Y. Yazawa, T. Furuhara, T. Maki. Acta Mater. 2004; 52: 3727
(6) H. Wiesenberger, W. Lengauer, P. Ettmayer. Acta Mater. 1998; 46: 651(7) Peter Frantz, Stephen V. Didziulus. Surface Science. 1998; 412/413: 384(8) J-E Sundgren and H. T. G. Hentzeli. J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A. 1986; 4(5): 2259
(9) M. Detroye, F. Reniers, C. Buess-Herman, J. Vereecken. Applied Surface Science. 1999; 144/145: 78(10) K. Miura. J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A. 1989; A7 (5): 2259
(11) ISO 15472. 2000
(12) Satoshi Hashimoto and Shigeo Tanuma. J. Surface Analysis. 2001; 8(2): 166(13) M.D. Antonik and R. J. Lad. Surface and Interface Analysis. 1996; 24: 681(14) D.Wagner, W.M. Riggs, etc. Handbook of X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. 1979; 184(15) Jeong-Gil Choi. Applied Surface Science. 1999; 148: 64(16) K. Edamoto, Y. Shirotori, T. Sato, K. Ozawa. Applied Surface Science. 2005; 244:174(17) M. Detroye, F. Reniers, C.Buess-Herman, J. Vereecken. Applied Surface Science. 1999; 144/145:78

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

Distribution of Water Resources and their Management for Southern ShanState
Saw Yu May1

ABSTRACT
Water resource is the most basic needs for human life. The essential and important of water
resources cannot be fully explained. Nowadays, water resources are major stressed around theworld due to many reasons. Myanmar is one of the rich water resources countries in Southeast
Asian Countries which will support to the socioeconomic development potential. For sustainable
development, the existing distribution of water resources of an area is very important. Therefore,
the main questions of this study to be addressed on how many types of water resources can befound and how it is distributed in the study area and what are the potential water resources of thisregion. The major aim of this study is to provide the baseline data of water resources in Southern
Shan State and that will be effective management depending upon the types of water resources
and its distribution of Southern Shan State. To fulfill the aim of this study, hydrological andmeteorological analysis and GIS technique will be applied. Form the results of this study, theregional development can be implemented based upon the natural water resources.
Keywords: water resources, southern Shan State, water management

1. Introduction
Water resources are natural resources of water that are potentially useful. Water
information is a fundamental to natural and local economic well-being, protection of life andproperty, and effective management of the Nation’s water resources (Source: USGS). Myanmar
is one the rich water resources countries in Southeast Asian Countries which will support to thesocioeconomic development potential. Generally, there are three main types of water resources inSouthern Shan State namely, rain water, ground water like the other part of Myanmar. For
sustainable development, the fundamental facts about water resources of the area are very
important. Therefore, it is necessary and important to study about the water resources and its
management in Southern Shan State.
Research Questions and Aim and Objectives of the Study
Therefore, the main questions of this study to be addressed on how many types of water
resources can be found and how it is distributed in the study area and what are the potential water
resources of this region.
The major aim of the study is to provide the baseline data of water resources in Southern
Shan State and that will be effective management depending upon the types of water resources
and its distribution of Southern Shan State. The objectives of this study are to observe the current
water resources and its distribution of Southern Shan State, to suggest the management of water
resources within Southern Shan State.
Research Methodology
Secondary data sources which related with water resources from different Administrative
departments like Meteorology and Hydrological Department, Department of Agriculture,
1Dr., Associate Professor, Environment and Water Studies Department, University of Yangon,
email : sawyumay@gmail.com

102

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

Directorate of Water Resources and Improvement of River System Department, Agriculture andIrrigation Department and General Administrative Department for each township were collected.
In order to obtain the distribution of water resources in Southern Shan State, GIS technique assist
to generate mapping within this area depend on the availability data sources. Total coverage
distribution patterns of rain water resources in Southern Shan State, the interpolation method wasapplied for the aid of average annual rainfall data which was acquired from the Meteorology andHydrology Department, Taunggyi, Shan State and Department of Agriculture each townshiplevel because there are only five Meteorology and Hydrology Department within Southern Shan
State in the towns of Taunggyi, Heho, Pinlaung, Namsang and Loilam. For these five towns,
efficient water of these areas could be portrayed.
Study Area: Southern Shan State
Shan State, the biggest area of Myanmar, is situated in the eastern most part of Myanmar
which has an area of about 155,800 square kilometers covering almost a quarter of the total areaof Myanmar. For absolute location, it is located Latitude between 19° 18ʹ and 24° 05ʹ North andLongitude between 96° 13ʹ and 101° 11ʹ East. Generally, Shan State can be divided into threeparts administratively: Southern Shan State, Northern Shan State and Eastern Shan State. In
Southern Shan State, there are 3 districts which comprising 21 townships.

DISCUSSIONS AND FINDINGS
Regarding with water resources data in Southern Shan State, it can be divided into threemain water resource types namely in Southern Shan State: rain water resource, surface water
resource and ground water resource.

2. Rainwater Resource Southern Shan State
In southern Shan State, rainwater is one of the valuable water resources in many places of
Shan State. According to the rainfall and rainy day data from meteorological and Hydrology
Department in Taunggyi and Department of Agriculture in District level, the average total annual
rainfall and rainy day can be generally concluded. Based on these data, the average total annual
rainfall and rainy day are varied from township to township in Southern Shan State where theaverage total annual rainfall is significantly varied between about 600 millimeter (23.6 inches)and over 2300 millimeter (90.5 inches) from area to area due to its location and geographicalfeature.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)103

Figure1. Average Annual Rainfall Distribution Patterns of Southern Shan State
Source: Meteorology and Hydrology Department, Taunggyi and Department of Agriculture, each District in Southern Shan State

While the highest the average total annual rainfall in Southern Shan State is in Mongshu
Township which amounted with 2353.6 millimeters (92.7 inches) and in Pinlaung Townshipwhich accounting for 2343.5 mm (92.3 inches) due to its location and physical feature, the lowest
amount of the average total annual rainfall was found in Mawkmai Township, Langhko
Township and Pekhon Township with the average annual total amount of rainfall is about 620.3
millimeters (24.4 inches), 859.3 millimeters (35.2 inches) and 897.4 millimeter (35.3 inches),
respectively.

Surface Water Resource in Southern Shan StateRegarding with surface water resources in Southern Shan State, rivers, ponds, dams orreservoirs and hand dug well contributes to the sources for water supply in this type. All theseform of surface water are contributed as water resources and water supply of Southern Shan
State.
The main river in Southern Shan State is Thanlwin (formally known as Salween River)and its tributaries. It flows from north to south in the eastern part of Southern Shan State andform as a natural boundary with Eastern Shan State. The whole Thanlwin River Watershed isabout 158,000 square kilometer (Source: INWRC). In the eastern, northern and southern part of

104

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)Southern Shan State are part of Thanlwin River watershed and all the tributaries and subtributaries are flowing into it.

Figure2. Distribution of River, Stream and lake water Resource that use for fresh water resources in Southern Shan State Source:
USGS, MIMU (Myanmar Information Management Unit)

Another surface water resource in Southern Shan State is lake or pond water resources.
There are many natural ponds and artificial ponds for agriculture and water supply purposes inSouthern Shan State. Among the natural lake, Inle Lake, the second largest lake of Myanmar, issituated in the Nyaung Shwe Basin at 2900 feet above mean sea level, is popular for it natural
scenic value and unique culture. It was designated as ASEAN Heritage Park in 2003, IBA(Important Bird and Biodiversity Area) in 2004, UNESCO Biosphere Reserve in 2015 andWetland of International Importance Ramsar Site in 2018.Dam or reservior is one of theirrigation water management activities which allocation of water for agriculture.The water are
distributed from the dams via gravity and through pumping stations. According to the dataobtained from Ministry of Irrigation and Agriculture, there are 341 dams/reserviors in 2018
within Southern Shan State.

3. Ground Water Resources in Southern Shan State
Ground water resource is one of the important fresh water sources of the earth. Being as alarge Karst land area, some of the surface area like streams disappeared or dissolved into theground ( sinkholes) for a long distance by forming underground water drainage system andappear again from cracking rock or ground which is named springs (is called Yae-htwet by local
people).

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

105

Figure 3. Distributions of Spring Water Resources by District in Southern Shan State
Source: Directorate Water Resources and Improvement of River System Department, Taunggyi

There are 1521 springs in Southern Shan State, among them 1206 springs which represent
79 percent of springs can be located within Taunggyi District; about 216 springs which is about 7
percent exist in Loilen District and only 99 springs which estimate only 4 percent fall within
Langkho District. Among the townships, Nyaung Shwe Township has the highest number ofsprings which accounted for 467 springs. See in Figure 3. Apart from the springs, other groundwater sources are dug well and tube well those contribute to the water resources of Southern
Shan State

4. Conclusion
As result of the assessment on the three water resources of Southern Shan State, water
Management should implement based on the existing water resources in Southern Shan State.
Taunggyi District has moderate amount of rainfall except Pinlaung Township which has
above moderate amount of rainfall. Similarly, Loilen District has moderate amount of rainfall
apart from Mongshu where has above moderate amount, it is significant that Langkho District
has under the moderate amount of rainfall. Therefore, rain water harvesting, conservation andsystematic management take into account for rain water resource within Taunggyi and Loilen
Districts and support for local water supply as a valuable resources both urban and rural area.
About 95% of river drainage system in Southern Shan State is Thanlwin River watershedarea. It should be a valuable water resource for Langkho District because there is little rainfall.

106

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

There are different sizes of dams/reservoirs across the whole Southern Shan State, someare owned by government and some are private. But it is necessary to study water resources ofeach and every dam and how to use sustainable agriculture management.
Spring water is also very important water resources for Southern Shan State. But
currently, many springs are vulnerable due to land use changes which have to urgently conserve.
Ground water is the most using water resources in Southern Shan State which represent about
64.4% of the whole water resources although there have other form of resources in this area.
Management, preparation and systematic plan are necessary impacts of climate change,
land use change and natural disaster to water resource for sustainability.
Reference[1] GAD, Report for Local Facts about Taunggyi District, General Administrative Department (2018)

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

Synthesis and Characterization of Rice Husk Derived Bioactive Glass Ceramic
Min Maung Maung1, Myat Moe Aye2, Aung Min3

Abstract:
The raw material, rice husk was going through thermal treatment in order to produce white ash
powder and milled into nano-sized powder. The ash samples were characterized by X-ray
diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy technique (SEM), Fourier transform infrared
spectroscopy (FTIR) and Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX). Bioactive glass-ceramics
was synthesized through sol–gel route using these rice husk ash powder as silica source.
Scanning electron microscopy - energy dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDX) and X-ray
diffraction were used to monitor the surface deposition on glass-ceramics during incubation.
Furthermore, UV-Vis absorbance and transmittance measurements were carried out to complete
the characterization. The results showed that the glass synthesized using silica from rice husk
exhibited a good bioactivity with a formation of carbonated hydroxy apatite phase in 3 days of
incubation.
Keywords: Rice husk ash (RHA), bioactive glass, carbonated hydroxy apatite, sol-gelroute.

1. Introduction
One of the major food crops in the world is the production of rice and which generates
rice husks (RHs). It is one of the major sources of wastes of the world. When RH is combusted inair, the combustibles can be mostly burned off and some solid products are left, which are named
rice husk ash (RHA). The predominant component of RHA is silica. The abundant, cheap,
regenerable RHs naturally have high contents of silica and the silica has a high reactivity. Thus,
how to extract highly pure silica from RHs, and make an efficient use of it, has recently received
more and more attention.
Silica in crystalline form induces adverse biological effects, while amorphous silica is
known to be bioactive, biocompatible, biodegradable, and non-toxic in living tissue, as well as incorresponding simulated physiological conditions. Nowadays, along with above statedamorphous silica-based materials, amorphous fumed and precipitated silicas are increasingly
used in diagnostic and biomedical research.
Bioactive ceramics like, glass, glass-ceramics, hydroxyapatite (HAp), calcium
phosphates, and calcium silicate have been used for practical clinical applications. They haveattracted increasing attention as promising biomaterials for bone tissue engineering. Bioactive
ceramics are used in the form of powder, densed ceramics, highly porous reticulated ceramics,
mesoporous ceramics, etc. Dense and porous ceramics are fabricated through different methods
like powder compaction, fiber bonding, solvent casting/particulate leaching, gas foaming, phaseseparation, replication technique, gelcasting, and sol-gel technique, etc. Silica-based glass andglass-ceramics are most bioactive among all bioceramics. Glass-ceramics have added advantage
of better mechanical properties than glass.
In the present work, amorphous silica was extracted from rice husk collected near
Mawlamyine township, Mon state, Myanmar. The structure characterization of rice husk ask was
1

Dr, Associate Professor, Department of Physics, University of Yangon, minaerchan@gmail.com
Demonstrator, Department of Physics, University of Mawlamyine
3
Lecturer, Department of Physics, University of Mawlamyine2

108

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

identified by X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscope (SEM), Fourier transform
infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and the silica concentration was also be determined by Energy
Dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectroscopy. Silica-based bioactive ceramics was prepared by
Conventional sol-gel process and conventional pressing method. Their UV absorption andtransmission measurement was done by the aid of UV-Vis spectrophotometer. The bioactive
property was also being tested with In-vitro degradation method.

2. Materials and Method
2.1 Extraction of Silica from Rice husk
Rice husk (RH) was collected from a rice mill near Mawlamyine township, Mon state,
Myanmar. The RH was separated from rice grain by air blowing and washed with tap water forseveral times till all the blackish impurity floating on water was completely removed. The ricehusk was then dried at 110C for 8 h. The dried husk was burning at 600°C, 700°C for 6 h forcomplete combustion by which all volatile material is removed and ash was obtained. The flow
chart of extraction of silica was shown in figure 1.

Figure 1 The flow chart of extraction of amorphous silica from rice husk.

2.2 Preparation of bioactive glass-ceramic powder from rice husk silica
RHS was taken as source of silica and sources of Na2O and CaO were used as NaOH and
Ca(NO3)2.4H2O. In this process, 50mol% of SiO2, 25mol% of Na2O, 25mol% of CaO and25mol% of P2O5 were used to obtain bioactive glass ceramic. Estimated NaOH was dissolved in
20 ml of deionized water and Ca(NO3)2.4H2O and 30 ml of deionized water in beaker separately
to make clear solution. When NaOH solution was warmed, RHS and P2O5 were added into it inwarm condition only and volume was made 60 ml by adding deionized water. The boiling wascontinued for 1 hr while volume was maintained upto 60 ml mark of beaker regularly at aroundtime interval of 15 min. After 1 hr of boiling, RHS and P2O5 were dissolved completely. Then
this solution was filtered and sodium silicate was obtained.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)109

Estimated amount of Ca(NO3)2.4H2O solution was prepared by dissolving it in 30 ml ofdeionized water. Then 15 ml of HNO3(conc) was added in this solution, which was kept instirring condition, followed by addition of Sodium silicate solution drop wise very slowly.
Initially, addition rate of Sodium silicate solution was 5 ml per min. At the end when 7-8 ml of
Sodium silicate solution was left in beaker, rapid addition was made. Then it was left for 3 days
at 70C for ageing so that glass network formation is optimized. Then it was dried at 150C for 2days. The preparation step was specified in figure 2.

Figure2. The process of preparation of bioactive glass ceramic.

110

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

Figure 3. The photograph of silica based glass ceramic.

