JSPS ASIA AND AFRICA SCIENCE PLATFORM PROGRAM
Geomorphological Comparative Research on Natural Disaster
Mitigation in the Coastal Regions of Tropical Asia

PROCEEDINGS OF
THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON

COASTAL ENVIRONMENT
AND MANAGEMENTFOR THE FUTURE HUMAN LIVESIN COASTAL REGIONSMARCH 2009
NAGOYA UNIVERSITY, JAPANJSPS ASIA AND AFRICA SCIENCE PLATFORM PROGRAM
Geomorphological Comparative Research on Natural Disaster
Mitigation in the Coastal Regions of Tropical Asia

PROCEEDINGS OF
THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON

COASTAL ENVIRONMENT
AND MANAGEMENTFOR THE FUTURE HUMAN LIVESIN COASTAL REGIONSMARCH 2009
NAGOYA UNIVERSITY, JAPANPhotographs on first/back cover pages by M. Umitsu

Copyright © 2009 Department of Geography, Nagoya University, and each author(s) of thechapters, all rights reserved.
The chapters in this publication were presented at the International Conference on Coastal
Environment and Management: for the Future Human Lives in Coastal Regions, which was
supported by the Asia and Africa Science Platform Program, Japan Society for the Promotionof Science (JSPS), and which was held on February 24, 2009, mainly at Shima Central Hotel
SOCIA, Shima, Mie Prefecture, Japan. This publication was also supported by JSPS andNagoya University. No part of this publication may be reproduced without any permission of
the concerned authors.
Includes 146 + iv pages
Also available as a PDF file at: www.geog.lit.nagoya-u.ac.jp/aaplat/

EDITOR
Professor
STAFF

Professor Masatomo Umitsu, Nagoya University, Japan
Makoto Takahashi, Nagoya University, Japan
Ms Janjirawuttikul Naruekamon, Nagoya University, JapanDr Satoshi Ishiguro, Nagoya University, JapanDr Keisuke Tomita, Nagoya University, Japan
Ms Ho Thi Kim Loan, Nagoya University, Japan
Ms Natsuko Hayashi, Nagoya University, Japan
Ms Midori Kobayashi (Secretary), Nagoya University, JapanSUPPORT
Japan Society for the Promotion of Sciences (JSPS): www.jsps.go.jp
Nagoya University: www.nagoya-u.ac.jp
DATE OF ISSUE March 30, 2009
PUBLISHER
Nagoya, Japan: Department of Geography, Graduate School ofEnvironmental Studies, Nagoya University: www.geog.lit.nagoya-u.ac.jp
PRINT
Nagoya University Cooperative: www.nucoop.jp

PREFACE
We are pleased to publish the proceedings of the International Conference on “Coastal Environment
and Management: for the Future Human Lives in Coastal Regions”, as a part of the Asia and Africa
Science Platform Program on “Geomorphological Comparative Research on Natural Disaster
Mitigation in the Coastal Regions of Tropical Asia”, which was supported by the Asia and Africa
Science Platform Program, Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS).
The conference was held in the region including Nagoya, and Shima and Nishiki, Mie Prefecture,
central Japan during the period between February 22 and 24, 2009, and the topic of the conference
was focused on the coastal environment and management. This was the final conference of the Asia
and Africa Science Platform Program on “Geomorphological Comparative Research on Natural
Disaster Mitigation in the Coastal Regions of Tropical Asia”, which was held during the time from
FY2006 to FY2008. The conference was organized in two parts: first was a workshop, which washeld at Shima Central Hotel SOCIA, Mie Prefecture, Japan, for a full day of March 23, 2009. The
second was field excursions to coastal Nagoya City and its vicinity on March 22, and to southern
Mie Prefecture, in particular Nishiki of Taiki Municipality on March 24, focusing on the coastal
environment and/or disaster management concerning the localities, respectively.
There are a variety of serious environmental problems in the coastal regions across the tropical Asian
countries. Thus, coastal management increasingly becomes an important and urgent issue for the
future environmental conservation at the political and practical levels. According to the aim of theconference, specialists from Asian countries including Japan were invited to southern Mie Prefecture,
one of disaster-concerned regions in Japan. We discussed various problems ranging from coastal
ecosystem, de/re-forestation, coastal erosion, sediment discharge, sea level rise and environmental
degradation, to natural hazard and preparedness, and environmental management and planning forthe future sustainable and comprehensive community developments, including researchmethodologies such as geographical information systems and/or remote sensing at the conference
from the perspectives of natural and social sciences.
Further, we have to mention that the reason why we originally intended to organize this program wasclosely related to the world-wide catastrophic tragedy of the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami, and that
we eventually set one session discussing coastal disasters including a tsunami and its management,
inviting Indonesian colleagues of the JSPS Bilateral Joint Research Project on “Disaster
Preparedness of the Coastal Lowlands Community and Verification of the Plan in the Tsunami
Affected Areas”.
We think that the conference provided very good opportunities to exchange our experience andknowledge about those topics with each other and brought very fruitful results. This publication is acompilation of some papers presented at the conferences. We expect that the publication will bebeneficial for the consideration about the coastal issue in the tropical Asia. As we esteemed theoriginality of the authors, we only changed and edited the format of the articles.
Finally, we would like to express our sincere thanks to the all participants of the conferences. We
also would like to express our gratitude to Ms Ayako Maesawa, Head of Asian Program Division,
Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS), and Professor Shin-ichi Yamamoto,Vice-president for Research, Nagoya University, who both gave addresses at the conference.

Professor Masatomo UMITSU (Project Leader, Department of Geography, Nagoya University)
Professor Makoto TAKAHASHI (Secretariat, Department of Geography, Nagoya University)

TABLE OF CONTENTSPREFACETABLE OF CONTENTS
Wikantika, K., S. Widyastuti, E. Djunarsjah, F. Hadi, and S. Darmawan: Coastline Change Analysis
in the Post Tsunami Disaster with Landsat-ETM Satellite Image: a Case Study in Northern Coast of
Aceh [1]Djati Mardiatno, Muh Aris Marfai, and Junun Sartohadi: Multi-risk of Disasters in Cilacap City,
Indonesia [6]Muh Aris Marfai, Ratih Fitria Putri, Djati Mardiatno, and Junun Sartohadi: Potential Loss Estimation
Of Agricultural Production Due To Tsunami Hazard [15]Haryadi Permana1, M. Dirhamsyah, M. Ridho, Illiza Sa’aduddin, Didik Sugiyanto, Irina Rafliana1,
Del Afriadi Bustomi1, Juriono, Edie Prihantoro, and Teddy W. Sudinda: The Banda Aceh Tsunami
Drill: First Exercise of Vertical Evacuation in Indonesia (November 2nd, 2008) [22]Deny Hidayati, and Laila Nagib: The Aceh Besar Community Preparedness in Anticipating
Earthquakes and Tsunamis [29]Junun Sartohadi, Muh Aris Marfai, and Djati Mardiatno: Coastal Zone Management Due to Abrasion
along the Coastal Area of Tegal, Central Java Indonesia [37]Rawee Thaworn, and Somying Soontornwong: Community-based Restoration of Mangrove Forest
Land and Livelihood Security, Baan Thong Lhang, Phang Nga [45]Charlchai Tanavud: Tsunami Hazard Management in Thailand [50]
M. Shahidul Islam: Challenges to Cyclone Disaster Management in Bangladesh: Lesson from Super
Cyclone SIDR [57]Md. Ataur Rahman: Coastal Vulnerabilities and its Integrated Management along Bangladesh Coast[68]
Van Lap Nguyen, Thi Kim Oanh Ta, and Yoshiki Saito: Coastal landform variations of the MekongRiver Delta, Vietnam in relation to monsoon activities [79]Thi Kim Oanh Ta, Van Lap Nguyen, Masaaki Tateishi, Yoshiki Saito, Masatomo Umitsu, and Iwao
Kobayashi: Holocene coastal delta development patterns and sediment discharge of the Mekong
river in Vietnam [83]Hai Ha Quang: Protection and Management of Karstic Geosites of Ha Tien - Kien Luong Coastline,
Viet Nam [88]Vien Ngoc Nam, and Tran Dinh Hue: Mangrove Flora Biodiversity in Con Dao National Park, Baria– Vung Tau Province, Vietnam [96]Cao Huy Binh, and Vien Ngoc Nam: Carbon sequestration of Ceriops decandra (Griff.) Ding Hou in
Can Gio Mangrove Biosphere Reserve, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam [105]Charlchai Tanavud, and Thudchai Sansena: Assessing Potential Impacts of Sea Level Rise on Coastal
Areas in Songkla Lake Basin Using GIS and Remotely Sensed Data [112]
Naruekamon Janjirawuttikul, and Masatomo Umitsu: Relationships between acid sulfate soils andlandforms in Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand [121]Ho Thi Kim Loan, and Masatomo Umitsu: Application of SRTM3 DEM and LANDSAT ETM datato generate geomorphologic map for the purpose of flood risk map in the Thu Bon alluvial plain and
Hoi An, Vietnam [127]Helmi: Community Base Approach in Mangrove Restoration and Management in Simeulue Island
Province of NAD, Indonesia [133]
APPENDIX [143]Coastline Change Analysis in the Post Tsunami Disaster with LandsatETM Satellite Image: a Case Study in Northern Coast of Aceh
Wikantika, K.1, 2, S. Widyastuti.2, E. Djunarsjah.3, F. Hadi1, and S. Darmawan1
1

Center for Remote Sensing, Institute of Technology Bandung
Faculty of Earth Sciences and Technology, Institute of Technology Bandung
Gedung LabTek IX-C, 3rd Floor, Jl. Ganesha 10, Bandung (40132) Indonesia: Email: ketut@gd.itb.ac.id2

ABSTRACTOn the last December 26th 2004, there were earthquakes with the power of 8.7 on the scale ofRichter in the Ocean of Hindi and caused 10 meters height of Tsunami headed to the shore as far as
3 to 10 km from the coastline. This caused the damage of ecosystem and the displacement ofcoastline in the area of Nangroe Aceh Darussalam (NAD). The coastline itself plays a very importantrole, such as the physical boundaries between the land and the ocean, the borders of administration,
the determination of sea boundaries delimitation, etc. The coastline monitoring is essential because it
manage to detect certain changes which will lead to environmental destruction, or the problems indetermination of region’s authority. Thus, region’s government or an influenced authority needs torenovate the situation of unambiguous coastline after the Tsunami. Remote sensing technology canmonitor the displacement of coast line because it provide an up to date physical information, multi
temporal and contiguous data and also can cover wide area. This study discusses about how far
remote sensing can contribute in determination of coastline’s displacement. The study is in a form ofanalysis for the displacement of coastline before and after the Tsunami Northern coast of Aceh. The
data used are multitemporal Landsat-ETM satellite images combined with tidal and topography datafor validation. The result showed that displacement of coastline occurred in several location in
Northern coast of Aceh. The alteration of maximum distance for the coastline after the Tsunami as
much as 1615.81 m.
Keyword: Tsunami disaster, the displacement of coastline, Landsat-ETM

1. INTRODUCTION
An earthquake with a magnitude of 8,7 Richter Scale which happen at 26 December 2004 has
destroyed buildings in Banda Aceh, including other cities in the western coast of this province andNorth Sumatera. This earthquake ignited a tsunami with the height of more than 10 meters andentered the land until 3 – 10 kilometers from the coastline. This disaster caused an environmental
damage in NAD, especially in the coastal area. Almost all of the coastal area were desolate due tothe Tsunami which causes sediment transport.
Sediment transport, besides being influenced by water mass, it is also affected by the tsunami’s
current and tidal waves, which then resulted in the displacement of coastline border. There is a needto study this displacement which will be utilised as an input for policy or action in defining current
NAD’s coastline border.
There are several methods to measure the coastline displacement, i.e., terrestrial measurement,
GPS, photogrammetry and remote sensing based measurement (Djunarsjah, 2000). Despite being
more accurate in measurement, the terrestrial, GPS and photogrammetry method are known to have
weaknesses in result and processing time ratio. Those methods can not achieve accurate information
for relatively large area in rapid time. Remote sensing method offers an alternative method toquickly measure the coastline displacement in a large area and yet give relatively accurate
information.

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Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

2. STUDY AREA AND DATA
The research study area is in the coastline area of Northern Aceh which includes Banda Aceh, Lhok
Nga, Indrapuri, Krueng Raya, Lamno and Lhok Kruet. Satellite imageries used in this research are
two sets of Landsat ETM+ (Mei 8, 2000 (pre-disaster) and December 29, 2004 (post-disaster)).
These imageries were received from LAPAN. The pre-disaster image were rectified to UTM
projection (Universal Transversal Mercator Zone 47) and datum WGS 84 (World Geodetic System
1984). The post-disaster image was registered using the pre-disaster image. Another data used in the
research are topographical maps scale 1:50.000 from Bakosurtanal and tidal data from DISHIDROS– TNI AL (year 1995, 1996 and 1997).
3. METHODS
Several methods in this research were applied to extract the border between land and sea, i.e., image
composition (RGB 542), image enhancement, BILKO method and AGSO method.
3.1. RGB Composite
The best image composite to extract the border between land and sea was achieved visuallyusing RGB composite 5,4,2 (Alfaizal, 2001). Band 4 has a more clear contrast between land and sea
than another band. Band 4 is a near infra red channel that has lower reflection to water and higher
reflection to land. This characteristic makes Band 4 can be used to differentiate water body and land.

Figure 1. RGB composite of Band 5,4,2 pre (left) and the post (right) tsunami

3.2. Image Enhancement
Image enhancement is one method to modify the image digital number in order to highlight themost important value within. The objective of this process is only to make better visualization and to
make the analyses easier. Image enhancement does not change the original value or the image
brightness value, it only change the visualization. Image enhancement carried out after the image
was geometrically corrected. It was conducted to better visualize the edge between land and sea. The
image enhancement method in this study was contrast enhancement. It was carried out by stretching
the greyness level on certain pixels. This contrast enhancement was employed on composite image(RGB) Band 5, 4 and 2.
3.3. BILKO Method
The border definition between land and sea was conducted using the brightness value (BV) of
the land and sea. For this reason, the lowest BV of land and the highest BV of sea is needed. This
BV will then be used in separation algorithm between land and sea BVs with nearest integer
technique in 8 bit format.

2

Wikantika, K. et al.: Coastline Change Analysis in the Post Tsunami DisasterFigure 2. Enhanced images pre (left) and the post (right) tsunami

3.4. Metode AGSOThis method is basically a shallow water image mapping method develop by Australian
Geological Surveys Organization (AGSO). AGSO formulation is mathematical formulation todescribe the relationship between electromagnetic wave, propagation medium, particles in the waterand the deep effect of water. This formula also describes the remote sensing application for water
objects (Wardhana, 2003).
Based on the spectral characteristic, water has a higher reflectance for band between 0.3 – 0.7
micron. The bands within this electromagnetic ranges are called visible lights. On Landsat TM
sensors, visible bands (Band 1,2 and 3) can penetrate water and reach the substrates. Besides being
used to gain under water substrates reflectance, these three bands can also used to estimate the water
depth (Bierwirth, 1993). The result from mathematical based image enhancement process with
BILKO and AGSO method is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. BILKO method (left) dan AGSO (right)

3.5. Delineation of land and water
From those techniques described above, we can get new image visualisation, which then will be
digitized along the line that separates water body and land. The best method to visualise the border
between land and sea was chosen before the digitasation process. There are two best methods: (1)composite image RGB 542 with contrast enhancement and (2) BILKO method. The first choice tobetter visualize the border between land and water is composite image RGB 542 with contrast
enhancement. If this method fails then the second method (BILKO) will be used.

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Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

3.6. Tidal data processing
Tidal data along coastline from several tidal observation stations are actually needed to define
the real coastline. For practical reason, data from the nearest tidal observation station can be used
(Alfaizal, 2001). The nearest tidal observation station is located in Banda Aceh, so the tidal height
along the study area is referenced to tidal height from this station. This is done because we could not
get tidal data of study area from several stations.
Tidal data were taken from Malahayati Station in Krueng Raya, Banda Aceh. Tidal data from
June until October 1996 was calculated using tidal data analyses with least squre methods to define
the tidal harmonic component. The result from this calculation will be used to predict the tidal height
when satellite image is recorded, i.e., at May 8, 2000 and December 29, 2004.
4. RESULTS
The result from satellite and tidal data processing were integrated to define the coastline before andafter tsunami. The tidal calculation results coastline correction values, 3.26 meters (8 May 2000) and2.91 meters (29 December 2004). These values are not significant in this research because it is below
the spatial resolution of Landsat 7 ETM+ (30 m.). Due to this reason, the tidal calculation is onlyused to validate for the coastline displacement. Sea level refers to the time when satellite images
were acquired, which is defined as instantaneous sea level (ILS) on 8 May 2000 and 29 December
2004 when Landsat satellite passes the equator at 10:00 a.m.
The definition of coastlines before and after tsunami were carried out by on-screen visual
digitation. For practical reason, the coastline will be defined to one of three coast types, i.e., shallow,
rocky and vegetated coast. The coast covered by vegetation is bordered by the outer limit of thevegetation and for rock coast is bordered by hill edge while for shallow coastline is instantaneous
sea level (ISL) (Alfaizal, 2001). The result of coast line definition between and after tsunami isshown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Digitizing results (pre (green-color) and the post (dark-blue) tsunami)

To know the displacement distance, we took sample points from the coastline before and after
tsunami. These samples were chosen from the lines that have maximum displacement on
administration boundaries in North Aceh. The significant coastline displacement only occurs in
Banda Aceh, Aceh Besar, Pidie and West Aceh. Maximum displacement distance for eachadministration boundary is shown in Tabel 1.

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Wikantika, K. et al.: Coastline Change Analysis in the Post Tsunami Disaster

Table 1. Maximum coastline displacement in the post tsunami
Administrative unit

Distance (m)Banda Aceh

1,615.81

Aceh Besar

748.228

Pidie

128.3

Aceh Barat

1,553.42

The calculation for region with decreasing land after tsunami is shown in Table 2. This region
were digitized as polygon (region) to calculate area size.
Table 2. The change of area size in the post tsunami
Administrative unit

HectareBanda Aceh

845.559

Aceh Besar

394.011

Aceh Barat

628.615

Kab.Pidie

602.644

5. CONCLUSIONSThe conclusions of this study are:
1. Landsat-7 ETM+ can be used to detect coastline displacement. The image does not to beacquisitioned in time when an event that makes coastline displacement occurs. The image
processing can be combined with tidal calculation for more precise and accurate result.
2. The effective visual method to identify coastline before and after tsunami is by using RGB
542 Composite image with contrast enhancement and Bilko Method.
3. Tidal data calculation to define coastline displacement correction when the image was
acquired is related to the spatial resolution. This correction is not acquired when the result is
below the satellite image spatial resolution.
4. The observation result on coastline before and after tsunami shows there is coastline
displacement in several locations in Norther coast of Aceh. This displacement makes thedecrement of land area. The biggest coastline displacement is 1.615 meters in Banda Aceh.

REFERENCES
Alfaizal, Heru. 2001. Pemanfaatan Data Penginderaan Jauh Untuk Monitoring Perubahan
Kedudukan Garis Pantai (Studi Kasus: Segera Anakan Cilacap). Skripsi. Departemen Teknik
Geodesi. FTSP-ITB. Bandung.
Bierwith, et. al. 1993. Shallow Water Sea-Floor Reflentance and Water Depth Derived by Unmixing
Multispectral Imagery. PERS. Australia.
Djunarsjah, Eka. 2000. Catatan Kuliah Hidrografi. Penerbit ITB. Bandung
Wardana, Meiga E. 2003. Metode dan Teknik Ekstraksi Informasi Tematik untuk Lautan dan
Wilayah Pesisir dengan Citra Satelit. Skripsi Departemen Teknik Geodesi. FTSP-ITB.
Bandung.

5

Multi-risk of Disasters in Cilacap City, Indonesia
Djati Mardiatno*, Muh Aris Marfai, and Junun Sartohadi
Department of Environmental Geography, Faculty of Geography
Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia* Corresponding author; e-mail: mardiatno@geo.ugm.ac.id; mardiatno@yahoo.com

ABSTRACTThis research aims at analyzing the multi-risk potential of disasters, focusing on earthquake andtsunami potential in Cilacap city, Indonesia. Descriptive-qualitative method is used by integrating
between tsunami risk analysis result and earthquake risk analysis result. Tsunami risk is assessed byusing a worst-case scenario of Mw=8,5 earthquake magnitude at a specified epicenter in Indian
Ocean. Earthquake risk is assessed by using McGuire equation to calculate the Peak GroundAcceleration (PGA) for selecting the maximum value at each measurement points. A multi-risk map
is generated as the result of that integration, which informs a number of unified risks between
earthquake risk and tsunami risk.
As a result of the integration between two risks, it can be synthesized that the high level ofmulti-risk potential is in 5 villages, i.e. Gunungsimping, Karangkadri, Menganti, Mertasinga, andTegalkamulyan. The total fatalities for those villages are estimated as more than IDR 40 billion(USD 4 million), which consist of some selected mobile assets, buildings, and productive lands. The
number of affected people is more or less 12.000 persons. In order to reduce that multi-risk ofdisasters in Cilacap city, the combination between hard engineering and social engineering will benecessary.
Keywords: multi-risk, tsunami, earthquake, worst-case scenario, Cilacap, Indonesia

INTRODUCTION
Indonesia and its surrounding areas are considered as one of the tectonically most active areas in theworld. More than 460 earthquakes with M>4.0 magnitude occur annually (after Latief et al., 2003).
Predominantly major earthquakes in Indonesia have caused serious damage and fatalities inhistorical time. Not all Indonesian area is prone to earthquake, although overall condition iscategorized vulnerable to the disaster. There are a number of 'seismic gap' areas. Seismic gap area
can be defined as an area which is located within the seismic zones, but it had not been hit byearthquake for more than 50 to 100 years. Based on the historical overview and the seismic theory,
very strong earthquakes will probably occur within the seismic area which has seismic gaps
(Kulikov et al., 2005; Zen, 2005). There are at least 4 seismic gaps in Indonesia, i.e. Sunda Strait,
Southern Java, Bali Strait, and area near Alor Island (Hendrajaya, 2005; Zen, 2005).
The Southern coast of Java Island is a part of the Indonesia archipelago that faces directly the
subduction zone between the India-Australian Plate and Eurasian Plate. The subduction zone issituated in the Indian Ocean. Collision between these plates results in the endogenic activity in thatzone being very dynamic. As a consequence, this area is very vulnerable to earthquakes. Ifearthquakes take place under seawater and there is a vertical dislocation in the seafloor, it will resultin tsunamis.
The effects of tsunami and earthquake are disastrous. Spatial plan without any consideration
toward both earthquake and tsunami disaster create unsafe cities, thus it is necessary to assess hazard
and risk factor of the coastal area. “A spatially oriented risk assessment has three main
characteristics, i.e. multi-hazard oriented, only those risks with spatial relevance are considered, andonly collective risks that threaten a community as a whole are relevant” (Greiving, 2006).
Assessment processes utilize Geographic Information System (GIS) to determine multi-risk zones

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Djati Mardiatno et al.: Multi-risk of Disasters in Cilacap City

based on the certain scenario. Finally, arrangement of disaster mitigation utilizes data andinformation from the GIS database.
This research was conducted in Cilacap city, Central Java Province (Figure 1). It aims at analyzing
the multi-risk potential of disasters, focusing on earthquake and tsunami potential in that region. Cilacap
city is developed on alluvium which consists of coastal sediments and river deposits. Coastal deposits
consist of unconsolidated sand deposited as regular beach ridges. These beach ridges form a more or lessparallel banding along the coast in the Cilacap area (Sutikno, 1981). Recently, the ridges have been usedas settlement areas and the lower parts for paddy fields. Cilacap area is characterized by former spit form,
crescentic shoreline, and has swampy area. Additionally, this city is one of the cities in the southern coastof Java near the shoreline exposed to the Indian Ocean.

JAVA SEA

Cilacap

INDIAN OCEAN

400 km00

2 km

Figure 1. Location of Cilacap in Java Island

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Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

METHODOLOGY
In order to assess a multi-risk potential, it is necessary to observe earthquake and tsunami hazard potential
in a research area. If earthquake occur on the land, it becomes a direct hazard. If earthquake occur in theseafloor, it possibly generates tsunami. In combination with socio-economic data, both hazards willproduce risk for each hazard. Integration between earthquake risk and tsunami risk will generate a morecomprehensive risk assessment result, i.e. a multi-risk assessment (Figure 2).
Earthquake

Seafloor

TsunamiCilacap City

Land

Socio-economic condition

Hazard II

Hazard I
Vulnerability

DamageRisk II

Risk I

Integration

Multi-Risk
Figure 2. Theoretical Framework of the Research

The zones prone to earthquakes can be determined with regard to the possibility of earthquake
occurrence in a specified area. The possibility is based on the past earthquake events, while pastearthquake data can be easily accessed from USGS or BMKG (meteorology, climatology, andgeophysics agency in Indonesia) websites. Earthquake data from USGS or BMKG inform the timeof earthquake event, epicenter location, hypocenter depth, and body wave magnitude, without
intensity and Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA) data. Thus, earthquake zones can be determined byusing McGuire 1993 equation to calculate PGA (Fauzi, 2001).

x

b 1 10 b 2 M s ( R  25 )  b 3

where:
b1
Ms
R
Ms
Mb

= 472.3 ; b2 = 0.278 ; b3 = 1.301 ; x = PGA= surface wave magnitude= hypocenter distance (km)= root of the last column quadrate added by DEP data (column 8th) quadrate= -0,845 + 1,201 Mb (Thenhaus et al, 1993)= body wave magnitude (column 9th of USGS table data)

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Djati Mardiatno et al.: Multi-risk of Disasters in Cilacap City

Theoretically, earthquake disaster potential is getting higher if there is a high magnitude
earthquake (> 5 Richter) in a certain location and its surrounding area, short distance of epicenter(100 km), and shallow hypocenter (< 100 km). Those three parameters provide a complete
description of the possible disaster potential. Earthquake risk can be assessed by using McGuire
method to calculate the Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA) for selecting the maximum value at eachmeasurement points. Map of earthquake disaster potential is generated by utilizing McGuire method
since that method provides sufficient parameters (PSBA, 2005). In addition, there is a vulnerability
class for earthquake disaster (Table 1) which might be utilized for determining earthquake risk.
Table 1. Vulnerability class for earthquake disaster
No. Vulnerability class
1. Very vulnerable

Criteria
a. At shallow-focused earthquake zones (0-90 km)
b. At active fault zones and potentially active
c. Near active volcano
d. Steep-slope topography or at denudational mountains, cinder cones,
volcanic slopes, and structural mountains
e. A flat coastal area, bay, surrounded by steep hills
f. A coast adjacent to the earthquake epicenter in the sea floor
2.
Vulnerable
a. At shallow-focused earthquake zones (0-90 km) and middle-focused
earthquake zones (90-150 km)
b. At potentially active fault zones and uncertainly active
c. At denudational hills, structural hills, karst mountain, volcanic footslopes
3.
Not vulnerable
a. At deep-focused earthquake zones (>150 km)
b. At inactive fault zones
c. At plain/flat topography areas
d. Far from the coast and there is a natural or artificial shore protection
Source: after PSBA (2005), translated.

Tsunami risk is assessed by applying a worst-case scenario of Mw=8,5 earthquake magnitude ata specified epicenter (110.00 E - 9.50 S) in Indian Ocean (Mardiatno, 2008). Descriptive-qualitative
method is applied to integrate tsunami and earthquake risk analysis result. This research applied a
simple method to assess a multi-risk potential to disasters. Maps analysis is also carried out by
merging earthquake risk map and tsunami risk map. A multi-risk map is generated as the result ofthat integration, which informs a number of unified risks between earthquake risk and tsunami risk.
Results and Discussions
In general, a whole area of Cilacap city is relatively flat. This city is situated less than 12 m above
sea level. It has a flat-to-gentle topography, and is developed on soft material (river and marine
alluvium). The terrain elevation is higher in the northern and north-eastern part and becomes lower
in the western and south-western part. Considering some vulnerable objects to earthquake andtsunami, a number of objects were selected for multi-risk assessment purpose (Table 2). As shown inthat table, the objects consist of building, population, productive land, and selected mobile assets.
They are distributed in villages, thus the village is used for determining a multi-risk assessment unit.
For earthquake risk assessment purpose, firstly, earthquake data from UGS in between 1975
and 2004 (Table 3) is analyzed for calculating PGA (see equation in the previous section). As shownin Table 3, there are a number of significant earthquakes in Cilacap area. Although the earthquake
magnitudes are not so high, however, the possibility of amplification factor should be considered due
to material types in this area.
After calculating PGA, all results are plotted in the map and interpolated to create earthquake
disaster risk map (Figure 3). As shown in Figure 3, high risk area to earthquake is mainly locatedwithin the city and adjacent to the shoreline. It is an initial warning for locals that their location
might be possibly shocked by disastrous earthquakes. PSBA (2005) stated that McGuire method
provides a more accurate map of earthquake disaster potential. Thus, that method is recommended to9Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

be applied for creating map of earthquake disaster risk in Indonesia since PGA data from direct
measurement are unavailable. However, this method should be understood as an initial phase on aregional scale without considering micro-tremor occurrence possibilities. For smaller area, it isrecommended to consider micro-tremor and local site effect influence.
Table 2. Number of objects in Cilacap which are used for multi-risk assessment
Productive
Selected mobile asset
land(paddyNo Village
Buildings Population
House
field + dry
Car
Livestock
Boats
eq.
(*)
farming)(Ha)
1 Tambakreja
5 278
22 512
0.5
191
8 019
5 278
71
2 Tegalreja
3 050
13 512
0.0
35
4 136
3 050
0
3 Sidakaya
3 795
12 159
36.0
127
148
3 795
170
4 Cilacap
3 465
15 932
0.0
69
8 433
3 465
1 158
5 Tegalkamulyan
1 847
13 017
70.5
11
1 584
1 847
672
6 Lomanis
1 129
4 852
7.0
31
2 607
1 129
0
7 Donan
5 608
24 373
35.0
171
2 948
5 608
217
8 Sidanegara
7 010
30 188
65.0
290
2 556
7 010
0
9 Gunungsimping
3 074
14 218
25.0
200
1 049
3 074
0
10 Kebon Manis
2 026
9 936
96.1
268
3 741
2 026
2
11 Gumilir
2 782
13 584124.1
293
12 0742 782
23
12 Mertasinga
2 951
14 238297.2
116
17 8762 951
226
13 Tritih Kulon
3 426
15 756233.5
123
42 0503 426
108
14 Karang Talun
2 256
10 084
96.0
76
5 372
2 256
48
15 Menganti
2 177
9 899
523.9
19
24 3782 177
816 Karangkadri
1 169
5 942
319.9
24
7 792
1 169
4
17 Kuripan Kidul
1 375
6 366
98.7
11
30 9421 375
018 Tritih Wetan
1 524
7 862
180.2
68
9 190
1 524
127
Total
53 942244 430
2 208.7 2 123
184 895 53 942
2 834
Source: BPS Cilacap (2004); (*) refer to number of buildings, but it will have different value
Table 3. Earthquake data (USGS) in Cilacap and its surrounding (1975-2004)10

Djati Mardiatno et al.: Multi-risk of Disasters in Cilacap City

(High Risk)(Medium Risk)(Low Risk)

Figure 3. Earthquake disaster risk map of Cilacap city (PSBA, 2005)

For tsunami risk assessment, a map of tsunami hazard potential must be generated at first. That
map informs some possibilities of inundated area as a worst-case scenario. Furthermore, byintegrating a number of considerations, the tsunami risk in Cilacap can be constructed regarding theworst-case scenario of hazard and damage potential. It is important to consider the marine landforms
arrangement which confirms the boundary of marine processes in the past as the possibility of paleotsunami influence. It is the easiest way for mitigation to tsunami hazard, though this approach should
be applied only in the first step of a hazard analysis.
Based on hazard potential assessment, all villages are under tsunami threat. Thus, all villages
have a various risks as well. Map of tsunami risk in Cilacap can be seen in Figure 4. According tothat figure, it is clear that Tegalkamulyan village should be considered as the most priority village incase of tsunami. All objects in this village are mainly categorized in a high to very high risk since
their risks are at a high percentage. This village is also located adjacent to the shoreline in the centreof the Cilacap city coast. Other villages, such as Gunungsimping, Karangkadri, Menganti, andMertasinga have a various percentage of risk level, though they can be categorized in high and very
high risk to tsunami. On the other hand, some villages can be neglected from tsunami risk due to low
or very low level of risk. Thus, for multi-risk assessment purpose, only twelve villages will beconsidered.
After earthquake and tsunami risk assessment, both maps are analyzed comprehensively. As aresult of the integration between earthquake risk and tsunami risk, the high level of multi-risk
potential can be found in 5 villages, i.e. Gunungsimping, Karangkadri, Menganti, Mertasinga, andTegalkamulyan (Table 4). A multi-risk potential map of Cilacap is shown in Figure 5. The total
fatalities for those villages are estimated as more than IDR 40 billion (USD 4 million). The number
of affected people is more or less 12.000 persons. In order to reduce the multi-risk of disasters inCilacap city, a combination between hard engineering and social engineering will be necessary.
A hard engineering approach should be applied with regard to some considerations. Buildings
and infrastructures renovation should be done with regard to local capacity. It should be noted herethat some selected existing buildings or infrastructures can be utilized for multi-risk reduction
program (Figure 6, left). New buildings or infrastructures development should be avoided in order toeliminate development cost, though this way can only be carried out in consideration to local

11

Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

government program. All buildings and infrastructures for multi-risk reduction program are local
assets which should be utilized as multi-functional assets. This way is an alternative to eliminate
assets inefficiency, thus all selected objects can be utilized for more productive activities during predisaster phase.

Figure 4. Map of tsunami risk in Cilacap based on earthquake Mw=8.5 scenario (Mardiatno, 2008)
Table 4. Multi-risk potential (earthquake and tsunami) in Cilacap city
Villages
Cilacap
Donan
Gumilir
Gunungsimping
Karangkadri
Karangtalun
Kebonmanis
Kuripan Kidul
LomanisMenganti
Mertasinga
Sidakaya
Sidanegara
Tambakreja
Tegalkamulyan
Tegalreja
Tritih Kulon
Tritih Wetan

Earthquake
Risk
H
H
H
H
M/H
M
H
M
H
M/H
M/H
M
H
H
M
H
M
M

Tsunami
Risk
L
L
L
H
VH
None
L
None
None
VH
H
L
L
L
VH
None
None
None

12

Earthquake-Tsunami
Risk (merged)
H-L
H-L
H-L
H-H
M/H-VH
n/a
H-L
n/a
n/a
M/H-VH
M/H-H
M-L
H-L
H-L
M-VH
n/a
n/a
n/a

Multi-Risk
Potential
M
M
M
H
H
n/a
M
n/a
n/a
H
H
M
M
M
H
n/a
n/a
n/a

Djati Mardiatno et al.: Multi-risk of Disasters in Cilacap City

MULTI-RISK POTENTIALMAP OF CILACAP CITY

M/H-VHH
M/H-VH

H-L

M/H-H

M

H

H

H-L

M
H-H
H-L

M

H-L

H

M-VH

H

M
Earthquake
M/H-VH

H

M-L
H-L

M

TsunamiM

Multi-Risk Potential

H-L

M
Source: Data Analysis

Figure 6. Multi-Risk Potential Map of Cilacap city

A social engineering method can be carried out by capacity building program, such as Trainingof Trainers (ToT) program for locals as well as an education for increasing people awareness tomulti-risk. As PSBA (2007) did in some pilot project locations, ToT program is very useful toprepare local people in case of earthquake as well as tsunami (Figure 6, right). This program andfollowed by a drill is able to change people perception to disaster and increase their awareness.
Socialization using such pamphlets, brochures, posters, and simple guide books as well as films
about disaster is quite effective to educate local people in order to open their mind about disasters
and multi-risk phenomena. In addition, the disaster education programs are more effective forchildren as they will easily accept all interesting information.
Both risk reduction programs should be done as a complementary program, thus a multi-risk
assessment is able to provide a more complete description about related risks. Multi-risk reduction
program will be more valuable in supporting regional development program. However, for thispurpose, scale of analysis should be considered since this method should be applied in appropriate
scale to avoid some inaccuracy of multi-risk of disasters mapping. It is recommended to apply thismethod within various levels, from regional level up to village level with regard to statistical data
availability.
CONCLUDING REMARKSThe research on multi-risk assessment to disasters in Cilacap was accomplished. Based on the results,
it can be concluded that a part of Cilacap city is threaten by multi-risk of disasters, i.e. earthquake
and tsunami. A number of efforts should be carried out in order to reduce those risks, for instance byrenovating some infrastructures, trainings for local people, and disaster education.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank to Research Centre for Disaster (PSBA) Gadjah Mada University
for data support. Special gratitude is provided to Professor Masatomo Umitsu, Professor Makoto
Takahashi, and all colleagues from Nagoya University, Japan for their invaluable supports for us.

13

Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

Figure 6. Hard engineering (left) and social engineering (right) approach to reduce multi-risk ofdisasters (photos from PSBA and Mardiatno)

REFERENCES
Fauzi, 2001. Aplikasi sistem Informasi Geografis untuk Peta Bencana alam di Indonesia,
http://geof.bmg.go.id/pgb/Reference/peta_gempa.html (accesed: 11-7-2005)
Greiving, S., 2006. Multi-Risk Assessment of Europe’s Regions, in Birkmann, J. (Ed.), 2006.
Measuring Vulnerability to Natural Hazards, Towards Disaster Resilient Societies, UNU-EHS,
UNU-Press, Tokyo.
Hendrajaya, L., 2005. Antisipasi Penanganan Bencana Alam (The anticipation of dealing withnatural disaster), Paper in Workshop "Kontribusi Ahli Kebumian pada Pembangunan Wilayah
Nangroe Aceh Darussalam dan Sumatera Utara Pascabencana Gempa dan Tsunami", Fakultas
Geografi UGM-IGEGAMA Pusat, Yogyakarta.
Kulikov, E.A., A. B. Rabinovich, and Richard E. Thomson, 2005. Estimation of Tsunami Risk for
the Coast of Peru and Northern Chile, Natural Hazards, 35(2), 185-209.
Latief, H., Safwan Hadi, Haris Sunendar, Aditya R. Gusman, Ardityo Danoesoebroto, and Moh.
Furqon, 2003. Database of Tsunami Sources and Their GIS, and Application of the Rapid
Numerical Model for Tsunami Early Warning System in Indonesia, Paper in "National Seminar
Research on Tsunami Hazards and Its Effects on Indonesia Coastal Region", 11 March 2003,
BPPT-JICA, Yogyakarta.
Mardiatno, D., 2008. Tsunami risk assessment using scenario based approach, geomorphologicalanalysis, and geographic information system; A Case Study in South Coastal Areas of Java
Island-Indonesia, Dissertation (unpublished), University of Innsbruck, Austria.
PSBA, 2005. Pengkajian Model Pemetaan Risiko Bencana Alam, Laporan Akhir, PSBA UGMBAKOSURTANAL, Yogyakarta.
PSBA, 2007, Sosialisasi Mitigasi Bencana Gempabumi dan Tsunami di Pesisir Pantai Selatan Pulau
Jawa, Laporan Akhir, PSBA UGM-Departemen Sosial RI, Yogyakarta.
Sutikno, 1981. Patterns of Water Resources Utilization for Domestic Purposes in the Serayu River
Basin, Dissertation (unpublished), Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta.
Zen, M.T., 2005. Waspadai Kawasan Seismic Gap di Beberapa Wilayah di Indonesia, KOMPAS, 17
February 2005, pp.10.

14

Potential Loss Estimation of Agricultural Production
Due To Tsunami Hazard
Muh Aris Marfai, Ratih Fitria Putri, Djati Mardiatno, and Junun Sartohadi
Geography Faculty, Gadjah Mada University, Bulaksumur 55281, Yogyakarta, Indonesia

ABSTRACTSouthern coastal area of Java is characterized by a high potential tsunami hazard. The devastatingtsunami occurred on the southern coastal area of Java in 1994 and 2006 caused severe destruction
and serious damage to building, agricultural land, and ecosystem. Parangtritis is located on the
coastal area of Bantul District, Yogyakarta Province (South of Java Indonesia). This area isconsidered as high vulnerable area due to tsunami. The coastal area of Bantul has multi-land use
purposes, as tourism, residential, and agricultural areas which leading to the vulnerable area totsunami hazard. This research is aimed at analyzing scenario of tsunami hazard, mapping thepotential agricultural land within the coastal area of Bantul and assessing the potential loss
estimation of agricultural production under the scenario of tsunami hazard. Several methods will beapplied including image interpretation to analyze and to map agricultural land use, generating thetsunami hazard map based on the water depth scenarios, and assessing the potential loss ofagricultural production due to tsunami hazard scenario. Geographic information technology based onraster format will be applied to generate the pattern of the inundation. The superimposed techniquebetween hazard model and agricultural land use map will be carried out to have the understanding of
the potential impact of tsunami to agricultural land production. The research revealed that the coastal
area of Bantul is very vulnerable to tsunami hazard. Under the scenario of tsunami inundation, largepart of the Bantul coastal area will be covered by water leading to the loss of the agricultural
production.
Keywords: risk assessment, tsunami hazard, agricultural production, GIS technology.

INTRODUCTION
Last tsunami in 1994 and 2006 in Java, Indonesia gives huge impact to the loss of property andagricultural production. From an agricultural point of view, the area affected the most by this hazard
is the paddy field that is located on the lowland and coastal area. The tsunami hazard caused serious
damage included loss of plants, increased plant disease, and delays in harvesting.
Papathoma and Dominey-Howes (2003) has examined the published tsunami risk maps, andgenerally, those maps indicate that tsunami flood risk is traditionally assumed uniform within the
expected flood zone. However, Papadopoulos (2003) has also revealed that the population,
infrastructure and land use within a given flood zone are not uniformly at risk. This is because risk isclosely related to vulnerability, which measures the potential of loss and damage. Therefore, thevulnerability value is also different for each of element at risk. In term of the agricultural land, which
is one of the most vulnerable land use due to the tsunami inundation, estimation of risk can becalculated by determining the type of the agricultural activities (ex., type of crop, etc) in order tohave the detail estimation of the loss of production due to tsunami inundation.
Indonesia is considered one of the most tectonically active zones in the world, since this region
has very complicated plate-convergences consisting of subduction, collision, and back-arc trusting(see Figure 1). At least some of the coastal areas in Indonesia are subject to tsunami hazard, which is
caused by earthquake in a shallow region at subduction and plate boundaries. At least 105 tsunami
has occurred throughout the Indonesian coastal areas since 1600, and 90% of this destructive event
was generated by earthquake (Hamzah, et al. 2000). Although tsunami hazard, which is consideredas the most devastating hazard, occurred frequently and attacked the coastal area of Indonesia, their

15

Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

regional characteristics are not well known. There is still limited study about the tsunami
characteristics, hazards and tsunami-risk reduction strategies. One of the important issues pertaining
to the risk reduction program is the generating of the hazard map, identification of the element at risk
and the estimation of the potential damage due to the hazard.
Due to the changes in density of agricultural land use pattern of the southern coastal area ofCentral Java, it has recently been suggested that the potential impacts of future tsunami hazard arelikely to be much greater than in the past. To what level selected coastal segments of Central Java
(Parangtritis coastal area, Bantul regency) are at risk from, and vulnerable to, tsunami inundationand impacts are the most imperative questions to be answered. Estimation model and calculation istherefore considered as an important task to be done in the near in order to give the preliminary
assessment of the potential damage due to the scenario of tsunami hazard.
A remotely sensed approach in combination with the Geographic Information System (GIS)
might be more useful for establishing the spatial extent of potential hazard inundation (Marfai andKing 2008a, Marfai and King 2008b) as well as to calculate the spatial agricultural damage overlarge areas (Lillesand et al.2004). Nowadays, the technology of the satellites images are increasing
rapidly in term of the technology development and technology application. As example, dataacquired by satellite sensors for land use determination, especially at coastal agricultural land use, isbecoming an increasingly important source of information for precision farming. A Hyperspectral
sensor such as IKONOS has dramatically increased spatial, spectral, and temporal frequencies thatmake them appealing to applications in precision agriculture. However, due to the large synoptic
view provided and reasonable spatial resolution, the Landsat and ALOS satellites are also of equal
importance in precision farming.

Figure 1. Plate tectonic surrounding Indonesia

This paper reports the results of an assessment of the impact of tsunami inundation for a coastal
segment of Parangtritis-Bantul, South of Java coastal area in Yogyakarta Province, Indonesia. This
study has been undertaken for three reasons: (1) the south of Java coastal area is one of the mostvulnerable areas due to tsunami and has been identified as an area at risk from future tsunami
occurrence (Marfai et al. 2008); (2) this research will develop the loss estimation due to tsunami toagricultural land in Parangtritis, since the detail data about the monetary loss in term of the
agricultural production is still absent on the study area; (3) The local government are willing toformulate the local action plan for disaster risk reduction, and our results would be the valuable data
to support the governmental program. Furthermore, to our knowledge, coastal land-use planning in

16

Muh Aris Marfai et al.: Potential Loss Estimation of Agricultural Production

general fail to considered the potential role of the extreme hazard facing on the coastal area. Figure 2
shows the vulnerability map due to tsunami around Indonesia, and Figure 3 shows the study area.

