Commission F : Wave propagation and Remote Sensing
Edited by Toshio Ihara
F1.1 Terrestrial Fixed Radio Systems
Active studies of rain attenuation characteristics are continuing for developing broadband systems above
quasi-millimeter wave band. It is based on a trend that the use of microwave band has been changing
gradually from the fixed use to the mobile use. Results of those studies will be reflected in developing a
multipoint-to-multipoint system, a mesh type wireless network system, a point to multipoint system, and afixed wireless access system (FWA). In addition to the FWA in a millimeter wave band, FWA systems in
UHF band and microwave band have become the object of propagation research.
A. Effects of Rain
Using KIT (Kitami Institute of Technology) databank that contains different integration time rain rate
data sets from 54 locations in 23 countries, a new prediction method for the worldwide rain attenuation
distribution on terrestrial link is proposed [Ito and Hosoya, 2002, 2004a]. This new method uses the M
distribution (simplified Moupfouma distribution) and the rain rate spatial correlation, in which regional
climatic parameters such as the thunderstorm ratio are considered. This new method was compared with
Rec. ITU-R P.530-8 method that is currently used as the worldwide standard prediction method. From theresults, it is shown that significant improvements to existing methods are obtained by this newly proposed
prediction method.
Effects of the regional climatic parameters on Lavergnat-Gole Conversion Method were analyzed, andthe result was incorporated into the extension of this method for the worldwide application by using KIT
databank [Ito and Hosoya, 2004b]. It was found that a good accuracy in worldwide rain rate conversion
could be obtained by using regional climatic parameters such as thunderstorm ratio and so on, and it wasproved that this model could be expanded to arbitrary integration times and regions. Moreover, the analysis
using this method in Japan, along with the data at eight cities across Japan, indicated that good conversion
accuracy could be obtained by using a parameter appropriate to Japan.
An investigation of a highly accurate method for estimating the one-minute rain rate distribution forvarious locations throughout Japan using observed precipitation data collected through the AutomatedMeteorological Data Acquisition System (AMeDAS) is reported [Akimoto et al., 2003a, 2003b]. The
method estimates the one-minute rain rate distribution by supplementing the hourly rainfall data with
10-minute rainfall data and shows quantitatively an improvement in the accuracy over existing estimation
methods.
Based on the experimental data of rain attenuation on 3 links at 15 GHz and on 2 links at 22 GHz, and ofrain rate at 4 locations in Tokyo urban area, the accumulated number of events of given duration with rain
rate or rain fade exceeding specific level are mainly investigated [Ishida et al., 2003]. And these data arecompared with RAL model on rain duration and their results obtained in Europe. As the results, newexpressions available to Japan are introduced.
For realizing Gigabit millimeter wave broadband wireless access systems using 32 GHz band,propagation tests are conducted on three converging links of about 2km path length and the rain rate aremeasured at 10 locations in Tokyo. The characteristics of rain attenuation correlation and of the joint
probability distribution for rain attenuation between adjacent links, and the spatial correlation of rain rate,
to be necessary for realizing the mesh network to possess the routing function are examined [Takahashi, N.
et al., 2003]. The specific rain attenuation at this frequency band and the path reduction factor on rain
attenuation, to be main factors for guiding the rain attenuation distribution, are investigated. As the results,
the specific rain attenuation tends to be a little larger than practical value published in the world. And thesimple equation for calculating path reduction factor is newly presented [Ishida et al., 2004].
B. Effects of Vegetation
Experimental results of the attenuation through vegetation by using quasi-millimeter wave band FWA
system are reported [Ohmoto and Takahashi, 2004]. Excess losses and bit error rate (BER) are measured
through several species of trees. The effect of wind is also examined. The impact of the attenuation throughvegetation on the FWA system performance is also considered from the viewpoint of probability
distribution of the excess loss.

C. Effects of Multipath (Residential/Urban Environment)
A method of estimating the intensity of delayed components using a radar cross-section σ based on
measured delay profiles in 5-GHz and 25-GHz bands in residential area is reported [Yamada, W. et al.,2003]. The relationship between σ and the path length of the delayed component exhibits a lessremarkable dependency on the frequency band. Common estimation method can be applied to both the
25-GHz and 5-GHz bands. The arrival probability of the delayed components for the path length is alsostudied. The results show that the probability density distribution of delayed components on the path length
can be assumed as a Rayleigh distribution in both the 5-GHz and 25-GHz bands.
A 2 dimensional multi-building model and a prediction way of path loss and delay spread characteristics
in entrance radio links by using ray-tracing calculation method are presented [Taga, 2002a]. As a result,when the clearance factor for the first Fresnel zone along direct path is more than 5m, the path loss can betaken into account as free space loss; smaller clearance values yield average excess loss values of several
dB, and the path loss increases strongly at negative clearance values. These results agree very well with theexperimental results.
(A.Sato)F1.2 Satellite Radio System
A. Effects of Rain
Earth-space path in both Ku and Ka band are still important objects for propagation studies. Several
propagation measurements have been carried out also in a tropical area in addition to the inland of Japan.
The rain attenuation measurements are simultaneously performed for both up and down links of the
Ku-band satellite (Superbird C), which connects the Equatorial Atmospheric Radar (EAR) in Indonesia andResearch Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere (RISH), Kyoto University, in Japan, by monitoring thesignal levels received at the VSATs in the two locations. In the equatorial region, the frequency scaling
characteristics show a slightly larger ratio between up and down satellite links, suggesting rather smallerraindrop size distribution than in Japan [Maekawa et al., 2004a]. Also, a smaller seasonal variation of rain
attenuation statistics, such as the worst month statistics, is found in the equatorial region [Maekawa et al.,2004b]. Two-year rain attenuation statistics obtained at EAR in Indonesia is compared with the recent
ITU-R predictions. Using the local rainfall rate time percentages obtained at EAR at the same time, a fairly
good agreement is found between the observations and the predictions up to the attenuation of about 10 dB.
In the attenuation range of more that 10 dB, however, the observed time percentage decreases more rapidly
than predictions, indicating so-called “break” which is peculiar to the tropical convective storms possibly
localized in a few km area [Fujiwara et al., 2004].
