4 A Representative Organization?
Ibero-American Networks in
the Committee on Intellectual
Cooperation of the League of
Nations (1922-1939)
Martin GrandieanIntro ductio nz O r ganizing " Intellectu al Coop eratio n " Af ter
the First World'War

How to choose the people who will coordinate the restructuring of science at an international level and promote intellectual exchange after theFirst'World'War? World-renowned scientists whose popularity will "leadby example" , great academic administrators familiar with institutional
issues or diplomats representing the great victorious powers to securepolitical support? This is the question to be answered by the Secretariatof the League of Nations in the autumn of 1921. The Assembly having endorsed the creation of an International Committee on Intellectual
Cooperation (ICIC), the task of the Japanese Under Secretary-General
Inazo Nitobe is to name the twelve most appropriate personalities.
In the context of a nascent League of Nations whose primary missions are focused on economic issues in a troubled Europe, intellectualissues are not a priority. Yet, and the development of the first true cultural
diplomacy strategies in several states during the 1920s proves it, thesetwelve appointments have an undeniable political character.
The purpose of this article, falling within the framework of our researchon the networks of intellectual cooperation (Grandjean 2018), is to conduct a study of the constitution of the ICIC by reversing the focus usuallyconsisting of commenting on the presence of a few famous personalities(Albert Einstein, Marie Sklodowska Curie, Henri Bergson, etc.) to question the nomination process and to highlight the contribution of several
Ibero-American representatives. Without proposing an exhaustive inventory of all the publications that describe intellectual cooperation, it isworth noting that most studies either adopt a very institutional approach
like Northedge (1953) or Pham (1,962) or focus on international issues,
as in Laqua (201,1,b) and Laqua (201,1,a).It is also not uncommon for theCommittee to be mentioned as a cultural actor in the biographies of its
members, without always describing its structure and work with precision. Moreover, and because of this vagueness, the Paris perspective isoften preferred to the Geneva viewpoint because of the archives of the66 Martin GrandjeanInternational Institute of Intellectual Cooperation (IIIC), later foundedin the French capital to assist the ICIC in its work, and considered theancestor of UNESCO.l \With regard to Ibero-American personalities, thissometimes implies a focus on the Spanish writer and diplomat Salvador de Madariaga and his involvement in the Institute.2 It should also
be noted that the various projects of the League concerning intellectual
cooperation and their relationship with the Iberic and Latin-American

world have already been well studied in Pernet (2007), Dumont (2008),
Dumont (2012), Roig-Sanz (20L3), Pernet (2014), Dumont (201.6) andRoig-Sanz (201,6). However, the following pages do not âttempt toembrace the question of international cultural relations regarding thesecountries but to take the Committee on Intellectual Cooperation's microcosm as our ob;'ect and to question its representativeness.3 Here, thechallenge is to try to understand the appointment mechanism and in particular the notion of "national culture" that is often used to explain thebalance between national representatives within the ICIC.
In the following pages, it will be seen that the principle that governs
the appointment of these experts has two distinct periods. Foremost, theinitial appointment of the first twelve members in 1.922 is a kind of test
that does not show great diversity. It is only when it comes to replacing resigning members that the Secretariat and the more political bodiesof the League attempt to define a systematic renewal method implicitly
based on the influence of nations or groups of nations in other instancesof the institution.
\il/hile we may sometimes seek to explain the genesis of the Committee on Intellectual Cooperation by going back to the internationalist andpacifist movements of the end of the nineteenth century, its creation in
the early 1920s has little to do with the great projects of "international
universities" or "parliament of intelligences" of the time. At the end of theFirst'World !Var, the League of Nations is indeed a construction of a newkind that differs very much from the Belle Époque conceptions that saw
the flowering of technical congresses and private associations (Grandjean
and Van Leeuwen 2019): in this new world order, the Member States centralize their negotiations in a single place that quite bypasses the previous
modes of organization. But while the League seeks to embrace all themodalities of a global and peaceful coexistence, it remains an instrument
primanly designed to settle economic and political issues. The scientificand intellectual questions are very secondarS and the already tight bookkeeping of the institution will never allow assignment of a significant
budget to intellectual cooperation.
But in the momentum of the first years, many are the voices that callto think of international cooperation in all its forms and to integrate theintellectual questions. Chaired by Miguel Gastâo da Cunha, representative of Brazil, the meeting of the Council of March 1,st, 1921, in Paris,Ibero-American Networks in tbe Leagwe of Nations 67

Cooperation (IIIC), later founded
IC in its work, and considered ther Ibero-American personalities, thisranish writer and diplomat Salva:nt in the Institute.2 It should also
the League concerning intellectual
dth the Iberic and Latin-American
I in Pernet (2007), Dumont (2008),)ernet (2014), Dumont (201'6) andllowing pages do not attempt torl cultural relations regarding thesern Intellectual Cooperation's micro-r its representativeness.3 Here, therppointment mechanism and in Par'e" that is often used to explain theives within the ICIC.
;een that the principle that governs
two distinct periods. Foremost, the: members in 1922 is a kind of test
tt is only when it comes to replactariat and the more political bodies
stematic renewal method implicitly
3roups of nations in other instances

explain the genesis of the Commit,ing back to the internationalist and: nineteenth century, its creation in
the great projects of "international;ences" of the time. At the end of thens is indeed a construction of a new
Belle Époque conceptions that saw
and private associations (Grandjean
world order, the Member States cenlace that quite bypasses the previous
re League seeks to embrace all theoexistence, it remains an instrumentc and political issues. The scientific:ondary, and the already tight bookr allow assignment of a significant
yeârs, many are the voices that callr in all its forms and to integrate theiguel Gastâo da Cunha, representa-

runcil of March 1,st, 1921', in Paris,

rakes note of the report of QuiÉones de Le6n on this subject entitled"Organization of intellectual work". In his report, the representative of
Spain recalls that even though
the Covenant is silent on the relations of the l,eague to what may becalled voluntary associations of private character [. . .], from the general tone of the Covenant we infer that the League should exercise its
good offices in the interest of all international undertakings that willcontribute to the advancement of good will and mutual understanding among the nations.a

This notion of mutual understanding is a fundamental argument infavor of intellectual cooperation, but it is also clear-in the report andsubsequent discussions-that the League would prefer that this task continue to be the prerogative of private associations. In the course of thedebates, the project of setting up a highly formalized technical organization, like the International Labor Organization, is then gradually revised
ro prepare the establishment of an advisory committee. On September
8,1.921, the Fifth Commission of the Assembly is finally asked to take adecision on the report by the French senâtor Léon Bourgeois proposing
the creation of the ICIC. C)n the proposal of the Chilean delegate Manuel Rivas Vicufia,the commission asks the Belgian Henri La Fontaine to
make a presentâtion on the question of intellectual work. Co-founderof the Union of International Associations (UIA), this Nobel Peace Ptize
laureate is well placed to talk about it since he has been fighting for many
years with his colleague Paul Otlet for these issues to be taken into consideration (Rayward 2003), (Laqua 2009). Presenting how their Belgian
experiments can be a source of inspiration, he expresses "the ardent hopethat the League of Nations can build itself on existing foundations",s
implying that the UIA could become an official satellite of the League'
But rather than prepare for the creation of a very bureaucratic structure in Geneva or the integration of Belgian institutions, the ICIC adopted
with Bourgeois's report of autumn 192L will gradually be stabilized byacquiring a permanent status but keeping its more deliberative rather
than executive nature. In fact, the Committee as such has above all the
merit of bringing together personalities from various horizons and sending a signal to the world of science and culture. However, it has never
had the means to go far beyond this relatively symbolic role since its missions have never been precisely defined and because its small size madeit a place whose continuity was very dependent on the personalities thatcompose it. The name of the Committee itself is also a symbolic elementof this indecision. The difficulty of defining precisely what "intellectual
cooperation" is can be considered an element that prefigures the futurecomplications when it will come to agreeing on concrete actions to be

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Irlrs s;,stcrrrrrl.izr:tl tlrc rrst: of thr'lcnn "intr'llirt:trrril coopcrirtion!'in tltc
ljccr:ctrrrial.'s t:orrcsi'rorrtli:rrcc. IIourcvcr. tlris tcrrn is vcly stlongly rtrarl<crl
hy thc ivill of sorrrc.lc,legetcs-lirerrclr in palticrrlar"-11l 111"liq'this conrrriittcc a botly thrrt rlc;rls witlr crlut:ational issucs rr'Irrtctl tri tht: rrr.lr:tl 1obrrilrl r wolltl of rrrrrtrrril rrrrtlcrst,rntling. ln fa.':t, thc I(ll(i i.ror(:('ntrâtc(lorr r:oorrlirrrrtirrg scicrrtilic rirrrl crrlturrrl cr.:hrrrrg;cs in cir"clcs rvislrirrg to bc
rrssocilrtcrl r,vith its \voi:k (illl tlrc lcalnr:tl socir.:tit's rrrrtl irrlr'r'rrationrrl org,arrizlllions (rrcilt('(l bcforc tht: u,:rr rlirl nr>t rrr.'i:cssrrlill, looli flrvolabll' 1rtr,1r,'
ccrrtrrrlizaliorr irrrlrrcccl 111, 11,,, l.c,ii';rrc).
'n-hr: Appointrnor.lt of the: llirs;t C-ornrnittcc: Priority

fo Pcrsonalitiers Ovcr" Nationality
licilirrnrrll tlrc clcsi;lrrrrtior) pr'o(rcss in I)ct:t'ntl>cr' 19 ),1,lnazo Nitolrr wl'it('sto tlrc Sccrctlry (;cn('l'rrl lrrir: l)nrnrrrrorrrl tlrr'rt'"thc conrnriltrrc:;lroulcl bt: as
srnall rrs l-rossilrlc, tol cconornic l'crrsorts iutrl t'fficielr:y"'.7 [It r{.'cottttttt:rtt]s
tlr.rt jt slrorrltl bc conrposctl of only scv('u ()i: t:iglt1 trtcrttrbcrs" wlrilc tlrc
lcsolrrtiorr rrll<trns 1.hc apPointnrcnt oJ:trvr.llvc oxp('r"ts. lrt tlrc satttt: ntitc,
hc i'jrrtls "highly tlcsir",rl.llc tlral rrn.AlncricârI arrrl a (iclntrrn bc irrvitL:rl ", if
possilrlc clirec:tly b1' t1,r., ,,,,,tncil as,r nlrrrl( ()f qoocl rvill towâr(ls titcst'trv<rnirtions. which havc rrot joirtr'rl tltc l,crtr:,uc. Vr:ry, i',rt'at"l.',cly, hc cuvis:rrlr's
tlrc prrticil.ratiorr oli pt'rsonirlities frorn thc lirllorvirrg colnltr:ic$: (;rcrrt
llritain, lir':1rr,.:c, Itnly" llclg;iurrr, Oolonrbia, Inrlirt i:ln(l N()rw;ry, antl lvlr1'
rrot rrls<l Spain" (lzrrchtisk;vel<irt rttttl ,r\ristrirt.'l'lrc trrrIcr'-sucr('1rry plcttcr'altlbero-American Netuorks in the League of Nations 69
internal note of 1922,lnazo Nitobe:ring of the first years:n internâtionale du Travail intellecin English this Committee has been
se to a good deal of misunderstandre term "International Organization.Work"
was used, and thistellectual
ocuments relating to it. It naturally
bject of the Committee was to start:he International Labour Office fors continued long and spread widely.
rtsiders that the Committee would, and hence terms such as "Commit, "Intellectual Intercourse and Eduopment Committee" were used by.en an actiye role in stabilizing thisd misunderstanding and to 'obetter)e", he admits in this note that hen "intellectual cooperation" in the:r, this term is very strongly marked:h in particular-to make this comtional issues related to the need toing. In fact, the ICIC concentrated
rl exchanges in circles wishing to be
red societies and international orga-.ot necessarily look favorably on the).

