IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2021) 12-2

Research article
erd

Status of Cassava Production and Distribution Channels in
Cambodia: Prospects for Sustainable Production
ITO KASUMI*International Center for Research and Education in Agriculture,
Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
Email: kasumito@agr.nagoya-u.ac.jp

NAKATANI AYA
Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University, Aichi, Japan

BABA TAMON
College of Letters, Ritsumeikan University, Kyoto, JapanNOMURA HISAKO
Faculty of Agriculture, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan

THAN THA
Faculty of Agriculture and Food Processing, National University of Battambang,
Battambang, Cambodia

SREAN PAO
Faculty of Agriculture and Food Processing, National University of Battambang,
Battambang, Cambodia
Received 21 January 2021

Accepted 2 August 2021(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Cassava is expected to become a major industrial crop in Cambodia, but moststudies on its cultivation only discuss the potential for improving its production scale,productivity, and suitable cultivation techniques, including ways to protect the crop from
diseases and pests. However, sustainability of its cultivation as the country’s main industrial
crop cannot be achieved only by introducing agronomically suitable cultivation methods. The
cultivation must be economically viable, socially beneficial, and environmentally
sustainable. Therefore, this study aims to identify and analyze the characteristics of cassava
cultivators and their business activities, the current distribution channel and the challenges
and prospects for sustainable cassava cultivation in Cambodia. Semi-structured interviews of
24 cassava cultivators were conducted in two major cassava-growing provinces in
Cambodia—Battambang and Pailin—to understand the series of production events, including
the way they sell their produce. In addition, owners of six consolidating points that collectand process cassava root to sell domestically or for export were interviewed about their sales
partners and destinations to identify the distribution channel. As a result, three different
distribution types, from producers to collecting points, were identified, and their selection
criteria appeared to be the distance between the producers and the collection points. The direct
and indirect destination of the produce from the collecting points was identified as Thailand.
The identified distribution channel, including collection points, comprised only cassava
cultivators and exporters to Thailand, and no production specialization was observed. Thisreveals that building an efficient and viable distribution mechanism and strategy by utilizing
the existing system will be one of the most important challenges in making cassava
cultivation a major industrial crop and thus expanding the revenue source for the country.
Keywords cassava, distribution channel, small farmers, CambodiaⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2021) 12-2

INTRODUCTION
Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is an important food crop cultivated in more than 90 countries,
mainly in the tropical and subtropical latitudes in Latin America, Africa, and Asia. Cassava products
are consumed by 770 million people worldwide. In Cambodia, cassava is one of the most important
cash crops for farmers, even though it is consumed less as human and animal food. The market
demand for dried cassava chips has increased because of ethanol production and starch processing
in China, which is the largest buyer of the produce (RGC, 2020). Cambodia is located between
Thailand and Vietnam, which are the two main suppliers of cassava to the Chinese market. However,these two countries have limited cassava cultivation area because of their governments’policies. Thissituation provides an opportunity for Cambodia to become a major producer of the crop in the region.
Cassava cultivation in Cambodia has been increasing rapidly since 2010, and it has become thecountry’s largest crop, exceeding rice, which is the country’s staple food (Fig. 1). In 2020, over 13
million tons of fresh cassava that is more than that of Vietnam were harvested (FAO, 2021). Cassava
has been exported indirectly to China as a raw material through Thailand and Vietnam, therefore, thecountry is unknown in the market and is recognized as a marginal supplier despite being 3 rd in theregional and 7th in the global production of the crop (FAO, 2021). Recently, cassava is envisioned to
be a strategic crop for the country in line with the Cambodia Industrial Development Policy 20152025 (RGC, 2015). Furthermore, the government of Cambodia has prepared a National Policy on
Cassava 2020-2025 to transform the country into a cultivation and processing hub of the crop by
improving the cultivation, processing, and exporting mechanisms (RGC, 2020).
The development must be economically viable, socially beneficial and environmentally
sustainable, and it must be beneficial for both commercial and individual producers because cassava
cultivation is an important source of income for small-scale producers in Cambodia. To establish
such a system, it is essential to identify current status and challenges from both socio-economic andagronomic points of view. However, the majority of existing studies have focused on the potentialof cassava cultivation in Cambodia from an agronomic point of view, including cultivation methods(Sopheap et al., 2012; Ou et al., 2016), occurrence of insect pests and diseases (Wang et al., 2015;
Uke et al., 2018), management of insect pests and diseases (Smith et al., 2018), and land suitability(Teamhy et al., 2017). Although a limited number of studies have reported on cultivators’ perception(Sopheap et al., 2011, Chanda et al., 2016) and their profit (Sopheak, 2017), little is known about
locally existing sales and distribution mechanism that will contribute to maintain or improve theeconomic viability of cassava cultivation in Cambodia.
（1,000 t）
14,000Study area
12,000Laos

