74th International Astronautical Congress (IAC 2023), Baku, Azerbaijan, 2-6 October 2023.
Copyright © 2023 by Mr. Erik Kulu. Published by the IAF, with permission and released to the IAF to publish in all forms.

IAC-23-C3.1.12

Space Solar Power - 2023 Survey of Public and Private Initiatives
Erik Kulu
Factories in Space, Nanosats Database, NewSpace Indexerik.kulu@factoriesinspace.com
Abstract
The urgency and relevance of exploring new green energy sources has never been greater. In addition
to the de-carbonization challenge, recent geopolitical crises created a turmoil in energy markets, leading
to an increase in prices. Space-Based Solar Power (SBSP), and Space Solar Power (SSP) for shorter, hasbeen proposed as an alternative energy source to address these challenges. By providing a virtually limitlesssource of clean energy and with the ability to reach remote areas around the world that currently lack goodaccess to electricity, SBSP has the potential to transform the energy sector and have a wide positive impact.
The concept of space solar power has gained significant momentum in recent years, with various trends
converging to make large-scale solar power plants more realistic and economically viable. Factors such as
Starship, in-space assembly, power beaming, and other performed and upcoming demonstrations in spacecoupled with key technological demonstrations on the ground, have all contributed.
The first part of the manuscript examines enabling trends and technologies, including efficient solar
panels, low-cost reusable launch, advanced wireless power transmission, in-space robotics and assembly,
and distribution capabilities. Focusing on what has been done and what needs to happen for SBSP to
be developed and with the right timing. This section will explain why the time for SBSP is looming andhow research and development in this field may have additional beneficial applications, particularly if theeconomic sustainability is not achievable within the predicted time frames.
The second part of the paper presents an overview of commercial entities that were, are or intend to be
active in the SBSP market. A combined table and a paragraph for each surveyed SBSP entity is included.
The findings include past companies and present-day startups. This data will entail information such as
founding years, planned space demonstrations, funding amount, and geographic locations.
The third part looks at non-commercial initiatives, such as those by ESA, UK, NASA, Japan, and China,
and gives a short overview to understand the actors and state of technology development. This paper aims
to present a comprehensive and unique analysis of the space solar power landscape.
Keywords: space solar power, space-based solar power, power beaming, SBSP, SSP, space energy
1. INTRODUCTION
Factories in Space (www.factoriesinspace.com)
has tracked space solar power and wireless powertransfer companies since 2018. There are 52 primarily commercial entries as of September 2023, whichmakes it one of the largest public lists.
Goal of this work is to leave a snapshot of thespace solar power landscape such that the field canbe tracked over the upcoming years. Focus is on surveying the past and present commercial entities in
addition to governmental and other activities.
Numerous publications, books, and articles in
the last decades have covered the history, benefits, literature reviews, technical concepts, challenges, and recent news, for space solar power.1–3
For example, many of those aspects have recently
been recounted in study papers commissioned by the
IAC-23-C3.1.12

European Space Agency (ESA), such as the cost vs
benefit studies4 and Astrostrom 2023 study.5
However, broad contemporary surveys aboutcommercial activities in space solar power have notbeen found. Closest known is SpaceFund’s Energy
Transmission Database, which was last updated inAugust 2021 and has 10 entries.6
National Space Foundation has been collecting
links to space solar power and it is very extensive.7
This survey includes activities from space solar
power, power beaming (wireless power transfer) andsolar mirrors (reflecting sunlight directly). However,there must be a space and energy connection and thesolutions must involve wireless energy. The latterare also core technologies of many space solar powersystems, and organisations may choose to start the
research and development from wireless power.

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74th International Astronautical Congress (IAC 2023), Baku, Azerbaijan, 2-6 October 2023.
Copyright © 2023 by Mr. Erik Kulu. Published by the IAF, with permission and released to the IAF to publish in all forms.

Space Solar Power In 1968, Peter Glaser published the first engineering concept of space solar
power to provide energy for terrestrial use.8
In the original concept, space-based solar power
involved collecting sunlight in orbit, converting it toelectricity, sending the energy wirelessly to Earth,where a rectenna on land or offshore would convert
it back to electricity, which would be connected tothe electric grid or consumers.
In this survey, the range of solutions and applications is wider, but there must be a space connection
and an element of wireless energy transfer. For example, solar panels on the Moon, wired to the consumer, is not space solar power in this survey. It
is lunar solar power, space energy and a space utility, but here space solar power assumes some type of
power beaming to align with the original concept.
In the Factories in Space taxonomy for in-spaceeconomy,9 there is a high-level category of Space
Utilities, under which is Space Energy (energy resources in space10 ), and Space Solar Power is a typeof energy in space. Space Solar Power (SSP) is a
shorter term for Space-Based Solar Power (SBSP).
The spacecraft have been called Space Solar Power
Satellite (SSPS) or Solar Power Satellite (SPS).
Descriptively, space energy, energy from space, energy on the Moon etc have also been used.
Table 1 is a non-exhaustive overview of the different space solar power solution configurations. For
example, some SSP systems have very large solar
arrays, while others use concentrating mirrors withsmaller solar arrays. Wireless power transfer canbe achieved via microwaves, laser or by reflecting
sunlight directly. In addition to Earth, the power
may be beamed to assets in space or on the Moon.
A wireless energy grid may involve beaming powerfrom Earth to space and then back to Earth. The
spacecraft may also be located in different orbits,
such as LEO, Molniya or GEO.
Power Beaming Power beaming or wirelesspower transfer (WPT) or wireless power transmission or more broadly wireless energy transfer, in thecontext of space, has been included also. Being oneof the core technologies with alternative applications
for shorter-term revenue, many companies have chosen that as the starting point towards space solar
power. As solar mirrors (reflecting sunlight directly)
are also included, power beaming could be defined astransmission of concentrated energy without wires.
Transmission of electrical energy without wires
was observed and experimented with in the 19th century. There was limited progress until microwave
technologies were improved during World War II.
IAC-23-C3.1.12

Table 1: Space Solar Power Configuration Options
Solar arrays
Power generation
Mirrors plus solar arrays
Microwaves (e.g. 2.4-10 GHz)
Power beaming
Lasers (optical)
Solar mirrors (direct sunlight)
Space-to-EarthSpace-to-Moon
Space-to-space
Paths
Lunar surface-to-surface
Earth-space-Earth
Moon-to-EarthGEO
MEO
HEO, Molniya
Locations
LEO
Lunar orbit
Lunar surface
Lagrange points
Land
Earth receivers
Offshore
Air
The rectenna (a receiving antenna, which converts
microwaves to electricity) concept was proposed for
wireless power transfer by W. C. Brown at Raytheonin the 1960s. The first microwave rectenna was built
by R. H. George at Purdue University in 1963. In
1964, Brown built a helicopter with an array of rectennas and demonstrated flight on CBS News in 1964.11
First functioning laser was operated in 1960.
The idea of using mirrors in space like giant spotlights was proposed in 1929 by Hermann Oberth. It
has been tested by Russia during Znamya experiments.12 These large solar mirrors are beginning torelate to solar geoengineering and the concept of using giant mirrors in space to shield Earth.13
Commercial space solar power entities have beencollected in Table 2 followed by short descriptionsof them in Section 4. Statistical overview of the 52
commercial entities can be found in Section 5. Section 6 introduces the non-commercial and governmental organisations in the space solar power field.
Acronyms/Abbreviations
SBSP Space-Based Solar PowerSSP Space Solar PowerSPS Solar Power Satellite
SSPS Space Solar Power Station
WPT Wireless Power Transmission
GEO Geostationary Orbit

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2. ENABLING TRENDS & TECHNOLOGIES 2.1.3 Solar Cells
2.1 Why Now? Trends Are Converging
Most studies since the 1970s have concluded thatspace solar power is technically feasible but not economically viable. In 2023, new energy crisis andclimate crisis have contributed to the renewed interest. At the same time, the key limiting factors suchas low-cost reusable launch are being rapidly solved.
High electricity prices and decreasing cost to build
space solar power plants means that the trends arestarting to converge, to make space solar power also
economically feasible, for the first time in history.
2.1.1 Energy Crisis, Climate Change
During the 1973 oil crisis, the prices increased
about 4 times.14 The energy shortages of 1973 created interest in the space solar power concept andin 1976, the Department of Energy and NASA initiated an SPS Concept Development and Evaluation
Program.15 In 1979, the fossil fuel prices further
increased over 2 times but afterwards declined andstayed relatively low for about 30 years.14
A new energy crisis in 2021-202316 has increased
the energy prices and CO2 levels keep rising, thus
the need for clean energy sources is highest ever.
Terrestrial solar and wind are intermittent. Dueto the limited capacity and intermittency, they arebeing augmented by coal, oil and gas. Nuclear energy has to contend also with emotional factors. A
space solar power station in GEO can be in sunlightand operate 24/7 continuously for almost the wholeyear. This enables space solar to be a true replacement for coal, oil, gas and nuclear, while solar andwind will require large energy storage to do so.
2.1.2 Launch
Access to space has two critical factors, price perkilogram and mass to orbit within a time frame.
SpaceX’s Starship is aiming to solve both.
Starship is being designed for 3 flights per day
and be fully reusable. One rocket could theoreticallyfly 1000 times per year. More, the goal is to build
hundreds if not thousands of Starships. With eachlaunch having a payload of about 100-150 tons, themass to orbit per year can increase enormously.
In terms of cost, the goal is to decrease cost per
Starship to below $10 million in a few years. Longerterm, it could even cost a few million dollars in the
future.17 Assuming $10M and 100,000 kg equals$100 per kilogram. In the most optimistic case, assuming $3M and 150,000 kg gives $20 per kg.