Rain attenuation at three different locations about 100 km far away from each other within Kyushu Island,
Japan, are simultaneously measured in Ku-band by utilizing JCSAT-1B and VSAT system. One year
measurement of rain attenuation for a small percentage of time was given together with the ITU-R estimate
and shown the significant difference among all the locations [Hasanuddin et al., 2002a, 2002b, 2003].
Predicted rain attenuation in the 12-GHz and the 21-GHz bands for Tokyo and Osaka (two big cities inJapan) and measured results of rain attenuation in the 12-GHz band for both areas are presented[Minematsu et al., 2004]. Comparison of predicted rain attenuation by the ITU-R methods with measured
data in the 12-GHz band is conducted.
B. Effects of Other Factors
For high-data rate satellite communications, the bit error rate in Ka-band was calculated under thearrival-angle fluctuation caused by the atmosphere turbulence. It was shown that the turbulence increases
degree of the bit error at low elevation angles [Yamada, K. et al., 2002a, 2002b, 2003].
The airplane effect on the earth-space path was measured by the VSAT system using JSCAT-1B near
Fukuoka Airport. The relation of the bit error and the flight route showed that the route of landing airplanes
takes almost the same one all the year around, but in case of takeoff airplane bit error was produced byairplanes which pass a limited area [Fujisaki et al., 2002; Setoguchi et al., 2004].
Satellite link simulator is one of key tools to develop new protocol or improve existing one for high-data
rate and efficient satellite communication systems. A bit error generation algorithm was proposed based on
statistical characteristics of received signal level, and produced bit errors agreed well with experimental
data [Franklin et al., 2004].
(A. Sato)F1.3 Mobile Radio Systems
A. Street Microcell Systems
In order to characterize the propagation phenomena in environments where the antenna height of basestations is lower than that of the surrounding buildings, experimental and theoretical analyses wereconducted. Propagation measurements were made in metropolitan Tokyo at frequencies of 3.35, 8.45, and15.75 GHz to model the path-loss characteristics in microwave urban line-of-sight (LOS) propagation[Masui et al., 2002]. In their study, the influence of the road traffic to microcell propagation was
experimentally and theoretically analyzed and the characteristics were made clear [Shimizu et al., 2002b,
20002c and 2004]. The effect of the traffic was also analyzed by the other approach. Uemura et al. adopted
the knife edge approximation to model the shadowing effects by vehicles [Uemura et al., 2003]. The
reduction of delay spread by the use of directional antennas in LOS microcells is clarified by experimental
and theoretical studies [Taga and Tanaka, 2003]. The necessity of the different expression of the
propagation loss in microcells is introduced from that in macrocells [Jinguu et al., 2003].
B. Macrocell/Microcell Systems
Numerous efforts were devoted in order to clarify the propagation mechanism and to develop
propagation models for macrocell and microcell mobile radio systems. NLOS and LOS propagations in
microwave frequencies were studied through energetic propagation campaign assuming a base station
antenna situated above the surrounding buildings. Frequency characteristics for urban path loss in the
microwave band were found to observe 21Log(f), nearly the same as conventional characteristics in the
UHF band. It was made clear that when applying the behavior to the Sakagami model developed for UHFband and employing mobile-station antenna-height compensation of the Okumura-Hata model, estimatedand measured values agreed well [Sakawa et al., 2002a, 2002b, 2002c, 2002d]. Nishi et al. presented themeasured results of propagation loss characteristics in UHF-TV band in various environments in Hiroshima,
Okayama, and Takamatsu regions in Japan [Nishi et al., 2004]. Frequency band over 2GHz is assumed acandidate spectrum for future generation mobile radio systems. On the other hand, the most of existing
propagation models for macro-cellular systems have been studied and established only under 2GHz band.
In order to investigate the propagation characteristics over 2GHz and to establish practical propagation
models required when the future systems are designed, path loss measurements are conducted using 5GHz
band in a suburban town in Japan [Iwai, et al., 2003]. The measured results are used to extend theapplicable frequency range of well-known Walfisch-Ikegami propagation model up to 5GHz [Yonezawa, etal., 2004]. In the measurement, delay spread is also measured to investigate the multipath delay
characteristics at 5GHz. Significant correlation between path loss and delay spread is shown, as the resultsof the analysis using the measured data [Takahashi, S. et al., 2004]. A measuring system for line-of-sight(LOS) centerline blocking is developed and the measured results were reported on the path loss when the
LOS centerline is blocked in LOS propagation in an urban environment with low base station antennaheight [Shimizu et al., 2002a]. XPD (cross polarization discrimination) is also of interest in macrocell
environments. A method that uses both vertical and horizontal polarizations at the same time has been
proposed. The characteristics of XPD and the correlation coefficient of received levels between the two
orthogonal polarizations are clarified using the measurement results of microwave-band in urban and
sub-urban areas [Ohta et al., 2004]. Taga developed a method of evaluating the performance of mobile
antennas that uses the theoretical expressions of the "Mean Effective Gain (MEG)" and the correlation
coefficient between antenna diversity branches. The "Cross polarization Power Ratio (XPR)" measurement
method, directional statistical model of wave arrival in azimuth, and a simple method for measuring
distribution parameters of wave arrival in indoor environments are also described [Taga, 2002b].
C. Formulation of Mobile Propagations
A new method for predicting the path loss in over-rooftop propagation environments in microwave bands
is proposed. In the paper, it is clarified that the path loss due to distance can be divided into three regions
where the direct wave, the reflected wave, and the diffracted wave are dominant, respectively. The validityof the model is tested by measuring the path loss at 2.2 GHz and 5.2 GHz (CW) in suburban areas in Tokyo[Kita et al., 2004c]. A height variation model at subscriber station (SS) in the region more than 4 m high,which reflected the dependency on location of SS for FWA/NWA systems in microwave band in suburban
areas, is proposed by Kita et al. The validity of the model was tested by measurements of the heightvariation at SS in 5.2-GHz band carried out in a residential area in Tokyo area [Kita et al., 2004d]. Kitao
and Ichitsubo carried out the propagation loss measurements in urban areas at the 400MHz to 8 GHz band.