nmittee: Priority)ecember 192L,Inazo Nitobe writes
that "the committee should be as'ndrs and efficiency".T He recommends
seven or eight members, while thef twelve experts. In the same note,erican and a German be invited", ifnark of good will towards these twoeague. Very concretely, he envisages

rm the following countries: Greatmbia, India and Norway, and whylustria. The under-s ecretary general

specifies that the representative of Norway could be â woman, indicating that he already thinks about the candidature of the zoologist Kristine
Bonnevie, member of her national delegation to the League. It is obviousthat the selection of certain other countries in this list is also due to informal and convincing applications (Colombia, India, Norway or Czechoslovakia aren't prominent members during the first years of the League).
On the morning of January 1,4,1,922, the twelfth meeting of the six-teenth session of the Council is not yet ready to make the appointments
as initially planned,s but Nitobe has already stârted to put nâmes on a listthat remains confidential.e This list will increase in the following months:
at the end of March, no less than fifty-eight names are communicated to
the Councill0 (they are followed by a dozen other late proposals). Since
this list serves as a basis not only for the composition of the ICIC of 1,922(it already contains most of the members who will actually be appointed)
but will also later be a pool of candidates, it is worthwhile to look at the
representation of Ibero-American personalities within it.
Among them are Cecilio BâezrParaguayan professor of internationallaw and Rector of the University of Asunçion; the former Portuguese
Prime Minister Afonso Costa, director of the Faculty of law at the University of Lisbon; the Ambassador of Colombia in Bern, Francisco-JoséUrrutia Olano, who will then sit at the Permanent Court of International
Justice; or the Brazilian law professor Francisco José de Oliveira Viana.
But not all of them are lawyers, as there are also representatives of thesciences, like the Spanish professor of histology Santiago Ramôn y Cajal,
also president of the Junta para Ampliacion de Estudio; the engineer
Leonardo Torres y Quevedo, director of the Electrico-Mecanico laboratory of Madrid, the former director of the Museo Nacional of Buenos
Aires and the Argentinian Conseijo de Educacion Angel Gallardo or theBrazilian Aloysio de Castro, director of the faculty of medicine of the
University of Rio de Janeiro. On the humanities side, Uruguayan Carlos
Yaz Fereha, philosophy lecturer at the University of Montevideo, andSpanish philology professor Ram6n Menéndez Pidal are also listed.
Despite this inventory, Spanish-speaking and Portuguese-speaking personalities are largely underrepresented among the candidates. They represent only 1,4% of the list, while the founding members of the Leagueof Nations have seventeen Iberian and Latin American countries out offorty-two (40%).11 However, at this point, it appears that if everyone
within the Secretariat agrees to consider that personal skills of a candidate qualify him more than his nationality, the wish to select leading
scientists is quickly overtaken by the very empirical constitution of thislist. Even if Léon Bourgeois declares a few months later, at the award
ceremony of his Nobel Peace Prize,tltat the ICIC is "a Committee composed of the most eminent scientists, the widest and highest intelligences"(Haberman 1.972), the composition of the ICIC is mainly the product ofa bargain between the diplomats seating in the Council of the League.

70 Martin Grandiean
Moreover, as the definition of the ICIC is not clear for everyonc in
thc'se early years, the profiles are extremely cliversc. Then, the status of
their applications is quite variable: if sorne names are proposals or suggestions from third partics that do not engâge the person concerned,
others arc fonnalized applications, as this is the case for the French philosophcr Hcnri Bergson, who cxplicitly gives his approval to his Ministry<rf Foreign Affairs (ltenoliet 1999,23).lJut even if all the pcrsonalities

that appcar on this clocument arc not mentioned for the samc rcasons,some having been registered following the prospects of the Secretariat
ancl others because they are parachuted by governments that see there
a goo<1 opportunity to take part of the dccisions on this matter, this list
is a flndamental tool for Inazo Nitobe. A dctailed analysis of these profilcs shows that beyond the twelve scientists appointed h 1922, ât lcast
thirteen others will participate in the work of the Comrnittee, of whicheight will do so very clirectly as members or substitutes (Grandjean 2018,.539-.541). This list, even imperfect, is thereforc a reservoir, a rcsourcethat will be mobilizcd by the Secretariat for scveral ycars.
But while the very unequal representation of nations in this list might
slrggest that the future ICIC itself will be composecl in the same way, it
mllst not be forgotten that the implicit rule of nâtional quotas (onc represcntative per coulltry) could, on the contrary, prcjudice countries witha large number of canclidatcs competing with each other. We can therefore see this list as a testinony to the interest of nations in intellectual
cooperatiorl) more than an estimate of their immediate influence on theaçrprointment decision. The low proportion of Ibero-American candiclates
therefore seems to reflect above all thc moderate interest of intellectual
cooperation (or its ccntralization by the League) ir-r these circles. It also
indicates that nationals of thcse coLurtries have generally fewer relays in
Geneva and within the l,eagne than some of their colleagues. In the end,
the wicle variety of backgrounds ancl thc international reputation of asmall number of the candidates facilitate the decision of thc C'ouncil, as
Nitobe recalls some months after the appointment: "As the list contained
narnes very wcll-known in each country, there was littlc difficulty in theCouncil making a choice".l2
On May 1Sth,1922, the Council holds at (leneva the seventh n'rectingof its eightecnth session under the presidency of Quiflones clc l-eôn andadopts a new report by l,éon Bourgeois.13 In the wake, elcven people
are appointed to sit in the new ICIC, the Clouncil keeping the possibility
to appoint a twelfth thereafter, in order to l"rave some tirne to evaluatea North American candidacy.la Among the Ibcro-Amcrican candidates,
Aloysio de Castro and Leonardo Tcrrrcs y Quevedo have been selectecl.
The Brazilian and the Spanish will sit at the same table as the FrenchPolish chernist Marie Sklodowska Curie, the Belgian Minister Jules Destrée, the German physicist Albert Einstein, the Italian senator Francesco
Ruffini, the British philologist Gilbert Murray, the Swiss çrrofessor ofIbero-American Networks in the League of Nations 71,

ICIC is not clear for everyone inremely diverse. Then, the status ofsome names are proposals or sugnot en€lage the person concerned'
this is the case for the French phiy gives his approval to his Ministry|). But even if all the personalitiest mentioned for the sâme reasons'rg the prospects of the Secretariat
ted by goYernments that see there
re decisions on this matter, this list,e. A detailed analysis of these proientists appointed in 1.922, at least

work of the Committee, of which
ers or substitutes (Grandiean 2018,is therefore a reservoir, a resource
iat for several years.
ntation of nations in this list mightll be composed in the same way, it
it rule of national quotas (one rep: contrary, prejudice countries with:ing with each other.'We can theree interest of nations in intellectual
rf their immediate influence on thertion of Ibero-American candidates
he moderate interest of intellectual

the League) in these circles. It also
tries have generally fewer relays inome of their colleagues. In the end'
I the international reputation of atate the decision of the Council, as
appointment: "As the list contained
try, there was little difficulty in theolds at Geneva the seventh meeting
esidency of Quifrones de Leôn and;eois.13 In the wake, eleven people

the Council keeping the possibility
der to have some time to evaluate,ng the Ibero-American candidates,:res y Quevedo have been selected.

it at the same table as the French-rrie, the Belgian Minister Jules Desrstein, the ltalian senator Francesco:rt Murray, the Swiss professor ofliterature Gonzague de Reynold, the Norwegian zoologist Kristine Bonnevie, the Indian economist Debendra Nath Bannerjea and of course theFrench Henri Bergson, who will become a few months later the first president of the Committee.
The American astronomer George Ellery Hale is finally appointed,
after having initially refused for health reasons.l'5 But it is his compatriot Robert Andrew Millikan, who already assists him during the firstsession of the ICIC, who will definitively take his place at the autumn!922.16 The nomination of the other representative of a non-member
nation is also not without difficulties: Albert Einstein, after agreeing on
May 30,17 announces on July 4 that he is reconsidering his decision.ls
Panic seizes the Secretariat, as the officers rely on a personality like theGerman scientist to guarantee a certain visibility to the Committee. On
Bergson's advice, the under-secretary general, Bernardo Attolico, writes
to Einstein to urge him to reconsider his judgment, which will surely
cause "a deep disappointment" to the members and the public.le A few
days and telegrams later, it becomes clear that Einstein gave up because"the assassination of the minister [Walther] Rathenau, of which he was apersonal friend, saddens him so much that he prefers to refrain now fromany political action".20 Fortunately, on July 28, a telegram from the director of the League of Nations Information Section Pierre Comert informthe Secretariât that "our friend withdraws his resignation and promises
full cooperation [. . .]".21 The German physicist will use his right to withdraw from the ICIC again a few years later, before returning once more(\Vonsch 2004).