IAC-23-C3.1.12

The cost, production capacity, and lifetime of solar cells has been considered another limiting factor.
A triple-junction gallium arsenide (GaAs) solar
cell price is on the order of $100 per watt. Assuming
1 GW of power generation capacity, and a systemwith no concentrating mirrors, the price of solar cells
itself would amount to $100 billion. Such quantity
is also beyond the worldwide production capability.
In 2023, several solutions and new types of solar
cells are close to market readiness. One is a thinfilm low-cost silicon solar cell, for example developedby Solestial. Their thinness helps to decrease mass
and volume. Self-curing is very beneficial to extend
lifetime.18 In longer-term and at large quantities,
prices below $1 per watt have been quoted.19 Siliconsolar cells are widely used in terrestrial solar farms
thus production capacity solutions are known.
The current efficiency of silicon cells is less thanfor multi-junction, about 20%, but some architectures for the large-scale space solar power plants
should be able to negate that thanks to microgravity.
Perovskite solar cells could be printed.
2.1.4 Power Beaming (Wireless Power Transfer)
Very simplistically, telecommunications and TV
broadcasting spacecraft in GEO have done power
beaming since the 1960s using similar S-band or Cband frequencies. Differences are that the output
power would be much larger, no data would be sent,
and the antenna will be much larger to ensure small
divergence of the beam.
Electronically steerable phased arrays been used
for decades in military applications, but the cost has
now decreased enough to find commercial applications like Starlink Dish. They enable e.g. to use anear-field system, which Emrod has described.20
2.1.5 In-Space Assembly, In-Space Robotics
The best known examples for assembly in space
are the Mir and International Space Station.
Kilometer-scale space solar power plants have been
compared to the football-field size of the ISS.
However, such large size is an engineering problem,
to build it autonomously and rapidly at low cost,and not a fundamental scientific problem.
As of 2023, several new in-space assembly andin-space manufacturing demonstration missions are
in development. For example, the OSAM-1 missionis planned to launch in 2025. Its SPIDER payload
will assemble 7 elements using a robotic arm to forma 3 meter diameter communications antenna.21

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2.2 Alternative Technology Applications &Revenue Sources
The are many alternative benefits, nearer-term
revenue sources, and separate potentially very large
markets for the technologies related to space solar
power. While discussing that the research and development funding will not be a waste, in this section
the author is assuming that the economic viabilityof space solar power for terrestrial purposes takes
considerably longer or even never happens.
The following examples are non-exhaustive.
2.2.1 Moon
The clearest application and need for small-scale
space solar power and wireless power is likely on thesurface on the Moon, to survive the 2-week long
lunar nights or to explore permanently shadowed
craters. Surviving the lunar night is very challenging
and existing reliable systems have used nuclear heating. First solutions will likely use monolithic spacecraft and laser power transmission, due to smaller
beam divergence to maximize the small surface area
available on a lander or rover. However, the solar
cells for laser will likely have to be single-junction.
Two different solar panels may thus be required,
which requires customers to plan for such a service
far in advance, which they may be hesitant to do.
2.2.2 Space
Wirelessly powering other satellites is a businessidea many startups have had. More power can bebeneficial or the eclipse period could be shortened,assuming the spacecraft is able to dissipate the heat.
However, the business case will likely require morein-depth studies. It is possible that it will be better,in terms of lower cost, independence and practicality,
to simply have larger solar panels and batteries.

The author is envisioning over 1 km diameter
space telescopes for astronomy. Similar extremely
large space telescopes could be used for ultra-highresolution persistent remote sensing, e.g. from GEO
and highly elliptical orbits.
Extremely large antennas could also be built for
usage in radar remote sensing, telecommunications,radio astronomy and deep space communications.
Going beyond existing markets, in-space assembly will enable to construct very large artificial
gravity space habitats and other infrastructure.
2.2.5 Wireless Power Transfer
Numerous companies are pursuing terrestrial applications for large-scale wireless energy transfer. Including a wireless energy grid, part of which may bebased in space. Remotely powering electric airplanes
should make them easier with existing batteries.
2.2.6 Space Debris RemovalNASA study found that space-based laser debris
removal systems have the shortest break-even time,compared to other potential methods.22
2.2.7 Beam-Powered Propulsion
There are many variations for beam-powered propulsion. For example, a very large laser array in space
would allow laser sailing to interstellar destinations.
In our solar system, power beaming stations could
be placed in several key locations to enable very
efficient travel between planets.

2.2.3 Mars
Space solar power with microwave power transfer
could be a viable energy source on Mars. Microwaves
are less affected by dust compared to sunlight, bothin the atmosphere during dust storms and for dust
accumulation on the Mars surface. The cost difference between access to Mars orbit and Mars surface
may become an important factor.
2.2.4 In-Space Assembly
In-space assembly can have many applications infields such as Earth observation, an existing market.

IAC-23-C3.1.12

Figure 1: Space Solar Power Station Illustration
Generated by the Author Using Midjourney
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3. SURVEY APPROACH
This section describes the survey methodology,
which has resulted in the 52 entries and provides explanation about the classifications used to categorize
the space solar power organisations.
The entries have been collected over 5 years whilecurating the Factories in Space database. Because
similar large and structured sources have not beenfound, the discovery is the most challenging part.
It is likely that many suitable entries are missing, especially some older and now defunct ones, andmore importantly the recently emerging entities.
Survey Criteria
 Space solar power, power beaming and solar
mirror activities included.
 Must have a clear space & energy connection.
There is a large amount of terrestrial activities
in power beaming and solar mirrors but there
has to be a space and energy aspect or goals.
 Must involve some type of energy beaming.
Solar farms on the surface of the Moon using
wired connections have not been included.
 Based on public information - websites, articles, publications, social media posts etc.
 Interviews have not been performed this time.
 Technical solutions have not been surveyed andcompared, but many space solar power concepts are nevertheless referenced.

Status Classification
One of the following statuses has been assigned toeach space solar power activity, based on public information, and in some cases by the lack of it.

 Concept - Alternatively, idea or study stage.
Possible indicators are: one-off study projectand hardware development has not yet begun,
awarded study grants, lack of proof about sustained technical development, active development is unlikely based on funding level, typesof updates on social media and via news media, team very small based on LinkedIn. In
other words, performing a study or creating
a website does not equal a new space solar
power company in the development stage. In
addition, due to the nature of some entities,
they may not intend to develop own space solar power plants. This status may be the mostdebatable, and some may be in stealth mode,
but active development may still start.
 Early stage - Startups, with a clear intention
to develop space solar power, but which havea very small team and possibly limited or no
funding. Mostly applies to the recent emerging
entities, of which little is publicly known, but it
also includes companies that have been aroundfor years but seemingly limited progress.
 Dormant - The first step towards Cancelled.
Possible indicators are offline website, lack ofrecent posts on all social media channels, verysmall team or a single person based on LinkedIn,
and/or no announced funding.
 Cancelled - Indicates a space solar power project,which has been announced to have been stopped,or which website has been offline for years, orno indication of space solar power on the organization website when it used to be before,or company officially bankrupt and closed.

 Operational - Space solar power spacecraft
are in space, or on the Moon, and providing
energy to customers using power beaming.
 Demonstrated - Core technologies of spacesolar power have been demonstrated in space,and/or full end-to-end demonstration missions
have been launched.
 Development - Suitable indicators are two
or more of: the company and project is visibly
active, hardware development, terrestrial prototypes, the year for the first launch has beenannounced, relevant updates on social media
channels and news, team size is increasing, private funding has been announced and/or governmental projects awarded.

IAC-23-C3.1.12

Figure 2: NASA Solar Power Satellite Concept, 1976

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Table 2 collects the 52 surveyed commercial entities in the space solar power field. It is followed by short descriptions of the organisations.
Table 2: Space Solar Power Commercial Activities

Page 6 of 30

Organisation

StatusFounded First
launchFunding

Category

TargetLocation, Path
Orbit

BeamingPowergeneration

Country

3K SpaceTech

Early stage

2021

?

?

Power Beaming

Space

?

Space-to-space?

?

CanadaAirbusConcept

1970?

Yes, ?

Space Solar Power

Earth

?

Space-to-EarthMicrowave?

FranceAlvior

Early stage

2022

?

?

Space Solar Power?

?

Space-to-Earth?

?

NorwayAphelia Space

Early stage

2022

?

?

Power Beaming

Space

LEO,?

Space-to-space

Microwave?

Malaysia

Aquila EarthDevelopment

2022

?

$2.1M+

Power Beaming

Earth

?

Earth-spaceEarth

Laser

Mirrors

Australia

ARTEMIS
Innovation

Concept

2005

?

?

Space Solar Power

Earth

GEO

Space-to-EarthMicrowave

Mirrors plus
solar arrays

USA

Arthur D. Little

Concept

1886?

Yes, ?

Space Solar Power?

?

Space-to-Earth?

?

USA, UK

Astrostrom

Development

1998

?

$0.3M+Space Solar Power

Moon,
Earth

Lagrange,
GEO

Space-to-Moon,
Space-to-EarthMicrowave

Solar arrays

Switzerland

Celestia Energy

Early stage

2023

?

?

Space Solar Power

Earth

?

Space-to-Earth

Laser

?

UnitedArab
Emirates

Emrod

Development

2019

2025

$3.3M+

Power Beaming,
Wireless Energy
Grid

Earth

LEO,
VLEO

Earth-spaceEarthMicrowave?

New
Zealand,Germany

EnergySpace
Company

Dormant

2020

X

?

Power Beaming

?

?

?

?

?

USA

Entropy

Dormant

2017

X

?

Power Beaming

Space

?

Space-to-space?

Solar arrays

India

Eternal Light

Development

2020

?

$0.1M+

Power Beaming

Moon

Lunar orbit

Space-to-Moon?

?

Canada,USA

Frazer-Nash

Concept

1971?

Yes, ?

Space Solar Power

?

?

?

?

?

UK,
Australia

International
Electric
Company

Concept

1999

?

?

Space Solar Power

Earth

GEO

Space-to-EarthMicrowave

Mirrors plus
solar arrays

UK

Continued on next page

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IAC-23-C3.1.12

4. COMMERCIAL LANDSCAPE OF SPACE SOLAR POWER

Page 7 of 30

Light Mirror

Early stage

2019

?

?

Solar Mirrors

Space,
Earth?

Space-to-space

Sunlight

N/A

Lithuania

Litepulse

Early stage

2022

?

?

Power Beaming

Space

?

Space-to-space

?

?

USA

Lumi Space

Cancelled

2018

N/A

$0.1M+

Power Beaming

Space,
Satellite

Earth

Earth-to-space

Laser

N/A

UK

Metasat UK

Development

2020

?

?

Space Solar Power

Earth

?

Space-to-EarthMicrowave?

UK,
CanadaMoliri Space
EnergyEarly stage

2023

?

?

Space Solar Power

Earth

GEO

Space-to-EarthMicrowave

Solar arrays

Estonia

Northrop
GrummanDevelopment

1994

2025

Yes, ?

Space Solar Power

Earth

?

