Liquid Xe Detectors
田内利明、平成18年7月12日
測定器開発室勉強会、素核研、KEK

General Property of Liquid Xenon
http://www.pd.infn.it/~conti/LXe.html

Rich detection media : Scintillation and Ionization
Scintillationenergyphotomultipliers
GEM/photocathod
Avalanche Photodiodes

Ionization
position
ionization chamber with low noise amp. 300e
GEM in 2 phase Xe

22,000 VUV photons/511KeV with 3ns, 27ns and 45ns
30,000 electron-ion pairs/511KeV
electron drift at 2.3mm/us with 2kV/cm
At 511 keV, 22% photoelectric, 78% Compton with xenon
half a mm for 511 keV photoelectron
Primary ionization signal is weak: of the order of 1, 10, 100 and 500 keV
for coherent neutrino, dark matter, solar neutrino and PET respectively.

XENON (PSD and Scint/Ion)
Xe +Ionisation
Nuclear/Electron Recoil

three discrimination
techniques

+Xe
Xe 2+

Excitation(1) scintillation pulse shape+e (recombination)Xe *Xe ** + Xe

+Xe
Xe 2*

175nm
Triplet27ns

2Xe(3) ionisation-scintillation- high field, low threshold 175nm

Singlet3ns

single phase Xe

two phase Xe

liqui
d

ga
s
liqui
d

2Xe

World expertise• ICARUS-UCLA
Neil(2) ionisation-scintillation- low field-• Doke group (Japan)• DAMA• Columbia • UKDMC • ITEP
July

Table 1.5: Physical properties of noble liquids (adapted from Ref. (98)).
LAr
LKr
LXe
Atomic Number Z
18
36
54
Atomic Weight A
39.95
83.8
131.3
Density (g/cc)
1.39
2.45
3.06
Melting Point Tm (K)
83.8
115.8
161.4
Boiling Point Tb (K)
87.3
119.8
165.1
Critical Temperature Tc (K)
150.7
209.5
289.7
Critical Pressure Pc (atm)
48.3
54.3
57.64
Critical Density (g/cc)
0.54
0.91
1.10
Volume Ratio (ρl /ρg )
784
641
519
Fano Factor
0.107
0.057
0.041
Drift Velocity (mm/µsec) @ 1(5) kV/cm 1.8(3.0) 2.4(4.0) 2.2(2.7)
Mobility (cm V−1 s−1 )
525
1800
2000
Radiation Length (cm)
14.3
4.76
2.77
(dE/dx) (MeV/cm)
2.11
3.45
3.89
Liquid Heat Capacity (cal/g-mole/K)
10.05
10.7
10.65
W-value (eV) (ionization)
23.3
18.6
15.6
W-value (eV) (scintillation)
19.5
15.5
14.7
Wavelength of Scintillation Light (nm)
130
150
175
Decay const.
fast (ns)6.5
22
slow (ns)
1100
85
30
Refractive index @ 170 nm
–
1.41
1.60
Dielectric constant
1.51
1.66
1.95

1 Phase

EXO

TPC ; 1 phase2006

http://www-project.slac.stanford.edu/exo/ ; Double β Decay
liqXe-TPC, grid and segmented anode and PMT, 10ton (3m3)
WIPP : Waste Isolation Pilot Plant Carlsbad NM, Excavated in undergroundsalt – lower U/Th activity. ~2,000 m.w.e. depth
200kg (63l), enriched 136Xe (80%) 2006
without Ba tagging for 2 years
1 ton with Ba tagging for 5 years
10 ton with Ba tagging for 10 years
136Xe →136Ba+++ e–+ e–• Extract the Barium ion fromthe event location(electrostatic probe)• Deliver the Barium to a laser
system for Ba136
identification.

Xe offers a new tool to reduce background:
136Xe

136Ba++ final state can be identified

using optical spectroscopy (M.Moe PRC44 (1991) 931)
Ba+ system best studied(Neuhauser, Hohenstatt,Toshek, Dehmelt 1980)
Very specific signature“shelving”
Single ions can be detectedfrom a photon rate of 107/s

Barium tagging would
eliminate all radioactive
backgrounds, leaving
only 2νββ.
TPC Symposium 2003

The Enriched Xenon Observatory

7

It’s just crazy enough to work
Assuming that the Xe chamber + Ba tagging reduce to 0 all
radioactive background...
Isotope Det mass Enrich. Eff. Measur.
(kg)(%) (%) time (yr)136Xe*

136Xe**

1000
10000

80
80

70
70

5
10

Background
0 + 1.8 events
0 + 5.5 events

T1/20νββ <mn> (eV)
(yr)
QRPA
NSM
8.3*1026 0.051
1.3*1028 0.013* σ(E)/E = 2.8% R.Luescher et al. Phys. Lett. B434 (1998) 407** σ(E)/E = 2.0% Modest improvement on the above.

The meV region is within reach.
TPC Symposium 2003

The Enriched Xenon Observatory

8

0.14
0.037

!"#$%&'()**$+,$-.$/012-(034$5-67823/.9$62:38#.+6$-;;-2-1/,!"#$%"&'(#)*"+,(-"./-)*
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for lights!"#$%&'&())*+,-.)*()

Xenon calorimetry
We measure the event
energy by collecting theionization on the anode and/or observing thescintillation.

As the electric field isincreased, the collectedionization increases andthe scintillation decreases.

TPC Symposium 2003

The Enriched Xenon Observatory

12

;<<"78"4,+&+&.4*"&+"6*"()#&$%%*/"$&"=+>?# @ABBC"DE!"#$%&#'( &$)*"+,-./+01+2.$.