Battambang

Production

10,000
8,000

Th

6,000

d
an
ail

PailinRice
4,000

Tonle sap lake

Road # 5
m
na
et
Vi

2,000

Cassava

Main production area

Year

2015

Phnom Penh

2018

2009

2012

2003

2006

1997

2000

1991

1994

1985

1988

1976

1979
1982

1967

1970
1973

1961
1964

0

Study area

（FAO 2021）

Fig. 1 Cassava production in Cambodia

Fig. 2 Study area

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2021) 12-2

OBJECTIVE
This study aims to identify and analyze the characteristics of cassava cultivators and their businessactivities, the distribution channel, and the challenges and prospects for its sustainable production in
Cambodia.
METHODOLOGYThis study selected two major cassava producing provinces in Cambodia—Battambang and Pailin—as the study area (MAFF, 2018). These two provinces are located in the north-western part of thecountry, and both border on Thailand, the third largest cassava producing country in the world (Fig.
2). Semi-structured interviews of 24 cassava producers in the study area were conducted tounderstand their cultivation methods, annual schedule, and sales destination. Additionally, ownersof six collection and processing points (known as silos in Cambodia) that collect cassava roots, makedried chips, and sell domestically or export them were interviewed about their customers and saledestinations to identify the distribution channel. The collection and processing points were locatedmostly in Pailin, along the National Road No. 57 near the country’s border with Thailand. This survey
sampled six major points to conduct the interviews. The field surveys were conducted between July
2017 and February 2018.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONInterviewees and Characteristics of their Households
Table 1 shows the numbers of producers interviewed for this study as well as their valid responses
for analysis. Cassava cultivators in Battambang were younger, had been living there for longer time,and had longer experience of agriculture than those in Pailin. By contrast, cultivators in Pailin hadlarger cultivation area, more experience in terms of cassava cultivation, and a larger variety ofagricultural produce. The Pailin province was invaded by the Khmer Rouge because of its extensive
gem deposits and former leaders of the Pol Pot regime continued in the area even long after the war.
Additionally, the province was extensively mined during the war, and demining activities continue.
Therefore, it is inferred that migration from the other provinces and agricultural production became
active very recently, and that these situations influenced cassava cultivation.
Table 1 Interviewees
Battambang
Summary of producers*(n=18)
Age (year)
35.0
Length of stay（year）
23.1
Agri experience (year)
18.4
Cassava experience (time)
2.3
Cassava area（ha)5.3
Other Agri products (ha)10.6

Table 2 Scale of production
Pailin
(n=6)
50.8
11.3
9.8
4.0
12.5
18.5

Cassava* Own land* #of
(ha)
(ha)
HHs
Small (< 5ha)
2.55
5.76
14
Medium (5ha < 10 ha)
5.50
11.22
5
Large (> 10ha)
21.50
17.33
5
* average
Created by authors according to the results of the survey
Area* average