For future systems beyond IMT-2000, they proposed prediction formula based on multiple regression
analysis of the measured path loss [Kitao and Ichitsubo, 2004b]. Frequency correlation coefficientcharacteristics were studied theoretically by Nakabayashi and Kozono. Equations of frequency correlation
coefficients in NLOS and LOS propagation paths were derived [Nakabayashi and Kozono, 2002]. The
phase difference distribution with and without diversity in multipath propagation was evaluated bycomputer simulations and theoretical analyses. The distribution was discussed in both time and frequency
domains [Kozono and Wang, 2004]. A very simple, general scheme for calculating the irreducible bit-error
rate (BER)−namely, the BER floor−due to inter-symbol interference (ISI) in frequency-selective
Nakagami-Rice fading environments has been developed. The scheme is called the EquivalentTransmission-Path (ETP) model and a consistent calculation formula for the BER due to ISI is presented.
Also an application of the ETP model to the indoor propagation environment is demonstrated [Karasawa,
2002]. To accurately estimate the transmission characteristics of MC-CDMA, an accurate delay profile
model well reflecting actual delay profiles is necessary. Sato and Fujii proposed an extremely simple
equivalent path model for time-domain code spreading MC-CDMA. It consists of just two paths but its
transmission characteristics are reasonable if the delay profile has paths that exceed guard interval [Satoand Fujii, 2004].
D. Indoor Propagation
Numerous experimental and theoretical studies were done, particularly for WLAN and millimeter-wave
communications. A new method for measuring the quasi-instantaneous broadband frequency-domaincharacteristics using an OFDM technique in 5.2-GHz band was introduced and the results of the indoor
measurements using the method were presented. A ray trace simulation was also conducted for these rooms
to evaluate the measured result [Kita et al., 2002; Itokawa et al., 2002]. The results of an experimental
study on the propagation characteristics for broadband wireless access systems in 5.2-GHz band in anunderground mall environment were presented by Itokawa et al. It was made clear that the influence of the
shadowing caused by passersby can be reflected by an exponential term that includes the density of thepassersby. Also it was presented the maximum delay spread value during the rush hours is at most 65 nsec
[Itokawa et al., 2003]. Tachikawa et al. presented the optimum tilt and beam width of the terminal antenna
for indoor high data-rate wireless communications for establishing a link between terminals by considering
the situation in which a partition was placed in the middle of an office, and showed the angle of arrival
characteristics of multipath waves. It is revealed that the optimum tilt angle with the HPBW (Half PowerBand Width) of 30 degrees is 50 to 60 degrees when the data rate is greater than 10 Mbps in the consideredsituation [Tachikawa et al., 2001]. The penetration from outdoor to indoor is also of interest. Miura et al.
carried out the outdoor-to-indoor propagation loss measurements at 8 GHz and proposed a new propagation
model to accurately predict penetration loss [Miura et al., 2002]. On the millimeter-wave communications,experimental results of indoor propagation characteristics in 60GHz, in Japanese style wooden houses, aredescribed. The values of wall-attenuation and an estimation method of the received signal level, and thedelay spread in indoor circumstances are discussed [Yoshikawa et al., 2001]. A series of the studies on
millimeter-wave wireless adhoc systems were reported since 2002. A strict equation for the Fresnel zone
radius was introduced. The applicability of light emission method is presented by the difference angle
between light axis and LOS condition without shadowing the first Fresnel zone [Hirose et al., 2002]. A
detailed investigation of the propagation loss characteristics along the surface of wooden and metal deskplane at 60 GHz was described. The study assumes a two-ray propagation model, and shows a strong match
between the theoretical model and the measured data [Kuribayashi et al., 2002]. RMS delay profile wasmeasured in a wooden house and an office environment in the millimeter-wave band and the measured
results were reported [Suzuki, T. et al., 2002]. A detailed investigation of the receiving power time variation
characteristics in 70GHz band indoor propagation was described [Kuribayashi et al., 2003]. A propagation
experiment was carried out in an exhibition hall and the statistical characteristics of shadowing loss in
70GHZ band was presented [Ohkubo et al., 2003a]. A conventional cafeteria in Japan was selected andmeasurement on the propagation characteristics in a 70GHz band was executed [Akeyama et al., 2003]. The
received signal level and delay spread was measured in outdoor and indoor environment [Ohkubo et al.,2003b]. Ohkubo et al. also carried out a propagation experiment in a hall. In addition to cumulative
probability distributions of attenuation level, the variation of averaged shadowing duration was measured.
Human movement in typical offices was investigated, and then an estimation equation for total amount of
shadowing duration per hour was proposed based on the results of propagation measurement [Ohkubo et al.,2003c]. The 70-GHz band propagation characteristics of two different hot-spot zones for high-speed LAN
systems are measured and analyzed: The two types are (1) a transmitter fixed to a ceiling servicing the area

beneath it (type A) and (2) a transmitter fixed to a wall servicing the area in front of it (type B) [Kanazawa
and Ogawa, 2004].Complex permittivity of construction materials at 62GHz and 70GHz were alsomeasured and reported [Kanazawa et al., 2004]. A detailed investigation on the propagation characteristics
along the surface of a desk plane at 70 GHz was described [Kuribayashi et al., 2004]. The outline of the
propagation measurement and the results of mean fade duration due to shadowing were presented. The
estimated results of the walking speed and the level variation speed were also shown [Ohkubo et al., 2004].
Analysis on materials of walls and windows of buildings are also an important issue for the development of
indoor propagation models. Complex refractive index of soda-lime glass at 30-GHz was measured bytransmission method. Also, a simple empirical formula of complex refractive index of soda-lime glass overfrequency range from 0.1-GHz to 1000-GHz was derived using the experimental result together with datapreviously reported in literatures by various researchers [Ihara et al., 2004b].
E. Spatio-Temporal Channel Modeling and Measurement Method
The importance of the spatio-temporal propagation study has become great as the bandwidth of thewireless systems has become broad. A spatio-temporal channel characterization of a suburban nonline-of-sight microcellular environment was studied. In the study azimuth-delay profiles obtained by theexperiment are compared with ray-tracing simulation. The results are statistically treated in step by step to
extract model parameters in order to characterize the spatio-temporal channel [Takada et al., 2002]. Oda
and Taga proposed a clustering mechanism of multipath components in urban environments. Vector channel
measurements at 5 GHz in an urban area verified the proposed clustering mechanism [Oda and Taga, 2002].