Space-to-EarthMicrowave

?

USA

OHB

Concept

1958?

Yes, ?

Space Solar Power

Earth,
Aircraft?

Space-to-Earth

Laser

?

Germany

Orbital Power

Dormant

2011

?

?

Space Solar Power

Earth

?

Space-to-EarthMicrowave

Solar arrays,
Inflatable

UK, USA

Overview
EnergyDevelopment

2022

?

$6.8M+Space Solar Power

?

?

?

?

?

USA

ParaLoon

Development

2022

?

$0.05M+

Space Solar Power

Earth,Space?

Space-to-Earth,Space-to-space

Microwave

Solar arrays,
Inflatable

Belgium,
Italy

Photonicity

Early stage

2019

?

?

Power Beaming

Space,
Earth?

Space-to-space

Microwave?

Singapore

PowerLight

Development

2007

?

$4.1M

Power Beaming

?

?

?

Laser

?

USA

PowerSat

Early stage

2001

?

?

Space Solar Power

Earth

GEO

Space-to-EarthMicrowave

Solar arrays,
Inflatable

USA

ReBeamDormant

2016

X

?

Power Beaming,
Wireless Energy
Grid

Space

?

?

?

?

USA, India

Reflect Orbital

Early stage

2021

2024

?

Solar Mirrors

Earth

?

?

Sunlight

N/A

USA

Roland Berger

Concept

1967?

Yes, ?

Space Solar Power

?

?

?

?

?

Germany

Satellite Applications Catapult

Development

2012

?

Yes, ?

Space Solar Power

?

?

?

?

?

UK

Shimizu

Concept

1804

2035

Yes, ?

Space Solar Power

Earth

Moon
surfaceMoon-to-EarthMicrowave

Solar arrays

Japan

Continued on next page

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IAC-23-C3.1.12

Table 2: Space Solar Power Commercial Activities (Continued)

Page 8 of 30

Sirin Orbital
Systems

Early stage

2019

?

?

Power Beaming

Moon

Moon
surfaceMoon surface

Microwave?

Switzerland

Solar SpaceTechnologies

Early stage

2019

2027

?

Space Solar Power

Earth

?

Space-to-EarthMicrowave

Mirrors plus
solar arrays

Australia

Solar System
Resources

Early stage

2020

?

?

Space Solar Power

?

?

?

?

?

PolandSolar.Space

Dormant

2018

X

?

Power Beaming

Space

?

Space-to-space

?

?

UK

SolarenDevelopment

2006

?

$2.5M+Space Solar Power

Earth

?

Space-to-EarthMicrowave?

USA

Solestial

Concept

2015

2024

$12.3M+

Solar Cells

?

?

?

?

?

USA

Space Applications Services

Concept

1987?

Yes, ?

Space Solar Power

?

?

?

?

?

Belgium

Space Energy

Dormant

2008

X

$4M+

Space Solar Power

?

?

?

?

?

Switzerland

Space Power

Development

2019

2024

$0.01M+

Power Beaming

Space

?

Space-to-space

Laser

?

UK

Space Solar

Development

2022

?

$4.3M+Space Solar Power

Earth

GEO

Space-to-EarthMicrowave

Mirrors plus
solar arrays

UK

Spacefaring
Services

Dormant

2014

X

?

Power Beaming

Space

?

Space-to-space

?

?

USA

Spacians

Dormant

2019

X

?

Space Solar Power

Earth,
Aircraft?

Space-to-EarthMicrowave?

India, Sweden

Stellarion
EnergyDormant

2020

X

?

Space Solar Power

?

?

?

?

?

India

STELLS

Development

2021

2024

$0.5M

Power Beaming

Moon

Moon
surfaceMoon surface

Microwave

Solar arrays

CanadaSunCubes

Development

2021

?

?

Power Beaming

Space

?

Space-to-space

?

?

Italy

Thales Alenia

Concept

2007?

Yes, ?

Space Solar Power

Earth

?

Space-to-Earth?

?

Italy,
FranceThe Lunar Grid

Early stage

2021

?

$0.15M+

Space Solar Power

Moon

Lunar

Space-to-Moon

Laser

?

Luxembourg

Virtus Solis

Development

2018

?

$0.4M+Space Solar PowerPower Beaming

Earth

HEO,
MolniyaSpace-to-EarthMicrowave

Solar arrays

USA, UK

XISP

Early stage

2012

?

?

Power Beaming

Space

?

Space-to-space

?

?

USA

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IAC-23-C3.1.12

Table 2: Space Solar Power Commercial Activities (Continued)

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4.1 3K SpaceTech
Founded in Canada in 2021, they strive to create a network of power supply stations throughout
the solar system, as well as provide the ability toobtain energy on any satellite or planet.23 In 2022,
they announced cooperation with Plus Ultra Space
Outposts to provide power to Moon-orbiting stations and surface stations that provide navigationand communication services for lunar missions. Later,
they announced that first step would be to use their
X-Charge station as data centers.24 However, thewebsite is offline, two employees on LinkedIn, andlast social media post was over a year ago.
4.2 Airbus
In 2010, as Astrium, it was seeking partners to
help fund solar-power beaming demonstration. After spending several months on in-house review anda small ground demonstration, they started seeking
the interest of European governments for support
for a large satellite in geostationary orbit. Applications foreseen were providing continuous power fromspace to ships at sea or other fixed or mobile users.
Astrium steered clear of using microwave signals because of public concerns about health effects andbecause an infrared signal could provide 1 to 2 kilowatts per square meter of power and still be wellwithin safety limits.25, 26
Now, Airbus says beaming solar power could help
Europe access more renewable energies, in an independent way, and has created several marketing
materials. Airbus has demonstrated how this newtechnological concept could work in its X-Works Innovation Factory.27 Emrod partnered with Airbus
and the European Space Agency (ESA) for a wirelesspower transmission demonstration event in Munich,Germany, in September 2022.28
Airbus Ventures invested in Solestial, which isdeveloping flexible solar cells and solar blankets, another core building block for SSP.29
4.3 Alvior
Alvior is a startup founded in Norway in late2022 dedicated to accelerating the development ofOrbital Solar satellites.30 However, based on Twitter/X, the founder Kim Borgen seems to have switchedfocus to other ventures.31
4.4 Aphelia Space
Aphelia is a wireless power startup from Malaysia
founded in 2022. They aim to make interplanetary

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smallsat space missions more economical while having higher capabilities. Their core technology is theMicrowave Wireless Power Transmission System.32
Aphelia is building wireless charging station, thatdelivers kW-level of electrictricity to dedicated satellite constellations. Aphelia’s Wireless Charging Station will navigate to the customer’s satellites anddeliver high power periodically until the final power
to de-orbit for decommissioning of the satellites.33
4.5 Aquila Earth
Aquila, founded in 2022 in Australia, is building energy networks of light. In June 2023, they announced raising of ∼$2.1M ($3M AUD).34 Plan is to
direct light beams at receivers integrated into powersystems, which convert energy into electricity.35
Aquila is build and operate a dynamic, lightbased energy network that can extend and improvethe capabilities of our energy distribution infrastructure. By beaming energy with lighthouse modules,
redirecting it with mirrors, and capturing it withspecialised solar panels, they can rapidly create transmission pathways and shift renewable energy worldwide, accelerating their uptake. Their long-term vision is a globe-spanning energy network consistingof thousands of optical relay satellites directing gigawatts of power worldwide.34
Currently, they are focusing on creating lightbased energy products to serve small drone operators
to supply power continuously to drones in-flight.34
Aquila published a whitepaper titled ”Global Energy Interconnection” in July 2022.36 Tom McLeod
from Startmate published their investment notes on
Aquila in September 2022.37
4.6 ARTEMIS Innovation
Artemis Innovation Management Solutions wasformed in 2005 by John C. Mankins. They provide
strong experience and expertise in the general areaof space systems and technology, and unique capabilities in the field of space solar power (solar energy
from space or solar power satellites).38
In 2011, Artemis Innovation was selected for a
NASA NIAC Project for 2011 - ”SPS-ALPHA (Solar
Power Satellite via Arbitrarily Large Phased Array)- the First Practical Solar Power Satellite Concept.”
Also in 2011, The First International Assessment ofSpace Solar Power was published by the International Academy of Astronautics (IAA). Artemis Innovation played a lead role in that multi-year study(2008-2011).38
In 2014, John Mankins published a book ”TheCase for Space Solar Power”.39
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4.7 Arthur D. Little

4.11 Emerald Telecommunications

Arthur D. Little is an international management
consulting firm originally headquartered in the UnitedStates and founded in 1886.40
In November 1968, Peter Glaser, working at Arthur
D. Little, proposed the concept of a space solar power
to provide energy for terrestrial use.8
In April 2023, ESA awarded study contracts todevelop new reference-design space solar power architectures for large-scale terrestrial use to Arthur
D. Little and Thales Alenia Space Italy.41
However, it is currently unclear what kind ofcommercial interests they have and whether theyplan to lead the development and building of spacesolar power plants.