3. Results and Discussion
3.1 Characterization of rice husk silica
X-rays powder diffraction of the samples was carried out at room temperature using
Rigaku using CuKα (λ = 0.154 nm) radiation, with a diffraction angle between 20º and 70º tocheck the formation of the required product and structural related properties. Figure 4 showedthat the XRD pattern of amorphous silica derived from rice husk. The spectrum appears as abroad band with the equivalent Bragg angle at 2θ = 22°, which indicates that the material isamorphous. The silica from the calcination of RH at 600 °C was amorphous. Calcination of RH
at 700 °C was both amorphous and crystalline. The percentage of amorphous silica wasincreased due to the wider of broadening of peak in rice husk ash. For the non-crystallizedashes, the broad amorphous diffraction is decided by the short range order structure of theamorphous SiO2.
[RiceHusk-T600-Kham2Sai.raw] RiceHusk(222)[RiceHusk-T700-Kham2Sai.raw] RiceHusk

(222)

(220)

250

200

(011)
(111)

(224)

0

(664)

50

(266)

(022)

(112)
(112)
(003)

(442)

(201)
(820)

(102)

(240)

100

(201)

50

150

(066)

(022)
(013)

(442)

(201)

(240)

100

(226)
(102)

(224)

Intensity(Counts)

(011)

150

20

40

50

Two-Theta (deg)Figure 4. The XRD patterns of amorphous silica by annealing at 600C and 700C for 6 h

(122)
(031)
(203)

(300)

(113)

(121)

(022)
(013)

(400)(664)

(660)
(066)
(266)

42-1401> Tridymite-O - SiO2

(460)(311)(840)
(262)

(446)

(626)

(820)

(220)

(442)
(008)

(200)

(110)

(102)
(111)
(226)

(240)

(040)

(011)
(420)

(224)
(600)
30

83-2187> Quartz - SiO2

29-0085> SiO2 - Silicon Oxide

(101)

10

(100)

70

(001)

47-1186> Si - Silicon

(111)

(220)
(004)

(400)(664)

(660)
(066)
(266)

75-0589> Silicon, syn - Si

60

(222)

(100)

(122)
(031)
(203)

(300)

(113)

(121)

42-1401> Tridymite-O - SiO2

(460)

(112)
(003)

(022)
(013)
(311)(840)
(262)

(446)

(626)

(201)
(220)

(200)

Two-Theta (deg)50

83-2187> Quartz - SiO2

29-0085> SiO2 - Silicon Oxide

(101)

40

(820)

(442)
(008)

(110)

(102)
(111)
(226)

(240)

(040)

(224)
(600)

(111)

(011)
(420)

30

(100)

20

(001)

10

(222)

(100)

0

(220)
(004)

Intensity(Counts)

200

75-0589> Silicon, syn - Si

47-1186> Si - Silicon

60

70

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)111

The element concentration of extracted Silica from Rice husk was determined by Energy
dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy. The element contained in these samples was also listed in thetable1.
samples

SiO2

Al2O3 Fe2O3

CaO MgO K2OMnO TiO2

Raw rice husk

93.14

0.21

1.54

2.85

0.30

0.82

0.53

0.012

Rice husk ask annealed at 93.20
600C

0.13

0.07

1.23

0.25

0.78

0.33

0.006

Rice husk ask annealed at 96.01
700C

0.08

0.57

1.22

0.01

0.20

0.27

0.002

The surface morphology of the silica particles obtained after calcinations at 600C and
700°C for 6 hours were shown in figure 6. The Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
micrographs illustrated that amorphous silica particles were obtained. The majority of primary
SiO2 particles had a uniform size varying from ~50 to ~ 70 nm in size. These primary particles
showed a big tendency to aggregate and form larger particle clusters.

Figure5. The SEM micrographs of silica calcinated 600C and 700C for 6 h

The Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) absorption spectrometry was performed and was
taken in the IR reflection mode, in which the ash sample was directly pressed to form a pellet
without addition of KBr. The broad band at 3410-3470 cm-1 was due to the stretching vibrationof the O-H bond from the silanol groups (Si-OH) due to the adsorbed water molecules on thesilica surface. The band at 2344 cm-1 was due to the carbonate which is absorbed in the sample
from atmosphere during sample preparation. The band at 1090 cm-1 was due to the Si-O-Si
asymmetric stretching vibration, while the band at 801 cm-1 had been assigned to the network SiO-Si symmetric bond stretching vibration. The band at 470 cm-1 was associated with a network
O-Si-O bond bending modes.

Figure6. The FTIR spectra of silica calcinated 700C for 6 h

112

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

3.2 Characterization of glass ceramic
The glass ceramic powders based on the amorphous silica extracted rice husk ash weresintered at 700°C, 800°C and 900 °C for 2 hr. X-ray diffraction pattern was confirmed that thepresence of sodium calcium silicate on these ceramic samples and was shown in figure 7. The
sample with sintering temperature at 700°C showed the presence of sodium calcium silicate withtwo different crystalline phases Na6Ca3Si6O18 and Na2Ca2Si2O7. The powder sintered at 800°C
and 900°C also shown that the presence of Na6Ca3Si6O18 and Na2Ca3Si6O16 phases.

Figure 7. The XRD pattern of glass ceramic

Chemical analysis was performed with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy EDX inscanning electron microscopy SEM mode. The EDX analysis also showed the presence of C on
its surface. Ca/P ratio had decreased to 2.37 from 2.97. The weight percent of Si and O had
decreased due to formation of denser and spherical Carbonated Hydroxyapatite on the surface.
The average grain size of this sample was found to be 1.06 m.

Figure 8. The SEM-EDX image of glass ceramic

Figure 9. The UV absorbance and optical band gap of bioactive glass ceramic

113

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)The UV absorbance and plot of (αhν)2 versus photon energy (hν) of glass ceramic wasshown in figure 9. In the direct transition, the absorption coefficient (α) related with the opticalband gap (Eg) is given by, αhν = A(hν - Eg)1/2, where hν is the photon energy and A is a constantfor a direct transition. The energy gap Eg could be estimated from the intercept of (αhν)2 vs hν fordirect transitions. By extrapolating the linear portion of the energy axis at zero absorption gives
the direct band gap of these materials. The energy gap of this sample was observed to be 4.3 eV.
In order to study the dissolution features of glass-ceramics, Tris buffer solutions waschosen because, Tris is the plain buffering agent used in most SBF preparations. Tris solutions do
not contain ions and thus represent, for a bioactive material, maximum solubility and minimum
reprecipitation activity. Pure Tris was dissolved in distilled water to obtain a concentration of 6.1
gpl. The solution pH was lowered to 8 by acidifying with a solution of 1 M HCl. In vitro
bioactivity test showed the formation of apatite layer on silica specimen surface.
Biodegradability test showed a substantial dissolution of silica network within six hours. The rateof silica network dissolution and apatite phase formation was dependent on impurity cation
content in amorphous silica which was inherited from husk composition.

4. Conclusion
Highly bioactive glass ceramics have been synthesized using rice husk ash waste material
as a source of silica. The amorphous and glassy nature was confirmed by XRD analysis. The
shorter ageing time period and evaporation of unreacted phosphorus precursors was confirmed by
EDX measurement. Sintered pellet with about 20% apparent porosity was tested for bioactivity
and biodegradability. Crystalline combeite phase of the glass-ceramics was found to dissolve
easily in Tris buffer solution. Carbonated hydroxyapatite was formed on the surface of the glassceramics within 3 days of incubation. It may be concluded that rice husk ash may be low costing
raw material for the preparation of bioactive glass ceramic materials through simple sol–gelroute.

Acknowledgements
I would like to express my profound thanks to Professor Dr Khin Khin Win, Head of Department of
Physics, and Professor Dr Myo Lwin, Professor Dr Aye Aye Thant, Professor Dr Yin Maung Maung, Department of
Physics, University of Yangon, for their kind permission to carry out this work, their encouragement and help during
this work.

114

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

References[1]

CarterCB,

NORTAN MG.
edition. 2013;19.

Ceramic

Materials

ScienceandEngineering.

Springer.

Second[2] Geraldo RH, Fernandes LFR, Camarini G. Water treatment sludge and rice husk sustainable geopolymer
production. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2017;149:146-155.
[3] Haoran Chen (2013), Biogenic silica nanoparticles derived from rice husk biomass and their applications, Texas
State University.
[4] Moulson A J & Herbert J M (1997) Electroceramic Materials Properties Applications (New Delhi: Thomson
Press)[5] Rahaman MN. Ceramic processing and sintering. Marcel Dekker, Inc. Second edition. 2003;pp.1-2.
[6] Rajagopal K. (2009) Textbook of engineering physics part II. New Delhi-110001.
[7] Suryanarayana C. and Norton M. G. (1998), X-ray Diffraction A Practical Approach, (New York: Plenum)[8] Zhu M, Ji R, Li Z, et al. Preparation of glass ceramic foams for thermal insulation applications from coal fly ash
and waste glass. Construction and Building Materials. 2016;112:398-405.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

Antimicrobial Activity and Structure Elucidation of Isolated Phenanthrene
Derivative Compound from the Root of Atalantia monophylla (Roxb.) DC.
(Taw shauk)Thinn Myat Nwe1

Abstract
In this research, one of the Myanmar indigenous medicinal plants, Atalantia monophylla (Roxb.)
DC which is known as Taw shauk in Myanmar was selected. The preliminary phytochemical testfor root of Taw shauk shows the presence of glycoside, phenolic, alkaloid, saponin, polyphenol,
flavonoid, steroid and terpene groups. The antimicrobial activities of the ethyl acetate extract of
crude sample responds high activity on E. coli and medium activities on Staphylococcus aureus,
Bacillus pumilus and Candida albicans. Furthermore, phenanthrene derivative compound was
isolated as pale yellow oily form by modern methods such as Thin Layer and Column
Chromatography from the root of Atalantia monophylla (Roxb.) DC. The yield percent of thiscompound was found to be 0.06 % (1.4 mg) based upon the ethyl acetate crude extract. This
compound gives positive test for phenol. Antimicrobial activities of this isolated compound
respond medium activities on all selected organisms except Bacillus subtilis. In addition, themolecular formula of isolated compound is C23H20O5. The hydrogen deficiency index of thisisolated compound is 14. The planar structure of isolated compound is as follow

Keywords: Tawshauk,phenanthrene,C23H20O5, antimicrobial activity

1.

Introduction
Traditional Systems of medicines always played important role in meeting the global
health care needs. They are continuing to do so at present and shall play major role in future also.
The system of medicines which are considered to be Indian in origin or the systems of medicine,which have come to India from outside and got assimilated in to Indian culture are known as
Indian Systems of Medicine (Prasad, 2002). India has the unique distinction of having six
recognized systems of medicine in this category. They are Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani and Yoga,
Naturopathy and Homoeopathy. Though Homoeopathy came to India in 18th Century, it
completely assimilated in to the Indian culture and got enriched like any other traditional system
hence it is considered as part of Indian Systems of Medicine (Prasad, 2002). The therapeutic
properties of medicinal plants are conditioned by the presence in their organs of active
substances, such as alkaloids, flavonoids, glycosides, vitamins, tannins, and coumarincompounds, which physiologically affect the bodies of humans and animals or which arebiologically active in relation to the causative agents of various diseases (Yirga, G., Teferi, M.
1

Dr. Associate Professor, Department of Chemistry, Mandalay University of Distance Educatione-mail: thinmyatnwe67@gmail.com

116

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)and Kasaye, M. 2011). Also in Myanmar, medicinal plants are abundant. Most of the people used
the traditional medicinal plants for the treatment of diseases and to relief pain. The study of
traditional indigenous medicinal plants and their usage in therapy play a very important role
(Lashari, M.S. 1984). Traditional medicinal practices are an important parts of the primary caredelivery system in most of the developing world. The use of traditional medicine and medicinal
plants in most developing countries, as a normative basis for the maintenances of good health,has been widely observed. Furthermore, an increasing reliance on the use of medicinal plants in
the industrialized societies has been traced to the extraction and development of several drugs
from these plants as well as from traditionally used rural herbal medicines (A Cheikyoussef, etal, 2011).

2. Methods
Apparatus and Materials
The sophisticated instruments which are used in the isolation and structure elucidation ofpure compound are presented as follows.
1. UV-lamp (Lambda-40, Perkin-Elmer Co., England)
2. FT-IR Spectrophotometer (Shimadzu, Japan)
1

3. H NMR Spectrophotometer (500 MHz)13

4. C Spectrophotometer (125 MHz)
5. EI-Mass Spectrophotometer
6. Electric balance (Shimadzu, Japan)
Commercial grade reagents and solvents were used after distillation. Silica gel (Merk Co.
Inc, Kiesel gel 70-230 Mesh ASTM) was used for column chromatography. Iodine vapor and UV
detector were used for visualizing the compound situated on TLC plates.
Sample Collection
Plant materials were collected from Wachet Village, Sagaing Region. The collected
sample, the root of Taw shauk was cut into small pieces and was dried in the shade. Then, theraw materials were kept in the glass bottle with stopper and used throughout the experiment.
Aim and Scope of the Present Research Work
The aim of the present research work is the structure elucidation of bioactive pure organic
compound isolated from the root of Atalantia monophylla (Roxb.) DC.
The scope of this research work is outlined as follows;(i)

To study the antimicrobial activities of crude extracts of medicinal plant, Taw shauk(ii)

To isolate a bioactive organic compound from Taw shauk by utilizing solvent extraction
method followed by column and thin layer chromatographic separation methods.

(iii)

To elucidate the structure of isolated compound by using sophisticated spectroscopic
methods.

117

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

Botanical Description
Family:Rutaceae

Botanical name:Atalantia monophylla (Roxb.) DC.

Local name:Taw shaukParts used

:

root

Medicinal Uses:

Painful joints and rheumatism

Figure1. The Plant and Root of Atalantia monophylla (Roxb.) DC.

Extraction and Isolation of Isolated Compound from the root of Atalantia monophylla(Roxb.) DC.
The air dried sample of the root of Taw shauk (570 g) was percolated with 95 % ethanol(1.35 L) for about 2 months. Then the percolated solution was filtered and evaporated to beconcentrated. The ethanol extract was extracted with ethylacetate (400ml). The EtOAc crude
extract (2.3 g) was chromatographed by silica gel column by using n-hexane and EtOAc, withvarious solvent ratios from nonpolar to polar. Totally 213 fractions were obtained. Each fraction
was checked by TLC. The same Rf value fractions were combined. Totally, 18 combined
fractions were obtained. Among them, fraction IX found as main fraction. The pure pale yellow
oily form (0.0014g) was obtained and its Rf value is 0.37 (nhexane and ethyl acetate, 1 : 1). The
yield percent of this pure compound was found to be 0.06% based upon the ethylacetate crude
extract.

3.

Results and Discussion

Preliminary Phytochemical Screening of the Root of Atalantia monophylla (Roxb.) DC.
(4, 8)
Phytochemical Screening was carried out by general methods to indicate the presence ofgeneral classes of phytoconstituents. In accordance with phytochemical tests, it contains alkaloid,
flavonoid, glycoside, steroid, terpene, polyphenol, phenolic and saponin. The results are shown in
Table (1).

118

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

Table (1) Preliminary Phytochemical Screening of the Root of Taw shauk
NoConstituents

1

Alkaloid

2

Reagents used

Observation

ResultDragendroff’ reagent

orange ppt+

Flavonoid

EtOH, Conc: HCl + Mg turnning

Red

+

3

Glycoside

10% Lead acetate solution

no change-

4

Steroid

Petether, Acetic anhydride, conc S/A

Green

+

5

TerpeneCHCl3 + Acetic anhydride + Conc:H2SO4

no change-

6

Poly phenol

1% FeCl3 + 1% K3Fe(CN)6 solution

Bluish green+

7

Phenolic

10% FeCl3 solution

Bluish green+

8

SaponinDistilled water

Frothing+(+) sign indicates the presence of the constituent
constituent(-) sign indicates the absence of the

Antimicrobial Activities of the Root of Atalantia monophylla (Roxb.) DC.
Table (2) Antimicrobial Activities of the Root of Taw shauk
Types of organisms

Solvents
I

II

III

IV

V

VI

EtOH

-

18 mm
(+ +)

-

15 mm
(+ +)

17 mm
(+ +)

-

EtOAc

-

17 mm
(+ +)

-

15 mm
(+ +)

17 mm
(+ +)

20 mm
(+++)

Organisms 7 mm-11 mm (+) - low activity, 12 mm-16 mm
mm above(+ + +) - high activity
I = Bacillus subtilis,(++) - medium activity, 17

II = Staphylococcus aureus, III = Pseudomonous aeruginosa,

IV = Bacillus pulmilus, V = Candida albican,

VI = E coli

According to this table, ethyl acetate extract of Taw-shauk responds high activity on E.
coli and medium activities on Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus pumilus and Candida albicans.
And then EtOH extract gives medium activities on Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus pumilus andCandida albicans. n-Hexane extract gives no activity on any of the six organisms.