Ichitsubo et al. proposed a multipath propagation model for microcells in urban areas. The proposed model
is a statistical geometric model that explains the propagation characteristics for propagation loss, the power
delay profiles, and power azimuth spectra [Ichitsubo et al., 2002]. Imai and Taga proposed a stochastic
scatter model in an urban area. The main feature of the model is that an ellipse expresses the effective
scattering area. The major axis of the ellipse runs parallel along the street in which the mobile station is
located [Imai and Taga, 2003]. Kitao and Ichitsubo proposed an angle profile model observed at basestation in urban areas. Angle profile model was investigated to clarify the stochastic characteristics of thedifference between the received levels of the sector antenna in order to control handover appropriately[Kitao and Ichitsubo, 2004a]. Okamoto proposed a model of arrival wave distribution for evaluating
adaptive array antenna at mobile station. The 3-dimensional measurements were carried out in suburban
area to confirm the proposed model [Okamoto, H., 2004]. A time-space path model especially suitable forposition determination was proposed. The model explains well actual propagation environments [Omote
and Fujii, 2002a]. Omote and Fujii also proposed a new time-space path model, which was an extension of
the previous model, taking the arrangement of buildings in the city part into account. And it was also shownthat the analysis using the proposed model agrees well with the field measurement results [Omote and Fujii,
2002b and 2003a]. The precision of proposed methods by using the time-space path model was estimatedquantitatively [Omote and Fujii, 2003b]. Mathematical foundation of the time-space path model wasestablished through theoretical analyses [Fujii and Omote, 2004; Fujii, 2004].
F. MIMO Channel Modeling and Measurement Method
Effect of multipath fading and its countermeasure for radio communication systems have been of interest
for a long time. In recent years, using adaptive array antennas both at the base station (or access point) anduser terminal, MIMO (Multiple-Input Multiple-Output) has been popular research field of next-generation
mobile communication systems. The increase of system capacity without increasing the transmission power
or frequency bandwidth has made the MIMO system unique and efficient in data transmission. Karasawa
dealt with MIMO propagation channel modeling which might be one of the important study areas realizing
effective MIMO communication systems having higher channel capacities. After tutorial description of a
propagation channel model for Rayleigh fading, two recent propagation-related topics on MIMO system, i)
MIMO utilizing dual and triple polarization diversity branches and ii) Tx/Rx weight mismatch problem foropen-loop control system such as eigen-beamforming data transmission system, are highlighted [Karasawa,
2004; Das et al., 2004a and 2004b]. Based on indoor radio channel measurements, it was shown that theperformance of MIMO-SDM in line-of-sight environments is better than that in nonline-of-sightenvironments. It was also shown that the performance of line-of-sight environments tends to change largely
depending on the configuration of antennas [Nishimoto et al., 2004a, 2004b]. The suitability of a complex
MIMO channel matrix for spatial multiplexing was verified experimentally in 5.2-GHz band in terms of theDemmel condition number. The instantaneous 2 x 2 MIMO-OFDM channel measurements in several
indoor environments indicate the location dependency of the condition number. Wideband frequency

characteristics were also analyzed to evaluate the applicability of spatial multiplexing [Kita et al., 2004a,
2004b]. Tachikawa et al. investigated the frequency correlation characteristics of the channel capacity forbroadband MIMO channels in NLOS indoor environments. In the paper, the dependency of the element
spacing on the frequency correlation characteristics was particularly focused. The calculation results agree
well with the measured results in NLOS indoor environments [Tachikawa et al., 2004]. Simulation andexperimental evaluation results of a circular and linear polarized antenna array applied to the MIMO
system in an indoor environment were presented. A ray-trace simulation is used for the theoretical analysis.
Measurements are carried out using a newly developed 2x2 MIMO-OFDM channel measurement system.
The analysis results in terms of OFDM sub-carriers were also presented [Yamada, W. et al., 2004a].
Yamada et al. also presented frequency correlation of a MIMO-OFDM channel matrix in a real indoor
environment. The eigenvector correlation of the wideband MIMO-OFDM channel matrix obtained from an
actual indoor environment was used as an evaluation parameter of the frequency correlation characteristic.
The knowledge of the frequency correlation of a MIMO-OFDM channel enables to reduce the calculationof MIMO channel matrix for each OFDM sub-carrier [Yamada, W. et al., 2004b].
G. Ultra Wideband
UWB is also one of the latest interests in the propagation field. Kobayashi and Kouya summarized thefeatures of ultra wideband technologies, their origins, and the recent progress of the research anddevelopment, including UWB propagation studies [Kobayashi and Kouya, 2003; Kobayashi, 2003]. Satoand Kobayashi proposed a new UWB line-of-sight path loss formula based on the narrowband two-path(direct and ground reflected waves) model, taking into account the bandwidth of signals. Indoor
experimental results verified the validity of this new formula [Sato and Kobayashi, 2004]. Short-range
propagation measurements were carried out using UWB (3.1 to 10.6 GHz) and continuous wave (CW)
signals on a rectangular metal plate simulating typical desks with and without a low vertical metal partition
panels. With the partition panel, the CW reception level showed approximately a 36-dB spatial variation,induced by the interference between the direct and the reflected waves, but the UWB reception level had no
particular plunges. They also measured the additional losses when the propagation paths were blocked witha human arm and when the antenna was covered with a human palm [Suzuki and Kobayashi, 2003]. Resultsof experiments in an anechoic chamber that assessed the reliability of UWB channel sounding system basedon a deterministic approach with SAGE algorithm was presented. The system could resolve and detect 10[deg] separated waves in angle domain, which was near the resolution limit. In the delay domain, 0.67 [ns]separated waves could be resolved where the relation between the bandwidth of subband and spectrum
estimation was discovered [Haneda et al., 2004a]. Spatio-temporal analyses of LOS and NLOS homeenvironments based on the deterministic approach were presented. The paths estimated with a SAGE
algorithm were classified into several clusters by a heuristic approach. The identified clusters were
determined from the physical structures of the environments, i.e. room height, specular directions, and sizeof scatterers in both the LOS and NLOS environments. The results imply that the spatial and temporalchannel characteristics are highly correlated [Haneda et al., 2004b]. Haneda et al. also presented the resultsfrom double directional channel measurements in a typical home environment with ultra wideband signal.
100 ray paths were extracted using the SAGE algorithm at the both sides of radio link and they are regarded
as dominant propagation phenomena. Then the paths were identified to the real environment, in whichclusterization analyses were examined [Haneda et al., 2004c, 2004d]. Another study on UWB propagations
was by Suzuki and Kobayashi. The paper described the development and experimental verification of the
UWB spatio-temporal channel sounding system with use of a UWB monopulse antenna [Suzuki andKobayashi, 2004].