!"#$%&'&())*!"#$%&"'()*"&+"#&+,*&-*"'(%(&$,.",$/(+$0&(1*"2$#&*33$)/"4*,5+,'"%+2"
6$078,+9)/"+,-.)*/
4-.#(0#"*:4*,('*)&#

An experimental facility for EXO

WIPP : Waste Isolation Pilot Plant
Carlsbad NM
Excavated in undergroundsalt – lower U/Th activity.
~2,000 m.w.e. depthhttp://www-sk.icrr.u-tokyo.ac.jp/xmass/;for Solar ν, 2β, DM
2004

Strategy of the XMASS project ; 1 phase
NOW

~1m
~30cm

~1 ton detector(FV 100kg)
Dark matter searchPrototype detector(FV 3kg) R&D 100kg
Confirmation of feasibilitiesof the ~1 ton detector
Analysis techniques
Self shielding performance
Low background properties
Purification techniques
August 18, 2004

~2.5m

Y.Takeuchi @ICHEP04 in Beijing~20 ton detector(FV 10ton)
Solar neutrinos
Dark matter search

Dedicated detector for
Double beta decay searchPhysics goals at XMASS
Direct search via nuclear
elastic scattering

XMASS FV 0.5ton year
Eth=5keV, 3! discovery
Spin Independent

Expected signal

Eth = 20keV ~3 events/day/ton

Eth = 5keV ~200 events/day/ton! Xenon MASSive Detector for Solar Neutrinos (pp/7Be)! Xenon Detector for Weakly Interacting

MASSive

Particles (Dark Matter Search)! Xenon
Neutrino MASS
Detector(Double Beta Decay)
August 18, 2004
Y.Takeuchi@ICHEP04 in BeijingPhysics goals at XMASS
Measure pp ! via ! + e!+e

XMASS FV 50 ton year
(90%CL)

G. Gratta@Neutrino2004

!!
"#$%

http://www.sns.ias.edu/~jnb/! Xenon MASSive Detector for Solar Neutrinos (pp/7Be)! Xenon Detector for Weakly Interacting

MASSive

Particles (Dark Matter Search)! Xenon
Neutrino MASS
Detector(Double Beta Decay)
August 18, 2004
Y.Takeuchi@ICHEP04 in Beijing

2!"" life time should be measured
Isotope separation would be neededPhysics goals at XMASS
136Xe[cts/keV/5years/10ton]

104
3

10

102

136Ba + e- + e-

Q-Value: 2.48 MeV!

w/o smear
10% at 100keV
20% at 100keV
30% at 100keV
peak position!

!!""# "#!$%&'()*+,$-$".!" *

1

10

0

10

!

Search for 0!"" (2!"") decay of
136Xe (na 8.87%)
High purity and enriched Xe canbe used.
Energy region is different fromsolar ! / DM.
PMTs should not be placed near
the detector.

Need another designof the detector!

10-1
10-2

!

(low priority, at moment…)! Xenon MASSive Detector for Solar Neutrinos (pp/7Be)
0500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
[keV]

! Xenon Detector for Weakly Interacting

MASSive

Particles (Dark Matter Search)! Xenon
Neutrino MASS
Detector(Double Beta Decay)
August 18, 2004
Y.Takeuchi@ICHEP04 in BeijingSelf shielding
Liquid Xe

Volume for shielding

30cm 105 reduction
for < ~500keV

Fiducial volume

PMTs

Reconstruct the vertex and energy basedon PMTs information (light pattern)

Quite effective for the events below ~500 keV (pp ! & DM)! Not effective for double beta decay experiment!

August 18, 2004

Y.Takeuchi @ICHEP04 in BeijingCharge

Alpha vs Gamma separation

Aug.04 run
Preliminary

FADC data

Alpha-likeGamma-like

Pulse width (ns)Alpha-gamma separation by using FADC wave form
would be possible (under further investigation)
August 18, 2004

Y.Takeuchi @ICHEP04 in Beijing

2006

MEG Detector ; 1 phase
http://meg.web.psi.ch/search for muons decaying into positrons and gamma rays

• 800~900 l liquid xenon• 846 PMTs immersed in the liquid• No segmentation
21
Satoshi MIHARA, ICEPP Univ. of Tokyo, JSPS meeting in Matsuyama

Signal and Background• Signal• Background– Radiative µ decay

γ

γ

ν

µ

µ

ν

e
– Accidental
overlape• Eγ = mµ/2 = 52.8MeV

ν• Ee = mµ/2 = 52.8MeV• θ = 180o
• Time coincidence

µ

ν

e

22
Satoshi MIHARA, ICEPP Univ. of Tokyo, JSPS meeting in Matsuyamaγ?

Depth Reconstruction• Broadness of light distribution at the entrance side

waveform

23

shallow

deep

Satoshi MIHARA, ICEPP Univ. of Tokyo, JSPS meeting in Matsuyama

FeedthroughVacuum / Xenon
H.V.
PMT holder

SignalLiquid nitrogen
Refrigerator
Liquid xenon

2-inch PMT(x 264)

Al honeycomb
window

Capacitance level meter
Vacuumfor thermal insulation

Thin Alwindow! beamVacuumpump

Holding rail

an active volumeof about 70lsurrounded by
228 PMTs

Al spacer

100 cm

G-10 spacer

0 cm

Fig. 1. Schematic view of the large prototype.