Emerald Telecom is a UK-based business telecoms supplier founded in 2019. They were awarded
an ESA-funded study ”SPS Station Keeping Using
Solar Radiation Pressure for Propulsion” to investigate station keeping of solar power satellite using
solar radiation pressure.48
4.12 Emrod

Emrod was founded in 2019 in New Zealand withthe vision to open up the world’s access to powerby using power beaming technology to enable longrange wireless energy transfer that is safe, reliable
and cost effective.49
Emrod is proposing a global Wireless Energy Matrix (WEM), which would beam renewable energy
4.8 Astrostrom
via satellite between any two points on Earth. In an
Astrostrom is based in Switzerland and the priarticle by Loz Blain at New Atlas from 2022, Emrod
mary purpose is to introduce, promote and expand
was looking at another proposal that would place
an economic, technological and cultural dimension
satellites in much lower orbits closer to 100 km –to the astronautical endeavors of mankind, with athose would only need to be 30-40 m across, andfocus on the harvesting of energy from space.42
thus much cheaper to build and launch.20, 50
In July 2023, Astrostrom completed their ESAEmrod’s WEM system deploys highly efficient
funded study investigating the feasibility of a ”Greater wireless power transmission technology to establish
Earth Lunar Power Station (GEO-LPS)”, which would a global energy grid. Terrestrial transmitters and remanufactured on the Moon and assembled at theceivers collaborate with space-based relays to transEarth-Moon Lagrange Point 1 to provide power fromport significant volumes of renewable energy.
lunar orbit to operations on the surface of the Moon.43
1. Step 1: Electricity from a source on Earth isconverted into microwaves and transmitted in
4.9 Celestia Energy
a collimated beam to a relay satellite.
2.
Step 2: In space, a constellation of orbiting
A UAE-based startup founded in 2023 and focussatellites
forms a global power grid. The beam
ing on the commercialization of Laser Space-basediselectronicallysteered.
Solar Power. Goal is to design, develop, and manu3. Step 3: Satellites redirect the power beam tofacture satellites, which will be launched into orbit,
the instructed locations, such as one or more
where they will collect solar energy, and beam thissatellites, or one or more locations on Earth.
energy down to Earth in the form of lasers.44
4. Step 4: Back on Earth, the incoming electromagnetic beam is converted back into electric4.10 Electric Sky
ity. A communication signal can also be enElectric Sky was founded in 2014 in the USA andcoded onto the energy beam, allowing inforis pioneering movement under external power, makmation to be assigned to the energy beam foring transportation more swift, sustainable & ecotracking and transparency purposes.50
nomical.45 In December 2021, DARPA awarded $225,000
Financial Review wrote in October 2022 thatto develop technology to wirelessly charge drones
Emrod has raised $3.3M seed capital via its founder,
mid-flight and they will build and test a lab-bench
the New Zealand government, PowerCo and US-based
demonstrator at short distances. With their ”Whiscrowdfunding and angel investors.51 This includes
per Beam” technology, radio waves self-focus at theover $1M raised via crowdfunding in 2021.49
receiver, enabling the UAV to draw kilowatts of power
In May 2023, Emrod announced joining ESA BIC
in all weather. The waves are weak everywhere else,
Bavaria and setting up up an office in Munich, Ger46, 47
even directly between transmitter and UAV.
many, close to partners at DLR, Airbus, OHB, andothers. They also stated that they are targeting 2025
to commence in-orbit testing.52
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Copyright © 2023 by Mr. Erik Kulu. Published by the IAF, with permission and released to the IAF to publish in all forms.

4.13 EnergySpace Company

4.17 International Electric Company (IECL)

EnergySpace, founded in 2020 in the USA, is aspace solar and power beaming company that would
like to safely and considerably accelerate the world’s
transition to sustainable energy.53 However, in 2022,
it was being restructured into an apparel brand.54

International Electric Company Limited (IECL)
was founded in 1999 and it designs designs microwave
and millimeter wave technologies that have a hostof immediate applications, in particular for sustainable & renewable energy. Longer-term aim is to enable grid-scale zero-carbon energy through IECL’s
unique space solar power concept. They intend toprovide gigawatt-scale renewable energy delivered direct to the point of need.63
The Chief Engineer, Ian Cash, is known for creating the CASSIOPeiA (Constant Aperture, SolidState, Integrated, Orbital Phased Array) space solar
power concept, which was first published in 2017.64–66

4.14 Entropy Research and Development
Entropy was founded in 2017 in India to build aconstellation of spacecraft for wireless power transmission among satellites.55 However, they are considered to be dormant after pivoting to consulting.56
4.15 Eternal Light Photonics Corp
Eternal Light was founded in 2020 in Canada. In
2021, Astrolight, a collaboration between Astrobotic
and Eternal Light, won $50,000 for its wireless mobile power beaming solution from NASA’s Watts on
the Moon challenge Phase 1.57 In 2021, they were
accepted to Moonshot incubator program.58
Eternal Light participated in the Space stream of
Creative Destruction Lab cohort 2022/2023 with description ”Eternal Light is developing hardware andsoftware to wirelessly charge robotic assets on theMoon (landers, rovers). Their proprietary technology allows them to charge assets from orbit, enablinga scalable energy grid. Their service will break theenergy bottleneck that limits lunar missions to a 14day lifetime. By establishing the lunar power grid,customers will be able to 100x their mission lifetimeand value creation.”59

4.18 Light Mirror (UAB ”Saules sildymo architektura”)
Light Mirror is a startup from Lithuania foundedin 2019 and designing low-tech reflective panels toimprove natural lighting in buildings.67
During 2023, they have been working on LightMirror Sunlight beam module, which is a mirror to
redirect Sunlight from Earth to space for space debris re-entry. Large field of mirrors will be used
to collect and concentrate sunlight onto a beamforming system, creating a highly focused beam oflight that is redirected towards space debris. During regular times, the facility will keep a dual use by
producing energy.68
4.19 Litepulse

Litepulse was founded in 2022 in the USA to create
the very first remote power network in space.69
4.16 Frazer-Nash Consultancy
Litepulse is building a remote power network in
Frazer-Nash is a systems, engineering and techspace and the cislunar environment with the aim ofnology consultancy founded in 1971 with offices inproviding scalable power to all vehicles in space. The
the UK and Australia. In 2020-2021, Frazer-Nashcompany is building a meshed energy grid powered
Consultancy undertook study, published by the UK’s
by the Sun. Goal is to provide more efficient power
Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strat- to satellites, space stations, and additive manufacegy, which considered the technical feasibility, cost
turing in LEO, GEO, and cis-lunar space.70
and economics of Space Based Solar Power (SBSP).60, 61
In December 2022, Orbit Fab and Litepulse anIn early 2022, ESA commissioned two cost vs.
nounced the signing of a Letter of Intent. Orbit
benefits studies from Frazer-Nash and Roland Berger, Fab will provide RAFTI units and propellant for
which were finished in Aug 2022.4 Frazer-Nash based
Litepulse’s power plants. Litepulse will provide power
their study on the CASSIOPeiA SSP concept.
to Orbit Fab in order to enable Orbit Fab to pursue
In September 2023, Frazer-Nash announced partin-situ resource utilization (ISRU).70
nership with Space Solar to provide expertise in a
In June 2023, Spaceium and Litepulse signed LoI
wide range of disciplines including concept designtouse
Litepulse tech to power Spaceium logistics
and engineering analysis.62
hubs in space.71
However, it is currently unclear what kind of
long-term interests they have in developing their own
space solar power plants.

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Copyright © 2023 by Mr. Erik Kulu. Published by the IAF, with permission and released to the IAF to publish in all forms.

4.20 Lumi Space
Lumi was established in the UK in 2018. The initial idea was to use lasers to provide power to satellites from Earth. However, they pivoted to laser
ranging technology to spot, characterise and precisely track objects in orbit.72
4.21 Metasat
Metasat UK was founded in 2020 and specialises
in space-based solar power (SBSP) and space sustainability. Goal is to develop SBSP technologies
and provide services designed to lessen the environmental impact of the space industry itself throughLife Cycle Assessment (LCA).73
In a paper at IAC 2023, Metasat’s solution was
mentioned ”this paper will outline the technical details of a novel Sandwich Type SPS concept publicly
for the first time. The Multi-domain Operations using Rapidly-responsive PHased Energy Universally
Synchronized (MORPHEUS) SPS concept presents
an elegant alternative SBSP option, which is currently being pursued commercially by Metasat. It
is composed of identical recyclable satellites, eachof which have sandwich panels consisting of a microwave transmitter on one side and solar cells on
the other, between DC to RF convertors.”74
4.22 Moliri Space Energy
Moliri was established in 2023 and aims to build
space solar power stations to produce electricity withapplications in both terrestrial and space markets.
They were accepted to Luxembourg’s ESRIC Startup Support Programme III September 2023.75
4.23 Northrop Grumman
Northrop Grumman Corporation is an American multinational aerospace and defense technology
company with about 95,000 employees.76
In 2015, Northrop Grumman signed a sponsoredresearch agreement with the California Institute ofTechnology (Caltech) for the development of the Space
Solar Power Initiative (SSPI). Under the terms of
the agreement, Northrop Grumman will provide up
to $17.5 million to the initiative over three years.77
In 2018, The U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) awarded Northrop Grumman a $100M
contract to develop a payload to demonstrate key
components of a space solar power system. Called
Arachne, it could prototype a space-based system toprovide solar power to remote military bases.

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The Space Solar Power Incremental Demonstrations and Research (SSPIDR) is scheduled to launch
in 2025 to show the capability of beaming RF energy down to the planet. In 2022, they announced
the successful demonstration of the ability to beam
radio frequency energy toward various antennas bysteering the beam.78
4.24 OHB
OHB was founded in 1958 in Germany. They
performed an aircraft charging constellation study
with TU Munich and Fraunhofer ILT & ISE.79
In 2022, they supported Roland Berger in thecost versus benefit study based on the John Mankins
SPS-Alpha concept.4, 79
4.25 Orbital Power Corporation (OPC)
Orbital Power was established in 2011 in the UK
by Philip Owen to generate safe, clean, reliable energy from space.80 They were planning to use thinfilm solar cells.81 It was dissolved in 2016.82
The space segment of their system comprises ofIndependent Solar Energy Satellites working together
to form a single microwave power beam. The baseline design has 10 tonne satellites, with cloud sizes
ranging 12 to 300 satellites depending on power required in a particular beam. Each satellite is comprised of a core, a photovoltaic array and a microwave transmission array. The photovoltaic array is composed of thin-film solar cells, supported
by a UV-cured inflatable composite frame. The microwave transmission array is composed of small,independently controlled transmitter/processor elements. The power beam is a large 5.9 GHz microwave radio signal that is tightly focused to arrive
at a relatively small ‘footprint’ on Earth.83
4.26 Overview Energy
Overview Energy is a VC-backed aerospace startup
founded in 2022 and based in the US. Overview issolving fundamental problems in aerospace manufacturing, GNC, and space power systems and will
be building a constellation of large, deployable satellites. They aim to build the most economical spacecraft ever flown to GEO, at unprecedented scale.84
They seem to be in stealth mode but it is known
to be related to space solar power and/or power
beaming. PitchBook says they raised $6.8M seed inJuly 202385 while Crunchbase says they raised $3M
seed in July 2022.86

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4.27 Paraloon

4.30 PowerSat Corporation

ParaLoon was founded in 2023, but were also
active in the autumn of 2022, and develops inflatable ”parabolic balloon” concentrator photovoltaic(CPV) structures for a sustainable energy solution
in and from space. The purpose of these structures
is to collect solar energy for applications in spaceand on Earth. Applications in space would include
satellites, space stations, habitats or mission vehicles. On Earth, these structures could be used forremote areas, campsites or mobile applications. The
ParaLoon system combines innovative polymeric, inflatable structures and photo-voltaic technologies forthe efficient conversion of both light and heat.87