The Formalization of the Renewal Mechanism and the
Notion of "Culture": A Challenge for Small Nations
The principle of a committee standing above political stakes and bringing
together experts selected for their own personal scientific achievements,

in order to pursue the ceaseless quest for a body where all cultures,
nationalities, disciplines and academic organizations are represented, is
one of the greatest paradoxes of the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation. Immediately, Nitobe recognizes that this intention
does not resist the international functioning of the great machine that is
the League of Nations: "In the nomination of members, nationality was
to be ignored in principle, and only the personal merits of individual candidates were to count. Such an ideal principle of appointment was hard
to follow".22

And this tension is not only a transfer of the global issues that are
being expressed in the Assembly or a consequence of the complex representâtiveness of the secretariat (Dykmann 2015)(Gram-Skjoldager andIkonomou 20'!,7), but it takes a particular forrn within the framework of
the Section of International Bureaux since relatively different conceptions

72 Martin Grandjean
of the notion of "intellectual cooperation" exist accorcling to whcthcr
one has a F'rench, Belgian, Scandinavian or Anglo-Saxon view (Saikawa
2074).ln the fall of 1.923,the ICIC, aware of this problem, tries to clarify
its own rcprcsentativity principlc: "it is clesirabl" [. . .l for the Comrnittee
to includc, as far as possible, representatives of the principal branches ofintellectual activity arrd at the same time rcpresentatives' not of nationalities, but of the principal cultural groups."23 While this notion of "culture" or "cultural groul'r" may seem obscure or very reductive today, it isperfectly in tune with the context of the League of Nations at the tirne.
Already in the 1920s, but even more after the Second'World'S7ar, theinstitution (and the ICIC with it) is often analyzed as a place of opposition between Latin and Germanic (or Anglo-Saxon) cultures.2a Intellectual cooperation is also often considered to be monopolized by the Latins,
and in particular by France since the creation of the IIIC in Paris in 1'926.
However, even if the Comrnittee does have a majority of representativesof the very large Latin cultural group during the 1920s' this trend sub-sequently diminished in the t930s (Grancljean 201'8, 295). And to use
this criterion implies that there is some kind of unity among the nations
concerned, which is anything but obvious. Morcover' hiding behind theseso-callecl "cultural groups" to justify the cornposition of the ICICI is hardto defend sincc three-quarters of its first members come from'WesternË,uropc.'With the exception of a Brazilian, an American and an Indian(Bannerjea works, however, in Gerrnany), all the personalities summonedtn 1922 come from a region that represents only a sn-rall proportion of
the worlcl's population. This distribution is not surprising compared tothe main centers of scientific activity of the early twentieth century; itreflects the lack of diversity of the members of the Council.
Less than a year after the appointmertt of the Con-rmittee, the questionof representation becomes atr internal policy issue since the Assembly of
the League is seized by "legitirnate reqtlests formulated by the Romauian,Serbian-Clroat-Slovene ancl Czechoslovakian, Spanish-speaking Americans, Asians, as well as Irish and F-inno-Ugric clelegates",25 questioning
the diversity of the ICIC and proposing to include representatives ofnations or groups concerned. f'he intense debates of the Fifth Cornmission of the Assernbly on this subject do not lead to concrete measuresintegrating the representatives of all the States wishing to participate is notrealistic-but shows the growing interest of nations hitherto neglected.26
Yet this concern for cultural diversity and its expression at the Assembly
is cornplex. Indeed, these delegates offer thc representâtives of the "oldnations"2T an ârgument that coulcl be turned against them since they havespontaneously gathered togethcr by region or language group to submit
their resolution. Dc facto, one could consider that if a "spanish-speaking
Arnerican" personality sits in the ICIC, more than a half of the continent
could be considered represented if it is agreed that it forms a single "cul-tural group".

Ibero-American Nettuorhs in tbe League of Nations 73

ation" exist according to whether
ian or Anglo-Saxon view (Saikawa
vare of this problem, tries to clarifys desirable [. . .] for the Committee
tatives of the principal branches of
ime representâtives, not of nation'oups."23 'Sfhile this notion of "culbscure or very reductive today, it is
the League of Nations at the time'
'War,
the
: after the Second 'World
ften analyzed as a place of oPPosir Anglo-Saxon) cultures.2a Intelleced to be monopolized by the Latins,:reation of the IIIC in Paris in 1926.
; have a majority of representatives

r during the 1920s, this trend sub3randjean 2018,295). And to use
re kind of unity among the nations
ious, Moreover, hiding behind theserhe composition of the ICIC is hardfirst members come from'Westernzilian, an American and an Indianny), all the personalities summoned)resents only a small proportion of.tion is not surprising compared to
1 of the early twentieth centurY; it:mbers of the Council.
rent of the Committee, the question
I policy issue since the Assembly of
luests formulated by the Romanian,lovakian, Spanish-speaking Amerirno-Ugric delegates",25 questioning
csing to include representatives oftense debates of the Fifth Commisdo not lead to concrete meâsuresre States wishing to participate is not:rest of nations hitherto neglected.26
r and its expression at the Assembly>ffer the representatives of the "oldturned against them since they haveregion or language group to submit
consider that if a "spanish-speaking
C, more than a half of the continentis agreed that it forms a single "cul-An increase in the number of members seems anyway inevitable toallow better representation, to organize rotations within these more orless defined groups. This extension is already perceived as a victory. In
an exalted speech, the Romanian writer Elena Vàcàrescu welcomes thisdecision while positioning herself as the spokesperson of South America,
Asia and Eastern Europe. She is joined by the Venezuelan delegate, thehistorian and diplomat Caracciolo Parra-Perez,who recalls "the growinginterest that several [Spanish-speaking American] countries have for thedevelopment of intellectual relations between peoples".28 As the discussion continues, the Portuguese delegate Joâo Pinheiro Chagas, diplomat
and journalist, puts more particularly the emphasis on the principle ofrepresentation and confesses bitterly "to be a little surprised to have tonote that the question of whether a State has a culture enabling it to be
included in an intellectual committee depends on a more or less benevolent judgment of the Council".2e
However, increasing the representativeness of the Committee without
jeopardizing its fragile budget is a project made all the more difficult as
ffavel is a cost item proportionâl to the remoteness of the countries con'Westcerned. And they are naturally far away since the main countries of
ern Europe are aheady represented in the ICIC. This budgetary issue isof great concern to the Secretariat, and several extra-European appointments will be discussed in financial terms. The discussion concerning
the integration of a Chinese representative in 1.926 is a good example:"the nomination of a Chinese member in the ICIC would be possible if
the Chinese government refrained from inciting other countries to make thesame demands at the Assembly".30 For some time, therefore' the lack ofrepresentativeness is reduced by the appointment of "correspondents",
who attend the meetings without being paid by the League.
But that same sulnmer 1.924, the ICIC already gathers fourteen members. It turns out that the unexpected return of Albert Einstein, whose
seat has meanwhile been assigned to his former Dutch professor Hendrik
Lorentz, pushes the Council to reintegrate him without waiting for the
departure of another member. Inspired by this example, the delegate of
Uruguay asks the Council to appoint a representative of the Spanishspeaking American nations (Brazil and Spain are aheady represented): on
June 16, Leopoldo Lugones, editor of La Naciôn (Buenos Aires) and professor of aesthetics at the National University of I.a Plata, is appointed by

the Council, bringing to three the number of lbero-American personalities (see Figure 4.1).
Gradually, this very subjective functioning is adopted, and the firstrenewals show that it becomes obvious that the Council tries to maintaina certain balance: when a member resigns, he is replace dby a national of
the same country or of a neighboring country. This is the case when preparing the succession of Torres y Quevedo in 1.926: the Spanish ambassador Quifrones de Leôn takes the lead and insists on being replaced by

1l'.,,/illll?nl.r,rll,).1{rt rltinu.?(1S",.to',."sLr()tllll nt.)t.1.)nlV lirrnlir.rilli r1:ttrrL:rlr;",

lo ttotltilLli)rj,r.trl.r"t lt[].r(),l.rJrl.l,)rl^\ tu()r.1.)ll.r.) lr.lrrlln.) i)rll ll.r(l] ti,t'roLy:i,{1lt...)llrll;r.1r'1s.rry :l;u()1ill,).t o^\l "lol iirrrll;.r.r,r1rrr l;1,r1roltrtl.r lilrl,l,.:)1,)J,)tll ().1
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Ibero-American Networks in the Leagwe of Nations 75

fully integrated by the diplomats who renew members. Second, it highlights the existence of a two-tier system between nations having a fixedseat and those that share one: the inflexibility of the main European
powers forces the ICIC to grow rather than replace {rom time to time a
French, British, Italian, German or Spanish representative with â personality from a less involved country.
All this contributes to the establishment of a certain "rhythm" for theCommittee that leaves its temporary status in the summer of 1,926 to-o+J- -o.

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rl Committee on Intellectual Cooperationighting the Ibero-American Personalities

on of the Spanish intellectuality"3lng for two reasons: first, it explic, whether for the representation ofs", or "spanish intellectuality", isbecome a permanent body of the League of Nations.32'ù(lith this stabilization, the term of office is officially fixed at five years (it was not fixed aslong as the Committee was temporary).33
The ICIC is increased a few months later to fifteen members, integrâting the Japanese physicist Aikitu Tanakadate, emeritus of the Universityof Tokyo (nominated in December L926 but seated for the first time at
the next session in July 19221.t+ Viscount Ishii, Japanese representative in
the Council, explicitly stipulates on this occasion that this candidature isjustified by the withdrawal of Inazo Nitobe from his position of directorof the Section.3s This new increase, forced by an influential member of
the Council, is the last one to proceed in such an unexpected way: at the
beginning of the 1930s, the Committee profoundly reforms its organization as well as that of the Paris Institute. Enacted on September 9,L930,
on the basis of a recommendation of the twelfth session of the ICIC,36 a
new system states that one-third of the Committee must be replaced eachyear. This de facto reduces the term of office of the members to three
years and forces many long-standing members to leave. The number ofmembers is increased to eighteen in 1934, a figure that will now vary only
in 1,937 to reach nineteen members. Figure 4.1 makes the accelerationof the renewal of the ICIC very visible since 1931: the increase in thenumber of new arrivals generally varies between three and six per year,
whereas it was instead between one and two during the 1920s. This visualization of the mandates' duration also makes visible the generally stable

representation of Ibero-American members (in black on Figure 4'1' seealso Figure 4.2).k also shows that the year L930 is a real turning point interms of the representation of the concerned countries. Indeed, while the1920s still see two or three terms overlap, the arrival of the Columbianjournalist and ambassador Baldomero Sanin Cano and the Spanish law
professor José Castille jo in 1931. happens as all their Ibero-American colleagues leave, creating a steep transition for this "cultural group".
While the Brazilian Aloysio de Castro demonstrates a long-standing
commitment to the ICIC, since he remains there for the entire decade,his early Spanish colleague Leonardo Torres y Quevedo is replaced in
1,926 by Jûlio Casares, a journalist and lexicographer who is a member of
the Spanish delegation to the League and had afueady replaced him during the last three years. The third seat creâted for the Spanish-speaking
Americans in 1.924 is filled again after the departure of the Argentinian
Leopoldo Lugones by the Peruvian senâtor and professor of sociology

Y
76 NLrrttu Or'uttlfc;rrt
Official proportion (lClO only)

:)t)

t

B. . ,2.21:
âv(r. '= 1 /.1]9i
rrlr. I l.il'.j

0,

ti

1.1

1

1i

/l

lloal proportion (lOlO ottly)

30..

nr,r!:. . 2\.0. :,âv.,.:15.2q11
ilrin. . ti.l.{)!'j

u a'.