H. Others
The research on adaptive array processing, DOA (Direction of Arrival) estimation and theirimplementations in beamformer circuits using FPGA (Field Programmable Gate Array) have intensively
been made at Yokohama National University. The simple MRC (Maximal Ratio Combine) beam-former
with FPGA was presented for real-time signal processing and verified its practical realization in the next
generation mobile communications [Kim, M. et al., 2001]. Inoue et al. clarified the cause of error for DOA
estimation by MUSIC and ESPRIT algorithm [Inoue et al., 2002]. Properties and drawbacks ofrepresentative DOA estimation algorithms were studied such as MUSIC, Root-MUSIC, andUnitary-ESPRIT by investigating the influence of quantization errors in digital operations for various cases[Shinagawa et al., 2002]. The ‘T’ character-type array antenna system was proposed which estimated the
DOA by the virtual uniform rectangular arrays [Hirota et al., 2002]. Ichige et al. discussed a fast approachfor the eigenproblems of correlation matrices used in direction-of-arrival(DOA) estimation algorithms,
especially for the case that the number of arriving waves was a few [Ichige et al., 2002,2003]. The EVD
using a Jacobi-type method was computed, where the vector rotations and the angles of the rotations wereobtained by CORDIC (COordinate Rotation DIgital Computer) [Kim, M. et al., 2002]. The hardware
implementation of CMA(Constant Modulus Algorithm) adaptive array algorithms was presented as atechnique for compensating multi-path fading in mobile communication [Suzuki, S. et al., 2002].
Implementation of RLS (Recursive Least Square) algorithm on FPGA with fixed-point operation waspresented. It was used in 4-elements MMSE (Minimum Mean Square Error) adaptive array antenna[Matsumoto et al., 2003]. A method of direction of arrival estimation using T-type array antenna in a mobile
communication at 900 MHz band was proposed and the valuation of the performance of the proposed
method was also reported by simulations and experiments [Hirota et al., 2003]. The practicalimplementation of DOA estimation system using FPGA was proposed. That is a key technique in therealization of the DOA-based adaptive array antenna for cellular wireless basestation [Kim, M. et al.,2003a]. In addition, the real hardware basestation testbed system of DOA-based adaptive array antenna wasalso presented [Kim, M. et al., 2003b]. A hardware architecture for smart antenna was presented. It includes
multi-channel calibrated transceiver, AD/DA converter and digital processing unit together with its
optimum DOA and beam forming algorism [Arai and Kim, 2003]. An accurate and fast DOA estimation
method using modified fast EM algorithm was presented [Hayashi et al., 2003]. A real time signal
discrimination method based on the estimation of signal correlation using an array antenna was presented[Inoue et al., 2004]. The method of DOA estimation using pilot signal was proposed. DOA could be
estimated by using the virtual planar array created from the original ‘T’ character-type array [Hirota et al.,2004]. A practical hardware implementation of uplink smart antenna system useful for macrocellular basestations was described [Kim, M. et al., 2004a]. Kim also presented a practical implementation of FPGA
based fast DOA estimator for wireless cellular basestation. This system incorporates spectral unitaryMUSIC algorithm [Kim, M. et al., 2004b]. Their results also include an automatic recognition algorithm ofanalogue modulated signals provided that jamming signals exist near the carrier frequency of a target signal[Matsuzaki et al., 2003].
Propagation research in millimeter-wave band was made particularly for ITS, Intelligent Transportation
System, applications. Propagation loss characteristics for inter vehicle communication system wasmeasured in NLOS condition at 60GHz [Yamamoto et al., 2002]. Millimeter-wave path loss between two
cars was also measured by Takahashi et al. to obtain the general applicable distance for inter-vehiclecommunication systems in real environments [Takahashi, S. et al., 2003]. The path loss measurements werecarried out using 60-GHz CW radiowaves with standard horn antennas on metropolitan highways andregular roads. Fading characteristics of 60GHz inter-vehicle communications were also studied [Kawakami
et al., 2002]. Kawakami demonstrated the data transmission between the two running vehicles, and thecumulative distribution of received power and fade durations average level crossing rate were measured at
the experiment. Transmission loss of windshield and effect of rain drop on windshield surface were
measured in the 60 GHz band [Sato and Fujise, 2002]. The transmission loss by the windshield is around
2-5dB and the attenuation by rain drop on windshield is about 5 dB. A Radio-On-Fiber system using
millimeter-wave transmission has great potential for future road-vehicle communication. However, very
intense fading occurs in the interference region because the same frequency is used for different cells. The
availability of diversity to solve this problem is discussed [Sato and Fujise, 2004].
Studies for the reception of mobile satellite systems were also made. A performance of a satellite tracking
control system for mobile DBS reception was presented. In order to improve the tracking speed and thestability of this system, a directional sensor function is added to a conventional left-right tracking algorithm[Kim, D. et al., 2002].
Imai proposed a prediction method of propagation loss characteristics in tunnels using ray-tracing
method. The prediction effectiveness and accuracy in ray-tracing method was discussed based on thecomparison made between the results of ray-tracing and of the actual measurement [Imai, 2002].
(H.Iwai)
F2 Remote Sensing
F2.1 Atmosphere
In this section, remote sensing of atmosphere from the ground to the altitude of about 100 km isreviewed.

A. GPS Meteorology
GPS (Global Positioning System) meteorology is a sounding technique of the atmosphere, by measuring
propagation delay time of radio waves transmitted by GPS satellites. It provides us with information ofelectron density in the ionosphere, temperature in the stratosphere and humidity (water vapor) in the
troposphere. The receiver could be located either on the ground or on board of LEO (low earth orbit)
satellite. Experiments with receivers at the top of the mountain or on board aircrafts are also on going(down-looking GPS measurement).
The LEO measurement with CHAMP and SAC-C satellites revealed structure and atmospheric waves
such as Kelvin waves and gravity waves in the troposphere and stratosphere [Tsai et al., 2004; de la Torre etal., 2004; Tsuda and Hocke, 2004; Ratnam et al., 2004]. Ground based GPS receiver network
measurements has been applied to derive tri-dimensional structure of the water vapor in the troposphere[Noguchi et al., 2004]. The down-looking GPS measurement for tropospheric water vapor measurements
are being developed by both analysis technique [Mousa and Tsuda, 2004], and experiment [Aoyama et al.,2004].