Figure 2. Tsunami vulnerability map of Indonesia (Bakosurtanal 2006)

Figure 3. Study area17

Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

On 17 July 2006 the tsunami occurred in southern coastal area of Java. The huge damage
happened in Pangandaran, one of the most preferred areas for tourism in Java. Lavigne et al (2007)
has mentioned that the Indonesian Ministry of Health reported that more than 600 people died, morethan 60 were missing and more than 9200 were in treatment as a result of disaster. The tsunami was
triggered by a 7.7 earthquake located 220 Km of Java Island. This tsunami caused several damages
to infrastructure, land use and agricultural area including paddy field.
Based on the tsunami vulnerability map (Bakosurtanal 2006) and the experience of the lasttsunami disaster in Pangandaran, it is therefore necessary to map and assess into more detail thepotential impact due to the future tsunami. Parangtritis coastal segment, which located not so far
from Pangandaran area, has potential risk due to tsunami. This paper is intended to study thepotential impact of tsunami in Parangtritis. The goals of this work were to: (1) map the agriculturalland (paddy field) within the coastal area of Bantul; (2) generate the tsunami hazard map for the
Parangtritis-Bantul, southern coastal area of Central Java; and (3) assess the potential loss estimationof agricultural production under the scenario of tsunami inundation.
METHODS
The inundation zone due to tsunami would be determined using the predicted water depth scenario.
This study intends to identify the inundation zone of the hypothetical water depth scenario andquantify the impact of the inundation to agricultural land. Unfortunately, we exclude the physicalmechanisms or hydrodynamic characteristics of tsunami during generation, propagation, or
inundation. Moreover, we do not consider factor such as tsunami source region and coastal
configuration during inundation. Due to the lack of data and information pertaining to the detailed
scale of the bathymetry on the study area, and take consideration that obtaining such data could betime consuming and very expensive, this study also ignored the bathymetry of the seabed for
identification of the inundation zone. This method is therefore considered as a simple method.
However, this would make the methodology attractive for local authorities and coastal manager touse.
Potential risk assessment has been done for agricultural land use, especially for paddy
production. Spatial analysis and table calculation of inundation model and paddy field map wereapplied in order to obtain the land use affected by inundation. However, for indirect losses as well as
intangible damage, such as reduction in land quality for agricultural production, and disturbance of
ecosystems were completely neglected.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
For the impact assessment of the agricultural land use, a spatial distribution of the agricultural andnon-agricultural land use is needed. Agricultural land use, especially paddy field, has beendelineated by visual interpretation of landsat satellite images. We divided the map units into twounits, namely paddy field and non paddy field. Figure 4 revealed the paddy field unit on the coastal
area of Bantul.
Effort to analysis of the impact of the tsunami inundation to agricultural land use requires dataon surface elevations (Titus and Richman 2001), therefore the elevation data is considered as themain input for the generating of the inundation model. The elevation data was generated fromcontour map in the ILWIS software using interpolation method. Based on the water depth scenario
and elevation data, the inundation area can be determined. The inundation model has been generatedusing different possible scenarios of water depth to present a range of possible outcomes. Other
environmental conditions such as the direction of the wave, the coastal micro geomorphology,
existing barrier vegetation along the coast etc also affect the spreading of the inundation. However,to incorporate such factors would be overly complex for modeling. Therefore, the simplification has
been made on this model by using water depth scenario. Other environmental factors are not taken
into consideration in this model generation. Two different scenarios of water depth have been
selected; there are 10 m and 20 m depth of water for the low and high scenarios respectively. The
inundation models are shown in Figure 5 and Figure 6 for scenario of 10 m and 20 m of water depths
respectively.

18

Muh Aris Marfai et al.: Potential Loss Estimation of Agricultural Production

Figure 4. Map of agricultural land use (paddy field) on the coastal area

Figure 5 Tsunami inundation with scenario of 10 m water depthOverlaying the inundated areas and agricultural land-use map permitted an assessment of the
impact of the inundation. Total paddy field affected by inundation is shown in Table 1. Table 1
reveals that the area affected due to 10 m inundation is about 104 Ha and 638 Ha for agriculturalland use and non-agricultural land use respectively. Meanwhile, for 20m inundation the area affected
is about 366 Ha and 948 Ha for agricultural land use and non-agricultural land use respectively. The

19

Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

inundation would also give impact to the paddy production and disturbance on the ecosystem ofwater environment.
The agriculture productivity on the study area is relatively high. The paddy’s productivity is
about 4 ton / Ha / Year. Based on this value, the estimation loss of the productivity can be calculated.
Table 2 revealed the loss estimation per water depth inundation. The 10 m inundation will cause lossof the productivity about 416 ton and for 20 m inundation will cause loss of the productivity about
1864 ton.

Figure 6 Tsunami inundation with scenario of 20 m water depth
Table 1. Inundation area on agricultural land and non-agricultural land
Water depth(m)

Inundated
agricultural land (Ha)Inundated nonagricultural land (Ha)Total (Ha)

20 m

466

948

1414

10 m

104

638

742

Table 2. Risk calculation due to tsunami inundation
Water depth (m)Risk calculation in one year (ton)

20

1864

10

416

CONCLUSIONSouthern coastal area of Central Java is frequently affected by tsunami. We undertake a preliminary
tsunami vulnerability assessment in a part of the coastal segment in southern coastal area of Central
Java as a support for the disaster management system. The result of our study may have important
implications for many different stakeholders. In addition, it would seem appropriate that those20

Muh Aris Marfai et al.: Potential Loss Estimation of Agricultural Production

agencies tasked with coastal zone management ought to consider focusing their resources in the areaof Bantul coastal area. In particular, agricultural land appears to be at significant risk to the impact ofa future tsunami event. Finally, recommendations include (1) further research that considers theoccurrence of tsunami, run up model, coastal characteristics, hydrodynamic and detail coastal
geomorphology; (2) detailed land use mapping in order to identify the impact of the tsunami
inundation and to calculate the detail potential loss in comprehensive approach. Furthermore, theresult also suggests that integration of GIS and satellite image is a suitable method for detecting
damage caused by tsunami inundation.

REFERENCE
Bakosurtanal. 2006. Tsunami vulnerability map of Indonesia. http://www.bakornaspbp.go.id/html/
tsunami.htm. Accessed 13-09-2007
Hamzah L, Puspito N, Imamura F. 2000. Tsunami Catalog and Zones in Indonesia. Journal of
Natural Disaster Science, 22 (1). 25-43
Lavigne F, Gomez C, Gifo M, Wassmer P, Hoebreck C, Mardiatno D, Priyono J, Paris R. 2007.
Field observations of the 17 July 2006 Tsunami in Java. Nat Hazard Earth Syst Sci 7(1):177–
183
Liellesand TM, Kiefer RW, Chipman JW. 2004. Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation, 5th ed.
John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY
Marfai MA, King L. 2008a. Tidal inundation mapping under enhanced land subsidence in Semarang,
Central Java Indonesia. Natural Hazards 44: 93-109
Marfai MA, King L. 2008b. Potential vulnerability implications of coastal inundation due to sea
level rise for the coastal zone of Semarang City, Indonesia. Environmental Geology 54:12351245
Marfai MA, King L, Singh LP, Mardiatno D, Sartohadi J, Hadmoko DS, and Dewi A. 2008. Natural
hazards in Central Java-Indonesia: an overview Environmental Geology 56: 335-351
Papadopoulos GA. 2003. Tsunami hazard in the Eastern Mediterranean: Strong earthquake andtsunamis in the Corinth Gulf, Central Greece. Nat. Hazards, 29, 437-464
Papathoma M and Dominey-Howes D. 2003. Tsunami vulnerability assessment and its implications
for coastal hazard analysis and disaster management planning, Gulf of Corinth, Greece. Natural
Hazards and Earth System Sciences, 3: 733-747
Titus JG, Richman C. 2001. Maps of lands vulnerable to sea level rise: Modeled elevations along the
US Atlantic and Gulf coasts, Climate Research 18 (3): 205-228

21

The Banda Aceh Tsunami Drill: First Exercise of Vertical Evacuationin Indonesia (November 2nd, 2008)
Haryadi Permana1, M. Dirhamsyah2, M. Ridho2, Illiza Sa’aduddin3, Didik
Sugiyanto2, Irina Rafliana1, Del Afriadi Bustomi1, Juriono1, Edie Prihantoro4, andTeddy W. Sudinda4
1

Research Center for Geotechnology, Indonesia Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Jalan Sangkuriang,
Bandung 40135-Indonesia (permhp@yahoo.com)
2
Tsunami and Disaster Mitigation Research Center- University of Syiah Kuala, Banda Aceh, Indonesia
3
Deputy Major of Banda Aceh City, Nangroe Aceh Darussalam Province, Indonesia
4
Ministry of Research and Technology, Jakarta-Indonesia

ABSTRACTIn November 2nd, 2008 at 8.30AM, 2 meters height of tsunami swept out the Meuraxa district, Cityof Banda Aceh, Nangroe Aceh Darussalam Province, Indonesia. The tsunami was triggered byshallow earthquake at the NW Banda Aceh with magnitude 8 at 8.00AM. The peoples run to thecloser escape building after they heard a siren warn. This is a scenario of the first exercise forvertical evacuation of the Meuraxa peoples to the escape building. The Meuraxa sub-district is oneof a flat and swampy area whereas four escape buildings had constructed by JICA.
The objective of Banda Aceh tsunami drill 2008 were to drill all tsunami warning systeminfrastructures which recently installed at City of Banda Aceh and to exercise vertical evacuation forpeople who live around dangerous areas and also escape buildings management. The tsunami
warning system includes crisis center buildings, equipments, communication networks andcommand, risk maps, evacuation routes and signs. The most important aspects in tsunami drill 2008
in City of Banda Aceh is to raise public awareness of tsunami hazards.
The tsunami drill scenarios and preparations have been prepared for more than 5 months byCity of Banda Aceh government in collaboration with Tsunami and Disaster Mitigation ResearchCenter/TDMRC – University of Syiah Kuala and supported by Rehabilitation and Reconstruction
Agency of Aceh and Nias and National Tsunami Drill Commission (Ristek, LIPI, BMKG, Ministryof Interior, ITB and other 11 institutions).
The tsunami drill participants spread out in six different locations and they evacuate to four
different escape buildings. First escape building is TDMRC building in Meuraxa. The seconds is
escape building in Lambung village, the third is escape building of Deah Glumpang village and thelast is escape building of Deah Teungoh village. A time arrival of the evacuation for each escapebuilding is about 5 to 10 minutes.
Although a tsunami tragedy is still vivid in the memories of the people in Banda Aceh, morethan 4000 peoples participate in 2008’s tsunami drill. Also, many peoples came from other district
and present in each escape building during evacuation processes.

INTRODUCTION
The basic idea of new government regulation number 24, year 2007 is change of paradigm onnatural hazard mitigation. In this new regulation, the society or community is also share theresponsibility of hazard mitigation together with government and local government. It means that,the community should be ready to handle them selves when the disaster happens at any time without
any support from government in limited time. In this case, the community and government musthave an effective strategy on mitigation and disaster risk reduction. A disaster is free fromadministrative border, ethnic, or age when it hits, so comprehensive partnership amongst individuals,
families, institutions and related stakeholders are very important to mitigate disasters. This new22

Haryadi Permana et al.: The Banda Aceh Drill

paradigm require periodical and continuity community capacity building on preparedness, response
and awareness on earthquake and tsunami hazards.
The November 2nd, 2008 is known as the first experiences for the Banda Aceh people and local
government in End to End tsunami drill and the first exercise for vertical evacuation drill inIndonesia. The tsunami drill was conducted at Meuraxa sub-district, NW of Banda Aceh City. This
area has totally disappeared by 2004’s tsunami disaster. The Meuraxa sub-district is one of flat andswampy area of the Banda Aceh City, where four escape buildings have been built and funded by
JICA.

Figure 1. (Left). Historical earthquake data recorded along Simeulue-Andaman
segment of Sunda Megathrust (after Briggs et al., 2006).
Figure 2 (right). The map of geological hazard vulnerability zone andearthquake risk of Banda Aceh City (ESDM, 2005).

Figure 3. The map of potential tsunami flooding (ESDM, 2005).

The Banda Aceh City locates 200-250 km eastern of the Simeulue-Andaman segment as part ofSunda Megathrust. This segment more than 1000 km long has recorded important seismic activities
since 18 century (Briggs et al, 2006) as shown in Figure 1. The Banda Aceh City itself tectonicallysituates in branches of northern off Sumatran Great Fault, one of active fault in the world. It’s thereason why the Banda Aceh City was fall into 2nd and 3rd level of geological hazard vulnerability(Geological Hazard Vulnerability Zone and Earthquake Risk Map, ESDM, 2005, Figure 2).
A potential tsunami flooding Map, which published on 2005 (Figure 3, Energy and Mineral
Resources Ministry) shows that northeastern part of Banda Aceh is vulnerable of tsunami hazard.
Based on data above, it is clear that Banda Aceh City is situates in dangerous area, both earthquake
and tsunami hazards. The natural condition pushes the local government to take an initiative in23

Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

increasing capability and knowledge of natural hazard. This initiative is become important
movement in Banda Aceh and hope also elsewhere in Indonesia.
OBJECTIVE
After 2004’s tsunami catastrophic attacked Banda Aceh and Nias, the Indonesia Government
together with International society came to help and support the Aceh people. The Indonesian
government develops the Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Agency for Aceh and Nias to implement
all effort regarding rehabilitation and reconstruction in Aceh and Nias. Not only infrastructure work,
but also in education and training , trauma healing and many other activities for more then 3 years.
Recently, Banda Aceh City has finished on constructing, installing and completing all disasterrisk reduction infrastructure of Tsunami Warning System such as Crisis Center, siren system, SOP ofhazard mitigation draft, Risk Map, Evacuation route map and signboard, tide gauge and verticalevacuation building. The Crisis Center includes RANET (Radio Internet), tsunami modeling(hardware and software), communication networking and command. The TWS system directly
connects with BMKG, Jakarta. The crisis center of Banda Aceh is one of four crisis centers inIndonesia. Other Crisis Center were developed in Padang, Denpasar and Jakarta. Figure 4 illustrates
tsunami warning system consist of earthquake measurements, information sharing to a crisis center,tsunami siren warning dissemination and evacuation command. The NAD Province becomes a miniregional in hazard observation, monitoring, and data updating using available local human resources.
In the future, optimistically, NAD Province will become reference, leader and center of exellence in
TWS development for cities in Indonesia.

Figure 4. A complete tsunami warning system has been developing in Banda Aceh.

In Meuraxa sub-district, 4 escape buildings have constructed, such as TDMRC building (Figure5), Lambung, Deah Glumpang and Deah Teungoh escape building. The escape building dedicatedfor capacity building training and public education in disaster reduction. The escape buildings that
already constructed have 3 floors. The first floor was designed as open space, 4 meters high to avoid
a previous tsunami flooding; the 2nd and 3rd floor as public room, office and library and the upper
floor was completed by helipad for helicopter landing. All the escape buildings were positioned
relative vertical to coastline to avoid sea water collision.
The government of Banda Aceh City aim to adopt a spirit of Hyogo framework action in orderto reduce lost of lives, social, economy and environment assets caused a disaster. A tsunami drill is
one of ways to exercise a public preparedness and awareness due to tsunami hazard in term adisaster risk reduction. The objective of Banda Aceh tsunami drill 2008 are to exercise all tsunami
warning system infrastructures which had been installed in City of Banda Aceh, to evaluate people

24

Haryadi Permana et al.: The Banda Aceh Drillor community, building management and government officer in receiving and responding to disaster
information and experience vertical evacuation for peoples who lived in dangerous areas. The goalsof tsunami drill are:a). To increase capacity, knowledge, awareness, and preparedness of community andgovernment in anticipating a future earthquake and tsunami.
b). To exercise a tsunami warning system infrastructure, mechanism and disaster information
dissemination.
c). To reduce a disaster victim as in Simeulue Island (Great Sumatra Earthquake and Tsunami
2004) and part of lesson learnt to community in NAD Province, Indonesia and abroadd). To avoid siren alarm error as happened at June 6, 2007. The alarm error as causes a trauma,
accident and victim of the Aceh people.
e). A natural hazard preparedness and awareness is positive way in tourism promotion

Figure 5. One of Escape Building in Meuraxa sub district (TDMRC building).

TSUNAMI DRILL PREPARATIONThe City of Banda Aceh government has prepared tsunami drill scenario and preparation for morethan 5 months in collaboration with Tsunami and Disaster Mitigation Research Center/TDMRCUniversity of Syiah Kuala and support by Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Agency of Aceh andNias, the Sea Defense Consultant, ManGeoNad, Indonesian Red Cross (PMI), SAR and National
Tsunami Drill Team (Ristek, LIPI, BMKG, Ministry of Interior, ITB and other 11 institutions andJakarta Tsunami Information Center-Unesco).
It’s really a long way and hard work to prepare and implements the tsunami drill in Banda Aceh.
Various activities as structural and non structural have done. A structural activity as describe above
is focused on infrastructure and hardware preparation. While a non structural activity focused on
public education and training, research and development, technological alternative investigation,
local wisdom identification, mitigation plan draft, draft of SOP development, disaster response
training, logistics preparation, and coordination. The Socialization and dissemination to the peopleof Banda Aceh about drill and scenario plan to absorb a people aspiration about tsunami drill.
A massive and structured activity of community preparedness simulation against tsunami
disaster called a tsunami drill. Including the drill is earthquake observation and measuring(magnitude, position and depth), by Indonesian Meteorological, Climatology and Geophysics(BMKG), and tide gauge data that operated by Bakosurtanal. The warning information spread out tocrisis center or Pusdalops, police, military, local government and related stakeholder by handy talky,hand phone, facsimile, Ranet and siren and also traditional siren or kentongan or other technology.
The activity flow describe above called end-to-end tsunami drill. The End-To-End Tsunami Drill
activity in Banda Aceh City is large scale tsunami evacuation drill and its event has done by local
government in collaboration with community and Ina TWS. This kind of drill has done in Padang25

Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management(2005), Bali (2006) and Banten (2007). The end-to-end tsunami drill and vertical evacuation in
Banda Aceh hopefully become a lesson learnt, especially for Indonesian and also for Indian Ocean
country.
To exercise a drill preparation, a table top simulation has done at October 17-18, 2008, two
weeks before tsunami drill. The result of table top is very unsatisfied. Only few coordinator andrepresented participant understands about the drill scenario, the job and who is doing what still
unclear. This condition is very crucial concerning limited time toward D-Day. Deputy Major ofBanda Aceh as responsible of tsunami drill takes an initiative to evaluate and determine the problem
arises: misunderstanding about tsunami drill, role of community, job description of coordinator andparticipant. A similar problem observed in elementary school 7th and 48th community. A teacher did
not know what was their role in tsunami drill and the students understand they must run to the escapebuilding when they feel a quake with or without any tsunami warn. A strategic step to resolve theproblem is to re-formulation the tsunami drill scenario and takes pro-active and intensive
dissemination and socialization to the community and Meuraxa inhabitant via radio, television andnewspaper media and also banner and billboard. Other important recommendation underresponsibility ManGeoNAD and LIPI is an intensive public education and training in schoolcommunity.
A first rehearsal was planned at October 30, 2009, starting from Blang Padang public groundfield with the goal is examining all drill preparation. The first rehearsal was canceled because badweather just after general explanation about tsunami drill. The situation is relatively chaotic and lessconfident among the tsunami drill team. The day after, the first rehearsal repeat under lean weather
at each point gathering. The activity focuses on the new drill scenario socialization, explanation whatmust to do during a quake, and what must to do when siren warn, without any mass movement to theescape building. A problem identified during the first rehearsal, just 3 days toward D-day was
confusing the participants among earthquakes sign, siren warns and ambulances or fire brigades
sirens. When they hear the sirens, even did not evacuation warn based on scenarios, all participants
automatically run to evacuation sites. As we know, not all submarine earthquakes could be triggereda tsunami. A crucial problem also recognize is a role and job of Crisis center officer, communication
among the officer and field coordinator is still disorganized, as well less signboard and banner wasobserved along evacuation route.
In the period a final rehearsal preparation and to avoid all weakness came up during the firstrehearsal, the RAPIORARI organization (public radio communication society) was involved to help
communication problem of Crisis Center during drill. As well, TDMRC and LIPI have done to
explain a detail rundown, drill scenario, quake sign and function of siren warn to re-enforce
participant and field coordinator capacity. The final rehearsal, just one day before D-day, success todemonstrate a participant knowledge and skill concerning a quake sign happened such as duck, holdand cover even a siren warn sound up from fire brigade car or ambulance. In 7 to 15 minutes after
tsunami warning, all participants reached up the escape building. In the final rehearsal, PMI, SAR
and military shows and exercise a skill and equipment to live rescue and evacuation.
The tsunami drill of Banda Aceh City is starting with the sound of low explosive dynamite as aquakes sign at 9.00, November 2, 2009. The drill participants at each point gathering havedemonstrated a self rescuing from earthquakes disaster. Unfortunately, a siren sound of fire brigade
car as a quakes sign disturbed a drill scenario practice because the sounds of siren known asevacuation warn. In consequence, the evacuation processes from all point gathering earlier than acommand and communication among crisis center officer, vice-governor, satlak-satkorlak andincident commander. Evacuation process at every lane is going well in 5 to 10 minutes, even someobstacles caused the public traffic cannot be stopped. During tsunami drill, some troubles incommunications is still observed as well the evacuation practice also disturbed by the present
important attended of the Meuraxa inhabitant and also people come from another sub-district in theescape building. Almost of them are standing along the evacuation line in the building.
TSUNAMI SCENARIO AND RUNDOWN
The shallow earthquake at the NW Banda Aceh with magnitude Mw8 was happened at 8.00AM.
Thirty minutes later, at 8.30AM, a tsunami wave, 2 meters height flooded the Meuraxa sub-district,26

Haryadi Permana et al.: The Banda Aceh Drill

City of Banda Aceh, Nangroe Aceh Darussalam Province, Indonesia. In 5 minutes, BMKG could
detects and measure a position, depth, and magnitude of earthquake. The quake information will
disseminate to the crisis center and other stakeholder in 7 to 10 minutes. If the earthquake will
trigger a tsunami then tsunami warning will sound in 10 minutes. The peoples who lives or present
in this area only have 10 to 20 minutes run to the closer escape building.
The tsunami drill participant composes a Meuraxa inhabitant and surrounding area, government
officer, Sea Defense, school community (student and teacher), military and police component and its
family, NGO, PMI, SAR, and RAPI-Orari. The international observer represented by French Red
Cross, Unesco, BGR, GTZ, Nagoya University, and University of New Zealand.
The drill participant distribute in 6 different locations are 1) Ulheuleu port, 2) fish port andCermin beach, 3) Blang Oi and Lambung community and school community, 4) Deah Glumpang
village, 5) Deah Teungoh village and 6) school community as shown in Figure 6. After earthquake
happened and siren warn, drill participant evacuates to four escape buildings (EB) that are TDMRC
EB-1, Meuraxa EB-2, Deah Glumpang EB-3 and Deah Teungoh EB-4 (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Map of meeting point participant and escape building

The TDMRC EB-1 is dedicated for VIP invited and visitor, incident commander center andceremonial activities. This EB is evacuate location of the people around Gampong Pie village,
people of fishery port, ferry port, play ground and Baiturrahim mosque of Ulhelue.
Lambung village EB-2 has designed a field hospital whereas the disaster victim and injured
evacuates to this EB. The Lambung EB-2 has function also as evacuation building of Lambung
village inhabitant and Blang Oi mosque people as well serious victim which rescuing by helicopter
The Deah Glumpang EB-3 is functioned as logistic public services and evacuation site of Deah
Glumpang people, fisherman, and elementary student, while the Deah Teungoh EB-4 was functioned
as disaster victim and injured information center. All evacuates personal data and condition
registered here. As other escape building, the Deah Teungoh EB functioned as evacuation site of thepeople from Deah Teungoh village, meunasah and student from elementary school of SD 7 and SD
48.
The evacuation processes generally success but shelter management not really significant infunction. Contrary, a complete search and rescue of tsunami victim have demonstrated during thetsunami drill, both on land and along the coastal as well by helicopter. In this case Health
Department, PMI, SAR, Police and Military had shown best practice and skill.
THE PEOPLE RESPONSES
The tsunami drill program did not agree by Aceh people at the beginning because of trauma, hurt orbudget loosed. A week before drill, the negative opinion due tsunami drill came up throughnewspaper or radio that tsunami drill is not important. Although a tsunami traumatic is still vivid in
the memories of the people of Banda Aceh, more than 4000 peoples participate in 2008’s tsunami

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Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

drill, both active and just present during tsunami drill at November 2, 2009 at four escape buildings.
Also, many peoples came from other district to attend tsunami drill in each escape building during
evacuation processes. It’s necessary to the government to conserve a good momentum due tsunami
drill through periodically tsunami drill to increase knowledge, capacity and skill against earthquake
and tsunami.
The national media as well international media play a role in public opinion. Various radiosinteractive activity and regional television had been created due to tsunami drill socialization. So,
involving the media since the planning and as active partner is very important. For Banda Aceh, thereligion community and mosque are effective socialization media.
RECOMMENDATIONThe evaluation and review meeting of Tsunami drill carry out some recommendations that need afollow up in raison to reduce the victim in the future disaster, as describe below.
1. The ferry port of Ulhelue situated in flat, isolated area and uncovered by siren warning. To
necessaries reconstruct a new bridge to connect the port with a nearest escape building or toconstruct a new escape building at the port include siren warning system.
2. It’s important to disseminates and familiarize a sound of siren as warn and local agreement
on sign or sound of evacuation warning as well as a loudspeaker of mosque as tool of
warning dissemination.
3. Routine exercise of siren sound is important as effort to socialize or pre-conditions ofcommunity. Depends on agreement with the community, a sound test could be in certain
date each month.
4. To avoid viability disaster management, it’s important for local government to takeinitiatives to develop various standard operation procedure of public port, escape building
management, community and school community. All kind of SOP is part of SOP against
disaster of Banda Aceh City.

ACKNOWLEGMENT
Special thank address to Banda Aceh City government, TDMRC and BRR, also National Team of
Tsunami Drill 2008 who gave permits to publish a tsunami drill in Meuraxa district at November 2,
2008. Success story of tsunami drill in Banda Aceh is impossible without support all components in
Banda Aceh.
REFERENCES
Briggs, R.W., K. Sieh, A.J. Meltzner, D. Natawidjaja. 2006. Deformation and slip along the Sunda
megathrust in the great 2005 Nias-Simeulue earthquake, Science, vol. 311, no. 5769, pp.
1897-1901.
TDMRC. 2008. End to End Tsunami Drill Kota Banda Aceh, 2008. (technical report, unpublish).
Tim Nasional Tsunami Drill. 2008. Laporan Kegiatan Team Tsunami Drill Banda Aceh. (Unpublish)
Informasi Geologi Lingkungan Untuk Rencana Tata Ruang Kota Banda Aceh Provinsi
Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam. 2005. Peta Potensi Landaan Tsunami. Departemen Energi dan
Sumberdaya Mineral.
Informasi Geologi Lingkungan Untuk Rencana Tata Ruang Kota Banda Aceh Provinsi Nanggroe
Aceh Darussalam. 2005. Peta Kerentanan Bencana Geologi Dan Resiko Gempa Bumi.
Departemen Energi dan Sumberdaya Mineral.
ISDR. 2005. Summary of the Hyogo framework for Action 2005-2015: Building thr resilience of
Nations and Communities to Disaster (Hyogo Framework).

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The Aceh Besar Community Preparedness in Anticipating
Earthquakes and Tsunamis
Deny Hidayati, and Laila Nagib
Research Center for Population, the Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Jakarta

LESSONS LEARNT FROM THE GIANT TSUNAMI
The Aceh Besar District, geographically and geologically, is prone to natural disasters, including
earthquakes, tsunamis, cyclones, volcanic eruptions, landslides, floods, droughts and fires. About 7
sub districts, including Pulo Aceh, Lhoknga, Leupung, Lhoong, Peukan Bada, Baitussalam and
Mesjid Raya were hit by an earthquake and tsunami on 26 December 2004 (Government of Aceh
Besar 2007). These areas were extremely vulnerable, due to their close proximity to the epicentre of
the earthquake followed by the tsunami wave. This was related to the movement of the Indian
Ocean plate and the Asian plate in the west (Indian Ocean) coming together and the movement of
the Sumatran active faults in the Aceh area in the vicinity of Banda Aceh. The topography of theseregions varies between relatively flat with a slope angle of 0 – 5o and steep hills formed by limestone.
These limestone hills are very steep with inclinations ranging from 60 – 80o, which is an obstacle forcommunity members when trying to save themselves (LIPI - UNESCO/ISDR 2006).
These regions have since become more vulnerable. The tsunami waves in 2004 caused soil
erosion and abrasion that led to a reduction in the land area in some locations. The former highway
and several coconut trees, previously on the coastal lands, are now covered by sea water. Inundationof water formed marshes in the coastal district which is now open, without a tree barrier, increasing
the vulnerability of these locations.
The enormous disaster caused a huge number of lives to be lost, leading to demographic
changes in the tsunami affected areas. More than 40,000 people lost their lives (1,460 weregovernment staff), 2,800 are missing, 44,232 displaced and 182 disabled (Government of Aceh
Besar 2007). The number of people has decreased substantially, by about 70 per cent in the
Leupung sub district and 28 per cent in Pulo Aceh between 2003 and 2006. The tsunami killed mostof the people in Dayah Mamplam village in Leupung, with only about 12 per cent of the people there
still alive. Most of the victims were from the vulnerable group; women. The disaster has increased
the gender ratio from 96 to 131 in Leupung and from 101 to 120 in Pulo Aceh. Indeed, thepopulation density has declined significantly from 104 to 34 people per km2 in Leupung and from 25
to 18 people per km2 in Pulo Aceh (LIPI – UNESCO/ISDR 2006).
The large number of lives lost and the demographic changes indicate that the disaster
preparedness of the community in the District of Aceh Besar was very low. This was mainly related
to the lack of knowledge and awareness about earthquakes and tsunamis and lack of skills to reducethe disaster risks. Realizing the high degree of its vulnerability, the community has no other choice
but to prepare in anticipation of such disasters.
This paper aims to analyze the community preparedness in the District of Aceh Besar based on
the study conducted by LIPI – UNESCO/ISDR in 2006 and LIPI in 2007. The assessment, using a
combination of quantitative (survey) and qualitative methods, was carried out in the sub district ofLeupung, particularly in the villages of Dayah Mamplam and Pulot, and the Pulo Aceh sub district inthe villages of Gugop and Ulee Paya located on Breuh Island. The survey involved 205 households,
60 school communities and 20 government staff.
The level of community preparedness was measured based on a framework developed by LIPI
in collaboration with UNESCO/ISDR. This framework consists of five parameters, namely, 1)
Knowledge about natural hazards and disaster preparedness; 2) Policy statement; 3) Emergency
planning; 4) Warning system; and 5) Resource mobilization capacity. These parameters then weretranslated into variables that could be scored and indexed. This study classifies the preparedness
according to five levels: 1) very prepared: with index value 80-100; 2) prepared: 65-79; 3) almost

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Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

prepared: 55-64; 4) not enough prepared: 40-54; and 5) not prepared: less than 40. The study also
identified seven stakeholders that are closely related to the community preparedness i.e. households,
government, school communities, community institutions, non government organizations,professionals and the private sector. Three of them: households, government and schoolcommunities, are considered to be the main stakeholders, while the others are called supporting
stakeholders in the preparedness for disaster. The unification of the main stakeholders’ preparedness
is seen as the community preparedness.

Map 1. The Study Locations in the District of Aceh Besar
Source: LIPI – UNESCO/ISDR, 2006

100

80

57

Index

50

44

60

50.4

40

20

0
Households

Government

School Community

District of Aceh Besar

Chart 1. The Value Index of Community Preparedness in the District of Aceh Besar
Source: LIPI – UNESCO/ISDR 2006 and LIPI 2007

THE COMMUNITY PREPAREDNESSDespite the extraordinary experience of the tsunami, the community in the District of Aceh Besar
was still not enough prepared by the end of 2007. This is indicated by the index value that reached
the figure of 50 from the maximum figure of 100 (Chart 1.). This lack of preparation appears among
all main stakeholders, especially government institutions and school communities. The Aceh Besar
government which is supposed to have a higher level of preparedness, actually has the lowest index;

30

Deny Hidayati et al.: The Aceh Besar Community Preparedness

in the category of not prepared. In contrast, the highest index is in the households, classified as
almost prepared. Meanwhile, the index value of the school community is in the category of notenough prepared: between the households and the government.
The lack of community preparedness is due to a low index of all preparedness parameters,
except knowledge. The study results explain that knowledge of the three main stakeholders has thehighest index value, classified as prepared. However, the index value of other parameters (policy,
emergency plan, warning system and resource mobilization capacity) is still low, in the categories of
not prepared and not enough prepared.
The Household Preparedness
This study illustrates that households have been classified as ‘almost prepared’, the highest
level among the three main stakeholders. The 2004 experience has forced them to increase
preparedness. This category is nominated by basic knowledge about earthquakes and tsunamis(Chart 2), even though an observation result indicates that community knowledge is still relatively
low. The household knowledge is mainly related to their experience in the previous giant disasterand extensive information from television and radio about earthquake and tsunami disasters in otherareas.

57

Households Index
25

Resource Mobilization

45

Warning System

53

Emergency Planning

72

Know ledge
0

20

40

60

80

100

Index

Chart 2. Index Value of Household Preparedness Based on Parametersin the District of Aceh Besar
Source: LIPI – UNESCO/ISDR, 2006 and LIPI, 2007

Most respondent households know that natural phenomena may lead to disasters, such as
earthquakes and tsunamis. About 70 per cent mention that volcanic eruptions cause earthquakes and57 per cent name the movement of tectonic plates. Most respondents understand the characteristics
of earthquakes. They say that a strong earthquake is indicated by strong shaking, a long period ofvibration and cracked/collapsed infrastructure and buildings. Most respondents know thatearthquakes are unpredictable. Some respondents also claim that earthquakes lead to dizziness.
Before 26 December 2004 most respondent households were not familiar with tsunamis but
since then, it has become a very important concern. They identified earthquakes beneath the sea andtectonic plate movements and eruptions as the causes of tsunamis. Half the respondents knew thaterosion beneath the sea is another cause of tsunamis. When the respondents were asked abouttsunami characteristics, most of them knew the right answer which included seawater seen to bereceding, strong earthquakes and loud sounds like a bomb going off. Only a small number of
respondents realized that massive clouds in the sky are another characteristic of tsunamis.
The respondent households had limited knowledge of the criteria for safe building construction
for earthquakes. Less than half knew that ‘a symmetrical building construction’ and ‘light building
materials’ are two of the criteria. Most of the respondents identified other criteria, such as ‘parts ofthe building construction should be strongly attached to each other (67%) and ‘deeply buriedfoundations’ (81%).
The limited knowledge of the households can also be seen in the possible actions to be taken for
reducing disaster risks, such as, what to do if an earthquake occurs. More than 90 per cent of31

Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

respondents answered: ‘run to open areas’ and ‘stay away from hanging things, windows/walls, glassand bridges’. However, the proportion of respondents who answered concerning other activities wasmuch lower, such as, ‘leave the room after the earthquake’ (49%), ‘cover the head for protection’(56%), and ‘stay close to the wall which is free from hanging things (32%).
The household knowledge on possible activities, if a tsunami occurs, also varies. More than 90
per cent of respondents answered: ‘calm yourself down/do not panic’, ‘help children, pregnant
women, elderly and disabled people to get out of their homes to a temporary safe place/building’,‘stay away from the beach and run to a high place/building’ and ‘run to an evacuation place/refugee
camp’. However, the number of respondents who named other activities was much less, such as‘take emergency kit’ (67%), ’lock doors before leaving the house’ (39%), and ’turn off electricity,wood or gas cooker at home’ (36%).
As Chart 2 shows, the basic knowledge of the household members is not followed by the actionneeded to anticipate earthquakes and tsunamis. The households are still, not enough prepared for
emergency planning. Less than half of the households have prepared an emergency kit, evacuation
map and routes or attended simulations of evacuation. However, most households have increased
their knowledge and skills and agreed on family evacuation places.
In addition, the households are still not prepared for accessing information about early warning
or for responding to the warning. This condition is mainly due to limited knowledge and information
about tsunami warnings. Most respondent households (82 %) stated that they did not know about theavailability of a tsunami warning system in their location, either from the government or the local
comminity. The government has developed a Tsunami Warning System or TWS, but it was not fully
operational by the end of 2007. Therefore, dissemination regarding this system to the local
community was still limited. Only less than 20 per cent of households knew about tsunami warnings
based on their experience in 2004. Most of them also did not know the ’Smong’ story which is basedon the 1907 earthquake and tsunami (smong) in Simeuleu Aceh that killed thousands of people, andadvises: when a strong earthquake accompanied by receding seawater occurs, the local people haveto immediately seek a safe area, although the story has been passed from generation to generation,from a father/mother to sons/daughters, among neighbours and newcomers.
The households are also still not prepared for increasing resource mobilization capacity,
including information and skills to save lives and reduce the disaster risks. About 79 per cent ofrespondents have never participated in formal or informal meetings, training or seminars relevant todisaster preparedness. Only a few respondents in the Ulee Paya and Pulot villages, especiallyinformal leaders, received relevant training but as the materials were still limited, they have notdistributed the information to the local community.
The Government Preparedness
Preparedness of the government is crucially and urgently needed. As the principal stakeholder,
the government should play a key role in developing community based disaster preparedness. In thisstudy the government has been identified as a composite of three components, i.e. government
institutions at district level (G1); government staff (G2); and government institutions at sub districtlevel (G3). The G1 consists of institutions in charge of disaster management, including the United
Nations and the Community Protection Bureau (Kesbang Linmas), the District Planning Board(Bappeda), the District Health Office (Dinas Kesehatan), the Government Secretary’s Office (Sekda),
the Education Department, the Centre for Information and Communication (Kominfo), Public Works(PU), Transportation (Perhubungan), the Fire Brigade Office (Kebakaran), the Meteorological andGeophysical Bureau (BMG), PDAM, PLN and the Army (Kodim 0101).
This study shows that the index value of the government of the District of Aceh Besar is low,in the category of not enough prepared in anticipating earthquakes and tsunamis. The lack of
preparedness is especially contributed to by government institutions at district (G1) and sub district(G3) levels. The G1, which is supposed to have a higher level of preparedness, actually has thelowest index and is classified as not prepared. In contrast, the highest index is from the government
staff (G2), in the category of already prepared. Meanwhile, the index value of G3 is classified as notenough prepared, between G1 and G2 (Chart 1).
These figures indicate that disaster preparedness has not become a priority of the government in
the District of Aceh Besar. The government has not significantly improved its preparedness,

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Deny Hidayati et al.: The Aceh Besar Community Preparedness

although this district has had horrible experiences in the earthquake and tsunami in 2004. The
government awareness, of, especially, decision makers and those who have authority, of theimportance of disaster preparedness is still limited. The government’s focus is still on the
rehabilitation and reconstruction of the disaster areas. Similar conditions also occur in the district
parliament, particularly in the relevant Commission (Komisi A). The giant earthquake and tsunami
in 2004 devastated almost the entire region. The district government collapsed in the early days ofthe disaster because the situation was absolutely chaotic. The recovery process has taken a long timeand has relied heavily on the central government and foreign aid. Since the province had long beenin conflict, the situation after the disaster has hampered the process of independence.
68.49
70
60
50

48

43.85

35.16

40
30
20
10
0
Government Government Government Government
Institution at
Staff
Institution at of Aceh
District Level
Sub-district
Besar
Level)

Chart 3. Index Value of Government Preparedness in the District of Aceh Besar
Source: LIPI 2007
Table 1. Index Value of Government Preparedness based on Parameters
Parameter

Knowledge (K)Policy Statement (PS)
Emergency Planning (EP)Warning System (WS)
Resource Mobilization
Capacity (RMC)
Total Index
Source: LIPI 2007

Government
Institutions at
District Level (G1)
29.5
39.8
35.7
34.4

Government Staff
(G2)
68.4
80.3
76.6
62.4

Government
Institutions at Sub
District Level (G3)
50.0
50.0
50.0
0

Government of
Aceh Besar
District (G)
68.4
36.6
45.1
45.3
28.1

35.2

68.5

48.0

43.9

The study result shows that the government preparedness varies among parameters and thegovernment components (Table 1). The highest index is in the knowledge of the government staff.
The basic knowledge about earthquakes and tsunamis and disaster impact mainly comes from theirexperience in the 2004 disaster. The staff also receives information from the mass media, especiallyTV, radio and newspapers. After the huge disaster, there was intensive and massive information
about natural disasters. In addition, there were also many workshops and meetings, especially related
to post disaster rehabilitation and reconstruction management.
However, the high index value of knowledge is not followed by action for preparedness. Thiscan be seen from the low index of other parameters. Resource mobilization capacity has the lowest
value, followed by government policy that is in the category of not prepared.
The capacity of the government to mobilize resources varies among the government
components, with, for example, the district government still having limited capacity to mobilize all
resources in the Aceh Besar District. This can be seen from weak institutional arrangements and lackof coordination among the stakeholders. The government staff capacity is much higher than of the
district government. Most government staff has participated in relevant meetings or training,seminars and workshops. As government officials, they have the obligation to increase community

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Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

preparedness. The high respondent participation has not been followed by activities in practice, suchas skills dissemination and drills.
When this study was carried out in December 2007, there was no comprehensive policy orprogram for disaster management in Aceh Besar. The government still focused on post disaster
activities which relied heavily on foreign aid. The institution in charge of disaster management at
district level, known as Satuan Pelaksana Penanggulangan Bencana (Satlak PB), was formed
following the Bupati Decree (SK Bupati) No 34 in 2007, replacing the previous decree (SK Bupati
No.04, 2005). The Satlak, chaired by the Head of the District (Bupati), consists of many agencies
from the relevant government sectors and non government organizations. The Satlak, however, has
not fully achieved its function, since it is a non permanent institution with a limited allocated budget.
According to a key informant: ‘it is only on paper’. The Aceh Besar District has to set up a Working
Group or ‘Pokja’ which is the responsibility of the District Planning Board. This Pokja would focus
on development of the disaster management action plans.
Emergency planning (EP) is a crucial activity in anticipating natural disasters, but it is still in
the category of not enough prepared. The EP varies among the government components with thelowest level coming from the district government and the highest from the government staff.
Although this district has had bitter experience of earthquake and tsunami, the district government
has given little attention to evacuation plans. According to the government key informant in chargeof disaster management, evacuation places and routes have not been identified in this district. The
government has a copy of the disaster risk map that is not informative, since it is in English,
therefore not understood even by the government staff. The Aceh Besar District has the benefit ofexperience from the previous tsunami, especially in relation to First Aid and Health facilities,
including tools and ambulances. However, other facilities such as a fire brigade, clean water andelectricity are still limited. This district is also dependent on the provincial government for providing
tools, equipment and harbour and airport facilities.
By the end of 2007 the Aceh Besar government was still not enough prepared in the warning
system. This is reflected by the index value that varies among the government components with thelowest value contributed by the district government and the highest by the government staff. The
Aceh Besar government, especially the Meteorological and Geophysical Bureau (BMG) as theinstitution in charge, has been developing a Tsunami Warning System (TWS) in this district. The
BMG has installed TWS tools and siren towers in three locations. However, as the TWS has not, sofar, been fully operational and effective, dissemination of the TWS to the local community is still
limited. The interface between the technological warning and the local area is still missing.
Networking among relevant stakeholders is crucially needed, particularly for a dissemination
mechanism, but is still lacking.
The School Community Preparedness
The school community 1 is one of the three main stakeholders supposed to have an
important role in developing community disaster preparedness. This community has been
considered an agent of change and a key player in distributing knowledge on earthquakes andtsunamis and skills to reduce these disasters.
However, Table 2 shows that the index value of the school community has only reached
50, meaning not enough prepared in anticipating disaster. An astonishing result is the lack of
preparedness mainly contributed by the school institutions which have the lowest index,
classified as not prepared. In contrast, students and teachers have a higher level of preparedness,both in the category of prepared.
The low level of school community preparedness occurs in all parameters, except
knowledge. The lowest index value is in the policy which is classified as not prepared. This
indicates that almost no relevant policy has been made and implemented in the schools. The
major cause was due to the schools’ high dependency on policy from the District Education
Office (Dinas Pendidikan Nasional) and the Department of National Education. Disaster1

The school community has been identified as a composite of three components, i.e. school
institution (S1), teachers (S2) and students (S3).