3.1.2. D
Theusing in
TERAS
facilitygamma
are plabeam sbackgrderivedthe deterays. T
spreadof the t
all PM
beam ashallowlocatedwas per2-dimeLXe-GRIT ; 1 phase

2004

Columbia university - XENON collaboration
baloon flights(1997-2000) of the Liquid Xenon Gamma-Ray Imaging Telescope30+oγ energy range = 0.511 - 70MeV ( 28e - π )LXeTPC ( prototype of Compton telescope ) with 7cm long drift-direction of incident γ can be estimated by sequence of Compton scattering
LXeTPC : 18.6x18.6x7cm3 ( 2.4 l)

Figure 2.3: Top view of the LXeTPC with the field-shaping rings. The
ceramic HV feedthrough is visible in the lower part of the picture.

Incident Gamma!ray

HV
CathodeQ
0

Drift Region

70 mm

CathodeFirst Interaction

SecondInteraction0a b c dt0

a b c dt0

a b c dt0

a b c dt0

a b c d

t

Q

E
HV

Shielding 0
GridShielding
Grid

Q

3 mm

Readout0

Collection Region

3 mm

X Sensing
Wires

X!Wire

HV

2E

Q

3 mm
Readout

Y Sensing
Wires

Y!Wire
0

3 mm

Q

3 mm

HV
Readout

Anode0

Segmented
Anode
UV PMT

Trigger
HV

Scintillation
Light
0

t

Figure 2.6: Schematic of the LXeTPC read-out structure with corresponding
light trigger and charge signals (from (98) and (74)).

look_w4_a4_ev48998.ps

plotted: Tue Feb 6 19:58:35 2001

0.40 * ADC CH. + WIRE NUMBER * 10

X!WIRESY!WIRES

700

700

600

600

500

500

400

400

300

300

200

200

100

100

0

0
0

50

100

150

200

0

ADC CH.

ANODE 1
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

50

100

150

200

ANODE 4
50
40
30
20
10
0

0

50
100
150
200
DRIFT TIME [samples] (0.2 µs / sample)

0

50
100
150
200
DRIFT TIME [samples] (0.2 µs / sample)

Figure 2.9: Digitized waveforms on wires and active anodes as a functionof drift time in FADC samples, for an 88 Y 1836 keV γ-ray event with 4interactions. The upper panels show all wire waveforms, in scaled unitsof ADC channels, each separated by an offset. Matched wire signals areindicated by circles, and only their corresponding anodes are shown. The
wire-anode correspondence is indicated by the dark fields at the top left
corner of each anode display. The solid arrows mark three steps found by
the anode signal algorithm, and the dashed arrow marks an additional step,
included in the fit (smooth solid line) after signal recognition on the wires(from Ref. (74)).

LXeGRIT 2D Wire Display

255
60
223

50

50
191

50
191

191

40

40
159

40
159

159

127
30

95
20
63

10

10
31

10
31

0

00

0

50

100
150
Drift Time (Z) [samples]

200

0

00

1

0

50

100
150
Drift Time (Z) [samples]

223

127
30

95
20
63

20

255

ADC ch.

X
Wirech.
#
ADC

127
95
63
31

0

0

1

0

200

50

100
150
Drift Time (Z) [samples]

50

50
191

50
191

191

40

40
159

40
159

159

127
30

95
20
63

95
20
63

10

10
31

10
31

0

00

20

50
100
150
Drift Time (Z) shifted by 6.2 [samples]

200

00

1

0

50
100
150
Drift Time (Z) shifted by 6.2 [samples]

0

1

127
95
63
31

0

0

1

0

200

50
100
150
Drift Time (Z) shifted by 6.2 [samples]

200

1019
4
3
761
2
503
1

1011
4
3
756
2
501
1

4
3
2
1

ADC ch.
Anode #

Anode #00223

ADC ch.

127
30

1

255

1010
ADC ch.

Y
Wire
#
ADC
ch.

Y
Wire
ADC
ch.#

255
60
223

30

0

200

255
60
223

60

ADC ch.
Anode #

X Wire #

30

X
Wire
ADC
ch.#

255
60
223

60

Y Wire #LXeGRIT 2D Wire Display

LXeGRIT 2D Wire Display

616

Figure 5.7: “Snapshots” of three different events in the LXeTPC recorded
during the balloon flight in year 2000; for each of them the X-Z view and theY-Z view are shown. Left: a 2-site γ-ray interaction. Center: a relativistic
particle passing through the fiducial volume. Several δ-rays are visible in theX-Z view. Right: a more complex interaction with several particles detectedin the fiducial volume. The vertex happens below the fiducial volume, i.e. at
Z< 0.
0

50
100
150
Drift Time (Z) shifted by 6.2 [samples]

200

2460
!9

50
100
150
Drift Time (Z) shifted by 6.2 [samples]

0

1

200

2450

!12

50
100
150
Drift Time (Z) shifted by 6.2 [samples]01

file: /traveler1/lxedata/Flight2000_daq/d2/gamma2.mev

file: /traveler1/lxedata/Flight2000_daq/d2/track.mev
event: 2684232

event: 2684278
file: /traveler1/lxedata/Flight2000_daq/d2/track.mev

Mar 22, 2001

Mar 22, 2001

Mar 22, 2001

/home/traveler/lxeuser/wire_display_2d.ps

lxeuser/home/traveler/lxeuser/wire_display_2d.ps

lxeuser/home/traveler/lxeuser/wire_display_2d.ps

200

223

!170
!564

0

1

event: 2684454

lxeuser

Figure A.4: The LXeGRIT gondola on the launch pad at the National Scientific Balloon Facility (NSBF) in Ft. Sumner, NM, on May 7, 1999 at 7:26:54
local time (13:26:54 UT).