Created by authors according to the results of the survey

To analyze the characteristics of cassava cultivators, the interviewees valid answers weredivided into three groups according to the size of their cassava plantations. Those with less than 5haof cassava plantations were categorized as small-scale (58.3%), 5ha or more but less than 10ha as
medium-scale (20.8%), and 10 ha or more as large-scale (20.8%) (Table 2). Even though the largescale cultivators owned larger farmlands, their cassava plantations were even larger than their own
lands. This indicated that large-scale producers were renting farmland to produce cassava. Smalland medium-scale producers were using about half their own farmland to cultivate cassava. However,the small- and medium-scale cassava cultivators grew slightly more varieties of crops than theirⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2021) 12-2

large-scale counterparts (Fig. 3). These results imply that unlike the others, large-scale producers
focus more on cassava cultivation than other crops. However, almost half of the small- and mediumscale producers were not cultivating rice, an important staple food in Cambodia; therefore, they may
be part-time farmers who have income generating activities other than agriculture that make themcapable of buying rice (Fig. 4).
(# of items)

(HH)

3.5
3.0

10
3.2

8

2.5
2.3

2.0

With rice

9

Without rice

6

2.2

1.5

4

1.0

5

0.0

>5ha

5ha -9ha

3

3

2

0.5

2

2

5-9ha

10ha<

0

10h<

<5ha

（area）

Fig. 3 Other agricultural production（area）

Fig. 4 Rice production of cassava producers

Production Status
Annual schedule and cultivation methods were compiled as Fig. 5 according to the results ofinterview. Cultivators in the study area plant cassava stems at the beginning of the rainy season, andall of them used stem cuttings from the previous crop as usual. For most cassava varieties, the stems
can be stored vertically in the shade for up to two months before planting (IAEA 2018). Some
producers also bought stem cuttings from neighbors and sellers for planting and replanting. The
cassava is harvested after 9–12 months, generally after the onset of the dry season. Most cultivators
prepare their land for the next cultivation in February and March, immediately after the harvest.
Rainy season

Mar Apr May Jun

Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar
Replant

Reasons：lack of water
pests/diseases
Source ： buy fromneighbors

Ship

Production
methods

Seedling ： Last production
neighbors, sellers
Varieties： Unknown
Planting ： Vertical
Density ： 5,174 stems/ha

Jul

Dry

HV

Plant

Bed

Plow

Procedure

Dry

Period： 9-12 months
Parts ： Tubas, stems
Form ： Row, driedConsume： No

Fig. 5 Annual production schedule and methods
Distribution from Producers to Collection and Processing Points
This study identified (Table 3) three different types of cassava distribution: (1) harvested, transported,and sold to collection points directly by producer; (2) harvested, transported and sold to collection
points exclusively by middleman; and (3) harvested by producers, but transported and sold bymiddlemen. Cultivators adopting Type 1 need to own or rent all necessary machines and equipment
for planting, harvesting, and transportation, such as power tillers, harvesters, and trucks.
By contrast, those adopting Type 2 do not need any machinery or equipment except those forland preparation and planting. Cultivators adopting Type 3 need to own or rent machines andequipment for both planting and harvesting but not for transportation. The results discussed in theprevious section show that most cassava cultivators are also growing several other crops. These
cultivators have some machinery available to them that can also be used in cassava cultivation.
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2021) 12-2

Middlemen who harvest or transport the cassava roots are mostly large-scale cultivators in theneighborhood. According to Table 3, the majority of cultivators are categorized as Type 3, however,there is no clear relationship between their production scale and the distribution type. At the sametime, the producer’s location (province) seems to have an effect on the distribution type. Most
cultivators (six out of five) in Pailin belong to Type 2, whereas only one of 18 cultivators in
Battambang belong to this type. On the contrary, most producers (14 out of 18) in Battambang belong
to Type 3.
Table 3 Flows from cultivators to collection points and selling price(1) Producer only
BTB (%)PL (%)
Production scale< 5ha
1 (100.0)
2 (40.0)
5-9 ha0
1 (20.0)> 10ha0
2 (40.0)
sub-total
1 (100.0)
5 (100.0)
Total number (%)
6 (25.0)
BTB: Battambang province, PL: Pailin province“-“indicates no respondents for the category(2) Middleman only
BTB (%)PL(%)(3) Combination
BTB (%)PL (%)

2 (66.6)
1 (33.3)03 (100.0)

8 (57.1)
3 (21.4)
3 (21.4)
14 (100.0)0000
3 (12.5)