PowerSat was founded in 2001 in the US and describes itself as a pioneer in generating safe, clean,reliable energy from space. Solar energy would be
captured via satellites (powersats) and transmitted
wirelessly to receiving stations around the globe.94–96
In 2009, PowerSat said it has filed the application
for a patent related to “BrightStar” satellites, which
it envisages being coupled wirelessly in space to create large clusters of independent solar arrays that
contribute to a single transmission beam.97 They
planned to have a BrightStar on orbit for demonstration purposes in the 2017-2018 range.98
The inflatable BrightStar weighs about ten tons.
At stowed, it would be 4.5 meters in diameter by
11.3 meters long. Deployed, each BrightStar looks
like two thin plates, supported inside the rim. The
larger of these two “disks” is the photovoltaic array
and is 350m in diameter, separated and supported
by an inflatable torus with a diameter of two meters.
The smaller disk is the transmitter, about 100m in
diameter, also thin-film in construction supportedby the same inflatable outer rim. Each BrightStar
will generate about 17MW on orbit.98

4.28 Photonicity
Photonicity was founded in 2019 in Singapore
and they aspire to build the various building blocks
that would enable cost-competitive space-based solar power and interstellar exploration.88 According
to profile in F6S, they are developing wireless powertransmission technology that would be a key enabler
for the centralized space power grid.89
They have been awarded ESA study titled ”Photoirradiation annealing of radiation-induced degradation of multijunction solar cells for space-based power
plants”. Their early technology development project
aims to develop a method to recover solar cells thathave been degraded by radiation. Fixing these cells
in orbit could significantly increase the lifetime of asolar power satellite.48

4.31 ReBeam
ReBeam was founded in 2016 in the USA andthey were building the first Wireless Energy Network
for grids using satellites.99 They are considered dormant as the last social media post was in 2016 andwebsite has been redirected to Vrisva Space.

4.29 PowerLight

4.32 Reflect Orbital (Tons of Mirrors)

PowerLight was founded in 2007 as LaserMotive.
Since then, PowerLight has set three world records
for beaming power over light, won two NASA government awards and advanced five generations oftechnology systems. They are the first team to develop technology platform that demonstrated transfer of 400 watts over 1 kilometer.90 According to
Crunchbase, they have raised over $4.1M but havemore in grants.91
In 2009, they won $900,000 in a NASA-sponsoredcontest to power cable-climbing robots.92 In 2021,
they were finishing a $9.5M project for the U.S.
Naval Research Laboratory. In 2019, PowerLight
showed that its power-beaming system can transmit 400 watts of power. In 2020, it demonstrated alightweight power receiver suitable for drones.93

Reflect Orbital was founded in 2021 to build aconstellation of satellites to reflect sunlight onto existing solar farms at night. By selling sunlight, they
increase the output of existing infrastructure.100 In
2022, they were called Tons of Mirrors.101

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4.33 Ronald Berger
Roland Berger is a global consultancy with offices
in all major markets and industries.102
In early 2022, ESA commissioned two cost versus
benefits studies including from Roland Berger.4
However, as with other consultancy-focused entities, it is currently unclear what kind of commercial
interests they have and whether they plan to leadthe development of space solar power plants.

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4.34 Satellite Applications Catapult

4.39 Solar.SpaceIn January 2023, it was announced that The Catapult secured almost £500k in funding from the UK
Space Agency to kick-start research and development into Space-Based Solar Power (SBSP) system.103
In August 2023, Satellite Applications Catapult
is forming a partnership with Space Solar, which isa spinout from the Catapult since April 2022. The
partnership will be delivered through provision oftechnical expertise and other support.104

Solar.Space was a concept from the UK in 2018
to provide wireless energy to other satellites.
4.40 Solaren

Solaren was founded in 2001 to make space solar
power reality. In 2009, California’s biggest energy
utility (Pacific Gas & Electric) announced a 15-year
deal to purchase 200 megawatts of electricity thatwould be beamed down to Earth from outer space,beginning in 2016. Solaren’s system would be ”com4.35 Shimizu Corporation
petitive both in terms of performance and cost with
In 2013, Japanese construction firm Shimizu unother sources of baseload power generation.“veiled a LUNA RING concept to build a solar array
Gary Spirnak (CEO), said the company consisted
around the Moon’s equator and send the power toof about 10 engineers and scientists, and plans to emEarth with construction starting as early as 2035.105, 106 ploy more than 100 people in a year. ”The impetus
for forming Solaren was the convergence of improved
high-energy conversion devices, heavy-launch vehicle
4.36 Sirin Orbital Systems
developments, and a revolutionary Solaren-patented
Sirin Orbital Systems was founded in 2019 in
SSP design that is a significant departure from past
Switzerland and focuses on the development of adefforts and makes SSP not only technically but ecovanced enabling technologies notably for Space-based
nomically viable.”110
Solar Power (SBSP) / Wireless Power Transfer (WPT)
In June 2023, they announced raising $2.5M inapplications and others.107 They have an ESA-funded an initial Series D round.
study on ”Development of Millimetre Waves Wireless Power Transfer (WPT) System for Lunar Rover
4.41 Solestial
Explorations”. This project will focus on developing
technology for the wireless transfer of power as theSolestial, previously Regher Space, was foundedintermediate goal of supplying energy to the Moon.48
in 2015 and raised $10M seed in 2022. Solestialis developing thin-film, flexible, mass-manufactured,radiation-hardened and low-cost silicon solar cells
4.37 Solar Space Technologies
and solar blankets.111, 112
Solar Space Technologies (SST), is an Australian
Solestial has not announced their own space solar
company founded in 2019 that is planning the develpower plans but the illustrations on their website
opment and commercialisation of the technology forshow extremely large solar arrays.111, 112 Perhaps
base load solar power generation from outer space,
they are out-of-scope for this survey at this time, but
including the deployment of solar power generation
it is likely that their solar cells would be a criticalsatellites, ground receiver sites and associated infraspart of many space solar satellite designs.
tructure to provide base load energy for Australia
and the world. Goal is to eventually develop a total
4.42 Space Applications Services
capacity of at least 18 gigawatts of electricity.108
Notably, their website lists John C. Mankins as aSpace Applications Services was founded in 1987
director, who is widely known in the industry for his
in Belgium. They develop systems and payloads for
SPS-Alpha concept and also by publishing a bookthe ISS, on-orbit servicing and lunar destinations.
”The Case for Space Solar Power” in 2014.108
They also develop robotic and rover systems andmany other solutions.113
They were awarded an ESA funded study on
4.38 Solar System Resources Corporation”Skybeam: Assembly of a Space Solar Power system
Solar System Resources Corporation is a spacewith European Technologies”. The takes a look atmining startup from Poland founded in 2020. They
the assembly of an SBSP station based on strategic
write on the website that from December 2021 theytechnologies being developed in Europe. The constarted lobbying for the development of space energy
cept foresees multiple multi-axis robots that create(SBSP) in Poland and Europe.109

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the vast (kilometre-scale) structural elements of solar power satellites by mounting standardised construction elements together.48

4.43 Space Energy
Space Energy was incorporated in Switzerland in2008 and by 2010 it had grown to have branches infive countries. Funding totalled about $4M plus support from private individuals. In December 2010 to2013, they continued to pursue ground and spacebased projects with many milestones achieved. Additionally, Space Energy also sold various IT equipment. Shortly afterwards, the company suffered amajor loss having been targeted by organized criminals who posed as legitimate buyers of one of the
IT deals. This caused a debt to Space Energy fromwhich they did not recover.114 There are also alternative viewpoints of what happened.115

4.44 Space PowerSpace Power is based in the UK and was foundedin 2019. They are developing technology required
to centralise energy generation and distribution in
space, offering spacecraft a more reliable and efficient source of energy. Their optical power beaming
technology will wirelessly transmit energy over long
distances, with minimal losses. They say the ability to transfer power from one spacecraft to anotherwill alter the possibilities – enabling new missions
far from the Sun.116

4.45 Space Solar
Space Solar, a spinout from the Satellite Applications Catapult in the UK, has been operating sinceApril 2022. They are planning a demonstration of
megawatt-scale power beamed from space by 2029.
Since 2022, Space Solar has kick-started the development program for the first operational Gigawatt
scale space-based solar power system, CASSIOPeiA.
They are now focusing on the rapid delivery of thisprogram, including the completion of its first wireless power demonstrator, which is an important stepin their 12-year delivery plan.117
It was reported in early 2023 that Saudi Arabia’s
NEOM and UK government invested $4.3M.118, 119

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4.46 Spacefaring Services
Spacefaring Services was an early stage startup
likely founded in 2014. They write on their website that the technical assertion has been made thatspace-to-space and space-to-Near Earth Object (NEO)surface power beaming technology can be matured
to support both mission enhancing and mission enabling applications. The development, marketing,and infusion of the SBSP technology for space-tospace and space-to-NEO applications is a joint projectwith Barnhard Associates (Gary P. Barnhard).120
In 2021, J. Rauscher, CEO, published a paper”USA Public-Private Prototype Power Beaming Infrastructure for Disaster Response and Recovery”.121
4.47 Spacians
Spacians was founded in 2019 and was based in
Sweden and India. The website is now offline but in
2021 they had 2 sections about space solar power.
”Space Power Station (SPS) - A power station
using flywheel energy storage to provide continuous
electricity to space probes through efficient wirelesstechnology. It will enable spacecraft to carry smaller
solar panels and batteries.”122”Space Powered Atmospheric Satellite Technology (SPAS-Tech) - Receives a continuous wirelesselectricity supply from the space power station sothat it can work more efficiently compared to current atmospheric satellites (HAPS, UAVs).”122
4.48 Stellarion Energy (STELLA)
Stellarion was an India-based startup likely from2020. They were committed to eradicate energy crisis with a solution from space. However, the website
and LinkedIn have been deleted.123
4.49 STELLSSTELLS was founded in 2021 in Canada and isdeveloping MPR-1 Mobile Power Rover, which is amedium-size rover scheduled to launch in 2024 to theSouth Pole of the Moon and provide power to othermissions. The idea, as per their Youtube Moon Mission trailer, is to leave a box in a shadowed crater,which would be connected via cable to their roverwith large solar panels, but the customers would use
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4.50 SunCubes
SunCubes started in Italy in 2021 and aims to develop the future space energy infrastructure throughan in-space satellite recharging system to maximize
performance. Goal is to have the first four satellites
in space by 2026 and capable of powering around 90
users spacecraft.126, 127

4.51 Thales Alenia Space
Thales Alenia Space is a joint venture with sites
in 9 European countries.128
Thales Alenia was awarded ESA-funded study
called ”Receiv’Air – Bypassing of atmospheric attenuation for SPS with airborne receiver” looking into
using an airship to receive a high frequency beam at
a high altitude.48
In April 2023, ESA awarded study contracts todevelop new reference-design space solar power architectures for large-scale terrestrial use to Arthur
D. Little and Thales Alenia Space Italy.41

4.52 The Lunar Grid
The Lunar Grid was established in Luxembourg
in 2021. They are developing wireless energy transmission, both for terrestrial and space applications.
The transmission will be over a free-space opticallaser link and can reach over several kilometres. A
power receptor will convert the laser light back into
electricity. Their aim is to power all lunar missions
and provide them with continuous access to energy.
However, first focus will be on using the technology on Earth for drones to extend their flight time.
They said well that if they had product standing on
the Moon today, there would be no customer.129, 130
Thus, since early 2022, the founders are focusedon the wireless drone charging startup SkyGrids.