electron energy is shown in (Fig. 2); typically an energy resolution of ~5% is achieved for 511 keV
2005electrons. The reconstructed energy of 511 keV &-rays is then the sum of the single electronenergies and shows a resolution of 13.8 % FWHM. The spatial resolution (Fig. 3) is dominated bySubatech,Ecoleatdesde theNantes,
CNRS
Universitéde in liquidtheelectronic noise
low Mines
energy for
x and yIN2P3coordinates
and andby theelectron range
The accuracy
on theof the firstxenon
at higher
energyfor the dethreemédecine
coordinates.
Nantes,France1 Service
nucléaire,
Hôpitaldelocalization
Nantes, Franceinteraction vertex of 511 keV &-rays in LXe which is of interest for the PET is found to be verysatisfactory:1x1x9
250, 250
140 $my and z coordinates
respectively.
3 cell3 9cm
cmand; a(FWHM)
module forofx,24x60x9cm
drift

LXe TPC PET ; 1 phase

24x60cm3 anode place segmented by 0.5x0.5mm2 pads

3

cells 1x1x9 cm

8 modules 24x60x9
24x30x90 cm3

Fig. 1. GEANT3 simulation of a LXe PET camera with a NEMA NU 2-2001 phantom (right) and zoom on
individual cells (left). The 18F source is homogeneously distributed in a 3 mm diameter and 70 cm length cylinder
positioned at (x=4.5 cm, y=0 cm) in the transverse field of view.

250, 250 and 140 µm (FWHM) for x, y and z coordinatesfor γ-conversion point

PET camera

BGO
LXe

Activity (kBq/ml) Sensitivity – Net Trues Spatial cut
Energy resolution(cps/Bq/ml)(spatial resolution (FWHM)
FWHM) (mm)

3
0.4

30
190

10 (~7)3 (~1.7)

26.7
13.8

Table 1: Performances of the proposed LXe-TPC PET compared to a standard BGO PET camera.

LXe

LXe

BGO

BGO

Fig. 5. Track rate for true, scattered and random events (left) and NEC (right) as a function of the activity
concentration for the proposed LXe-TPC PET (top) and the standard BGO camera (bottom).

time shorter than 0.64 µs.
It was found that energy depositions as 2002
low as 50 keV
100% efficiency along almost the whole cell except in two s
top and bottom where the edge field effects result in losse
LIP-Coimbra and Department of Physics ofcounts
theTheUniversity
Coimbra,[16].
Improvement ofof thefield uniformity at thecathode plates with a plane of collecting wires in the middle.
cells
are
60
mm
reduce the losses.

PETYA ; 1 phase3004-516
long
and 50 mmCoimbra,Portugal
high (along the direction of incoming !-rays). For this geometry,the probability for a 511 keV !-ray to interact with liquid3.5
xenon
is about
73% andCurrent
improvements:
the Mini-strip plate
3 cell ( LXe 6cm long )the maximum
electron drift
collection
time is 2.2µs. PMT 1x5x6cm
segmented
chamberwith
An axial resolutionof ~10 mm (y in Fig.2) can be obta
A
A

An

PM

FA

Dy 2

2

CFD
CFD

1
PM2

10 mm

0.1 mm

z
o

x

i
...
2
1
0

y
SS window!

Aytriggercharge signal
processing

E,x,x,z z
E,

0.1 mm

9
8
...
...

2 mm

x

50um wire
2.5mm spacing

2 mm

250x60 mm

CFD

FA

Dy1

An1

amplitudes of the PMT signals, which can be suitable, inE,yy tomograph??
with 2D slice by slice reconstruction, but it isrecently
time
timing developed 3D reconstruction algorithms, whCimprovement of the system sensitivity.
max.
collection
In view of2.2μs
significant
improvementof thetime
axial resolutio
was envisaged5mm
for replacing
drift the wire plane and obtaining b
and depth-of-interaction (y and z in Fig.2). Hence, we dmini-strip plate, which besides providing good position
specific requirements imposed by high purity environment andead space [19].

from the opposite detector

Figure 2. A schematic of the liquid xenon module for PET and its readout system.

Figure 4. The mini-strip plate.

The800µm,
wires are 50800µm,µm diameter 2mm
spaced by
2.5 mm and forconnected
in pairs,
each(FWHM)
x, y,z coordinates
pair being read individually with a low-noise charge sensitive preamplifier. This

allows these points to be identified and their position and energy deposition in eachof them measured. Therefore, the reconstruction of the event topology is possible sothat the first tointeractionin the detector
be found and its ofpositionin theComparethe crystal,the canreconstruction
theusedevent
image reconstruction. It was shown that a significant fraction of the Compton events
topology
is possible so that the first interaction in thein the detector can be recovered and used for the image reconstruction [22]. The
detectorcanbe canfound
its position
usedin theofimage
total depositedenergyalso beandmeasuredthus allowing
the rejection
scatter inthe object (human body).
reconstruction.
Table 1. Comparison of the liquid xenon detector with scintillation crystal systems

PETYA
Time resolution
Position resolution
Interaction depth resolution
Energy resolution
Efficiency
Dead time

1.3 ns
0.8!0.8 mm2(*)
2 to 5 mm
15% to 17%
60%
2
50 µs"cmBGO blockdetector[20]
2 ns
5!5 mm2
None
20%
80%
2
25 µs"cm

LSO blockdetector (CTI)[21]
1.5 ns
2!2 mm2
7.5 mm
14% to 20% (**)
not quoted
not quoted# $x!$y; $x - from the drift time measurement; $y – obtained with the center of gravity method with themini-strip plate (extrapolated from the measurements with %-source and convoluted with thephotoelectron range)** for a single crystal