I0 :,
0::,

i:

12 ll

t1

ln

1l

l;i

17 l^

1'

al

'i

floal pr oportion (al1 parlioiprtnls)

30. ,

ûi;,

20.

0.

19.'1',

lavg.:' 12.59:
Irlr]. ,,0i;.9t"i,

10: -

1.:

t2

!1

192.7,

1

l.l

1l

{)30

lil

1i

1.j

t!

2l
I

039

l;iyrt,: 1.2 (lon.rP:rlison [t,clrvccr li) ihe ProPorti<ltt ttf Ihcf ()-i\llrcricirti McttrLrcrst)fiii:irlly ,'\pparjvl1,',1' h) thc l'ropoltiorr of 'f'lrcrrr I{irrily ,\ltcrr.litr1l
thc Scssions (WithoLrt Substitutes); c) tlrc I't:opoltiort oi All Ibcro-

Atrleric,rtts,\ttcrrJing tlrt'scssions ''\tltotrl', r\ll I'erticiprrllts (Mcttllrct's,
SuLrsrrtutes, I )clcilitfr:s, $t'ct'ct:rl'ies, clc. ).

Mrlrilno (i<llncjo Zcttlctto irt l9?.!). lltrt tlic l:1ttcf l'clllâi1rs orlly two y()rlrs

irr rlrc (brrrrnittcc. Wrth (last.illcjo rcplac:rtrg, (ias;ircs, tlrc Spanish tlclcllati<t1 is still prcsurrt rrflcl the lrrrn ol l9.l(), wlrilc (i<tnrcjo's Sttlrtlt z\rllt:r'i(t:1ll s(tltt lltovcs ir<trrr I'crrr to (blonrbirr. llLrt it will lrtt tl(t(l('ssllly to tv;tit
i<tr tlrc el)l)oilttlltcnt of:11rc prcsitlcnt r:li thr: l)or:trtgttcstt At:rrrlctrry.ftilirrl)lrrrtrrs irr 19.-jrl.fol tlrc l)ortugtrcsc lengu,rllc t.() olrc('il{leirr bc rcpl:cs('l)tc(lat tlrc l(.[(1. l{lr:cly l)rr'sctlt, Sitltilt (iilllo is rtl1.,laccrl irr 19.i6, errtl his
scilt r('lullrs to l)crrr rvith tlrc:rpl)oilrtnl('llt. oi tlre vvt"itcr ittltl tlipltlrlrrlt
lrrrtncis.:o (irrrr:ie (lalrlcrrirr l{c1'. l'11., vcry lrlsf scssiort <t1:t.hc (lttttitttitl,'t',f irrrrlly, sccs th('rrpl.rointntcrrt o{ thc l'}razili,rrr Miilrrcl Ozririo.1c r\lrttcitl,t,rn..l tltc,r.\rgt:ntitrirrrt Victttriir ()cautl'ro.'l'hc lirst will tllcrelillc sit ollll'
orr,.:,.:, wltilc tltc sc,-:ontl is ttttl cvi:tt prus(tllt itt (icttilva ill 19.19'

Cornpilrcel to Offir:i;rl llillirttcc, a Wcarlct:r Ïbcro' .Amcricirtl

l{r:al Ï}rcscnci:'Tir list tltc ttrctrtbcr:s of thc l(ll(, is a tlrttl' for tlrtlst <lf tlt,.: rcsc,rl'clttrt's tnrhtl

h:tvc rtltcnlptcrl to clcsclilrc tlrc (lomurittcc lt,itlrottt lirnitirtg thctnse lvcs
1o thc initial r:ortrpositiort ol 191..2,.'l'lrrrs" il lielili (199()" -14.5-48) rrrrtl
Li)lrr (.1-t)l(),2|i6-li8) r'cpr<i.lucc thc list cstrrblishctl by l)lrern ( lt)61") witl)out n)ocliiyitrg it, prolraltly rlrr tlrc besis oit(lorrrt,.:il tlttct-ttttcttts, l{etrolict(1999,1114- lft.5) ..lt'aws up a tilble \l/hosc tlata arc nrorc faithfrrl to thc
tl6crlr'rcrrts of thi: (lonrnittcc. llut it is lirnitccl to ttretttiott thc ol'ficiirlly

Ibero-American Networks in the League of Nailons 77
r (lClC only)

mu. = 22.2/oâug. z 17 .8o/o
min. = 11.8%

lClC only)
mu. = 25.OVoavg. =15.2oh
min. = 00.0%

1213141516171819æ21
padicipants)
mu. = 19.40Â

avg, = 12,5o/o
mif,. = 05.9%

1213141516171819æ21
'1939

930

Proportion of lbero-American Members
e Proportion of Them Really Attending
titutes); c) the Proportion of All Ibero;sions Among All Participants (Members,
taries, etc.).

But the latter remains only two years
eplacing Casâres, the Spanish delega1930, while Cornejo's South Amerinbia. But it will be necessary to wait
nt of the Portuguese Academy Jrilio
anguage to once again be represented
Cano is replaced in 1936, and his'intmentof the writer and diplomate very last session of the Committee,
Brazilian Miguel Oz1rio de Almeida

rpo. The first will therefore sit only
,resent in Geneva in 1,939.
'Weaker

Ibero-American

duty for most of the researchers who
mmittee without limiting themselves. Thus, if Bekri (1990,24548) andlist established by Pham (1,962) withrasis of Council documents, Renoliet
whose data are more faithful to theit is limited to mention the officiallyâppointed members. Based on the minutes of the twenty-one sessions,which accurately describe participants' attendance
ubr.rr..r. ri*,rr. +.t"nd
confronts this data with a reality that quick statistical,rua.rio "oigenerally take into account: the repeated absence oi r"-"-À"Àbers con_siderably modifies the balance and almosr nullifies tt. .o"li,rrion basedon rhe official presence of the experts. As trying ,o u"a.rrirrrJ the cornposition of the ICIC also means highlighting the "minor,' participanrsof these sessions (the many substitutes, secreraries, delegates'of national
commissions or other institutions), taking the aften"clance rate into
account gives very useful quantitative information to qualifv the invest_
ment of each one, if not in the global work of intellectual cooperation, atleast in these annual sessions that can be considered the backtone.
To sit_ for many years does not always mean to be actually present
during the sessions: among the twelve personalities who b.nefit fromandate covering ten sessions or more, only five concretely pârticipate"at least ten time. In terms of actual attendance, there is inaË"a a rwospeed committee, between the members who attend almost all the sessions for which they are elected and those who are absent most of thetirne. Among the first absenrees, Albert Einstein is particularly exemplary

since-if we exclude the two sessions of 1,923 consecutive to his tempo-

rary resignation-he takes part only in one our of two sessions until his
definitive resignation tn 1,932. It is, however, George Hale,s subsrirute,
Robert A. Millikan, who appears to be the most absent cluring the firsi
decade of the ICIC since he only attended a quarrer of th. sessions. The
representation of the united states of America is all the more diminishedin the committee, as the compatriot replacing Millikan in1933,the professor of history at columbia university James T. shotwell, is no moreassiduous since he only attends two sessions out of seven until 1939. rs
this the sign of a lack of interest or material and temporal constraints?
\x/hile it is rrue that it is easier for the swiss Gonzague de Reynold toattend sessions in Geneva or Paris than for a South American or Asian
scientist, our analysis shows no conclusive correlation between distanceand.absenteeism (personalities living in India orJapan are very presenr,
for instance). This observation should remind ur-t["t the nationality oi
a scientific or diplomatic personaliry participating in the works of the
League of Nations is only a very vague indicator of the real distance they
travel to join the sessions: many of them are attached to European universities or an embassy near Geneva.
unlike those who are rarely present, others are active participants,
such as the philologist Jrllio casares (Madrid) who, because he is partof the spanish diplomatic delegation to the League, replaces his feflow
l'eonardo Torres y Quevedo four times before sitting himself for the next

five sessions, without any absence.
Overall, the increase in the number of members, from a minimum of
twelve to a maximum of nineteen, does not change the total attendance

78 Martin Grandjean
rate at ICIC sessions. It usually varies between 607" and 80"Â,with two
occurrences below the 50% mark: the fifth session, "convened fairly
quickly"3T in May L925, where only six out of fourteen members arepresent, and the twentieth session in July 1938, where seven out of seventeen members actually sit. On this occasion, president Gilbert Murraywonders if he shouldn't rejoice in this situation "since it allows the Committee to enter into relations with other remârkable personalities who
replace them".38

And in terms of absenteeism, how are lbero-American members performing? Here, taking these nationalities as a category only makes sense
in a study of their international networks and in relation to the assumption that they represent a "cultural group" in the sense of the 1920s. It
is therefore not a question of comparing their representation to thatof other national or groups (since the coherence of the Spanish- andPortuguese-speaking group is very relative, and defining these othergroups is also ambiguous) but rather of comparing its evolution in time.
The first of the curves of Figure 4.2 indicates, session after session,
the proportion of these personalities appointed to the ICIC. This is atheoretical value that tells us about the official balance and the placeleft to the representation of Ibero-American nations. If the evolution
is relatively stable over time (between two and three representatives,
exceptionally four in 1.939), there is an obvious disparity between thenations since Spain is systematically represented in the Committee from
1,922 to 1938. The remaining one or two seats go to representatives of
Latin America until the appointment of the Portuguese Jtilio Dantas
1n 1.934 (during the next five years, the Iberians are more numerous
than the Latin Americans). In fact, Spanish-speaking experts are stilllargely in the majority even though there are officially only three sessions without Portuguese-speaking experts (the latter having a higher
rate of absenteeism).
The second curve of Figure 4.2 completes the first one since it takes
the absences into account, in proportion to the real presence of all ICIC
official members. As a result, on râre occasions (the second and sixteenthsessions, in particular) the actual proportion of lbero-Americans exceeds
the theoretical proportion due to the absence of many other members of
the Committee. But, on average, these representatives are less present inperson than their colleagues. The graphs also state that at the fifth session(1925), no lbero-American experts were present.
The third curve of Figure 4.2 covers all the people attending the Committee's sessions, including substitutes, international civil servants andinvited experts of diplomats. If their presence is significant enough in thesecond half of the 1930s, it is clear that lbero-American are very largely
underrepresented, especially among the auxiliary actors that will be thefocus of the following paragraphs.