4.53 Virtus Solis
Virtus Solis was founded in 2018 in the USA.
They say they have designed the world’s first spacebased solar power energy generation system able todirectly compete with all forms of energy. The process and details are:131, 132
1. Solar power gathered in space by small satellites with high efficiency solar panels. Each
1.65 m satellite delivers 1 kW of power to ground.
2. Satellites are grouped into massive arrays, 100,000
satellites for 100MW, allowing for a highly scalable energy platform up to multi-GW level.
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3. Satellites are in sunlight all of the time withlong dwell time over the northern/southern hemisphere due to orbital characteristics. Using
highly elliptical Molniya orbit constellation.
4. Solar energy is converted to 10 GHz microwaves
to beam energy to ground - rectennas gather
microwave energy and convert to electricity.132
They won $200,000 in 2022 as one of the 7 winning teams of Phase 2, Level 1 of NASA’s Watts on
the Moon Challenge.133 The challenge describes delivering energy across 3 km from a variable sourceand delivering it to a load at the other end. They
solved it with their core wireless power transfer technology and a novel energy storage system.132
In March 2023, they demonstrated power beaming live over 100 meters. It consisted of one powersatellite of 1.92m aperture, which had 6400 transmitting antenna elements. One receiving antenna(rectenna) of 1.32m x 1.62m aperture had 1944 receiving antenna elements.134
In May 2023, they were accepted to Seraphim
Space Accelerator.135 In June 2023, they together
with the University of Bristol in the UK were awarded£353,000.136
Virtus Solis has not publicized fundraising amounts
but they are likely to be one of the best funded, andamong some of the furthest along, space solar power
startups.

4.54 XISP (Xtraordinary Innovative Space Partnerships)
XISP was founded in 2012 and is a cislunar mission development company.137 They have publishedreports and articles on space solar power since atleast 2016.138
In 2017, Gary Barnhard, CEO, published an article ”Space-to-Space Power Beaming (SSPB) - A
Commercial ISS Technology Development, Demonstration, and Deployment (TD3) Mission”.139
In August 2018, they published a proposal titled ”ISS Space-to-Space Power Beaming: Fosteringa Cislunar Electrical Power and Ancillary Utilities
Service”.140

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5. STATISTICAL OVERVIEW”Unknown” category is for entities which have notannounced funding and it is likely they have no orvery small amount of capital.
Yes, but amount TBD have for example Airbus,
Northrop Grumman, OHB, Space Applications Services and Thales Alenia Space.
Category $10-50m includes Solestial, but it iscurrently unknown whether they plan to develop
their own space solar power plants in the future or
remain a supplier of solar cells and solar blankets.
Category $5-10m includes Overview Energy.
Category $1-5m includes Aquila Earth, Emrod,
Powerlight, Solaren, Space Energy and Space Solar.
Category $0.1-1m includes e.g. Astrostrom, Eternal Light, STELLS, The Lunar Grid and Virtus Solis. Virtus Solis may have considerably more funding
but has not been announced publicly.
Category <$0.1m has Space Power and ParaLoon.

Statistical overview has been created of the 52
commercial entries from Table 2 included in thisspace solar power survey.
5.1 Founding Years with Status
Figure 3 illustrates the organisation founding years
and their current statuses in relation to SSP.
As seen from the figure, visible increase in entities starts from around 2012. Further increase begins
from 2018, which is after the SpaceX Starship announcements, which is considered to be the primaryenabler of space solar power assuming the forecasted
launch price reductions will happen.
No commercial entities have sent space solar power
demonstrations to space as of September 2023. Caltech did in early 2023 but they are a non-commercialorganisation. This also means none are active andthose categories are missing from the legend because
there are no such entries in the database.

Funding with Classification of Space Solar Powerf) $10−50m

1e) $5−10m

16d) $1−5m

5.2 Funding Levels with Categories

6c) $0.1−1m

Figure 4 plots the funding amount in specified
categories. The funding levels are the total amountannounced and the exact investments for space solar
power may be unknown in case of larger companies.
”Yes, but amount unknown” commonly means
an established company, but it has not been madepublic of how much they are investing in SSP. The2b) <$0.1m

26a) Unknown
0

10
Organisations

Figure 4: Funding Levels with Classification ofSpace Solar Power Commercial Activities

7

StatusNumber of organisations

20

Founding Years with Status of Space Solar Power Activities

8

6

Categories
Power Beaming
Solar Cells
Solar Mirrors
Space Solar Power

10k) Yes, amount TBD

73) Development
4) Early stage5) Concept
6) Dormant
5

5

4
3

2

2
1

1

1

1

1

1

2

1

1

2

1

1

1

1

19

9
19 4
9
19 5
9
19 6
9
19 7
9
19 8
9
20 9
0
20 0
0
20 1
0
20 2
0
20 3
0
20 4
0
20 5
0
20 6
0
20 7
0
20 8
0
20 9
1
20 0
1
20 1
1
20 2
1
20 3
1
20 4
1
20 5
1
20 6
1
20 7
1
20 8
1
20 9
2
20 0
2
20 1
2
20 2
23

0

Figure 3: Founding Years with Status for Space Solar Power Commercial Activities
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Founding Years with Classification of Space Solar Power Activities

8

7

Number of organisations

Categories
6

7Power Beaming
Solar Cells
Solar Mirrors
Space Solar Power
5

5

4
3

2

2
1

1

1

1

1

1

2

1

2

1

1

1

1

1

19

9
19 4
9
19 5
9
19 6
9
19 7
9
19 8
9
20 9
0
20 0
0
20 1
0
20 2
0
20 3
0
20 4
0
20 5
0
20 6
0
20 7
0
20 8
0
20 9
1
20 0
1
20 1
1
20 2
1
20 3
1
20 4
1
20 5
1
20 6
1
20 7
1
20 8
1
20 9
2
20 0
2
20 1
2
20 2
23

0

Figure 5: Founded Years with Status for Space Solar Power Commercial Activities
5.3 Founding Years with Categories
Figure 5 gathers the founding years of the organisations with the initial activity categories. The
earliest known dedicated space solar power company
is Solaren founded in 2001. Entities founded earlier
than 2001 were or are active in other activities.
The figure shows that the dream of making spacesolar power happen has continued through the 1990s
and 2000s. Then the idea of power beaming emerged
for different commercial space applications and likely
requiring less capital. The growth in the number ofentities starting from 2018 is expected to continue.
5.4 Categories for Initial Activity Focus
Classification of Space Solar Power Activities
1

Solar Cells

includes Reflect Orbital. Organisations under Power
Beaming are initially focusing on wireless power transfer, e.g. to beam power to satellites in LEO or tospacecraft on the surface of the Moon.
5.5 Funding Levels with Status
Figure 7 plots the funding amounts in specified
levels together with the activity status. Most founded
companies are actively in development as expected.
Space Energy is the organisation, which claimed about$4M in funding, but shut down around 20131. Mostof the other dormant companies likely never raised
private funding. Solestial with the highest known
funding amount is marked as Concept. Many larger
companies, most of which as of now have only performed concept studies, are marked under the ”Yes,but amount TBD” funding level.
Funding with Status of Space Solar Power

2

Solar Mirrors

10k) Yes, amount TBDf) $10−50m

1e) $5−10m

119Power Beaming

30

Space Solar Power6d) $1−5m

6c) $0.1−1m
0

10

20
Organisations

30b) <$0.1m

Categories
3) Development
4) Early stage5) Concept
6) Dormant

226a) Unknown

Figure 6: Categories of SSP Commercial Activities
Figure 6 shows the distribution of the 52 surveyed entities by the high-level category assigned forthe initial activity to give more contextual information. Solestial is under Solar Cells. Solar Mirrors
IAC-23-C3.1.12

0

10Organisations

20

Figure 7: Funding Levels with Company Status ofSpace Solar Power Commercial Activities

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5.6 First Space Launches

5.7 Geographical Distribution

Figure 9 shows the distribution of space solar
power commercial organisations. Many entities havemultiple offices and the map shows all of them. The
First Launches of Space Solar Power Activities
40
written examples below are for headquarters.
35
USA has 15 entities including for example Northrop
30
Grumman, Overview Energy, Powerlight, ARTEMIS,
20
Reflect Orbital, Solaren, Solestial and Virtus Solis.
8
UK has 9 entities e.g., International Electric Com10
4
2
1
1
1
pany, Space Power, Space Solar and Metasat.
0
t
d
le
24
25
27
35
Canada has 3 entities including 3K SpaceTech,
an
ce
ab
20
20
20
20
rm
un
lic
Do
no
pp
n
a
EternalLight and STELLS.
t
ta
No
No
Switzerland has 3 entities including Astrostrom,
Sirin Orbital Systems and Space Energy.
Figure 8: First Launches of Space Solar PowerFrance has Airbus. Germany has OHB. Italy has
Based on the figure, only a few have announced
Thales Alenia Space.
planned years for maiden launches to space. This
ParaLoon is based in Belgium. Solar System Recorrelates to most companies being in Early or Consources Corp is in Poland. Alvior is from Norway.
cept stages with limited or no hardware development
India has 3 organisations including Entropy, Spaand relatively small amounts of funding.
cians and Stellarion Energy (STELLA).
In 2024, launches have been announced for ReAustralia has 2 startups, Aquila Earth and Solar
flect Orbital, Solestial, Space Power and STELLS.
Space Technologies.
In 2025, maiden flights will be for Emrod and Northrop
Emrod was founded in New Zealand but now also
Grumman. Solar Space Technologies announced firsthas an office in Germany.
launch in 2027.
Celestia Energy is based in the UAE.
Shimizu’s LUNA RING could start to be built
from 2035 but likely only a concept as of now.
Dormant is likely much higher than shown andwill continue tracking their progress or lack of it.
Not announced are for example Virtus Solis andOverview Energy. Older companies, whose dates
have passed, are now marked as ”not announced”.
Organisations

Figure 8 collects the first space launch years forspace solar power technology demonstrations.