Total (%)

1 (100.0)
14 (58.3)
0
5 (16.7)05 (25.0)
1 (100.0)
24 (100.0)
15 (62.5)
24 (100.0)
Created by authors based on the results

The number of cultivators and the selling price of cassava roots according to distribution types
and location (province) are shown in Table 4, and the selling prices according to production scaleand location are shown in Table 5. In these tables, cassava roots are categorized as fresh and dried,
and the numbers of cultivators and sales are analyzed according to the province and distribution type.
The dried cassava roots are generally made by chopping them into small bits and drying them in thesun. Drying reduces the weight by two thirds, making it easier to transport even though chopping isheavy work and requires a large space for drying.
Table 4 shows that five out of six producers in Pailin sell their cassava as fresh roots, whereas
majority of producers (14 out of 24 producers) in Battambang sell their cassava as dried roots. Thisdifference might also have influenced the selection of distribution type. Table 6 shows theinformation about the collection and processing points surveyed, where both producers andmiddlemen were selling their cassava roots. Five out of six points were in Pailin, which is closer tothe border with Thailand than Battambang. It is inferred that producers in Battambang were trying
to avoid heavy and costly work such as harvesting and transporting the cassava, and either depended
more on middleman or dried the roots so that they could transport them in one lot. It is also inferredthat proximity to the collection points and ease of transportation allows cultivators in Pailin to savethe effort of drying the roots and they do everything themselves as mentioned in Type 1. Although it
is difficult to analyze the selling price according to the distribution type owing to lack of data forsome categories, the price of fresh roots in Pailin is slightly higher than that in Battambang. It is
assumed that the selling price reflects the transportation fee from the collection points to the next
destination, which is mostly Thailand.
Table 4 Distribution types from producers to collection point and selling price(1) Producer only
(2) Middlemen only
price
HHs
price
HHs
Fresh roots
177.485 (38.5)
135.443 (23.0)BTB
0 (0.00)
176.67
3 (42.9)
PL
177.485 (83.3)
0 (0.00)
Dried roots
440.001 (6.7)0 (0.00)
BTB 440.00
1 (6.7)0 (0.0)PL
0 (0.0)0 (0.0)
BTB: Battambang province, PL: Pailin province“-“indicates no respondents for the category.

Ⓒ ISERD45(3) Combination
Total
price
HHs
price
HHs
192.255 (38.5) 182.97
13 (100.0)
184.254 (57.1) 181.00
7 (100.0)
224.25
1 (16.7) 185.28
6 (100.0)
492.3614 (93.3) 488.87
15 (100.0)
492.3614 (93.3) 488.87
15 (100.0)
0 (0.0)0(0.0)
Created by authors based on the results

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2021) 12-2

An analysis of the production scales and selling prices according to location revealed that the
average selling price at each location is the lowest for middle-scale cultivators and the highest forlarge-scale producers (Table 5). This trend was observed for both fresh and dried roots. However,this survey did not have enough variables to explain the cause.
Table 5 Production scale and selling price by location
Small (< 5ha)
Medium (5<10 ha)
price
HHs
price
HHs
Fresh roots
183.637 (53.8)
166.003 (23.1)
BTB 185.75
4 (57.1)
168.502 (28.6)
PL
180.813 (50.0)
161.001 (16.7)
Dried roots
509.449 (60.0)
429.003 (20.0)
BTB 509.44
9 (60.0)
429.003 (20.0)PL0 (0.0)0 (0.0)
BTB: Battambang province, PL: Pailin province“-“ indicates no respondents for the category.

Large (>10ha)
Total
price
HHs
price
HHs
198.423 (23.1) 182.97
13 (100.0)
187.001 (14.3) 181.00
7 (100.0)
204.132 (33.3) 185.28
6 (100.0)
487.003 (20.0) 488.87
15 (100.0)
487.003 (20.0) 488.87
15 (100.0)
0 (0.0)0(0.0)
Created by authors based on the results

Table 6 Surveyed collection and processing points
Collection point

A

B

C

D

E

F

Location

PL

PL

PL

PL

PL

BTB

Chipping period

Dec-Mar

Nov-Mar-*Nov-Apr-Oct-MarAmount (t/day)

1,820

20〜30

-

50

-

200

Production (ha)6300
15* Collection points that do not do processing activities such as chipping and drying
Average daily quota for chipping workers was 1 ton per person of family.