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Deny Hidayati et al.: The Aceh Besar Community Preparedness

preparedness have not become the main priority in school policies because they are moreconcentrated on the rehabilitation of schools after the tsunami.
Table 2. Index Value of School Community Preparedness Based on Components and Parameters
Parameter Index
School Institutions
Knowledge
Policy Statement
10
Emergency Planning
18
Warning System
27
Resource Mobilization Capacity
19
Total Index
17
Source: LIPI – UNESCO/ISDR, 2006

Teachers
65
76
72
57
67

Students
72
62
60
48
69

Total
68
10
39
44
33
50

The table illustrates that the school community has low capacity in mobilizing its resources,
the second lowest index in the category of not prepared. This condition is again mainly
contributed by the school institutions. Although teachers and students have higher index values,
these school components are not capable of increasing the resource mobilization capacity of theschool community. Teachers have more access to enhancing their capacity through participationin relevant meetings, training and community gatherings.
The school community is also not prepared in emergency planning. The level of
preparedness varies among the school components from not prepared (school institutions),
almost prepared (students) to prepared (teachers). The lowest level of the school institutions isreflected by little attention to evacuation plans and drills. In contrast, the highest level of teacher
preparedness indicates a positive sign because they should play an important role in enhancing
emergency planning of other school components.
Unlike other parameters, knowledge has the highest index and is classified as prepared.
Although the index value of students is higher than of teachers, both are in the same category.
Their knowledge about earthquakes and tsunamis has improved significantly, especially ofstudents. This condition is particularly related to their personal experience during and after the
extraordinary tsunami in 2004, added to knowledge acquired from massive information
distributed by the mass media. The students also receive disaster information from relevant
subjects at school. However, the study illustrates that their knowledge on possible activities toreduce risk is still limited.
So far, the efforts to improve the school community preparedness have been carried out on
the basis of concern and capacity of relevant institutions. The availability of NGOs (national
and international) is supposed to play an important role in developing community knowledge.
However, international NGOs are more concerned with reconstruction activities (Tanaka, S
cited by Takahashi et al. 2008). When the survey was conducted in 2006, most efforts laid mostemphasis on rehabilitation and the reconstruction of buildings.
CONCLUSION
This study results show that the Aceh Besar community is still not enough prepared in anticipating
earthquakes and tsunamis. The horrible experience of the tsunami in 2004 has not significantly
increased community preparedness. The awareness of decision makers and those who have relevant
authority is still limited because they are still focused on post disaster activities which rely heavily
on foreign aid. The government and school community which are supposed to have a higher level of
preparedness actually lacks preparation. Although the basic knowledge of the main stakeholders,
including households, government staff and school community, has substantially improved, it is notfollowed by preparedness actions. Efforts to improve public education and community preparedness
have not been the main priority. Policies or programs for disaster management are still lacking.
Emergency planning is also limited, indicated by main stakeholders’ little attention to evacuationplans and drills, provision of basic needs and critical facilities. The tsunami warning system has notbeen fully operational and effective with limited dissemination about the warning and response to35

Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

the warning. The capacity of the main stakeholders to mobilize resources is still low as reflected by alack of participation of the community in relevant meetings or training and in practices, such as ofskills and drills. The low capacity is also related to weak institutional arrangements and lack of
coordination among the stakeholders.
The above illustration indicates the importance of enhancing community preparedness in theDistrict of Aceh Besar. The improvement in awareness of the importance of preparedness andcapability to anticipate a disaster for the household, government and school community is cruciallyand urgently needed. Various efforts should be carried out to reduce disaster risks, including
preparation for warning and of emergency situations and improvement in the capacity of humanresources. Another important effort should be to enhance the capacity of Satlak and the political willof the government, especially in the policy and program of disaster preparedness. International
agencies, such as the International Federation of the Red Cross, the British Red Cross and the Non
Government Institutions, such as PMI, have a high potential to facilitate and develop community
preparedness as has public education as conducted by Compress LIPI in early 2007 and tsunami drillin 2008. If put into effect, this might change the level of community preparedness in this district.

REFERENCES
Hidayati, D. (2005). “Manual for Pioneering of Community Based Disaster Preparedness”. Jakarta:
LIPI – Marine Education Division, COREMAP.
Hidayati, D., and Nagib, L. (2008). “The Government Preparedness of Aceh Besar District in
Anticipating Earthquake and Tsunami”. Nagoya: Graduate School of Environmental Studies,
Nagoya University.
International Strategy for Disaster Reduction 2005, Hyogo Framework for Action 2005 – 2015:
Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters. World Conference on
Disaster Reduction 18 – 22 January 2005, Kobe, Hyogo, Japan.
International Strategy for Disaster Reduction 2003, Rationale Paper on the Framework for
Guidance and Monitoring of Disaster Risk Reduction. Inter-Agency Task Force on Disaster
Reduction, Geneva.
LIPI-UNESCO/ISDR 2006, Assessing the Level of Community Preparedness in Anticipating
Earthquakes and Tsunamis, Jakarta.
Natawijaya, DH 2005, Aceh–Andaman Earthquake, December 26, 2004. Paper Presented at
National Planning Board Meeting. Jakarta.
Permana, H 2005, “Lessons Learnt from Aceh: Understanding Geological Disaster”. Paper
Presented at National Planning Board Meeting. Jakarta.
Takahashi, Makoto at al., 2008, ‘The Questionnaire Survey of December 2007: Preliminary
Descriptions’, in The 4th Investigation Report of 2004 Northern Sumatra Earthquake, Nagoya
University, p 33-44.
The Government of District of Aceh Besar 2007, Standard Operation Procedure: Disaster
Management in Aceh Besar, Kota Jantho.
The Kecamatan Development Program 2007, 2006 Village Survey in Aceh: An Assessment of Village
Infrastructure and Social Conditions,. The Kecamatan Development Program, Banda Aceh.

36

Coastal Zone Management Due to Abrasion along the Coastal Area ofTegal, Central Java Indonesia
Junun Sartohadi, Muh Aris Marfai, and Djati Mardiatno
Geography Faculty, Gadjah Mada University, Bulaksumur 55281 Yogyakarta, Indonesia

ABSTRACTAs an archipelago country, Indonesia has very large coastal areas. Some of the coastal areas arefacing with the environmental degradation including erosion, abrasion, and coastal inundation.
Brebes and Tegal Districts, which are located on the northern coastal area of Central Java, aresuffering from the abrasion process leading to environmental and ecosystem problems. With thecoastline of about 84.5 km, Brebes-Tegal coastal area is considered as the vulnerable area toabrasion process. In last 3 years the abrasion process are increasing until more than 10m/year.
Several factors causing the abrasion process including absent of the mangrove forest along thecoastal area, lack of the coastal management and inappropriate law enforcement.
This research aims at the mapping of the distribution of the abrasion along the coastal area ofBrebes-Tegal, assessing the environmental damage due to the abrasion and formulating the action
plan to reduce the impact of the abrasion to the coastal environment. The abrasion areas had been
mapped using the image interpretation. Meanwhile the environmental damages had been identified
by field observation and interview. The research revealed that several action plans might beproposed using engineering and non-engineering approaches. Several structural measurement
including Jetty, groin, and structural revetment are also intended. Meanwhile several softengineering including forest (mangrove) rehabilitation would also very useful to reduce the impactof the abrasion. The important key factors was formulated for institutional coastal management,
which was emphasized on co-management, community based management, capacity building, andtraditional knowledge development.
Keywords: coastal abrasion, coastal management, structural measurement, and soft engineering

INTRODUCTION
The coastal environment consists of the interface between land and sea (Dey 1999, Marfai et al.
2008). This area has many physical processes including coastal abrasion, waves, tidal process, sealevel rise, erosion, land subsidence, and sedimentation. Those processes play an important rule forthe coastal environmental management. The coastal environments are also modified by humanintervention including urban growth development. The human activities along the coastal area
triggered resource use conflicts spawn environmental degradation (Dey et al. 2002, Marfai et al.
2008). In addition, Bird and Ongkosongo (1980) has mentioned that the building of sea walls andbreakwaters, the advancement of the shoreline artificially by land reclamation, and the removal ofbeach material from the coastline, as the human actions, effect directly to the coastal dynamic andshoreline change.
Coastal abrasion as one of the coastal problem occurs frequently on the many coastal areas inIndonesia (Sunarto 2004). Several processes play an important role in coastal abrasion including
wave action caused by winds, high tides due to astronomical tidal activity, tidal surges created byweather systems, and accelerated sea level rise due to global warming.
Abrasion is also influenced by natural processes such as cross-shore and long-shore sediment
movement and due to dynamic water levels at the coastal area, such as waves, tides, storm, sea levelrise, etc. Additionally, the landuse changes and population growth on the low-lying area and near thecoastal zone give impact to the shoreline dynamic and creating the more vulnerable area. It has

37

Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

become important to map the abrasion as an input data for the risk assessment (e.g. Azab and Noor
2003). Information about the location of the abrasion as well as impact of the abrasion is also vitalfor coastal zone management (e.g. Morton et al. 1993).
Monitoring abrasion on the long-term period is important task for the coastal hazard
vulnerability assessment. Shoreline data can be used to help the determination and calculation of thehazard and vulnerable area along the coastline. Residential area, industrial state, and agriculture area
along the shoreline are susceptible for the shoreline change, e.g. due to the erosion processes.
In Central Java Province, emphasis in Tegal coastal area, abrasion is the major coastal hazards
that threat to land use, coastal ecology, property and infrastructure in coastal area (Sunarto et al.
2001, Yudono 2008). Numerous infrastructures and agricultural land use behind the coastline aresubject to abrasion. Governmental report from the Board of the Environmental impact monitoring(Bapedalda Jawa Tengah) (2002) revealed that the abrasion along the northern coastline of theCentral Java Province was 2,910 Hectare in last five years. Agricultural land use including fishpondarea and paddy field were the most vulnerable unit due to abrasion. Coastal protection measures
have been constructed in a number of vulnerable areas, including the groin and dyke systems.
However, the risk to coastal communities from coastal abrasion continues to present major
challenges to coastal managers. Therefore, in an effort to limit future abrasion, improvement ofcoastal zone management is required. This paper reported the coastal abrasion and its mapping in
Tegal, Central Java by using the satellite image interpretation, revealed the investigation of the
impact of the abrasion, and formulated the action plan for coastal zone management. Due to the lackof series data, the abrasion process has been mapped crudely from the Year 1944 to the Year 2005
based on two time series images and topographic maps. However, in the near future this work would
be extended with other time series data to have a detail result of assessment.

Figure 1. Tegal coastal area, Central Java Province, Indonesia (Yudono 2008)

TEGAL CITY AND ITS SURROUNDING AREA
Tegal is a coastal urban area situated on Java Island Indonesia. Geographically, it is located at thenorthern coast of Java and about 330 km east of Jakarta (Figure 1).The city consists of vary land use
including fishery, residential, industrial, public and commercial, forest, bare land and others. Some
infrastructures, such as roads, harbor and transport facilities, have been prepared to support the
future development. Physical characteristic of Tegal coastal area features by sandy and muddy
beaches. Sandy beach has larger in grain size and heavier compare to muddy materials. However,sand is less cohesive and therefore relatively easier to erode lead to abrasion. From the topographicalpoint of view, Tegal has large of lowland areas and limited hilly area on the southern part. The

38

Junun Sartohadi et al.: Coastal Zone Management

surface elevation of the Tegal City is range from 0 m above sea level up to 925 m (Yudono 2008). In
general, the shoreline slope is steep which allow waves to break closer to the coast and thus,
enhancing abrasion. Coastal and low-lying area is very dynamic area with multi-uses purposes. The
major economic and agricultural activities of Tegal City are situated on the low-lying and coastal
areas cause over exploitation of environmental resources. In addition, coastal area of Tegal has
complex geomorphological processes including erosion-sedimentation processes. Long period of
intensive erosion-sedimentation processes and damage of the mangrove forest causes shorelinechange dynamic.
METHODOLOGY
Abrasion along the coastal area can be monitored using the classical and conventionally method,where shoreline is manually identified and traced based on the time series aerial photograph,
topographic map or satellite images (e.g. Elkoushy and Tolba 2004). The technology of theGeographic information system (GIS) can be applied as an essential tool for the delineation processof the satellite images and topographic map. The images and other spatial data can be translated into
the digital form through scanning followed by geocoding and referencing. Then the visualdelineation using screen digitizing based on the images on GIS technology can be done without
difficulty. The conventional method and their integration with the GIS technology provide reliable
results on digital form. Abrasion studies and shoreline change monitoring using such kind of theconventional methods have been done by various researches, for example Elkoushy and Tolba(2004), Marfai (2003), Mazlan et al. (1989), and Raj (1982). Our research was intended to map theabrasion using time series data along the coastal area of Tegal and surrounding area using the visualinterpretation.
Although there has been detail coastal geomorphological research on several parts of theIndonesian coastline, the coastal features of Tegal-Central Java have not yet been well documented.
Limited time series data was available, e.i., Topographic Maps Year 1944, 1965, Landsat ETM year
1991, 2001 and 2005. In this study, visual interpretation and delineation has been done using vector
operation on GIS software. Image enhancement of the Landsat images including image processing,geo-referencing and filtering have been done prior to visual interpretation. Image enhancement has
been done using linear stretching in order to obtain the better visualization. Linear stretching is astretch method by which all values in an input map are converted into new values in an output map
by using one formula. Once the image enhancement is finished, the shoreline delineation can becreated using the classical interpretation. GIS superimpose method has been used for maps overlay
operation in order to identify the shoreline dynamic as well as detection of the abrasion of thesurface area. For this purposes all the dataset has the same georeferenced.
ABRASION ALONG THE COASTAL AREA OF TEGAL
Visual interpretation and delineation technique of the Landsat images has been applied to detect theabrasion along the coastal area. The suspended sediment along the coast may causes inaccuracies
during the visual interpretation. To minimize the inaccuracies, image enhancement and filtering havebeen applied for Landsat ETM prior to visual interpretation. Figure 2 revealed an example of thevisual delineation of the shoreline on the study area. Once the delineation is finished, the result thenconverted into segment map. Superimposed techniques have been carried out following thedelineation. In general, with the crude data sources, the result revealed that during the period 1944 to
2005, the shoreline changed and moved to the land leading to the loss of coastal land areas. The map
in Figure 3 revealed the significant abrasion occurred along the coast qualitatively. However, it isimportant on the next project to measure the abrasion and change of the shoreline quantitatively andenhancing the shoreline map by putting more time series data.
IMPACT OF ABRASION ON COASTAL ENVIRONMENT
According to Yudono (2008), on the local context in Tegal Coastal area, recently the abrasion occurs
for about 250 m of the shoreline within this Coastal City and in some parts, the coastline moved up

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Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

to 180 m to the land. The increasing of the abrasion process on the coastal area threats the coastal
community leading loss of coastal land and damage to the coastal settlement. Figure 4 exposed theimpact of the abrasion along the Tegal Coastal area.

Figure 2. The delineation of the landsat data Year 1991 and 2001 (Yudono 2008)

Figure 3. The shoreline change during the Year 1994 to 2005 indicates the abrasion process along
the coastal area (Sunarto et al. 2001, Yudono 2008)40

Junun Sartohadi et al.: Coastal Zone Management

Figure 4. Abrasion causes loss of land on the coastal area (a) and threatens the coastal settlement(b) (Yudono 2008)

As mentioned earlier, that the abrasion is one of the important issues in coastal management inCentral Java Province. Several cities are facing with the erosion and abrasion due to the absent of thecoastal protection measures including mangrove forest. Mangroves are natural coastal features,
which serve as buffers against the erosion energy of waves. Decreasing the mangrove density on the
coastal areas contributes to the erosion and abrasion along the coastal area. Thus, the presence ofmangrove forests lessens a coastal segment’s vulnerability to erosion. The abrasion and the damageof the mangrove forests in several cities in Central Java Province are figured in Table 1.
Table 1. The Abrasion and the damage of the mangrove forests in several cities in Central Java
Province Indonesia
No.

City/Regency

Abrasion/Ha

1
2
3
4
5
-6
7
8
9
10
11

Kab. Brebes
Kota Tegal
Pemalang
Kab. Pekalongan
Kota Pekalongan
BatangKendalDemak
JeparaPati
Rembang

818.0
37.1
1,549.0
30.0
6.10
2.50
217.0
145.5
86.0
3.1
15.8

Level of mangrove damage (Ha)
Minor
21.0
770.5
54.9
2.9
7.7
8.5
5.0
491.3

Medium
205.0
4.215.0
41,487.5
20.0
668.6
37.0
6.5
33.8

Major
9.0
3.3
12.0
1.2
124.1
4.1
4.5
103.7

Total
2,910,1
1,344.7
Sumber : Bapedalda Jawa Tengah (2002), (Yudono 2008)

45,702.5

249.9

RESPONSE TO COASTAL ABRASION
As a community, the people in the coastal area responded to the prevalent abrasion by mangrove reforestation, building structural measures such as ripraps, or sandbags. In addition, the local
government supported the conservation by constructing seawall, jetty or groin. According to the
locals, the ripraps and sandbags were not effective in preventing abrasion and maintaining them
became costly in the long run. However, the structural measures using groin were pointed as aneffective way to reduce the abrasion, as it is shown in Figure 5. In addition, increasing the41

Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

application of the soft engineering including forest (mangrove) rehabilitation would also very usefulto reduce the impact of the abrasion. The root system of mangroves is capable of reducing erosive
forces of waves, tidal currents and consolidating sediment. In addition, as an ecosystem mangroves
are capable of performing certain environmental services. Mangrove plants produce organic matter
through photosynthesis and this produces the food for most of the fish and shellfish in the coastal
waters. Therefore, from ecological point of view, coastal forests also form a natural barrier andprotecting against natural disasters. Figure 6 revealed an example of the model of the mangrove reforestation on the coastal area and Figure 7 shown the positive impact of the mangrove conservation.
Moreover, in brief, we proposed several measures to be taken to minimize the abrasion and to solve
the environmental problem related coastal dynamic process, i.e., hard engineering, soft engineeringand social engineering (See Table 2)

Figure 5. Structural measures using groin and its progress (a) building up the groin in Year 2001,(b) Groin is partly functioned in the end of Year 2001, (c) coastal protection was successfully andthe area is used for tourism, the last picture was taken in Year 2009

CONCLUSION
In term of the coastal hazard management, long term monitoring of abrasion is one of the mostvaluable data. Historical shoreline change provides valuable data on erosion and sedimentation
trends and permit limited forecasting of shoreline movement. Integration of the GIS technology andvarious spatial data (topographic maps and satellite images) can be considered as a promising
method regarding lack of homogeneous data sources in the long period of time. However, further
issues remain, as it is mentioned by Mills et al. (2005) that in monitoring of the shoreline dynamic inlong period time, the results should be examined carefully. It should be noted that the good accuracy
is influenced not only by the visual delineation method, but also by the geo-referencing accuracy ofthe sources images. Although the result on this project was satisfactory, some further enhancements
related geo-processing and consideration of the hydrodynamic factor as well as micro-landformshould be done for a future version.
Rates and causes of abrasion may vary along the coastal segment, and the mitigation measures
may also differ accordingly. Unfortunately, our study has not identified into detail the causes ofabrasion. Based on the field observation it can be said that the groin measure was an advantage
measure and it already shows the good conservation result along the coastal area of Tegal. In
addition, the mangrove forestation can be considered as a valuable vegetative measure. However tominimize the abrasion, some measures might be proposed including hard and soft engineering aswell as social engineering.

42

Junun Sartohadi et al.: Coastal Zone Management

Figure 6. Coastal protection using combination of mangrove re-forestation program(Sunarto et al. 2001)

Figure 7. Example of the re-forestation (young mangrove) on the coastal area of Tegal

REFERENCE
Azab MA, and Noor AM. 2003. Change detection of the North Sinai Coast by using remote sensing
and geographic information system. www.eeaa.gov.eg, accessed 23 December 2006
Bird ECF, and Ongkosongo OSR. 1980. Environmental changes on the coasts of Indonesia. United
Nations university press, the united nations university
Bapedalda Jawa Tengah. 2002. Tegal city planning 2000-2010. Government of Tegal, Indonesia (inIndonesian)
Dey S. 1999. Natural Environmental Control Through Seasons on Morphology of Digha-Shankarpur
Coastal Tract of Medinipur, West Bengal; Indian Journal of Geography and Environment;
Medinipur, INDIA, 4: 16-23
Dey SS, Dutta D, and Adak SB. 2002. Holocene Sea Level Change of West Bengal Coast; Indian
Geographical Journal; Chennai, INDIA, 77 (1): 7-20
Elkoushy A., and Tolba RA. 2004. Prediction of shoreline change by using satellite aerial imagery.
www-isprs-org-istanbul 2004
Marfai MA. 2003. Monitoring of the coastal zone dynamics By means of multi-temporal Landsat
TM. Annual scientific meeting xii, indonesian remote sensing society. Bandung 29-30 july
2003
Marfai MA, Almohammad H, Dey S, Susanto B, King L. 2008. Coastal dynamic and shoreline
mapping: multi-sources spatial data analysis in Semarang Indonesia. Environmental Monitoringand Assessment 142: 297-308.

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Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

Mazlan HI, Aziaz A, and Abdullah A. 1989. Preliminary evaluation of photogrammetric-remotesensing approach in monitoring shoreline erosion. Proceeding of the tenth asian conference on
remote sensing, November 23-29 1989, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Mills JP, Buckley SJ, Mitchell HL, Clarke PJ, and Edwards SJ. 2005. A geomatics data integration
technique for coastal change monitoring. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 30, 651–664
Morton RA, Leach MP, Paine JG, and Cardoza MA. 1993. Monitoring beach Changes using gps
surveying techniques. Journal of coastal research, 9 (3), pg. 702-720. Photogrammetric analysis
of coastal erosion along the Chukchi coast at barrow, Alaska
Raj JK. 1982. Net directions and rates of present-day beach sediment transport by littoral drift along
the east coast of peninsular malaysia. Geol. Soc., malaysia bull. 15:57-82.
Sunarto S. 2004. Geomorphic changes in coastal area surround Muria Volcano. PhD dissertation at
Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia (in Indonesian)Sunarto S, Sudibyakto S, Dibyosaputro S, Mardiatno D, Rahayu L, Aningtyas Y, Djati R. 2001.
Mapping of the vulnerable area due to abrasion and development of the coastal management
model along the coastal area of Brebes-Tegal. Geography Faculty, Gadjah Mada University,
Yogyakarta, Indonesia (In Indonesian)Yudono A. 2008. Shore management against the abrasion in Tegal. Geography Faculty, Gadjah
Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia (In Indonesian)Table 2. Proposed model for coastal zone management against abrasion
Nu
1

ApproachHardengineering

Function
Breaking
waves andreduce thewaves
energyStructure
Revetment

Seawall
Breakwater
Reduceerosion andsuspend thesediment

Jetty

3

Soft
engineeringSocialengineering

Coastalstabilization
Community
development

Shape

Multi
Groin

2

Type
Permeable revetment:
1. Rip-rap (open filter
material)
2. Stone pitching
3. Concrete block
4. Impermeable
revetment:
5. Aspalt revetment
6. Bitumen groutedstone
1. Vertical wall structure
1. Overtopping
2. Non-overtopping
Mono

1.

Permeable (overpassing)
2. Impermeable (endpassing)
1. Reforestation
Community based
management andCapacity building44

1. Mangrove
1. Enhancing
knowledge of thecoastal community
2. Stakeholders
coordination andconsultation
3. Community
participation
4. Empowerment of
the local groups, etc

Community-based Restoration of Mangrove Forest Land andLivelihood Security, Baan Thong Lhang, Phang Nga
Rawee Thaworn, and Somying Soontornwong
Thailand program, Regional Community Forestry Training Center (RECOFTC)

ABSTRACTThis paper illustrates the potential of community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) tosecure community livelihood in a mangrove community in a Tsunami-affected area on the coast of
Thailand. It demonstrates how community-based mangrove forest management is one means forincreasing community solidarity and mitigating conflict among multi-stakeholders. Lessons learned
can be applied on a broader scale to empower local communities to successfully manage the forest
and improve their livelihoods.
Key words: Community-based mangrove restoration, deforestation, community-based mangrove
forest management, natural resource access, gender roles, livelihood security

Baan Thong Lhang is a Tsunami-affected coastal community in Phang Nga province in southern
Thailand. From their experience, they strongly believe that the mangrove forest plays an integral role
to community wellbeing—in providing for livelihoods, particularly food and income security, as
well as in mitigating the effects of natural disasters.

45

Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

SOCIO-ECONOMIC BACKGROUND OF BAAN THONG LHANG
Baan Thong Lhang was established in its present location 66 years ago, in a coastal plain between
the mountains and the Andaman Sea. It currently numbers 151 households, most of whom areengaged in rubber plantations and fisheries for their livelihoods. Many villagers and youth also workin the local tourism industry, as employees
at golf resorts and tour agencies.
The community is dependent on avariety of local natural resources. Many
collect honey and edible wild plants fromthe mountain, and depend on the uplandarea as a watershed source for their rubber
plantations and fruit orchards. Locals
catch freshwater fish and shrimp from thecannel that runs through the village. Fromthe coastal mangroves residents catch
crabs, fish and many varieties of clams
and mussels, which from the primary basisof the village food supply. They also
harvest wood and honey from themangrove forest. Some residents also fishout at sea. Ten households are entirely
dependent on mangrove forest products
for livelihoods and income generation.
MANGROVE DEFORESTATION
Deforestation of local mangrove forest
land began with the legal granting offorest concessions in 1964. In 1982, acharcoal plant was established locally, andloggingforcharcoalincreased
dramatically. In 1986 the government
promoted shrimp farming, companies andsome wealth locals to converted rice fields
and mangrove areas into shrimp farms. During this period, large areas of mangrove were
deforested—the mangrove area shrunk from 534 hectares in 1964 to 178 hectares in 1989—and thewildlife population in the canal had dwindled significantly. Shrimp farming continued expansion
into mangrove forest land until 2005, with conflict increasing between shrimp farm owners and local
forest user groups who collected mangrove products for subsistence and livelihood purposes.
Community leaders and other stakeholders came together to discuss possible strategies to resolvethese problems, and in 2005, thecommunity leaders appealed to thegovernor to investigate. By 2006, in thewake of Tsunami, the community formed
a committee to negotiate with the ownersof the shrimp farms and reclaim mangrove
land to rehabilitate.
REHABILITATION ACTIVITIESThe community decided to restore andexpand their mangrove area through acommunity forestry initiative introduced46

Thaworn and Soontornwong: Community-based Restoration of Mangrove Forest Landby a local NGO. The community mangrove
forest management plan was devised andarea demarcation and resource mapping
carried out with the full participation ofcommunity
members.
Rehabilitation
activities have been implemented twiceyearly to help raise community awareness,
and also include:
•

•
•

•

•

replanting mangrove areas, which
had been cut and destroyed throughorganizing local institutions (school,
NGOs, local government andprivate sector) in planting events
coinciding with the King and theQueen’s birthdays
establishing roles andresponsibilities of committee
member to monitor the forest area
re-introducing wild orchid species
indigenous the area that had
disappeared due to the land
conversion
starting up community incomegeneration projects, such as
beekeeping, in the mangrove forest
area.
creating a mangrove network withanother local community tocoordinate and monitor continuingmangrove rehabilitation efforts.

OUTCOMES OF REHABILITATIONACTIVITIES
Since the inception of community forest
activities, the local mangrove forest area has
expanded, with noticeable increases in
numbers of diverse plants, trees, non-timber
products and marine animals. The improved
health of the forest has meant that villagers
also have easier access to local forest
products, better securing their livelihood.
Incidences of conflict have also been
reduced significantly, and women have had
key roles in mangrove forest management
and conflict transformation.
Outcomes of note include:•

The relationship between local
government and residents has
improved, and government
authorities now consider BaanThong Lhang as a good model of47

Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

•
•

•

•

•

community-base forest restoration.
Forest cover and wildlife
population increased significantlyin the mangrove area.
Food supply of fish, crabs, clams
and mussels, shrimp greatly
increased. As a result, the timespent in product collection
decreased, and income earned
from this activity increased.
Community confidence for theirwelfare and property in the eventof another natural disaster, suchas another tsunami, has increased,
due to villagers’ greater sense ofownership in mangrove
management and appreciation of
local natural resources in
mitigating the effects of natural
disasters.
Women have greater roles incommunity social development in
activities such as income
generation, the community
savings group, and natural
resource management.
Conflict has decreased
dramatically between shrimp
farmers and residents regarding
shrimp farm expansion andwastewater management.

CONCLUSION AND KEY LESSONSLEARNED
Baan Thong Lhang continues theiractivities today and is an example of thepotential in community-based mangroveand coastal resource management for
improving livelihoods. Due to theirstrengthened community mangrove forest
organization,
Baan
Thong
Lhang
community received public acclaim in theform of several awards and certificatesfrom governmental offices and private
sectors in national and international level.
Key lessons learned include:•

Community involvement and ownership in the mangrove rehabilitation process was integral
to Baan Thong Lhang’s success because the local government had limited resources. The
community, due to its proximity and dependence on mangrove resources, became key
partners and stakeholders in the process.

48

Thaworn and Soontornwong: Community-based Restoration of Mangrove Forest Land

•

•

•

The rehabilitation process itself is an
ecological process but can be beneficial
to processes of conflict resolution bybringing different stakeholders together
to cooperate in the resolution ofcommon problems.
The cooperation and participation of themost dependent user groups was
essential to the rehabilitation process,because these are people who use theforest everyday and are best placed forrehabilitation activities.
Networking between all local
stakeholders greatly improves theefficiency of forest rehabilitation andmonitoring.

49

Tsunami Hazard Management in Thailand
Charlchai Tanavud
Faculty of Natural Resources, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkla. Thailand. 90110.
Charlchai.t@psu.ac.th

ABSTRACTOn 26 December 2004, the world’s most catastrophic tsunami generated by an undersea earthquake
off the western coast of northern Sumatra, Indonesia, devastated the Andaman coast of southern
Thailand without warning between 9.40–10.30 a.m. local time. A series of destructive waves ranging
from 1.50 to 12.30 meters above mean sea level and inland penetration of up to 2,000 meters
wrought massive destruction along six coastal provinces, leaving 5,395 lives lost, 8,457 injured and2,817 missing. The highly destructive waves destroyed infrastructure and productive capacity,interrupting economic activity, and creating irreversible change in the natural resource base. The
suffering and losses beyond description due to this adverse natural phenomenon reduce the pace ofsustained social and economic development of the country.
While the occurrence of the earthquakes and ensuing tsunami cannot be prevented, themagnitude of their impacts can be limited through effective disaster management. Prior to the 2004
catastrophic event, the disaster-related government agencies in Thailand were focused primaryattention on the delivery of post calamity relief and reconstruction. In the aftermath of the 2004
tsunami’s destruction, the Royal Thai Government has undergone a paradigm shift in their approachto disaster management. The new approach places relatively more emphasis on pre-disaster aspectsof mitigation and preparedness to ensure that the country’s development gains are not lost throughnatural calamities. An array of hazard mitigation and preparedness strategies developed andimplemented in order to enhance the country’s tsunami disaster resilience include the establishmentof an early warning system, the enhancement of public awareness regarding tsunamis, thedevelopment of a tsunami hazard map, the protection of healthy coastal ecosystems and theincorporation of tsunami-related topics into university curricula.
Key words: tsunami hazard, tsunami impacts, disaster management, mitigation and preparedness
measures

INTRODUCTION
The kingdom of Thailand is located in the middle of the Indochinese Peninsula, between latitudes 50
40/ and 200 30/ N, and longitudes 970 20/ and 1050 45/ E. The kingdom‘s total area is 513,115 square
kilometers. Geographically, Thailand is divided into four regions; the North, the Central, theNortheast and the South or the Southern Peninsula. The mountain ranges form the backbone of thePeninsular South, with the eastern coastline facing the Gulf of Thailand and the western shorelinefacing the Andaman Sea. More coastal plains and stretches of long beaches are found on the east
coast, whereas the west coast appears to be a submerged coast, with a very irregular shoreline andmany estuaries. The “golden axe” shape of the peninsula provides over 2,705 kilometers of shoreline
and thus affords the region excellent access to the sea, with 23 of its 76 provinces touching the coast(Arbhabhirama et al., 1988). The country’s tourism and aquaculture potentials are therefore
considerable.
Due to its geographical location, geophysical situation on the steep upland slope, fragile coastal
ecosystems, and the strong influence of monsoons and typhoons, Thailand is highly susceptible to awide range of natural hazards. The northern region terrain is mountainous which render this area tobe prone to water-related disasters such as flashflood, landslide and associated debris flow. The
northeastern region, which is on a semi-arid plateau, characterized by undulating surface, frequently

50Charlchai Tanavud: Tsunami Hazard Management in Thailand

suffers severe drought and cold spell during summer and cool season, respectively. The central
region, the vast fertile land on alluvial plain, often encounters the repeated riverine flood and urban
inundation during the rainy season. The southern region terrain, which is hilly on the west coast andthe coastal plain on the east, has frequented flashflood, landslide and associated flooding and debris
flow, and coastal storms (DDPM, 2006).
VULNERABILITY TO COASTAL HAZARDSIn response to the phenomenal growth of the tourism and aquaculture industries, beach resorts,
tourism facilities, and aquaculture infrastructure have replaced much of the mangrove and beachforests along the coastal shores. During the period from 1961-1996, erstwhile mangrove forests
drastically decreased by 56.0 percent, contributing to a 32.7 percent increase in shrimp farming area
(Aksornkoae and Tokrisna, 2004). Moreover, many of the coastal sand dunes that act as naturalbarriers against extreme natural events have been removed to make way for the construction of
tourism facilities and to create better views from tourist hotels and resorts overlooking the sea. As aconsequence of the destruction of coastal ecosystem structure, the coastal areas of southern Thailand
have become extremely vulnerable to the occurrence of coastal hazards, particularly tsunamis. Thesenatural hazards, and their potential for disaster, pose a significant threat to coastal communities inthe southern part of the country.
TSUNAMI EVENT OF 2004 AND ITS IMPACTS
In 2004, for the first time in the country’s recorded history, Thailand experienced the devastating
effects of a giant tsunami, caused by the second largest earthquake ever instrumentally recorded,with a moment magnitude of 9.3. The undersea quake occurred some 150 kilometers off the west
coast of northern Sumatra, Indonesia at 00:58:53 (GMT) on December 26, 2004. This adverse
natural phenomenon triggered disastrous tsunamis that propagated throughout the Indian Ocean,causing massive casualties, extreme inundation, and destruction along the Andaman coast ofsouthern Thailand between 9.40 – 10.30 a.m. local time (UNEP, 2005). A series of destructive
waves ranging from 1.50 to 12.30 meters above mean sea level and inland penetration of up to 2,000
meters wreaked vast damage along the coastlines of six coastal provinces, namely: Ranong, Phang
Nga, Phuket, Krabi, Trang and Satun (Tables 1 and Figure 1). The tourism, coastal fisheries andaquaculture, and agriculture industries sustained the largest losses, with beachfront hotels andbungalows, fishing boats and gear, aquaculture hatcheries and shrimp ponds, and agricultural land
severely damaged (Tanavud, 2004). The force of the waves caused significant geomorphologicchanges along the coastal shore such as enlargement of water channels, widening of lagoon mounts,
and erosion of sand beaches (Umitsu et al., 2007). The large inflow of sea water and silt load caused
deterioration of the quality of coastal soil and water resources. The huge surges of water also
produced considerable damage to coral reefs, beach and mangrove forests, and washed away crops
such as coconut, cashew nut and oil palm (Figure 2). The suffering and losses beyond description
due to this catastrophic event reduced the pace of sustained social and economic development of thecountry.
As can be seen in Table 2, the Royal Thai Government casualty estimates were reported at
5,395 dead, 8,457 injured, and 2,817 missing (Thai Government, 2005). The total estimate ofdamages and losses from this adverse natural phenomenon in southern Thailand was US $ 2.09
billion, with the largest proportions of the damages concentrated in tourism, fisheries andaquaculture industries (UN, 2005). The financial impact has lowered the country’s GDP by 0.4%
(UNDP, 2005). Of the affected areas, the worst-hit province was Phang Nga, in particular Takua Pa
District, and to a lesser extent, Phuket and Krabi Provinces (Thai Government, 2005). The hardest
hit coastal inhabitants along the coast included fisher folks, tourist resort workers and migrantlaborers. The majority of the tsunami surviving victims faced a number of psychosocial stresses
resulting from the loss of their loved ones and community members, being rendered homeless,fearful of more tsunamis, suffering from a loss sense of safety and security, and lost livelihoods.
Many survivors suffered most from phobic disorders, followed by depressive and anxiety disorders.
It will take months and years to restore lives to pre-tsunami levels of functioning. These critical51

Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

issues led to a decline in the quality of life of the affected communities. According to NGI (2006), arecurrence of a quake-triggered tsunami originated from the same tectonically active region can be
expected in southern Thailand within the next 50-100 years.
Losses caused by perpetual events of the tsunami disaster retard social, economic andenvironmental development, and lead to diversion of scarce resources from development to relief
and rehabilitation. It was calculated that losses due to this natural phenomenon were on such a scale
as to cancel out the aid provided for Thailand by developed countries. The damaging and destructive
tsunami of 2004 highlighted the extreme vulnerability of coastal communities to natural hazards.
Continued removal of shoreline protection functions provided by coastal ecosystems, expansion of
economic and development activities into coastal area, and unplanned human settlements within anarrow fringe of coastal land, inevitably resulted in further increase in tsunami vulnerability tocoastal inhabitants. It is therefore imperative that disaster management capacity of the country’relevant departments/agencies should be improved and strengthened to lessen the negative impactsof the tsunami hazards and bring about development sustainability.
(4.0) Prapas Beach(4.2) Ao Keay

Ranong(9.3) Ban Nok Na(9.5) Ban Pak Koh(5.7)  Ban Num Khem
(6.4) Thap Tawan Beach

Phang Nga

(12.3)  Ban Khuk Khak(9.5) Nang Thong Beach(2.2) Thap Lamu

Andaman Sea(3.0)Thai Mueang(4.0)Sai Kaeo Beach

Krabi(1.5)Nai Thon Beach

Phuket(6.9)  Pa Tong Beach(1.5) Karon Beach

Trang
Figure 1 The Andaman coast of southern Thailand andthe distribution of tsunami inundation heights (m).

TSUNAMI HAZARD MANAGEMENT
Disaster management, which is widely seen as embracing four elements: mitigation, preparedness,
response, and recovery, seeks to ensure safety of life and reduction of damage to property. In
Thailand, however, disaster management focused primarily on the emergency period response andpost-impact recovery. Historically, Thailand has been a disaster-free country, suffering only minor
losses from natural hazards through the years (Shook, 1997). The suddenness and the scale of52

Charlchai Tanavud: Tsunami Hazard Management in Thailand

impacts of the 2004 tsunami indicated that harmful consequences that this extreme natural event
created exceeded the country’s capacity to manage such a natural calamity. In light of concerns
about the recurrences of a quake-triggered tsunamis originated from the same tectonically active
region (NGI, 2006), a holistic and pro-active approach towards mitigation and preparedness should
be adopted and implemented to reduce tsunami hazards.
Table 1 Tsunami inundation heights in Ranong, Phangnga and Phuket provinces.
Location

District

Province

Coordinates

Prapas Beach
Ao Keay
Ban Nok Na
Ban Pak Koh
Ban Nam Khem
Thap Tawan Beach
Bang Sak Beach
Pakarang CapeBan Khuk Khak
Nang Thong Beach
Khlong Rian Bay
Thap Lamu
Ban Na Tei
Thai Mueang Beach
Sai Kaeo Beach
Siri Nart National Park
Nai Thon Beach
Kamala BeachPa Tong Beach
Karon Beach
Ao Chalong

Khura Buri
Khura Buri
Takua Pa
Takua Pa
Takua Pa
Takua Pa
Takua Pa
Takua Pa
Takua Pa
Takua Pa
Takua Pa
Thai Mueang
Thai Mueang
Thai Mueang
ThalangThalangThalang
Kathu
Kathu
Kathu
Kathu

RanongRanongPhang Nga
Phang Nga
Phang Nga
Phang Nga
Phang Nga
Phang Nga
Phang Nga
Phang Nga
Phang Nga
Phang Nga
Phang Nga
Phang Nga
PhuketPhuketPhuketPhuketPhuketPhuketPhuket0433791 E 1036079 N
0432065 E 1030105 N
0417880 E 0995169 N
0418551 E 0983660 N
0419974 E 0979683 N
0417995 E 0973742 N
0418886 E 0971908 N
0414471 E 0965720 N
0416527 E 0960937 N
0416904 E 0957918 N
0416219 E 0952054 N
0414641 E 0947445 N
0419626 E 0918778 N
0417174 E 0928455 N
0421648 E 0904828 N
0422648 E 0894218 N
0420519 E 0890636 N
0420553 E 0878837 N
0422748 E 0873949 N
0422118 E 0867602 N
0427744 E 0864479 N

Heights (m) above
mean sea level
4.00
4.21
9.30
9.50
5.70
6.40
7.80
5.00
12.30
9.50
7.90
2.20
3.60
3.0
4.00
2.60
1.50
7.0
6.95
1.50
7.20

Table 2 Death toll and injuries in the six affected provinces.
Provinces
Krabi
Phang Nga
PhuketRanong
Satun
Trang
Total

Dead
721
4,225
279
159
6
5
5,395

Injured
1,376
5,597
1,111
246
15
112
8,457

Missing
544
1,655
608
9
1
2,817

Five months after the 2004 tsunami, the National Disaster Warning Center (NDWC) wasestablished to function as a centralized unit receiving, monitoring, processing and relaying criticalinformation on impending natural disasters and issuing public warning in such an event (UN, 2005).
In addition, 79 warning towers equipped with signal receivers have been installed on populated
beaches along the Andaman coast. Further, a DART (Deep-Ocean Assessing and Reporting ofTsunamis), has been deployed off the west coast of southern Thailand to detect any sudden increasein the ocean-bottom’s pressure and sea level. For warnings of imminent disasters, the NDWC
receives seismological information from various agencies in the country including the53Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

Meteorological Department, the Department of Mineral Resources and the Royal Thai Navy as well
as from global seismic networks such as the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center and Japan
Meteorological Agency. Upon receiving the tsunami-related information, particularly seismic
activities and sea level, the NDWC analyze the data, before decision can be made to issue a tsunami
warning alert.

Figure 2 The effects of the tsunami on coastal resources, human settlements and naturalenvironment.