B. Various Techniques of Observation in Atmosphere with MST (Mesosphere Stratosphere
Troposphere ) and Other Radars
It is common for the ST/MST radars to use bi-phase pulse-code compression in order to obtain a better
signal to noise ratio and obtain a better height and time resolution as well as height coverage. New pulse
compression codes which show better suppression of the radio interference has been proposed and used in
the MU (middle and upper atmosphere) radar [Ghebrebrhan et al., 2004]. Structure-function analysis has
been applied to the MU radar spaced antenna observation in the troposphere and variances of horizontal
turbulent velocity components and horizontal momentum flux [Praskovsky et al., 2004]. The many beam
method has clarified detailed horizontal structure of the tropospheric scatterer [Hirono et al., 2004].
In south India, a boundary layer radar (BLR) has been operated for several years. The wind vector
estimated from the BLR has been compared with the Indian MST radar, showing good agreement [Reddy etal., 2001]. This system has also been used for precipitating cloud systems. It was shown that convective
rain is most frequent in the summer monsoon, while stratiform rain is predominant in the winter monsoon[Reddy et al.,2002]. A 3 GHz BLR on board a vehicle has been developed and used for the mobile
observation [Yamamoto, M.K., et al., 2002].
An atmospheric radar (wind profiler) for lower tropospheric observations (Lower Troposphere Radar:
LTR), as an extension of the 1357.5-MHz boundary layer radar (BLR) has been developed. System gain of
this radar is improved due to newly developed large-sized active phased-array antenna, active transmitting
modules with higher output power, and pulse compression technique (an antenna gain of 33 dBi with a 4 m
x 4 m active phased array antenna, and a peak output power of 2 kW) [Hashiguchi et al., 2004]. This radar
has been applied to various interesting and important weather disturbances such as tropical typhoon[Teshiba et al., 2004a] and orographic rain band in Baiu season [Umemoto et al., 2004]. It should also be
noted that this radar has now been distributed over Japan as an windprofiler network of Japanese
Meteorological Agency (called WINDAS) and the results are utilized for weather forecast.
A 35 GHz radar to observe smaller particles such a as clouds and fogs has been developed and applied tothe observation of fog, which was difficult to detect by radars before [Hamazu et al., 2003; Teshiba et al.,2004b].
A low elevation sidelobe suppression algorithm based on the uniform physical theory of diffraction(PTD) is developed to simulate ground clutter prevention fences for boundary layer radars [Rao et al.,2004]. Calibration method of the interferometers in meteor radars has been developed by a statistical
approach [Holdsworth et al., 2004].
C. Mesosphere and Lower Thermosphere (MLT) Region
Mesosphere and lower thermosphere region exhibits special interests because it is a transient region
between the neutral and ionized atmospheres, and eddy diffusive and molecular diffusive atmospheres.
Variability of this region has been studied intensively by using observations, modelings and theoreticalworks.
As for the observational study, combined radio and optical techniques has contributed significantly. The
wind observation using meteor echoes with the MU radar is the most sensitive meteor radar observation in
the world and has revealed horizontal structure of the wind field in the MLT region and clarified its effecton the airglow imaging and wave breaking [Nakamura, T., et al., 2002]. Ejiri et al.[2002] used two airglow
imagers near the MU radar site and measured the height of small-scale ripple structure in the airglow forthe first time. In the rocket campaign of airglow structure in the MLT region (WAVE 2000 campaign),
observations by ground-based airglow imaging observations as well as the MU and an MF radar windobservation has revealed the tri-dimensional structure of the airglow [Iwagami et al., 2002]. The local-timeheight variation of the airglow layer has now been understood as one of the reason of the difference ofradar derived and optically derived wind velocity, which has been an issue discussed for a long time [Fujii,J., et al., 2004]. Temperature obtained by O2 airglow at around 90 km has been used to discuss theatmospheric density variation by a combined observation with the MU radar [Takahashi, H., et al. 2004].
D. Equatorial Atmosphere Radar (EAR) and CPEA (Coupling Processes in the Equatorial
Atmosphere)
The Equatorial Atmosphere Radar is a VHF atmosphere radar at 47 MHz with 100kW output equippedwith an active phased array antenna. It is located at Kototabang, West Sumatra (100.3 deg E, 0.2 deg S) andstarted observation in 2001 [Fukao et al., 2003], and has been very successfully used for the study ofequatorial atmosphere dynamics, which is very important study in order to understand the drive source of
the whole global atmosphere as well as the environmental change of the earth's atmosphere. A project forstudying the coupling processes in the equatorial atmosphere using the EAR and related instruments
developed and installed in Indonesia has started as a six year project in 2001, which is on-going now(CPEA: Coupling Processes in the Equatorial Atmosphere).
The tropopause variations due to breaking of Kelvin waves and associated turbulences have been
observed in detail with the EAR [Fujiwara, M., et al., 2002]. A tilted echo layer and Kelvin-Helmholtz
instability around the equatorial tropopause have been investigated by the EAR observations [Yamamoto,
M.K., et al., 2003]. Intraseasonal oscillation in the zonal wind with periods of 20 - 50 days in themesosphere and its association with the tropical convection and tides have been clarified by a long term
meteor and MF radar observation in the equatorial region [Isoda et al., 2004]. Atmospheric wave generationand its propagation have been studied in the DAWEX (Darwin Area Wave Experiment) campaign [Tsuda etal., 2004].
F2.2 Hydrometeors and Other Particles
In this section, recent research activities in Japan are reviewed in regard of both ground-based andspace-based remoter sensing techniques and observation results.
A. Ground-based Remote Sensing Studies
To study the vertical structure of tropical rainfall, the melting layer model and the vertical drop size
distribution (DSD) model both used for TRMM PR algorithm were compared with the zenith-pointing
Doppler rain radar observation. It was shown that there existed the agreement between the model and theobservation in stratiform rain. However, vertical structure of convective rains is more variable and cannot
be explained in the current DSD model [Thurai et al., 2003b].