Ibero-American Networks in the Leagwe of Nations 79
between 60o/" and 80o/o, with two
he fifth session, "convened fairly

Beyond the Official Members, a Multitude of Other

six out of fourteen members areluly 193B, where seven out of sevrccasion, president Gilbert Murraysituation "since it allows the Com:her remarkable Personalities who

In the shadow of scientific and political figures, whose brilliance is neverforgotten in the written history of the institution, hides a population atleast three times more numerous: the substitutes, secretaries and delegatesfrom third-party institutions. And their importance is all the more crucial
for the ICIC, as they-in addition to ensuring the link with the other bodies of the League of Nations and beyond-are sometimes the guarantorsof the continuity of the work and spirit of intellectual cooperation. These
personalities are anything but "secondary characters".
Even if their names are rarely recalled in this context, it is of course
among the international civil servants of the Secretariat of the League

are Ibero-American members Per;ies as a category onlY makes senserrks and in relation to the assumproup" in the sense of the 1920s. It
aring their representation to thathe càherettce of the SPanish- andrelative, and defining these otherof comparing its evolution in time'.2 indicates, session after session,s appointed to the ICIC. This is athè official balance and the Place\merican nations. If the evolution:en two and three rePresentatives,, an obvious disparitY between the
represented in the Committee from: two seâts go to representatives of
nt of the Portuguese Jrilio Dantas;, the Iberians are more numerous
Spanish-speaking experts are still
there are officially only three sesexperts (the latter having a higher
rmpletes the first one since it takes
tion to the real presence of all ICIC
occasions (the second and sixteenth
exceeds'portion of Ibero-Americans

of manY other members of'^abs.nce
se representatives are less present in
phs also state that at the fifth session
sere present.
:rs all the people attending the Comtes, international civil servânts andpresence is significant enough in theÂat lbero-American are very largely
the auxiliary actors that will be theParticipantsthat we finds the individuals who concretely "make" the intellectual
cooperation on a daily basis, a statement corroborated by a systematic

analysis of the archives of the Committee (Grandjean 201'7,389-390). To
these memlrers of the Secretariat are added representâtives of the International Labor Office, experts convened to deal with technical questionsor the direction of the Paris IIIC after its creation. But if we concentrateon Spanish and Portuguese-speaking personalities, who are not widelyrepresented among these categories of international civil servants, twomain groups emerge. In the first place, the substitutes are the most important group since the absences of certain members makes it necessary to
ask many colleagues or diplomats to serve temporarily. Then there are
the delegates of the "national committees" of intellectual cooperation(NCICs), structures created by the national academies or universities in
the most active countries at the request of the ICIC. They serve as local
relays and, from time to time and especially from t933,are solicited by
the League and invited to pârticipate in the plenary sessions. It often happens that the most prominent personalities o{ these national committees
are also those that the titular members choose to replace them.
The Venezuelan diplomat Alberto Zêrega Fombona, professor in Caracas and Paris, is the first to replace an lbero-American member of theCommittee when he participâtes as Castro's substitute in 1923. He's
followed by the Uruguayan writer Juan Antonio Buero, delegate to the
PanAmerican conference in Santiago de Chili in 1923 and senator, who
replaces Lugones in 1.925. Replacing Castro in 1.926, the Brazilian diplomat Elizeu de Montarroyos will also participâte to the works of the ICIC
ln1934 and 1938 as a delegate from the Brazilian NCIC. The same year,
Lugones is replaced by the Argentinian vice-consul in Geneva Alejandro
Unsain and the next year by the Ecuadorian writer and ambassador in
Paris Gonzalo Zaldumbide, who will come back twice in 1,934 and 1935
as a delegate from his state. In 1.927,the Brazilian senator and engineer

Paulo de Frontin, director of the Polytechnic school of Rio de Janeiro,
sit as substitutes for Castro. This latter is replaced two yeârs later by8() M,rrlirt Oranrlitatttle liraziliatt physiciarr ilrl(l wfitcl".frilio Àltr,irrio l'cixoto, tltctnltt:r olt tlttr

lirrzilirrn Acatlt:rrry arrtl l)rl|liarrlcttt, pr<lfcss<)f :lt 1h() [)rrivcrsity <l1'l(i<l tltr
tlrc liraziliaLr N(ll(".Jlrre iro ltt.l tut'ltibct' o1''l'lrc âfrivâl Of llelrlOrncr"() sarrin (litno irl l9.l I is syll()lrylll()l1s withst'r;:"iotls'
ittritty rcl,lrt.:(llllcltts sitlt:e lte ttttll' pet"stlttlrlly attclrtls ottc irt fivc
'l-6c ç.1'.rrrIiur.r writçt.Arrfonio.fosé I(cstrirpo rlt]ts:rs lris srrllstitttl('ir)(laballcl'o itl 1934 rrrrtl
lg.l2,, followcrl by thc 1'r.:rlaeoguc Allirstirr Nictol{ivrts Vicrrrt'r irr
Matlttcl
writcrentl(ilrilcurr
Âssr:ttlbly
ilt,lt.11attt t() thc
tlrc
js ;rlsrr(llltlcrtin(inrt:iarvor'k,l(ll(l'sthcol
tg:1.s. D,,rinq tlrc lnst ycrrrs
Victtlr Arldr'és
rc.1-,lacc,l l'ly't[e pL'rril'rrttcrlti:rfy sccl:ctrlry ill Switz.cllarrtl
dc (llrstrt> c
Vir:ginia
writc1:l)ortttgrtt:sr-r
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Alntrritla.,r,ç,,-,r1.,"1. of hg: crtrtntry's tlclcgati<)ll 1o thc Ltragur,:
pat'tl<1,
alr:caily
Oclnp,r by thc ;\r:genr.iniair dr:lcgtle (lrrrltis AlIc:rto
sigrrificant",r,1A(1931J-1939)'(rxtcrrlâl.x'cr.
;rr':t.t; ,1,.1 y.", l,,,for:,,',r. i1nlrlclll[)ers of tl'rcir 1]ll1.ioltâl
arcf.''r,r1.,,r,,ti,,,.,',ll thcsc persoilâlitics
311t1
rrlsil prlrtic:ipatc tlil'crctly
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sornc
a,r,-rr,''ritt.,,,n, but wc rtolc llretis
thc cirs. of tlrc M.ritlis
19j4,
In
thcir.N(lt(i.
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Iirritlrt tlf 'Atnt'lit:tttl
of
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19.1S, thc
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Sct:titltt'
Irliorrlretitlrl
ttrt:\Vall<t'r l.il1rrrcs, cor]t'cspoli(lciltl olr
rrp'ar..1ly
tht:s.
<lf
1"rcri'h.t:trl
11t t<t u'tlcrst,r'rl tÀc ir'plicatio.
sirrce'ct'-itsoilàlirics in tltc wor:l< of tlic I(ll(11 such|l list is rrot sLlfficicrlt
l'llisst:ssiorls'
thc
ill
particil-riltc
rtrcy
tlocs not rcflcct thc colrtcxt irr wLricll
ottt
brirlgt<lllucussrll'yis2t)14)((ir,rrrtlicatl
i, *l]y rr stfuctllful rlnrtlysis
irrtlivitlrrrll<lf
lrl
pfescltcc
lllcfcthc
inforrnrrtiori Ih:1t ltot onlyl:lcscril',cs(l,lrlrl-rittcc brtt ,tlso lrllorvs us t() silo\ / thl:lut ()1lc or tr]ol:c scssitltts t,î thrl:
thc slrtlte scsrcllrti11rrs thrrt at'c wovrtt) 1<111t:thcr wllell t\^/o arc attt'tttlitrg
n tictu'ot'l<sions. liigrrrc 4..1 visualiztls thcsc c()-prcscllc('rclatitlrlslril'rs lis
twcrlt)r-()ll('tllc
of<ltlt:
lr.rirst
rtt
ill
2l2 inrlivitluals wlro tttolt prlrt.ltthcs,.rssiotrs <ti thc [(]l(1.

if thcy

Itr this lt(rt\vorl( ciieg|rrrlr. trv<t pcoplc ill'rr cotlll(rcletl lry an etlgc
prrticipl.rtc i1 tl,e ,,',n'. scssioll.'T'[c size rlf the ctlgt'is rlircctly ]rl:op(]r(r()llrl('ctc(l'ti.,,,"1 1,, thc lnttrbct: of co-prcscllccs o1: tllc two incliviclilrlls
fwi((
l'lr.ol"c.thârr
ctlpltl(lastroarrlryis.-:<ltitlcctctl
liol exanrplc, l\1o1,5j11 tlc(]ut:vctlo
lrtr
sits
sitleCyirs thicl< to litlio (hsarr:s rls t() Lcollrll'tltl'l<lrrt's
visLr
tlar.rtlris
If
sctlor.l(1.
()lll),twic('witll
thc
fivc tinrcs with thc lit:st antlllizrrti()l c()rrccrrrccl rirrly th(: tttcrtt[crs 6f thtr O()trttltittctr, tlrc ttc6v()rli
inhrrrn;rtirll isr,v()ultl lrç pt,rfcr:tly rc.lg,r,l,t1t with liigrrrc 4.I sirrcc tltis
is tl()w
tlçtw9rl<tlris
rr[.cetly .,rirt"i,r..l'ill the 11ttc1(l:rrrcc list. lltlwevll",'<t11
scsirt.lhc
prrrtici]}ttt:clrr contltlctc iilvcrrtory of thosc u,lrobrrs,.:tl
illltlltlclrli)cl:sofrrorr-l(]l(lsi91s.1" Iighli11hti1g; tlrç vcry l,rrgc prttl-,<lr"ti<lrt
tttctl|rcrs
thcir sortrctittrcs ttttt<:lt rrrorc ccrltl'iri lltlsitigl tltllti sonle t:cglllllf
to thcprilpot:ti<>ll1ll
isolt. rrbs.rrt. N<ttc also thrr1. tltc sizc of thi: norlcs
ol:prcsc'ttctthc
rctnlrrl<
ltulnbel: <lf scssi<>1s thc indivirlgals lttenclcrl. Wcr"Ibero-American Network"s in the League of Nations 81

lio Afrânio Peixoto, member of therofessor at the University of Rio deNCIC.
lano in 1931 is synonymous with
;onally attends one in five sessions.
Restrepo acts as his substitute in
ustin Nieto Caballero in L934 andand writer Manuel Rivas Vicuna in

ooo

@o
o

ao a
olo
a

Allendancoo[.--ttoCat€gorylClC MembeF
lClC Subslllulss

rosition than some regular membersof the nodes is proportional to thettended.'We remark the presence ofL€agæ otNalbns Sææbi8ltrr

lnslituliôns (llcl, ILO)

E11€rnâloûg
EINSTEIN

p6rwveHer

FdidpânG (nâtMal

ffimitte€s, erfds, guesls, gov)o

All persons tho fave pâdic'Fld in àl""*"!",".i1,i,iiry'nam{ærsonahliès. ailand hÉhrEhld
on â black bâckground,f .urosros*,o

LELANO

I

Qmm

@owa
t
ata''
ooo
oo

,l

a

o
o
LwnQ

o

o

EË
OEGENFELD

a
op
o\o
al
O

>le are connected by an edge if they:rs of the Committee, the network
Figure 4.1 since this information isIist. However, this network is now
those who participated in the sesoportion of non-ICIC members and\\(('j)/DE WÉCK!