Bacillus subtilis

Staphylococcus aureus Pseudomonous

Bacillus pulmilus

Candida albican

Figure 2. Antimicrobial Activities of the Root of Taw shauk

E. coli

119

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

Antimicrobial Activities of Isolated Compound
The antimicrobial activities of compound were tested by using Agar-well diffusion
method. These results were shown in Table (3). These results inform that ethanol extract ofisolated compound responds medium activities on Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas
aeruginosa, Bacillus pumilus, Candida albicans and E .coli.
Table (3) Antimicrobial Activities of Isolated Compound
Organisms

Plant

Solvent

SampleIsolated
Compound

EtOH

Control

EtOH

I

II

III

IV

V

VI

13 mm

18 mm

17 mm

16 mm

15 mm

16 mm

(+)

(++)

(++)

(++)

(++)

(++)

-

-

-

-

-

-

Organisms 7 mm-11 mm (+) - low activity, 12 mm-16 mm
mm above(+ + +) - high activity
I = Bacillus subtilis,
aeruginosa,

II = Staphylococcus aureus, III = Pseudomonous

IV = Bacillus pulmilus, V = Candida albican

Bacillus subtilis

Staphylococcus aureus(++) - medium activity, 17Pseudomonous

Bacillus pulmilus

VI = E coli

Candida albican

E. coliFigure3. Antimicrobial Activities of the Root of Taw shauk

Phytochemical Test of Compound
The small amount of pure compound was dissolved in 10 ml of ethanol in test tube. And
then this solution was tested with 1 % FeCl3 and 1 % K3Fe(CN)6 solutions. It gave greenishblue colour. Hence, this compound must be polyphenol compound.

Molecular Formula Determination of Isolated Compound
The molecular formula of pure compound could be examined by 1H NMR, 13C NMR,
DEPT and FT-IR spectra.

120

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

Table (4): Results from 1HNMR,13CNMR, DEPT and FT-IR Spectral of CompoundNo.
1

Information From

No. ofH

No. ofO

1

H NMR, 13C NMR, and
DEPT spectral datanine sp2 methine carbons

2

No. ofC

9

9

two methoxy methyl carbons

2

6

one sp3 methylene carbon

12

eleven sp2 quaternary carbons

11

In FT-IR spectrum, one -OH
group
Total

23

2

1

1

18

3

Therefore, the partial molecular formula and the partial molecular mass are C23H18O3 and242. Information from EI-Mass spectrum, the molecular ion peak is m/z 376. Therefore, theremaining molecular mass is 34. So, the remaining molecular mass 34 should be two -OHgroups. Therefore, complete molecular formula was found to be C23H20O5. It is coincident withthe "Nitrogen Rule" because of the observation of the even number of molecular mass in EI- MS
spectrum.
Structure Elucidation of Isolated Compound
By using the DQF-COSY, 1H NMR and HMBC spectral data, the following fragments a,b and c could be assigned.

fragment a

fragment b

fragment c
1

On the other hand, the existence of β H-C long range signals between two aromatic
methine protons (δ 7.57 ppm and δ 7.66 ppm) and five sp2 quaternary carbons (δ 118.78 ppm, δ
131.77 ppm and δ 120.14 ppm, δ 122.63 ppm, δ 124.13 ppm) in HMBC spectrum leads to thefollowing substituted naphthalene fragment d.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)121

fragment d
By using the 1H NMR and HMQC spectral data, the following fragments e and f could be
assigned.
7. 18
H

144.3

147. 61140. 01

fragment e

On the other hand, in HMBC spectrum, substituted anthracene fragment f could beobserved by the occurrence of β and γ 1H-C long range signal between the aromatic proton (δ7.18 ppm) and two aromatic quaternary carbons (δ 124.13 ppm and δ 118.78 ppm) in fragment d.

fragment f
fragment f
By using HMBC spectrum, the following extended fragment g could be assigned.

Fragment g
Due to the logical correlation, the three OH groups should be connected to the threearomatic quaternary carbons with downfield chemical shifts (δ 140.01 ppm, δ 152.35 ppm and δ
167.01 ppm) in fragment g. Hence, the complete structure of compound is described as follow.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)122

The IUPAC name ofdimethoxyphenanthrene-2, 5-diol.

this

isolated

compoundis1-(4-hydroxybenzyl)-6,8-

4. Conclusion
The root of Taw shauk consists of a variety constituents such as glycoside, phenolic,alkaloid, saponin, polyphenol, flavonoid, steroid and terpene groups. Moreover, the antimicrobialactivity tests on ethyl acetate extract of the root of this plant responds high activity on E. coli andmedium activities on Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus pumilus and Candida albicans. Thus ethyl
acetate extract of the root of Taw shauk was chosen for isolation of pure compound. The yieldpercent of this compound is 0.06 % (0.0014 g) based upon the ethyl acetate crude extract.
Moreover, in accordance with the phytochemical test on isolated compound, it gives positive
phenol test. And then, the antimicrobial activities of the ethanol extract of isolated compound
respond medium activities on Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus
pumilus, Candida albicans and E .coli. In addition, the molecular formula of isolated compoundis C23H20O5.

Figure FT-IR
Spectrum of Isolated
CompoundFigure 1 H NMR
Spectrum of Isolated
CompoundFigure DEPT
Spectrum of Isolated
CompoundFigure EI-Mass
Spectrum of Isolated
CompoundFigure 13 C NMR
Spectrum of Isolated
CompoundFigure DQF-COSY
Spectrum of Isolated
CompoundFigure HMQC Spectrumof Isolated Compound

Figure HMBC Spectrum of
Isolated Compound123

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank Professor and Head, Dr Khin Mar Yee and Professor Dr Aye Aye Myint,
Department of Chemistry, Mandalay University of Distance Education, Myanmar, for their valuable advice andpermission. The author is grateful to Dr Myo Myint, Deputy Director, Fermentation Department, Development
Center for Pharmaceutical Technology, Ministry of Industry (1) for his kind support in the test of the antimicrobialactivities.

References
A Cheikyoussef, et al, “Research Journal of Medicinal Plant” Namibia, vol. 5, pp-4, 2011.
Breitmaier, Eberhard, “Sturcture Elucidation by NMR in Organic Chemistry”, A Practical Guide, 3rd Edition,
University of Bonn, Germany, John Willey and Sons, Ltd., 2002.
Dassanayake, M.D., “A Revised Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon.“ University of Peradeniya, Department ofAgriculture, Peradeniya, Vol. V, 1980.
Das, A.K et. al, “A Systematic Approach to Phytochemcal Screening”, Vol.12 , No. 1, Botanical survery of India,
Edinburgh, 1970..
Dolphan, D et. al, “Tabulation of Infrared Spectral Data”, John Willy and Sons, Ltd., New York, 1997.
Egon Stahl, “Thin Layer Chromatography”, 2nd Edition, Springer Verlag, New York., 1969.
Harbonne, J. B, “Phytochemical Methods: A Guide to Modern Techniques of Plant Analysis”, Chapman and Hall
Ltd. U.S.A, 1993.
Lashari, M.S., "Traditional Medicine". World Health Form, vol. 5, 1984.
Prasad, L.V. “Indian System of Medicine and Homoeopathy Traditional Medicine in Asia”, 2002.
Ranjit Roy Chaudhury and Uton Muchatar Rafei Eds. WHO- Regional Office for South East Asia- New Delhi. pp283-286, 2002.
Ramachandra Rao, Medicinal Plants of India, New Delhi, vol. 1, 1987.
thSilverstein, R.M., et al., “Spectrometric Identification of Organic Compound”, 7 Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
U.S.A., 2005.
Yirga, G., Teferi, M. and Kasaye, M., “Survey of Medicinal Plants Used to Treat Ailments in Hawzen District”,
Northern Ethiopia, Ethiopia, 2011.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

Tourism Development in a Nature Protected Environment: Indawgyi Lake
Area
Zin Mar Than1, Frauke Kraas2
Abstract
The Indawgyi Lake area in the peripheries of Kachin State, Myanmar, is traditionallycharacterised by three nature-based economic sectors: agriculture, fishery and mining. Because of
its specific natural environment, it was designated as “Indawgyi Wildlife Sanctuary” in 1999.
Apart from retarding economic development, the area suffers from the conflict between the
Myanmar military and the Kachin Independence Organisation. In recent years, Indawgyi Lake isbecoming a destination of community involvement in tourism (CIT) aiming at enhancing the
local/regional development. These tourism activities need to be in line with the conservation
goals. Against this background, the research aims at analysing the current conditions in the area
in order to discuss how CIT can become an incentive for a beneficial future development. The
empirical analysis is based on a mixed method approach consisting of interviews with experts
from relevant sectors (e.g. administration, conservation sector, tourism), field observations andsecondary data analysis (primary and secondary statistics). The case study demonstrates that
tourism, specifically CIT, can be used as a tool to develop a lagging behind area in concordancewith conservation goals. But is still remains a longer way until a satisfying situation of peace will
be reached.
Keywords: nature protected area, development, tourism

1. Introduction
The Indawgyi Lake Area in Kachin State, is among those peripheral regions in Myanmar
which are economically lagging behind national standards. Up to now, it is dominated by thethree nature-based economic sectors of agriculture, fishing and mining. As in many other regions,
tourism is seen as a measure to fuel regional development, aiming to improve the living conditionof the local people (new work opportunities, increasing income). While its exceptional state ofnature – many endemic species exist and are protected in the largest natural inland water
reservoir – is a strong development asset, politically the area is instable due to ethnic andresource conflicts. If the future development should be sustainable, it is necessary to protect thenatural assets on the one hand while on the other peace negotiations must help overcoming
mutual mistrust and fighting between the conflicting parties. Thus, a twofold task is essential forthe area: a) the demands of nature protection need to be matched and b) the ongoing, but until yet
fragile peace process requires careful attention. Tourism as a development measure thus may leadto two potential benefits: income generation and a successful negotiation of peace between
conflicting parties – if a locally adapted, ecologically and culturally sensitive and balanced
development will be conceptualised and implemented. A detailed study of the recent tourismoriented development is yet lacking for the area.
The main aim of the research project thus is to analyse the recent tourism development in
the area and to discuss how community involvement in tourism (CIT), a specific form of tourism,can make an important contribution to the future development. Three main questions are in the
1
2

Dr Research Fellow, University of Cologne, Germany, Zthan1@uni-koeIn.de
University of Cologne, Germany, University of Yangon, Myanmar

126

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)focus of the paper: (1) What are the initial causes for developing tourism in the area? (2) How is
the current situation of tourism in the area? (3) What are potentials and possible development
paths?

2. Conceptual approach and methods
2.1 Conceptual approach
The three economic sectors – agriculture, fishing and mining – have been facing
development inertia over years, as it is elaborated in more detail in 3.1. Introducing industry andmanufacture activities seems to be not a realistic solution. For such activities, the region is too far
away from connecting urban areas. Insofar, adding tourism as a fourth economic sector seems to
be a promising idea to foster development. Two requirements seem inevitable:
1. Because the Indawgyi Lake Area is a nature-protected area tourism has to be organized in a
way that it fully meets and optimally supports the requirements of protecting. Eco- , natureor hiking tourism seems suitable.
2. As the main aim of the new activity is to bring about optimal benefits to the local people
without bringing too much external dependency, the idea of community-based tourism (CBT)
seems an appropriate development strategy.
A combination of both would be embedded in endogenous regional development
approaches. Endogenous development (as described in detail for instance in [1] and [2]) is
following the main idea is, that development is initiated and implemented predominantly by local
and regional actors and orientated towards the needs and preferences of the local population. At
best, it also will lead to a sustainable development, which tries to combine the three main
dimensions of sustainability – economy, society, environment – in a way that a future
development takes place in concordance with the benefits for the local people and the naturalenvironment of the region.
According to the ASEAN Community-Based Tourism Standard Community-BasedTourism (CBT) is described as: “tourism activity, community owned and operated, and managed
or coordinated at the community level that contributes to the well-being of communities throughsupporting sustainable livelihoods and protecting valued socio-cultural traditions and natural andcultural heritage resources” [3]. In Myanmar the policy of community involvement in tourism(CIT) was issued by the Ministry of Hotels and Tourism in 2013 [4]. Indawgyi Lake Area waslisted by the Ministry as one of nine selected destinations. The difference between CBT and CIT(see [5] and [6]) can mainly be seen in the concept that CIT is a less strict form of CBT and the
public administration has to approve the activities.
From the perspective of endogenous development, both CIT and CBT fit wellconceptually. This holds also true for the expected empowering of the community. Here thechance have to be seen that in conflict areas the different parties can be brought together in orderto jointly negotiate and shape a development from which at best all groups involved can benefit.
In other parts of Myanmar, namely Thandaung Gyi ([8]), CIT has proven to successfully
contribute to the peace building process.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)127

2.2 Methods
This research project employed a mixed method approach (see e.g. [9]), in which
qualitative and quantitative information and methods are processed. Altogether 11 expert
interviews with members of different relevant institutions and groups – all involved in the
Indawgyi tourism development – have been conducted since 2018 (with an average length of
between 30 min to more than an hour). The interviews were recorded, transcribed (and translated
into English), and entered into the software programme MAXQDA. Thereafter, the data wasorganized, coded and reflected according to the topic. All interviews received a unique code
number (e.g. IDGY-XX, while XX is a consequent number). While the qualitative approach (theexpert interviews) was the basic source of information, information on specific aspects wasgathered from secondary data and field observation. Secondary data was collected from literature
reviews and statistical sources.

3. Research findings and results
3.1 The current situation as starting point for tourism development
In this part the current situation of the area will be looked at from two perspectives: theeconomy and the natural environment. Additionally, two further aspects, which act as additional
circumstances and influence the future development substantially, will be considered, namely theunstable political situation and the conservation status. In more detail, information on the current
situation is analysed in [7].
The current economic situation
Eleven village tracts with 33 villages and two towns, Loneton and Nanmun, stretch overan area of 1211.4 km². With about 8,758 households and a population of about 50,000, theIndawgyi Lake area is already quite densely populated.
Agriculture is its major income generating activity. Paddy is the main cultivated crop,
followed by peanuts and soy beans. The latter products are mostly grown east of the lake. Mostof the agricultural land is located in the lake’s fringe areas and around the villages. According to[7] the yield per acre for paddy west of the lake is remarkably lower than in its east (60 baskets to100 baskets), largely due to the lower quality of the soils.
One of the current challenges of the agricultural sector is a suboptimal land use
management, i.e. farmers from the west of the lake practice monoculture cropping systems with
one harvest per year, while most of the farmers from east of the lake use multi-culture cropping
systems with two harvests per year. As a consequence, the soil quality in the west was degradedgradually and the farmers have to use fertilizer more and more. This is partly also practised by
farmers east of the lake, although the natural conditions there are better. That leads in particular
to two results: (1) the costs for farming are increasing remarkably, which is a financial burden for
the farmers, and (2) eutrophication in the lake is increasing dramatically. Additionally, quite anumber of the farms is too small in size, in particular west of the lake [7].
Fishing is the second income-generating activity of the households in the Indawgyi LakeArea and it is mostly a side job for local families. However, fishing is the main economic activity
for seasonal migrants from Sagaing and Mandalay Regions and migrants from Shan State.
Fishermen need to have a license, issued by the fishery department, for their fishing gears.