Even if a tsunami early warning system had existed in Thailand prior to the 2004 tsunami
disaster, the warnings and accompanying instructions would have done little to save lives of coastal
inhabitants due to a general lack of public awareness of the tsunami threat and how to respond
appropriately in order to minimize losses. A community tsunami awareness programme must
therefore be developed to increase awareness and understanding of the tsunami hazard throughpublic education and provision of tsunami information materials. An education programme,
designed at appropriate levels for coastal populations at risk from tsunamis, should impart basic
knowledge about the nature, processes, impacts and consequences of a tsunami, the signs of animpending tsunami, and how to respond to tsunami warnings and when to evacuate. Indigenous
knowledge – for instance, the “Moken” (Sea Gypsy of southern Thailand) have a saying known toeveryone that “the suddenly receding tide from the coast exposing the sea floor is a sign of danger”,
which forewarned them of the approaching tsunami (Arunotai, 2006), could prove extremely
valuable in mitigating future threats from tsunamis. It is known to many rural people that “thesilence of some insects (USAID, 2005),” and “when many animals especially elephants move fromthe coasts to further inland (Waltham, 2005),” are the signs of an impending tsunami. Efforts should

54

Charlchai Tanavud: Tsunami Hazard Management in Thailand

also be made to educate all those who are at risk from a tsunami in modern scientific research suchas “coastal areas on gentle beach slope with elevation close to mean sea level are extremely
vulnerable to tsunami (UNESCO, 2006)”. The tsunami information and educational materials should
be dissemination through newspapers, radio and television, signage on roads and beaches, andposters and pamphlets. Vital information about areas at risk and safety, evacuation routes and sites,and effective response activities, should be made available to coastal inhabitants and visitors. To
ensure a reduction of tsunami effects on lives, detailed evacuation plan should be formulated andevacuation drills should be conducted regularly at schools, hospitals and populated beaches in highhazard areas to ensure the communities’ readiness for potential tsunami disasters.
It is generally accepted that a hazard map is the fundamental basis of local hazard reduction
planning. The hazard map has been created for the vulnerable areas along the Andaman coast ofsouthern Thailand (Tanavud et al., 2008). Based on coastal features which are directly or indirectly
correlated with the magnitude of tsunami waves including nearshore slope, elevation above mean sea
level, inland distance from the shoreline, and the presence/absence of natural barrier such as beachand mangrove forests, coral reefs and sand dunes, tsunami hazard areas were delineated through theuse of GIS. Resettlement of the tsunami-impacted communities and reconstruction of damaged or
destroyed houses, buildings and infrastructure are prohibited in the areas designated as high tsunami
hazards. Existing villages and tourism infrastructure located in hazard prone areas are moved to lowhazard areas further inland. Single storey family houses in high hazard areas are retrofitted to better
withstand the wave force in the event of tsunami disaster. Tsunami signs have been installed in highhazard area as defined by the hazard map. The hazard map also facilitates identification of safer
places and evacuation routes for rapid evacuation of vulnerable populations in an emergency(Tanavud et al., 2007). The map has been disseminated to disaster-related government agencies, thegeneral public and vulnerable coastal communities.
To ensure reduction in tsunami losses, structural mitigation measures should be undertaken in
conjunction with non-structural mitigation efforts. However, provision of structural mitigation works
may encourage a false sense of security because they are designed to withstand extreme natural
events of specific magnitudes, and may cause impacts on the coastal environment. Construction of
artificial walls and dikes of reinforced concrete along the coastline to protect against tsunami hazards
needs to be considered in the light of investment costs, tourism potential, impact on coastal
ecosystems such as a decline of sea turtle nesting sites, and adverse effect on the livelihoods of fisher
folks who rely almost entirely on the sea for their daily living. The significance of structural works
in averting future tsunami catastrophes, particularly in developing countries like Thailand, therefore,remains an open question.
As a result of the recent catastrophic tsunami, the remaining coastal resources along theAndaman coast were further damaged, leaving the coastline more vulnerable to possible futuredisasters. To reduce the impact of future tsunamis, these natural defensive ecosystems need to bereconstructed. In this regard, casuarinas and mangroves have been replanted in suitable areas along
the coastlines as they can absorb considerable amounts of wave energy and protect the coast beyond.
Sand dunes stabilized by vegetation, and artificial coral reefs, have also been re-established to act asa natural defense against incoming destructive waves to reduce the impact of any future tsunami.
In the aftermath of the 2004 tsunami, much has been achieved in the area of disaster education,
especially in higher education. Prince of Songkla University has pioneered the incorporation ofdisaster risk reduction as part of the university curriculum. A disaster management subject has beenoffered to both undergraduate and postgraduate students at the Faculty of Natural Resource. Thissubject, which includes sustainable development concepts, focuses on all aspects of disaster risk
management, namely mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery. The subject covers topics
such as hazard identification and assessment, disaster cycles, vulnerability and risk analyses, disasterand environment, community based approaches to disaster risk management, application of remotelysensed data and GIS for developing and implementing hazard mitigation strategies and emergency
response plans, and disaster and sustainable development (Tanavud, 2007). This disaster education isrecognised as a long-term strategy for increasing and maintaining public awareness of the natural
hazards, and creating a safer future for the country.
It is also encouraging that the 2004 tsunami tragedy has offered the opportunity for southern
Thailand to revitalize and/or strictly enforce the concepts of Integrated Coastal Management – ICM

55

Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management(Masselink and Hughes, 2003) to effectively address the vulnerabilities that the coastal communities
face by reversing current trends of resources exploitation for economic and development activities. It
is anticipated that successful implementation of the array of strategies which embrace bothpreparedness activities and mitigation actions as proposed in this study will bring about anenhancement in disaster resilience which is so crucial to the stability and sustainable development
along the coastal shore of southern Thailand.
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Arbhabhirama, A., Phantumvanit, D., Elkington, J. and Ingkasuwan, P. 1988. Thailand Natural
Resources Profile. Oxford University Press. Oxford. 431 pp.
Arunotai, N. 2006. Moken traditional knowledge: An unrecognized form of natural resourcesmanagement and conservation. International Social Science Journal. 58 (187) : 139-150
DDPM (Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation). 2006. Thailand Country Report.
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NGI (Norwegian Geotechnical Institute). 2006. Tsunami risk mitigation measures with focus on land
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Tanavud, C. 2004. Report on the impact of the December 2004 tsunami on the Andaman coast ofsouthern Thailand. p. 153-161. In C. Tanavud, T. Tamura, T. Miyagi and K. Kashima.
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Tanavud, C. 2007. Capacity-building for disaster management in southern Thailand. p. 63-78. In M.
Robertson (ed.), Sustainable futures. ACER Press. Victoria. 238 pp.
Tanavud, C. and Yongchalermchai, C. 2008. Delineating of tsunami hazard areas in Takua Pa
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Tanavud, C., Yongchalermchai, C. and Sansena, T. 2007. Tsunami risk assessment in southern
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Thai Government. 2005. One year in memory of the tsunami. The Royal Thai Government. Bangkok.
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Umitsu, M., Tanavud, C. and Patanakanog, B. 2007. Effects of landforms on tsunami flow in theplains of Banda Aceh, Indonesia, and Nam Khem, Thailand. Marine Geology 242 : 141-153
UN (United Nations). 2005. Tsunami Thailand. One Year Later. UNDP and the World Bank.
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UNDP (United Nations Development Programme). 2005. Survivors of the Tsunami: One Year Later.
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UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme). 2005. After the tsunami: Rapid environmental
assessment. The UNEP Regional Office for Asia Pacific. Bangkok. 140 pp.
UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization). 2006. Tsunami
Teacher Resource Kit. UNESCO, Paris. 534 pp.
USAID (U.S. Agency for International Development). 2005. Tsunami Relief. USAID Bureau forLegislative and Public Affairs. Washington D.C., U.S.A. 26 pp.
Waltham, T. 2005. The Asian Tsunami Disaster, December 2004. Geology Today 21 (1): 22-26

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Challenges to Cyclone Disaster Management in Bangladesh:
Lesson from Super Cyclone SIDR
Dr. M. Shahidul Islam
Department of Geography and Environment
Jagannath University, Dhaka-11100, Bangladesh
Email: shahidul_bd@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
Bangladesh is one of the most disaster prone countries of the world. Except volcanic eruption andsnow falls, the country experiences nearly all other major disasters, and among those the cyclonicstorm-surge ranks the top. After the catastrophic storm-surge of 1991, witnessing a death toll of
more than 143000 people, there has been a remarkable improvement in cyclone disaster managementof Bangladesh, both structurally as well as at policy level. Despite criticisms on spatial distribution
and structural design of cyclone centers, and functional characteristics, particularly deep rootedsocial behavior of rural people, the construction of more than 1800 cyclone centers along the coastal
belt has already given a successful result to reduce the casualties. The same is true for the policy
guidelines, and formation and functions of disaster management committees from national to grassroot levels. The wide network of 33,000 Red Crescent Volunteers under CPP (cyclone preparedness
program) along coastal belt and their immediate response to cyclonic events at grass-root level(disseminating signals, evacuation and rescue) is a remarkable step forward to cyclone management.
Moreover, the adaptation of SOD (standing order on disaster) by the Government, with specificresponsibilities of individual and institution is a very powerful document to ensure immediate
response to concern persons at the time of cyclonic event. During the last two decades, theachievement of Bangladesh to cyclone disaster management is widely known. Bangladesh is now
considered to be the model country to successful management of cyclone disaster.
However, after the catastrophic event of super cyclone SIRD of 15 November, 2007, with adeath of 3447 people and about 55300 injuries, the whole issue of cyclone disaster management of
Bangladesh becomes questionable. The aim of this study is thus to assess further challenges toeffective disaster management, with particular attention to reduce the loss of human-lives andresources. Due to high population density, over exploitation of resources and massive unplanneddevelopment measures, the coastal belt of Bangladesh is already ecologically fragile andenvironmentally vulnerable. On the other hand, there is no doubt that the coastal belt is being
frequently hit by cyclone at an accelerate rate due to rapid global warming and enhance climaticchange scenarios. The cyclone disaster management issue becomes questionable not only because of
fewer number cyclone shelter centers, inadequate space inside, poor accessibility, and ineffective
response to CPP volunteers, but also some other new challenges emerge. Based on extensive
fieldwork at Sarankhula upazila (a badly affected area), immediately after the SIDR, the study showsthat the major cause of casualties and injuries is due to ineffective warning system and poor issue ofnews bulletin. There was at-least two hours time lag between the projected surge-time and the realhit. Besides, the rural people have a very poor trust on such warning; only two months earlier thetsunami warning along the costal belt did not work. The study also shows that the indigenous
knowledge and rural social bonds as decision making tool to life saving measures and copping
strategies is very important. A noticeable finding is the massive destruction of mangrove plants due
to SIRD. Moreover, there is no second or third generation coastal afforestation program, and asconsequence in near future the coastal belt would be more open and vulnerable to tropical cyclone
after the natural falling of the existing mangrove belt . Mangrove plantation and regeneration along
coastal belt requires immediate attention to sustainable management of cyclone disaster in
Bangladesh.
Key words: Cyclone Centers, Warning System, Indigenous Knowledge, Mangrove57

Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

1. INTRODUCTION
Bangladesh is a small South Asian country (147570 sq. km), with a population density of 855 sq/km
and per capita in come of only $ 386 per annum. It is probably the most disaster prone country in theworld and is affected by nearly all major natural hazards, except volcanic eruption. Bangladesh
frequently gets international attention when it is been hit by some major natural hazard; the image ofcountry to international communities is mostly as a disaster prone nation.
2. MAJOR DISASTERS IN BANGLADESH
From historical time Bangladesh has been suffering from a number of natural disasters. Among
those some common natural disasters are floods, riverbanks erosion, seasonal draught, arsenic
contamination, earthquake, and sea-level rise.
2.1. Floods
Flood is a regular annual phenomena in Bangladesh. During the monsoon period about 30 %the country, mostly the floodplain areas along the major rivers, become under normal inundation andthe people of this areas are prepared to live with such annual flood. However, the extent of suchannual flood when cross the vertical and horizontal limits of sustainability, it become catastrophic innature; such flood causes human suffering, and loss of lives and properties. For example floods of
1987, 1988 and 1998 were catastrophic in nature and caused enormous loss of standing crops,
infrastructures, lives and resources.
2.2. Riverbank Erosion:
Bangladesh is criss-crossed by a network of 230 rivers, many of which are either the tributaries
or distributaries of the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna (GMB) river system. More than 25,000
families are displaced annually from their homesteads due to severe riverbanks erosion (Banglapedia,
2006). Such people are forced to move to cities for jobs and shelter. Riverbank erosion is a major
push factor for rural-urban migration and is responsible for unplanned urbanization in Bangladesh.
2.3. Seasonal Draught:
The northwester part of Bangladesh suffers for severe seasonal draught, affecting 20 districts,
which led to shortfall of rich production and famine. It has been found that during the last 50 years,
at least 20 times draught condition prevailed in this part of the country (Elahi, 2001). The main causeof such draught is due to global warming and upstream withdrawal of Ganges water at Farakka point.
2.4. Arsenic Contamination:
Arsenic Contamination of groundwater is a serious problem in Bangladesh. About 75 million
people of 59 districts are at risk and out of 4 million tube-wells 50% exceed safe limit (0.05 mg/l)(Khuda, 2001). . South-central part of the country is the worst suffering region due to severe arsenic
contamination.
2.5. Earthquake
Till now Bangladesh has not very severely been affected by an earthquake. However, in recent
years as series of earthquake tremors have been recorded of which some important earthquakes are
Hamjarbag EQ (5.6 magnitudes on 21 November, 1997, 23 deaths), Moheskhali EQ (5.2. magnitude,
repeated shocks between 22 July and 2 August, 1999, 2 deaths) and Barkol EQ (5.1. magnitude 0n
27 July, 2003, 1 death). Due to poor infrastructure and old buildings, their is a risk of high casualties
in the major cities, particularly in Dhaka and Chittagong after an earthquake of 6+ magnitude.
2.6. Sea-Level Rise:
According the IPCC (2007) assessment due to sea-level rise among many other low-lying
deltaic countries Bangladesh would be the worst victims. The coastal belt, which occupies about
one-third of national territories, would be inundated, and more than 40 million coastal people would

58

Shahidul Islam: Challenges to Cyclone Disaster Management in Bangladesh

be displaced from the homesteads and would become climate refugee. The world largest mangrove
forest, the Sundarbans would disappear due to accelerated sea-level rise.
3. CYCLONIC EVENTS IN BANGLADESH
Bay of Bengal is the breeding place of tropical cyclones. In the Bay, cyclones are usually formed in
between 5oN and 5oS latitudes (ITCZ region), during the early or late when temperature remain 2627oC. Each cyclone is associated with abrupt surge of water known as storm surge. Height of surges
is linked to wind speed and tidal limit. It has found that along Bangladesh coasts, surge limits can go
up to 6m, 8m and 10m at 150 km, 175km and 200km wind speed, respectively (Chaudhur et al,1997). Till now 45 severe cyclones associated with surges have attacked the coastal belt of
Bangladesh with a total death toll of more than 7 million people. Some catastrophic cyclones areshown in table-1, of which cyclone1970 and 1991 were unprecedented and had to count millions ofdeath bodies.
Table-1: Some Major Cyclones Along Bangladesh Coast During Last Four Decades
Date
12 November, 1970

Maximum Wind
Speed (km/hour)
222

Storm Surge
Height (m)10.6

25 May, 1985

154

3-4.6

29 November, 1988
29 April, 1991
02 May, 1994

162
225
200

4.5
5-8
??

19 May, 1997

225

5

November 15, 2007

210

6-8

Badly Affected Area
Bhola, Chittagong,
Barguna, Patuakhali
Chittagong, Cox’s Bazar,
Noakhali, Coastal Islands
Khulna, Barisal, Jessor
Chittagong, Cox’s Bazar,
Cox’s Bazar, Coastal
Islands
Chittagong, Cox’s Bazar,
Noakhali, Bhola
Barguna, Pirojpur,
Bagerhat, Patuakahli

Map-1: Cyclone Paths and Area Affected by Sidr

59

Death
Tolls
500,000
11,0695708
143,000

126
3447

Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

Each cyclone after its formation in the Bay of Bengal gradually moves towards north. However,
due to the funnel shape of the Bay, most of the cyclones find their paths from south-west to northeast direction, which finally cross the coastal belt of Bangladesh. Pramanik (1983) classified thecoastal belt of Bangladesh in to three major zones: south-western stable, south central dynamic andsouth-eastern unbroken zone. Majority of the previous cyclone hit the south-central and southeastern coastal zones (Map-1). The apex of the funned, particularly Bhola, Hatia, Swandip andNoakhali area highly vulnerable to cyclone. This part of the coast can be termed as the death-trap;
each person living in this area gets new life once in every 20 years (!) of cycle after been survival
from a major storm surge.
4. OBJECTIVESSuper cyclone Sidr hit Bangladesh on 15 November, 2007 at around 8 pm local time at a wind speedof 210 km/hour and loss of 3447 lives (GoB, 2008). Such as huge death toll as compare to cycloneof 19 May, 1997 (only 126 deaths) makes the whole issue of early disaster preparedness of thegovernment questionable. The aim of this study is to examine the effectiveness of the disastermanagement steps of the government and to find out the causes of failure to save lives and properties
in the light of super cyclone Sidr.

Map-2: Study Area60

Shahidul Islam: Challenges to Cyclone Disaster Management in Bangladesh

5. METHODOLOGY
Immediately after the Sidr event a fieldwork was conducted in the Sidr affected area to collect fieldlevel information. A total of 15 FGD (Focus Group Discussion) were made to share the experienceswith local people. Twenty five case studies were recorded to know how each individual person
responded to the Sidr event. Moreover, policy documents, published articles, reports and maps on
cyclone disaster management have been reviewed.
6. STUDY AREA:
The fieldwork was conducted at Sarankhola upazila of Bagerhat district. The study area is boundedby Baleswar-Haringhata river in the east, Morrelganj upazila in the north, Mongla upazila in thewest, and Bhola river in the south and south-west (Map-2). It is a tide dominated area and is only
less than one meter above the sea level. To protect the area an earthen embankment has been
contracted along the Baleswar-Haringhata and Bhola river side in the east, west and south. In thisupazila there 20 cyclone shelters and 21 school-cum cyclone shelters are located. The area is
protected by the Sundarbans mangrove forest in the south-west; it was one of the worst affectedareas by Sidr
7. SUPER CYCLONE SIDR
‘Sidr’ is a Sinhali world which means ‘eye’. But the Sidr that hit Bangladesh was not the lovely eyeof the beloved person, it was the horror eye of the nature. On November 9, 2007, a weather
disruption was reported in the south-east of Andaman islands. Tropical cyclone formation alert wasissued by the Metrology Department of Bangladesh on 11 November, which intensified as Cyclonicstorm Sidr on 12 November. On the morning of 15 November the cyclone intensified as Category-5
and peak of wind speed was of 210 km/h. Sidr made landfall in the study area at about 8 pm
associated with a surge of 5m height from the nearby Baleswar-Haringhata river. The cyclone
became weak quickly after landfall and finally disappeared on 16 November, 2007.
The size of the cyclone was double the size of Bangladesh, affecting 30 districts, of which 8
were very badly affected and 4 were worst affected districts. The worst affected districts are
Bagerhat, Barguna, Patuakhali and Pirojpur. Officially 3447 people were killed, but Red CrescentSociety reported that the number of deaths could be up to 10,000 (IFRC, 2007). The damage at a
glance is shown in table-2. Figure-1 shows district wise number of people affected and number ofhouses damaged.

1400000
People affected

1200000

House affceted

1000000
800000600000400000200000
0
ris
Ba

i
a
ur
th
un
jp
ka
o
g
r
r
o
i
al
P
Ba
Jh

al

t
i
a
ur
ur
al
ng
na
ir a
ha
ol
tp
ul
rip
kh
ga
er
kh
a
l
h
i
a
t
a
Bh
r
g
a
K
tu
ad
Sa
Sa
Ba
op
M
Pa
G

Figure-1: Total Number of People Affected and Hoses Damaged by Districts

61

Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

8. LESSONS FROM SIDR
8.1. CPP Volunteers
After devastating cyclone of 1970, the government of Bangladesh launched the Cyclone
Preparedness Program (CPP) in 1973. The goal of CPP is to minimize loss of lives and properties incyclone disaster by strengthening the capacity in disaster management of the coastal people. Under
CPP a strong network of 143 wireless stations (largest network in Asia) and about 6000 teams of
33,000 CPP volunteers in 2043 wards of coastal areas has been formed. The CPP volunteers
disseminate cyclone warning signals issued by the Metrology Department to the local communities,
assist local people to evacuate and move to cyclone shelters, and rescue distressed people affected bycyclone. In 1997 when a massive cyclone stuck Bangladesh, the CPP network and volunteers
functioned very effectively, thousand of people were saved and only 126 were killed. This strong
CPP network did not work well during the Sidr period. It has been found that many CPP volunteers
were either out of their stations, did not response promptly and effectively or were busy to evacuate
themselves without giving proper attention to evacuate the communities; in many cases themegaphone and searchlight were not working properly.
Table-2: Damage and Loss Due to Cyclone Sidr.
Serial No

Item

Quantity

01

Districts Affected

30 districts

02

Most Affected Districts

12 districts

03

Affected People

8.9 million

04

Crop Damaged (ha)10,01473

05

Fully Damaged (ha)3,00,000

06

House Damaged

15,22077

07

Fully Damaged

5,64967

08

Death Tolls

3,447

09

Injured55,282

10

Missing

1,001

11Death of Poultry & Livestock

18,73694

12

Educational Institute Damaged

16,95413

Fully Damaged

4,232

14

Road Damaged (km)

8,075

15

Fully Damaged

1,714

16

Bridge/Culverts Damaged (no)

1,850

17

Tree Damaged (no)40,65316

8.2. Warning System
Bangladesh Metrological Department (BMD) issues the cyclone warning signals anddisseminates the news through electronic media, print media and CPP volunteers. The radio and TV
channels regularly issue weather bulletins at regular interval to inform the communities. However,there is a time lag between the collection of weather information, (information either from satellite
or radar station), processing of data and their dissemination. During the Sidr period, it was found that
there was at least 2 hours time lag between the real position of the eye and the projected time oflandfall. Due to electricity cut-off, the electronic media did not work in the remote areas. The
dissemination of warning signals and news bulleting in Bangladesh is not user friendly. The warning
signals are issued mainly for ports areas and in a formal language, which is not easily understandable
to local people; they need news bulletins in local dialects, which is mostly done by CPP volunteers.

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Shahidul Islam: Challenges to Cyclone Disaster Management in Bangladesh

During the Sidr period there were missing links between the signals issued, news dissemination,
move to nearest cyclone shelters and the real struck of the surge.
Past records show that cyclone frequently visit the south-central and south-eastern parts of thecountry. People of those areas suffer frequently and are thus well motivated to move to cyclone
shelters when signals are issued. Unlike those areas, the people in the south-western part of thecountry were found less motivated to move to cyclone shelter, leaving behind their belongings andhousehold articles. Moreover, one major cause not to leave the house was the mistrust of the warning
signals, due to failure of Tsunami warning signal issued for coastal districts only two months ago.
On 13 September, 2007 tsunami alert was issued for coastal districts of Bangladesh when an
earthquake hit Sumatra and killed 10 people; thousand people ran to or were evacuated to safer
places, but nothing had happened.
8.3. Cyclone Shelters
After devastating cyclone of 1972, a program was undertaken to construct cyclone along thecoastal belt. However, the program again accelerated after the 1991 cyclone and till now about 1800
such shelters have been constructed to support about 2 million people (Paul and Islam, 2005).. The
buildings constructed as cyclone centers are used for multi-purposes, especially as schools,
community centers, government offices, and union council offices. Most of the cyclone centers are
not located in suitable locations and are being built ignoring local opinions and also without proper
planning. However, despite all these limitations cyclone shelter plays a significant role to minimize
the suffering and death tolls of coastal people from cyclone and storm surge.
In this study it has been found that cyclone shelters played an important rote to save lives. It has
been mentioned earlier that there was a missing link between the news dissemination, its trust andread struck. However, local people when realized that the cyclone hit was confirmed they ran to findshelter to nearby cyclone shelters. Many of them could reach the shelters and saved lives, but many
were killed on their way to shelters. Among the exiting numbers, cyclone shelters are mostly locatedin the south-east and south-central part of the coastal belt. Paul and Islam (2005) studied the locationof cyclone shelters of Kutubdia island and found that the average distance between shelters is about
0.5 km. In the southwester part these are more sparsely distributed. During Sidr more people could
have been saved if more cyclone shelters were built in this part of the coast.
8.4. Mangrove Forest
Sundarbans is the largest single mangrove forest of the world, covering an area of 6000 sq. km.
in the south-western part of Bangladesh and about 2000 sq. km in India (Blasco, 1977). It is a
reserve forest and is enriched with about 70 tree species, many of which are commercially important;
Sundri (Heritiera fomes) and Gewa (Ecoecara agallocha) are the dominant tree species. The heightof the forest varies from 5m to 20m and as regards density, about 50% of the area have more then
70% canopy closure (Banglapedia, 2006). It is the home of the world famous Royal Bengal Tiger(Panthera tigris tigris) and beautiful spotted deer (Cervus axis). The forest was very badly affectedby Sidr; 40 species of mammals, 400 species of birds and 200 species of fish were dead and 4
million trees were up rotted, 4-5% of the forest was severely damaged and 15% was partiallydamaged. Despite, the forest acted as a natural defense to Sidr and save many lives. It is worried thatthe casualties would have been many folds higher if the mangrove forest was not there.
8.5. Indigenous Knowledge
The existing cyclone disaster management initiatives of the government mostly address theinstitutional and organizational capacity, without any proper attention to local knowledge andindividual skill. It has been mentioned earlier that 25 cases were examined and each case was uniqueto safe their lives. Three example cases are illustrated below:
Case-1: My name is Alam (not real name) and I am thirty two years old. I have a son of threemonths old. During the cyclone when water was rising-up I climbed a coconut tree and hold it tightly
with my two arms. Same time I hold the shirt of my son very tightly under my teeth and my son
remained hanging in such way for more than two hours.He is now safe. (What an intelligent case!,see picture-1).

63Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

Case-2: My name is Layla (not real name). I am seven years old. When the wave entered, my house
was damaged in a moment. I swam and hold a nut tree in the yard, but the tree was swinging very
fast. My father shouted and told me to swim and hold a coconut tree. I started to swim in the strong
wave for five minutes and found a coconut tree. I kept it holding for two hours and saved my life
(What a courageous case!, see picture-2)
Case-3: My name is Mrs Farida (not real name). I am forty five years old. When the water started torise-up with my five family members I climbed on the coconut tree just behind my house. We all
hold the tree strongly; see my arms and the scar. We are rich family in the village, but my organizedfamily of 25 years was totally ruined in two hours, now we are beggars (What a tragic case, see
picture-3).

Picture-1

Picture-2

Picture-3

9. DISASTER MANAGEMENT IN BANGLADESH:
Disaster management is a special type of response to any natural calamities, which includes
measures related to disaster prevention, mitigation, preparedness, emergency response and recovery.
As a disaster prone country the people of Bangladesh have developed their own management
strategies based on their local knowledge. However, the catastrophic effects of 1970 and 1991
cyclones, and million of dead bodies stimulated the government to take various disaster management
initiatives. During the last four decided many structural, such as construction of coastal embankment
and building cyclone centers; and non-structural, such as coastal afforestation and devising theStanding Order on Disaster, measures have been undertaken to cyclone disaster management.
The standing Order on Disaster (SOD) is a powerful tool of the government to emergency
response to any disaster. The SOD laid down the guidelines for actions at various stages of thedisaster by all concerned government agencies. The SOD specifies the roles and responsibilities ofvarious Disaster Management Committees and their constituent member agencies, in the fulfillmentof their disaster management mandate.
However, the disaster management issue is laid upon a number of committees of thegovernment, which are as follows:
9.1. National Disaster Management Council (NDMC)
National Disaster Management Council is the supreme body of the government to disastermanagement. The council is headed by the Prime Minister; concern Ministers/Secretaries is themembers of the council and the cabinate secretary is the member secretary. The council is
responsible to formulate policy, guidelines, examine recommendations of other bodies, issue
directive measures, approves SOD, and consider all other issues related to disaster.

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Shahidul Islam: Challenges to Cyclone Disaster Management in Bangladesh

National Disaster
Management Council(policy)
Disaster Management
Bureau(HRD/planning)

National Advisory
Committee

Inter Ministerial. Disaster
Management Committee(implement)

CPP
Volunteers

NGOs

Local Disaster
Management
Committee? SidrFigure-2: The Flow Char Shows the Organizational Arrangement ofDisaster Management System in Bangladesh

9.2. Inter Ministerial Disaster Management Coordination Committee (IMDMCC)Inter Ministerial Disaster Management Coordination Committee is the implementing body for
all disaster related activities. It is headed by the Minister of Disaster Management and Relief; theSecretaries of concern Ministries are the members. The committee is responsible to implement thedecisions of the NDMC, coordinates and review the activities of different agencies, coordinate postdisaster relief operation, and take actions for disaster prevention, mitigation, preparedness andwarning system.
9.3. National Disaster Management Advisory Committee (NDMAC)
This advisory committee is a technical committee and includes the expert persons on Disastermanagement from the Universities, Government organizations NGOs and also Parliament members.
An expert person nominated by the Prime Minister acts as the Chairperson of this committee. The
expert committee advices the NDMC, IMDMCC and DMB on technical aspects of disastermanagement; prevention, mitigation, preparedness and emergency-responses.
9.4. Disaster Management Bureau (DMB)
Disaster Management Bureau (DMB) is the focal point of the government to foster all disaster
preparedness matters. It is the house of dynamic professional units at national level to perform
specialized functions for disaster management. DMB was established in 1993 under Ministry ofDisaster Management and Relief. DMB is responsible to reduce the loss of lives and properties fromany disaster, to design disaster preparedness program at grass root level, to conduct training
programs to increase awareness, to collect disaster related and data-base, and to technicallycoordinate disaster related activities. Director General is the head of the DMB and s/he is assisted bytechnical staffs of the Bureau, foreign and local consultants, and NGOs.
9.5. Field Level Disaster Management Committee
As per SOD there are a number of disaster management committees at filed level, such as
district committee, upazila committee and union committee; each committee is headed by the65Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

concern office head. Local committees play the key role to emergency response, such as disseminate
warning news, rescue people, and post disaster relief and rehabilitation activities.
9.6. NGOs
NGOs are playing an important role to awareness development and in the rescue, relief andrehabilitation activities. To ensure NGOs participation in the disaster management initiatives of thegovernment, they are included in all major committees and activities. It helps to ensure coordination
and avoid duplication of activities between government and the NGOs.
From the above discussion it is found that the institutional settings and the pre-disaster
preparation of the government is quite good. The management of 1997 cyclone was a successful
story, whereas the initiatives taken to manage Sidr appears to be non-effective and questionable (seefigure-2; flow chart). The casualties could have been more if the mangrove defense was not there,
and if it was then a high tide time. It is not the efficient management measures, rather it is the nature(mangrove and low tide) itself saved many lives. The 1997 cyclone echoed the horror memories of1991 catastrophic cyclone and as consequence all concerned bodies responded promptly and very
effectively. From 1997 to 2007; a time gap of ten years and may be by this time the emotion andcommitment to emergency response and effective initiatives by various committees and persons
disappeared. As consequence the nation had to count 3447 dead bodies.
10. FURTHER CHALLENGES AND LOOK FORWARD:
Bangladesh is considered to be the model nation in cyclone disaster management. After 1991
cyclone there has been a remarkable improvement in all major sectors of cyclone disastermanagement. Management of 1997 cyclone was an example of success. However, the super cyclone
Sidr reflects a different story. Despite adequate pre-disaster preparedness, the huge death tolls can
not be accepted without question. Is Bangladesh really a successful country to manage cyclone
disaster? Off-course a great success if compared to 1991 cyclone or cyclone Nargis that hit
Myanmar on 2 May, 2008; but off-course not success if compared to 1997 cyclone.
During this study it has been found that Bangladesh has the preparation, both structural andnon-structural.; but during the Sidr period the functional and non-structural setting did not work well.
It is thus necessary to take actions to strengthen the existing system as further challenges to address
cyclone disaster management.
CPP Volunteers: They play the key role during and after the disaster. More effective and sincere
CPP volunteers are thus needed. These volunteers should get proper training with supporting
equipment and exercise drill once a year,
Cyclone Centers: Cyclone centers are found to play an important role to provide shelter to affected
people during the disaster, but their number is very inadequate in the south-western coastal belt.
More cyclone shelters need to be constructed in the region
Coastal Afforestation: Coastal Afforestation is a successful plantation program along the coastal
belt of Bangladesh. During the last four decades nearly 148000 hectors of new mangrove forest has
been created (Islam, 2006). Mangroves act as a natural defense against storm surge: during Sidr
event Sundarbans acted as a barrier and saved many lives. All the planted trees are now in theirmature stage and would naturally fall-down in next few years. It is thus necessary to initiate second
generation mangrove plantation.
Improvement of Signals: The present signal system is erroneous and not in real time. It is necessary
to simplify the signals and dissemination of news bulletin. A real time warning system needs to be
introduced.
Indigenous Knowledge: In this study it has been found that local knowledge is very important inlife saving of local people. It is necessary to acknowledge this local knowledge in disastermanagement, its policy guidelines and actions.

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Shahidul Islam: Challenges to Cyclone Disaster Management in Bangladesh

Political Stability: The ultimate success of any disaster management measure depends on thepolitical stability of the government. During the Sidr event there was a ‘State of Emergencie’throughout the country and all political activities were banded. There was very little involvement of
the political parties in rescue and relief operations. For sustainable cyclone disaster management
political stability is prerequisite.
More Research: More academic and applied researches are necessary to update our understanding
the natural and human forces to effective disaster management. Universities and professional
research organizations can play effective role to conduct such research activities, and government
should extend all necessary supports.
11. CONCLUSION
The goal of disaster management is to safe lives and properties, and reduces human sufferings. The
people of Bangladesh have been fighting and living with disasters, such as flood, cyclone, tornados
etc for centuries, and find their own way to survive. These people are courageous and each time they
are struck, they fight back and survived. However, the initiatives of the government and effective
disaster management can reduce the sufferings of those innocent people many folds. The top-bottom
approach is no more effective, and it is now the time to bottom-up consideration of disastermanagement policy and guidelines. The success of fighting against all disasters depends on
government, NGOs and community partnership. Sidr- the deadly super cyclone that hit Bangladesh
on 15 November, 2007 gave us the same lesson.

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Khuda, Z.R.M.M., (2001). Arsenic Contamination of Ground Water: A Holistic Approach inManagement of The Environmental Disaster, in K. Nizamuddin (ed) Disaster in
Bangladesh, DRTMC, Dhaka
Paul, A and Islam, M. S. (2005) Location, Carrying Capacity and Utility Analysis of Cyclone
Shelter Center in the Coastal Belt of Bangladesh: Unpublished report, DRTMC, Dhaka.
Pramanik, M.A.H. (1983) Remote Sensing Application to Coastal Morphological Investigations in
Bangladesh. Unpub. Ph. D. Thesis. Jahangirnagar University,

67

Coastal Vulnerabilities and its Integrated Management along
Bangladesh Coast
Md. Ataur Rahman
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Water Resources Engg., Bangladesh University of Engineering andTechnology (BUET), Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh. Email: mataur@wre.buet.ac.bd

ABSTRACTThe coastal zone of Bangladesh that covers about one-third of country’s total land area facing or
having proximity to the Bay of Bengal and the exclusive economic zone (EEZ). The zone is
generally perceived as a zone of multiple vulnerabilities. Moreover, it contains several important andcritical ecosystems. However, the opportunities and potentialities of the zone have not yet received
adequate attention. By harnessing and exploiting its opportunities, the Coastal Zone can make a
substantial contribution in achieving the national goals of accelerated poverty reduction andmillennium development goals. Bangladesh has one of the largest mangrove ecosystems in the world
which is called Sundarbans mangrove ecosystem – the world heritage. The economic activity of thecountry which is mainly revolved by her agricultural activity might face a subversive action due tosea level rise. It has been seen that 84% of Sundarbans area will be inundated with 32cm sea level
rise in 2050 and almost whole area of Sundarbans will be inundated with 88cm sea level rise in 2100.
Flood and cyclonic storms frequently affect the coastal area of Bangladesh and cause huge loss of
lives and damages to properties. The Bangladesh coast has been hit by 15 major cyclones over thelast 38 years causing large scale loss of human life, livestock and severe damage to crops, properties
and physical infrastructures. In April 1991 Bangladesh was hit by a catastrophic cyclone that led to
the loss of 138,882 lives. Management of Bangladesh coastal zone has been started since 1960 with
Coastal Embankment Project (CEP) by constructing embankment and sluices in the coastal areas toprotect loss of life and crops from tidal surges, cyclone and saline intrusions. Since then Bangladesh
government has taken many initiatives for the management of its coastal zone. Finally Integrated
Coastal Zone Management Plan (ICZMP) has been prepared in 2005. Now the Bangladesh
government is taking initiatives to implement the ICZMP for better management of its coastal zone.
This paper describes all the above issues in detail.

1.0. GENERAL DESCRIPTION ABOUT THE BANGLADESH COAST
About 710 km long coast of Bangladesh comprising the complex delta of the GangesBrahmaputra-Meghna river system has immense resources for development. Bangladesh
has an area of about 144,000 square kilometres and a population of more than 140 million,of which 23% of the total population lives in the coastal region. It is situated in the northeastern part of the South Asian subcontinent and has a vast sea area to the south in the Bayof Bengal (a northern, extended arm of Indian Ocean, covering about 510,000 square
kilometres). Most of the country is drained by the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers,
which constitute one of the largest river systems in the world. This system has its origin in
the Himalayas and the Khasi-Jaintia Hills in the north of the country. While flowing
through Bangladesh on its way to the Bay of Bengal, the system carries an estimated annual
sediment load of 2.4 billion tons (Holeman, 1968). These sediments are subjected to coastal
dynamic processes generated mainly by river flow and tidal and wind actions, leading toaccretion and erosion in the coastal area of Bangladesh. The landward boundary of thecoastal zone of Bangladesh has been established based on the tidal water movement,
salinity intrusion, cyclone and storm surges (Fig. 1). It covers a land area of 47,201 square68Md. Ataur Rahman: Coastal Vulnerabilities and its Integrated Management

kilometres within 19 administrative Districts (Islam, 2004). Poverty record on coastal
population shows that 52% population are absolute poor and 24% are extreme poor.
The coastal morphology of Bangladesh is characterized by a complex network of rivers,
an enormous discharge of river water heavily laden with sediments, a large number ofislands in between the channels, strong tidal and wind actions and tropical cyclones andtheir associated storm surges. The peak cyclone risk times are April (pre-monsoon) and
September/October (post-monsoon). The tidal range varies greatly across the coastal regionof Bangladesh, with extremes of 7m at Sandwip, 3m on the west side of Hatia, 2.5m at
Hiron point and the lowest range 0.75m. Maximum salinity varies along the coastal belt
from 15-20 ppt.
Wave heights have not been recorded during severe storms until now. Wave model
indicates that under the prevailing S-SE winds with an average wind speed of 8 m/s, theaverage significant wave height varies between 0.6-1.5m in the nearshore zone. In the drayseason waves are generally lower than 0.6m and during monsoon wave heights exceed 2m.

Sandwip

N

Hati
District Boundary
Exposed CoastInterior Coast
Bay and River

Hiron point

Sundarbans
The World
Heritage

Bay of Bengal

Fig. 1: Map of the Coastal Zone of Bangladesh
The Sundarbans Reserve Forest (SRF) is an ecologically sensitive area comprising thelargest diversified mangrove forest of the world and also the World Heritage. It is highly
productive as well as profoundly important in terms of biodiversity. Waterways in
Sundarbans are important for capture fisheries and for growth of prawn. Sundarbans forms
an effective natural barrier against cyclone induced storm surges.
Bangladesh is endowed with vast offshore marine water having high fisheries potential.
This area is considered to be one of the most productive zones in the world because of thepresence of the Sundarbans mangrove forest. It is rich in fish, shellfish and other aquatic
resources. The Bangladesh Government has conducted several surveys and identified threemajor fishing grounds in the Bay of Bengal. It is identified and recorded more than 475
species of fish belonging to 133 families, about 10 species of marine shrimps ofcommercial importance, about 108 species of shellfish, molluscs and crabs and 2 species oflobsters from the Bay of Bengal. There are also 334 plant species and 425 species ofwildlife – 49 mammals, 315 birds, 53 reptiles, 8 amphibians in Sundarbans Mangrove
forest.

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Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

2.0. COASTAL VULNERABILITIESThe coast of Bangladesh is vulnerable to different types of coastal hazards. The principal
elements of coastal hazards include cyclones and storm surges, river floods, erosion andaccretion, drainage congestion, human interventions, climate change and sea level rise.
These elements are continuously deteriorating the coastal environment with the results ofthe various effects as increase of risk of life and wealth, reduction of wildlife habitat andmarine population, increase in pollution and contamination and increase in exposure tocoastal hazards.
The three basic natural system processes and events that govern vulnerabilities of thecoastal zone of Bangladesh are: tidal fluctuations; salinities (soil, surface water orgroundwater) and cyclone and storm surge. One of the problems in Sundarbans isincreasing of salinity due to reduction of upstream freshwater flows. It is suffering fromincreasing pollution. Loss of biodiversity, declining of fish stocks, reduced forest products
will have a substantial adverse impact on the incomes of those peoples who are dependent
on the Sundarbans for their livelihood.
The Bay of Bengal is one of the favourable areas for the generation of tropical
cyclones. About one-tenth of the global total cyclones forming in different regions of thetropics occur in the Bay of Bengal. Not all of the tropical cyclones formed in the Bay of
Bengal move towards the coast of Bangladesh. About one-sixth of tropical storms
generated in the Bay of Bengal usually hit the Bangladesh coast. Meteorologically, the Bayof Bengal is located in the North Indian Basin together with the Arabian Sea, The Andaman
Sea and the Golf of Thailand. In this region cyclones occur in the pre- and post monsoon
seasons. With respect to cyclone surges and their damage, the Bangladeshi coast is one of
the most exposed in the world. There are two main reasons for this. The first is that thecontinental shelf is long and shallow, and that the shape of the coast tends to concentrate
and amplify the surge in the northern part of the Bay. The second reason is that the
combination of relatively rare occurrences of cyclones and the need for every bit of land toaccommodate the large population, results in people living also in areas, which arepotentially very exposed to cyclone surges.

16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0

18
81
-1
89
18
1
91
-1
90
19
1
01
-1
91
19
11 1
-1
92
19
1
21
-1
93
19
1
31
-1
94
19
1
41
-1
95
19
1
51
-1
96
19
1
61
-1
97
19
1
71
-1
98
19
1
81
-1
99
19
1
91
-2
00
1

Number Of Cyclones

Number of Cyclones Vs YearYear
Cyclonic Storm

Severe Cyclonic Storm

Fig.2: Number of cyclones hit to the coastal areas of Bangladesh

Flood and cyclonic storms frequently affect the coastal area of Bangladesh and cause
huge loss of lives and damages to properties. The Bangladesh coast has been hit by 15
major cyclones over the last 38 years causing large scale loss of human life, livestock andsevere damage to crops, properties and physical infrastructures. Catastrophic cyclones hit
coastal area in November 1970, May 1985, November 1988, April 1991, May 1995, May
1997, November 2007 and these cyclones caused massive damage to life and properties.
Records of the last 200 years show that at least 70 major cyclones have hit the coastal beltof which 37% hit during the month of May-June and 44% hit during October-November.
The most severe and devastating ones affect the whole coastline from south-eastern tip of70

Md. Ataur Rahman: Coastal Vulnerabilities and its Integrated Management

Cox’s Bazar district to the Sundarbans forest in the southwest. The records of cyclones thathave hit to Bangladesh coast is shown in Fig.2.
Two different types of cyclones form in the Bay. One is tropical cyclone, which forms
during the pre- and post-monsoon season and the other is the monsoonal depression whichdevelops during monsoon, Tropical cyclones are the most destructive which are associatedwith usually low atmospheric pressure that can produce winds of 240 km/hr, in extreme
cases storm surges of 6 to 7m (and even 9m) and intense rainfall. Table 1 shows the recordsof severe cyclones in last few decades:
Table 1: Records of severe cyclones in last few decades (Source: SWMC, 2001)
Period ofcycloneCyclone Surge
speed height(km/hr) (m)12 November,
222
1970
24-25 May,
1985

153

29 April, 1991 225

15 November
2007(Cyclone Sidr)

240

10

3-4

6-7

5-6

Numberof death

Property damage> 300,000 x Created havoc in the coastal districts

4,624x Extensive damage of propertyx Damages of 3000 ha mangrove plantationx Severe impairment was caused to coastal
embankment infrastructure

138,882x About 500,000 heads of cattle, goats andsheeps were lostx 1.75 million houses and 6,500 schools weredamagedx Standing crops covering 278,600 acres land
were destroyedx 470 km of coastal embankment wereseriously damaged

3,406x A super cyclone named Sidr, is a category 4
storm as defined on the Saffir-Simpson
hurricane scale, wrought havoc to the southwestern coastal areas and central plains ofBangladesh.
x 55,000 people suffered physical injuriesx 2.3 million households affectedx 367km embankment were broken and 2105
km were partially damaged due to overflow
caused by storm surgex overall economic growth in the country wasaffected by around 0.5 percent during FY08x Total losses and damages caused by Sidr had
been estimated to be Taka 115.6 billion(US$ 1.7 billion) and as such effects of it arecalculated to be equivalent to 2.8% of
Bangladesh's GDP.

Most of the cyclones hit the coasts of Bangladesh with north-eastward approachingangle. Surge wave generated at the deeper sea is driven towards the coast by the wind andpropagates over land being amplified near the coast. The tracks of the cyclone storms
happened in Bangladesh coastal zone in last century has been shown in Fig.3. One of thecoastal embankments damaged by cyclone Sidr happened in 2007 is shown in Fig. 4.
A thorough study on erosion and accretion processes in the study area between 1972
and 1991 was carried out during Multipurpose Cyclone Shelter Programme (MCSP). The
study found that slight erosion is taking place all along the coast in the West Zone, while in
the Central Zone major erosion/accretion is going on. In the East Zone, small amount of71

Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

accretion has taken place along the Cox’s Bazar coast while some erosion has taken placein other parts of the zone.

Fig. 3: Tracks of cyclone storms happened
Bangladesh Coastal zone

Fig. 4: Photo of damaged embankment by cyclone in
Sidr in 2007

The natural processes of the coastal processes have been being interrupted by humaninterventions like, construction of dams, polders, embankments etc. The humaninterventions have interacted with the delicately balanced natural processes, and havedrastically hastened the raising of river bed levels unless specific actions have been taken toprevent it.
Any rise of the sea level propagates upstream into the river system. In Bangladesh thisbackwater effect is more pronounced because of the morphologically dynamic rivers, which
adapt their bed levels relatively in a short time period. This whole process leads todecreased river gradient, increased flood risks and increased drainage congestion. Drainage
congestion may become an even more serious threat than flood risks. Due to the siltationand the poor maintenance of the drainage channel network in many parts of the coastal
zone, drainage congestion is already a grave problem and the problem is expected toincrease considerably.
The low lying delta of Bangladesh possesses great danger due to global warming
specially sea level rise. The economic activity of the country which is mainly revolved byher agricultural activity might face a subversive action due to sea level rise. Recent sea
level rise trends due to climate change in years of 2030, 2050 and 2100 are 14cm, 32cm
and 88cm respectively which is based on the third assessment report of the IPCC
(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) and NAPA (National Adaptation Programmeof Action). A study carried out by IWM (Institute of Water Modelling) shows that by theyear 2100, 88cm sea level rise will inundate 4107 square km area which is about 11% areaof 16 coastal districts. It has been seen that 84% of Sundarbans area will be inundated with
32cm sea level rise in 2050 and almost whole area of Sundarbans will be inundated with
88cm sea level rise in 2100.
3.0. SOME MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIESMangrove ecosystem
Bangladesh has one of the largest mangrove ecosystems in the world which is called
Sundarbans mangrove ecosystem (Fig. 5). This ecosystem serves multiple functions. Suchas food source for offshore fisheries, coastal protection, economic and commercial forest
resources, recreational resort and essential element for onshore shrimp cultivation. Erosion

72Md. Ataur Rahman: Coastal Vulnerabilities and its Integrated Management

or accretion is another important factor controlling the extension and the functioning of themangrove ecosystem. They control not only the characteristics of the bottom sediment, butalso the local mean water level, and the watercourses themselves. Consequent influences onnutrient distribution, water regime and salt balance determine mangrove productivity as awhole.
In Bangladesh the great rivers (the Ganges, Brahmaputra, Meghna and Karnaphuli)
empty into the large estuary at the apex of the Bay of Bengal. This freshwater run-off
carries large quantities of nutrients. The nutrients mix with organic and inorganic elements
derived from litter-fall decomposition of the mangrove forests of the coast. The fresh water
bearing these nutrients mixes with the saline water of the bay where sedimentation andflocculation occur together with absorption to convert them into digestible smaller
components. This is why the Bay Bengal is one of the most fertile grounds of the world.
Bangladesh is prone to cyclones. The mangroves are essential to protecting the country
from the worst effects - the trees acting as a barrier to any associated tidal waves. They also
absorb the energy of tidal surges. If the Sundarbans forest disappears, it will leave the restof the country much more vulnerable to the predicted dramatic weather events associatedwith climate change.