:uguese writer Virginia de Castro e

size of the edge is directly propors of the two individuals connected.
nnected by an edge more than twice
rrdo Torres y Quevedo since he sits
:e with the second. If this data visu-/- 2l \.

Oooo

IIC's work, Garcîa Calderôn is also:tary in Switzerland Victor Andrés

egation to the League (1.937-1938):gate Carlos Alberto Pardo, abeadyI expert (1.938-1.939). A significant'e also members of their national
individuals also participate directly
1934, this is the case of the Mexidirector of the Union of American
I delegate to the Assembly. And, in
ted by the law professor Francisco
Information Section and delegate.
of these appârently peripheral persuch a list is not sufficient since itthey participate in the sessions. This:an 201.4) is necessary to bring out
the mere presence of an individual
but also allows us to show the'itteeren two are attending the same ses)resence relationships as a network:t in at least one of the twentY-one

CAPTION

ta

Krcs

o!

@

o

\

-/

Figure 4.3 Network of the 212 Participants in ICIC Meetings Between 1922
and 1,939.

a myriad of poorly connected people in the margins: more than half ofthe people who participated attended only one session (58%). And while
the majority of them are delegates of national committees or occasional
substitutes, there are still about ten ICIC members among them.

The structure of the network naturally depends very much on thetemporality of the Committee: as most members, experts or secretaries

F8.), M,rrt itt ( )r,tndjt,ttt
rrsurlly sit tlrtr"ing, ()llc t() fivc yclt:s, thc rlcighlrolhotlcl o1'arr intlivitlrr:rl isl.rgi.,eily.,,r,np,,o",l <ti 1.,eo1',1.: wlro lrarticilrrtttrtl itr tlrt: activity <lf thc I(ll(l(){:1'll(ltl,rri,r1l tl,,, ,,,,',,c pcriotl as irc. Ât tlrc top, r,vc firr,l tltc tttrtirt llllcllll)crs.l t)ll-?.,rttrl
li-:t'11:;otr
rtrorrrrcl lhcir' f ilst pr,rsirlcrlt I Icrrl'iiir.:;t (l.1,rrrrrrilce ef
c<ttlttt:t:1t:tl
l1r(l('tasccr'()tary J),r,1crrll lrr,rz6 Nit91.lc.'['his i]rollp is.lcrrs.:ly

rvrt6 tlrc rgir,l(;r of tlr,.r l,r',rpli cottfltittinll tttot'e r:clltrlll clt:rrai:lt'rs,.fttlcs[)cstt.ilc, [iristilr, l]orutcvic,,frilio ()as,rrcrs arttl Maric Slilotlowi;l<rt-(lrrlit'
irr tlrc Iirst pllcc, wlto rvill ell r('lllilill in thr: (]ottrrnittcc rttrtil li).3() (arltl
after: tht,,.lr.:1,ar-ture Of thc fi|st twtl llrcsitlctlts). 1'he sCPârâti{)ll with tlrtr
lt('wcorrlrrfs of l1)3 l, irrclgilirrg, for crltn1.,l.:, thc philtlsoplli'r lirttl l.rrtult'(irrsrillcjtl, islncliarr l)r:irlrc rrriuistr:r Srrlvi:plrlli lterlhakrishttlttt or fosé(iilberr
lVlrrrr:ay arl,l tlr.'fortrt,.'r(ll.litc elcilr: it is (ionzrll:.uc dc ltcynol,l.
(lzcch rrrirtistt:t'rttttl history prtlltcssor,foseplr Susta (thc l:lttcr tltltcrctl itl
ll'c rtelilttl
1921.; irnrl fltus tttt:t rt 1;ottcl prtrt of thc origirral llrcllll)crs) wlttl
1lt th('ollc
rls r1l itltct'factc bctwcrrtl tlrc f<lrtnt:r IOIO, a|<lvt'" i'tll(l fh(r ncw
ll( )t1.ol r r.

'l'his L:9nt1tr-t,li,.:nsivtt rtpl)1:oâch rrls<l hii:,Ilig,llls strvct'itl Sp,trrislr tlr'l)ortrrgucst:-spr.:alcirtg 1',crsoLielitics wllo (lo 11o1. illtcll(l scssiotts as substilt')31-

trrtcs <lr tlclcgrrtcs of a N(ll(1.'Iirlcilrg part itt fivtl strssiotts lrctwtlctl
I9.14 arrrl in I 9.39, tlrt: lll'rrrr,.:<t-llrrrzilirur jourrralist r.ttttl lvt'itt:1" l)<lrttirriLlrrt
liraga is 1)l()l.c plr('scltt et I(ll(lrtrct'tirr11s tltrut trtàtt1' oflicial nl(]llll)crs! Ilis
qtrcsti()lls rtt tlrc l)alisiarr Ill(l1-,,rriti.l, of t(.,chttie,tl atlvisor <lrr litel:ary
2(X)8" l().5-146) nl:tkcs him orrc of thc tnost ilctivc l:cprcsclltrr-il),r'.rrt

iju.,, uf tlrc l)9rtug,;uçst, langu,rgt irr thc cir,.:lcs of intr:llccturrl c<to1tt't'.rtit.ttt.
llul scvcrrtl Spanisli pcrsonrllitics rtrc itlso prtrt tlf tltt'<lccasitltlrl 1l'rrtit:iis thc casc of thc prol'css()r oi lrr$. an.l clclcgat.'ttl tllc l.citt]ttt:
M,rrtitrcz l'r:rlr<lso, wiro :rttttttt[s tlttr nrct:tirt1] of l9.ri.l orl bch:rlf tlf
Marr,,"l'arrts.'T'[is(irrlrrcra fe l)rcscllts
thc (lrtrltrtittcc ort lllol'111 tlis,rt'lrtrrnt,rllt' ]11 19.3.1, lllas
thr-'(;rrrrrcil ttf scit:rttilric tltlitltts, f<lllorn'ctl lty S,rlvrrtltlr t1c M:ltlrtrrrrs;r irr
l93ti rrrrtl 'l 9.19 <tn ['lelralf of thc Irrtt'r:rrr,rtiortel X4ttscuttrs ()ffi.:t' (,lcPcrlrlr,nt ()tt lllO), trrtl liillir Vtlilrrirrto scrvirlll 1ls il lllcll)l)cl"of tltc sccl'('t;lr'iiltof lltc Irrrct:tr:rti<lrtrtl lJttrc:ttrr St'cti<lt oltt[tc [,cagrtc in l9]!) rrs rvtrll' With

l'cgllrtl to tltltt't: rratiol.rltlitics' w('lI()1.c thtl l-rrcscltct:1;{r1111: 1-rct'lltrlllclrl V.'lltlcleg,at.r M;rttrtcl Arochrr in l9.l(r etr.l tltr: Argcrrtirrirrrl writcr irlltl"r,,.1.r, l{o[rcrto (irrchc thc s;tttle Ycrtt.
tliplonrat
lJirt rvltat.cvcr thc rursorr fol tlrcir involvctttcttl., Ibt't'o-Alttcriùtn Pt'rtolrtl
sonrllitrirrs r,rrcly oc.:tt1-,y ccrltl-111 positiotts' l{cl)1rc:;(r1}t'illil 1.5'l" of tltc

lr.lrtbcr of irtr.livitlualni.ui',e:tttcrrtlt:cl rln I(ll(l st'ssiott, fclv cltlt bo'tst t'i'T'his is, ftit- cra1 plc'
lraving sirt with a sigrrificalrt 111t11)bcr of collcrtgrtt's'
thc.:rrsc o{ ()tsrrlcs ()r (lilstro, lrrrt also tlf pctllllt'likc Mtlntarf()yos oll
o1:flti'
Zalrltrrnl'tir'lc rvho, bccrrttsc tlttly circll pilrticipilte(l irt thrcc st'ssiotls
Ot.1trtltittec, tnr cr1:cc.l rcgullt: tltt:ltlllt'rs stlch as l,ltg<ittt's, Oor:lrejtl or S;âllill(lrrrro. (lercirr (laltlt:ril1's sitttrrfi<lu is stfllcttlr:llly itllcrcstirtg. I.":eattsc hrtv-

ing a big girl) l)ctwccll his first prlrticlil):ltiolr (rcplircirlg Lttgotlcs irl l9?"5)t.rin't*1 (offi.:ial Pcrttviritr llltrlllbcf in 19.39), ht: c6llccts n llctworli of",r,tIbero-American Networks in the League of Nations 83
re neighborhood of an individual is

rticipated in the activity of the ICIC
rp, we find the main members of ther first president Henri Bergson and:. This group is densely connectedring more central characters, Jules;ares and Marie Sklodowska-Curier in the Committee until 1930 (andresidents). The separation with the<ample, the philosopher and future
Ldhakrishnan or José Castillejo, is
ld, Gilbert Murray and the former
Joseph Susta (the latter entered in: original members) who are âcting
JIC, above, and the new one at thelso highlights several Spanish orro do not attend sessions as substipârt in five sessions between 1"931,rn journalist and writer Dominiqueqs than many official members! His
rary questions at the Parisian IIICr one of the most active representae circles of intellectual cooperation.
also part of the occasional particir of law and delegate to the League
ds the meeting oI 1,933 on behalf ofrt. In 1935, Blas Cabrera represents
rwed by Salvador de Madariaga in:rnational Museums Office (depenving as a member of the secretariatof the League in 1,939 as well. With
the presence of the permanent Ven936 and the Argentinian writer andar.

involvement, Ibero-American perons. Representing 1SYo of the total
d an ICIC session, few can boast ofof colleagues. This is, for example,
lso of people like Montarroyos orparticipated in three sessions of thers such as Lugones, Cornejo or Sanin;tructurally interesting because havpation (replacing Lugones in 1925)
r in 1.939), he collects a network ofvery distant relations. His place in the graph is therefore similar to that of\Waldo Leland, who replaces Robert A. Millikan
the American historianin1923 to return only in 1935,1,937 and 1938 to replace the politicalscientist James T. Shotwell.