50

Yard staff

Yard staff

Middlemen

All of them werecassava producers*1 Producers *2 Middlemen

Other countries

Producers

Domestic
consumers

Starch, ethanol andanimal feed factories

Yard staff

Thailand

Yard staff

Other yards

Collection & processing yards

Cassava producers

P*1
M*2

Buyers from Thai

Channels of interviewees
Channels indirectly identified from interviewees

Fig. 6 Distribution channel of cassava root
Destination: From Collection Points to Consumers or Exporters
To study their modes of operation and the destination of collected cassava roots (Table 6), data werecollected from interviews with the owners of six collection and processing points and revealed
several types of operations. Whereas collection points A, B, D, and F were making dried cassava
chips, the other two were not. From these consolidating points with processing facilities, the cassava
chips are sent to other collection and processing points, starch factories, and even directly to ThailandⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2021) 12-2

by trading companies from that country. This type of consolidating point was trading both fresh anddried roots. The fresh roots were either sold to other consolidating points for processing or exported
to Thailand without processing, whereas all the dried roots were directly exported to Thailand. Freshroots exported to Thailand are processed in starch factories across the border. Collection points
without processing facilities such as C and E (Table 6) were only transporting and selling fresh roots
to starch factories which in turn exported them mainly to Thailand. Thus, the characteristics ofcollection and processing points are found to have a relation to the destination of the collected cassava
roots. Interestingly, most collection and processing points are established and operated by large-scalecassava cultivators such as A, C, E, and F in Table 6. In addition to owning large cassava plantations,these cultivators also play the roles of harvesters, middlemen, collectors, processors, transporters,
and traders. They collect cassava roots from small-scale cultivators to fill the gap between the
demand from Thailand and their own production. In sum, this research has found that the cassava
distribution channel in the study area comprised only various types of cassava cultivators and tradersfrom Thailand, and there was no division of labor for efficiency (Fig. 6).
CONCLUSION
This study aimed to identify cassava distribution channels in Cambodia as well as the characteristics
of cultivators and their mode of business operations. The results revealed that the production scaleand characteristics of the producers, such as average age and experience in agriculture, especiallycassava cultivation, are influenced by the historical and geographical characteristics of each province.
This study identified three different types of distribution channels from producers to consolidating
points. The first type is direct distribution wherein all related processes such as planting, harvesting,transporting and selling are handled by the cultivators. In the second type, apart from cultivation,
everything is handled by middlemen. The third type features a combination of both cultivators andmiddlemen. The distribution type also depended on the type of root being traded—fresh or dried—
and the distance from farms to the collection and processing points. Moreover, analysis of selling
price and characteristics of income from cassava cultivation need further study with sufficient
sampling with statistical methods. This study also found that large-scale cassava cultivators, who
also operate root collection and processing points, were playing important roles as collectors,
middlemen, and transporters in the cassava root distribution system of Cambodia. The existing
cassava root distribution mechanism in the country is well-concerned about its benefit to cultivators
including small-scale producers; however, there is more room for improving efficiency such as
introducing division of labor. Thus, building an efficient and viable distribution mechanism andstrategy by utilizing the existing system as its base will be one of the most important challenges formaking cassava a major industrial crop and increasing revenue from its cultivation. The results ofthis study were based on qualitative analysis only due to small number of samples. Further studies
with quantitative analysis on cultivators’ profits, characteristics of sales activities, and distribution
types according to their production scale and location are desirable to find out suitable distribution
mechanism that is efficient and viable as main industrial crop in Cambodia.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was supported by Science and Technology Research Partnership for Sustainable
Development (SATREPS) in collaboration with Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST,JPMJSA1508) and Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). We would also like to thankDeutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit for their cooperation.
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