The millimeter-wave radar observations of wintertime thunderstorms are compared with the C-band radarobservations at Mikuni, Fukui, Japan. The comparatively lower values of the millimeter-wave radar for theintense echo range seem to be effective to discriminate the increase of graupel particles in the cloud corethat may produce lightning strokes [Maekawa et al., 2002]. Also, the disturbance index shows a very highcorrelation coefficient with the convergence of horizontal velocity, being indicative of convective air
motion as well [Sonoi et al., 2003]. The core of the radar echoes that produced a number of positive-current
cloud-to-ground discharges in a few minutes tends to be found near a comparatively lower cloud top of 2-3
km heights, suggesting that the lightning strokes directly come from the cloud top to the ground [Ogata etal., 2002]. The amount of these positive-currents is less than 50 kA, being not so large as positive-currents
coming from higher cloud tops, which have occurred more intermittently, and sometimes reached morethan 100kA in other cases [Maekawa et al., 2003].
B. Space-based Remote Sensing Studies
The Precipitation Radar (PR) of the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) and its six-year
observation results are summarized [Okamoto, K., 2003, 2004; Okamoto, K., et al., 2004]. The averagedheights of the bright-band are calculated by using 4 year TRMM PR data [Thurai et al. 2003a]. Results ofexternal calibration of the TRMM PR are summarized [Takahashi, N. et al., 2003]. A surface elevation map
is generated using the PR data, for the purpose of improving the rejection of ground clutter in the rain
observation by a radar from space [Awaka and Takahashi, 2004]. Studies to improve the PR retrieval
algorithms were made [Thurai et al, 2003b], [Meneghini et al., 2004]. Correction of the PR beam mismatchafter an orbit change was reported [Takahashi and Iguchi, 2004]. Studies on the precipitation radar to beboarded in the Global Precipitation Mission (GPM) have also been made [Kobayashi and Iguchi, 2003;
Mardiana et al., 2004a, 2004b].
C. Others
Multiple scattering properties of random particles at 30 GHz band at the scattering angles in the vicinityof zero degree were investigated in a controlled laboratory measurement using a mirror image technique[Ihara et al., 2004a]. The measurement gave quantitative results on the backscattering enhancement due torandom particles in the millimeter-wave band. The scattering angle dependence of scattered power showed
its clear peak in the close vicinity of backward scattering direction for both VV and VH polarizations.
F2.3 Ocean and Ice
Methods for measuring characteristics of ocean waves using satellite altimetry were studied, and it was
shown, by a simulation study, that there existed a relation between the significant ocean wavelength andpulse-to-pulse correlation coefficient [Fujisaki et al., 2001, 2003].
A technique to detect ships using synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data was studied [Ouchi et al., 2004].
The technique detects ships from the coherence images produced by cross-correlating multilook images ofsea surface. Using this processing algorithm, ships that are not clearly visible in radar images can bedetected. The principal theory and experimental results using the JERS-1 L-band and RADARSAT-1
C-band SAR data are reported. Analysis of SAR images of ships in pitching motion was also reported[Ouchi et al., 2002a]. It is shown theoretically and experimentally, on the SAR images, that when ships arein pitching motion the image of the hull is not aligned with the direction of propagation, but displaced in a
non-linear manner facing different directions.
Method for deriving of sea ice thickness from SAR image data is one of the major topics in remotesensing of ice. As an attempt to develop an algorithm for deriving the sea ice thickness from SAR data,
thickness of a salinity lake was examined and successfully retrieved from the multi-incidence angle data of
the RADRASAT [Nakamura et al., 2002]. The results showed very good correspondences in the whole lake
to the bore-hole measurements. More parametrical study for the sea ice thickness was carried out by using
dual-bands (X and L) polarimetric airborne SAR (Pi-SAR) [Matsuoka, T. et al., 2002; Wakabayashi et al.,2004]. The study resulted in the finding of an algorithm which can infer the ice thickness using the VV andHH ratio, being applied to the real sea ice in the Sea of Okhotsk where all of the ices are first-year ice and0-5m in thickness.
Semi-automatic detection method of sea ice motion, using the RADARSAT-1 satellite SAR images
observed at two-day interval, was proposed [Enomoto, et al., 2003]. Motion detection algorithm wascommonly proposed for the arctic sea ice, but the algorithm is not applicable to detection of the ice
movement in the Okhotsk sea area because of its quick movement. A newly developed ice-radar systemwith three frequencies (30, 60, 179 MHz) was applied to investigation of the Antarctic ice sheet. The radarobservation shows the physical properties of ice in the ice sheet which is influenced by the glaciological ice
movement [Matsuoka, K. et al., 2002, 2003]. The glaciological ice property was investigated using a
60-MHz ice-radar system [Fujita, S. et al., 2002, 2003; Maeno et al., 2003]. The radar observation indicateda lot of horizontal structural echoes in the ice sheet, and it was suggested that the anisotropic distribution of
ice crystal orientations (fabric) is the caused of the echoes observed.
F2.4 Land, Vegetation, Subsurface Objects, Landmine and Others
A. Land and Vegetation
Fully polarimetric synthetic aperture radar (SAR) sensing has been attracting attention from theory todata analysis, in various areas including land, vegetation, and others.
Polarimetric indices for extracting scattering characteristics of trees were investigated to show that thecorrelation coefficient in the circular polarization basis best serves to classify conifer trees and broad leaf
trees [Murase et al., 2001]. Characteristic polarization states of a scattering object via equi-power curves on
the Poincare sphere were derived, and the property of scattering matrix was examined mathematically toderive the periodicity of scattering matrix nature that is applied to classify the targets [Yang et al., 2002a,
2002b]. The image simulations of the spaceborne ALOS-PALSAR to be equipped with fully polarimetricdata take function were carried out using airborne Pi-SAR polarimetric data taking into account of radar
resolutions, and comparison was made between image data acquired with AIRSAR (JPL) and that with
Pi-SAR (CRL/NASDA) during the Pacific-Rim flight campaign [Yamaguchi et al., 2002a, 2002b].