Fig. 5: Photos of Sundarbans mangrove ecosystem

Coastal embankment projectBeginning in the early 1960s, the former East Pakistan Water and Power Development
Authority (EPWAPDA) started the construction of embankments with standardized
planning and design. Embankment crest elevations were set at a height equal to the normal
maximum recorded water level plus the selected free-board to protect against cyclonic
surges and tidal waves.
Embankment alignment was tentatively selected using available maps and aerial
photographs. Final alignment was selected in the field. Villages and developed areas were
included within the area protected by embankments wherever practicable. Channel closures
were required whenever the embankment crossed a river or khal. Drainage sluices wereplanned and designed to drain excess rain water from polders into adjacent channels.
Drainage is accomplished during times of low tide when the water level inside the polder ishigher than the water level on the river or sea side. Flap gates on the river side of the sluices
close automatically when the river water level rises above the country side level andprevents flow into the polder. Empolderization has mostly been done in the coastal region
below the salinity line of 1,000 micromhos (aprox. 6.76 ppt). At least 123 polders havebeen created through construction of 5107 km earthen embankment providing protection of
1.5 Mha of coastal land.
The construction of large numbers of polders required the closure of many tidal
channels. As a result, these channels are in the process of readjustment of channel sectionin order to cope with the tidal flows. This has caused ecological changes especiallyaffecting the fish of the area. It is also creating problems for drainage from polders during73

Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

the rainy season and for communication as traditional navigation channels have become
blocked from siltation.
Afforestation
Forests are always considered to be low-cost and natural protection to the lands
subjected to attack of current and storm surges. A hydraulic model study has been done at
the southern part of Hatia island on afforestation under 2nd CERP (Coastal Embankment
Rehabilitation Project) in order to assess the effect of afforestation on the storm surgeheight and to develop a basis for having the necessary engineering judgement in designing
the minimum width of forest cover to reduce the height of the embankment system. The
southern part of Hatia island is always exposed to the Bay of Bengal and most of the time
hit by cyclonic surges. In investigation, mangrove forest was laid along the southernshoreline of Hatia by defining the equivalent Manning number for the Rizophora species ofmangrove forest and 1970 cyclone was considered for equivalent surge condition. The
study was based on the two-dimensional numerical model of Bay of Bengal. The study
shows that the mangrove forest with width of 600m decreases the surge height of 0.45m
around the southern tip of Hatia island. The first 133m width of forest absorb the thrust of
the storm surge reducing it by 0.18m. No appreciable positive impact of afforestation was
found at other locations at the south-eastern side and south-western side of the polder. The
findings of this study can help the planners and designers to compute the formation level ofthe polder with the consideration of afforestation.
Realizing the importance of coastal afforestation for the consolidation of newly
accreted land, the Bangladesh Forestry Department has undertaken extensive afforestation
projects in the coastal districts of Bangladesh (particularly in the central region). By 1976,
an area of about 11,000 ha had been planted. By 1980, about 40,000 ha of plantation had
been completed, as reported by the Forestry Department. A massive afforestation
programme by plantation of about 40,500 ha in the coastal area was targeted for the period
1981-1985. Up to June 1985, about 37,000 ha had been planted as estimated by remotesensing techniques. Till 2004 over 140,000 ha of newly formed mud flats have been plantedwith various mangrove species of which Sonneratia apetala is the most common one(Forest Department data of 2005).
Unfortunately, forest areas in Bangladesh are under relentless pressure from rivererosion, timber merchants, fuel wood collectors, grazing animals and land clearance for riceor shrimp culture. Thus, the coastal afforestation projects are only a small beginningtowards improving the nation’s wood supply and forest cover.
Land reclamation
Cross-dam techniques have been applied in Bangladesh and successful results havebeen achieved. A major branch of the Meghna used to flow between the Noakhali mainlandand Ramgati Island but gradually it silted up over a period of 20-30 years prior to 1957.
Meghna Cross-Dam No. 1, a 12-km-long embankment, was constructed in the shallow bedof the Meghna in 1957 connecting Ramgati Island with the mainland and the flow wasdiverted to the west in Shahbazpur Channel. Cross-Dam No. 2, between Char Jabbar andthe main-land, was constructed in 1964. These two cross-dams have added a substantial
landmass area to Bangladesh. The gross protected area totals about 900 sq km from oldriver beds and the bay. Gradually, the process of sedimentation around this reclaimed
landmass is increasing every year.
The Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB) through its land reclamation
project is planning to construct a cross-dam between Sandwip and Noakhali (Urir Char).
Various model studies have been under-taken with Netherlands experts after analysing
historical developments in the area. The possible orientation and alignment of the dam isbeing further examined by BWDB.
Newly emerged land in the coastal area will have to be developed thought both-shortrange and long-range programmes. The overall strategy for the development of these areas
depends on the consolidation and stabilization of the newly formed land and the retardation

74Md. Ataur Rahman: Coastal Vulnerabilities and its Integrated Managementof the erosion of stable land. The basic strategy for the development of the newly accreted
land into stable and productive land is to put such lands into afforestation immediately so as
to keep the soils relatively undisturbed for at least 10 years. This will increase naturalvegetation also. After the land has stabilized, trees may gradually be cut from the central
part of the forest for timber and fuel-wood, while the outer-fringe trees are kept to protect
the land against erosion, tidal action and storm surges. The central part cleared of trees may
be used for cultivation and habitation. Thus, the land gained and stablized by afforestationand saved from erosion will provide for an increase in cultivable land and agricultural
production.
Cyclone Preparedness Programme (CPP)The Cyclone Preparedness Programme (CPP) is a collaborative effort of the Ministryof Food and Disaster Management and the Bangladesh Red Crescent Society. It is one of
the most successful initiatives in early warning in the South-East Asian region,internationally recognized as a “standard of excellence” with a dedicated team ofcommunity volunteers living in coastal and offshore island villages. The CPP covers 11
districts in the coastal areas. Volunteers have been trained to play a crucial role in thedissemination of cyclone warnings, evacuation, rescue, first aid, emergency relief and in theusage of radio communication equipment. CPP’s 27,600 male and 5,520 female volunteers
are the first line of an early warning system to the members of their communities. As an
operational wing of the government’s disaster management bureau, the CPP provides
scheduled daily weather reports via an extensive high frequency (HF) radio transmitting
system operated by volunteers throughout the coastal region of Bangladesh. In addition,
government has constructed about 2,400 cyclone and flood shelters along its coastal belt.
There is still a requirement to construct a further 1,500 shelters to serve 3.56 million people
residing in the high risk coasts. Government has also initiated a complimentary disaster
preparedness programme to promote community participation in the construction andmaintenance of cyclone shelters. Presently, Bangladesh is working on developing a
Tsunami Preparedness Programme as an extension to the Cyclone Preparedness Programme.
4.0. EVOLUTION OF COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT IN BANGLADESH
4.1. Policy development
The Coastal Embankment Project (CEP) started its efforts to build embankment andsluices in the coastal areas to protect loss of life and crops from tidal surges, cyclone andsaline intrusions. The CEP was the single most dominant programme in the coastal zone
until the late1970s. In 1978 the GoB, with technical assistance from the Government of theNetherlands, embarked on a programme of erosion control and development of newly
accreted land in the estuary through the Land Reclamation Project (LRP). The project went
for several pilot tests with some positive results. The overall conclusion of the LRP wasthat the new khas land takes many years to produce reasonable agricultural yields andenable farmers to make a suitable living.
In the late 1980s, the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific (ESCAP)
took the first initiative to formulate a coastal management policy in Bangladesh. In 1988 areport titled “Coastal Environmental Management Plan for Bangladesh” was produced(ESCAP, 1988) that addressed the most obvious problems of the coastal zone. One of theunique aspects of this study was the integration of socio-economic considerations into theenvironmental issues. It was a brave attempt at an integrated approach to coastal zone
management but was not formulated at a level of specific plans and proposals for
implementation. In 1986, in a process operating in parallel, the GoB, finally completed
Phase I of the National Water Plan.
In 1989 the European Communities reached an agreement with GoB to finance the
Cyclone Protection Project II (CPP II) comprising feasibility and design studies ofprotection measures against cyclonic flooding. The study was undertaken under the Flood
Action Plan (FAP, Component 7). The study recommended “an integrated master plan75

Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

study for protection measures against cyclones covering all aspects including coastal
embankments, warning system, cyclone shelters, means of evacuation, emergency planningetc.” (FAP 7, 1992).
In April 1991 Bangladesh was hit by a catastrophic cyclone that led to the loss of
138,882 lives. Immediately after that the Planning Commission, Government of
Bangladesh initiated a study titled “Multi-purpose Cyclone Shelter Programme” (MCSP)
with financial assistance from the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) andWorld Bank. This was jointly conducted by the Bangladesh University of Engineering andTechnology (BUET) and Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies (BIDS) during early
1992. The core objective of the study was to prepare a “Master Plan for Multipurpose
Cyclone Shelters” for storm surge prone areas of the coastal belt of Bangladesh” (BUETBIDS, 1993).
In its analysis the study based on a number of factors delineated the cyclone prone
areas of Bangladesh as falling within the “risk zone (RZ)” and the “high risk area (HRA).”
Based on the factors mentioned, the study delineated an area of 12,046 km2 (8.4 percent of
Bangladesh), comprising 49 thanas in the 13 coastal districts as being cyclone prone andfalling within a “risk zone”. A plan was formulated to serve as a “framework forestablishment of a Cyclone Shelter Network in the coastal areas which will define the basic
concept, strategy and location pattern to be followed in all future construction”.
Based on the review of the findings of MCSP, a follow-up project named “Cyclone
Shelter Preparatory Study (Cyclone Risk Area Development Plan)” was launched in 1995
with financial support from the European Union. The objectives of the project were to“provide life-saving protection for the population at high risk from cyclones, in a mannerthat can be maintained on a sustainable basis; upgrade disaster preparedness andmanagement systems in the high risk areas; maximize the utility of the life-saving
infrastructure during non-cyclone periods, through the use of facilities as schools or forother community purposes; to the extent economically justified, provide life-saving
protection for livestock in the high risk area” (Sener Ingenieria Y Sistemas SA et al., 1998).
In 1999, the World Bank (WB) involved the Netherlands Government and the World
Food Programme in a mission to identify specific concepts, goals, objectives and policy
formulations to move forward the process of the integrated management of coastal zones
that had been under discussion for Bangladesh for nearly a decade (Soussan et al., 1999).
Basing the analysis on earlier works in Bangladesh, and specific assessments in Asiaand further afield, it aimed at a truly integrated approach. This has attempted to identify thewhole range of stakeholders, encourage a wider appreciation of the implications of theiractivities and foster an attitude of adaptation and response to the zone’s special challenges.
Thus, it has become usual to speak of Integrated Coastal Zone Management or ICZM.
In February 1999 the GoB sent a high level delegation to South-east Asia to study
ICZM. The team consisted of four Secretaries of key Ministries, along with the Chief
Conservator of Forests and the Chairman of the BWDB. This delegation’s work
subsequently culminated in drafting the first GoB Policy Paper on ICZM in September
1999. This paper represents the present accepted policy framework for coastal development
in Bangladesh and provides a context within which coastal policy-livelihoods relationships
need to be analyzed. This paper built on the analysis of the donor mission discussed above(Soussan et al., 1999) to identify the issue of interdepartmental co-ordination as a major
challenge in coastal areas: “development problems to not occur departmentally; they appear
in a complex web of interrelationships needing concerted efforts by more than one agency”(GoB. 1999).
Later in the year the WB developed a proposal to use the Coastal Embankment
Rehabilitation Project (CERP) and other projects (Char Development and Settlement
Project - CDSP, Meghna Estuary Study - MES, Supporting Environmental Management
Programme - SEMP, Fourth Fisheries Project –FFP, Fisheries Resource Management
Programme - FRMP etc.) as building blocks of an ICZM Plan. The GoB has accepted the
proposal and, with the aid of assistance from the Netherlands Embassy, commenced its
ICZM programme preparation.

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Md. Ataur Rahman: Coastal Vulnerabilities and its Integrated Management

4.2. Integrated Coastal Zone Management PlanICZM Plan project is started on 01 February 2002 and was ended in 31 December
2005. The six major outputs of this project are Coastal Zone Policy, Coastal Development
Strategy, Priority Investment Program, Community capacities to enhance livelihoods,
Enabling institutional environment and Integrated knowledge base.
a) Coastal Zone Policy (CZPo)
The main purpose of Coastal Zone Policy was to agree on a process of harmonizationof sectoral policies and planning activities and to establish a process of ICZM to facilitate
the improvement of community livelihoods, enhance the benefits of development efforts
and facilitate formulation of a policy document for adoption by the Government.
b) Coastal Development Strategy
The coastal development strategy (CDS) document is the main output of the ICZM
project. The CDS links the CZPo with concrete development programs and intervention.
The objectives of the CDS are to select strategic priorities and actions in implementation of
the CZPo with emphasis on the creation of the institutional environment that will enable
GoB to embark on a continuous and structured process of prioritization, development.
c) Priority Investment Program
The Priority Investment Program (PIP) is the operational arm of the Coastal
Development Strategy (CDS) and the linking mechanism to streamline the coastal
development into national planning process. PIP is considered as a vehicle to implement theprocess of identification, preparation, implementation and monitoring of priority
interventions. Issues can be identified in different ways and are elaborated throughparticipatory approaches. Concept notes for investment projects were developed throughmulti-agency participation. The CDS preparation proposes structured steps in identificationof (priority) interventions through identification of strategic thrusts, types of interventions
and finally specific interventions/actions.
d) Community capacities to enhance livelihoods
The focus of this output is on development of models of good practice to enhance thecapacity of communities to improve their livelihoods. Guided by the Sustainable
Livelihood Framework (SLF), the Project undertook activities to develop and quantify theconcept of community vulnerability.
e) Enabling institutional environment
The enabling institutional environment aims to create the conditions that would
support local communities in improving their livelihoods. In general terms, the objectivesof this output are: to assess the existing procedures of harmonization of different policies
and sectoral plans; to assess the existing procedures of co-ordination between institutional
actors; and to design ‘partnership’ procedures outlining the ‘best practices’ of institutional
and legal arrangements at different levels of operation.
f) Integrated knowledge base
The purpose of the activities aiming at an integrated knowledge base is to have better
information and a better understanding of coastal conditions and processes in support of
ICZM. The approach was to first facilitate collection, collation of readily available
information at district and project levels. Then a library was established containing books,
reports and CDs relevant to planning and management of the coastal zone. Relevant
information was analyzed and synthesized and working papers were prepared for wider
dissemination.

77Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

5.0. CONCLUSION
Based on the present trend of population growth, the estimated population in the coastal
area is 41.8 million by the year 2015. The main challenges for coastal managers are toensure the basic needs of the increasing population. By reducing the vulnerabilities anddeveloping definite strategies for sustainable coastal development and to use natural
resources wisely in an equitable manner to promote and support a dynamic and sustainable
coastal economy. In addition to that threats from global warming are inundation of coastal
areas, change in precipitation pattern, and increase of land erosion, floods and deteriorationof biodiversity. The Government of Bangladesh has done many activities for manage its
coastal zone by reducing coastal vulnerabilities. Integrated Coastal Zone Management Plan(ICZMP) has been prepared in 2005. Now the Government of Bangladesh has started theinstitutionalization and operationalization of ICZMP.

REFERENCES:
BUET-BIDS (1993) Multi-Purpose Cyclone Shelter Programme, Final Report, Part 1,
Volume 1,Main Report, Report prepared for the Planning Commission, Government of
Bangladesh under the UNDP/World Bank/GoB Project BGD/91/025
Bhuiyan, M.A, Matin, M.A. (2005) Coastal Zone Management, M.Sc Engineering Lecture
Note, Dept. of Water Resources Engineering, BUET, Dhaka.
ESCAP (1988) Coastal Environmental Management Plan for Bangladesh - Final Report,
Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific, Bangkok
FAP 7 (1992) Cyclone Protection Project II – FAP 7, Feasibility and Design Studies, Final
Project Preparation Report, Volume 1 Main Report, Ministry of Water Resources,
GoB, Dhaka
GoB (1989) The Land Reform Act - 1989, Ministry of Land, Government of Bangladesh,
Dhaka
GoB (1999a) Integrated Coastal Zone Management: Concepts and Issues, Ministry of
Water Resources, GoB, Dhaka
GoB (1999b) Standing Orders on Disaster, Disaster management Bureau, Ministry ofDisaster Management and Relief, Government of Bangladesh, Dhaka
Holeman, J.N. (1968). The sediment yield of major rivers of the world. Water Resources Research, 4,
737-747.
Islam, M.R. (ed.), 2004. Where Land Meets the Sea: A Profile of the Coastal Zone of Bangladesh,
The University Press Ltd., Dhaka.
LRP (1991) Final Report, Land Reclamation Project, Government of Bangladesh, Dhaka
MES (1999) Meghna Estuary Study: Assessment of Impacts and Effectiveness - Draft Final
Report Netherlands Development Assistance, Dhaka
Sener Ingenieria Y Sistemas SA et al. (1998) Cyclone Shelter Preparatory Study (Cyclone
Risk Area Development Plan), Feasibility Phase, Final Report, European Commission,
Dhaka
Soussan, J.G. et al. (1999) Integrated Coastal Zone Management in Bangladesh – A
Concept Note and Development Process, World Bank/NEDA/WP, Dhaka
SWMC (2001), Draft Final Report, 2nd Coastal Embankment Rehabilitation Project.

78

Coastal Landform Variations of the Mekong River Delta, Vietnam in
Relation to Monsoon Activities
Van Lap Nguyen 1, Thi Kim Oanh Ta 1, and Yoshiki Saito 2
1

Institute of Resources Geography, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology (VAST)
1 Mac Dinh Chi Str., 1 Dist., Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. E-mail: nvlap@vast-hcm.ac.vn
2
MRE, Geological Survey of Japan, AIST. Tsukuba 305-8567, Japan

ABSTRACTThis study emphasizes on coastal landform variations of the Mekong River Delta (MRD) in relation
to monsoonal activity at the active delta in the eastern part and delta margin in the southern partprogradated for the last 3 ka. Two depositional patterns and their distinct landforms could berecognized in the following: (1) The active delta plain shows tide- and wave-dominated delta andcharacterized by sandy beach-ridge systems well distributed on the subaerial delta plain. Almost
sand and sandy silt deposited at the active delta to form delta front and pro-delta facies and finesediments transport southwest-wards owing to longshore currents generated by northeast monsoon.
(2) Tide- dominated delta progradation occurred in the Ca Mau deltaic margin. It is characterized bywell-developed mangrove marsh on the subaerial delta plain. There is not any sandy beach-ridge to
be found in the subaerial delta plain, and subaqueous delta shows pro-delta and shelf mud facies.
Total shoreline of the MRD is about 740 km long including over 400 km long on the East Sea
and the remainder located on the West Sea. The erosion and accumulation processes thatpermanently occur both at the shore areas and the river mouths. The MR transports a great amount ofsuspended and bottom sediments. These sediments, under various hydrodynamic processes such as
long-shore and tidal currents and wave, dominantly affect the active geo-morphological evolution of
the coastal zone. The coastlines of Ben Tre, Tra Vinh and Soc Trang regions are affected by mixed
process of erosion and deposition in different places. Data from the last 40 years show that accretion
coastlines are usually located around the present river mouths with its rate of 15-20 m/y. At the sametime, depending on the morpho-hydrodynamical processes, coastal erosion occurs at some places
and its rate is 10-15 m/y. During the last 100 years, especially at the Ganh Hao area, coastal erosion
is more severe with its average rate of 30-50 m/y. Beside coastal erosion the Ca Mau cap iswell-known as rapid accreation coastline. Its rate is approximately 50-80 m/y, some places are up to
100 m/y. This phenomenon is evidently driven by deposition of material discharged by the MR
system as well as by material derived from coastal erosion of above mentioned areas. Moreover,present tidal sand flat is found at the Ca Mau cape, meanwhile, there is not any evidence of sand flatand beach ridges in Ca Mau deltaic margin. Above-mentioned data indicate that the change incoastal landforms of MRD seems to be effected more strongly by monsoonal activity in the recent
years.

INTRODUCTION
The Mekong River Delta (MRD), one of the largest deltas in the Asia, is mainly located in thesouthern Vietnam has been formed by the Mekong River system. This is a tide dominated delta in
the humid tropical climate and monsoon. During the highstand and regressions of relative sea-level
over the last 5500 yr.BP., delta progradation has formed a great delta plain of 62,500 sq. km of which
the total shoreline is about 740 km long [1]. Shoreline of the Southern China Sea, over 400 km long,is characterized by semi-diurnal tides with an average amplitude of 3- 4 m, meanwhile the Gulf ofThailand about 340 km long, characterized by diurnal tides with small amplitude of 0.5- 1.0 m. The
tidal regimes surrounding the MRD together with monsoon and wave activities, have appreciable
contributions to coastal landform variations.

79Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

Coastal MRD is a broad coastal plain composing of two different morpho-sedimentary areas:
Eastern Coastal Area and Ca Mau Peninsula. Eastern Coastal Area is located in the active delta among
the present distributaries. Morphology of the Eastern Coastal Area is strongly dissected by manydifferent sets of the beach ridges. The former sets are seemed to be in northeast - southwest direction
with lower elevation of 3.0 to 4.0 m a.s.l., the younger ones are single or braided arc patterns withcomplicated directions and the present sand dunes are parallel to coastline with elevation of 5 to 6 ma.s.l., some of them reach 8 to 10 m a.s.l. This area is characterized by tide- and wave- dominated delta
progradation for the last 3 ka. Ca Mau Peninsula is located on the southwestern part of the MRD. Mainarea, with elevation of 2.0 m a.s.l., is occupied by coastal plain deposits in which marshy deposits arescattered in the lower lands of 1.0 m a.s.l. The lowest lands of mangrove marshy deposits mainly
occupy the southern part of the Ca Mau Peninsula in which present mangrove forests expand over 90
km long and 25 km wide. Ca Mau peninsular is typical for tide dominated delta progradation [1,3].
This study emphasizes on coastal landform variations of the MRD in relation to monsoonal
activity at the active delta in the Eastern Coastal Area and Ca Mau delta margin in the southern partprogradated for the last 3 ka.

METHODS
Coastal landform variation is comparison of topography maps which published in the different
intervals of 1881-1896, 1952 by France; 1963-1965 by American; and 1977, 1980,1985, 1998 by
Vietnamese. Aerial photographs and satellite images including LANDSAT, SPOT and NASDA in theinterval of 1973-1992, Terra-Aster 03, 1987 (MSS), 1989,1996 (TM), 2001 (ETM), 2004 (ETM) arealso useful. Field survey were carried out at the some typical coasts in Ben Tre, Tra Vinh and Ca
Mau.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
1. Depositional patterns and landforms
Two depositional patterns and their distinct landforms in this study areas could be recognized in
the following:
1.1. The active delta plain of Ben Tre and Tra Vinh area located at the eastern part of MRD showstide- and wave-dominated delta and characterized by sandy beach-ridge systems well distributed on
the subaerial delta plain. Sediments are characterized by a coarsening-upward delta front facies
covered by a fining-upward subtidal to intertidal facies, followed by a coarsening-upward fore
shore/dune facies. The tide- and wave-dominated delta is characterized by a beach-ridge system on
the subaerial delta plain, longshore sediment dispersal, and steep delta-front topography in theproximal delta [3]. Almost sand and sandy silt deposited at the active delta to form delta front andpro-delta facies and fine sediments transport southwest-wards owing to longshore currents generated
by northeast monsoon.
1.2. Tide- dominated delta progradation occurred in the Ca Mau deltaic margin located in thesouthernmost part of the Mekong River Delta. Based on the changes of morpho- sedimentary map
and detailed investigations of deltaic facies in the boring cores, the Ca Mau deltaic margin has been
formed since the last 3.000 years. Sediments are characterized by the thick prodelta/shelf mud facies
overlie on late Pleistocene followed by delta front mud facies, sub-to intertidal mud flat and marsh.
The tide-dominated deltaic margin is characterized by well-developed mangrove marsh on thesubaerial delta plain. There is not any sandy beach-ridge to be found in the subaerial delta plain. Ca
Mau peninsula is subjected under tidal and monsoonal regimes in the East and West seas.
Semi-diurnal tide is in the East sea with an average amplitude of 3-4 m, and diurnal tides ischaracterized in the West sea with small amplitude of 0.5-1.0 m. Both the tidal and monsoonal
regimes play important role to coastal evolution in the Ca Mau deltaic margin. Under northeast
monsoon activity, almost fine grained sediments such as silt and clay transported southwestwards bylongshore current from the distributaries of Mekong River system and deposit in Ca Mau area. Ca

80Van Lap Nguyen et al.: Coastal Landform Variations of the Mekong River Delta

Mau cap is located at the border of the semi-diurnal and diurnal tides of East and West seas andcharacterized by high rate of coastal deposition.
2. Change of coastal landform in the active delta plain (Ben Tre and Tra Vinh coastal areas)
The erosion and accumulation processes that permanently occur both at the shore areas and theriver mouths. The MR transports a great amount of suspended and bottom sediments. These
sediments, under various hydrodynamic processes such as long-shore and tidal currents and wave,
dominantly affect the active geo-morphological evolution of the coastal zone. The coastlines of Ben
Tre, Tra Vinh areas are affected by mixed process of erosion and deposition in different places. Data
from the last 40 years show that accretion coastlines are usually located around the present rivermouths with its rate of 15-20 m/y. At the same time, depending on the morpho-hydrodynamical
processes, coastal erosion occurs at some places and its rate is 10-15 m/y.
Deposition and erosion area at BenTre coast (ha)PeriodErosion area

Deposition area

Total area

Average1972 - 1987

-524

+2,913+2,389159

1987- 1996

-670

+1,281+611

68

1996 - 2004

-367

+1,203+836

1041972 - 2004

-1,561+5,397+3,336105

3. Change of coastal landform in the Ca Mau delta margin
In comparing topographic maps, satellite images and field measurements data showed thatcoastline has changed considerably by both erosion and accretion processes at the Ca Mau coastline.
The Bo De coastline is well- known as erosive coast with its rate of 30-50 m/y from 1885 to 1985,
then particularly at the south side of Bo De mouth, it has been increasing up to 50-90 m/y since 1985[2]. Beside that at Ca Mau cap, the coastline is well-known as rapidly depositional coast, its rate isapproximately of 50-80 m/y and some places are up to 100 m/y from. This phenomenon is evidently
driven by deposition of material discharged by the MR system as well as by material derived fromcoastal erosion of above mentioned areas. But a new data show that some places has been eroded
considerably with its average rate of 40- 60m/y since 1998. It seems to be effected by typhoons in
the recent years.
During the last 100 years, especially at the Ganh Hao area, coastal erosion is more severe with
its average rate of 30-50 m/y. Beside coastal erosion the Ca Mau cap is well-known as rapid
accreation coastline. Its rate is approximately 50-80 m/y, some places are up to 100 m/y. Thisphenomenon is evidently driven by deposition of material discharged by the MR system as well as
by material derived from coastal erosion of above mentioned areas. Moreover, present tidal sand flat
is found at the Ca Mau cape, meanwhile, there is not any evidence of sand flat and beach ridges in
Ca Mau deltaic margin. Above-mentioned data indicate that the change in coastal landforms of MRD
seems to be effected more strongly by monsoonal activity in the recent years.
CONCLUSION
Coastal landform variations of the MRD in relation to monsoonal activity at the active delta in the
Eastern Coastal Area and Ca Mau delta were clarified by investigating Ben Tre, Tra Vinh and Ca
Mau coasts.
The erosion and accumulation processes that permanently occur both at the shore areas and theriver mouths. The MR transports a great amount of suspended and bottom sediments. These
sediments, under various hydrodynamic processes such as long-shore and tidal currents and wave,
dominantly affect the active geo-morphological evolution of the coastal areas. The monsoon effect inthe wet season leads to the supply of fine sediments and mud deposition under the low-tide line. In

81Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

contrast, in the dry season, sediment supply is limited and mud is brought away.
The change in coastal landforms of MRD seems to be effected more strongly by monsoonal
activity in the recent years as a consequence of global warming and climate change.

REFERENCES[1] Nguyen, V.L., Ta, T.K.O., Tateishi, M., 2000, Late Holocene depositional environments andcoastal evolution of the Mekong River Delta, Southern Vietnam, Asian Earth Science, 18/4,
427-439.
[2] Nguyen, V.L., Ta, T.K.O., Tateishi, M., 2000, Coastal variation and saltwater intrusion on the
coastal lowlands of the Mekong River Delta, Southern Vietnam. Proc., The comprehenciveassessments on impacts of sea-level rise, Thailand, 184-190[3] Ta, T.K.O, Nguyen, V.L., Tateishi, M., Kobayashi, I., Saito, Y., 2005, Holocene delta evolution
and depositional modes of the Mekong River Delta, southern Vietnam. In L. Giosan and J.P.
Bhattacharya, eds., River Deltas- Concepts, Models and Examples, SEPM special publication, 83,
453-466.

82

Holocene Coastal Delta Development Patterns and Sediment Dischargeof the Mekong River in Vietnam
Thi Kim Oanh Ta1, Van Lap Nguyen1, Masaaki Tateishi2, Yoshiki Saito3,
Masatomo Umitsu4, and Iwao Kobayashi2
1

HoChiMinh Institute of Resources Geography, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology,
01 Mac Dinh Chi street, 1 Dist., Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. E-mail: ttkoanh@vast-hcm.ac.vn
2
Department of Geology, Niigata University, Japan
3
MRE, Geological Survey of Japan, AIST, Japan
4
Graduate School of Environmental Science, Nagoya University, Japan

ABSTRACTThe Mekong River Delta (MRD) located at the mouth of Mekong River, Southern Vietnam is atypical mixed-tide and wave energy delta and with a wide delta plain of 62,520-93,781 km 2 it is oneof the largest deltas in the world. The river has its headwaters in the Tibetan mountains, and it flows
down the Indochina Peninsula through several countries – China, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, andCambodia – before emptying into the South China Sea in southern Vietnam with sediment discharge
is 160 million t y–1.
Coastal delta development patterns and sediment discharge of the Mekong river during the
Holocene are presented based on detailed analyses of samples from boreholes on the delta plain. The
deltaic sediments are composed of early Holocene aggradational sediments and progradational
sediments of middle to late Holocene age. Holocene sea-level change controlled this evolution of the
Mekong river delta.
The Holocene progradational delta has evolved from a tide-dominated delta to the present
mixed wave- and tide-dominated delta during the last 3 ky. The tide-dominated delta wascharacterized by a well-developed mangrove forest on the subaerial delta plain, cross-shore sediment
dispersal, and tide-influenced sedimentary facies. The tide- and wave-dominated delta exhibits abeach ridge system in the subaerial delta plain, longshore sediment dispersal, and a steep delta-front
topography, in which the sediments of the proximal river-mouth area are coarse-grained and thosemore distal are fine-grained. This evolution indicates that as river-mouth coastal systems evolvefrom estuaries to deltas in response to sea-level changes, the tide-dominated delta was formed in theearly phase of the highstand systems tract and has changed to more wave- dominated delta in thesubsequent regression.
Based on sediment-volume analysis, estimated sediment discharge of the Mekong River for thelast 3 ky was 144 ± 36 million t y–1 on average, or almost the same as the present level. The constantrate of delta front migration and stable sediment discharge during the last 3 ky indicate that adramatic increase in sediment discharge owing to human activities, as has been suggested for the
Yellow River watershed, did not occur. However, in centennial and decadal scales, sediment
discharge of the Mekong river may be changed due to human activities therefore it needs to study
more detailed.

INTRODUCTION
The Mekong River Delta (MRD) located at the mouth of Mekong River, Southern Vietnam is atypical mixed-tide and wave energy delta and with a wide delta plain of 62,520-93,781 km 2 it is oneof the largest deltas in the world. The river has its headwaters in the Tibetan mountains, and it flows
down the Indochina Peninsula through several countries – China, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, andCambodia – before emptying into the South China Sea in southern Vietnam with sediment discharge
is 160 million t y–1 [1].

83

Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

The MRD has prograded more than 200 km from the Cambodian border to the present coastline
in southern Vietnam over the last 5-6 ky [2]. The detailed topography of the subaerial delta plain
show two parts: an upper (inner) delta plain dominated by fluvial processes, and a lower (outer) delta
plain characterized by a well-developed beach-ridge system and mainly influenced by marine
processes. The modern, active subaerial delta environment is composed mainly of beach ridges(including the foreshore) and tidal flats. Ca Mau Peninsula is located on the southwestern part of the
MRD and characterized by the lowest lands of mangrover marsh.
Coastal delta development patterns and sediment discharge of the Mekong river during the
Holocene are presented based on detailed analyses of samples from boreholes on the lower delta
plain.
METHODS
Surface characteristics are analysed on the basis of morpho-sedimentary map interpreted by aerial
photographs and satellite images.
Subsurface characteristics are studied mainly on the basis of samples from 15 boring cores,
over 50 auge-holes and soil-pits on the delta plain. The cores were split, described andphotographed. X-radiographs were taken throughout all split cores. Primary sedimentary structuresin fine-grained sediments are well preserved. Characteristic of depositional environments are also
based upon fossil investigation (diatom, foraminifer). 14C ages are measured on plant fragments andmolluscan shell fragments by the Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) method.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
1. Sedimentary facies
On the basis of sedimentary characteristics, granulometry, sedimentary structure, microfossil
and 14C age dating, sedimentary facies of MRD are divided as follows:
1.1 Late Pleistocene undifferentiated sediments are recovered at the lowest parts of all most sites andconsisted of stiff, slightly oxidized yellowish-grey silty sand and fine-medium sand bearing scatteredquartz pebbles. It is +5 m Late Pleistocene terrace to the north part of the MRD, and lowered toabout -2 to -4 m in the Plain of Reeds and the west part of Long Xuyen Quadrangle [2], thencommonly -10 to -35 m around the present coast of the South China Sea and -10 to -15 m in the Ca
Mau peninsula excepting some incised valleys reaching over -70 m as the case of a core in Ben Tre[3]. These sediments were dated ca. 43.4 and 50.4 cal ky BP and were overlaid unconformably by
Holocene marine sediments [4, 5].
1.2 The transgressive incised-valley fill sediments have been investigated in more detail at the corein Ben Tre site. The sedimentary succession showing incised-valley infilling ranges from estuarine
channel/tidal river sandy silt, muddy tidal flat/salt marsh, to estuarine marine sand and finally open
bay muddy facies in ascending order. These facies present a fining-upward succession indicating the
Holocene transgressive sediments. The soft honogenous greenish-grey mud and discontinuous parallel laminated mud, 10 to 13 m thick, are characterized by abundant marine planktonic diatoms
and open bay foraminifers [3]. The sedimentary succession is only found in and around the incisedvalleys in Ben Tre, Vinh Long and Dong Thap provinces and indicates that a maximum
transgression occurred at ca. 6.0 - 5.5 ky BP [5].
1.3. Delta progradation sediments are composed of deltaic sediments from prodelta, delta front, subto intertidal flat, foreshore, beach ridge/marsh silt facies in ascending order. There are somedifferences in sedimentary facies somewhat between the boring sites located around present coastand the boring sites located in the hinterland around 50-120 km from the present coast, with respect
to grain size and sedimentary structures. The grain size of sediments of the sites around the present
coast is coarser than that of another in the hinterland. The sediments of the sites in the hinterland
display a fining-upward succession with parallel lamination and lenticular bedding, and an overlying
subaerial delta plain facies. These characters are also found at the sites around present coast;84

Thi Kim Oanh et al.: Holocene Coastal Delta Development Patterns and Sediment Discharge

however, they display a wide variation in sedimentary structures including wavy bedding, flaser
bedding, and cross-lamination, in addition to parallel lamination and lenticular bedding, and they arecovered by coarse sediments of the subaerial delta plain facies. These features of this facies are tideinfluenced, and it is interpreted as a subtidal to intertidal flat facies. However, the facies at the sites
located around present coast were influenced not only by tides but also in part by waves [4, 5]. In thesouthwest marginal delta of MRD, the characteristic of deposition process is different from theactive delta. Sediments are characterized by the thick prodelta/shelf mud facies overlie on late
Pleistocene followed by delta front mud facies, sub-to intertidal mud flat and marsh.
2. Holocene delta development patterns
Delta progradation over the last 5 - 6 ky was not constant. The topography and sediment facies
show that the upper delta plain formed in a tide-influenced environment before 3 ky, during the last
3 ky the lower delta plain formed in a more wave-influenced environment and the Ca Mau margin
delta formed in a tide-influenced environment [5]. Holocene delta progradation can be divided into
three development patterns in three different localities and periods as follows:
2.1. Tide dominated progradation occurried in the upper delta plain in the Plain of Reeds and Long
Xuyen Quadrangle around 6-4.5 ky BP. It is characterized by 2-5 m thick intertidal flat andmangrove swamp mud facies and overlain the Late Pleistocene basement strata. The progradation
rate is estimated about 40 to 45 m/y based on the mangrove swamp sediments well occupied behinda system of the relict beach ridge dated 4,5 ky BP.
2.2. Deltaic progradation around the distributary channel during the last 6- 5 ky
Since the last 6- 5 ky, the deltaic sediments have well prograded around the present distributarychannels of the Mekong River where deltaic sandbody is found. This is a typical deltaic succession,
15 to 25 m thick, consisting of prodelta mud facies, delta front sandy silt facies, sub- to intertidal flatsandy silt facies and subaerial delta plain facies in ascending order. The pro-delta mud facies, 4 to 12
m thick, shows a coarsening-upward succession and consists of dark grey silt and sandy silt. Delta
front sandy silt facies, a 6- to 9-m-thick coarsening-upward succession, consists of intercalated
greenish gray sandy silt and fine sand. Sub- to intertidal flat sandy silt facies, 6 to 8 m thick, consistsof laminated dark grey sandy silt and fine sand. Subaerial delta plain facies (marsh and beach ridge)
is 4 to 5 m thick, and consists of dark silt and sandy silt with rich organic matter, rootlets, and mica
flakes. Based on the changes of morpho- sedimentary map and detailed investigations of deltaic
facies in the boring cores, it was suggested that there are two types of deltaic succession. A tide
dominated delta in the upper delta plain changed to present mixed tide- and wave- dominated deltaduring the last 3 ky. The progradation rates are also changed from 30-40 m/y to 10-20 m/y in the tide
dominated delta to mixed tide- and wave- dominated delta respectively [4].
Related these changes, progradation rates of the deltaic system also decreased from the inner toouter delta. This decrease may be related to the increase in wave influence resulting in sediment
dispersal southwestward. Most waves are related to the monsoon climate and approach the MekongRiver Delta region from the northeast. The headland east of Ho Chi Minh City sheltered the rivermouth from these waves before 3 ky BP. However, as the delta prograded seaward and projected
past the headland during the last 3 ky, the environment became more wave influenced, and thesediment facies and topography began to resemble those of the present delta.
3.3. Tide dominated progradation during the last 5- 4 ky in the southwest part of Mekong delta (CaMau deltaic margin)
The deltaic margin in Ca Mau peninsula is characterized by 15 to 20 m thick deltaic mud
facies unconformably covered the Late Pleistocene basement strata. The deltaic succession consistsof the pro-delta/shelf mud facies, delta front mud facies, sub- to intertidal flat and mangrove marsh
mud facies. The pro-delta/shelt mud facies is about 5 to 10 m thick common shell fragments anddated 4.3 ky BP at the core in Ca Mau. The delta front mud facies is 10 to 15 m thick, parralelllaminated silty clay are common and found at the all boring cores. The sediment of delta front wasdated 4 ky BP. Sub- to intertidal flat mud facies is about 3 to 5 m thick and dated 1.5 ky BP. Marshand mangrove marsh mud facies well occupied in the subaerial delta plain. The morpho-85

Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

sedimentary map and data from boring cores suggest that a tide dominated progradation has
occupied the deltaic margin in Ca Mau peninsula. The progradation rate is estimated about 35- 38
m/y during the last 4 ky. It seems to be sediments transport southwestwards and longshore currents
generated by winter monsoons play important role in formation and development of Ca Mau deltaic
margin.
3. Millennial-scale sediment discharge
The volume of sediment deposited over the last 3 ky can be roughly estimated using the present
topography and bathymetry, the palaeo-offshore break line at 3 ka, and sediment thickness. The
calculated sediment volume deposited during the last 3 ky is 360 ± 90 u 109 m3 (20 ± 5 m inthickness, 18 u 103 km2 in area), which is equivalent to 144 ± 36 million t y–1 using a bulk density of
1.2 ± 0.1 g cm–3. Estimated sediment discharge of the Mekong River for the last 3 ky was 144 ± 36
million t y–1 on average, or almost the same as the present level. The constant rate of delta front
migration and stable sediment discharge during the last 3 ky indicate that a dramatic increase in
sediment discharge owing to human activities, as has been suggested for the Yellow River
watershed, did not occur. However, in centennial and decadal scales, sediment discharge of the
Mekong river may be changed due to human activities such as constructing dams in the upstream, or
tropical storm, typhoon increase caused more erosion in the coastal areas of MRD. Therefore further
research on sediment discharge in centennial and decadal scales should be done more detailed toestimate environment impacts due to increasing human activities or natural conditions and predictthe coastal erosion/deposition processes more effectly.
CONCLUSION
Coastal delta development patterns and sediment discharge of the Mekong river during the Holocene
are presented based on detailed analyses of morpho-sedimentary map and samples from boreholeson the delta plain. The typical sediments are early Holocene transgressive incised-valley fillsediments and regressive progradational sediments of middle to late Holocene age.
During the sea-level highstand and the subsequent period of slightly falling in the last 6-5 ky,
delta progradation was divided into tide predominance and tide –and wave predominance as follows:(1) A typical delta succession occupied around the present distributary channels during the last 6-5
ky. It is characterized by 15-25 m thickness consisting of prodelta mud facies, delta front sandy silt
facies, sub- to intertidal flat sandy silt facies. A tide dominated delta in the upper delta plain has beenchanged to present mixed tide- and wave- dominated delta during the last 3 ky. The progradation
rates are also changed from 30-40 m/y to 10-20 m/y in the tide dominated delta to mixed tide- andwave- dominated delta respectively.
(2) Tidal predominated progradation occurried the upper delta plain around 6-4.5 ky BP. It ischaracterized by 2-5 m thick intertidal mud facies and overlain the Late Pleistocene sediments. Since
the last 3 ky fluvial process has become predominant and flood plain sediments have caped theintertidal mud facies.
(3) Tidal predominated progradation has occurred a deltaic margin at southern part of the MRD
during the last 4 ky BP., and characterized by 15-20 m thick delta/shelf mud facies overlain the Late
Pleistocene sediments. The progradation rate is estimated about 35- 38 m/y during the last 4 ky
Based on sediment-volume analysis, estimated sediment discharge of the Mekong River for thelast 3 ky was 144 ± 36 million t y–1 on average, or almost the same as the present level. However, itneeds to research on sediment discharge in centennial and decadal scales to estimate more exactly.

REFERENCES[1] Milliman, J.D., Ren, M.-E, 1995. River flux to the sea: impact of human intervention on river86Thi Kim Oanh et al.: Holocene Coastal Delta Development Patterns and Sediment Discharge

systems and adjacent coastal areas. In: Eisma, D. (ed.) Climate Change: Impact on Coastal
Habitation: Lewis Publications, Boca Raton, Florida, 57–83.
[2] Nguyen, V.L., Ta, T.K.O., Tateishi, M., 2000. Late Holocene depositional environments andcoastal evolution of the Mekong River Delta, Southern Vietnam. Journal of Asian Earth Science18, 427-439.
[3] Ta, T.K.O., Nguyen, V.L., Tateishi, M., Iwao, K., Saito, Y., 2001. Sedimentary facies, diatom
and foraminifer assemblages in a late Pleistocene-Holocene incised-valley sequence from the
Mekong River Delta, Bentre Province, Southern Vietnam: the BT2 core. Journal of Asian Earth
Science 20, 83-94.
[4] Ta, T.K.O., Nguyen, V.L., Tateishi, M., Iwao, K., Saito, Y., 2002. Holocene delta evolution andsediment discharge of the Mekong River, southern Vietnam. Quaternary Science Reviews 21,
1807-1819.
[5] Ta, T.K.O, Nguyen, V.L., Tateishi, M., Kobayashi, I., Saito, Y., 2005, Holocene delta evolution
and depositional modes of the Mekong River Delta, southern Vietnam. In L. Giosan and J.P.
Bhattacharya, eds., River Deltas- Concepts, Models and Examples, SEPM special publication,
83, 453-466.