放射線医学総合研究所, 分子イメージングセンター, 先端生体計測グループ,

錦戸文彦

2006

液体キセノンTOF-PET装置
80cm

Ring diameter

80cm

Depth of sensitive region

6cm

Axial length of sensitive
region9-24cm再構成画像による評価
実機を想定したリング型の検出器を仮定してシミュレーションを行い、現段階のプロトタイプ実験で得られている基本特性で、画像を再構成した場合に液体XePETがどの程度の性能を発揮するのかを評価する。
•ポイントソースを使った分解能評
価。
•TOFを使った再構成画像と通常の再構成を行った場合の比較評価。

全身用液体XePETイメージ図

NECR
T：真の同時計数イベント
S：散乱同時計数イベント
R：偶発同時計数イベント

NEC simulation
System dead time:200ns
Coincidence window:4ns
Energy window:450-550keV

装置感度Sensitivity simulation
NEMA2001 rod phantom
System dead time:200ns
Coincidence window:4ns
Energy window:450-550keV

試作型液体キセノンPET検出器

温度

-110℃

圧力

1〜2atm有感領域 12×6×6cm3
到達真空度 １０-6Torr
32PMT

試作型液体キセノンPET検出器

R5900-06MOD×32
liquid Xe 12L

画像再構成22Na点線源の再構成画像

再構成条件
ML-EM法
反復回数100回-5<Y<5の範囲を用いる→２Dモードを仮定

空間分解能：3.3mm(FWHM)

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The ionization signal (~60000 e-/MeV) is collected by a segmented anode of 3x3 cm2 in,the (x,y) plane, after crossing a micromesh “Frish-Grid”. This micromesh is a copper grid2 pads ), K:
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Alexei Buzulutskov, Detector Development Symposium, SLAC, Apr 6, 2006

4

XENON (TPC); 2 phase : DM

2006

http://www.astro.columbia.edu/~lxe/XENON/
Gran Sasso underground lab, Italy
10kg (XENON-10) -> 1 ton with visible energy threshold of 4keV
1 ton LXeTPC consists of 10 TPCs (100kg): 38cmΦ, 30cm hight cylinder
Under a high electric field, a nuclear recoil will yield a very small charge
signal and a much larger light signal, compared to an electron recoil ofthe -';<*;3(#$0=$%3#')>;0<
same energy. The distinct charge/light ratio is the basis for nuclear
recoil discrimination in a LXe (2 phase) detector.

Roadmap:→R&D started 2001
→XENON-3 lab. prototype 2005
→XENON-10 first DM detector now→XENON-100 design later in 2006

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GEM Implementation in the XENON Detector
Triple-GEM structure with CsI coating.
Mesh stearing electrode to tune field
for optimum charge transmission andphotoelectron extraction from the CsI.

Replace

Double-sided PC board with X/Ystrips for fine spatial resolution.
Low-noise electronics for
optimum thresholds.

ZEPLIN (TPC); 2 phase : DM!"# $%&&'(#)*+,#-*)../#-'++'0#,%#,1'(/*002#34+.0*,'#*00#,1'#*5%-'6#
7"# 81(''#9:;<#=<#>''?@,1(%.A1#,%#&(%-3?'#,1'#&%B'(#>%(#,1'#?(3>,#*4?#0./34'+)'4)'#>3'0?6#
C"# %,1'(#+3A4*06#,'/&'(*,.('#+'4+34A6#0'-'0#/','(#+3A4*0#>''?@,1(%.A1+## #-II UKDMC collaboration with US and Italy, 30kg
# D,'/#:#EFG8HI#B300#5'#&(%-3?'?#52#8%(34%#*4?#'-'(2,134A#'0+'#B300#5'#/*;'#*,#J$KL"#81'#/*4.>*),.(34A#3+#'M&'),'?#,%#>343+1#,13+#>*006#*4?#*4#343,3*0#*++'/502#*,#J$KL#3+#'M&'),'?#*,#,1'#-III UKDMC collaboration with US and Russia, 6kg'4?#%>#,1'#>*00#*4?#,1'#NLK#/'/5'(+#B300#5'#&('+'4,#*,#,1'#,3/'#,%#+''#,1'#B1%0'#&(%)'?.('#+%#,%#'*+'#,1'#,'+,34A#*,#NLK#*4?#34+,*00*,3%4#*,#O%.052#/34'"#-IV UKDMC collaboration with UCLA 1 ton from ZEPLIN II###

http://hepwww.rl.ac.uk/ukdmc/ukdmc.html

2001

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Boulby Collaboration Strategy
basic ionisation-scintillationand high target mass
- improve by x10 - UCLA concept

demonstrate basic
discrimination with PSD- set first limits

runningZEPLINarray

ZEPLIN-I
single phase
PSD
4 kg

ZEPLIN-II
ion-scint
two phase Xe
30 kg

ZEPLIN-III
Ion-scint
two phase Xehigh field
6 kg

ionisation-scintillation and high field- ultimate discrimination, low threshold -Neil

A multinational
programmeZEPLIN-MAX
ion-scint
two phase Xe
1000 kg

under
construction
new (5 years):
Involved in programmes:
UCLA, CERN/Padova, Torino,
ITEP, Coimbra, Columbia,
RAL, ICSTM, Sheffield

July

'

'

''

'

'

'

?$%76"'Q3<'*+,-./'..'4"&8652'!"8"48(6<''''?$%76"' Q5<' R9#8";' #"87>' )(6' S"' 856%"8' EIT' K%' 8(852AU'(C"6522'#"8'7><''

UCLA design?$%76"'@<'VW8(&'#452"!'7>'E*+,-./'.0A'!"8"48(6<'

'

'

'

?$%76"'X<'-$;$8'>2(8'E4766"&8G')7876"'5&!'8:"(6"8$452A<'

;<-4=6$==
2006!"#$%&#'()*+$$$,-.$/0'+1203$4564$7889>?$/)@AB$CD$7889

7:

ZEPLIN III(UKDMC collaboration
with US and Russia)

ionisation-scintillation - low threshold•

6 kg liquid Xe•

High field (20 kV) operation for better
discriminationX
31etwo-inch

photomultipliers

1kg test
chamber
result•Neil

Completion due end 2001
July

Zeplin III- Xenon detector for WIMP search- Nuclear recoils from elastic
scattering (WIMP – nucleus)- Operate underground, at Boulby

Depth 1100 m (2.8 km w.e.)