Conclusion: The Late Rise of the Latin American Countries
The active and long-term involvement of experts such as Aloysio de Castro, Jrilio Casares or José Castillejo, however, does not allow us to conclude that the lbero-American world has been globally represented in asatisfactory way in the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation. If, in terms of numbers, Spanish-speaking and Portuguese-speaking
personalities often match the Italian, Asian or Scandinavian representa-

tives, they never occupy official positions (presidency, vice-presidency,
responsibility for a sub-committee) and are rarcly among those who
actively pârticipate in the sessions and structure the debates, unlike theFrench and English, who are constantly overrepresented and greatly benefit from their popularity as leading scientific and political figures.
But the under-representation of lbero-American experts in the ICIC

is counterbalanced by a third period, which follows the two distinct
moments that we have described in these pages (the setting up and thenthe enlargement of the Committee): the post-League of Nations period.
lflhile the League suffers from its repeated diplomatic failures in thecourse of the 1930s, the actors of intellectual cooperation gradually seek
to preserve their achievements, in particular by conferring to the Parisian

IIIC an increased autonomy that would allow it to continue its activity
if the states all withdrew from Geneva. In July 1937, a large meeting of
National Committees, ICIC and IIIC directors therefore validates "thestudy of an intergovernmental agreement [. . .] whose purpose would
be to offer other governments interested in intellectual cooperation thepossibility of associating themselves with the commitments made by the
French Government".a0 Clearly, it is therefore a question of bypassing the
League of Nations, still the place where the States are supposed to meet,so that they sign without its intermediary an international act guaranteeing an independent financing of the IIIC. Elizeu Montarroyos, who isclose to the ICIC since he participated in three sessions and is the Brazilian delegate to the IIIC, proclaims during this meeting that "it is [. . .] amarriage, a union of Intellectual cooperation with the Governments".4l
Despite the appearance of a "coup from the base against the Secretariat"(Renoliet 1,999), the Assembly of the League validates this proposal andtherefore convenes a diplomatic conference to be held the following year
at the Quai d'Orsay in Paris.
In December, forty-five nations take part in the diplomatic conference
by delegating a plenipotentiary,az but the composition of this new coalition is very different from the balance that prevailed in the ICIC. \il/estern

84 MarLitt (ir,rrtdjc,:tttl',uropr.l only rcpr.:sents â (llrrlrt()r'oJ thc pill'ticiplllt.s (wltercrs jn tltr'stlrnt:
ycrtr it ltolr.ls rttor..'tlrrrrr 40%, ol:tltc stltts irr tlrc IOIO).'T'lrc larg;cst crirr.

tirro,crrl r>f tlris cliplorrr.rl.itr corrltclcnct' corr]cs 1:r"orrr Letin Arncric:r (oni:tlrirtl), rlcspitc rurrl perhrrps itt rcitclierr tti?. .t[c vc'11, {1;ll' rcl)r()scrttilti()llo1'tlris c()r)tinenI in thc l(]l(, ((,"1, it l9.3li). Witlr Ai'11crr1irta, l]r:rrzil, Ohilc,(,olorrrlrirr, Oostrr l{ii'rr, (irrba, thc l)orrrirtir:rtrr l{cpulrlit:, licuatLrr; (irra{crnirlrr, IIlriti, Mcrit:<i, l)inlurr:r, l)ru'ag.uny. Pcnr, tJt:rrJluay ,tn,l Vt'nczrrt:llr, 1.lris [.irtirr r\rrrt:r'ir:arr clclcq:rtion shows âil in(]r('i'lsc irr thc tlivrl:sity <tflictors intclrcstctl ir irrtcllccl.ual cool'rclltl.ion ilt â tinrc wltcrc scvcr,rl irr,rjr,r'l'luropcarr p()w('l's ert: rlivcstine llrcrrrsclvcs (rrotc that Sp:rirr :rrrrl Portug,alârr) l)rcscnt at tlrc tliplonrllic t:orrfcrcrrcc). Antl, for thc first linrc, e l,rrtirr

Arrrcricrtrr h,rs irn offi.:ia] r:t's1'rorrsilrility: thc l)cr"r.rviatt lit"artr:ist:o (l;rr"c:ia()llrlcr(in is onc oi t.l'rt: lirur vicc-prcsitlcnts oi thc c()11lrcr:c1r(:ù.'11()n l)cccrnlrr:r 3rrl, lc)3|i, lcss thirrr half of thc Statcs sirlnctl tht: Act.
,É\nrong tlrc twc:rrty-<)llc rliltiorrs r:car.ly Io rclruiltI the lllO, lirancc is l:irrally
thc only major \Wcslcl'n powcr to L-ar:r:y thc 1'rt"ojccl, alolrgsitlc Ohin:r,
Spair, thc Ncthcrliln.ls, Switzcrlantl, Poltul4:rl, ll3,ypt" Polantl Itonr;rrri;r.
Morrirc<l arirl tclr l,atirr Arut:ricin Statt:s: Argcrrtinl, lirrrzil, Olrilc, Ouba,
thc l)onrirricrrn l{cpublic, licriatlor, l)rrrrrp,;uly, l)cru, Urugury rtnrl Vcnczut'la. And yct tlrcy lnust r'âtify tlic rrct, a 1-rroccrlttrc whosc tlurirtion v;rlicsg,r'crrtly frorlr onc Strtc to attotht:r. ()n M;ry lst, 19.19, tltirty-scvcn stntcs
signcd thc' ect, but clcvcn oi thi:rrr--irrcltrclinl4 Portugal rr11(l M('\ic()-;rctnally rntificrl it.'['hc iutcnrrrtiorrrrl irct thus offici,rlly crttcrs irtto forr:c<ln.f rrnuirry.l l, 194(), enrl is thcil 1'rrorntrlgatctI by tlrc Irrcnch govr]rnlDr]lrl
a nlontlr lrrtcr'. lJrrt thc Irrtcrrr;rtionrrl Illstitr.rtc of Irrtcllccl.rral Ooopcrrrtiorr
is lto longr.:r'lrctivc, tttost oI tlrc nrcctit'tgs hrrvinl] br'cn postlt<irttrtl, arttl ..vill
bc.:losccl olr.JLrllc 9,,r fi:r,r, tlays bclirle the (ierrnan ro()ps crrtcr P:rris.
Lcss irficetcrl by tltc Srrt:ortrl \Worltl \ùi4tr', Latin.Arrtcrica u,ill lrc a lt:rtilc
er'oiln(l iirr rlany initiativcs inspircrl lly thc âctivitics o{:thc [(]l(l :irrrl thc
IIIO, srrclr rrs thc r"c1-rt:utccl plans tri cre:rtLr irlr Jnter-Anrct'icart Offict or'
lnstittrtc, in rliscrrssiou sirlc(r lt)2t)14 irnil irbout to nratcrirtlizc in 194.1 irr
La I lavrrna.'i5'l'ht: "l)rrn-Aurcricarr (lorrft'rt:rrcc of IrrtcllcctLral anrl (]ulttrr:al
Otropcratiorr" is orsr.ulizcrl in thc sntrtc t:ilf irt Novcrttbcr 1941 (l)crnct?.0 14,349 -.1.54), rrnil III(l l)ircctor I Icrrri lionnct pârticipirtcs, h:rvirrg lcftl)alis fol thc []nitctl Strltcs.'r"'fhis thirrl l)clio(1, which sccs thc Icilrrcy oftlrr'l(.l(..rrr,l it. lrrttitrrtl sPlinuirrg.ril,lin nrornt'rtl;tril) irr I:rtirr r\ttt,'tit,t.
outsidt: tlrr: irrstitutions of g,l<ibrrl (l')urol'rrrrur) llovcnlrlnc(', slrgilcsls tllat tlrc
politieirl bii:kcrinil of tlrc oltl I'',rrro1'rt:rur nirtiolls r,vithin tltc Lr:aguc_-autl
cspccially Iirancc's flrrgrirnt scizurc <llr intellcctrrel coopcrrrliorr-wcle all
obstaclcs to thc rlr:vcl()l)nlcnt of a gt:rruinu grasst'o()ts rn()vclncrrt) wl)cr(lirrtcl lcct urrls crrur orgi,ulizc tltcnrsclvcs il n(l for: tltctusclvcs.

Notcs'l'his institLrtc w?1s iur.lullLrrrltctl jrr Paris irr 1926 ancl conr1llctccl thc (lcncvrt(}rnrmittrrc. I)uc to its lrrlgc sizc, it.lurcl<1y lreconrcs ll l<cy clcmcltt, althouilhYIbero-American Networks in the Leagwe of Nations 85
re participants (whereas in the samethe ICIC retains the leadership of what is known since the early 1930s as the;eats in the ICIC). The largest con: comes from Latin America (one-is particularly strong in Renoliet (1999),>n to?-the very low representâtion

938). N7ith Argentina, Brazil, Chile,rminican ltepublic, Ecuador, Guarguay, Peru, Uruguay and Venezulows an increase in the diversity of'ation at a time where several major
elves (note that Spain and Portugalrce). And, for the first time, a Latin

ty: the Peruvian Francisco GarciaCents of the conference.a3

r half of the States signed the Act.

to rebuild the IIIC, France is finallyrrry the project, alongside China,
Portugal, Egypt, Poland Romania,
res: Argentin a, Brazil, Chile, Cuba,
raguay, Peru, Uruguay and Venezu-

a procedure whose duration varies
L

May 1st, 1,939rthirty-seven states-including Portugal and Mexicoact thus officially enters into force
nulgated by the French government

rstitute of Intellectual Cooperation
gs having been postponed, and will
: the German troops enter Paris.
War, Latin America will be a fertile
ry the activities of the ICIC and the:reate an Inter-American Office ornd about to materialize in 1.943 inrference of Intellectual and Cultural
ne city in November 1,94L (Pernet:nri Bonnet participates, having leftrd period, which sees the legacy of;ain momentarily in l,atin America,,pean) governance, suggests that thern nations within the League-and

intellectual cooperation-were allnuine grassroots movement, where
rnd for themselves.