87Protection and Management of Karstic Geosites of Ha Tien – Kien
Luong Coastline, Viet Nam
Hai Ha Quang
Vietnam National University-Hochiminh City, University of Sciences
hqhai@hcmuns.edu.vn

ABSTRACTThe Ha Tien – Kien Luong coastal zone is a typical site where a number of karstic geosites arevaluable to scientific research and natural resources. Significantly, the geosites provide considerable
resources for interdisciplinary studies e.g. angular unconformity of the oldest strata in Nambo
Southern Vietnam which is between the Chua Hang formation aged late Devonian-early
Caboniferous (D3-C1ch) and the Ha Tien formation aged Pecmian (Pht); the geomorphologicallandscapes of karstic vestiges in various forms such as conical, tower-liked, pyramid-liked at 30-200
meters (m) height above sea level (h.a.s.l). In addition, several caves at 2-3m, 15-20m, 40-60m
h.a.s.l, for example, Mo So, Cay Ot, Tien, and Thach Dong are historical and cultural representations.
There are a number of rare mammals, birds, and reptiles investigated in several limestone hills
within the Hon Chong, Kien Luong, Ha Tien in recent years. Due to the spectacular karstic surface
as well as the splendid caves, Ha Tien-Kien Luong becomes an attractive site to tourists.
Furthermore, the exciting sites are attracted to students from different universities to visit and to
study yearly.
However, under natural processes and anthropogenic impacts, several geosites are seriously
being degraded. The natural reason is mainly fall-in phenomenon, where typical example is thecollapse of Hon Phu, a National-credited landscape in Hon Chong, Binh An commune, Kien Luong
district (Kien Giang province). The combined Hon Phu-Tu is a symbol of Kien Giang province, thus
the collapse of Hon Phu leads to a number of negative impacts such as tourist declination. Overexplorations, natural resource destructions of karstic environment due to human activities are
increasingly happening in the areas, especially limestone exploitation for cement production,
uncontrolled forest shattering, unsustainable tourist development.
Karstic structure is very brittle, easy-broken. In addition, it is impossible to restore after broken.
Therefore, karstic sites are very sensitive to anthropogenic impacts. The exploitation,
unplanned/unplanned use, will even destroy the sources that seriously affect to the current and future
generation. Consequently, responsibility from the government as well as resident duty for protection
and close control must be required. In this talk, a number of solutions for protection, management of
the geosites in the Ha Tien-Kien Luong coastal zone are proposed as follows: 1) Investigation ofvaluable characteristics of each geosite; 2) Mapping geosites on which different levels ofvaluableness; 3) Setting up a raising awareness program to local people about the karstic degradationand solutions to reduce impacts; 4) Development of tourist economic 5) Protection and managementof the karstic geosites based on cooperation among different management levels and different
branches.

INTRODUCTION
Karstic geosites along the Ha Tien – Kien coastal zone are beautiful and precious landscapes in theSouth Westen Vietnam. Some of these become famous and attract many tourists to visit annually.
However, scientific, economical, and social values of each geosite have not been fully taken into
consideration leading to unreasonably use and exploit. As the results, a number of geosites havebeing degraded even disapeared due to natural and anthropogenic impacts. This paper briefly

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Hai Ha Quang: Protection and Management of Karstic Geosites

presents about current status and values of several typical geosites; consequently, proposes solutions
for protection and management toward efficiency and sustainability.
STUDY AREA
The study area is the coastal zone which belongs to Ha Tien town, Kien Luong district, Kien Giang
province, elongating about 60 km from the border of Cambodia to Hon Chong cape (Figure 1). At
this coastal zone, appearing rocks are as follows [1, 2]:
Chua Hang Formation aged late Devonian-early Caboniferous (D3-C1ch): siltstone, siltsandstone intecalated with black, thin limestone layers.
Ha Tien Formation aged Pecmian (Pht): white – grey limestone, in many places feebly
recrystallized, thick – bedded; limestone intercalated with dark – grey marls.
Nui Cop Formation aged middle Triassic (T2anc): tuff boulderstone, rhyolite, fensite andtheir tuffs.
Sediment rocks aged Holocene (QIV): marine deposits are largely distributed, they consist ofclay, silt, sand, in some places, plant humus or shell remains.

Figure 1: Ha Tien - Kien Luong Coastline, Viet Nam

The rocks belonging to Chua Hang, Ha Tien, Nui Cop Formation created inselbergs which isabove the sea level, while the floodplain was created by the Holocen deposits.

89Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

The karstic geosites was mainly generated by Permian limestones of the Ha Tien Formation(Pht). The limestones are scatteredly exposed on Ha Tien coast, from Da Dung mountain, near theborder with Cambodia, to Chua Hang with the famous Hon Phu Tu, but concentratedly located at thearea between Bai Ot and Hon Chong. They unconformably cover Chua Hang Formation (D3-C1ch)
at Chua Hang.
SOME TYPICAL KARSTIC GEOSITES
1) Thach Dong mountain
Thach Dong is a column of rock with 80m height, which looks like a feather – cap of the
English cavalry and called “Bonnet à poil” in French (Figure 2). At the Thach Dong mountain,
Thach Dong cave is wide and beautiful, and inside the cave is the Tien Son pagoda made of wood in
1790.
Thach Dong cave is one of the most beautiful landscapes in Ha Tien which also relates to sometraditional legends (e.g Thach Sanh saved Quynh Nga princess). The cave’s bottom is about 20m
height covers about 50 m2; whereas the cave’s ceiling is 6-7m higher than the bottom. The main
entrance to the cave is in North-East direction; other entrances are in South-West, West, and North
direction. There are quite a number of distinct stalactites which is twinkling when having light in the
cave walls.
At the West entrance, tourist can see green rice fields, Khmer pagodas, Mui Nai beach, islands
in Thai Lan Gulf which are very splendid (Figure 3). At the North-East entrance, one can see
palmyra forest in Cambodia.
2. Da Dung Mountain
Da Dung Mountain is balanced-trapezium-shaped, 98m height, distributing in the South –Westernmost area of Vietnam (Figure 4). The mountain includes a 14 cave system with diverse ways
inside; many entrances appear in the mountain wall at differently high levels.
The way coming to this 14 cave system is about 3.149m. Each cave has their own beauty which
relates to a number of mysterious legends especially due to the different figures of stalactites, forexample, wine gourd-shaped (Doi cave); turtle-shaped (Than Kim Qui cave) (Figure 5); bitter
melon-shaped (Kho Qua cave); in the Trong Nguc cave, when flapping on one’s chest, some noises
as drumming appear.
During the American war, the cave system is a base for the South Liberation Army. Someremains of the war can still be seen in some caves as the results of cartridge, bombs.
3. Mo So Mountain
The Mo So Mountain (“Mo So” is white rock in Khmer language) is about 30 m height,
elongating in the north direction. The mountain has a system of more than 20 large and small caves.
In the south of the mountain, haft of it, have being exploited for cement production.

Figure 2: Thach Dong Mountain

Figure 3: Landscape in the West of Thach
Mountain90

Hai Ha Quang: Protection and Management of Karstic Geosites

The cave’s bottom is 1.0-1.5 m height which is as high as the current plain (Figure 6). The
caves are inter-connected by underground rivers; in some places in the caves are spacious. Stalactites
in the caves have distinct shapes. On the cave’s wall is attached by shell remains. Inside themountain is a valley with round-shaped, flat bottom, 1000 m2. Impacts of sea level changings at 1.5– 2.0 m, 2.5 m-3.0 m created trace of waves around the Mo So mountain (Figure 7).
The Mo So mountain is also a base for the South Liberation Army during American war. The
commanding office, hospital, post office … of the Liberation Army were located here.

Figure 4: Da Dung Mountain

Figure 5: Than Kim Qui Cave

Figure 6: The main entrance to Mo So Cave

Figure 7: Traces of waves

4. Hon Chong
Hon Chong is a gathered landscape including Hon Chong Mountain, Chua Hang, Hon Phu Tu,
and Bai Duong. Some people compare Hon Chong landscapes as “ Ha Long Bay in the South”.
Hon Chong Mountain
Hon Chong Mountain is 221 m high with a number of sharp rocks looked as spike table (Spikemeans “Chong” in Vietnamese) (Figure 8). In the south of the mountain, it is covered by forest,
mainly Keo plant (Acacia auriculiformis), Dau plant (Dipterocarrpus alatus). In this area, adiversity system of animal is also reported abundantly, especially the existing of rare birds such as
Giang sen (Mycteria leucocephala), Khoang Co (Nettapus coromandelianus), Bo Nong
(Pelecaniformes), Quam (Ciconiiformes) green wing, typically Seu red head (Gruiformes) (Figure 9).
A scarce Vooc Bac community (Trachypithecus villosus) is also found in some limestone peaks in
Hon Chong.
Chua Hang
Chua Hang has an original name “Hai Son Pagoda” (Figure 10) [4] built by the King Nguyen
Anh in order to remember his sister who died here. The main of this pagoda located within the91

Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

mountain of a karstic cave. Two entrance lead to North-East and South-West direction, more than
50m length, the back gate looks to the sea. Annually, from 8 to 15 April (Lunar calendar), a festival
is organized here solemnly (Figure 11) [4].

Figure 8: sharp rocks looked as spike table in Hon
Chong mountain

Figure 9: Seu red head (Gruiformes)

Figure 10: Entrance to Chua Hang

Figure 11: Buddhist festival in Chua Hang

Figure 13: Hon Phu Tu after collapse

Figure 12: Hon Phu Tu - the symbol of Kien
Giang province

Hon Phu Tu
Few years ago, the Hon Phu Tu (as a symbol of Kien Giang) is 2 high rock columns and tilted
in the same direction. This looks like a father and son toward the sea (in Vietnamese, “Phu” means
father, “Tu” means son). The big one is 33.6m height assumed as “Father”, and the small one is 32.9
m height assumed as “Son”. These two rock columns are connected by a rock platform as 5 m higher
than sea level. The collapsing of the big one in 9 August 2006 affected this famous landscape in theSouth.

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Hai Ha Quang: Protection and Management of Karstic Geosites

Bai Duong
Bai Duong beach is about 2 km length; haft of the beach is covered by Duong plant (Casuarina
equisetifolia) and haft is covered by Dau plant (Dipterocarpus alatus). In front of Bai Duong is Kien
Vang island which is 500 m far from the shore. Bai Duong is a beautiful beach, tiny sand, secretive
beach behind the Duong plant lines and miscellaneous forest as a blind separated from roads.
DESTRUCTION BY NATURE
The appearance of dense cracking systems have split the limestone layers into separated blocks or
disconnected columns. The weathering, dissolving, abrading processes by water, waves, winds are
the main factors causing these fragile geosites degraded. The collapse of Hon Phu is typically
represented for the natural effects on the karstic geosites (Figure 12, 13) [3].
DESTRUCTION BY HUMAN
Some activities such as limestone exploitation for construction materials, uncontrolled forest
shattering, unsustainable tourist developing have destroyed the karstic resources even more than thenatural factors.
Exploitation for construction materials
To serve for the current benefits, limestone exploitation is happening extensively in the Kien
Luong region, for example: Khoe La (Figure 14), Mo So, Tuc Khoi, Cay Ot cave, Thung Lung
(Figure 15), Nho mountain … These exploitations is extending whereas the beautiful limestonelandscapes are disappearing. Some of the limestone mountain is flattened or exploited undergroundeven -90m (in planned). These limestone exploitation has also severely affected habitat areas of rare
species in Kien Luong region (Figure 16, 17) [5].

Figure 14: Limestone exploitation in Khoe La
mine

Figure 15: Deep exploitation in Thung Lung
mine

Unsustainable tourist developing
Some caves have been decorated, lighted that change the natural conditions, as well asdegraded the stalactites. Constructing new entrances (Figure 18) or closing some caves will
negatively affect on birds, bats etc. Illegally, superstitious activities, temporal house construction(Figure 19), unconscious tourist are threatening species especially those live in the lower areas of themountains.
Forest exploitation
Hon Chong forest is a rarely specialized forest on limestone in Kien Giang. The forest is
characterized by diversity of plants as boi loi (Litsea glutinosa) hậu phát, huynh (Tarrietia
parvifolia), sen (Madhuca pasquieri), dau rai (Dipterocarrpus alatus), sao (Hopea Hainanensis).
This forest is currently illegally exploited for burnt-over land, wood, medical purposes …

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Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

Figure 16: Seu red head (Gruiformes)

Figure 17: Air pollution by blasting

Figure 18: New entrances to Loc Ky cave (DaDung Mountain)

Figure 19: Temporal house construction invalley (Mo So Mountain)

SOLUTIONS FOR PROTECTION AND MANAGEMENT
Proposed solutions for protection and management of the karstic geosites in the Ha Tien – Kien
Giang coastal zones are as follows:
Investigation of valuable characteristics of each geosite in term of scientific,
cultural/historical, social/economic aspects.
Mapping geosites on which different levels of valuableness, the important sites need to
be strictly protected are presented. In addition, attached to each site is a diagram
describing characteristics of geology, cultures, and environmental resources.
Setting up a raising awareness program to local people about the possible karstic
degradation and solutions to reduce environmental impact in the karstic landscapes.
Development of tourist economic based on the unique characteristics of landscapes,
ecology, cultural tradition instead of, for example, constructing material exploitation.
Protection and management of the karstic geosites based on cooperation among
different management levels and different branches.
CONCLUSION
Karstic structure is very brittle, easy-broken. In addition, it is impossible to restore after broken.
Therefore, karstic sites are very sensitive to anthropogenic impacts. The exploitation,
unreasonable/unplanned use, will even destroy the sources that seriously affect to the current and94

Hai Ha Quang: Protection and Management of Karstic Geosites

future generation. Consequently, responsibility from the government as well as resident duty forprotection and tight control must be required.

REFERENCES
1) Bao, Nguyen Xuan et al., 1996. Geology and Mineral Resources of Phu Quoc – Ha Tien Sheet(C-48-XIV & C-48-XV), Scale 1:200000. Geological Survey of Viet Nam. Ha Noi.
2) Duong, Truong Cong et al., 1998. Geology and Mineral Resources of Phu Quoc – Ha Tien SheetGroup, Scale 1:200000. Geological Survey of Viet Nam. Ha Noi.
3) Hai, Ha Quang et al., 2006. Reason for collapse of Hon Phu at National-credited landscape in
Hon Chong, Binh An commune, Kien Luong district, Kien Giang province. Science conferenceon Hon Phu Tu, Kien Giang in October, 2006.
4) http://www.phatquang.com/Daile_Vesak/KetThucVesak_chuaHang.html
5) http://www.thiennhien.net/news/189/ARTICLE/7021/2009-02-02.html#

95Vien Ngoc Nam and Tran Dinh Hue: Mangrove Flora Biodiversity in Con Dao National Park

Mangrove Flora Biodiversity in Con Dao National Park, Baria - Vung
Tau Province, Vietnam
Vien Ngoc Nam1, and Tran Dinh Hue2
1

Nong Lam University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, Email: drvnnam@gmail.com
2
Con Dao National Park, Vietnam, Email: huecondao@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
There are 31 ha of mangrove in Con Dao National Park distributing in 04 main areas, in which 7 hais on the Southern East, 11 ha is on Southern West and 8 ha and 5 ha is on Northern West andNorthern East respectively. The mangrove is virgin forest that remains in Vietnam.
There are 15 species of mangrove tree in 9 families, of which 14 species are true mangrove, 1
associated mangrove species with the abundance of 2,833 individuals per ha in Bo Dap – Bai Duong.
In Dam Quoc – Dam The, 18 species belongs to 10 families, of which 17 species is true mangrove ,01 associated mangrove species and the abundance of 1,998 individual per ha. Identically, in Dam
Trau – Ong Cau there are 15 species in 10 families, of that are 14 true mangrove species, 01
associated mangrove species with the abundance of 2,013 individuals per ha. It is found that 13
species belongs to 9 families, 11 species is true mangrove, 02 associated mangrove species with the
population of 1,550 individuals per ha in Dam Tre.
There are 45 mangrove species in Con Dao National Park, of which is 35 tree species, shruband climber are 5 species for each. There are 26 true mangrove species belonging to 11 families; 19
associated mangrove species in 15 families. The 45 mangrove species are identified and listed, 3
species is in the Vietnamese Red Book are Duoc doi (Rhizophora apiculata Blume), Coc do(Lumnitzera littorea (Jack) Voigt) and Quao nuoc (Dolichandrone spathacea (L.) K.Sch); 2 new
species that have been identified in Vietnam are Vet hainessi (Bruguiera hainessi) and Xu rumphii(Xylocarpus rumphii). Rhizophoraceae is dominant family having 9 species, Combretaceae has 3
species, and Leguminosaceae has 3 species, 1 – 2 species for the rest families. The average ofabundance is 2,099 tree per ha. Five dominant species are Su do (Aegiceras floridum Roem &Schult) occupied 25.02% of total species, Vet du (Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.) Lamk) is 11.39%, Da
voi (Ceriops tagal (Perr) C. B. Rob) is 10.85%, Dung (Rhizophora mucronata Lamk) is 9.47%,
Duoc doi (Rhizophora apiculata Blume) is 7.74%. The Important Value Index (IVI%) of these 5
species is 63%, 19 remaining species is 37%. Average community diversity index is: S = 4 ± 1.07,
Magalef (d) = 0.96 ± 0.38, Pielou (J’) = 0.71 ± 0.18, Simpson (D) = 0.49 ± 0.18, Shannon (H’e) =0.94 ± 0.34.
1. INTRODUCTION
Mangrove plays important roles in coastal protection, erosion control, raw material providing, herbal,
tourist and study place… but in recent decades, mangrove in Viet Nam was decreased by manyreasons in which mainly is economic development purpose. The Con Dao mangrove ecosystem on
the East Sea coastline of Viet Nam is unique place that has primary forest remaining in the country.
The diversity of mangrove plants in the Con Dao studied aiming at to increase awareness of thetrue value of mangrove ecosystems. The diversity and abundance may reflect the status andfunctioning of mangrove forest ecosystems and serve as potential biological/ecological indicators ofhabitat change in both natural and managed mangroves. Biodiversity is widely regarded to beimportant in maintaining genetic richness, ecological functioning and the resilience of the ecosystem(Heywood, 1995).
The objective of this study was to understand natural mangrove of Con Dao in different areas,
species composition, tree communities and management. This type of information is valuable formonitoring the ecological development and conservation of mangrove in Viet Nam.

96

Vien Ngoc Nam and Tran Dinh Hue: Mangrove Flora Biodiversity in Con Dao National Park

Figure 1: Mangrove forest distribution in Con Dao National Park, the position of the study zones(1 to 4). The locations are: (1) Bo Dap – Bai Duong; (2) Dam Tre;(3) Dam Trau – Ong Cau; and (4) Quoc – Dam The.

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1. Study sites
The study was conducted in the Con Dao National Park, Con Dao island is South East of Ho
Chi Minh city about 150 km which lies between 48037’ - 48048’ latitude; 106032’ – 106045’ longitude.
The study area covers in Con Dao districts, Ba Ria – Vung Tau Province of Viet Nam. The total areaof Con Dao National Park is about 20,000 ha in which has 14 islands (6,000 ha) and 14,000 ha ofwater body. The functions and duties of Con Dao National park are as followings:-

To protect, rehabilitate the ecosystem of flora, fauna on islands and sea.
Forest conservation and landscape together with historical, cultural areas.
To carry out scientific researches, education and tourism services.

2.2. Data collection
The study was based on the data collection directly from the field. The study area was selectedby using the help of forest map and satellite images of Con dao National Park and the 64 plots
determined for four zones. Each zone is 16 plots. Sampling plot of 10 m × 10 m = 100 m2 size wastaken in each area (English, S., 1997). Standard procedure were followed to measure density,
frequency abundance, Relative density (R.D.), Relative Frequency (R.F.), Relative Abundance(R.A.) and Important Value Index (IVI) of the species. Diversity index, the Shannon-Winner index
for diversity and Species Richness index were also measured.

97

Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

2.3. Data analysis
For each major location, four measures of local diversity of true species were calculated. These
were: total number of species (S); total abundance of individuals; Shannon-Weiner diversity
H=6(Pi*Loge(Pi)) (where Pi is the number of individuals of the ith species as a proportion of thetotal number of all ith species); and Pielou’s evenness J=H/LogeS, Beta diversity H’=S/m (Anne E.
Maguran, 2004) where S = species number (all samples), m = average number of species per sample.
To evaluate the biodiversity of rare species, we calculated the rarity index (IR)=1- (n/N)*100, where
n is the number of squares in which the species was found and N the total number of squares
surveyed. The index ranges from 0 to 100. A species is rare when the index is greater than or equal to78.08 and lower than 95; very rare, when the value is between 95 and 97; extremely rare, when it isgreater than 97 (Guarino C, Napolitano F, 2006).
Further patterns in community composition were assessed using PRIMER (Plymouth Routines
in Multivariate Ecological Research) (Clarke & Warwick, 1994). Community (species abundance)data were square root-transformed to reduce the influence of dominant and rare species. The
Bray-Curtis similarity measure was then calculated between every permutation of sample pairs(Clarke & Warwick 1994). The relationship between samples and species was displayed in PCA(Figure 6).
25Species Count

20

15

10

5

0
0

20

40
S a m p le s

60

80

Figure 2: Species Accumulation Curve of Mangrove trees in Con Dao

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
There are 45 mangrove species in Con Dao National Park, of which is 35 tree species, shrub andclimber are 5 species for each. There are 26 true mangrove species and 19 associate mangrove
species. The 45 mangrove species in which 3 species is in the Vietnamese Red Book are Duoc doi(Rhizophora apiculata Blume), Coc do (Lumnitzera littorea (Jack) Voigt) and Quao nuoc
(Dolichandrone spathacea (L.) K.Sch); 2 new species that have been identified in Vietnam are Vet
hainessi (Bruguiera hainessi) and Xu rumphii (Xylocarpus rumphii). The average of abundance is2,099 tree per ha.
There are 26 true mangrove species belonging to 11 families; 19 associated mangrove species
in 15 families. Rhiphoraceae is dominant family with 9 species occupies 55.09% of total individual(Fig 4), Myrsinaceae is 22.54%. Combretaceae has 3 species (22.54%), Leguminosaceae has 3
species (0.41%) and the remain families have 1 – 2 species. Apocymnaceae is lowest (0.23%).
At the Bo Dap - Bai Duong the trees were about 28 per 100 m2. Tree density was lowest at Dam
Tre because relatively fewer seedlings distribution there due to Dam Tre is bay. Four mangrove tree
species were recorded in Dam Quoc – Dam The.
There were Rhizophora trees in the mixed Aegiceras floridum/Ceriops tagal stand withdominant Ceriops tagal in Bo Dap - Bai Duong, where seedlings of Ceriops tagal can grow in the
rocky area. A few Avicennia alba and Avicennia marina, Sonneratia alba trees were also recorded in
Dam Trau - Ong Cau, showing that these mangrove species had distributed from Mekong Delta.
The species compositions are also reflected in the diversity indices. Margalef’s richness and98Vien Ngoc Nam and Tran Dinh Hue: Mangrove Flora Biodiversity in Con Dao National Park

Shannon diversity were greatest in Dam Trau - Ong Cau. The diversity analyses (Table 1) show Dam
Quoc - Dam The to be the most diverse location with the highest species richness and Dam Tre islowest. However, it also has the lower evenness value since dominance value is high (0.49). Using
Beta diversity value to compare diversity between zones reveal that Dam Quoc - Dam The is highest
diversity and lowest is Dam Trau - Ong Cau.
Transform: Square root
Resemblance: S17 Bray Curtis similarity

0

40

60

80

SpeciesFigure 3: Dendrogram of mangrove species composition at Con Dao calculatedusing group-average linking of Bray-Curtis similarities
55.09

Rhizophoraceae
22.54

Myrs inaceae
Combretaceae

5.16

Meliaceae

3.83

Euphorbiaceae

3.60

Avicenniaceae

2.70

Lythraceae

2.10

Sonneratiaceae

1 .65

Sterculiaceae

1.35

Mavalceae

0.9 1

Bignoniaceae

0.45

Leguminosaceae

0.41

Apocynaceae

0.2 3

0

10

20

30

40

50

Figure 4: Percentage of mangrove family abundance99

60

Rhi zophora apicul ata

Ceri ops tagal

Bruguiera gymnorrhiza

Rhi zophora stylosa

Aegi ceras fl ori dum

Rhi zophora mucronata

Rhizophora xl amarcki i

Avi cennia marina

Avi cennia alba

Son neratia alba

Pemphis aci dula

Lumi nitze ra racemosa

Heri ti era li ttoral is

Xyl ocarpus granatum

Dol ichandron e spathacea

Brugui era sexangula

Intsi a bi juga

Lumni zera li ttorea

Brugui era hainesi i

Excoeri a agal locha

Thespesia populnea

Xyl ocarpus mol uccensis

Bruguie ra cyl indrica

100
Cerbera manghas

Similarity (%)

20

100

Figure 5: Two-way clustering of species and study plots

Vien Ngoc Nam and Tran Dinh Hue: Mangrove Flora Biodiversity in Con Dao National Park

Vien Ngoc Nam and Tran Dinh Hue: Mangrove Flora Biodiversity in Con Dao National Park

Table 1: Univariate measurements for mangrove tree in the Con Dao study sites
Margalef (d) Piloue (J')

H' (loge)

Dominance
Beta (ß)(D)

Location

1

Bo Dap - Bai Duong3.81 ± 0.44 28.31 ± 1.59 0.94 ± 0.21 0.72 ± 0.11 0.96 ± 0.18 0.48 ± 0.10 3.934

2

Dam Tre3.31 ± 0.32 15.50 ± 1.81 0.85 ± 0.11 0.68 ± 0.10 0.82 ± 0.15 0.54 ± 0.09 3.925

3

Dam Trau - Ong Cau

3.94 ± 0.60 19.94 ± 5.34 1.05 ± 0.21 0.75 ± 0.09 1.03 ± 0.19 0.45 ± 0.09 3.810

4

Dam Quoc - Dam The 4.00 ± 0.75 19.88 ± 2.56 1.02 ± 0.26 0.70 ± 0.09 0.96 ± 0.20 0.49 ± 0.09 4.500
Con DaoS

N/100m2

Zone

4.00 ± 1.07 20.90 ± 0.52 0.96 ± 0.38 0.71 ± 0.18 0.94 ± 0.34 0.49 ± 0.18

S = Number of species, R = Margalef’s richness, H’ = Shannon diversity, J’ = Pielou evenness, D = Simpson’s
dominance and. Means show ± confidence.

Table 2: Quantitative structure of mangrove tree of the Con Dao area
Specie’s name
Aegiceras floridum Roem. & Schult
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.) Lamk
Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C.B. Rob.
Rhizophora mucronata Lamk
Rhizophora apiculata Blume
Rhizophora stylosa Griff
Excoecaria agallocha L.
Xylocarpus moluccensis (Lam.) M. Roem
Lumnitzera littorea (Jack) Voigt
Xylocarpus granatum Koening
Heritiera littoralis Dryand
Sonneratia alba J. Sm.
Avicennia alba Blume
Lumnitzera racemosa Willd
Pemphis acidula J. R. Forst.& G. Forst
Bruguiera cylindrica (L.) Blume
Rhizophora x lamarckii Giff
Thespesia populnea (L) Soland ex Lorrea
Bruguiera sexangula (Lour.) Poir
Avicennia marina (Forssk) Vierk
Dolichandrone spathacea (L.) K.Sch.
Intsia bijuga (Colebr) O. Ktze
Cerbera manghas L.
Bruguiera hainesii C.G. Rogers
Total

N/ha

RD(%)

RF(%) RG(%)

IVI%

Rank

472

22.68

13.64

38.75

25.02

1

236
264
214
161
189
75
42
61
38
28
34
41

11.34
12.69
10.29
7.73
9.09
3.60
2.03
2.93
1.80
1.35
1.65
1.95

12.40
9.92
7.44
8.26
6.20
4.13
3.72
2.48
3.72
4.55
2.07
3.31

10.46
9.94
10.68
7.22
5.73
3.24
2.98
2.42
1.43
0.91
2.78
0.43

11.40
10.85
9.47
7.74
7.01
3.66
2.91
2.61
2.32
2.27
2.16
1.90

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13

34
44

1.65
2.10

2.89
2.07

0.60
0.94

1.72
1.70

14
15

48
25
19

2.33
1.20
0.90

1.24
2.48
2.48

0.83
0.21
0.26

1.46
1.30
1.21

16
17
18

13
16
9

0.60
0.75
0.45

2.07
1.65
1.24

0.03
0.03
0.04

0.90
0.81
0.58

19
20
21

8
5
5

0.38
0.23
0.23

1.24
0.41
0.41

0.02
0.03
0.03

0.54
0.22
0.22

22
23
24

2,081

100

100

100

100

Following table (2) is illustrating highest density of mangrove trees: Aegiceras floridum (472plants) and the lowest density Bruguiera hainesii (5 plants). Moreover, the highest relative density
was found in Aegiceras floridum (22.68%) and the lowest was shown by Bruguiera hainesii (0.23%).
On the other hand, the highest frequency was found in Aegiceras floridum (13.64%) and the lowest
were found in Bruguiera hainesii and Cerbera manghas (0,41%). Furthermore, the highest
abundance was measured in Aegiceras floridum (38.75%) followed by Bruguiera gymnorrhiza(10.46%) and the lowest abundance was shown by Bruguiera hainesii, Cerbera manghas, Intsia
bijuga, Thespesia populnea,Bruguiera sexangula, Avicennia marina

101Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

The highest IVI was calculated in Aegiceras floridum (25.02) and the lowest IVI was shown by
Bruguiera hainesii (0.22) in Table 2. There are 6 species having IVI higher 5% such as Aegiceras
floridum, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Ceriops tagal, Rhizophora mucronata, Rhizophora apiculata,
Rhizophora stylosa in which 5 species belongs to Rhizophoraceae.
.
Ordination by PCA (Figure 6) of the data shows that species belong to Rhizophoracea isseparated from the other sites of the plot. The first three components explain 64.02% of the variationin the data. Principal component 1 (x-axis) reveals 32.22% of the variation. Principal component 2(y-axis) reveals 22.86% of the variation.

Figure 6: PCA ordination of species data for the study sites.
Table 3: Rare mangrove species of Con dao National ParkNo
SpeciesRare Index
Value Rarity
1
Intsia bijuga (Colebr) O. Ktze
98,44
RR
2
Cerbera manghas L.
98,44
RR
3
Bruguiera hainesii C.G. Rogers
98,44
RR
4
Bruguiera cylindrica (L.) Blume
95,31
MR
5
Avicennia marina (Forsk) Vierk
93,75
R
6
Dolichandrone spathacea (L.) K.Sch.
93,75
R
7
Pemphis acidula J. R. Forst & G. Forst
92,19
R
8
Bruguiera sexangula (Lour) Poir
92,19
R
9
Sonneratia alba J. Sm.
92,19
R
10
Rhizophora x lamarckii Giff
90,63
R
11
Thespesia populnea (L) Soland ex Lorrea
90,63
R
12
Lumnitzera littorea .JackVoigt
90,63
R
13
Lumnitzera racemosa Willd
89,06
R
14
Avicennia alba Blume
87,50
R
15
Xylocarpus granatum Koening
85,94
R
16
Xylocarpus moluccensis (Lam) M. Roem
85,94
R
17
Excoecaria agallocha L.
84,38
R
18
Heritiera littoralis Dryand
82,81
R
Note: R: rare species; MR: very rare species; RR: extremely rare species.

102Vien Ngoc Nam and Tran Dinh Hue: Mangrove Flora Biodiversity in Con Dao National Park

4. CONCLUSION
The study site on the island is bounded by sea. The study found 45 species in which 26 true
mangrove species belonging to 11 families; 19 associated mangrove species in 15 families
Dominant family (Rhizophoraceae) is in consistent with the study. The highest IVI of Aegiceras
floridum (25.02) and the lowest IVI was Bruguiera hainesii (0.22).
Diversity index varied with different groups as well as different zones of study. In the study
areas the average species richness index is 4 and Shannon-Winner Index is 0.94. The range of
species richness index for shrubs is 0 - 4 and the range of Shannon-Winner Index is 0.70 - 1.03.
With 3 mangrove species indicated as extremely rare species, Intsia bijuga, Cerbera manghas
and Bruguiera hainesii. These species should be reintroduced in the Con Dao National Park to
re-constitute by insitu and exsitu conservation.
Existing mangrove forests may act as a catalyst for successful natural forest succession ofmangrove tree using the microclimatic, environmental conditions and water currents . Hence, may becreating a more favorable environment for the establishment of native mangrove forest and facilitate
to attract fauna.
Ultimately, may be leading to conserving biological diversity. The study eventually concludes
that a proper protection from human interferences and scientific research of the study area may leada biodiversity rich site in the Con Dao National Park as well as in Viet Nam.

REFERENCES[1] Anne E. Maguran, 2004. Measuring Biological Diversity, Blackwell Publishing, 256 pp.
[2] Clarke, K. R. 1993 Non-parametric multivariate analyses of changes in community structure.
Australian Journal of Ecology 18, 117–143.
[3] Clarke, K. R. & Warwick, R. M, 1994. Changes in Marine Communities: An Approach to
Statistical Analysis and Interpretation. Plymouth Marine Laboratory, UK, 144 pp.
[4] English, S., Wilkinson, C. & Baker, V. 1997 Survey Manual for Tropical Marine Resources.
ASEAN-Australian Marine Science Project: Living Coastal Resources by the AustralianInstitute of Marine Science, Townsville, Australia, 390 pp.
[5] Guarino C, Napolitano F, 2006. Community habitats and biodiversity in the
Taburno-Camposauro Regional Park. Woodland, rare species, endangered species and theirconservation. Forest@ 3: 527-541. [online: 2006-12-18], URL: h p://www.sisef.it/forest@/
show.php?id=419 - [doi: 10.3832/efor0419-0030527].
[6] Heywood, V. H, 1995. Global Biodiversity Assessment. Cambridge University Press, U.K., 1152
pp.
[7] Hutchings, P. & Saenger, P, 1987. Ecology of Mangroves. University of Queensland Press, St.
Lucia, Australia, 388 pp.
[8] Kruskal, J. B. & Wish, M, 1978. Multidimensional Scaling. Sage Publications, Beverly Hills,
London, 93 pp.
[9] Wilson M.V., Shmida A, 1984. Measuring beta diversity with presence/absence data, J. Ecol. 72(1984) 1055–1064.

103

Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

APPENDIX
Two new mangrove species recognized in Con Dao National Park in Vietnam byVien Ngoc Nam and et al, 2007

Figure 1: Bruguiera hainesii C.G. Rogers

Figure 2:

Xylocarpus rumphii (Kostel) Mabb

104

Carbon Sequestration of Ceriops Decandra (Griff.) Ding Hou in Can
Gio Mangrove Biosphere Reserve, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Cao Huy Binh1, and Vien Ngoc Nam2
1

Can Gio Mangrove Protection Forest Management Board, Can Gio District,
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, Email: caohuy_binh2000@yahoo.com
2
Nong Lam University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, Email: drvnnam@gmail.com

SUMMARY
The study on carbon sequestration of Ceriops decandra on above ground is based on the methods offorest biomass. Research results indicated that the ability of carbon accumulation of natural Ceriops
decandra populations in Can Gio Mangrove Biosphere Reserve.
The average density is 13,489 tree/ha, the average diameter at breast height (DBH) is 2.78 ±0.18 cm, average height is 4.28 ± 0.26 m, the average carbon accumulation is 19,22 ± 3.36 tones
C/ha. In which the rate of carbon accumulation of stem is the highest 10.51 ± 1.79 tones C/ha (55.05± 0.39%) range from 51.36 - 57.04%; carbon accumulation in branches is 4.88 ± 1.01 tones C/ha
(24.42 ± 1.06%) and fluctuation is about 20.21 to 37.76% compared with the total volume of
populations. Carbon accumulates in leaves at lowest rate comparing with the total volume of carbon
in populations, the average is 3.84 ± 0.62 tones C/ha (20.53 ± 0.69 %) and the variation is from10.88 – 22.78%.

1. INTRODUCTION
Mangrove is ecosystems especially the coastal areas of tropical and subtropical, it is important for
the life of people in coastal areas as protection against the storm, create good conditions for alluvium
deposition, alleviate the impact of natural disasters and floods, provide food, wood, non-timber
forest products... Besides, mangroves also act as the research and tourist places, travel, rest,
entertainment for everybody.
Can Gio Mangrove Biosphere Reserve is situated adjacent to the southeast of Ho Chi Minh City
– Vietnam, an area of 71,361 hectares covering the many tree species as Rhizophora apiculata,
Rhizophora mucronata, Lumnitzera sp, Ceriops sp, ... but Rhizophora apiculata is mainly dominant.
Can Gio mangrove is "kidney" which filtrate waste water from upper stream and flow down before
to the sea. During the period of 1965-1970, approximately 57% of mangrove area was destroyed byherbicide spraying (Ross, P. 1975), environmental changes, the land is harder, aquatic resource
reduced drastically. From 1978 to present, Ho Chi Minh city have rehabilitated the mangrove
ecosystems in Can Gio, forests grow and develop very well, the seafood increases, wild animal comeback to the mangrove. Obvious values of Can Gio mangrove is needed to improve the ecologicalenvironment, creating landscapes for Ho Chi Minh City, is a factory which absorbs CO2, supply ofoxygen to the city.
Mangroves are not only great value for scientific, economic with people, the value used for theliving of organism but also plays a vital role in the biological conversion of ecosystems, which is theprocess of cancellation, the accumulation of material on the forest floor, contributing to reduce theeffects greenhouse. Effect greenhouse is issue that the scientists and many people are especiallyinterested. There are many causes as climate change leads to the increase of air quality effects
greenhouse, in which has CO2. Forests can absorbs CO2, so research capabilities for accumulating
carbon by forest calculated by the CO2 absorpbility of the forest is very necessary. Quantitative,assessment capabilities of carbon accumulation by forest trees is an important information for
managers, forest business as well as for policy makers that is interested in the mechanism of clean
development (CDM).

105

Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

The objective of this study is conducted to collect information, scientific data about the natural
Ceriops decandra as a based for calculation ability carbon accumulation and CO2 absorpbility for
payment of environment service, contributing economic and social development, environmental
protection in Can Gio mangroves.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study sites
Can Gio Mangrove Biosphere Reserve locate in the southern of Ho Chi Minh city about 45 km,
the total area of 71,361 hectares in Can Gio district, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, with geographicalcoordinate is as following:+ 106016'12'' - 107000'50''+ 10022'14'' 10037'39''
The study areas are Forestry Compartment 10, 11, 12, 13, 17, 21 of Can Gio Mangrove Biosphere
Reserve, Can Gio district, Ho Chi Minh City.

Figure 1: Location of study sites in Can Gio Mangrove Biosphere Research106

Cao Huy Binh and Vien Ngoc Nam: Carbon Sequestration of Ceriops Decandra- Sampling plots are determined on the forest map and satellite images of Can Gio district, thencheck in the field: the 35 plots determined in six Forestry Compartments.
- The size of plot is 10 m x 10 m = 100 m2 (English, S., 1997). In each plot measures diameterat 1.3 m (DBH), total height and density.
- Select about 35 trees randomly to represent the full range of diameter (DHB) classes existingfrom minimum to maximum. Some part of the tree such as stem, branches, leaves weighted
immediately in the field to obtain fresh weight.
- Felled trees for measurement (not disease, straight bole, steady canopy) are divided into thelength of 1 m to determine D1 (first position of tree), D2 (second position), ... Dn; Hn (n position of
the tree). Then volume trees were calculated in study area.
- The length of tree stem is divided in to 5 equal parts, each part gets 1 kg of wood and tie innylon bags to the laboratory and dried at 1050C until the weight does not change; to take 1 kg ofleaves to laboratory and dried at 800C until the weight does not change. Then, the dried samples
were calculated the amount of carbon.
2.3. Data analysis- Determining the amount of carbon accumulated: Volume of carbon in dry biomass defined
through coefficient conversion of parts as stem, branches, leaves with coefficient are 0.4535; 0:48;
0.5025 respectively. Carbon accumulation is calculated by multiplication the dried biomass of parts
with the coefficient. Total carbon accumulation of trees is the total carbon accumulation of the parts:
stem, branches, leaves. From carbon accumulation, the absorpbility of CO2 by forests calculated by
the method of NIRI (Institute Nissho Iwai-Japan): the CO2 absorbed = Carbon accumulation * 44/12
or 1 tones carbon is equal to 3.67 tones of CO2.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
3.1. Correlations between fresh biomass of parts of individual tree with D1, 3
The relationship of biomass is closely with diameter (DBH), height (H). The relationshipbetween biomass and diameter are common use by measuring diameter directly and exactly andmore accurate than height. Therefore, we use the relationship of the biomass with diameter (D1, 3) todetermine biomass of individual trees.
Table 1: The equation of fresh biomass of parts of individual tree with D1, 3
Fresh
Biomass
Total tree

The equation of the fitted model

Correlation
Coefficient (R)Standard Errorof Est. (SE)F-Ratioln(Wtotal) = -0.957098 + 2.36598*ln(D1,3)

0.98450.18451037.5Stemln(Wstem) = -1.4971 + 2.30043*ln(D1,3)

0.97640.2227673.65

Branchesln(Wbranch) = -2.88373 + 2.74036*ln(D1,3)

0.9707

0.2965539.23

Leavesln(Wleave) = -2,15425 + 2,08752*ln(D1,3)

0.95800.2732368.38All the equations have high Correlation Coefficient (R) with R (0.9580 to 0.9845), standard
error of Est. (SE) is small, and the F - Ratio value is higher than the F table at 95%, therefore theequation applied to calculate fresh biomass of Ceriops decandra in Can Gio.
Table 2: The equation between dry biomass of individual tree parts with D1, 3
Dry Biomass

The equation of the fitted model

Correlation Standard Error
Coefficient (R) of Est. (SE)F-Ratio

Total treeln(Wtotal) = -1.5706 + 2.40729*ln(D1,3)

0.98290.1974938.93Stemln(Wstem) = -2.05418 + 2.34016*ln(D1,3)

0.97080.2530539.92

Branchesln(Wbranch) = -3.40991 + 2.74679*ln(D1,3)

0.97080.2967540.91

Leavesln(Wleave) = -2.95058 + 2.10343*ln(D1,3)

0.9576

0.2767364.69107

Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

3.2. Relationship between dry biomass of individual tree parts with D1, 3
The correlation coefficient (R) is high with R = (0.9567 to 0.9829), standard error of Est. (SE)is small, and the F - Ratio value is larger than the F table at 95%, therefore we use the equation to
calculate dry biomass of Ceriops decandra in Can Gio.
3.3. Correlations between total dry biomass and fresh biomass of Ceriops decandraln(Wtotal dry) = - 0.599 + 1.018*ln(Wtotal fresh)
R = 0.9996

SE = 0.0298- Identifying dry biomass through fresh biomass is easy and accurate, the selected equation has
high Correlation Coefficient (R) and standard error of Est. (SE) is small.
- So, relationship between total dry weight with the total fresh weight of tree can be applied inpractical purpose, the total fresh weight of tree can measure in the field, the we use the equation to
calculate the total dry weight of tree or stands.
3.4. Relationship between carbon accumulated in parts with D1, 3 of Ceriops decandra
The equations have high Correlation Coefficient (R = 0.9574 to 0.9821), standard error of Est.
(SE) is small and the F - Ratio value is larger than the F table at 95%. Therefore, we use theequations to calculate the amount of carbon for Ceriops decandra in Can Gio.
Table 3: The equation between carbon accumulated in individual tree parts with D1, 3
CarbonThe equation of the fitted model
accumulation
Total tree ln(Ctotal) = -2.28073 + 2.37351*ln(D1,3)
Stemln(Cstem) = -2.77767 + 2.29021*ln(D1,3)

Correlation Standard Error
F-Ratio
Coefficient (R) of Est. (SE)0.98210.1579899.56

0.96860.2038501.34

Branchesln(Cbranch) = -4.20606 + 2.78629*ln(D1,3)

0.97060.2204536.70

Leavesln(Cleave) = -3.61105 + 2.0861*ln(D1,3)

0.95740.2071362.693.5. Carbon accumulation and CO2 absorbed by stand of Ceriops decandra- Table 4 shows the average density of the Ceriops decandra populations is 13,489 ± 1,464
tree/ha, the highest density populations in the 4th stand with 25,700 tree/ha, the lowest in populationsin the 9th stand with 2,600 trees/ha. The average diameter at breast height of stand is 2.78 ± 0.18 cm;
the highest is in 31st stand (4.14 cm) and the lowest is in 24th stand (1.85 cm). The average height is4.28 ± 0.26 m; the highest is 32nd stand (5.79 m), the lowest is in 2nd stand (2.91 m).
- Forest stand 4 and 17 have D1.3 and Hvn low but high density, therefore the ability of carbon
accumulate is high, the density factor affects to the ability of carbon accumulation of forest.
- In table 4 indicates that the rate of carbon accumulated mainly in parts such as stem biomass,
the average is: 10.51 ± 1.79 tones C/ha, occupied 55.0 ± 0:39 %. The rate of carbon accumulation in
the leaves is lowest; the average is 3.84 ± 0.62 tones C/ha occupied 20.53 ± 0.69%.
3.6. Absorptivity of CO2 of Ceriops decandra populations- The average ability of absorbed CO2 of Ceriops decandra populations in Can Gio Mangrove
Biosphere Reserve is 70.54 ± 12.34 tones C/ha with the average density is 13,489 ± 1,464 trees/ha,
the average diameter is 2.78 ± 0.18 cm, average height is 4.28 ± 0.26m.
- Average density of the populations Ceriops decadal at plot 31 is 15,000 trees/ha, average
diameter is 4.14 cm, average height is 5.66 m and the ability of accumulate carbon is highest in stand
35th: 47.02 tones C/ha equivalent to the ability to absorbs CO2 is 172.55 tones/ha. Similarly theaverage density of the populations Ceriops decandra at sampling plot 05 is 8,400 trees/ha, average
diameter in the 1.3 m is 1.96 cm, average height is 3.35, the ability of accumulate carbon is lowest
at 4.98 tones C/ha equivalent to the ability to CO2 absorbs is 18.29 tones/ha. This factor structure of
the forest reserves such as the diameter, height and density of forest trees are affected to the abilityof carbon accumulated by forests.