Jornadas LIP 2005

Alexandre Lindote

3

2006

PMT Removal for Scale-Up?
•

Sheffield test cell

1

Xe Gas
3

2

GEMs

CsI
He
Cooling

Liquid Xe

PTFE
Reflector

Field
Shaping
Rings

CsI

nucl.rec.
elec.rec.

CsI photocathodes in LXe: E.Aprile, NIMA 338 (1994),
328; NIMA 343 (1994), 121.
GEM phototubes in noble gases:http://
gdd.web.cern.ch/GDD/A.Buzulutskov, NIMA, 443(2000), 164.

1

3

2

Nuclear recoil signal events containno (for low drift field) primary
ionization between these two pulses.
Neil

July

Summary of 1 Phase LXe
Phase Project
1

EXO

Physics

Xe weight detector

10ton (3m3)double beta 1ton
200kg
DM
20ton
solar ν 1ton (800kg)
double beta 100kg (30 l)
800 - 900 l
μ-> eγ
70 l

TPC

1

XMASS

1

MEG

1

LXe-GRIT cosmic γ 2.4 l

TPC

1

LXe-PET

TPC

1
1

PETYA
TOF-PETPET

64.8 llights

drift

PET
PET

lightschamber
77.8 l12 l

lightsreadout
year
x, y anode wires for 10 years

location; APD for lights , for 5 years WIPP, NM, USA
laser - ID

Nov., 2006

PMT

Kamiokacollaboration
Enriched Xenon Observator,
US(SLAC), Canada, Swiss,
RussiaJapan, Korea, Russia

2006Japan, Italy, Switzerland,
Nov., 2006
PMT
PSI
Russia, USA
2003
NSBF (Nationalx, y anode wires
1997,
Science Baloon Columbia university; PMT for lights 1999, 2000
Facility),NM, USA
segmented pads
anode wires or
mini-strip ; PMT,
APD for lights
PMT

proposal Nantes Cyclotron France
2002(prototype)

Univ. of Coimbra Portugal
Waseda univ.,

2003

NIRS

Japan

Summary of 2 Phase LXe
Phase
2
2
2

2

2

Project

Physics
Xe weight
PET
100 l
LXeComp/44Sc micro-PET 13.8 l , 6.9 l
0.1 l
GEM-based
US patent
5665971XENONZEPLINdetector
TPC

PET

TPC

PET

TPC

1ton:100kgx10
100kg
DM (WINP)
10kg
3kg
1ton (IV?)
DM (WINP) 30kg (II)
6kg (III)

TPC

TPC

readout
year
location
anode pads ; simulation
Nantes
GPM forsimulation
Cyclotron
2005
lightsBudkerGEM
2003
Institute
Columbia
1997
university
PMT, GEM

PMT, GEM

design
2006
2005
2006
2006

collaboration
France, Israel, Japan
RussiaUSA

Gran Sasso
undergroun US, Italy,Portugal
d lab

Boulby, UK

UK, US, Italy,
Russia, Portugal

Detector

detectors (Fig. 1). The latter would be achieved
On the other hand, the operation of GE
by depositing an UV-sensitive photocathode,structures in a two-phase mode wasstudied2005
namely CsI, on top of the first GEM. This
Kr-based detectors only [11,12]: the sta
Gas forElectronMultipliers
technique has been recently developed
operationof a two-phase Kr avalanche detec
GEM-based gas photomultipliers [8].
To
at gains reaching several hundreds, w
Two-phaseargondetection
and xenonefficiency
avalanche detectors
based on Gasfor
Electronprovidehighfordemonstrated
at leastMultipliers
3 hours. Recently
A. Bondar, A.and
Buzulutskov, A. Grebenuk,D.
Snopkov,
Y. Tikhonov
scintillations
direct ionization,
the multi-Pavlyuchenko,
has alsoR.been
reportedon the Microme
BudkerInstituteshouldof Nuclear
630090GEM
multiplier
be ablePhysics,
to operate
at Novosibirsk,
operation Russia.
in two-phase Xe [19], but for a sh
www.arxiv.org
physics/0510266
highgains in dense
noble gases, in saturated
period: in half an hour the signal disappear
vapor and at cryogenic temperatures. This is a
Furthermore, unlike GEM, the Microme
real challenge.
cannot operate in pure noble gases: therefor
CH4 additive was used there. Since metha
dissolves in liquid Xe, this may in princi
Foils: 28×28mm2 each,
and a andresultin quenching
the scintillations
increasemeshof theelectric
field inneededcathodewere
mountedefficient electron
emission.
a cryogenic
vacuum-insulated
Consequently, the studies of the GE
chamberof a volume of 2.5 l.
performance in noble gases other than Kr, iThedistances
betweenthe importance
two-phasemode,
are of primary
first
the cathode,this GEM
paper,and
the performanceof GEM structu
in between
two-phase Ar,
and Xe+CH
andtheXeGEMs,
were4 was studfor the2 first
Emission, gain, energy, pu
6 andmm,time.
respectively.
shape and stability characteristics of two-ph
avalanche detectors are presented unirradiation with X-rays, !-rays and "-particle

GEM:

Fig.1 Schematic view of a two-phase avalanche detector
based on GEM multipliers.