"Organization for Intellectual Cooperation" (OIC). This Parisian focal point

2. See IICI (1933) Note that two of the letters by Paul Valéry and Salvador de

Madariaga from this volume have recently been reissued (Valéry and Madar-iasa20t6).
3. To this end, we make special use of the League of Nations archives (United
Nations Office at Geneva), abbreviated LNA. About these collections, seeHabermann-Box (2014). It should be noted, as a complement, that Louis(2016) conducted a historical study of the representativeness of the International Labor Organization.
4. Quifiones de Le6n J., "Organisation du travail intellectuel", Journal officiel
de la Société des Nations, vol. 2 no. 2,Marchl{pril 1921,, p. 1,77.
5. Actes de la deuxième Assemblée de la Société des Nations, Genève 1921,
Commissions (II), p. 333.
6. "Observations on the International Comrnittee on Intellectual Cooperation",
Inazo Nitobe, August 1. 8, t922, LN A 4297 I 226 5 2, p. 1,.
7. Note from Inazo Nitobe to the General Secretary,22.72.1.92t, p. 1, LNA
1,

131t42971t8183.

8. "Appointment of a Committee for the Consideration of Questions of Intel-

lectual Co-Operation", Report presented by Hanotaux and adopted by theCouncil on January'1.4,'1.922, published âs ân ânnex (310) to the Jou.nnl
officiel de la Société des Nations, vol. 3 no. 2,February 1922, pp. 174-17 5.
9. "Candidats recommandés par des associations pour les fonctions de membres de la commission de coopération intellectuelle", January 1.2,1922,LNA

13t14297t18t83.

10. "Liste des noms proposés pour la commission pour la coopération intellectu-

elle", March 1922, LNA 1,3114297179608.
11. Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil (-L926), Chile (*1938), Colombia, Cuba, Spain(-1939), Guatemala (-t9361, Honduras (-1,936), Nicaragua (-19361, Panama, Paraguay (-1935), Peru (-1939), Portugal, Salvador (-t937l,Uruguay,
Venezuela (-1938). With these first countries, four new one will join the
League: Costa Rica (L920-1,925), the Dominican Republic (1,9241, Mexico(1931),Ecuador (1934).Intotal,theyrepresent33o/'olthesixty-threecountries that have once been members of the League.
12. "Observations on the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation", Memorandum by Inazo Nitobe,Augvst 18, 1922,LNA 73 I 14297 I 226 52,

p.4.

13. "Nomination of a Committee on Intellectual Co-Operation", Report presented by Léon Bourgeois and adopted by the Council on May t5 1922,
published âs an annex (354) to the Jounral officiel de la Société des Natitltts,
vol. 3 no. 6, June 1922, pp. 679-680.

14. "Appointment of a Committee to Examine Questions Concerning Intellectual Co-Operation", Journal officiel de la Société des Nations, vol.3 no.6,

June 1922,pp. 535-536.
15. Telegram from Hale to the Secretary General, May 22 922, LNA 1,311,42971

210t3.
16. LetterfromMillikantoDrummond,OctoberL3,l.922,LNA 1311,429712101,3.
1,7. Letter fromEinsteintotheSecretaryGeneral,May30, 1922,LN4 1,3C11"42971
20823.

18. Letter from Einstein to the Secretary General, July 4,1922,LNA t3C1742971
20823.
19. Letter fromAttolico to Einstein,July 12,1.922, LNA 13Cl14297120823.

:is in 7926 and completed the Geneva
rickly becomes a key element, although

20. Dispatch, July 21, 1.922, LN A 1, 3Cl 4297 120823.
21. Telegram from Comert to Attolico, July 28,7922, LNA 13C/14297120823.

tt6 Martin Grandiean.
22. "Observ:rtions on the International Con-rmittee on Inteliectual Cooperation",
Memorandum by lnazo Nitobe, August 18, 1922, LNA 13/14297122652,
p. 3.

23. "Vrrux adoptés par la commission", December 8, 1923, LNA 13C1142971
32690.

24. Pham (1962,29) is clcvoting consiclcrable development to it, partly taken up
by Rcnoliet.
2.5. l{esolution 1 frorn report llârcloux at the 4th Assernbly of the League, l6th
plenary rnceting, Seçrtcrnber 27, 1923, Actes de la Etatrièmc Asscmbléc au
Journal officicl (supplément spécial n'13), p. 109.
26. Minutes of the Fifth Commission, Sth meeting (Seçrternber 1'7,19231 and13t1r meeting (September 22, 1923), Actes dc la qu.atriènte Asscmblée atr
Jounnl officiel (supplément spécial no18), pp. 34-38, 53-57.
27. Report of the Fifth Comrnission (llarcloux) to the 4th Assembly of the League,
1-5tlr plenary meeting, Septernber 27,1.923, Actes dc la Entrième Assentbléa
au Journal officicl (supplément spéciai n'13), p. 102.
2tl. 1.5th Plenary session of the 4th Assembly of the League, September 27rn
1,923, Actcs dc la quatrièrttc Assernblée au Jrntnul officiel (supplérner.rt spécial n'13), p. 104.
29. 1.6th Plcnary session of the 4th Assembly of the League, September 27,1'923,
Actes da la quatrièntc Assentblée au Jtnrntal officiel (supplément spécial no13),

p. 107.

30. Letter from Drummoncl to Oprescu, August 30 1926 (Saikawa 2014,153).
31. Letter from Quiflones cle l.eôn to the General Secretary, May'1"4 1'926,

reproclucecl in a note to the Council,June 1,1926, LNA 13C11'429715I457,

p, 1.

32. "RegLrlations Defining the Duties of the Secretariat of the Committee onIntellcctual Co-Operation", Appenclix VI of the report of the 8th session oftlre ICIC, publishecl âs an annex (898a) to the Jtntnnl officiel dc la Sociétédes Natknts, T' année no. 10 October 1,926, p. 130.5.
33. Juu'nal officiel de la ktciété des Natiotts,T" année no. 7 July 1926,14' session du Conseil, 3" séance (Jur"re 9, 1.926\,p. 869.
34. "Appointment of a Japanese Mernber on thc Committee on Intellectual Cooperation",y'ntrnal officiel de Ia Strciétô dcs Natùttts,8" année no.2, February 1,927,43" session du Conseil, 2' séance (Decembcr 7, 1926), trt. 1'29.
3.5. Letter from Ishii to the General secretary, reproduced as ân ânnex to the.ltwntal officiel de la Société des Natilnts,8" année no.2 février 1927,43"
session du Conseil, 2' séance (l)ecember 7,1926),1't. 217 .
36. .lrwrnal officiel dc la Société dcs Natkms,11" année uo. 11 novembre 1930,60" scssion du Conscil,2" séance (September 9,1.9301, p. 1306. The recommenclations and reports of the ICIC are in the :rnnex 1230, p.1374.
37. ClÇ1, Procès-ucrbal dc la chquièrne sessirttt, May 1'1'-'l'4, 1925, C.286. M'
I04.1.925. XII, p. 4.
38. CICI, Procès-ucrbal de Ia uingtiènrc sessiort,July 11-16, '1938,p.2.
39. These clata are taken from the atfenclance lists publishecl in the introduction
to the ICIC minutes. They do not include all the people actually present in
the room but only the indivicluals who l.rave an official reason to pârticiPare(not the public and possible journalists, fol exarnple). The list is cornpletedwith the names of âny person speaking in the minutes i{ he's not officiallymentioned in the first pages (these omissiot-ts are very rare).
40. "Rappolt général: résoiutions et vc)ux", appeudix to the "Actes de la deuxième conférence générale des commissions nationelles de coopération ir.rtellectuelle", Paris, July 5-9, 1937, document C.-530.M.369.1937.XII, LNA
5P,114390132496,

p. 88.

Ibero-American Networks in the League of Nations g7
onal Committee on Intellectual Cooperation",re, August 18, !922, LNA 13/14297122652,

41. "Procès-verbaux des séances de la Conférence diplomatique concernant lacoopération intellectuelle", Paris, 4th plenary meeting, December 2, '!,938,

ssion", December 8, 1923, LNA 1"3C1I42971

42. "Communication du Gouvernement Frânçâis au sujet de I'Acte international>nsiderable development to it, partly taken up

loux at the 4th Assernbly of the League, 16th
7,1923, Actes de Ia quatrièmc Assemblée attécial n'13), p. 109,
sion, Sth meeting (September 17,1923) and
1923\, Actes dc la quatrième Assernblée attécial n"18), pp. 34-38, 53-57.
r (Bardoux) to the 4th Assembly of the Leaglue,
rcr 27,1.923, Actes dc la quatrième Assetnblée: spécial n"13), p. 102.
th Assernbly of the League, September 27m
ssemblée att Journal officiel (supplément spé-

LNA 5B/33863/35946, p. 68.

concernânt la Coopération intellectuelle", communicatecl to the Council,
January 1,4,1939, LNA 5B/33863136476, p. 1 .
43. "Procès-verbaux des séances de la Conférence diplomatique concernant lacooçrération intellectuelle", Paris, 1st plenary meeting, November 30, 1938,

LNA .5B/33863135946, p. 9.
44. CICI, Procès-uerbal de Ia utzième session, prantière sédnce, luly 22, 1929,
LNA C.342.M .121.L929 .XII, pp. 13-14.
45. "Pour une collaboration intellectuelle", dispatch from the Swiss Telegraphic
Agency, October 22,1943, LNA 5B/318/41160. See also (Dumont 2008).
46. Letter {rom Anker to Rosenborg, June 23, 1942, LNA 581318141160.
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Bekri, Chikh. 1,990. L'UNESCO : tnrc entreprise erronée ? Paris: PLrblisud.
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Dumont,Juliette. 2016.'Unpanarnéricanisrne à la brésilienne ? Le projet d'Institut

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Grandjean, Martin. 2018.'Les réseaux de la coopération intellectuelle. La Société desNations comme actrice des échanges scientifiques et culturels dans I'entre-deuxguerres'. Lausanne: Université de Lausanne. https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.

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v

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I lciJrlbclg.

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