108

Cao Huy Binh and Vien Ngoc Nam: Carbon Sequestration of Ceriops Decandra

Table 4: Carbon sequestration of Ceriops decandra stand in Can Gio

Stand
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
Average
Min
Max

N/ha
(Trees/ha)

D1.3
(cm)

H (m)

Cstem
(tone/ha)Cbranches(tone/ha)Cleaves
Ctotal(tone/ha) (tone/ha)

7,800
8,200
13,10025,7008,400
12,00012,20013,50014,5009,500
11,50013,90011,6009,100
13,40018,40021,00018,9002,600
12,00012,10018,40013,40015,70010,500
10,20016,60013,50010,60017,90015,00014,40015,70015,50015,30013,489 ±
1,464
2,600
25,700

2.12
2.24
2.26
2.86
1.96
2.01
2.13
2.96
2.84
3.30
3.16
2.80
2.96
3.16
2.51
2.25
2.87
3.07
3.76
2.60
3.08
2.34
2.26
1.85
2.49
3.35
2.84
3.47
3.51
2.64
4.14
3.00
2.64
2.86
3.03
2.78 ±
0.18
1.85
4.14

3.73
2.91
3.21
5.08
3.35
3.45
3.56
4.10
4.11
4.27
4.26
4.06
4.15
4.26
3.85
3.72
4.15
4.24
4.70
3.86
4.31
3.77
3.72
3.26
3.83
5.42
5.05
5.16
5.23
4.32
5.66
5.79
4.79
4.88
5.60
4.28 ±
0.26
2.91
5.79

2.94
3.82
6.04
19.93
2.82
3.95
5.13
13.19
11.40
12.14
11.75
10.88
10.44
9.37
7.75
8.03
16.97
17.99
3.91
8.06
11.02
9.21
6.11
4.57
6.24
12.24
13.00
15.66
12.44
18.56
25.29
11.87
9.98
11.79
13.26
10.51 ±
1.79
2.82
25.29

1.08
1.54
2.38
8.73
1.04
1.40
2.07
6.56
5.09
6.30
5.51
4.86
4.92
4.48
3.17
3.07
7.63
8.37
1.98
3.51
4.96
3.70
2.41
1.62
2.66
6.19
5.75
7.32
5.80
13.64
12.67
5.13
4.14
5.09
5.88
4.88 ±
1.01
1.04
13.64

1.17
1.47
2.35
7.54
1.12
1.58
1.97
4.67
4.27
4.23
4.33
4.08
3.81
3.41
3.00
3.16
6.34
6.64
1.39
3.05
4.13
3.57
2.38
1.82
2.37
4.30
4.90
5.80
4.61
3.93
9.06
4.53
3.85
4.49
5.00
3.84 ±
0.62
1.12
9.06

5.19
6.83
10.77
36.20
4.98
6.93
9.18
24.42
20.75
22.67
21.58
19.82
19.16
17.25
13.92
14.26
30.94
33.00
7.28
14.62
20.12
16.48
10.90
8.01
11.27
22.73
23.65
28.78
22.85
36.13
47.02
21.52
17.97
21.37
24.14
19.22 ±
3.36
4.98
47.02

Total absorbs
CO2 esq.
(tone/ha)
19.05
25.08
39.52
132.86
18.29
25.42
33.68
89.61
76.16
83.22
79.21
72.73
70.33
63.32
51.08
52.33
113.56121.11
26.71
53.66
73.83
60.50
40.00
29.38
41.35
83.42
86.80
105.62
83.87
132.59172.55
78.98
65.95
78.43
88.59
70.54 ±
12.34
18.29
172.553.6. Absorptivity of CO2 of Ceriops decandra populations- The average ability of absorbed CO2 of Ceriops decandra populations in Can Gio Mangrove
Biosphere Reserve is 70.54 ± 12.34 tones C/ha with the average density is 13,489 ± 1,464 trees/ha,
the average diameter is 2.78 ± 0.18 cm, average height is 4.28 ± 0.26m.
- Average density of the populations Ceriops decadal at plot 31 is 15,000 trees/ha, average

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Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

diameter is 4.14 cm, average height is 5.66 m and the ability of accumulate carbon is highest in stand
35th: 47.02 tones C/ha equivalent to the ability to absorbs CO2 is 172.55 tones/ha. Similarly theaverage density of the populations Ceriops decandra at sampling plot 05 is 8,400 trees/ha, average
diameter in the 1.3 m is 1.96 cm, average height is 3.35, the ability of accumulate carbon is lowest at
4.98 tones C/ha equivalent to the ability to CO2 absorbs is 18.29 tones/ha. This factor structure of theforest reserves such as the diameter, height and density of forest trees are affected to the ability ofcarbon accumulated by forests.
PERCENT CARBON ACCUMULATIONPARTIAL OF TREE

C stem
(%)

20.53

55.05

24.42

C branches(%)
C leaves(%)

Figure 2: Percentage of carbone accumulation in tree parts- Graph in Figure 2 showing the percentage of carbon accumulated mainly in the stem (average
is 10.51 ± 1.79 tones C/ha occupied 55.05 ± 0.39%. The rate of carbon accumulation in the leaves islowest (3.84 ± 0.62 tones C/ha, occupied 20.53 ± 0.69%.
3.7. The estimation of economic value of absorbed CO2
The result in table 5 indicates that the value of commercial of CO2 Esq. of Ceriops decandra
forest areas in Can Gio Mangrove Biosphere Reserve. The capacity of forest stands absorbed CO2 is70.54 tones/ha, the value revenue from CO2 is about 775.94 USD/ha. This can be used to calculate
the potential for payment of environment service and determine the beneficial sources of income,which is useful and meaningful for forest management and conservation in Can Gio.
Table 5: The predicted economic value of the amount of CO2 absorbed to the Ceriops
decandra stand in Can Gio
The amount of absorbed
CO2 esq.
(tone/ha)
70.54

Price

Value

(USD/tone CO2)
11

(USD/ha)775.94

4. CONCLUSION- The average density of Ceriops decandra is 13,489 trees/ha, the average diameter at breast height(DBH) is 2.78 ± 0.18 cm, average height is 4.28 ± 0.26 m, the average carbon accumulation is 19,22± 3.36 tones C/ha. In which the rate of carbon accumulation in stem is the highest (10.51 ± 1.79
tones C/ha) occupied (55.05 ± 0.39%). Carbon accumulation in branches is 4.88 ± 1.01 tones C/ha
(24.42 ± 1.06%) and fluctuation is about 20.21 to 37.76% compared with the total volume of
populations. Carbon accumulated in leaves is lowest rate compared with the total volume of carbon
in populations, the average is 3.84 ± 0.62 tones/ha (20.53 ± 0.69 %) and the variation is 10.88 –22.78%.

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Cao Huy Binh and Vien Ngoc Nam: Carbon Sequestration of Ceriops Decandra- The structure of the forest such as the diameter, height and density of forest trees are affectedto the ability of carbon accumulate.
- The capacity of average absorbed CO2 esq. of Ceriops decandra forest in Can Gio Mangrove
Biosphere Reserve is 70.54 tones/ha, the value in revenue from CO2 is about 775.94 USD/ha.
- Application of research results to other mangrove species at large scale in Can Gio as well as
in Vietnam

REFERENCE
1.

Ngo Dinh Que, Nguyen Minh Duc, Vu Tan Phuong, Le Quoc Huy, Dinh Thanh Giang, Nguyen
Thanh Tung and Nguyen Van Thang, 2006. The possibility of CO2 absorbed by some kind ofmajor forest plantation in Vietnam, In the subject Construction criteria and goals under forest
development mechanism CDM clean, Research Center Ecology and Environment forests Forestry Science Institute of Vietnam, 8 pages.
2. Ross S. M., Ruiz L. P., Telesnicki J. G., and Meeder F. J., 1998. Aboveground Biomass andProduction in Mangrove Communities of Biscayne National Park, Florida (USA), Following
Hurricane Andrew. Report to The South Florida Water Management District. Southeast
Environmental Research Program, Florida International University, University Park, OE-148,
Miami, Fl., 33199. Florida International University, Southeast Environmental Research
Program.
3. English, S., Wilkinson, C. & Baker, V. 1997 Survey Manual for Tropical Marine Resources.
ASEAN-Australian Marine Science Project: Living Coastal Resources by the AustralianInstitute of Marine Science, Townsville, Australia, 390 pp.
4. Ross, P, 1975. The mangrove of South Vietnam: The impact of military use of herbicides. In :Proc. Int. Sym. Biol. and Management. Mangroves. Vol. II, 695-707 pp.

111

Assessing Potential Impacts of Sea Level Rise on Coastal Areas inSongkla Lake Basin Using GIS and Remotely Sensed DataCharlchai Tanavud1, and Thudchai Sansena2
1

2

Faculty of Natural Resources, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkla. Thailand
Geo-Informatics and Space Technology Development Agency, Chatuchak, Bangkok.Thailand
Email: charlchai.t@psu.ac.th

ABSTRACTDue to its long coastline and relatively low elevation, Songkla Lake Basin’s coast is particularly
vulnerable to catastrophic inundation as a result of sea level rise. Such an extreme event presents a
threat to the basin’s development strategies by damaging coastal infrastructure and productive
capacity, interrupting economic activity, and degrading the coastal environment. This study presents
an assessment of the potential impacts of sea level rise on the basin’s coastal sub-districts. Static 0.5,
1.0 and 3.0 m rises in the current sea level were simulated using a DEM constructed from elevation
datasets in a GIS environment. The results showed that, after a simulated static 0.5 m rise in sea
level, approximately 13,942 ha or 41.9% of the study area would be inundated. With the 0.5 m sea
level rise scenario, a total of 3,133 ha of shrimp farm land, 8,958 ha of agricultural land, and 1,056
ha of urban areas would be susceptible to inundation. With the second scenario, approximately
16,875 ha or 50.7% of the study area would become inundated under a 1 m sea level rise condition,with adverse impacts on 4,066 ha of shrimp farm area, 10,251 ha of agricultural land, and 1,432 haof urban areas. With the worst case scenario of a 3.0 m sea level rise, approximately 23,878 ha or
71.7% of the study area would become completely inundated, with a total of 5,973 ha of shrimp farmland, 13,877 ha of agricultural land, and 2,488 ha of urban areas threatened by inundation. It isinteresting to note that, after the modeled 3 m rise in sea level, all of the mangrove forests in the
study area would be lost through inundation. Such inundation information under sea level rise
scenarios simulated in this study is vital for the adoption and implementation of adaptation measures
to address the potential impacts of sea level rise in the future.
Keywords: Sea level rise, coastal areas, adaptation measures, remotely sensed data, GIS

INTRODUCTION
Coastal zones are among the most dynamic and productive areas and, as such, have attracted
considerable human settlements, tourism facilities and infrastructure, and economic development
activity. Many of these coastal areas are particularly vulnerable to inundation from sea level risecaused by both oceanic thermal expansion and the melting of Artic and Antarctic glaciers asconsequence of global warming. A sea level rise of 0-1 m has been estimated as possible during the
21st century (IPCC, 2001; IPCC 2007). Continued growth of greenhouse gas emissions andassociated global warming could promote sea level rise of 1–3 m in this century, and unexpectedly
rapid breakup of the Greenland and west Antarctic ice sheets might produce a 5 m sea level rise
(Dasgupta et al., 2007). The projected rise in sea level is likely to pose a significant threat to lowlying coastal areas and river deltas, which are already under pressure from a combination of naturalprocesses and anthropogenic activities. Direct implications of this coastal hazard include increased
risk of inundation, exacerbation of coastal erosion, saltwater intrusion into lakes, rivers and streams,
contamination of coastal property and infrastructure, and loss of wetland (Nicholls, 1995; Mimura,1999). While sea level rise will only directly impact the coastal area, such changes raise significant
concern due to high concentrations of coastal population and natural and socio-economic values
located along the coastal zone. In addition to inundating low-lying coastal areas, rising sea level

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Thanavud and Sansena: Assessing Potential Impacts of Sea Level Rise

increases the vulnerability of coastal regions to flooding caused by storm surges and tsunamis. As
the sea level rises, storms of a given magnitude may reach higher elevations and produce more
extensive areas of inundation (FitzGerald et al., 2008).
Songkla Lake Basin is located on the eastern coast of the southern Thai Peninsula, between
latitudes N 6o 27’ and 8o 12’ and longitudes E 99o 44’ and 100o 41’. The basin stretches 150 km from
Nakhon Sri Thammarat Province to the State of Kedah in Malaysia, and varies in width from 50 to
65 km in the east-west direction. The lake basin covers an approximate area of 8,463 km2, of which
1,043 km2 or 12.3% is open water in the form of three interconnected lakes: Thale Noi, Thale Luang
and Thale Sap Songkla (Figure 1). The basin’s coastal sub-districts are sparsely populated
communities with about 230,412 people inhabiting 33,299 km2. The basin’s coastal area, extends
99.5 km along the Gulf of Thailand, is crowded with residential, industrial and tourism-related
development. Development along the coast varies from heavily urbanized centers, such as Mueang
District, Songkla Province, which lies to the south of the basin, to rural areas in Ranot and Sathing
Phra Districts to the north of the basin. With its long coastline and its relatively low elevation,
Songkla Lake Basin’s coast is considered to be vulnerable to the impacts of global climate changesuch as accelerated sea level rise, which will exacerbate the stress on coastal areas. In response to thephenomenal growth of the aquaculture industry, cultured ponds have replaced much of the mangrove
forests along the coastal shores of the basin. As a result, the basin’s coastal area is becoming
increasingly vulnerable to catastrophic inundation as a result of sea level rise. Rising sea level andconsequent coastal inundation result in economic repercussions in relation to coastal agriculture,
aquaculture, and tourism industries – on which coastal communities heavily depend. Over the next
century, the rate of sea level rise will increase with global warming (IPCC 2007), and hence theimpact of this hazard on the low-gradient coastal areas is expected to be catastrophic. There is
therefore a compelling need to model the estimated impact of significant sea level rise.

Figure 1 Location map of Songkla Lake Basin

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Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

The objective of this study was to identify and quantify the potential impacts of rising sea level
through inundation in the coastal sub-districts of Songkla Lake Basin using remotely sensed data andGeographic Information Systems (GIS). In this study, the coastal areas that are most likely to beinundated as a result of sea level rise projections of 0.5 m, 1.0 m and 3.0 m are delineated. The 0.5 m
and 1.0 m scenarios correspond to the most commonly predicted extent of sea level rise over the next
century (Church et al., 2001). The projected sea level rise of 3.0 m represents the worst case scenario
of a rising sea. Considering the profound impacts sea level rise can have on coastal settlements,
development and ecosystems, appropriate and adequate adaptation measures to address the potential
impacts of sea level rise are also discussed in this study.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
1. Materials
1) Topographic maps on a 1:50,000 scale in L7018 series, pertaining to the coastal sub-districtin Songkla Lake Basin, published by the Royal Thai Survey Department.
2) Landsat-5 TM Satellite Images of 2006 on a 1:50,000 scale, pertaining to the area of concern,
produced by the Geo-Informatics and Space Technology Development Agency (GISTDA).
3) Digital elevation data derived from aerial photographs at a 1:4,000 scale, pertaining to thebasin’s coastal area, produced by the Department of Public Works and Town and Country Planning.
4) Tide Tables for 2006, published by the Hydrographic Department, the Royal Thai Navy.
2. Methods
ArcGIS 9.2 software was employed for analysis and coverage overlays in this study. Shoreline
data layers were derived from the Landsat-5 TM imageries of 2006 which were already in digitalformat. The shoreline was delineated as to where the water meets the surface topography of the land
(Boak and Turner, 2005). Digitization of the basin’s shoreline from geo-referenced images was
carried out on the computer screen. Corrections for tide were calculated from the tide tables.
Elevation data derived from the 1:4,000 aerial photographs were used to develop a Digital
Elevation Model (DEM) of the coastal sub-district areas of Songkla Lake Basin. Field surveys werealso conducted using survey instruments including a theodolite and a global positioning system(GPS) to aid in the construction of the DEM. Coastal land use types, such as agricultural land,aquaculture areas and urban areas were extracted from a land use map, digitized on a computer
screen from 1:50,000 Landsat TM images acquired in 2006. Ground truthing was also performed tocheck the accuracy of image interpretation and record the local tidal datum. Future sea level rise
projections of 0.5, 1.0 and 3.0 m were applied to the DEM to illustrate the extent to which coastal
areas are likely to be inundated from sea level rise. The map of inundation area projected for eachsea level rise scenario was overlaid upon the coastal land use maps in ArcGIS environment to
identify critical impacted areas that would be inundated.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
A rise in sea level has major implications for coastal areas in terms of inundation. Table 1
summarizes the inundated areas under each sea level rise scenario and its corresponding percentageof the basin’s coastal area. Assuming no adaptive response and neglecting erosion, it was estimatedthat 13,942 ha or 41.9% of the coastal area would regularly be lost through inundation by the ocean
or is at risk of periodic inundation due to storm events in a scenario of a 0.5 m rise in the current sea
level (Figure 2). Increases of 1.0 and 3.0 m in sea level would probably cause land loses of 16,875
ha and 23,878 ha, respectively, or 50.7% and 71.7% of the total coastal area of the basin (Figure 3
and 4).
Table 1 Inundation area under each sea level rise scenario.
Sea level rise scenario
0.5 m
1.0 m
3.0 m

Inundated area (ha)13,942
16,87523,878114% of total coastal area
41.9
50.7
71.7

Thanavud and Sansena: Assessing Potential Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Assuming that land use types in the future would remain the same as the current pattern and there is
no structural works to protect against inundation, a scenario of a 0.5 m rise in the current sea level would
subject 8,958 ha or 41.9% of agricultural land to inundation, a 1.0 m increase would inundate 10,251 ha
or 48.0% of its total area, and a 3.0 m increase in sea level rise would flood 13,877 ha or 65.0% of its
total area (Table 2). Concerning shrimp farm area, a sea level rise of 0.5 m would impact 3,133 ha or
48.7% of its total area and a 1.0 rise in sea level is predicted to affect 4,066 ha or 63.2% of its total area,
and a 3.0 m increase in sea level rise would impact 5,973 ha or 92.8% of its total area. As for the urban
areas, a total of 1,056 ha or 34.2% of its total area are predicted to become inundated by a 0.5-meter sea
level rise. This would increase to 1,432 ha or 46.4% of its total area in a 1.0 m sea level rise scenario, andto 2,488 ha or 80.6% of its total area in a 3.0 m sea level rise scenario. Regarding mangrove forests, a
total of 45 ha or 75.0% of its total area would be inundated by a 0.5-meter rise of sea level. The inundated
mangrove area would increase to 51 ha or 85.0% of its total area in a 1.0 m sea level rise scenario, and to
60 ha or 100.0% of its total area in a 3.0 m sea level rise scenario (Table 2).

Songkla Lake Basin
Inundation
Thale Noi
Ranot district

Thale Luang
Sathing Phra district

Gulf ofSinghanakhon district
Thale Sap Songkla
Mueangdi t i t

Figure 2 Inundation areas due to sea level rise in a 0.5 m sea level rise scenario

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Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

Songkla Lake Basin
Inundation area
Thale Noi
Ranot district

Thale Luang
Sathing Phra district

Gulf of Thailand

Singhanakhon district

Thale Sap Songkla
Mueang district

Figure 3 Inundation areas due to sea level rise in a 1.0 m sea level rise scenario.

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Thanavud and Sansena: Assessing Potential Impacts of Sea Level Rise

Songkla Lake Basin
Inundation area
Thale Noi
Ranot district
Thale Luang
Sathing Phra district

Gulf of Thailand

Singhanakhon district

Thale Sap Songkla
Mueang district

Figure 4 Inundation areas due to sea level rise in a 3.0 m sea level rise scenario.

117Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

Table 2 Impacts of sea level rise on coastal land use under different sea level rise scenarios.
Land use type

Existing areaha

ForestAgricultural land
Shrimp farm
Mangroves
Fresh water swamp
Open water
Urban
Miscellaneous
Total

368
21,361
6,434
60
176
104
3,088
1,708
33,299

% of
total
area
(ha)
1.1
64.2
19.3
0.2
0.5
0.3
9.3
5.1
100.000.5 m sea level
rise scenario
Impacte % ofd area
its
(ha)
area

1.0 m sea level
rise scenario
Impacte % ofd area
its
(ha)
area

3.0 m sea level
rise scenario
Impacte % ofd area
its
(ha)
area

18
8,958
3,133
45
1
19
1,056
712
13,942

20
10,251
4,066
51
30
36
1,432
989
16,87526
13,877
5,973
60
49
72
2,488
1,333
23,878

4.9
41.9
48.7
75.0
0.6
18.3
34.2
41.7

5.4
48.0
63.2
85.0
17.0
34.6
46.4
57.9

7.1
65.0
92.8
100.0
27.8
69.2
80.6
78.0

Given a 0.5 m rise in the current sea level and no coastal defences, mangrove forests would be
the most severely impacted with a loss of over 45.0 ha or 75.0% of their total area, followed byshrimp farm areas with a loss of 3,133 ha or 48.7% of the total area, and agricultural land with a lossof 8,958 ha or 41.9% of their total area. It is of interest to note that, without coastal protection
practices, all of the mangrove forests could be lost due to sea level rise, followed by shrimp
cultivation areas (a loss of 92.8% of their total area), and urban area (a loss of about 80.6% of thetotal area) for a 3.0 m sea level rise. The removal of protective coastal feature particularly
mangroves contributes to the degradation of ecological functions of coastal ecosystems, which, inturn, leads to increased flood risk. Another feature of interest is that forested areas are projected tobe the least impacted of the land use types, losing only 20 ha or 5.4% of their total area under the
median sea level rise scenario of 1.0 m, and losing only 26 ha or 7.1% of their total area even underthe maximum rise scenario of 3.0 m (Table 2). This is because they are located on relatively higher
elevation away from the coast and thus are immune to the effect of a rising sea.
It should be stressed that the potential impacts of sea level rise due to climate change will varyfrom place-to-place because of the difference in the locality’s oceanographic response to sea level
rise and the uplift of subsidence of the land surface (Klein and Nicholls, 1998). Further, geologic
setting, coastal morphology, wave action, and storm frequency play an important role in themagnitude and impacts of sea level rise (Gornitz, 1991). The ultimate impact to coastal development
and population due to inundation as a result of sea level rise depends on coastal processes and future
adaptations.
The impacts of sea level rise in the basin are potentially catastrophic for coastal population,
their livelihoods, infrastructure and ecosystems. Thousands of the basin’s coastal inhabitants arelikely to be displaced by sea level rise and accompanying economic damage will be severe for many.
Buildings, households, communities, business establishments, tourism facilities and infrastructure
located on a narrow strip along the shorelines will be significantly impacted. Productive coastal landand coastal livelihoods will be lost. Saltwater incursion may alter fresh water swamps and mangrove
estuaries, deteriorate coastal water and soil qualities, and spread diseases such as malaria (FitzGerald
et al., 2008). The rising sea may also cause saltwater intrusion into the freshwater lake system,
affecting its life supporting functions and the ecosystem’s ability to sustain human activity.
Furthermore, inundations of coastal wetlands alter plant composition and modify fish and wildlife
populations resulting in far reaching ecological consequences. Thus, without human adaptation, by
2100 Songkla Lake Basin would experience substantial loss and alteration of the coastal areas due toinundation, causing widespread impacts on coastal settlements, developments and ecosystems. Sincea sea level rise in the range of 1-3 m is regarded as realistic (Dasgupta et al., 2007) and adaptive
responses require time to accomplished, there is a need to start strategic planning for timely andappropriate responses to meet the challenges of this coastal hazard in the future.

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Thanavud and Sansena: Assessing Potential Impacts of Sea Level Rise

ADAPTING TO SEA LEVEL RISE
It is widely recognized that the adaptation strategies to managing coastal inundation risks underconditions of sea level rise consists of various options that fall under 3 broad approaches; namely,
retreat, accommodation and protection (Klein et al., 2001). Examples of the retreat option include
the abandonment of lands and structures in coastal areas at risk of flooding and the relocation of
threatened assets, tourist facilities or infrastructure away from the coasts to avoid or eliminate a
direct impact of sea level rise. For Ranot and Sathing Phra Districts in Songkla Lake Basin, which
are mostly rural in nature with many small villages, it may not be feasible to undertake large-scale
coastal defences to protect vulnerable areas simply because the immediate costs of construction areoften more than offset by the value of coastal land and infrastructure that would otherwise be lost to
inundation (Brooks et al., 2006). In this case, the option of retreat may be the only viable response(Gravelle and Mimura, 2008). The accommodation option allows occupancy in the areas at risk ofinundation to continue with reinforced structures and stronger building codes to minimize impacts.
Under this option, setback lines are created and strictly enforced to restrict new human settlements
and future development activities within a prescribed distance from the shoreline to diminish losses
to life and property from sea level rise. The accommodation option may also involve efforts toenhance coastal resilience through the restoration and preservation of natural barriers to the impactsof sea level rise such as coral reefs and mangroves. For Mueang District, which is the basin’s
extensively developed and populated area with a high degree of infrastructure and sea port, theoption for retreat is limited so protection option remains the only viable future solution. The
protection action offers benefits in protecting against inundation through the installation of hardengineering structures such as seawalls, dikes, levees and revetments, and/or the deployment of softengineering schemes including beach nourishment and elevating land surfaces with fill. Suchendeavors, however, can be extremely costly and may not be in the best interest of the coastal
environment. In practice, there is no single option which is best or most effective in addressing theimpacts of sea level rise in isolation. Appropriate adaptation strategies may incorporate multiple
approaches, including retreat, accommodation and protection strategies, depending on economic,
social and ecological considerations. To be most effective, the development and implementation ofstrategies for adapting to a rising sea will require an active involvement of all stakeholders such as
government departments, private sectors, and the local communities that are directly affected. The
strategies are also most effective when they are incorporated into the country’s Economic and Social
Development Plan (Mimura, 1999). For mitigation, governments at all levels should take initiatives
to stop deforestation and control the use of fossil fuel to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in order tominimize future impacts of global warming and hence sea level rise.
In summary, this study has demonstrated that remotely sensed data and GIS are valuable tools
for assessing potential impacts of sea level rise under future climate change. The results obtained
make it possible to plan for the protection of existing buildings and infrastructure and to discourage
the construction of buildings or other infrastructure in areas that are likely to be impacted by sea
level rise. Identification of the areas at risk of flooding from the predicted rise in sea level isnecessary for the comprehensive sea level rise adaptation planning and management strategies. It is
important to recognize that the models used in the present study can not represent the effects offuture shoreline changes arising from erosion, accretion and land subsidence. Moreover, the models
do not take account of adaptation in the form of coastal protection structures such as seawalls anddikes. Such protection may result in a considerable reduction in land lost, thus affecting the accuracyof this study’s results. Inundation area as a result of a rising sea delineated in this study must
therefore be interpreted with recognition of such limitations.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Support from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) for the authors to present thispaper at the International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management, organized by
Nagoya University in Mie Prefecture, Japan, during 22-24 February 2009, is greatly appreciated.
The first author is also grateful for funding support from Prince of Songkla University to undertake119Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

this study. He is also indebted to the Department of Public Works and Town and Country Planningfor the provision of elevation data for this study.

REFERENCES
Boak, E.H. and Turner, I.L. 2005. Shoreline definition and detection: A review. Journal of Coastal
Research 21 (4): 688-703
Brooks, N., Nicholls, R. and Hall, J. 2006. Sea level rise: Coastal impacts and responses. WBGU.
Norwich, Berlin. 46 pp.
Church, J.A., Gregory, J.M., Huybrechts, P., Kuhn, M., Lambeck, K., Nhuan, M.T., Qin, D. and
Woodworth, P.L. 2001. Changes in sea level. p. 639-693. In J.T Houghton, Y. Ding, D.J.
Griggs, M. Noguer, P.J. van der Linden and D. Xiaosu (eds.), Climate Change 2001. The
Scientific Basis. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Dasgupta, S., Laplante, B., Meisner,C., Wheeler, D. and Yan, J. 2007. The impact of sea level riseon developing countries: A comparative analysis. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper
4136. Development Research Group, World Bank. Washington, DC. 51 pp.
FitzGerald, D.M., Fenster, M.S., Argow, B.A. and Buynevich, I.V. 2008. Coastal impacts due to sealevel rise. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences. 36: 601-647
Gornitz, V. 1991. Global coastal hazards from future sea level rise. Paleogeo., Paleoclimat.,
Paleoecol. 89 : 379-398
Gravelle, G. and Mimura, N. 2008. Vulnerability assessment of sea-level rise in Viti Levu, Fiji
Islands. Sustain Sci 3: 171-180
IPCC. 2001. Synthesis Report 2001 - Contribution to Working Groups I, II and III to the Third
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. R.T. Watson (ed.).
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 397 pp.
IPCC. 2007. Climate Change 2007. The physical science basis. In S. Solomon, D. Qin, M. Manning,
Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M. Tignor and H.L. Miller (eds.), Contribution of Working
Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Klein, R.J.T., Nicholls, R.J., Ragoonaden, S., Capobianco, M., Aston, J. and Buckley, E.N. 2001.
Technological options for adaptation to climate change in coastal zones. Journal of Coastal
research 17 (3): 531-543
Mimura, N. 1999. Vulnerability of island countries in the South Pacific to sea level rise and climatechange. Climate Research 12: 137-143
Nicholls, R.J. 1995. Synthesis of vulnerability analysis studies. p. 181-216. In Proceedings ofWorlds Coast 1993. Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management. The
Netherlands.

120

Relationships between Acid Sulfate Soils and Landforms in Nakhon Si
Thammarat, Thailand
Naruekamon Janjirawuttikul, and Masatomo Umitsu
Graduate school of Environmental Studies, Nagoya University, Japan
Email: naruekamon@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
Characteristics of acid sulfate soil and landforms of its distribution in Nakhon Si Thammarat
Thailand was studied. Landforms of areas are classified as hill and mountain, low relief alluvial fan,depression, former backswamp, mudflat and sand barrier, old beach ridge and recent tidal flat. The
geologic surface are classified from bottom to surface as marine clay, tidal sediment, fluvial
sediment and organic rich topsoil, respectively. Radio carbon dating results show age of fossils in
sediment is 5000-7000 cal. yr BP. Acid sulfate soil mostly occupies in the area of former
backswamp which enclosing old beach ridges. It is difference of elevation between lowland andupland in area, lowland including acid sulfate soil area is lower than 5 m whereas upland is higher
than 10 m. The six soil samples were studies in the area, they are grouped as acid sulfate soil andnon acid sulfate soil. Characteristics of acid sulfate soils are dark gray to dark brown silt to silty clay
with plant fragments topsoil, it has pH 4.5-6.0. This horizon overlay gray silt with orange, red andyellow mottles and plant fragments, some profiles have blackly to dark brown peat, pH value is 4.05.0 and 4.0 at horizon contains yellow mottles. The lower part of two profiles is gray silt to silty clay
with plant fragments, peat, dark brown, and black organic, it has high pH value 5.5-8.0. The bottom
of is brownish gray to dark gray silty clay without molltle, pH 7.0 has found at the bottom of profile
in only one site. However, the lower of profile of anothor one has bluish gray silty clay with a few
plant fragments, thin sand layers and shell fragments, it has pH 8.0. Non acid sulfate soils, they havegray with brown and yellow mottles, silt to silty clay top soil. Subsoil is gray silt with small brownand orange mottles, and containing thin very fine sand layers and plant fragments. The bottom isgray and bluish silt with brown and orange mottles, thin sand layers, shell and a few plant fragments.
They have high pH value thoughout profiles, 6.0-7.0 at upper part and 8.0 at lower part. To compare
characteristics of the soils, acid sulfate soil has massive peat and plant fragment containing, very low
pH value as 4.0 and yellow mottles in actual acid sulfate soil and high pH in potential acid sulfate
soil which containing sulfidic material. The results could be considered that sulfidic material in theacid sulfate soil was formed in the period of Holocene sea transgression as former backswamp which
covering with mangrove forest. Then the sea regression, environment changed from marine to fresh
water conditions, sulfidic material is covered with alluvium and still under reducing condition.
Acidification has been developed after oxidation until the present.
Keywords: acid sulfate soil, landforms, Nakhon Si Thammarat

INTRODUCTION
Acid sulfate soil is one of the serious problem soils. Since the soil contains iron sulfides which
produce sulfuric acid when exposed to air. It is especially formed in the estuaries, mangrove swamps,
and tidal plains. In a board sense acid sulfate soils were mostly formed after the last major sea levelrose, within the past 10,000 years or the Holocene Epoch (Department of Natural Resources andWater, 2007). This soil occupies in Thailand around 8,810 km2 (Land Development Department,
2006), the largest area of the soil is the Lower Central Plain and the second is in Nakhon Si
Thammarat, southern Thailand (Fig. 1). The occurrence of acid sulfate soil probably related with the121Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

sea transgression in the area. The purpose of this paper is to study characteristics of acid sulfate soils,
correlation of its distribution and landforms and development of the coastal plain.
REGINAL SETTING
The study area is Pak Phanang Watershed, it is located in the Peninsular Thailand at 7o45’N 99o41’E
and 8o30’N 100o30’E. The main part of the water shade is Changwat Nakhon Si Thammarat andsmall part in Pattalung and Songkhla (Office of the Royal Development Projects Board, 1999), total
area is about 3,000 km2 (Royal Forest Department of Thailand, 1999) and Pak Phanang River is themain river in the watershed, water moves south to north direction and flows to the Gulf of Thailand
at Pak Phanang Bay, the river channel is about 147 km (Pramojanee and Changprai, 1999).
Overview distinct geomorphological units of area and surroundings, it has a mountain and hills, awide alluvial lowland studded with hills of shale, sandstone and conglomerate, and some limestone,a coastal plain including lakes and swamps, seperate from the sea by a sandy barrier (Jarupongsakul
and Paphavasit, 1993). There is 292,636 rai or 468.22 km2 of acid sulfate soil area (Land
Development Department, 1997) which is mostly used for paddy field (Pramojanee and Changprai,1999).

BangkokStudy area
Nakhon Si Thammarat

Modified after Land Development Department, 2006

Fig. 1 Distribution map of acid sulfate soil in Thailand

METHODS
Landform classification was interpretd by consider satellite image, topographic map, SRTM-dem
data to make 3D-diagram (Fig. 2). Geologic surface were studied based on depositional
environments and radiocarbon dating of peats and shell fragments in sediments has been conductedin order to date age and explain evolution of the land. Moreover, soil were drilled to determine
morphology, soil reaction (field pH value) and material accumulation of the soils.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Landforms of areas are classified as hill and mountain, alluvial fan, low relief area, former
backswamp, mudflat and sand ridge, beach ridge, river channel and recent tidal flat (Fig. 3). Acid

122

Janjirawuttikul and Umitsu: Relationships between Acid Sulfate Soils and Landforms

sulfate soil mostly occupies in the area of former backswamp which enclosing old beach ridges. It isdifference of elevation between lowland and upland in area, lowland including acid sulfate soil area
is lower than 5 m, sand ridges and slightly higher area attain a height of 5-10 m whereas upland isintervening higher than 10 m.

Gulf of Thailand
Nakhon Si Thammarat
LegendPak Phanang

070831-2
080901-1

070902-1

070901-2

070831-1
070901-2

Cha-uatThale Luang

Acid sulfate soil area
Soil sampling site
Elevation (m)
0
0-1
1-2
2-3
3-4
4-5
5-6
6-7
7-8
8-9
9-10
10-12
12-14
14-16
16-18
18-20
20-25
25-30
30-40
40-50
50-75
75-100100-200
200-300
300-500
500-1000
1000-1500
1500-2000
2000-2500
2500-3000

Fig 2. Landsat ETM RGB 432 (up left) , elevation classification from SRTM-dem, acid sulfate
area and soil sampling sites (up right) and 3D diagram of area (low)123Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

Tha Sala

Hill
Gulf of Thailand

Nakhon Si Thammarat

Alluvail fan
Low relief area
Old beach ridge
Beach ridge
Lower former backswamp

Pak Phanang

Higher former backswamp
River Channel
Mud flat
Sand beach
Spit/Tidal flat with
mangrove swamp
Tidal flat

Cha-uatThale Noi
(shallow lagoon)
Thale Luang

Fig. 3 Landform classification map

The geologic surface are classified from bottom to surface as marine clay, tidal sediment,
fluvial sediment and organic rich soil, respectively. In acid sulfate soil area, it could observed thickorganic soil or peat horizons in profiles whereas non acid sulfate soil area could not. Radio carbon
dating results show age of fossils in horizon of former backswamp which is acid sulfate soil area, it
is 5000-7000 cal. yr. BP. Whereas fossils of coastal plain which is non acid sulfate soil area has only
1000-3000 cal. yr. BP. This indicates acid sulfte soil area has developed around the Holocene Epoch,then the coastal plain has developed later.
The six soil samples were studies in the area, they are grouped as acid sulfate soil and non acidsulfate soil (Fig. 4). Characteristics of acid sulfate soils are dark gray to dark brown silt to silty clay
with plant fragments topsoil, it has pH 4.5-6.0. This horizon overlay gray silt with orange, red andyellow mottles and plant fragments, some profiles have blackly to dark brown peat, pH value is 4.05.0 and 4.0 at horizon contains yellow mottles. The lower part of two profiles is gray silt to silty clay
with plant fragments, peat, dark brown, and black organic, it has high pH value 5.5-8.0. The bottom
of is brownish gray to dark gray silty clay without molltle, pH 7.0 has found at the bottom of profile
in only one site. However, the lower of profile of anothor one has bluish gray silty clay with a few
plant fragments, thin sand layers and shell fragments, it has pH 8.0. Non acid sulfate soils, they havegray with brown and yellow mottles, silt to silty clay top soil. Subsoil is gray silt with small brownand orange mottles, and containing thin very fine sand layers and plant fragments The bottom is grayand bluish silt with brown and orange mottles, thin sand layers, shell and a few plant fragments.
They have high pH value thoughout profiles, 6.0-7.0 at upper part and 8.0 at lower part. To compare
characteristics of the soils, acid sulfate soil has massive peat and plant fragment containing, very low
pH value as 4.0 and yellow mottles in actual acid sulfate soil and high pH in potential acid sulfate
soil which containing sulfidic material.

124

Janjirawuttikul and Umitsu: Relationships between Acid Sulfate Soils and Landforms

070831-1

070901-2
Dark brown silt
Gray silt with reddish mottles
Light gray silt with orange mottles
Gray silt clay with orange and red mottles

and yellow mottles along plant roots
Dark brown silty clay

070902-1

Gray silty clay with plant fragments
Black peat
Dark brown silt

Dark gray silt with plant fragments

Blackly brown peat

Light gray silty clay

Dark brown clayey peat

Bluish gray silty clay with a little plant fragments

Light brownish gray silty with yellow mottles

Bluish gray silt-sandy silt with
Gray silty clay with plant fragments
Gray silty clay with black organics

Dark brown peaty silt

Bluish gray silty clay

Gray silt with organics

Gray silty clay

Gray silty clay with plant fragments

Gray silt

Dark brown peaty silt

Gray silt with plant fragments
Greenish gray silty clay with plant fragments
Dark brown peat

Blusih gray silty clay (very soft)

Gray silty clay with plant fragments
Brownish gray silty clay
Light gray-gray silty clay
Dark gray sticky clay

070831-2

070901-2

Gray silty clay with yellow mottles

Yellowish gray silty clay

080901-1

Dark gray silt with light brown mottles

Brownish gray with brown mottles

Dark gray silt
Light brown mottles

Gray brown clay with yellowish brown mottles

Dark gray silt with small brown mottles

Blackly gray clay with plant fragments

Dark gray silt alternate with light brown silt
Light brown/ light gray silt-very fine sand
Bluish gray silty clay very small shell fragments

Blackly gray organic silt
Dark gray-bluish gray sticky silty clay (harder)

Light bluish silt with thin sand layers andGray clay with orange mottles
Very dark gray clay

Blackly woody peat

Light gray silty clay with brown mottles and shells

Bluish gray silty clay with a little plant fragments

Light bluish gray silty clay with scattered brown mottles
Bluish gray silty clay and shell fragments
Dark reddish brown loam

Light bluish gray silty clay (soft)Greenish gray silty clay (hard)

Fig. 4 The soil diagrams. Profiles of 070831-1, 070901-2 and 070902-1 are non-acid sulfate soils
whereas 070831-2, 070901-2 and 080901-1are acid sulfate soils.

CONCLUSION
From the results, it is clear that acid sulfate soil occupies in the distinct area as bog which is enclosedwith old beach ridges. The bog was former mangrove swamp in the period of Holocene sea level125Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Managementtransgression by the first old beach ridge at the east side was already developed, and sulfidic material
should accumulated in this time. After sea regression the younger beach ridge started to generate at
the west side until it obstructed intrusion of sea water. This caused mangrove died and land coveringchanged to be secondary forest (such as salt grass and Melaleuca leucadendron) under reducing
condition, thus, sediment of secondary forest deposited on sulfidic material. Consequently,
environment of area change again by fresh water sediment deposited on rough surface as thin topsoil.
Whereas area of non acid sulfate soil was shallow marine to marine in the period of sea leveltransgression and formed as land after sea level regression. However, it was improper environment
for plants cultivating especially mangrove trees. The condition was unsuitable for sulfidic material
formation, therefore acid sulfate soil is not developed in the area.