128

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

Indawgyi fish is famous and consumers prefer them. Therefore, fish and fish products possess astrong market, also outside the region. This might in part be the reason why the number offishermen has increased in the last years – 560 have been reported in 2017 and 610 in 2018. But
only 400 fishermen were registered at the fishery office in 2018, which is a hint for one of thechallenges of fishery: overfishing. Other challenges are the wide-spread ignorance of the closed
season (from June to August) and the practice of illegal fishing methods (i.e. battery shock, verysmall mesh size fishing gears). Such infringements are mostly caused by the seasonal inmigrating fishermen, whose number is continuously growing.
Gold mining on a commercial scale has been developed in the area since 1996 ([7]). The
activity was very profitable between 1996 and 2002. Today, it is still a popular income
generating activity, although mining has decreased in the last years (IDGY-02). According to [7]the threats of the sector can be divided into visible and invisible ones. One visible threat is thesedimentation in the lake caused by the hydraulic method used in gold mining, other visible
threats like drug use and health problems are predominant. Invisible, but severe is the threat of
mercury contamination, as mercury is used in gold extraction.
In summary, all three economic sectors have shortcomings for income generation andnegative impacts on nature and society. Additionally, imbalances in the migration patterns withnegative impacts on development exist. The area offers unskilled labour opportunities in themining and fishery sectors. Simultaneously, educated people have to leave the area and look for
qualified jobs in other parts of Myanmar, which is resulting in a substantial brain drain for theregion.

The Indawgyi Lake area as a natural environment
Since 1999, a total area of 775 km² including 120 km² of open water area is underconservation as “Indawgyi Wildlife Sanctuary” ([10]). The sanctuary is an ASEAN Heritage site
since 2003 and it was designated as Ramsar Site in 2016. In 2017, Indawgyi Wildlife Sanctuary
was acknowledged as UNESCO Biosphere Reserve. The main reason for these designations is
the rich biodiversity of the lake area, which makes it a unique site: According to [7] altogether 64
fish species are recorded in the lake basin, inflowing streams and marshy areas. Among them,three species are endemic. The lake is one of the most important bird refuges in Southeast Asia,
mostly migratory birds; 95 species of water birds have been recorded and the highest number ofthe Eastern Hoolock gibbons. A detailed list of fauna and flora can be found in [10].

The current conservation status of the area
Beside the lake as a whole, four areas on land belong to the sanctuary. The three big parts
are forestland south and east of the lake and a wetland area north of the lake. Additionally, muchof the western shoreline is as a small stripe under protection.
Responsible for managing the Indawgyi Wildlife Sanctuary is the Nature and Wildlife
Conservation Division of the Forest Department. The designation of the area as a nature reserve
makes a zoning system necessary in order to co-ordinate the economic activities and theprotecting necessities. A zoning system with three envisaged categories – 1. a core zone, 2. abuffer zone and 3. a transition zone (including agricultural lands, housing areas, small-scale gold

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)129

mining areas) – is under process, but until yet not fully implemented. A zoning system is in effectonly for the lake (with nine fishing-free zones).
However, some shortcomings have to be mentioned. One is an insufficient number of
personnel for fulfilling the duties of conservation, in particular patrolling the area. The patrollingon the land becomes even more difficult because of the unstable political situation, which makes
controlling in some areas almost impossible. Another shortcoming is the lack of environmental
awareness of the people (i.e. dealing with waste, usage of fertilisers and pesticides). Additionally,a lack of collaboration can be stated, for instance between the fishery department and theconservation side.

The unstable political situation
Since 1962, the Kachin Independence Organization (KIO) has its own army, the so-called
Kachin Independent Army (KIA), which has been fighting for autonomy of the state. A branch ofthis army is located in the area. KIO took part in Aung San Suu Kyi’s 21-Century Panglong
Conference (= Union Peace Conference), but it did not sign the country’s 2015 nationwide
ceasefire agreement. For the Indawgyi Lake Area the situation is complicated. It even culminates
sometimes into fighting, as for instance in 2018 during the pagoda festival in March. Such an
occurrence affects tourism immediately, directly and strongly as an expert (IDGY-03) reported:“If we have fighting between KIA and Army the bookings are cancelled”. The prolonged
negative effects and uncertainties contribute to the fact that the local people are reluctant toinvest much in tourism.

3.2 The current situation of tourism
The uniqueness and attractiveness of the area
The area has a unique natural environment with a rich biodiversity. The specific bird
diversity makes the lake spectacular. Moreover, the climate is quite comfortable with moderatetemperatures. Together with the beautiful landscape, the quietness and fresh air, the area canbecome a favourable tourist spot with activities like bird watching, hiking, biking, kayaking andfishing. Additionally, cultural elements like traditional village life, local handicrafts and inparticular religious buildings contribute to the attractiveness. The Shwe Myint Zu Pagoda,
located in the lake near Nanpade, is an outstanding highlight and the annual pagoda festival (10days in March) counts up to 80,000 to 100,000 domestic visitors annually.
The current touristic infrastructure
The peak season for tourist activities is from November to March. According to [7], in the
period from 2013 to 2015 every year less than 100 international tourists arrived and not morethan 150 domestic visitors came to the area (not included the visitors of the pagoda festival). The
numbers have increased in the last years. In 2016 about 700 international tourists stayed in thearea. In 2017 the number decreased to 580 and in 2018 to 354 – according to an expert (IDGY03), as a result of the Rakhine conflict. Most of the foreign tourists are from Europe, Japan and
Thailand, especially for educational purposes and recreation. Their recreational activities arequite different to those of domestic visitors (IDGY-04). Activities like bird watching, hiking,130

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)biking and kayaking are preferred, while domestic guests are mainly interested in religious
attractions.
Until today, foreign tourists are only allowed to stay overnight in Loneton, located on thewest side of the lake. Security issues (Loneton has a police station and a military camp) are themain reason for this situation (IDGY-01). Four offers of staying overnight are available: a motel,
a guesthouse and two homestays (IDGY-03). The motel has been renovated recently and is
nowadays preferred by foreigners because of the better facilities.
The accessibility has become much better in the last years. The road conditions to theoutside have been improved as have the ones in the lake area itself. For instance, the main roadon the west side of the lake has got a tar surface. Since 2015 also the communication
infrastructure has improved quite remarkably. Moreover, the electricity supply has become muchbetter, which for instance is an important element for upgrading of the hygienic situation of theaccommodations (i.e. warm water).
An important role in the touristic supply plays the organization Inn Chit Thu, a local civilsociety organization (CSO). It was established in 2013 supported by the INGO “Flora and Fauna
International” (FFI). Nowadays the group has more than 50 members in different villages aroundthe lake, of which about 15 are active. The aim of the organization is described as “protect andconserve natural environment by participating in social issue” (IDGY-04). This social issue isvery much related to tourism. Inn Chit Thu has an office in Loneton, from where the group offers
its tourist services like renting bikes or kayaks. In the office tourists can also get a guide map of
the area. At present Inn Chit Thu has three official local guides, who are trained by the Ministryof Hotels and Tourism. Biking and kayaking can be done by the tourists without local guides. For
trekking a local guide is needed “due to landmines and security issue” (IDGY-04).
At present three settlements take part or plan to take part in CBT/CIT, namely Loneton,
Tonsankha and Leponlay: Loneton with a population of 3,400 can be described as the centre fortourism in the lake area. It is located at the main road at the west side of the lake where thetransportation accessibility is good. Here the above mentioned CSO Inn Chit Thu has its officeand offers services to the tourists.
Tonsankha is quite a small village with only about 100 inhabitants. It is located at thenorth side of the lake. The accessibility with motorized vehicles is not good. Since 2018, thecommunity is offering lunch for tourists (i.e. bikers, hikers, kajakers) with organic food, which is
produced locally. The community intensively wants to develop CBT and is working closely
together with Inn Chit Thu (IDGY-04).
Leponlay has a population of about 500. The village is located at the south side of thelake in some distance from the main road. The connection road is in bad condition. Until today
the economic base of the village is mainly fishery and some agriculture. Fishery does not work
well anymore and CBT is seen as a chance for alternative income (IDGY-05). So, in 2018 thecommunity started to establish CBT. The idea is to offer all needed touristic services (food,vehicles, guide). The food comes entirely from local organic farming. The guide is a member
from Inn Chit Thu. In particular, the village tries to build accommodations (for 10 guests) on
community land. This project is – in the way it is planned – a good example of CBT. However, it
is quite challenging, in particular regarding the accommodation approval and the road

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)131

improvement. Regarding the accommodation issue relevant stakeholders (e.g. townshipadministration, parliament member) are supporting the project.
In summary, the initiatives in tourism show positive elements of CBT/CIT. Until now allundertakings are small-scale and locally based. In Leponlay the idea is that a (small) share of
profits of private activities (e.g. from handicrafts) is going to the community in order to support
other village projects.

Tourism and nature protection – a dual relation
Tourism in the Indawgyi Lake area does have quite a number of characteristics, which arein line with the nature protection aim. Some even support the aims quite remarkably. The
following aspects might be named:Tourism is staying on a small scale and is a local one. Thus, the number of tourists are limited
until now and the locals have an interest to keep the environment attractive.
 At least in Tonsankha and Leponlay cultivation and trade of organic local food is an
important element. It supports the idea of nature and living with nature.
 The activities of the tourists are very much orientated to nature (i.e. birdwatching) and carriedout in an environmentally sound way (hiking, biking, kayaking).
 The activities of Inn Chit Thu, in particular the guided tours intend to give an idea andunderstanding of the nature of the lake area to the tourists. In doing so, Inn Chit Thu supports
the education aim of the sanctuary in an almost ideal way.
 In the villages, which are dealing with tourism, the people become more aware ofenvironmental and hygienic issues, for instance during trainings. One specific and important
aspect is the dealing with waste.
However, it has to be kept in mind that tourism is an economic activity with effects,
which might act in contradiction to the aims of nature conservation. In the Indawgyi Lake Areasuch effects are at least until now not caused by the number of tourists and this probably will also
not be the case in future. The people involved in the tourism sector are aware of the threat of too
many tourists and try to develop a small scale, CBT-oriented one. An expert stated:“We do not like to have a big hotel in the village and most of the locals like to develop
CBT here” (IDGY-04).
But, problems do exist on land use matters and probably will further intensify in the
future. Of course, the most attractive spots are areas with a good view of the landscape (i.e. lakeview). This already causes conflicts when accommodation owners want to establish a sitting
place in the yard near the lake (IDGY-03). Also the biking path around the lake is a problem
because north of the lake the connection is more or less cut off (IDGY-04). This is notconvenient for bikers to tour around the lake. The trail is crossing the protected wetland. Fromthe perspective of tourism, it would be desirable to upgrade the trail. From the perspective of
nature protection, this is at least questionable.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)132

3.3 Future potentials and development paths – a critical discussion
For the Indawgyi Lake area tourism seems to be the only way, which can have thepotential for a further economic sector, which is urgently necessary to improve the life of people.
But, tourism should be in a form which meets the needs of the conflicting circumstances locatedin the region and the needs for nature protection. This requires a limitation of the number oftourists and these tourists should be interested in nature. Thus a kind of combination between
ecotourism and CIT seems to be a decisive clue for a prospecting future.
Hiking, biking and boat rides are assumed positive basic activities to explore nature. So
hiking paths have to be laid out and at least a biking path around the lake is necessary. At the
moment, the main roads might be used for biking. In the future, a separate path, which also canbe used by hikers, would be optimal. This is not easy to implement in order to meet the demandsof the tourists (close to the lake shore) and simultaneously the necessities of nature protection.
Boat rides should be done by ecologically sound boats (e.g. kayaking, rowing or battery/solar
driven) with guides, who are aware of the ecology of the lake in order to give information to thetourists. Of course, hiking and biking can be done in groups with a guide. Additionally, selfguided tours should be possible (information signs or boxes with information flyers at points ofinterest) in order to inform the tourists about nature and culture of the area.
With regard to the idea of accommodation in Leponlay the approval will hopefully be given
soon. The project contributes a lot to the idea of community-based tourism and simultaneously
supports the aims of protecting nature.

4. Conclusion
CBT/CIT is locally-embedded and corresponds to the idea of endogenous and sustainable
development. And it can meet the specific needs of nature protection. A major challenge is toconceptualise an appropriate touristic development for the whole region. Primarily, CBT/CIT isorientated to smaller communities. In the Indawgyi Lake area it has to be organized for a bigger
region, in which many villages are located. For sure not all villages can participate intensively
because of the given limitations. This may not be a problem at the moment, but will be achallenge in the future, if tourism has been proven as a successful economic activity and more
villages want to take part. Thus the entire Indawgyi Lake area needs a detailed plan, which
villages should be involved and how CBT/CIT should be implemented. Such a plan has to be
jointly developed and discussed openly with the residents in a fair, transparent and trustworthy
way. Moreover, this needs to be coupled with sincere negotiations of peace making, which is so
far not on the agenda. Probably the conflicting parties, first of all, have to have a deeper mutualinterest for going for a ceasefire agreement. This might well be initiated and carried by impulses
for a small-scale tourism development, benefiting all parties involved.

Acknowledgements
This research project was possible because of the generous cooperation of experts and citizens of Indawgyi
Lake, namely the Mohnyin General Administrative Office, members of the Rural Development Committee,
Indawgyi Wildlife Conservation team in Loneton Town and Indawgyi Wildlife Conservation office in Mohnyin,
Friends of Wildlife team, Indaw Maha Guesthouse, Inn Chit Thu, parliament member from Nanmun, community
members of Leponlay and Tonsankha village.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

133

References[1] Pike, A., Rodriguez-Pose, A., Tomaney, J., “Local and Regional Development”, London/New York: Routledge,
2006.
[2] Tödtling, F., “Endogenous approaches to local and regional development policy”, in: Pike, A. Rodriguez-Pose,
A., John, T. (eds.), “Handbook of Local and Regional Development”, New York: Routledge,
2011, pp. 333–343.
[3] ASEAN, “ASEAN Community-Based Tourism Standard”, Jakarta, 2016, http://www.asean.org/ storage/2012/05/ASEAN-Community-Based-Tourism-Standard.pdf (access:05.08. 2019).
[4] MoHT (Ministry of Hotels and Tourism), “Policy on Community Involvement in Tourism (CIT)”, https://tourism.gov.mm/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Community-Involvement-Tourism-in-Myanmar.
pdf, 2013 (access: 24.07.2019).
[5] MRTI (Myanmar Responsible Tourism Institute), “Thandaunggyi Community Tourism Development.
Conference Report”, http://www.myanmarresponsibletourism.org/, 2016 (access: 02.08.2019).
[6] Weidemann, P., “Community Involvement in Tourism (CIT) in Myanmar. Comparison of Pilot Projects;
Identification of Common Challenges”, http://www.myanmarresponsibletourism.org/ learningresources/, 2016 (access: 06.08.2019).
[7] Zin Mar Than, “Socio-Economic Development of Indawgyi Lake Area, Kachin State, Myanmar”, Stuttgart:
Franz Steiner Verlag, 2017.
[8] Haeusler, N., Zin Mar Than, Kraas, F., “Tourism as a tool for peace? Between the lines – Thandaung Gyi in
Kayin State, Myanmar”, in: Isaac, R.K., Çakmak, E., Butler, R. (eds), “Tourism and Hospitality
in Conflict-Ridden Destinations”, New York: Routledge, 2019, pp. 84-103.
[9] Bryman, A., “Social research methods”, New York: Oxford University Press, 2012.
[10] Davies, J., Sebastian, A. C., Chan, S., “A Wetland Inventory for Myanmar”, Tokyo: Ministry of theEnvironment, Japan, 2014.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

Perceived Impacts of Tourism, Quality of Life and Support for Tourism
Development at Community Based Tourism in Myaing Township
Aye Thanda Soe1, Khin Sandar Thein2