2. Experimental setup

64

The Gas Electron Multiplier GEM
A GEM (F. Sauli, 1997) is a thin metal-insulatorDriftmetal structure, densely perforated with small
holes. A voltage across the metal layers
Coppergenerates a sufficiently strong field within theholes to focus the electrons and multiply them. Amplification
The GEM is technically realized at CERN through Polymer foilcopper-coating on 50 µm thick kapton (polymer)
foil, with chemically etched holes of conical profile.
Transfer
A standard GEM has a hexagonal pattern of 70 µm
diameter holes in the metal, 55 µm in the foil, witha pitch of 140 µm.

~140 µm~70µm

A 2D readout of strip
anodes on the transfer
side of the GEM canprovide ~ 1 mm spatial
resolution.

4

10

3

Gain

10

Two-phase Xe
3GEM
Pulsed X-rays
Xe+2%CH4
159K, 0.70atm

solid: liquid condensate
at the bottom
open: no condensate
at the bottom
Xe 163K
0.88atm2

10

Xe 165K
0.99atm1

10

Xe+2%CH4
172K, 1.50atm

0

10
300

350

400

450

500

550

Preliminary results
were obtained in
the two-phase Xeavalanche detector:
the maximum gainof the triple-GEM
in two-phase Xe
and Xe+2%CH4 wasabout 200.

! VGEM ( V )Fig.12 Gain-voltage characteristics of the triple-GEM,
measured using pulsed X-rays, in two-phase Xe and twophase Xe+CH4, when there is a liquid condensate at thechamber bottom, and in gaseous Xe+CH4, when there isno condensate at the bottom. The appropriate
temperatures, pressures and CH4 concentrations areindicated. In the two-phase mode, the electric field in
liquid Xe is 4.0 kV/cm. The maximum gains are limited
by discharges.

Fig.13 Anode signals frompulsed X-rays in two-phasegain of 80. A pulse-heightrigger signal from an X-ra
shown.

A detector response

2001

PCB

GEM3

GEM2

GEM1

High pressure operation of the triple-GEMdetector in pure Ne, Ar and Xe
A. Bondar, A. Buzulutskov ∗, L. Shekhtman
Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia
http://xxx.sf.nchc.gov.tw/abs/physics/0103082

St. steelvessel

1.6 mm

1.6 mm

1.6 mmX-raysource4 mm

Drift gap

Al window

+H.V.
R

0.9R

R 0.95R R

R

R

GEM foils (50 µm thick kapton,
80 µm diameter and 140 µm
pitch holes, 28×28 mm2 activearea) and a printed curcuit board(PCB), mounted in cascade with
1.6 mm gaps
the density of noble gases near
the boiling point, at normalpressure, is higher compared tothat at room temperature.
Xe : higher density by 1.6 times

1 A schematic view of the triple-GEM detector operated at hi gh pressures.

2 PhaseMHSP : Micro-Hole & Strip Plate electron multiplierhole multiplication followed by anode-strip multiplication
GEM-like
MSGC-likegood optical screening of avalanche photons
28 x 28 mm2, 50 µm thick Kapton with a
5 µm copper clad coating on both sides.

bi-conical holes of about 40/70 µm in
diameter, arranged in an asymmetrichexagonal lattice of 140- and 200-µm
pitch in the direction parallel andperpendicular to the strips pattern in thebottom side, with the holes centered
within the cathode strips, ~100 µm wide,
while the anodes, ~35 µm wide, run
between them, in a 200 µm pitch

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1&<99$6()&<9$=>?
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tivity for particular photon emission trajectories. Four of these the number of coincid
Missimer
et al in total) are attached to a ring the full width at half
detector Jbanks(i.e., 32 modules
gantry that rotates around the FOV. This design results in approx- eling kernel.
The air-cooled
imately 15 million single gas detectors being
used toPositron
cover an System,
OxfordUK ganactive imaging volume of 165 mm in diameter and 280 mm in (length), and 990 mm
axial length. All modules are clocked independently with an event diameter. Part of thethe gantry within a vo
dead time of 160 ns.
Data readout is performed at 320 MB/s with a 128-bit bus. The is mounted on 4 whreadout interfaces to a dual-processor Pentium personal computer operation, the quadHI(2 ! 1.6 GHz Intel Xeon), which also controls the high voltage for continuous support ofHigh Density Avalanche Chamber

16-Module : 4 layers/QUAD
32-Module : 8 layers/QUAD

Figure 1. Schematic design of quad-HIDAC tomographdetector configuration. The 16 modules
Performance evaluation of the quad-HIDAC PET camera
are clearly visible.

2071

PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF THE

Table 1. Selected system parameters of 16-module quad-HIDAC small animal PET tomograph.
The reconstructed image size is specified in terms of diameter and length of the field-of-view.

ent purchased the camera include the development of PET radioligands forDetector
thearious neurotransmitter receptors and transporters in healthyand diseased animals,
Hole diameter
Separation between hole centres
ng of transgenic expression in genetically modified miceand the visualization of
Cathode track separation
their monitoring in response to therapy. Since theAnode16-module
quad-HIDAC
wire separation
Ar + ofquenchers
thickness/module
delivered in December 2000, studies
more thanLead
500
rats and mice have
Coincidence window
med with compounds of the isotopes: F, C, Cu, I and Tc. Images of excellent
Dimensions
lengthred using compounds of F and Cu have appeared in Detector
Readerand Zweit (2001),
Inner detector separation18
Fr et al (2003) and Phelps (2003). A biological validation study employing Data
sets
Listdynamic
mode file sizeacquisitions fornd demonstrating the capability of the camera to perform
Typical binning percentagelling (Honer et al 2004), has appeared. Preliminary evaluationsof size:
the60camera’s
Reconstructed image
mm × 100 mm at 0.3 mm
Sampling
distance and Missimer
have been presented at conferences (Missimer et al 2001,
Jeavons

0.4 mm
0.5 mm
1 mm
1.5 mm12 × 50 µm
40 ns
280 mm
170 mm∼100 MB/107 counts
90%
52 MB
0.1 mm–1 mm variable

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RPC-PET...