Polarimetric filtering technique to detect objects buried in the underground, using null state to eliminate thesurface clutter was also presented [Yamaguchi et al., 2002c]. Generalized optimization (generalized
eigenvalue problem) of polarimetric contrast enhancement method was developed to find specific target
over the clutter in fully polarimetric SAR image [Yang et al., 2004]. It was attempted to classify terrain
target using polarimetric entropy, alpha angle, and total power [Kimura et al., 2004a]. Based on
unsupervised maximum likelihood method, it is shown that the method is effective for classification incomplex environment. It is shown that the phase of the correlation coefficient in the circular polarizationbasis is effective for detection of man-made targets such as buildings and building blocks not parallel to
SAR flight path [Kimura et al., 2004b]. The correlation coefficients in the various polarization bases were
examined and it was shown that the phase in the circular polarization correlation coefficient is effective forfeature extraction [Moriyama et al., 2004]. The analysis of SIR-C data was made using a target
decomposition method and the scattering mechanisms and their dependence on radar parameters as well as
the season of observation were characterized [Fujita and Nakamura, 2003]. Pi-SAR polarimetric data wereused for classification of trees, based on the alpha-entropy methods, to discriminate conifer and broad leaf
trees [Sato and Iribe, 2003], and for land use classification [Amarsaikhan and Sato, 2004]. It was found thatthe phase component of the circular polarization of the Pi-SAR data shows a unique behavior that may beclosely related to the azimuth orientation of the radar target and can be used for quantitative classification[Iribe and Sato, 2004].
An alternative approach for polarimetric SAR interferometry based on the ESPRIT technique wasproposed [Yamada, H. et al., 2002]. The approach has a feature to detect local scattering centerscorresponding to the canopy top and the ground and can detect three local scattering centers in the forest at
the maximum with fully polarimetric data sets. This feature is applied to improve the tree height estimation[Sato, K. et al., 2003]. It is also shown that strong volume scattering causes the bias in the estimated treeheight, so that careful evaluation of the results is necessary for the dense forest analysis [Yamada, H. et al.,2003].
An X-band scatterometer was applied to monitor wheat chlorophyll, to show that polarimetric power
ratio varies with wheat growing stage [Singh et al., 2003].
Algorithms of classifying rice paddies and their applications to monitoring growth of rice plants arepresented. The algorithms were applied to the airborne Pi-SAR data over the Kojima test fields, Okayama,
Japan to show good agreement with the ground-truth measurements [Ouchi et al., 2003; Ishituka et al.,2004]. New algorithms of segmentation and classification of rice paddies from multi-temporal
RADARSAT-1 SAR and NASA/JPL AIRSAR data are developed. Speckle reduction by the pixel-based
region merging and maximum likelihood algorithms are used. Comparison of the result with ground-truth
showed 84% of measurement accuracy [Ouchi et al., 2002b; Davidson et al., 2002; Davidson and Ouchi,
2003].
SAR techniques were used for a ground-based (GB) system. A prototype of GB-SAR was tested and usedfor 3-D imaging of trees. Radar polarimetry was also applied for interpretation [Zhou et al., 2004].
GB-SAR was used for detection of small deformation of radar target by interferometry. Deformation of theorder of 1cm of a wall of a wooden house was detected [Hamasaki et al., 2004].
Theoretical study of microwave sensing of soil moisture was carried out [Matsuoka and Tateiba, 2003].
In the study, a moist soil was assumed to be three layers of random medium and a radiative transfer theory
was applied to evaluate the scattered power. The polarization ratio is useful for estimate of water contents
near surface. Diurnal change of backscattering coefficients of Amazon rain forest at Ku-band was studied
with the TRMM PR, to find larger backscattering in the morning [Satake and Hanado, 2004].
B. Subsurface Objects
Low frequency induction is used for deep geological exploration for oil and mineral resources. A novel
directional induction logging sensor was proposed [Cheryauka and Sato, 2002]. Radar polarimetry wasapplied to a borehole radar in a deep drilled borehole and it was tested for evaluation of subsurface
fractures [Sato and Takeshita, 2002]. The theoretical principle and numerical simulation of a polarimetricborehole radar for subsurface fracture characterization were demonstrated [Sato, 2004]. Sub-grid FDTD
method was applied to the simulation of radar scattering of a borehole radar system [Liu et al., 2004]. Small
migration of ground water level was determined quantitatively and the vertical profile of ground watercontent could be estimated by Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) [Lu and Sato, 2002]. Lu and Sato [2004]
also demonstrated the quantitative GPR measurement can estimate the hydraulic parameters of soil, which
will leads to the production estimation of grounds water.

C. Landmine Detection
A stepped-frequency radar with wide bandwidth (10MHz-6GHz) and thereby with very high resolution
was developed for the use of landmine detection [Sato, M. et al., 2003]. Bistatic ground penetrating radar(GPR) system using a passive optical electric field sensor was also proposed for landmine detection [Sato,M., 2003]. Wide band GPR using an array Vivaldi antenna, that is called SAR-GPR with SAR imaging
algorithm incorporated, was demonstrated to show a good performance for landmine detection [Sato, M. etal., 2004].
D. Others
An earthquake detection system which uses satellites to receive microwaves was proposed [Takano et al.,2004]. The mechanism of the microwave generation in relation to an earthquake is explained on the basis of
the experiment of rock-crash in a laboratory. The sensitivity of the satellite sensor and the coverage by areceiving antenna are discussed and clarified.
Microwave emission due to hypervelocity impacts on metallic plates has been found, in the experimentwith aluminum plates of various thicknesses and the projectile made of a nylon cylinder with a metal. A
heterodyne receiver detected the microwave, a random sequence of pulses with several nanosecond width,
at 22 GHz. Since the phenomenon seems to be dependent on the extent of target destruction through theformation of impact craters or penetration, it could be used to better understand the mechanical destruction
process [Takano, et al. 2002]. The dependence of emitted frequency (22 GHz and 2 GHz), the time
sequence of the signal generation, the correlation with the light emission and the emitted energy wasinvestigated [Maki et al. 2002]. The emission characteristics are studied for several kinds of targets ofaluminum, an alumina ceramic, a red brick and a polyurethane rubber. The strength of the emission hascorrelation to the electric conductivity, the fragility and the density of the targets [Maki et al. 2003]. To
understand the features of the phenomena and to clarify the mechanism of the radio-wave generation, thesimultaneous observation of the phenomena by the micro-wave detection and the optical imaging method
to compare the both methods was carried out [Maki et al., 2004].
The scattered patterns of light-wave from several materials have been measured. Acrylic plastic has
Lambertian pattern due to strong internal scattering and a reflection pattern from the surface [Toyoshima, etal. 2004].
(M.Satake)
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