Abstract
Community-based tourism (CBT) is a way to promote rural development and hence support
poverty alleviation especially for developing countries. This study aims to examine the residents’
perceptions on impact of tourism, quality of life and to analyze the effect of their perceptions on
support for tourism development at Myaing CBT site in Magway Region. Data was collected from
200 local residents from 1,249 residents at four villages in Myaing using simple random sampling
method. According to the results of regression analysis, it was found that residents in Myaing havea perceived high positive and low negative impacts of tourism to have satisfaction on their qualityof life, which in turn, all these perceptions of residents affect their support for tourism
development. The findings revealed that CBT developers should focus on the well-being ofresidents and also attract them to actively participate in CBT and create favorable attitudes
towards CBT to have their support for future tourism development.
Keywords: Community-based tourism, tourism impacts, quality of life, support for tourism
development

1. Introduction
The main purpose of this paper is to address the research gap to comprise local residents’satisfaction of quality of life in considering the impacts of tourism on support for tourism
development. This study draws on the effect of positive and negative impacts of residents on
CBT at Myaing Township in Magway Region, Myanmar, which is the significant role incontribution to the support of tourism development. In addition, this study investigates whether
residents’ quality of life influence on additional support to CBT.
CBT is defined as economically, environmentally, socially and culturally responsible
visitation to local, indigenous communities to enjoy and appreciate their cultural and natural
heritage whose tourism resources, products and services are developed and managed with theiractive participation and whose benefits from tourism, tangible or intangible, are collectively
enjoyed by the communities [1]. CBT is considered as a tool for community development andcultural, natural and environmental conservation. It contributes the approach to help the processof the community development [2] and it has been regarded as a strategy to generate economic
gain and to develop the local community, economically and socially.
However, CBT requires the engagement, participation and support of the local residents
to make planning, policy implication for additional tourism development, and well operations ofcurrent and future CBT development. It is also noted that getting fully support and participationfrom local residents is the most challenge to the lCBT developers. This challenge seem obvious
in Myaing township which is viewed as one of the most conservative CBT sites, where there arefull of Myanmar values, traditions, culture, and life style of local community. Myaing CBT is thefirst CBT project implemented in Myanmar, which has been lasted about 4 years since its
12

Professor and Head, Department of Tourism, National Management Degree College, ayethandasoe@nmdc.edu.mm
Assistant Lecturer, Department of Commerce, Monywa University of Economics, lay.sansan@gmail.com,

136

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)establishment by Action Aid Myanmar, an INGO operating in Myanmar. Therefore, now is thetime to measure its impact on local community and potential for sustainable development in the
future. Not only that, in order to get participation and support from the local community, theresidents’ perception towards the impacts of tourism on their support to the tourism development
is a significant issue.
Liu and Var [3] pointed that tourism development is usually evaluated on the basis of
economic benefits and challenged on the grounds of social, cultural, and environmental effects.
Therefore, the term ‘tourism impact’ has been paid more and more attention in the tourism
literature. It has been the awareness that not only the positive impacts but also negative impacts
drive to the support for additional tourism development.
To provide a deeper understanding of the factors affecting residents' support, this study isbased on the Social Exchange Theory (SET). Social Exchange Theory has been the mostcommonly useful framework in explaining residents' responses to tourism development [4][5].
SET considers social interactions as an exchange of resources, suggesting that individuals arelikely to engage in an exchange if they expect to gain benefits from it without incurring
unacceptable costs [6]. In relation to tourism, residents' perception is built upon their evaluationof tourism “in terms of expected benefits or costs obtained in return for the services they supply”[6]. If the perceived positive impacts (benefits) outweigh the potential negative consequences(costs), residents are likely to support tourism development [7-9]. As such, residents' perceptionsof the impacts of tourism are an important consideration for successful operation anddevelopment of tourism [10, 11].
In addition, quality of life is one of the key indicators to reflect the prosperity and thewell-being of the community [12]. Kim [13] suggested to study the impact of tourism on theoverall living conditions of the of tourism destinations, and to examine whether residents who
have already received benefits from tourism will support more of the same. Previous researchers
found the impact of tourism did have effect on the quality of life for local community [14, 15].
Therefore, the quality of life is the main antecedent of support for additional tourism
development [16]. Based on the above literature review, the conceptual framework of the study
has been shown in the following Figure. In this framework, community perception on impact of
CBT have effect on their quality of life, and then which in turn has effect on support for tourism.
There is also direct effects from impacts of tourism on support for tourism development as well.

Positive Impact
Qualityof Life
Negative
ImpactFigure1. Conceptual Framework of the Study

Support for
TourismDevelopment

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)137

2. Method
This paper used quantitative research method. Both primary and secondary data wereapplied. Secondary data was collected from the village administrative office of Inn Yaung
Village track to know the population of the households; previous research and literature werealso collected for literature review. For the primary data, households from four villages (Kan Gyi
Taw Village 1 and 2, Su Lae Pan Village, and Inn Yaung Village) participating in CBT in
Myaing, Magway Region, in collaboration with Action Aid Myanmar, a non-governmentalorganization. There were 1,249 households totally in four villages and 200 households weresurveyed by personal interview method using structured questionnaire with five-point Likert
scale items. Sample households were selected by simple random sampling method from four
villages which was assigned proportionately after calculating the required sample size with finite
population. The questionnaire was composed of two parts: first part asked the demographic
characteristics of the respondent (the household Head or the second most authoritative person in
the household) and second part included the questions concerning with the perceived positive andnegative impacts of CBT, quality of life and support for tourism. For perceived impact of CBT, it
was considered to include from economic, social, cultural, and environment aspects for both
positive and negative sides. Positive impacts of CBT were measure by 20 items while negative
impacts included 26 items. All of those questionnaires were based on Satarat [17]. Quality of life
was measured by formative concept and subjective well-being [18] which included material wellbeing, community well-being, emotional well-being and health & safety well-being. Material
well-being was measured by 7 items. Community well-being was measured by 5 items.
Emotional well-being was measured by 5 items. Health & safety well-being was measured by 6
items. For support of tourism from the local residents of CBT, households were asked with 8
items for support of additional tourism [12]. Regression analysis was used to analyze the data in
SPSS.
3. Results and Discussion
First and foremost, reliability of the construct variables was checked with Cronbach’s
alpha value in order to test the internal consistency. It was found that all of the variables wereabove the 0.7 cut off criteria that they have high reliability. And then, mean values were shown tomeasure the local residents’ perception of positive and negative impacts of CBT, their quality oflife and support for additional tourism. Table 1 shows the mean, standard deviation and reliability
statistics of all the construct variables. It was found that residents in Myaing had quite highpositive perception on CBT as their perceived positive impact was 4.15 and they had very low
perceived negative impact of CBT, having 2.22 mean value. Local people in Myaing CBT had
moderately high satisfaction on their quality of life, shown by its mean score of 3.87. It was agood point that residents had high level of support for additional tourism in their community(mean = 4.34).

138

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

Table1. Mean, standard deviation and reliability of construct variables
Mean

Standard deviation

Reliability

Positive impact

4.15

0.41

0.815

Negative impact

2.22

0.46

0.842

Quality of life

3.87

0.47

0.865

Support for tourism development

4.34

0.47

0.837

Source: SPSS output (August 2019)
Subsequently, multiple linear regression analysis was run in SPSS to analyze the effect of
local residents’ perception of positive and negative impacts of CBT on their perceived
satisfaction on quality of life. Table 2 results showed that the model was acceptable with Rsquare value of 0.230. It was found from the result that residents’ perceived positive impact of
CBT has positive, significant impact on their perceived quality of life satisfaction (β= 0.485, p=
0.000). Based on the instrumental perspective, local residents of Myaing believed that when they
have positive benefit from CBT, their quality of life will also be improved. Interestingly,
perceived negative impact also had positive but small amount, and significant impact on qualityof life satisfaction as well (β= 0.217, p= 0.001). This does not mean that negative benefit of CBT
would increase quality of life satisfaction. However, seeing from the low mean value of negative
impact, local residents still had very good impression on CBT and they also seemed to be readyto accept the side effect of tourism even though not so willingly.
Table2. The Effect of Positive and Negative Impacts of CBT on Quality of Life
Unstandardized
coefficientStandardized
coefficient

t

Sig

4.211

0.000

B

Std error

Constant

1.375***

0.327

Positive
Impact0.485***

0.072

0.422

6.742

0.000

Negative
Impact0.217***

0.063

0.215

3.434

0.001

F valueBeta

29.374***

R2

0.230

Adjusted R2

0.222

Source: SPSS output (August 2019)

When testing the regression analysis of residents’ quality of life on support for tourism
development, quality of life has positive, significant impact on support for tourism development(β= 0.261, p=000). But R-square value was not so high (0.067) that the explanatory power wasquite low. The result of simple linear regression was shown in Table 3 as follow.

139

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

Table3. The Effect of Quality of Life on Support for Tourism
Unstandardized
coefficientStandardized
coefficientB

Std error

Constant

3.332***

0.268

Quality oflife

0.261**
*

0.069

Sig

12.41
5

0.000

3.783

0.000

Beta

0.260

F valuet

14.310***

R

0.260
2

Adjusted R

0.067

Source: SPSS output (August 2019)

Even though a lot of factors influence on quality of life, it can be concluded that
residents’ perception of quality of life has positive influence on support for tourism. Local
residents expect higher quality of life to be created by tourism and thus local authorities, CBT
initiative committee should ensure that they support them well taking care of the wellbeing of thecommunity. Again, it was necessary to test the direct effect of positive and negative impacts of
CBT on residents’ support for additional tourism, multiple linear regression was run again in
SPSS and the result was shown in Table 4.
Table4.The Effect of Positive and Negative Impact of CBT on Support for Tourism Development
Unstandardized
coefficientStandardized
coefficient

t

Sig

8.178

0.000

B

Std error

Constant

2.356***

0.288

Positive Impact

0.650***

0.063

0.563

10.2500.000

Negative Impact-.320***

0.056-0.316-5.7550.000

F value2

Beta

67.310***

R

0.406

Adjusted R2

0.400

Source: SPSS output (August 2019)

From Table 4, it was seen that when people perceived positive benefits from CBT, theywould convey support for additional tourism, being positive, significant effect from positive
impact on support for tourism (β= 0.650, p= 0.000). The effect of negative impact of CBT on
support was negatively significant that when they perceived negative benefits from CBT,
residents would have less support for tourism (β=-0.320, p= 0.000). Since adjusted R2 was 0.400,
it could be concluded that 40% of the residents’ support for tourism was explained by theirperceived positive and negative impact of CBT on their community. This is in line with the social

140

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

exchange theory because according to this theory, people tend to react in the same way they aretreated in their perception. Therefore, it is very important for the policy makers to consider
creating better positive image of tourism among local community rather than negative ones.
While serving the best interest of the tourists, government should not forget the role of the local
community and to create better image leaving the positive externalities only to the residents.
Finally, to test of mediation effect of quality of life satisfaction on the relationship between
positive and negative impacts of tourism on support for tourism, another multiple linear
regression was run and shown in Table 5.
Table5. The Mediating Effect of Quality of Life on Impacts of Tourism towards Support for
Tourism
Unstandardized
coefficientStandardized
coefficient

t

Sig

7.341

0.000

B

Std error

Constant

2.194***

0.299

Positive Impact

0.593***

0.070

0.514

8.482

0.000

Negative Impact-.346**

0.057-0.341

6.075

0.000

Quality of life

0.118*

0.062

0.117

0.188

0.060

F valueBeta

46.646***

2

R

0.417
2

Adjusted R

0.408

Source: SPSS output (August 2019)

Following the Baron & Kenny approach, all the preconditions of the mediation analysis
were tested and were significant that, mediation test was proceeded. When quality of life
satisfaction was entered into the regression, the effect of positive impact on support was still
significant and negative impact either. Thus, it could be concluded that quality of life serves as amediation on the relationships between impacts of CBT and support for tourism development.
Having the positive and negative impacts of tourism could enhance or degrade the quality of life
and that can in turn influence the residents’ support for additional tourism development.
4. Conclusion
The purpose of this study is to find the effect of positive and negative attitudes towards
CBT on the local residents’ perceptions of quality of life as well as their support on tourism
development. Using the social exchange theory, residents of Myaing CBT were assumed to havetheir support for tourism development depending on their positive and negative benefits
perceived from CBT. This paper also tries to incorporate residents’ satisfaction on their quality oflife arising from the impact of CBT, to consider the stakeholder perspective and community
development as a goal for sustainable tourism development. It was found that local residents ofMyaing had a good attitude towards tourism because they have high perception of positive
impacts by CBT but a low perception of having negative impacts. The impacts of CBT include

141

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

different perspectives such as economic, social, cultural and environmental impacts that thispaper tries to include not only economic (egocentric) perspective but also other emotional andsocial perspectives in considering their response behaviours towards support for tourism. To be
more comprehensive, the effect of perceived tourism impacts on residents’ satisfaction of qualityof life by considering community development as the main target of developing CBT. It was
found that residents of Myaing CBT community were also highly satisfied with their quality oflife. Under the proper implementation of the CBT project by Action Aid Myanmar and local
authorities, people in Myaing CBT area could earn a good material wellbeing, social, andemotional and health and safety wellbeing in their community. They seemed to enjoy thefacilities developed directly and indirectly through CBT development, income generation
opportunities derived from CBT, the pride to show off their culture while improving the betterand safer environmental conditions.
From the logical results, it is found that when people receive positive benefits, they would
react with the support for the tourism development but they will not do so when they perceive
they have negative externalities. For the sustainable development of community and tourism, it isvery important to have local residents’ participation and their support. At the same time, tourism
should not neglect the benefits of community for sustainable development that this paper is reallycomprehensive in nature. Through the results, it could be suggested that policy makers, tourism
developers should take a balanced approach or triple bottom line approach for implementation of
their projects. Tourists are to be served with the best effort of the tour operators, and the industry
yet, the satisfaction and wellbeing of the community should never be a failure. Taking care ofsafe and sound environment is beneficial not only for the tourists but also for the local
community concerned. For future researchers, it would be a great to include community
attachment and place identity for seeing the big picture.

Acknowledgements
We would like to convey our special thanks to the responsible persons from Action Aid Myanmar for theirkind arrangement for data collection. We also would like to extend our deep gratitude to graduate students of Masterof Commerce at Monywa University of Economics for their help in data collection process. Without their help, thisresearch would not have been success. Again, without the support of the residents of the Kan Gyi Taw Village 1 and
2, Su Lae Pan Village, and Inn Yaung Village) participating in CBT in Myaing, Magway Region, this researchwould not have been possible. They have contributed with their sincere response towards survey questions.