Geographical Distribution of Space Solar Power Activities
17

10

5

1

0

Figure 9: Geographical Distribution of Space Solar Power Commercial Activities
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6. NON-COMMERCIAL LANDSCAPE OF
SPACE SOLAR POWER

utilisation. In 2003, ESA’s Advanced Concepts Team
commenced the European Solar Power from Space
Programme, assessing the validity and viability of
There are also numerous universities developing
solar power from space concepts.149, 150
various building blocks for space solar power but
ESA re-started exploring space solar power inmost of them have not been surveyed yet. Many of2020. In early 2022, ESA commissioned two cost verthem have been awarded studies by ESA48 or by thesus benefits studies from Frazer-Nash Consultancy
UK141 in the recent years. Please note this section
and Roland Berger.4
does not aim to be exhaustive.
In November 2022, the SOLARIS 2-year preparatory initiative was announced to fund the develop6.1 Canada
ment of relevant technologies and studies for future
decision making.151, 152
SHARP (Stationary High Altitude Relay PlatIn April 2023, ESA awarded study contracts toform) was an experimental aircraft using beam-powered
develop new reference-design space solar power arpropulsion designed by the Communications Researchchitectures for large-scale terrestrial use to Arthur
Centre Canada and built by the University of Toronto
D. Little and Thales Alenia Space Italy.41
Institute for Aerospace Studies in the 1980s.142
In July 2023, Astrostrom completed their ESASPACE Canada (Solar Power Alternative for Clean
funded study investigating the feasibility of a ”Greater
Energy) is a not-for-profit organization dedicated to
Earth Lunar Power Station” (GEO-LPS) manufacthe promotion of solar energy from space. They
tured on the Moon and assembled at the Earthheld a three-day symposium in 2009 ”“From theMoon Lagrange Point 1 to provide power to Moon.43
Sun to the Earth” and have organised The InterIn early October, ESA organised the Internanational Space Solar Power Student Project Comtional (On-line) Conference on Energy from Space.153
143, 144
petition since 2016.
6.2 China
Deng Xiaoci and Fan Wei wrote in April 2023
that China’s research and development into its own
space-based power station has accelerated since a
proposal was approved in 2013. More than 130 experts from 16 departments and agencies spent a year
conducting a feasibility study in 2014.145
In June 2022, Andrew Jones wrote in length about
China’s plans in SpaceNews. The China Academyof Space Technology (CAST) plans to conduct a“Space high voltage transfer and wireless power transmission experiment” in LEO in 2028. The satellite
will generate 10 kilowatts and test power transmission across distances of 400 km from orbit. The planalso involves building infrastructure on the groundfor receiving energy transmissions. The 2028 phase
1 test will be followed by phase 2 in 2030, launched
into geostationary orbit. Phases 3 and 4 would be in2035 and 2050, will increase energy generation firstto 10 MW and then to 2 GW.146, 147
Dr. Shi-Wei Dong presentation at the IAC 2023
conference contained many (numerical) details.148
6.3 European Space Agency
According to ESA’s SBSP history, in 1979 ESA
performed its first study of the topic: ”European
Aspects of Solar Power Satellites”. In 1999, ESA included Space Based Solar Power in a study of space

IAC-23-C3.1.12

6.4 Japan
In 1983, Japan conducted the Microwave Ionosphere Nonlinear Interaction eXperiment (MINIX)
on a sounding rocket. Two magnetrons were used
to emit 2.45 GHz microwave to make a simulated
condition of power transmission from an SPS to aground station. Measurements were conducted by
the daughter unit, which was separated slowly fromthe mother unit. In 1993, they conducted a sounding
rocket experiment using phased array antenna for
more accurate power transmission in space.154, 155
In 1992, Canadian SHARP research was picked
up at Kyoto University. Their MILAX (Microwave
Lifted Airplane Experiment) vehicle had two newfeatures. The rectenna on the aircraft was embedded in the wings and tail surfaces. The broadcast
antenna was a phased array. The system was tested
on a driving truck with MILAX following.142
In 1995, Energy Transmission toward High altitude long endurance airship ExpeRiment (ETHER)
was conducted by Kobe University. A 2.45 GHz/ 10
kW microwave beam was transmitted to an airshipflying approximately 45 m above the ground.142, 156
In March 2015, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (MHI)
conducted a ground demonstration testing of wireless power transmission. In the ground demonstration test, 10 kilowatts (kW) of power was sent froma transmitting unit by microwave. The receptionof power was confirmed at a receiver unit locatedPage 20 of 30

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at a distance of 500 meters away. MHI conducted
the ground demonstration testing based on an agreement with Japan Space Systems carrying out the”2012 Solar Power Wireless Transmission Technology Development Project.”157
SSP has been included into the government’s Basic Plan on Space Policy since formulation in 2009.155
Japanese public-private partnership is aiming to run
a trial around year 2025.158, 159 Dr. Koji Tanaka
talk at IAC 2023 conference was very informative.160
6.4.1 Japan Space Systems
Japan Space Systems was founded by the Japanese
Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry in 1986
and it got its name after a merger in 2012.161 They
have designed a reference architecture, studied wireless power transfer to rovers, studied life-cycle CO2
emissions, have performed microwave power beaming demonstrations and more.162
Power beaming experiment project from the LEO
satellite to the ground called ”Onorbit experimentof HIgh-precision beam control using small SAtellite
for MicrowAve power transmission (OHISAMA)” wasstarted in December 2022. The power transmission satellite has power transmission panels, and theground system consisted of the receiving devices spreadto measure the beam control capability of the powertransmission panels, and also large parabolic antenna to demonstrate the power transmission.163
6.4.2 JAXA
Japan commenced its SSPS research activities in
the 1980s. Under leadership of the Institute of Spaceand Astronautical Science (current JAXA ISAS),an industry-government-academia research team introduced a conceptual design of a 10,000 kW-class“SPS2000” in the 1990s. In the 2000s, JAXA andthe Ministry of Economy Trade and Industry (METI)
studied a million kW-class SSPS concept.164
6.4.3 Space Solar Power Society
Established in 2014 by Kyoto University Professor Emeritus Matsumoto as the first academic society with goal to realize space solar power by promoting academic research and industry-governmentacademia collaboration.165
6.5 Netherlands
Energy from Space Foundation was establishedin 2012 to promote energy from space and works on
a proposal to launch the first proof-of-concept.166

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6.6 Russia
The Znamya project was a series of orbital mirror experiments in the 1990s that intended to beamsolar power to Earth by reflecting sunlight. Constellations were imagined, with one having up to 100
reflectors of 400 meter diameter, to illuminate cities
in northern latitudes.12, 167–169
Znamya 2 had a diameter of 20 meters and was
deployed February 1993. Due to the imperfect shape,
the estimated brightness was rather about 1 full moon.
Next experiment, Znamya 2.5 mission failed to deploy in 1999. It had 25 meter reflector and lightspot on Earth would have been 5-7 kilometers withbrightness of 5-10 full moons. Znamya 3 was planned
to be 60-70 meters but it was cancelled. SolarKraft
was a spacecraft concept equipped with a solar sailsolar reflector or photovoltaics.12, 167–169
6.7 Saudi Arabia
NEOM Space is exploring the possibility of using
solar power from space to supply carbon free energy
for its projects. According to The Times, NEOM
and the UK government invested $4.3M into Space
Solar, a company in the UK.118
6.8 South Korea
Korean space solar power satellite was publishedat IAC 2019 and in 2022, a 50 meter wireless powertransmission was demonstrated on the ground.170 In
2022, Dr. Joon Min Choi from KARI and Dr. SangHwa Yi from KERI proposed a system of two small
satellites using formation flight for wireless powertransmission. In 2023, they presented a LEO spacesolar power satellite system to transmit electricity to
the ground, while considering technology readinessand budgetary availability in Korea.171
6.9 United Kingdom
During 2020-2021, Frazer-Nash undertook a study,
published by the UK’s Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy, which considered thetechnical feasibility, cost and economics of Space
Based Solar Power (SBSP).60, 61
In March 2023, UK Launch Services Limited completed a comprehensive Regulatory Roadmap towards
a Space-Based Solar Power (SBSP) on behalf of Space
Solar Ltd and the Satellite Applications Catapult.172
In June 2023, the UK Government’s Department
for Energy Security and Net Zero and the UK Space
Agency announced £4.3M in grants to space solar
power technologies.141, 173

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6.9.1 Space Energy Initiative

6.10 United States

The Space Energy Initiative started in November
2020 and includes energy and space organisations,industry, HM Government, academia and research
agencies, promoting and advancing the developmentof Space Based Solar Power for the benefit of the UK
and partner nations. The founder, Martin Soltau, is
now the Co-CEO of Space Solar and he was previously at Frazer-Nash.73, 174, 175

The United States has studied space solar power
since the 1970s. The energy shortages of 1973 created interest and in early 1976, the Department ofEnergy (DOE) and NASA initiated an SPS Concept
Development and Evaluation Program.15