REFERENCES
Department of Natural Resources and Water 2007, ‘Acid sulfate soils’, Queensland Government,
view 5 December 2007, <www.nrm.gld.gov.au/land/ass/index.html>.
Jarupongsakul, S & Paphavasit, N 1993, ‘Effect of Sea Level Rise on the Songkhla Lakes, Thailand’,
Malaysian Journal of Tropical Geography. 24 (1/2): 13-20.
Land Development Department 1997, ‘Acid sulfate soils and saline soils in Nakhon Si Thammarat’,Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Thailand. (in Thai)Land Development Department 2006, “Acid sulfate soil distribution map of Thailand’, 1:2,500000,
Ministry of Agricultural and Cooperatives, Thailand. (in Thai)
Office of the Royal Development Projects Board 1999, ‘List of area/ village of The Royal-initiated
Pak Phanang River Basin Development Project (Nakhon Si Thammarat, Songkhla andPattalung)’, Thailand. (in Thai)
Pramojanee, P &Changprai, C 1999, ‘Report of initial soil survey for analyze and land using,Pakphanang Watershed Royal Development Project’, Walaituck University and Land
Development Department, Thailand. (in Thai)
Royal Forest Department of Thailand 1999, ‘Report of Forest in The Royal-initiated Pak Phanang
River Basin Development Project’, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Thailand.
(in Thai)126

Application of SRTM3 DEM and LANDSAT ETM Data to Generate
Geomorphologic Map for the Purpose of Flood Risk Map in the Thu
Bon alluvial plain and Hoi An, Vietnam
Ho Thi Kim Loan1, and Masatomo Umitsu2
Department of Geography, Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Nagoya University, Japan
1
Email: ho.loan.thi.kim@b.mbox.nagoya-u.ac.jp, kimloan_83@yahoo.com
2
Email: umitsu@cc.nagoya-u.ac.jp

ABSTRACTUse of geomorphologic map for flood risk mapping is obviously necessary for a frequently flooded
area. This paper aims to create a flood risk map of the Hoi An town and surrounding area based on
the SRTM3 DEM and LANDSAT ETM data. Hoi An ancient town in the middle Vietnam, a town of
the cultural World Heritage, has experienced floods almost every year.
Using conventional methods to make DEM (Digital Elevation Model) and geomorphologic
classification map by aerial photos commonly takes time and money. Moreover, these kinds of dataof Hoi An are insufficient and inconsistent. Therefore, utilizing remote sensing sharing data to
conduct such kind of research is more feasible and convenient. The objective of this study is togenerate geomorphologic map by using SRTM and LANDSAT.
SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topography Mission) launched in February 2000, especially 3 arcsecond SRTM data (SRTM3) with 90 m resolution, has provided invaluable elevation data.
Although application of SRTM still approaches some technical problems such as low resolution,systematic noises, and voids (spikes and wells), SRTM has served as functional topographic data fortargeting the geomorphologic delineation. In this paper, voids have been filled by interpolation withfree software 3DEM. In order to have a better understanding about the study area, this study uses
LANDSAT ETM 30m spatial resolution. Panchromatic band of LANDSAT image proves thepotential to detect in detail the concerning objects when merging with other bands. Land coversurface was extracted from LANDSAT ETM, then, visually compared with digital elevation model
derived from SRTM in the same area. Consequently, we could clarify the landforms of Hoi An
alluvial plain including natural levees, flood basin, sand dunes, sand bars, back marsh and terraces.
The result of this study is expected to be an efficient method for flood risk mapping in low-land area.
Accuracy of the result was validated by doing field survey.
Keywords: SRTM, LANDSAT ETM, geomorphologic map, alluvial plain, flood risk map

INTRODUCTION
Severe floods often occur in many places of the developing countries, and the consideration for thefloods are very important in such places. In Vietnam, many places often experience severe floods
and the areas need to mitigate the disasters.
The narrow alluvial plain in Central area of Vietnam suffers from severe flood annually.
Especially, Hoi An ancient town, the cultural World Heritage town, has experienced flood almost
every year. The town is located in the lower reaches of the alluvial plain of Thu Bon river and is oneof the most density towns in Vietnam with 12,000 people/km2. As the urbanization is occurring
rapidly, the issue of the flooding is very important to consider.
Use of geomorphologic map for flood risk mapping is obviously necessary for such a frequently
flooded area. Flood risk map is greatly necessary for disaster prevention, and the detail data isrequired for the risk map. For further research on the reason of flood risk at any area,
geomorphologic map is basic and important module. However, factually in developing countries this127Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Managementkind of data are difficult to obtain or insufficient and inconsistent if available, particularly for
alluvial plain with flat and low terrain. Therefore, taking advantage of satellite images to conduct
such kind of research is more feasible and convenient.
In the regions where the detail topographic data is not available, SRTM3 DEM and LANDSATETM data are very useful for the analysis. SRTM DEM, available from February 2000 with 80%
landmass, has proved huge applications on geosciences, especially geomorphology and hydrology. It
has served a particularly crucial role in developing countries where data resources commonly limit
and are under the inadequate conditions comparing with those of the rest of the world. With SRTM 3
arc-second resolution, an open dataset for global scale, it can offer chances to overcome mentioned
above obstacles. Although these data still remain several problems in results of extracted data, theirachievements have been surprising.
SRTM DEM has employed in plenty of applications and combined with several other satellite
image data dominated for terrain analysis. This source of data has really served as a very crucial roleon any research needing earth ground data. However, with 90m horizontal resolution for global scale,its applications are particularly useful with large-scale study area. By applying SRTM data,
topographic form can be detected, especially with high-relief and high-elevation terrain. For lowrelief area, typically plain terrain that is generally flat, employment of SRTM data has been reallycome up with obstacles due to the vague relief and low resolution. In addition, SRTM did not
generate “bare-earth” DEM but is identified as Digital Surface Model (DSM) if there is coverage oftree canopy and/or buildings (Kocak et al., 2004) known as noise or bias. Thus, it causes confused indetermining whether certain areas are appeared inherent bare-ground elevation or not. There areseveral researchs to estimate, analyze and reduce the noise by collating with other dataset or bysampling ground truth. However, SRTM 90m resolution still limit for small-scale area and low land
applications.
With effort to overcome mentioned above barriers and utilizing free data for developing
country research, this paper aims to (1) employ 3 arc-second SRTM DEM version 2 as principle
topographic data to delineate geomorphologic features prepared for flood risk map, (2) apply
LANDSAT ETM with land cover extraction as module to verify reliability of elevation of areas
covered with trees and construction affecting to accuracy of landform classification. A case study
has carried out in Hoi An area around Thu Bon river mouth, Central Vietnam.
STUDY AREA
The alluvial plain of Thu Bon river, developing about 12 km from east to west and about 10 km from
north to south, is located in the lower reaches of the river, and the broad coastal plain develops along
the coast of the South China Sea. Topographic characteristics of the alluvial plain consist of flood
plain with braided channels and a lot of former channel courses. Elevation of the plain is mostly
lower than 10 meters and it is less than 2 meters in the lowest areas of the plain. Rows of sand dunes
and sand bars aligned in parallel with the coastline developing in the coastal plain and the height ofthe sand dune are over 10 meters in some places.
Da Nang

South
China
Sea
Hoi AnQuang Nam

Quang Nam
Da Nang(Source: www.lonelyplanet.com)

Hoi An(Source: World Wind – NASA)Fig 1: Study area – Thu Bon alluvial plain

128Loan and Umitsu: Application of SRTM3 DEM and LANDSAT ETM data

The Hoi An ancient town is located in the northeastern part of the alluvial plain and is locatedin the left bank of the Thu Bon River. The town, known as the cultural World Heritage, is also
located in the place about 7 km from South China Sea, and it has experienced flood almost every
year. Urbanization is occurring rapidly without proper planning. Therefore, it needs to protect fromdisasters, and flood risk map is significantly crucial for this area.
METHODOLOGY
We generated 3D topographic diagram from SRTM3 DEM data and created landform classification
map based on the 3D topographic map and the land cover maps based on the LANDSAT ETM data.
Micro-landform of Thu Bon alluvial plain is delineated by relationship between uneven relief ofterrain based on SRTM3 data and land cover. GRASS6 and ArcScene (ArcGIS) were used togenerate topographic 3D diagrams and land cover maps. Field survey for the confirmation oflandforms and the measurement of flood water level were also done in several times.
Data used and characteristics-SRTM DEM: The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) successfully collectedInterferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (IFSAR) data over 80 percent of the landmass of the Earthbetween 600 N and 560 S latitudes using the America NASA/JPL C-band (5.6 cm, 5.3 GHz) and theGerman DLR X-band (3.1 cm, 9.6GHz) in February 2000. It’s available 1 arc-second SRTM
(SRTM1) of U.S and 3 arc-second SRTM (SRTM3) for the rest of the world.
SRTM3 used in this paper is 1 degree C-band SRTM downloaded freely from in
ftp://e0srp01u.ecs.nasa.gov/srtm. It’s version 2 data known as finished, or edited due to be processedsuch as defined water bodies and coastlines and filling voids (spikes and wells) despite there are still
missing data left (JPL - NASA).
-LANDSAT ETM+ has been well-known in remote sensing application and can be accessed
free at page: http://glcfapp.umiacs.umd.edu
Table 1: Technical characteristics of data
Data
SRTM3

Time
2000/02

Resolution

Position
N15E108

LANDSAT ETM

2001/03/23
2001/10/17

30m
5m (pan)

Path128/
row049Characteristics.hgt, filled – finished
Version 4,
L1G
Tiff

SRTM processing
File SRTM3 N15E108.hgt is filled remain voids of version 2 SRTM. There are several common
techniques to fill missing data (Reuter et al., 2007) and performed by some free softwares (Trina
Kuuskivi et al., 2005). We adopt 3DEM (Visualization Software LLC, 2004) derived from pagewww.visualizationsoftware.com/3dem.html to patching spikes and wells.
After filling missing data, SRTM DEM can show elevation with height interval 1m bycombining between visual NVIZ function of GRASS6 and ArcScene (ArcGIS) to view SRTM 3D(Fig 3). And we can see terrain relief clearly. Depending on SRTM DEM, geomorphologic featuresof Hoi An alluvial plain can be briefly, including natural levees, deltaic lowland (1-3m), sand dunes,and backmarsh.
LANDSAT processing
Three of these images were rectified again to fit each other, then, merged with panchromaticband 8 to enhance image by achieving high resolution spectral image 15 m/pixel. Making composite
images with false color set RGB = 542 can interpret geomorphologic features advantageously.
Comparison of SRTM and LANDSAT to get landform features and the resultsx March is crop period and in October the paddy fields harvested, therefore comparing thedifference between two images and interpretation can detect main land cover in alluvial plain
with categories: residential areas, paddy field, channel network, sand dune (Fig 2).

129

Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Management

Table 2: Temporal relationship of data
Jan
2000
2001

Feb

Mar

Apr

May JunDry season

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct
Nov Dec
Rainy season

Dry season
Rainy season

SRTM
LANDSAT(Mar.)
Crop time

LANDSAT(Oct.)
Crop
harvested

Flood season

LANDSAT 01/10/17

LANDSAT 01/03/23

Fig 2: Comparison of two LANDSAT images could get land cover characteristic

Quang Nam
Hoi AnSouth China Sea
SRTM 3D view by GRASSSRTM elevation view by ArcGIS

Fig 3: SRTM DEM shows high terrain relief

Fig 4: Combination of SRTM and LANDSAT interpretation to find out geomorphologic features•••

With suspicious areas that they’re affected by tree-and-house noises, they would be comparedwith LANDSAT image of October
Natural levees are too small to be recognized by SRTM, it must be relied on LANDSAT to beclassified.
This comparison assists to verify SRTM systematic noises (Fig 4).

130

Loan and Umitsu: Application of SRTM3 DEM and LANDSAT ETM data

South
China
Sea

DA NANG

Hoi AnQUANG NAM

Fig 5: Geomorphologic map made from SRTM and LANDSATRESULT AND DISCUSSION
Based on this method, landforms of alluvial plain can be classified into categories: deltaic lowland,
flood basin, natural levees, former channel bed, back marsh, sand dunes, terraces have been showed
in Fig 5.
In general, back marsh and former river channel are subjected to the deep inundation, andnatural levees are considered as the shallow flooding places with less risk. We can recognize theflooding condition from the map according to the characteristics of the flooding condition in relation
to the micro landforms. The deltaic lowland is low and flat but the inundation depth is not deep ingeneral. It is because that the floodwater can easily escape from the area to the sea. In the place ofthe study area, however, inundation depths may sometimes rise higher than the general deltaic area
because the sand dunes near the mouth of the Thu Bon River affect to enclose the deltaic area andkeep the flood water level higher. So the lowest reaches of the Thu Bon alluvial plain (Hoi An town)
is also to be considered as a risky place in the time of severe flooding. Comparison of flood heightrecord of Hoi An revealed good fit between flood condition and the result of landform classification
based on SRTM and LANDSAT in this study.
However, with smaller area, however, it encounters some limitation because of low spatial
resolution. At sites which any landform has large area (> 3 pixel of SRTM3), good result can beachieved because its pattern is quite clear and can be identified. For that reason, narrow areas are
hard to be separated, especially at strait ranges along the river or channels (Fig 6).
CONCLUSION
Application of SRTM3 as topographic data for delineating landforms of Thu Bon alluvial plain has
accomplished acceptable results that are examined by collating with real conditions. Despite several
problems in use of this kind of elevation data, it can be utilized with combining with other satellite
data like LANDSAT ETM. Moreover, SRTM3 is also enhanced by applying GRASS6, it canhighlight relief of terrain that help isolate areas with different elevation. That geomorphologic map
can be created by this method has facilitated flood risk mapping. Thus, future processing of floodrisk map is high feasibility than that in previous with utility of free satellite images.

131Proceedings of International Conference on Coastal Environment and Managementa)b)

Fig 6: a) Flood record of Hoi An town demonstrate good fit between flood status and landform
classificationb) Limitation of SRTM can not separate lower landform at narrow area of the edge ofsand dune

REFERENCES
A.C. Demirkesen, 2008, Digital terrain analysis using Landsat-7 ETM+ imagery and SRTM DEM:
a case study of Nevsehir province (Cappadocia), Turkey, International Journal of Remote
Sensing Vol. 29, No. 14, 20 July 2008, p.4173–4188.
Barbara Theilen-Willige, 2007, Flooding Risk of Java, Indonesia, Forum DKKV/CEDIM: Disaster
Reduction in Climate Change 15./16.10.2007.
Janusz Badura, Boguslaw Przybylski, 2005, Application of digital elevation models to geologicaland geomorphological studies — some examples, Przegl¹d Geologiczny, vol. 53, nr 10/2, p977983.
Josef Kellndorfer et al., 2004, Vegetation height estimation from Shuttle Radar Topography Mission
and National Elevation Datasets, Remote Sensing of Environment 93, p.339 –358.
Kon Joon Bhang, Frank W. Schwartz, and Alexander Braun, 2007, Verification of the Vertical Error
in C-Band SRTM DEM Using ICESat and Landsat-7, Otter Tail County, MN, IEEE
Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, VOL. 45, NO. 1, JANUARY 2007.
Masatomo Umitsu, Takahiro Hiramatsu, Charlchai Tanavud, 2006, Research on the flood and micro
landforms of the Hat Yai Plain, Southern Thailand with SRTM Data and GIS,
Geomorphological Union 27-2, p.205-219.
Paul Zandbergen, 2008, Applications of Shuttle Radar Topography Mission Elevation Data,
Geography Compass 2/5 (2008): 1404–1431.
S. TEWARI¹ et. al, 2003, Remote monitoring of forest response to changed soil moisture regime due
to river regulation, JOURNAL OF FOREST SCIENCE, 49, 2003 (9), p429–438.
Sumiko KUBO, 2000, Geomorphologic features around Hoi An, the 17th century International
Trading city in Central Vietnam, 73-94.
Wei-Wen Feng, 2005, Extracting Topographic Features From Shuttle Radar Topography Mission(SRTM) Images, Technical Report, alg05-002 July 18, 2005.
LANDSAT source: http://glcf.umiacs.umd.edu/data/
SRTM source: http://srtm.csi.cgiar.org/SRTMdataProcessingMethodology.asp
GRASS source: http://grass.itc.it/index.php

132Community Base Approach in Mangrove Restoration andManagement in Simeulue Island Province of NAD, Indonesia
Helmi
Faculty of Agriculture, Syiah Kuala University, Darussalam-Banda Aceh Indonesia
Email: helmi_tm@yahoo.com

ABSTRACTThis study outlines the community base approach in activities of mangrove restoration andmanagement in Simeulue Island, Province of NAD-Indonesia. Simeulue Island is located on
Northern of the Sumatra mainland and was 30 km from the epicenter of the December 26th 2004
giant earthquake. Despite of its proximity to the epicenter, of Simeulue’s population of 76,000
people, only 7 people died as the result of the tsunami. This was due largely to the local smong
legend which recalls the deadly 1907 tsunami that hit the island. The residents knew what to do, andtheir quick evacuation from the lowlands following the earthquake undoubtedly saved many lives.
Other factors influencing Simeulue’s low death tool included propagation of the tsunami itself, andthe ability of the mangrove swamps to buffer some of the water turbulences.
There are a number of organizations working on mangrove restoration in the island, and many
have become interested in how to protect coastal inhabitants from future tsunamis. Mangrove
conservation and rehabilitation is a potentially powerfull tool to tsunami mitigation. Internationaland National organizations are dedicated to preserving and rehabilitating the wetland ecosystems
including mangrove forests. There have been implemented several mangrove planting projects at theseveral villages in Teluk Sinabang bay which are exposed the open ocean with very little vegetative
buffer. However, because most of the activities on mangrove restoration has been centered only ontechniques for planting and growing mangrove trees, out from an ecosystem management
perspective, most of the works are not yet to be succeed.
Keywords: Natural resources, Mangrove, Community, Management

I. INTRODUCTION
The community plays an important role in a more suitable management of natural resources. That isa reason why bottom-up approach, in which community becomes a key factor of management, has
become a new trend recently. Well and Brandon (1993) said that it has become rare to find a forestor park management project proposal that does not talk about local participation in conservation. Itmeans nowadays local peoples are an important factor and their involvement is required in every
single activities related to natural resources management project. Campbell & Vainio-Mattila (2003)
it will be difficult to find a rural conservation project, which does not define itself as communitybased. Some scholars argued that bottom-up approach is better for both social justice andsustainability of natural resources (Alder, 2000; DENR, 2001). On the other hand, top-down
approach, which is the domination of government roles in management natural resources, hasalready been failure in many cases along side the need of more democratic and equal in natural
resources management.
This paper will define concept of community-based approach (CBA) and answer the question
why it is important to implement in natural resources management. The second part will describe ashort explanation about Indonesia, mangrove ecosystem, utilization and conversion, and theIndonesian government projects and policy related to the mangrove conservation and management.
In the third, I will share our experiences in implementing community based mangrove management
while give a short explanation of number of activities related to CBA in Simeulue Island, Indonesia.

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At the end, I will analyze CBA based on our experiences organizing the fisher-folk organization,
which I identified as the best result of CBA in our project, and how the role of the organization inmangrove management in particular and coastal resources management in general.
II. REVIEW ON COMMUNITY BASED APPROACH
Community-based Approach (CBA) has already been used by many conservationists, donors,
governments, NGOs and corporations for a few decades in many developing countries. The CBA is
believed as an approach to promote sustainable environment, social justice, and development
efficiency. The fundamental assumption is that the domination of state-based management has beena failure in taking charge of natural resources management. The factors which contributed to thefailure are the lack of communication between resource administrators and users, and resistance by
local stakeholders in implementation of appropriate plans (Glaser, 2003). On the other hand, thepeoples who live close to a resource and whose livelihoods directly depend upon it relatively havegreater interests in sustainable use and management of natural resources than the governments or
corporations. Local communities are more cognizant of the intricacies of local ecological processes
and practices, and they are more likely to effectively manage those resources through local or
traditional form of access. Combination of conservation objectives and improving the position of
impoverished rural communities can be offered by the community base approach (Li, 2002; Brosius
et al, 1998).
Community Base Resource Management (CBRM) initiative is not new. There are many
examples of CBRM practiced by indigenous people all over the world with their own ways. In Para
Island, Indonesia, coastal community has practiced the initiative for more than 400 years by
involving the community to manage coastal and fishing grounds (Mantjoro, 1996). The identical
initiatives can also be found in many ethnic groups in the other islands of Indonesia. Pomeroy (1995)
reported that in India, since 1920s, a community development program was introduced throughout
the region.
CBA in coastal and marine areas, rural development, and fisheries development were evolved
during 1980s (Kay and Alder, 2000). In 1980, the World Conservation Strategy, a commission in the
United Nations Environmental Program and World Wildlife Fund, focused their conference on
issues related to political, cultural and economic (The WCS, 2004). In 1982, World Congress on
National Park in Bali emphasized the linking of protected area management with local area
economic activity (Wells and Brandon, 1992). This concept was developed to link conservation withsustainable development, and led the establishment of Integrated Conservation and Development
Plan (ICDP) (Kay and Alder, 2000). Later, the concept was applied in a number of National Parks inthe whole world funded by World Bank, ADB, UNEP, and the other funding agencies related to theenvironmental and sustainable natural resources management.
CBA is an integrated environmental and resource management activities into people’s everyday
lives, where community makes some resource management decisions (Kay & Alder, 1999 p.137).
DENR et al, (2001) added that CBA is a process of involving local resources users and community
members in active management and taking full responsibility for the process of coastal resource
management planning, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation. Both explanations aboveemphasize that community is an integral part of management and as a key factor from the beginningto the end of managing natural resources process.
CBA becomes more suitable in natural resources management because of some reasons.
Involving community in management resources provide a sense of ownership, responsibility,
acceptability and stronger commitment on the part of resource users. Community will become more
responsible if they feel that particular natural resources are owned by them. The most importantly,
they will be more respect and will do everything if they know the particular natural resources canprovide ‘benefits’ for them.
CBA is also more effective, equitable than centralized management. In terms of administration,
monitoring and enforcement, it is more profitable from economic and social perspectives comparedwith classical management proposed by the government. People tend to be voluntarily protecting
their own resources if we trust them. CBA is also flexible and adaptive to the specific and changing
conditions because community has better understandings what they should do to solve a particular134

Helmi: Community Base Approach in Mangrove Restoration

problem in a specific situation. In top down approach, for examples, usually decision making
processes determined by the top level of bureaucracy which need more time and long process.
At last, the development of CBA meets with particular needs and conditions, and has a largerrole for local indigenous knowledge and expertise. As we know, local peoples who have already live
within their natural resources know better than the outsiders. They can determine what particular
resources they need are and what are not. In many cases in Indonesia, government makes a wrong
decision in determining the needs of particular village because they do not know well the village
situation and what local people needs. For example, Indonesian government from top level in Jakarta
determines that all of communities in the small islands are fishermen who suppose to be supportedwith the fishing tool or boat. In contras, some of indigenous people in many islands of Indonesia arefarmers.
Kay and Alder (2000) identify some factors related to the characteristic of CBA. CBA is mostly
initiated by local people, which have an informal organization such as family clan, tribe or any kindof relationships which are not include in ‘formal’ government management guidelines. Their type ofleadership is usually mutual adjustment in which policy and decision making process are de-central
and autonomy.
Even though many scholars argued that CBA is the best way to involve community inmanagement, there are some critiques on CBA application. Many experiences found that CBA is notreally a panacea for resources management (Kay and Alder, 2000). For the wider area, where multiculture communities inhabited and more complex of natural resources, we cannot adjust by using asingle management in this situation. It means we should combine CBA with the other approaches
because not every community is suitable for CBA and not all elements of management authority canbe allocated to the community. Russel and Harshbarger (2003) added that many donor institutions
usually support a CBA initiatives financially, which is part of complex political process involving
multiple constituencies, but sometimes they do not really understand for what they are donating
towards. Mostly, the implementers’ understanding are based on natural resources systems, as
opposed to an understanding of existing relationships between users and their resource, and on theassumption that since no ‘modern’ system has existed, no system exists at all. Some NGOs also havetraditionally been rooted in the natural sciences, bring with them associated professional norms,
prioritize conservation, lack of social sciences, and attempt to implement community-based
initiatives.
In reality, the ‘marginalized’ communities/indigenous people sometimes are not similar to the
CBA’s expectations. In my opinion, global market and interaction with outsiders have caused all ofindigenous people change a little bit from their previous culture to follow ‘the modern’ one. They
are also not always natural resources dependent communities. Lynch and Tallbott, (1995) said thatthey are strategic and rational actors rather than ecologically noble savage. They are also often
heterogeneous and unequal. Sometimes they are mobile as they seek a better opportunities outside
their place (Li, 2002).
III. MANGROVE COMPOSITION AND DIVERSITY IN INDONESIA
Indonesia has 5 major islands, Sumatera, Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Papua (Irian Jaya), with the
majority of the total population, & approximately 17,500 medium and small-size islands. It becomesplace of more than 217,825,400 people (DKP, 2004), which consists of more than 400 hundred
ethnic groups. Most of the ethnic group has their own language, so that at least 383 languages still
exist in Indonesia today. Every ethnic group has their own culture, customs, language, and identity.
Indonesia is a country with the second longest coastline in the world behind Brazil. It has
81,000 kilometers coastline and 80% of population live within 100 kilometers of the coastal area.
75% of Indonesian territory is coastal and marine and fish consumption is 66% (DKP, 2004). As atropical country and the largest archipelagic country, Indonesia identified as one of the biodiversity
hotspot among 17 places in the world (Cox & More, 2000; DKP, 2004).
One of the coastal ecosystems which become characteristic of tropical region is mangrove.
Mangrove, coral reef, estuarine wetlands, and sea grass bed plays an important role in global primary
productivity (Vannuci, 2004). Mangrove ecosystem in Indonesia covered an area of 4,250,000

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hectares in 1982. Unfortunately, due to various human-induced pressures, it decreased became
3,700,000 hectares in 1992 and in 2003 only 2,500,000 hectares remained (Soegiarto, 2004).
Mangrove ecosystem has highly diversity of species, which Indonesian mangrove is the highest
degree of it (Soegiarto, 2004). Indonesia have recorded 189 species of plant, including 80 species oftrees, 24 species of lianas, 41 species of ground-covering plants, 41 species of epiphytes, and 3
species of parasites (Kartawinata et al and Giesen in Soegiarto, 2004). Mangrove also becomes
habitat for birds, insects, reptiles, crustaceans, and mammals. A number of endangered and endemic
species of mammals in Indonesia reported remain in mangrove area such as Tarsius spectrum,
Sulawesi monkey Macaca nigra, and endemic Sulawesi wild pigs Babirousa babirousa. Many others
important and economic species of fish and mollusks are spawned in mangrove area. Mangrove also
has many physical functions, such as prevention of erosion, coastal stabilization, and serve pollution
trap.
Mangrove are used and conversed in many ways. For centuries, Indonesian people have utilized
mangrove for fire wood, charcoal, tanning dyes, timber, and boat construction. Nypa, one ofmangrove species, is used for roofs, baskets, cigarette papers, sugar, and palm wine (local: arak).
Mangrove ecosystem is also conversed to become agriculture field such as rice field and coconut
plantations. Housing complexes, industrial sites, recreational areas, harbor developments, warehousecompounds are also the other examples of conversion of mangrove ecosystem which are found inmany parts of Indonesia.
One of the most destructive ways of mangrove conversion is fish and shrimp aquaculture. In
Indonesia, aquaculture increase during 1970s along with the ‘blue revolution’ in many part of theworld (Stonic, 2000), and it is identified as a main problem of lost of a half of Indonesian mangrove
areas for two decades. Even though there are some problems related to management of shrimp
aquaculture in Indonesia, it seems that this activity still increase recently.
Government of Indonesia has many programs related to mangrove conservation andmanagement. They consist of replanting and restoration projects, policy making processes,
establishing green belts, proposed and establish marine nature reserves and protected areas, built amangrove center in Bali, and number of projects related to community development. However,Indonesia, which has a huge number of populations and a multi-culture country, needs a ‘specific’cultural-based management approach to be applied in every ethnic group. Failure of Indonesian
government’s management during Soeharto era was generalizing management of natural resourcesfrom the top of government in Jakarta and applied it similarly in the whole archipelago in provincial,
district thorough village level. CBA is one of alternative approaches in Indonesian context with highdegree of coastal biodiversity and high divers of social and culture.
IV. EFFORTS OF MANGROVE RESTORATION IN SIMEULUE ISLAND
Simeulue island is located just off the Sumatra mainland and was 30 km from epicenter of the
December 26th earthquake. Despite its proximity to the epicenter, of Simeulue’s population of
76,000 people, only 7 people died as the result of the tsunami. This was due largely to the local
smong legend which recalls the deadly 1907 tsunami that hit the island. The residents knew what todo, and their quick evacuation from the lowlands following the earthquake undoubtedly saved many
lives. Other factors influencing Simeulues’s low death deat toll included propagation properties of
the tsunami itself, and the ability of mangrove swamps to buffer some of the energy.
Mangrove forests play many important roles both environmentally and economically. They
have an incredible rich and diverse flora and fauna association. By stabilizing coastal sediments,
thus reducing erosion, they create habitats rich in organic matter making them important nurseries toshellfish, shrimp, spiny lobster, blue crabs, and baby fish, all which attract migratory birds.
Environmental services include preventing excess nutrients from entering the ocean and protecting
the coastline from wind, typhoons, monsoons and sea storm surges, which reduces the need formaintaining sea dikes (Hoang, 1998). Mangrove forest also provide wood resources and several
studies support the idea that coastal fish communities can thrive in this estuarine environment,
although controversy remains about the degree of dependence and importance (Baran, 1999).
Even though Simeulue Island has huge mangrove forests, there are some problems related toconservation the areas. Increasing of shrimp/fish aquaculture is the biggest problem there. As a136

Helmi: Community Base Approach in Mangrove Restoration

result, almost a half of mangrove areas were conversed to shrimp or milkfish ponds. Intrusion of sea
water face to the rice paddy agriculture and most of wells as main drinking-water sources forcommunity have intruded by salty-water. In addition, most of the people also do not have alternative
incomes unless fishing and ‘small’ farming. Few of them become labors in shrimp aquaculture.
Meanwhile, in the dry season, people suffer the lack of food especially a need of carbohydrates
sources . In this difficult situation, people tend to cut mangrove and sell them as timber or fire-woodor even performed illegal blast and poison fishing. Some of them go out looking for a job in thenearer cities.
Recovery time estimates for damaged forest in on the order 20-25 years, which presumable isabout the amount of time needed for a successful forest to be grown. This means that there must be
commitment for that time period to maintaining the site. Because rehabilitation projects must be
managed a regular areal photos, cataloging of physical conditions and species composition, etc.
Overlapping bureacracies and a lack of clear lines of accountability have led to neglect. Thispartially explains why the most successful project are community based and supported locally.
Although ultimately the need and desires of the local population will determine the success andlongevity of a mangrove ecosystem, political will and support at any level of government advances
rehabilitation and conservation efforts.
After tsunami, during 2005 – 2007, government of Indonesia and some International NGOs was
implemented mangrove restoration to reduce the problem of mangrove resources depletion. The
project has some activities which related to mangrove conservation such as community development,
awareness and restoration. Some models were applied including empang parit (shrimp pondsurrounded by mangrove) and replanting mangroves in some villages.
Unfortunately, the mangroves replanting program did not really gain success. In some areas a
few of mangrove grew well but most of the plots were unsuccessful. Fields observation showed thatthe project success as low as 15 - 40% because of less control after replanting, poor quality of seed,site unsuitable for species planted and lack of community involvement. The first three factors are notvery serious because technical problems can be solved. However, the last factor is outside control of
rehabilitation implementers. In this situation, involving community in the project is needed to gain abetter result in replanting and management of mangrove conservation. But in replanting project,
government paid a group of people to search mangrove seed, planting, and maintenance themangrove seedling. The community who involved in this project were not really based on theirawareness of mangrove conservation but relatively based on how much money they earn in eachseed they plant. The conservation are not really based on what the community need. This failure
becomes an important experience for the future in managing mangrove should not based on money
payments but it should be started by encourages the awareness of the community.
V. CBA IMPLEMENTATION IN MANGROVE MANAGEMENT
A. Process with Involving Community
The main activities of CBA which implemented in Simeulue Island can be described as follows:
1. Preparation
Preparation with choosing community organizers (COs), who will work and stay within thecommunity. Four COs were selected. Consider to the social and cultural condition in the bay, it waschosen 2 male and 2 female as COs. Training was provided to COs by giving them skills incommunity organizing, community mapping, participatory rural appraisal (PRA), program
evaluation and any other skills related to the program. There was also set up branch offices one in
the bay and one in capital of district. While doing preparation, secondary data and field observations
was implemented, met with local governments, informal leaders, religious leaders, and some key
actors in the bay, introduced staffs, and explained our plan to gain the project goal.
2. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)
PRA is being used to describe a growing family of approaches and methods to enable local
people to share, enhance and analyze their knowledge of life and conditions, to plan and to act(Chambers, 1994). Some scholars used the other term in this activity. DENR et al (2001) used term

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Participatory Coastal Resource Assessment (PCRA) to the similar activity which they define it as ‘amethod of resource assessment wherein local communities actively participate in gathering andanalyzing environmental, ecological, social and economic information about an area, using
perspective of local resources user’. In this activity, we involved with the community to make somegroup discussions; gathering historical, social, economic condition of community; collecting
information about mangrove condition; and presented it in a number of discussions with people. The
outcome of this activity is a community activities plan related to mangrove management.
3. Community Mapping
Community mapping is a mapping technique which enable communities to participate in themap making processes, and to bolster the legitimacy of their customary claims to resources byappropriating the state’s technique and manner of representation (Fox et al, 2004). Peluso (2003)
used term ‘counter mapping’ for this activity as ‘alternative’ of government’s domination in the map
making process. In this activity we taught the community how using GPS, compass and the othermap’s tools and practiced to make map of their land and coastal area. They measured theirsurrounding lands, coastal area, cultural and historical places such as cemetery, and border between
public and private resources. The outcome of this activity was to prepare a ‘language’ of claim andrights of resources and to make sure the boundary of community resources and private resources.
Long time colonial and state claims to the natural resources in the area have made community lose
their self-confidences in claiming their own resources which relatively affected their participation toprotect the nature resources.
4. Community Organization
Processes of preparation, PRA and community mapping provide a good correlation tocommunity organization activity. The community organization is a process of bringing together
members of a community and empowering them to address common concerns and problems, and to
identify community goals and aspirations (DENR et al, 2001). The aim of this activity was todevelop awareness and to organize the communities to participate in the project to reach their goalon natural resources management. A Community Organizer (CO) is an individual who stayed withthe community and directly participates in their activities especially those related to fishing or
farming. However, the COs role is restricted only for facilitating discussions, opening dialogues andoffering perspective, not to instigate change whether the issue is economical, political, social orcultural (Kelola, 2004b). Staying with the community, do what they did, and feel empathy their
feelings, would make COs have a better understanding of social problem within community. As aresult, COs could have a chance to facilitate the process of implementing the community plans
which were resulted in the PRA process. Replanting activities, community awareness, and focus
group discussions were the activities which were implemented in this process.
5. Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
FGD is a discussion with four to eight members of community who were chosen for theirknowledge and involvement in a specific topic. This activity usually served in the specific situationand issues such as preparing to solve an entangle problem, analyzing government policy, or
preparing policy advocacy. The FGD required the ‘specific persons’ who are legible to participate in
the discussion and also understand the specific issue. As I have mentioned above, this activity wasalong with community organization in which we have already known who the person were.
6. Community AwarenessThis was a process whereby knowledge was imparted to the coastal communities to increase
their awareness, understanding, and appreciation of the coastal environment and its importance(DENR, 2001). Usually we applied it to school-aged children as they are more receptive toenvironmental education and of mangrove conservation. In addition, it gave indirect impacts to theirparents’ attitude who engage in mangrove conversion. Both classroom and field learning were partof the curriculum; activities include environmental games, puppet shows, planting mangroves, andmany other activities (Kelola, 2004b).

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7. Capacity Buildings
A long process of community organization has provided information of strengthens andweaknesses of community. We provided some training to improve their abilities in managing natural
resources and organization such as sea weed and grouper culture, organization management andadministration, fish marketing. We also involved some of their representations to attend workshops
and seminars in district, provincial, and national level. The other activities were village exchanges
and field trips to the nearest provinces which has a good experience in community-based coastal
resources management. The aim of this activity is to empower community and learn from the otherplaces how build a better commitment for mangrove management.
8. Alternative Incomes
The alternative income was a way for low-profit peoples to increase their income while
reducing their dependency on mangrove resources. We facilitated the community with information
about sea weed culture, taught them and made a model of a suitable sea weed culture. The mostimportant part of this activity was providing some information about sea weed marketing. Similar tothe sea weed culture, we also tried to train them with souvenir production skills especially for
women.
B. Outputs Of CBA Activities
One of the most significant results of CBA in Simeulue Island was the establishment offisherman organization, ‘Serikat Nelayan Teluk Sinabang (SNTS)’. Founded in 2005, SNTS was anaccumulation of community organization process in Teluk Sinabang bay. The organization
represented of 30 villages in the bay. The SNTS nowadays has 1,700 members from 30 villages.
Every village has their representation in SNTS board. Village has its own autonomy to develop
program based on its needs. Village representatives have 3 monthly meeting to discuss theirprograms with the main boards.
Some programs proposed by SNTS including sea weed culture, seaweed and fish marketing,and credit union. The organization tried to find a better market of fish and sea weed. They also
developed a ‘warung nelayan’, a small store selling fishing equipments including petroleum. They
built a system, which allow the members to save and loan money, of what they called as credit union.
Even though there were some problems related to the management and administration of the credit
union, it became a starting point for their economical development and a way to take part insolidarity among fishers. In the meeting with them, they asked me some advices to the possibility ofproviding gasoline to the members of SNTS. Gasoline is a vital component for fishing, which is inIndonesia, it is still monopolized and distributed by the government.
The SNTS also becomes a media of fisherman’s movement. Now they have their office locatednear the fish market. Everyday, while selling fishes, they come to the office discussing theirproblems and how to solve them. Some related-issues on natural management and political situation
also become important topics on the discussions.
In 2007, there were some fishermen from another province came to the bay and did blast andpoison fishing. The organization tried to report the ‘spoiler’ to the police and as a result, they were
jailed. Still in 2007, there were also some fishermen who used trawls in the bay. They caught fish insimilar fishing ground and this situation became a big problem. The disturbed fishers tried to force
the ‘outsiders’ out and it was follow by an accident which the local fishers burn the outsiders’ boat.
Local fishers and the ‘outsiders’ fought each other and 2 of the outsiders got injuries. The SNTS
finally proposed 3 miles for artisanal fishing ground to the local government. Although it was not
regulated by the local government formally, but in a meeting with the SNTS, the Head of District
and some of DPRD Simeulue members have already agreed with this idea.
Related to the mangrove conservation, the SNTS also have replanting program. Together withthe government, they proposed the rehabilitation program in some places in the bay. The members of
SNTS also do not allow their members to cut mangrove for firewood or boat construction. The
members, who cut mangrove tree for their basic need such as build their ‘traditional’ houses, areresponsible to replant 10 – 100 trees in every piece of mangrove they use. The regulation ofmangrove utilization and restoration depends on village’s convention. The SNTS also does not allow

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their members to do blasted and poisoned fishing, coral reef mining, and/or converse mangrove forfish/shrimp ponds in the green belt.
Event though the SNTS has gain success, I still found some problems in the organization. First,
law enforcement in implementing their convention is low because of reluctance to impose
restrictions among members. In this case, the roles of government are needed to implement theconvention. Second, the organization is sensitive to the political and economic intervention. For
example, in our general election last year, some party leaders come to bargain with some SNTS
board offering their program and money and it produced a individual conflict interest.
For the future of mangrove management in Indonesia, I recommended some important suggestion
related to the CBA. First, the idea of CBA is expected to be spreading through out the archipelago.
Second, the more fisherfolk organizations should be found and be supported in the other provinces
and later built up the network among them. Finally, we need a better cooperation among thegovernments, non government organizations and the other institutions such as researchers anduniversities for spreading to idea of CBA.
VI. CONCLUSION
Community Based Approach (CBA) is a more reasonable and democratic approach to involvecommunity in the management of natural resources. Community has their innate capacity to use andconserve their resources because it is part of their everyday life. Failure in top-down approach which
is used by the government becomes a reason why CBA is important to implement. Even though
there are some critiques to CBA related to the implementation, interpretation, and political economic
reasons, CBA is believed as an alternative approach with the holistic concept of sustainability andintegration of ecology, economic management and social objectives.
In the context of Indonesia, which has a huge number of natural resources and biodiversity,
CBA is an alternative approach to gain a more participation of local people in managing natural
resources. CBA is not a difficult concept, but not easy to implement, which need a long process togain more successful results. Case study from Simeulue Island is an example how CBA have been
implemented although there are some weaknesses of this project. Indonesia needs more examples ofapplication of CBA project for the future of the country to conserve natural resources and social
justice of people who are mostly depend on the natural resources.

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Sobur, Abdul. 1997. Analisis Tata Ruang Kecamatan Kwandang, Kabupaten Gorontalo dan
Kawasan Pantainya (Makalah). Proyek Rehabilitasi dan Pengelolaan Mangrove di Sulawesi.
Soegiarto, Aprilani., 2004. in Vannucci, Martha. Mangrove Management and Conservation, Present
and Future. United Nations University. New York.
Stonich, Susan and Bailey, Conner. (2000). Resisting the Blue Revolution: Contending Coalitions
Surrounding Industrial Shrimp Farming, Human Organization. Washington: Spring 2000. Vol.
59, Iss. 1; p. 23 (14 pages)
Yusran, Mohammad, 2002. Ponggawa-Sawi Relationship in Co-management: An Interdisciplinary
Analysis of Coastal Resources Management in South Sulawesi. A Thesis Presented in
Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia.
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Vannucci, Martha. 2004. Mangrove Management and Conservation, Present and Future. United
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APPENDIX143

WORKSHOP PROGRAM
Date: February 23, 2009 (Monday), 8:30-17:15 (Registration at 8:00 in the morning)
Venue: Room “Harmony”, Shima Central Hotel SOCIA (http://www.h-socia.com/index_e.html)
Opening Session: Chaired by Makoto Takahashi
Opening address: Professor Masatomo Umitsu, Coordinator of the Program and Conference Organizer, Nagoya
University
Special guest address: Ms Ayako Maesawa, Head of Asian Program Division, Japan Society for the Promotionof Science (JSPS)
Welcome address: Professor Shin-ichi Yamamoto, Vice-president for Research, Nagoya University
Keynote address: Jan Sopaheluwakan: Integrating Tsunami Warning System, Science and the Community:
Indonesian Experience and Perspective
Morning Session 1 – Coastal Disaster and its Management: Chaired by Chanchai Thanawood
Ketut Wikantika, Widyastuti S, Djunarsjah E., Darmawan S, Hadi F.: Coastline Change Analysis in the Post
Tsunami Disaster with Landsat-Etm Satellite Image: a Case Study in Northern Coast of Aceh
Djati Mardiatno, Muh Aris Marfai, Junun Sartohadi: Multi-risk of Disasters in Cilacap City, Indonesia
Muh. Aris Marfai, Djati Mardiatno, Junun Sartohadi: Potential Loss Estimation of Agricultural Production Due
to Tsunami Hazard
Coffee Break/Poster Presentation
Morning Session 2 – Coastal Disaster and its Management: Chaired by Helmi Thomin
Haryadi Permana, M. Dirhamsyah, M. Ridho, Illiza Sa’aduddin, Didik Sugiyanto, Irina Rafliana, Del Afriadi
Bustomi, Juriono, Edie Prihantoro, Teddy W. Sudinda: The Banda Aceh Tsunami Drill: First Exercise of Vertical
Evacuation in Indonesia (November 2nd, 2008)
Deny Hidayati, Laila Nagib: The Aceh Besar Community Preparedness in Anticipating Earthquake and Tsunami
Junun Sartohadi, Muh Aris Marfai, Djati Mardiatno: Coastal Zone Management due to Abrasion along theCoastal Area of Central Java Indonesia
Rawee Thaworn, Somying Soontornwong: Community-base Restoration in Mangrove Forestland andLivelihood Security, Baan Thong Lhang, Phang Nga, Thailand
Chanchai Thanawood: Tsunami Hazard Management in Thailand
Discussion at Lunch/Poster Presentation
Afternoon Session 1 – Coastal Environment and its Management: Chaired by Kazuaki Hori
Ashraf M. Dewan, Yasushi Yamaguchi: Human Impacts on River Morphology: a Study on the Ganges in
Banglades
Shahidul Islam: New Challenges to Cyclone Disaster Management in Bangladesh: Lesson from Super Cyclone
Sidr
Md. Ataur Rahman: Coastal Vulnerabilities and Its Integrated Management in Bangladesh Coast
Abdul Hoque: Impacts of Ship Breaking Activity and Sustainable Environmental Management in Bangladesh: aCase Study in the Sitakunda Coastal Area of Chittagong
Van Lap Nguyen, Thi Kim Oanh Ta, Yoshiki Saito: Coastal Landform Variations of the Mekong River Delta,
Vietnam in Relation to Monsoon Activities
Thi Kim Oanh Ta, Van Lap Nguyen, Masaaki Tateishi, Iwao Kobayashi, Masatomo Umitsu,Yoshiki Saito:
Holocene Coastal Delta Development Patterns and Sediment Discharge of the Mekong River in Vietnam
Coffee Break/Poster Presentation
Afternoon Session 2 – Coastal Environment and its Management: Chaired by Ryota Nagasawa
Hai Quang Hai: Protection and Management of Karstic Geosites of Hatien-Kienluong Coastline, Vietnam
Vien Ngoc Nam, Tran Dinh Hue: Mangrove Flora Biodiversity in Con Dao National Park, Baria - Vung Tau
Province, Vietnam
Cao Huy Binh, Vien Ngoc Nam: Carbon Fixation of Ceriops Decandra in Can Gio Mangrove Biosphere
Reserve, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Boonruck Patanakanog, Phanumat Amphat, Akkharasit Naropakarn: Coastal Erosion in Samut Prakan Provinceand Bangkok in the Past Decades by Using Aerial Photographs

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Charlchai Tanavud, Thudchai Sansena: Assessing Potential Impacts of Sea Level Rise on Coastal Areas inSongkla Lake Basin Using GIS and Remotely Sensed Data
Closing Discussion – Discussant: Masatomo Umitsu and other participants
Discussion at Dinner
List of Poster Presentations
Ryota Nagasawa, Yu Takahashi, Amornchai Prokobya, Kridsakron Auynirundronkool, Sitthisak Moukomlo:
Paddy Field Mapping using Temporal MODIS and Landsat ETM+ Imageries - A Case Study in Nakhon Sawan
Province, Thailand
Tomoaki Nakamura, Norim Mizutani: Numerical Simulation of Tsunami-induced Local Scour Considering
Dynamic Response of Sand Bed
Kazuaki Hori: Millennial-scale Floodplain Aggradation: an Example from the Nobi Plain, Japan
Natsuko Hayashi: Relationship between Topography and Ground Damages Caused by Liquefaction in Fukui
Plain, Fukui Prefecture, Japan
Janjirawuttikul Naruekamon, Masatomo Umitsu: Relationships between Acid Sulfate Soils and Landforms in
Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand
Ho Thi Kim Loan: Application of SRTM3 and LANDSAT ETM+ to Generate Geomorphologic Map for the
Purpose of Flood Risk Mapping in Hoi An, Vietnam
Helmi Thomin: Community Base Approach in Mangrove Restoration and Management in Simeulue Island
Province of NAD, Indonesia
Keisuke Tomita, Satoshi Ishiguro, Makoto Takahashi: Environmental Studies at the Geography Department of
Nagoya University

Group photograph at the Workshop

Guest address by A. Maesawa from JSPS

Chair by C. Thanawood & J. Naruekamon

Address by S. Yamamoto

Discussions at the workshop

145

Keynote by J. Sopaheluwakan

SCHEDULE OF FIELD EXCURSIONS
Day 1: February 22, 2009 (S unday)
Chubu International Airport
Nagoya University
Stop 1: Downtown of Nagoya (Lunch at Taiyo-ro)
Stop 2: Nagoya Port: most active seaport in Japan
Stop 3: Reclaimed land of Nabeta: affected areas of Typhoon Vera (1959)
Stop 4: Nagashima: monitoring of ground subsidence
Stop 5: Ise Shrine and Oharai Town: community-based tourist development
Stop 6: Ise-Shima Miyage Center – Osho (Discussion at dinner)
Shima Central Hotel SOCIA: overnightDay 3: February 24, 2009 (Tuesday)
Shima Central Hotel SOCIA
Stop 7: Asoura, Minami-Ise Town: coastal embankment, floodgate
Stop 8: Nishiki, Taiki Town: community-based tsunami preparedness (Lunch)
Presented by Mr. Tsugio Nakaseko, Head of Disaster Prevention Section of Taiki-cho
Nagoya University: bringing down Nagoya Dwellers and some others
Chubu International Airport (Hotel Toyoko-inn): overnight

Coastal Dike of Asoura, Minami-ise-choGroup photograph at the monument of Typhoon Vera, Kuwana-shi

Presentation by T. Nakaseko, Taiki-cho

Early warning system at Taiki-cho

Evacuation room of Nishiki Tower

Group photograph at a temple designated as an evacuation place in Nishiki146