142

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

References[1] Boonratana, Ramesh. “Community-based Tourism in Thailand: The Need and Justification for an Operational
Definition”. Kasetsart Journal: Social Sciences, vol.31, no. 2, 2010, pp. 280-289.
[2] Suansri, Potjana. Community-based Tourism Handbook. Responsible Ecological Social Tour-REST. 2003.
[3] Juanita C. Liu & Turgur Var. “Resident Attitudes Towards Tourism Impacts in Hawaii”. Annals of Tourism
Research, vol 13, no. 2, 1986, pp. 193-214.
[4] Robin Nunkoo & Haywantee Ramkissoon. “Developing a Community Support Model for Tourism”. Annals of
Tourism Research, vol. 38, no. 3, 2011, pp. 964-988.
[5] Girish Prayag; Sameer Hosany; Robin Nunkoo & Taila Alders. “London Residents' Support for the 2012
Olympic Games: The Mediating Effect of Overall Attitude”. Tourism Management, vol. 36, 2013,
pp. 629-640..
[6] John Ap. “Residents' Perceptions on Tourism Impacts”. Annals of Tourism Research, vol. 19, no. 4, 1992, pp.
665-690.
[7] Pam Dyer; Dogan Gursoy; Bishnu Sharma & Jennifer Lynn Carter. “Structural Modelling of Resident
Perceptions of Tourism and Associated Development on the Sunshine Coast, Australia”. Tourism
Management, vol. 28, no. 2, 2007, pp. 409-422.
[8] Dogan Gursoy; Christina G. Chi & Pam Dyer.“Locals' Attitudes Toward Mass and Alternative Tourism: The
Case of Sunshine Coast, Australia”. Journal of Travel Research, vol. 49, no. 3, 2010, pp. 381-394.
[9] Dong Wan Ko & William P. Stewart.“A Structural Equation Model of Residents' Attitudes for Tourism
Development”. Tourism Management, vol. 23, no. 5, 2002, pp. 521-530.
[10] Konstantinos Andriotis & Roger D. Vaughan. “Urban Residents' Attitudes toward Tourism Development: The
Case of Crete”. Journal of Travel Research, vol. 42, no. 2, 2003, pp. 172-185.
[11] Nancy G. Mcgehee & Kathleen L. Andereck . “Factors Predicting Rural Residents' Support of Tourism”.
Journal of Travel Research, vol. 43, no. 2, 2004, pp. 131-140.
[12] Yusnita Yusof, Yahaya Ibrahim, Mohd Shaladdin Muda, & Wan Mohd Amin. “Community Based Tourism andQuality of Life”. Review of Integrative Business and Economics Research, vol. 1, no. 1, 2012, pp.
336.
[13] Kyungmi Kim. The Effects of Tourism Impact upon Quality of Life of Residents in the Community. 2002.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.
[14] Claudia Jurowski & Dogan Gursoy. “Distance Effects on Residents’ Attitudes toward Tourism”. Annals of
Tourism Research, vol. 31, no. 2, 2004, pp. 296-312.
[15] Muzaffer Uysal; M. Joseph Sirgy; Eunju Woo; Hyelin Kim. “Quality of Life and Well-being Research in
Tourism”. Tourism Management, vol. 53, 2016, pp. 244-261. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2015.07.013[16] Eunju Woo; Hyelin Kim & Muzaffer Uysal. “Life Satisfaction and Support for Tourism Development”. Annalsof Tourism Research, vol. 50, 2015, pp. 84-97. doi:10.1016/j.annals.2014.11.001[17] Nopparat Satarat. Sustainable Management of Community-based Tourism in Thailand. Unpublished Doctoral
dissertation. 2010. National Institute of Development Administration, Bangkok, Thailand.
[18] Kyungmi Kim; Muzaffer Uysal & M. Joseph Sirgy. “How Does Tourism in a Community Impact the Quality ofLife of Community Residents?” Tourism Management, vol. 36, 2013, pp. 527-540.
doi:10.1016/j.tourman 2012.09.005

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

Socio-cultural Factors of Pathel Village, Falam Township in Chin State in
MyanmarKhin Saw Nwe1, Aung Cho2, Hein Latt3, Thura Aung4
Abstract
Chin State is situated in the Western sector of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar, the 13, 907
square miles Chin State is home to Chins. In Myanmar, they predominantly inhabit Chin State,
which is located in the Northwest of the country, the bordering Bangladesh to the west and India
to the north. The Chin State is divided into two divisions. Northern and Southern During the
British Colonial period, the Chin State was under. A Socio-economic study of Falam Townshipwas carried out in 2014. A structured questionnaire was used to collect information. A northernsample of 30 households in 6 villages was selected. A house to house visit was made by 2interviewers. There are many collections of the historical and socio-cultural evidences of thevillages. Out of these villages, the name of the village, Parthel, is explained briefly in this paper.
Keywords: Falam, Cultural, Parthel , interviewers.

1. Introduction
These facts and figures were obtained from the survey of the field trip to Falam, Chin
State, Chin Hills, Upper Chintwin. We will glance briefly at the western side of Myanmar, where
the hills are occupied by different kinds of Chins. Chin Hills as a whole, the true Chin Hills are
the mountainous ones between the Myitha River and the Assam border.
South of this region the Chin Boks, Chin Bone, Yindu and other Chin of the Pakokku Hill
Tracts, and the cane, bellied Chins (mogan) of the unadministered Country liner live between
Pakokku and Rakhine State, Still further South, at least to Thayet and Pyay are yet other Chins
who are more or less Burmanised.
The Chins as a whole are classified as(i)
Northern (Chin Hills Proper)(ii)
Central (Pakokku Hill Tracts) and(iii)
Southern (Minbu, Thayet, Pyay, etc.)
Chin Hills Proper are again divided for administration purposes into Northern, Central
and Southern or, if preferred, into Siyin Thaukkate (Sokte), Tashon and Haka. The NorthernHills (Tiddim) are inhabited by the Thado, Yo, Siyin, Sokte, or Thaukkate and Kamhaung tribes.
The central (Falam) by Tashon, Lomban, Laiso, Kwangli, Wheingo and Yahow who are Lai, and,Southern (Haka) by Hsemtong, Zhotung, Lawhtu, Wantu, and by Haka, Yokwa, Ktang Klang,
Bwal and Kwatringtlong. The last five are also lai, though the Haka (a group of about ten
villages-including the parent village) claim to be the only true Lai.
The Pakokku Hill tracts, of which Kanpetlet is the administrative centre, are divided into
a number of great Chin Bok Valleys or Chaungs. These are called the East Maw, West Maw,
1

Dr, Professor, History Department, Yangon University of Distance Education, dr.khinsawnwe123@gmail.com
Dr, Lecturer, Department of Zoology, University of Yangon
3
Assistant Lecturer, Department of Economics, Yangon University of Distance Education
4
Tutor, Department of Economics, Yangon University of Distance Education2

144

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

Hnaw, Yaw, Maung, and Kyauksit Chaungs. Further south, round Kanpetlet, are the Salin
Paukadu-Piedaw Chaungs inhabited by yintu. Other minor Chin races along the border are theMatu yopa and Mgan. The last are better known to us at “Cane-bellied Chin” from their peculiar
dresses which consist only of cane hoops round the stomach. Along the foot of these Chin Hills
on the Myanmar side, are curious people called Toungtha and Yawthas or “Children of the yaw”
District.
The Yawthas are possibly of Shan Origin, but are now indistinguishable from Burman
except for their patois. The Taungthas are probably a hybrid race of Chin origin, though now
largely Burmanised. The women still retain a curious national costume. Yindus, but do not now
inter-marry with Chins. They are Buddhists, and are believed to have lived at one time on theslopes of Mt.Popa. The second great branch of the migration, and the one we are here concerned
with, turned south and overran Myanmar in three main streams Chin, Kachin, Bamar and Lolo.
The Chin stream, taking the line of the Chindwin distributed itself along the mountains down thewhole length of Myanmar on its western side. A generation ago the Kuki Chins left the Chin
Hills, settled in Myanmar and since 1877 have re-entered Myanmar again in the Somara Hill
Tracts at a point considerably to the north of their original settlement.
The early history of Myanmar is the story of immigration of the races now occupying it.
To observe the Chin tribes, it is known that, three species diverged from Tibet-Myanmar family
and they came down into Tibet, Assam and Myanmar. Assam-Myanmar species is comprised ofsix groups. They are;(i)
Nga-ga group(ii)
Kuki-chin group(iii)
Thet group(iv)
Kachin group(v)
Myanmar group and(vi)
Lolo group
Koki-Chin group spreads in different directions over a wide area such as Somara Hills,
Chin Hills and Thandwe. They settle down in forty four localities. Nothern Chins such as
Thadaw, Siyin, Kamhaung and Yoe settle down in northern part of Chindwin river. Central Chinssuch as Le and Lushay or Whelanga settle down in Tiddim, Falam, Haka and Kampetlet.
Southern Chins such as Kyaw, Ahnu, Kaungro live in Rakhine State. Thaung Chin whichis included in Southern Chin and to live in Pakokku, Hteelin, Saw and Gangaw township. They
weave the famous “Yaw” longyis. She and Uhami; who live in Thayet and Minbu districts arealso Southern Chins. Language-affinities have been discovered which, as our knowledge
advances, link various people into definite groups. From such evidence only, and by examining
the present distribution of the races, it is possible to reconstruct the story of these extraordinary
immigrations. These facts and figures were obtained from the survey of the field trip to Falam,Chin State in Myanmar.
The Professor of History Dr Khin Saw Nwe and the Professor and Head of Anthropology
Dr Mya Mya Khin jointly conducted a survey of Falam and its neighbouring villages with thepermission of Yangon University Asia Research Centre. A Socio-economic study of Falam
Township was carried out. A structured questionnaire was used to collect information. A
northern sample of 30 households in Six villages selected. A house to house visit was made by19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)145

two interviewers. There are many collections of the historical and social-cultural evidences of thevillages. Out of these villages, the name of the village, Parthe, is explained briefly in this paper.

2. Chins of Falam
Falam is comparatively well populated. Among Chin Villages Lomban, near Falam, is apretty large village, and may be taken as typical of the rest. On the opposite slopes across thevalley huge settlements of 400 houses are seen covering great areas of mountain side. In a Chinvillage each tenement is fenced in, leaning a maze of little public paths between the fences. The
houses are thatched. The usual trophies hang in the porch. The interior is dark, the roof being
hung with corn-cobs, and the floor piled with gourds. These are the chief items of diet. The floor
is usually boarded, which gives a superficial appearance of cleanliness.

2.1 Chin languages
The variety of language and dialects in the Chin Hills is bewildering. The language of one
village is hardly intelligible to people living a few miles away.
Before the British colonial period incessant and bitter feuds intensified these differences.
The several language may, however, be placed very roughly under two groups-Northern andCentral-Southern. The languages in each group are basically the same, though mutually
unintelligible. However, under British rule, the speech of the most important tribes has assumed acertain currency, so that Kamhow is generally understood in the North, Laizo in the Centre, andLai in the South. Of these, Laizo and Lai are – sufficiently alike for Falams and Hakas tounderstand each other with difficulty. The curse of Babel has indeed fallen upon these people.
Chins in Government service usually communicate with each other either in Bamar or Hindustani
more often the latter. Most of the Siyins and Urdu well.
Nowadays, Chin villagers as well as city people can speak Myanmar language well.
Christian missions, pastors and village headmen are implementing social welfare, economy,
education and health programmes in Chin villages. The government, local non-governmentalorganizations, international non-governmental organizations and United Nations Food andAgriculture Organization (FAO) provide assistance on agriculture, water supply, social security,
economy, education and health care service in Chin Hills.
The six villages which were visited for the survey are Lonpi, Many Kheny, Zar Linen,
Laizo, Lomban Parthe and Cizaymul. We obtained the facts and figures by interviewing andsurveying the local people of Chin villages. Why Parthe village is mentioned in the research
paper is that it is similar to other villages and ancient, it is also related to traditional culture of
Chins. Chin language Parthe is meant by flower.
3. The survey of Falam Township in Chin State
Nowadays, Chin villagers as well as Falam city people can speak Myanmar Language
very well. Christian missions, pastors and village headmen are implementing social welfare,economy, education and health programmes in villages. The government, local nongovernmental organizations, international non-governmental organizations, and United Nations
Food and Agriculture Organization provide assistance on agriculture, water supply, social

146

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

welfare, economy, education and health in Chin Hills. Successful attempts can be seen now.
Concerning the economy of the villages, there are rice barns in some villages.
Concerning the agriculture, necessary aids have been given to gardening, cultivation, mobile
farms and permanent farms. Cabbages, apples, chayotes, oranges, corns, tomatoes and grapes arecultivated in the region and sent to other regions. Cotton weaving, weaving thatch for roofing,making traditional handicrafts of bamboo and rattan can be seen in Chin Hills.
The government as well as other organizations lend loans for the development ofagriculture in Chin State. Houses in Chin Hills are chalet built of pine wood. We can see that
corrugated iron sheets are used for roofing instead of using thatch. Chalets having long legs canbe seen on the mountain slopes. Construction of chalets has improved a lot. In the restaurants,
corn and beef which is known as sar-bu-tee and other meals which are cooked with corn areavailable for three hundred kyats per dish. Aung-lauk pea is also their favourite one.
The stone crosses with names and dates of death on them can be observed on the slopesof the mountains beside the motorway to commemorate the late people. Motorways are being
broadened in the whole state so that road communication is gradually improving. In the highway
buses, videos which speak Mizo language can be watched. Traditional songs have been
converted to modern ones. On the way to Falam, barking deer, wild boars and monkeys inhabit
in the jungle. Onion and garlic are grown three times a year in northern Chin State. Yam tuber iswidely grown in southern Chin State. Myauk-ngo fruits are exported to India.
Falam used to be the headquarters of the Chin Special Divisional Commissioner. Thereis the Independence Pagoda at the entrance of the city. There are department of traditional
medicine, Public Health Foundation, non-governmental Organization, Religious associations,
Myanmar Post and Telecommunication office, courts, office of auditor-general, churches, ageneral hospital, Basic Education Schools and religious school in Falam.
In observation of the six villages very close to Falam, the author would like to describe
Parthel village. It is said that it is a one thousand and fourteen years old ancient village. Parthe
village is located in Lonbum village to the east, Lathee and Lomzam villages to the west. The
area of it is four square miles and there are four hundred and ninety villagers in ninety
households. In summer, there are some courses such as cake baking courses and sewing courses
in the village. The young villagers go to Falam for their education. There are not enoughmidwives in the village. There are also social services such as women’s association, andcharities.
The villagers help each other in constructing houses. Some relatives of Parthel villagers
live in Manipur and India. The transportation is very difficult. In this paper, it will deal with wayof life, especially of the Northern Chin people as briefly. But nowadays, as promotions weremade in transport and communication of Chin States, travels become easy and smooth in theways of life in Northern Chin Society. The tribal groups in Myanmar. Thinking and belief wereso primitive and it was slowed to develop their society. Like other tribal ethnic people, the chinpeople have their beautiful culture and way of life. Since ancient times, there have beendifferences in their history, level of socio-economic development, custom, belief, and religion.
Therefore, the custom, culture, beliefs and language of the different races differ
according to their geographical location, climate, and communications. Nowadays we are livinga trend of 21st century world. Alone with the changing of the world. Unfortunately, some tribal

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)147

languages, cultures, customs and literature have been lost. On the other hand, it is impossible topractice or follow all of the old or ancient traditions in this knowledge age as extremely.
However, we have to keep and develop our beautiful cultural resources which may keep us
something good for the betterment of our future community. The basic economic needs of theNorthern Chins depend on agriculture. A structured questionnaire was used to collectinformation, 6 villages Selected, Lon pi, Mang Kheng, Zar Linen, Lai zo, Lon yang, Pathe,
Cizaymul. There are many collections of the historical and Socio-cultural factors of the villages.
Out of these villages, the name of the village, Parthel means beautiful flower.
Parthe village is one of the oldest villages in Falam township. The basic economic needsof the Northern chins depend on agriculture. Parthel village, the basic crops are rice, maize,
millet and some vegetables. They raise pigs, chicken, dogs, and mythuns as domestic animals.
They use them especially in sacrifice and traditional feasts according to their belief in animism.
Rice is the main crop and raw material for “Zu” liquor (rice wine). Marriage is a social
obligation in all the chin society. In the village society, the dead bodies are not burnt. The deadbodies were wrapped with clothes and kept in the stone-caves. That place is far from the village
on the ridge of the hill. Later, they converted from animists to Buddhism and Christianity.
Parthe village’s economy is mainly based on agriculture shifting hillside cultivation and terrace
farming is used in cultivation. Padauk, Thitya, Ingyin are used for building their houses. Thazin,orchids and honey are also forest product and famous. Hill rice (Sat San) or millet of Northern
Chins are also grown.