6.9.2 University of Glasgow
From 2016-2017, Professor Colin McInnes at University of Glasgow was the principal investigator of
project ”Space-Enhanced Solar Power for Equatorial Regions”, which investigated the concept of solar mirrors in an Earth orbit to provide large-scaleterrestrial equatorial solar farms with additional solar power during the hours of darkness.176
For 2020-2025, Prof. Colin McInnes was awarded¿2.5M by European Research Council for project”SOLSPACE: Enhancing Global Clean Energy Services Using Orbiting Solar Reflectors”. The projectwill research a constellation of ultra-lightweight orbital reflectors to illuminate large terrestrial solar
power plants, particularly at dawn and dusk, when
their output is low but electricity demand and spot
prices are high. As a key breakthrough, they will
demonstrate new processes to enable the automatedin-orbit fabrication of large gossamer reflectors.177
6.9.3 University of Strathclyde
University of Strathclyde is also based in Glasgow and has researched space solar power. In 2012,
they were part of NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts (NIAC) study led by John Mankins. The project
was called SAM (Self-inflating Adaptable Membrane)
and idea was to test the deployment of an ultra light
cellular structure that can change shape once deployed. The structure is made of cells that are selfinflating in vacuum and can change their volume independently through nanopumps.178
In 2020, A. R. Wilson et al. published a paper ”AProcess-Based Life Cycle Sustainability Assessmentof the Space-Based Solar Power Concept”.179
They have a co-funded project with ESA called”CORES – COllaborative Recycling of End-of-life
SPS” studying collaborative robotics solutions to dismantle, replenish and remanufacture large space infrastructures.48

6.10.1 Breakthrough Initiatives - Starshot
Breakthrough Starshot was initiated in 2016 toadvance interstellar travel. The mission includes aground-based light beamer pushing ultra-light
nanocrafts with lightsails to perform a flyby missionof Alpha Centauri in just 20 years from launch.180, 181
While the lasers are ground-based, many relevant
technologies are still being advanced.
6.10.2 California Institute of Technology (Caltech)Caltech announced in 2021 that they received a$100M donation in 2013 to form the Space-based
Solar Power Project.182
In 2015, Caltech announced a sponsored research
agreement with Northrop Grumman, which provided
Caltech up to $17.5M over 3 years for the Space Solar Power Initiative (SSPI).183
Caltech launched a demonstration mission in January 2023 as a hosted payload on Momentus spacecraft. Wireless power transfer was demonstrated
in March. MAPLE (Microwave Array for Powertransfer Low-orbit Experiment) was one of the three
key experiments of Space Solar Power Demonstrator (SSPD-1). It consists of an array of flexible microwave power transmitters driven by custom chipsthat were built using low-cost technologies. MAPLE
transmitted power to receivers in space as it features two separate receivers about 30 cm away fromthe transmitter, and were used to light up LEDs
to demonstrate the full sequence of wireless energy
transmission in space. They also directed the energy
toward Earth, which was detected at Caltech.184, 185
6.10.3 Citizens for Space-Based Solar Power (C-SBSP)The purpose of Citizens for Space Based Solar
Power is to consolidate existing information, andto generate public support for the development of
space-based solar power. The blog was started in2007 by Rob Mahan.186
6.10.4 Colorado School of Mines
In August 2019, the Colorado School of Mines
published report titled ”21st Century Trends in SpaceBased Solar Power Generation and Storage” was pub-IAC-23-C3.1.12

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lished.187 In 2020, the same group published an article on ”Feasibility of space solar power for remotemining operations”.188
6.10.5 DARPA
In 2023, DARPA entered the first phase of the
Persistent Optical Wireless Energy Relay (POWER)
program, aimed at revolutionizing energy distribution through airborne wireless power transfer. Threeteams - led by RTX Corporation, Draper Laboratory, and BEAM Co. - will design and develop wireless optical power relays.189
The optical energy relays designed in POWER’sphase one will be demonstrated in pods carried byexisting aircraft in the project’s second phase. Eventually, these new, small, distributed platforms could
provide cost-effective aircraft with unlimited range
and endurance to support military missions. Eachrelay design will be evaluated based on accurate andefficient energy redirection, wavefront correction forhigh beam quality, and throttleable energy harvesting. In the third and final phase of the program,the relays will be demonstrated through an airborne
optical pathway that aims to deliver 10 kilowatts of
optical energy to a ground receiver that is 200 kilometers away from the ground source laser.189
6.10.6 NASANASA has funded and participated in numerous
studies over the decades starting from 1970s.
During 1995-1997, NASA conducted a far-reaching,
preliminary reexamination of the technologies, systems concepts and terrestrial markets that might beinvolved in future space solar power (SSP) systems,
conclusions presented by John C. Mankins.190
In 1999-2001, NASA’s Space Solar Power (SSP)
Exploratory Research and Technology (SERT) program was charged to develop technologies needed toprovide cost-competitive ground baseload electrical
power from space-based solar energy. The SERT
program was established in FY 1999 and continued
through FY 2000 by U.S. congressional appropriation. An additional appropriation for SSP was also
funded for FY 2001.191
In 2017, NASA selected the previously referenced
Colorado School of Mines study as one of five economic research studies awarded on space economy.192

space plane that captured sunlight and converted it
into direct current electrical energy.78
In June 2023, NRL’s Space Wireless Energy Laser
Link (SWELL) experiment surpassed 100 days of
successful on-orbit laser operations. Launched in
March 2023, this experiment is the first successfullaser power beaming in space. It is located on the
ISS as part of the U.S. Department of Defense Space
Test Program (STP) H9 mission. SWELL has been
providing nearly continuously about 1.5 watts at thepower beaming receiver’s output with an end-to-end
efficiency around 11%. The power beaming link distance is 1.45 meters. To NRL’s knowledge, in addition to being the first laser power beaming demonstration in space, this also represents the highest
power, longest distance, and most efficient power
beaming demonstration in orbit of any type.193
6.10.8 Power Satellite Economics
Power Satellite Economics is a forum started in2015 and moderated by Keith Henson, a long-time
independent researcher of space solar power.194, 195
6.10.9 Space Frontier Foundation
Space Frontier Foundation was established in 1987
and the current project Climate Alliance will bring
together a small collective of universities to do research on one aspect of space based solar power.196
6.10.10 Space Solar Power InstituteChartered in 1997, the Space Solar Power Institute is a non-profit educational corporation to educate the public about Space Solar Power and theclean baseload energy transformation which defines
why, when and how SSP must be built.197
6.10.11 Space Studies InstituteSolar power satellites are an important field for
the Space Studies Institute even before Gerard O’Neill
started the organization in 1977.3
6.10.12 University of Houston
Professor David R. Criswell was an advocate forlunar solar power for over 30 years with an idea tobuild the Lunar Power System (LPS) on the surfaceof the Moon and beam the energy to Earth.198–201

6.10.7 Naval Research Laboratory
The Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) launched
an experiment in 2020 aboard the Air Force’s X-37B

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7. CONCLUSIONSThe energy problem is so large and the market isso large that humanity should take multiple parallel
attempts at promising solutions. Abundant cheap
green energy could have a big positive impact on theworld. Waiting for a specific solution (e.g. fusion) is
not the best path, because it may take much longer,
or end up having unfavourable economics.
Private and public initiatives of space solar powerand space-related power beaming have been surveyed
and introduced. Statistical overview of the 52
discovered commercial entities has been created.
Some concluding thoughts and observations about
the space solar power landscape and market context:
 Most of the space solar power studies since
1970s have concluded that launch costs must
decrease significantly and launch cadence plus
mass-to-orbit must improve considerably forspace solar power to become economically viable. Optimistic forecasts for the Space Shuttle did not come true but now SpaceX’s
Starship is on a path to solve them.
 Space solar power and power beaming havea very large terrestrial energy market, whichcannot be said for most NewSpace industries.
 Space solar power is now likely an engineering
problem, and not a science problem, to createa practical large-scale design, which is sufficiently low-cost to be economically viable.
 It is too early to forecast which space solar architecture, orbit, beaming method (microwave
vs laser vs mirrors), configuration etc has thehighest probably of succeeding economically.
Space history is full of great designs on paper,
which have not succeeded in reality. Thermal
issues and novel materials are not easy to solve
and may require completely new architectures.
It is beneficial that many companies are pursuing different solutions. In case of space solar power, pragmatic systems engineering will
likely make a big difference.
 One major challenge is the very large up-front
investments required to develop and build spacesolar power systems, which are able to generate revenue and then profit. Hopefully, avery large terrestrial energy market will help
to counter that in the eyes of investors.
 One of the most important criteria is the costof electricity input to electric grid on Earth.
Thanks to microgravity, more continuous sunlight etc, energy from space may be cheaper

IAC-23-C3.1.12

and more beneficial even with all efficiency losses.
 Space-to-space and space-to-Moon or Moonto-Moon markets may happen first, but because those markets do not exist yet, they arelikely to remain limited for the next decade.
Conclusions about the statistical overview of 52
commercial entities in space solar power:
 Target customers may be on Earth, in space(e.g. satellites, habitats), on the Moon (e.g.
rovers, landers, facilities) and also beyond (e.g.
on Mars, laser sails and solar sails).
 The first dedicated startups to be establishedseem to be Solaren and PowerSat (both foundedin 2001) and Space Energy (started in 2008).
 Majority of the 52 commercial entities are in
the early and concept stages. Many are also
already dormant.
 Numerous entities have performed studies, but
it is unclear how many of them are developing hardware, and intend to develop their own
space solar power plants.
 Only a small part out of 52 have announced
maiden launches for related technology demonstrations in space. However, first ones maylaunch as early as 2024.
 Only some out of 52 have raised over $1 million, including Aquila Space, Emrod, Overview
Energy, PowerLight, Solaren, Space Energy andpossibly also Virtus Solis.
 Emrod and Virtus Solis have demonstrated microwave power beaming terrestrially. PowerLighthas demonstrated laser power beaming on Earth.
 Many of the 52 companies are initially focusing
on wireless energy to power satellites or also
terrestrially to create a wireless energy grid.
 Many startups are also initially focused on providing wireless power on the Moon.
 The furthest along commercial entities, in termsof funding, concept and hardware, in alphabetical order, seem to be Airbus, Emrod, Solaren,Space Solar, Overview Energy, Virtus Solis.

One key moment in the next two years may be
the ESA Member States decision on whether andhow to continue the development of space solar power.
First commercial technology demonstrations in space
will be also very notable.
The aim is to repeat this study in about every
two years, but the online database and figures will
be updated several times per year.

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74th International Astronautical Congress (IAC 2023), Baku, Azerbaijan, 2-6 October 2023.
Copyright © 2023 by Mr. Erik Kulu. Published by the IAF, with permission and released to the IAF to publish in all forms.

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IAC-23-C3.1.12

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solestial.com/.

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[112] Solestial,
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