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.
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.
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Portugal, Spain

the metallic cathode of one
RPC on one side and on the
opposite side the resistive
anode of the next RPC
in C2H2F4 85 %, SF6 10%, C4H10 5%

Detectorstackedelectrodese-

Gas gapZe-

X, Z
Sensitivity

X

Active area 32 x 10 mm2
Incident photons!

!

!
V.4#!M#!QC7235/.C!?.2@!,<!/72!=2/2C/.14!2>2321/E!-7,@.14!/72!=2/2C/.,1!60,C2--!
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,<!/72!&+*-#!

• Copper (on a PCB) and glass electrodes.
• 0.3 mm Gap.
• 32 1-mm wide X pickup strips.
• Not optimized for high efficiency.

<=>8)?$@A8A99'9$@9AB'$2%C(B'8<=>8)?D$BE'$A(%?'$)F$8'F)FB)G'$HI9AFFJ+$BE'$*ABE%?'$)F$*%(?C*B)G'$HI%9?J
K3L&$MA7B%($N)BE:L&$I%9?$O)9&.\TD$V33]V33$&&;
IAF$IA7

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K3L&$MA7B%($N)BE$
KL&$R/FB8)7F

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Z-"
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"#$"%&'()*)+$,-./0-.-Line source
Mouse scatter phantom

0.02380.02030.01490.01150.00760.0075

measured. The absolute sensitivities of both scanners arecomparable. The scatter-corrected sensitivity for a 7.8-cm
line source (the axial FOV length of the microPET R4) is
13.7 cps/kBq for the quadHIDAC compared with 12.2 cps/
kBq for the microPET R4 using a 350- to 650-keV energy
window. The maximum NEC rate (mouse phantom) of the
microPET R4 is 168 kcps@824 kBq/mL, whereas thequadHIDAC has a maximum at 67 kcps@209 kBq/mL (Fig.
5). For the rat phantom, the maximum values are 52
kcps@96 kBq/mL (quadHIDAC; Fig. 5) and 89 kcps@298
kBq/mL (microPET R4).
DISCUSSION

The aim of this work was to evaluate the performanceparameters of the 32-module quadHIDAC PET scanner, an
improved version of a previously assessed 16-module
quadHIDAC (7). In doubling the number of detector modules from 16 to 32, a higher absolute sensitivity of 15.2

32
37

—
22

cps/kBq for a point source is obtained, compa
cps/kBq (point source) for the 16-module quad
The sensitivity enhancement is related to 2 opp
First, the sensitivity is a function of the squares
efficiency, which has an inverse exponential delead thickness, which is directly related to th
modules. Second, the outer modules do not co
acceptance angle in the axial direction and, tsensitivity, which is linear to the acceptance
duced. For longer objects, the absolute sensitivi
ing slowly down to a value of 9.6 cps/kBq for a
object. This is a major advantage of the camera
crystal-based cameras, since larger animals canat once without moving the bed. The significa
ment in sensitivity compared with the 16-mo
will of course be of benefit in the investigation
processes in small animals.
Dead time has not been incorporated in the p
An approach based on the estimation from singdescribed (16), was found to underestimate thebution, especially at higher count rates. A prop
estimation method must be developed in furthtions.
The calculation of true and scattered coincsented in this article depends primarily on the
background distribution model. Several diffeapproaches for the background distribution w
ject—for example, a flat function, a gaussian

TABLE 3Comparison of quadHIDAC and microP
Parameter
Volumetric spatial
resolution (!L)
Center of FOV
Sensitivity (cps/kBq)
Line source
Point source
Maximum NEC rate
Mouse phantom

HIDAC, 32-module
FIGURE 6. (A and B) Images (OPL-EM) of 22-g mouse, acquired in 15 min, 1 h after injection of 18F-FDG show maximum
intensity projection (A) and a single central slice (B). (C) Maximum intensity projection of 27-g mouse, 1 h after injection of 18F
fluoride.

Rat phantom

quadHIDAC

mi

1.2
13.7*
15.2
67 kcps@209
kBq/mL
52 kcps@96
kBq/mL*Calculated for 7.8-cm line source.
†Energy threshold, 350 – 650 keV.
Data for comparison are from (6).

168
k
89
k

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MEG-TPC

LXe-PET : no segmentation with PMT, TPC(1)

333 l, 80cmΦ , 12cm depth, 24cm axial length
2”PMT : 4x54=216
Spatial resolution = 2 mm
Time resolution = 1 nsec
timing for the TPC

TPC : 48kV

52.2μsec/24cm(2.3mm/μsec)
continuous readout
with time stamp by PMT
low noise< 300eLXe-PET : no segmentation with PMT, TPC
333 l, 80cmΦ , 12cm depth, 24cm axial length(2) 2”PMT : 4x54=216
Spatial resolution = 2 mm
Time resolution = 1 nsec
timing for the TPC

TPC : 48kV

52.2μsec/24cm(2.3mm/μsec)
continuous readout
with time stamp by PMT

detection in 2 phase
GEM, MHSP