3.1 Tradition and Customs of northern Chin
Every national races residing in the union of Myanmar has their own traditions andculture. As the chin people are comprised of many tribes, there are also many traditions as well
as festivals and dances. But in the present day, it is found that all the festivals cannot be heldwith the exception of some of them. However, on the significant days of the chins, the festivals
are held as the gesture to reveal their culture. It is found that the religion and the traditional
cultures of the whole chin region are very similar to those of the Tibeto-Burman group basicallythat migrated into Myanmar at the earliest times. Only in the later period, there were different
kinds of religion in chin state due to the penetration of religions, traditions and cultures fromabroad in the successive periods. It is found that the traditions practiced by the chin people in thesocial ceremonies such as offering and worshipping to the spirits and sacrifices are not so
different from other Tibeto-Burman tribes. Sacrifice to their recognized spirits is conductedtraditionally and the festivals are held whenever necessary.
The festivals can be divided into three categories such as, economy, social and religion.
The festivals concerning with the economy are held with the participation of the entire village.
Also in the social festival it can be divided as the festival for happiness and sorrow. Seed sowing
festival, harvest festival and traditional festival or eating the first crop and the worshipping
festival to the guardian of the farmlands are concerned with the economy. In the religious
festival with the exception of the common spirit worshipping festival of the whole village, otherworshipping festivals are concerned only with the tribes and are held at any time according totheir traditions and customs. The social festivals are the private and are celebrated occasionally.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)148

The Significant festivals are as follows;1.

Kwang Sai pwai

2.

Khuo Do pwai

3

Slaying of a tiger

4.

Law Ma Annet pwai

5.

Kyat Kyar Kok pwai

6.

Kyat Ma Phyu pwai

7.

Tan Ain pwai

8.

Crop high yield festival

9.

House warming festival

10.

Victory over the Animal

11.

Victory over the Enemy

3.2 Khua-Do or New Year festival
Khua Do or New Year festival is held in October after the harvest of the grains grown in
the rainy season. The word “Khua Do” is a compound word made up of “Khua” which means
village or villagers and “Do” means celebration or entertainment. In other words “Do” refers to
the opposition or fighting the enemy. The form of the festival varies from one tribe to anotherbut the ideology and the material objects used in the festival are common throughout all Khua
Do in Tidim, Khum Tom in Hkaha. Phan-Ai in Falam varies among spirits believers.
Christianity and Phauk chin Hauk believers. However, Khua Do can be divided into two
categories. Special Khua Do also known as “Do Mei” lasts four days but it is held every otherten years. The second one is called “Do Mo” or formal Khua Do, lasting three days. During thisNew Year festival, the chins go to the grave yard in order to pray for the souls or spirits of thedeceased ones. In this festival seeking beehive or wasps nest in the forest also plays a profoundpart. All the youths in the village leave for the forest to seek beehive.
It is believed that if someone dies the wasps would protect the body from insects andworm. The nests of the wasps are broken up and the larvae are taken out and examined very
carefully to see what they foretell about the future. If larvae are all healthy and strong, people
will be healthy the next year. If the number of larvae in the nets are many, there will be good
harvest and plenty the next year. To summarize the reasons for the celebration of “Khua Do”
festival are as follows:(i)

To entertain the souls of our departed ancestors whom we invited to the festival(ii)

To drive away all the evil spirits(iii)

To know about the next year through asking the spirit mediums.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

149

Methods-

Group Discussion-

Social Mapping
Interviewing with native people-

Searching for evidence- Data collection
Results and Discussion‐‐‐‐

This research is to attempt to explain about cultivators from the agricultural villages inFlam township in Chin State.
How they cope to fulfill their necessities for their livelihood and to analyze and highlighttheir strong and weak paint.
Capacity building research for sustainable development and poverty alleviation are
prevailing in Myanmar after 2012.
And then, expected outcome is Chin culture and present life and future prospect andinventive mind, Tourism development can bring native impact of Myanmar society.

4. Conclusion
Every national races residing in the union of Myanmar has their own traditions andcultures. The Chin people are comprised of many tribes, there are also traditions as well as
festivals and dances. In the present day, the festivals can be divided into three categories such as,
economy, social work and religion. A gentle handshake is a common greeting in Chin Culture. In
Chin Language, there are about forty to forty-five dialects of the chin culture. Myanmar
embraces all the national races. According to the census of 2014 the population of Myanmar is(51.3) million with the Bamar, the majority races making up about 70%. Falam township in later
period becomes as development township in Myanmar. Actually, the Falam township is also near
the township of Tamu, bordering with India. Therefore as it was possible to transport and sell the
products of Falam township to mainland, the natives’economy was developed.
The basic economic needs of the Northern Chins depend on agriculture. Transportation isvery difficult in this region, Nowadays, City Development Committee constructing to theinfrastructure. In preserving the traditions and customs in accordance with the policy of thepreserving culture, the traditions and customs that are beneficial should be preserved and thosewhich are not appropriate with the time should be forgotten gradually. The youths and the elder
persons have already understood this fact. When researchers from foreign countries are interested
in Chin traditions and culture, they can come and do research work and it will be of great help for
e-tourism in Myanmar.

Acknowledgements
I conducted the field survey to accomplish this research paper. I started this research from the year 2012 andfinished it in this year 2016. I wish to express my gratitude to the Rector and Pro – rector and I am also thankful to
Anthropology Department, Department of History, University of Yangon and University of Yangon Distance
Education. The librarian and staff of Yangon University Central Library.

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

150

References
Calhtan byu thar,This festival and this Dance, Chin National Literature and Culture Magazine, (1971-72)
Than Tun, M.A, B.L, Ph.D ( London ) Studies in Burmese History Number one,Yangon, Mahardagon publish,(1969)
Kyaw Win , Ma Naut Tha Cultural Festival, Shay Tho, No.353,1.10.79
Kyaw Win, Ma Naut Tha Strange Customs one the Hard Journey,Yangon, Sar Pay Beikman, (1983)
Lang Vung, Ma Marry Cing Traditions and Customs of Northern,Chin, 2006, M.Res-Philosophy Department.
Major C.M, Enriquez,Races of Burma, Second EditionDelhi, Manager of publications 1933.
Min Naing , U Doe Thway Doe Thar Taing Yin Bwar, 20th anniversary of department of cultureguide book,department of culture,1967
Saw Mone Nyin Khua Do, Lun Zin, No. 4, 15.2.70- The Brief History of Chins and their Traditional Culture and Customs, 2001
- The traditions and Customs of the Chins, Lanzin, No. 3, vol. ii, 15.1.1967- Myanma Socialist Programme Party Headquarters, The records of Chin State 1985
- The History of Lisu, the records of Kachin State 1970

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

Isolation of Piperine from the Fruit of Piper longum L. (Peik-chin) and Some
Bioactivities of Piperine
Ei Ei Khaing1

Abstract
The fruit of Piper longum L. (Peik-chin) used in the treatment of diarrhea and dysentery in
traditional Myanmar medicinal system was chosen for present study. The aim of the study is toisolate active principle from Piper longum fruit and to screen some bioactivities: antibacterial andlarvicidal activities of isolated compound. The isolated compound, piperine (2.57 g, 1.80 % yield,
m.pt. 130 °C) from ethyl acetate extract of Piper longum fruit was isolated by solvent extraction,column and thin layer chromatographic methods. It was characterized by some physical properties
such as Rf value and melting point besides some chemical properties. The structure of isolated
compound was elucidated and identified by modern spectroscopic methods: UV, FT IR, 1H NMR,13C NMR and FAB mass spectrometry. By agar disc diffusion method, antibacterial activity ofpiperine was tested on 11 bacteria from clinical source. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC)
value of piperine was found 0.16 mg/mL on E. coli LT assessed by microtitre plate dilution
method. The larvicidal activity of piperine was investigated in the range of 0.00625 to 0.1 g/mL by
Aedes larvae method at Department of Medical Research. Piperine showed lethal concentration
activity (LC50 = 0.0132 g and LC90 = 0.0788 g).
Keywords: Piper longum, piperine, spectroscopic methods, antibacterial and larvicidal
activities

1.

Introduction

Diarrhoea and dysentery are important health problems in worldwide especiallydeveloping countries. So the Government of Myanmar has initiated a national programme for thedevelopment of Traditional Medicine System in combating six major types of diseases: namely;
malaria, tuberculosis, diarrhoea, dysentery, diabetes and hypertension. In addition, mosquitoes
are the major arthropod vectors and the most dangerous human health pests. In Myanmar,
mosquito borne diseases are causing huge loss of life in rural and urban areas and large portion ofhealth fund goes for the treatment and control programs, however mosquito diseases continue toexplode from time to time and major public health problem [1]. A larvicide is an insecticide thatis specifically targeted against the larval life stage of an insect. Adverse effects of available
insecticides on life system desire development of environmental friendly substitute for mosquito
eradication program [2]. The application of natural materials as a larvicidal agent for decreasing
the harmful effects of chemical pesticides on environment. Chemical control of mosquitoes cancause many unwanted effects on human health and no target animals. By understanding theseside effects of chemicals, people are now interested in biopesticides and botanical formulations,which are considered as eco-friendly. Nature is providing numerous bioactive products against
vector mosquitoes in the form of plant products and other biological derivatives. In recent years,
plant products and phytochemicals have been studied for the control of mosquitoes [3]. In thisstudy, Myanmar medicinal plant, Piper longum L. (Peik-chin) shown in Figure 1(a) and (b) was
selected to find out of active principle for the treatment of dysentery, diarrhea, and also against
larvae. P. longum plants are found in the north temperate regions and South East Asia [4]. It is
1

Dr, Associate Professor, Department of Chemistry, University of Hinthada, Myanmar.eieikhaingchem@gmail.com

152

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

cultivated in India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Singapore and Bangladesh. P.
longum is indigenous and grows wild in Myanmar especially in Mon and Kayin States and hilly
regions of Northern Myanmar. The pale yellow crystal, piperine is the main constituent
responsible for spice and bioactive properties oaf P. longum [5]. In Myanmar, P. longum is usedin treating diarrhea, dysentery, fever, cough, indigestion, stomachaches and asthma [6]. The fruitof P. longum has been also used in the treatment of gastrointestinal (GI) problems, pneumonia,
tumor, flatulence [7] and then used as spice in food industry like a Nga-yoke-kaung [8].
Therefore, antibacterial activity investigation on EtOAc extract and some isolated
phytoconstituents from the fruit of P. longum were carried out by using agar disc diffusion
method. In this study, Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of active constituent was also
determined by microtitre plate dilution method besides the larvicidal activity of active principle
was investigated by Aedes larvae method.

Figure 1 (a) Plant of P. longum L.

(b) Fruit of P. longum L.

Botanical Aspects of Piper longum L.
Name: Peik-chin (in Myanmar),Long pepper (in English)

Botanical Name

: Piper longum L.

Family: Piperaceae

Fruit
blackish green from: Fleshy spikes 2.5 - 3.5 cm long and 5 m thick, oblong, blunt,small shrub [9]2.

Materials and Methods

Plant Materials
The fruit of P. longum L. (Peik-chin) was collected from Mawlamyine, Mon State. The
plant was identified at Department of Botany, Yangon University. The fruit of P. longum waswashed, cleaned and dried at room temperature for three weeks. Then the dried sample waspowdered and stored in air- tight container.
Instruments: Shimadzu UV-240 (MeOH), Shimadzu FT IR- 8400 (KBr) (at URC), 1H (300
MHz) NMR, 13C (75 MHz) NMR, FAB MS (at University of Goettingen, Germany)
Chemicals : CC; Merck Silica gel 60 (70-230) mesh, eluents; Petroleum ether (PE) - ethyl
acetate (EtOAc), TLC; precoated silica gel 60 (F254, Merck)19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

153

Extraction and Isolation of Piperine from Fruit of Piper longum L.
Preparation of extracts from fruit of Piper longum : The air-dried powder (1kg) was
individually cold extracted with (2500 mL) of ethyl acetate for 7 days and then filtered. The
filtrate was evaporated to dryness at normal pressure on a water bath and desiccated followed byrecorded the yield %.
Isolation of phytoconstituents from EtOAc extract of fruit of Piper longum : The EtOAc
extract was subjected to isolate the active phytoconstituent from Peik-chin fruit by column
chromatography. The column was packed with silica gel (400 g) by the wet method using
petroleum ether. The column was eluted consecutively with the solvent systems of PE : EtOAc in
the ratio of 19:1, 9:1, 4:1, 2:1, 1:1 v/v according to their increasing polarity. Five fractions weremonitored by thin layer chromatography (TLC). The fractions that gave similar spots on thinlayer chromatography (TLC) plates were combined together and the solvent was evaporated.
Finally, pure compound obtained from fraction III, pale yellow crystal (2.57 g, 1.80 %) wascharacterized as piperine by melting point, TLC determination, UV, FT IR, 1HNMR 13CNMR and
FAB MS spectroscopic methods.

Screening of Antibacterial Activity of Ethyl Acetate Extract and Piperine Against 11 Tested
Bacterial Strains by Agar Disc Diffusion Method
Agar disc diffusion method was used for the detection of antibacterial activity for ethyl
acetate extract from P. longum fruit and isolated compound, piperine against 11 tested bacteria
from clinical sources, National Health Laboratory (NHL), Yangon; related to acute diarrhea(cholera), dysentery, abscess, pneumonia and typhoid. The test procedure was as follows: the test
samples (1 g each) were dissolved in 1 mL of ethyl acetate, and introduced into sterile petridishes
for testing 11 cultural bacterial strains. The discs having 6 mm diameter each with 20 µg extract
or compound/disc were allowed to dry at 42  C in incubator.
The bacterial suspension from trypticase soy broth was streaked evenly into three placeson the surface of the trypticase soy agar plates with sterile cotton swab (Puritan, USA). After the
inoculums had dried for 5 min, the dried disc impregnated with extract and isolated compound
were placed on the agar with flamed forceps and gently pressed down to ensure proper contact. A
disc impregnated with solvent only was used as control and antibiotics tetracycline was also usedas standard for this study.
After overnight incubation at 37 C, the zones of inhibition diameter including 6 mm discs
were measured. Then the isolated compound, piperine was tested MIC determination.

Determination of Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) by Microtitre Plate Dilution
MethodThe MIC value of isolated compound, piperine from P. longum was tested with fivestrains; E. coli EHEC, E. coli LT, E. coli EPEC, S. aureus ATCC and S. aureus WS by
microtitre plate dilution method. It was done by using trypticase soy broth by dissolving withappropriate soluble compound, piperine in 2-fold dilutions. First, an inoculum of pure culture ofrespective bacteria was seeded in 5 mL of trypticase soy broth (TSB) and incubated at 37 C for154

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

3-4 h to obtain a turbidity of 0.05 by MacFarland nephelometer which corresponded to a bacterial
suspension of 106 organisms per mL. Prior to the experiment, 50 L of TSB was introduced into
all wells of 96-well microtitre plate. The compound (piperine) was dissolved in ethyl acetate anddiluted with trypticase soy broth to obtain the following concentration: 5 mg/mL, 2.5 mg/mL,
1.25 mg/mL, 0.625 mg/mL, 0.32 mg/mL, 0.16 mg/mL, 0.08 mg/mL, 0.04 mg/mL, 0.02 mg/mL,
0.01 mg/mL, 0.005 mg/mL, 0.0025 mg/mL in 96 - well microtitre plates. Then 0.02 L of the
prepared inoculum was introduced to its respective wells and the microtitre plates were incubatedat 37 C for 18 h. The contents of all wells were thoroughly mixed with a multi-channel pipetterto re-suspend clamped cells at the bottom of the wells in a solution. Growth of the bacteria wasdetermined by automated microplate reader (Bio Rad) at a wavelength of 450 nm as well as
confirmed by the growth of culturing onto trypticase soy agar to incubate at 37 C for overnight.
The concentration of the compound in the last well with no growth of bacteria was taken to
represent the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the compound.

In vivo larvicidal activity of Piperine on Aedes aegypti mosquito larvae
Hlaingthaya Township strain of Aedes aegypti mosquito larvae and adult Aedes
mosquitoes emerged from pupae were reared in laboratory of Medical Entomology Research
Division, Department of Medical Research. Larvae and adult mosquitoes emerged from larva
survey were identified by morphological methods [10]. Larvae were fed on DMR larva food.
Adult were provided with 10 % sucrose solution and 8 weeks old mouse for blood meal.
Mosquitoes were held at 26 ± 2 ºC, 65-75 % relative humidity with a photo period of 12-h lightand 12-h dark. Laboratory reared larvae were used for testing insecticidal properties of piperineby WHO standard method. Different concentration of piperine from P. longum fruit was
prepared as 0.1 g, 0.05 g, 0.025 g, 0.0125 g and 0.00625 g in 100 mL each of distilled water in
150 mL plastic cups respectively. Fifty (50) each 3rd and 4th instars Aedes aegypti larvae were put
into different concentrations and also negative control test was done simultaneously. Detailtesting was performed by WHO standard method [11]. Larvae were exposed 24 h for each
replication in different concentrations samples in laboratory at 27-29 ºC and 70 to 80 % relative
humidity. Five replicates were carried out and knockdown was checked after 60 minutes. Then,
mortality was recorded after 24 h of exposure period. Knockdown and dead larvae wereidentified when the larvae failed to move after probing with a needle in the thorax region of the
body. Lethal concentration LC50 and LC90 values for 95 % confidential limits were calculated bychi square equation. Data entry and processing was made using Microsoft Excel software. The
average larval mortality data were subjected to probit analysis for calculating LC50 and LC90
values and other statistics at 95 % confidence limits of upper confidence limit and lower
confidence limit, and chi-square values were calculated using the dose-effect probit analysis [12].
Results with Probability p < 0.05 were considered to be statistically significant.
3. Results and Discussion
Isolation and Characterization of Piperine from Ethyl Acetate Extract of P. longum Fruit
The dried fruit powder collected from Mawlamyine, Mon State was extracted with ethyl
acetate solvent and the yield % of ethyl acetate extract (4.5 %) was obtained. Piperine (1.80 %)was isolated from ethyl acetate extract by column chromatographic separation method using
petroleum ether : ethyl acetate solvent system. The isolated compound as piperine was then

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)155

identified by melting point, TLC determination, UV (Figure 2), FT IR (Figure 3), 1HNMR(Figure 4-a and b), 13CNMR (Figure 5-a and b) and FAB MS (Figure 6) spectrometry. Melting
point of the isolated compound was found to be 130 °C which was identical with reported valueof piperine [13]. Isolated compound gave Rf value 0.20 with petroleum ether - ethyl acetate (41)system and was observed yellow colour with anisaldehyde-conc. H2SO4 reagent after heating in
TLC chromatogram.
Piperine : Pale yellow crystal (2.57g,1.80%yield); m.pt. 130·C; max 309,340 (nm); FT IR (cm1
) 3009( -CH aromatic), 2940, 2920, 2862 (- CH asym & sym of - CH2) , 1634 ( C=O), 1612 ( C=C
asym & sym diene), 1584, 1491( C=C aromatic), 1449( - CH2), 1253, 1194 (asym C-O-C), 1032,
1018 (sym C-O-C), 1134 (-CH of phenyl), 997 (-CH of trans CH=CH group), 847, 831, 805(CH out
of plane bending); 1H NMR (300 MHz, CDCl3 ) / H (ppm), 1.55 ~1.68 (6H, m, H2, H3, H4),
3.55, (4H, broadS, H1, H5), 5.95(23H, S, H10), 6.43(1H, d, J=12Hz, H6), 6.73(1H, d, J=12Hz,
H12), 6.749 (1H, S, aromatic H), 6.77 (1H, d, J = 6Hz, aromatic H), 6.87- 6.90 (1H, dd, H7),
6.955 (1H, d, J=6Hz,aromatic H), 7.37-7.44(1H, dddd, H13); 13C NMR and DEPT (ppm); 24.7
(3C, C14, C13, C17), 26.08(2C, C15, C16) 101.19(1C, C12), 105.58 (1C, =C=CH aromatic),
119.91(1C, CH=C= aromatic), 122.42 (1C, C2), 125.26 (1C, C4), 130.92(1C, C6), 138.47 (1C,
C5), 142.97(1C, C3), 148.04 (1C, C8 aromatic), 148.10 (1C, C12), 165.35(1C, C1)(amide); FAB
MS m/z 286.3[M+H+], 308.1[M+Na+], 594[2M+Na+], 877 [3M+Na+] 285.3 [...M+.],
285[C17H19NO3] (Figures 2,3,4 and 5) [14]Figure2. Ultraviolet spectrum of isolated compound from fruit of P. longum (MeOH)

Figure3. FT IR spectrum of isolated compound from fruit of P. longum (KBr)

156

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

Figure 4(a). 1HNMR (300 MHz, CDCl3) spectrum of the isolated compound from fruit of P. Longum

Figure 4(b). 1HNMR (300 MHz, CDCl3) spectrum of the isolated compound from fruit of P. Longum

Figure 5(a). 13CNMR (75 MHz, CDCl3) spectrum of isolated compound from P. longum

Figure 5(b). 13CNMR (DEPT) spectrum of isolated compound from P. longum

157

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

Figure6. FAB mass spectrum of the isolated compound from fruit of P.longum

Screening of Antibacterial Activity of Crude Extracts and Isolated Piperine
Screening of antibacterial activity of ethyl acetate extract and isolated piperine were being
compared on 11 tested bacteria from clinical sources shown in Table 1 and Figure 7. In Table 1 it
was found that ethyl acetate extract exhibited more potent to 11 strains with inhibition zone
diameter (13-24) mm whereas the isolated piperine showed less potent activity with inhibitionzone diameters (8-25) mm of all strains except Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Proteus species.
According to these zone diameters, the antibacterial activity of both ethyl acetate and piperine
against Klebsiella species, Salmonella typhi and Proteus species are more potent than tetracycline(standard). From the screening results, it can be generally deduced as follows. The EtOAc extractand isolated piperine from P. longum were found to inhibit the tested bacteria with regard to acutediarrhoea (cholera), dysentery, pneumonia, typhoid, urinary tract infection, gastrointestinal (GI)
infection, sepsis and abscess. In addition, piperine yielded (1.80 %) from P. longum was
employed by microtitre plate dilution method for minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC)
determined with 2 strains of Escherichia coli and 2 strains of Staphylococcus aureus obtained
from clinical sources at Bacteriology Research Division, DMR (LM) (Table 1 and Figure 8). The
microtitre plate dilution method also elaborates the specificity, sensitivity and the least amountrequired for media, reagents and glassware. It also saves time and working space in conducting
the experiments. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), 0.16 mg/mL of piperine was themost potent to Escherichia coli LT showed that the plant possess potent bactericidal activity on
it. From the MIC elucidation, piperine isolated from the fruit of Peik-chin would be more
effective for the treatment in diarrhoea, (GI) infection and abscess. It has antibacterial action
against E. coli responsible for diarrhea as well as gastrointestinal (GI) infection andStaphylococcus aureus responsible for abscess occurred in skin, mouth and nose.
Table1. Antibacterial Activity of EtOAc Crude Extract and Piperine, Isolated from Fruit of P. longum

SampleInhibition zone diameter (mm)
1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

EtOAc Crude Extract

14

20

19

21

21

18

23

18

13

20

24

Piperine

15

8

19

11

-

24

24

25

-

19

20

Blank

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

EtOAc solvent (control)

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Tetracycline (standard)

13

25

25

25

15

10

25

12

-

29

29

158

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

Tested Bacteria (From Clinical Sources*)
1=

Klebsiella species

8=

Shigella flexneri

2=

Salmonella paratyphi A

9=Proteus species

3=

Citrobacter species

10=

Staphylococcus aureus WS

4=

Escherichia coli EHEC

11=

Vibrio cholerae O1

5=

Pseudomonas aeruginosa

6=

Salmonella typhi

Disc diameter = 6 mm

7=Escherichia coli LT- = no activity* National Health Laboratory (NHL), Yangon

1=

Klebsiella species

8=

Shigella flexneri

2=

Salmonella paratyphi A

9=Proteus species

3=

Citrobacter species

10=

Staphylococcus aureus WS

4=

Escherichia coli EHEC

11=

Vibrio cholerae O1

5=

Pseudomonas aeruginosa

6=

Salmonella typhi

7=

Escherichia coli LT

E = EtOAc crude extract (Peik-chin)
P= Piperine

B = Blank

S = EtOAc solvent (control)

T = Tetracycline (standard)

Figure7. Antibacterial activity of EtOAc crude extract and piperine isolated from P. longum (Peik-chin)19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

159

Table 2 Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) of Active Isolated Compound
Piperine (mg/mL) of P. longum
No.

Bacteria

MIC(mg/mL)

1

Escherichia coli EHEC

0.32

2

Escherichia coli LT

0.16

3

Escherichia coli EPEC

0.32

4

Staphylococcus aureus ATCC

0.625

5

Staphylococcus aureus WS

0.625

Figure8. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of active isolated compound piperine

Examination of Larvicidal Activity of Piperine Isolated from P. longum Fruit against 3rdand 4th Instars Aedes Aegypti Larvae
Larvicidal activity of piperine isolated from P. longum fruit was examined by WHO
standard method at Department of Medical Research (DMR), Yangon. From the results of current
study, it was denoted that the lowest knockdown effect was occurred at 0.00625 g/100 mL
dilution of piperine with the 12.8 % of knockdown. In addition, the highest knockdown effect ofAedes aegypti larvae was performed in 68.8 % knockdown at 0.1 g/100 mL dilution.
Furthermore, the percent in the lowest mortality effect for piperine was 25.6 % at 0.00625 g/100
mL dilution. And then, the highest mortality effect of Aedes aegypti larvae was found out 92.4 %mortality at 0.1 g/100 mL dilution of piperine. The doses of 50 % mortality (LC 50) value ofpiperine against 3rd and 4th instars Aedes aegypti larvae was found in 0.0132 g /100 mL and also
90 % mortality (LC90) value of piperine was found to be 0.0788 g/100 mL.

160

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

4. Conclusion
From the fruit of P. longum L., 4.5 % of EtOAc extract was obtained and then isolated
1.80 % of pale yellow crystal by using column chromatographic separation followed by
identified as piperine with the use of melting point, TLC determination, UV, FT IR, 1HNMR,
13
CNMR and FAB MS spectrometry.
In vitro antibacterial activity of ethyl acetate crude extract and piperine was also
investigated. It was found that inhibition zone diameter of EtOAc extract ranged between (13-24)mm whereas piperine showed the range of inhibition zone diameter between (8-25) mm. It may
be concluded that the antibacterial activity of the crude EtOAc extract was more potent than thatof piperine, pure compound against 11 tested bacteria; Klebsiella species, Salmonella paratyphi
A, Citrobacter species, Escherichia coli EHEC, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi,
Escherichia coli LT, Shigella flexneri, Proteus species, Staphylococcus aureus WS and Vibrio
cholerae O1. They are effective for the treatment of dysentery, urinary tract infection, foodpoisoning, abscess and diarrhoea.
Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values of piperine against five tested bacteria
were determined by using microtitre plate dilution method. Nevertheless, MIC values of piperine
showed against all five tested bacteria: E. coli EHEC, E. coli LT, E. coli EPEC, S. aureus ATCC,
S. aureus WS, it was the most potent to be 0.16 mg/mL against E.coli LT. In addition, thelarvicidal activity of piperine fruit was investigated in the range of 0.00625 to 0.1 g/100 mL by
Aedes larvae method at Department of Medicinal Research (DMR). From these observations, thehighest knockdown of Aedes larvae was found at concentration of 0.1 g/100 mL of piperine. The
highest mortality rate (92.4 %) of Aedes larvae at the concentration of 0.1 g/100 mL of piperine.
Among them, piperine showed the highest lethal concentration activity (LC50 = 0.0132 g/100 mL
and LC90 = 0.0788 g/100 mL). From these observations, it may be recommended that the ethyl
acetate extract of fruit of P. longum (Peik-chin) and isolated piperine may be used as mainmaterials for the traditional medicine formulation in the treatment against dysentery,gastrointesinal tract infection, food poisoning, abscess and diarrhea. From the larvicidal activity
test, it could be suggested that the isolated compound, piperine may have the potential to befurther developed into alternative source of mosquito control agent.

Acknowledgements
I would like to express my thanks to Dr Tin Htwe, Rector and Dr. Marlar, Pro-Rector, Hinthada University,
for giving the permission to report this research work. I would also like to extend my gratitude to Dr. Cho Cho Than,
Professor (Head), Department of Chemistry, Hinthada University, for her enthusiastic participation in this researchwork. I am also grateful to Dr. Than Soe, Rector (Retired), Myitkyina University and Dr Mar Mar Nyein, Director(Retired), Bacteriology Research Division, Department of Medical Research (Lower Myanmar) for their valuablesuggestions and guidance.

161

19th SCA Conference (Sub-theme III)

References[1] Raghvendra, K (2002).“Chemical Insecticides in Malaria Vector Control in India”. ICMR Bulletin, vol.. 32(10),p.2[2] Khan, M.R. (2001). “Antibacterial Activity of Some Tanzanian Medical Plants”. Pharmaceutical Biology, vol.
39 (3), pp. 206-212[3] Ghosh. A., N. Chowdhury and Chandra, G. (2012). “Plant Extracts as Potential Mosuqito Larvicides”. Indian
Journal Medical Research, vol.135, pp. 581-598[4] Fluck, H. (1976). Medicinal Plants and their Uses. London: 2nd Ed., W. Foulsham & Co. Ltd., pp. 101-110[5] Jalalpure, S. S., Patil, M. B., Sprakash, N., Hemalata, K. and Manvi, F.V. (2003). “Hepatoprotective Activity of
the Fruits of Piper longum Linn.” Indian J. Pharm. Sci., vol. 65 (4), pp. 363-366[6] Mar Mar Nyein, Mi Mi Htwe, Ba Han and Ei Ei Khine. (2006). “Antibacterial Activity of Some Plants andFormulations and Determination of Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) by Microtitre Plate
Dilution Method”. The Myanmar Health Sciences Research Journal, vol. 18 (1), pp. 26-30[7] Krool, D. J. (2001). “Natural Compounds in Cancer Therapy: Promising Nontoxic Antitumor Agents fromPlants and other Natural Sources,” J. of Natural Products, vol.64, pp. 1605-1606[8] Kumar, S., Kamboj, J. and Sharma, S. (2011). “Overview of Various Aspects of the Health Benefits of Piperlongum L.”. J. of Acupuncture and Meridian Studies, vol. 4, pp. 134-140[9] Kress, W.J., Defilipps, R.A., Farr, E. and Daw Yin Yin Kyi. (2003). A Checklist of the Trees, Shrubs, Herbs andClimbers of Myanmar. Washington, DC, USA: 1st Ed., Department of Systematic Biology-Botany,
National Museum of Natural History, p. 37[10] Rampa, R. and Prachong, P. (1994). Illustrated keys to the medically important mosquitoes ofSoutheast Asian Journal of tropical Medicine and public Health, vol. 25(1), pp.1-143

Thailand,[11] WHO Geneva. (2005). World Health Organization Guidelines for laboratory and field testing of mosquito
larvicides. WHO/CDS/WHOPES/GCDPP/1.3[12] Finney (1971). Probit Analysis.Third ed. Cambridge University press, Cambridge pp.9968-9972[13] Mohring, J. R. and Necker, D. C. (1979). Laboratory Experiments in Organic Chemistry. New York: 3rd Ed., D.
Van Nostrand Co. Ltd., p. 531[14] Silverstein, R.M., Bassler, G.C. and Terence, C.M. (1991). Spectrometric Identification of Organic Compounds,
Singapore: 5th Ed., John Wiley and Sons, Inc., pp. 289-315