論文

The Policy, System and Performance of
the Technical and Vocational School
Education in China: A Historical
Perspective (1949-2022)
Wenjun MIAO

1. Introduction
1. 1. Research Background
Amid China’s Labor Market Dynamics. Amidst the dynamic landscape ofChina’s labor market, characterized by its remarkable economic and societal
advancements, a series of challenges have surfaced. These challenges
encompass an undue emphasis on higher education, incongruities within thelabor market leading to mismatches, and a progressively widening disparity inlabor market inequalities. Of notable significance is the escalating requirement
for proficient and skilled professionals.
The “Analysis Report on Market Supply and Demand of Public Employment
Service Agencies in 100 Cities for the Second Quarter of 2021”, released by
China’s Ministry of Social Security in August 2021, offers invaluable insights
into the dynamics of the labor market. The recruitment ratio within the humanresources market has consistently remained above 1.2 since the fourth quarterof 2017, indicating a persistent upward trend. Notably, the manufacturingindustry accounts for 38.4% of the overall employment demands as of thesecond quarter of 2021. Particularly remarkable is the significant year-on-year
surge of 47.3% in employment demands within the information transmission
software and information technology service sectors1.
A discernible need for individuals possessing technical qualifications andprofessional titles has emerged. Significantly, 40.7% of job prerequisites explicitly
1

The information is derived from the “Analysis Report on Market Supply and Demand of
Public Employment Service Agencies in 100 Cities for the Second Quarter of 2021,” issued
by Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security of the People’s Republic of China.
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stipulate technical credentials or professional titles. Noteworthy disparities exist
in the demand for senior technicians, technicians, and senior skilled workers,
with corresponding employment ratios of 3.05, 2.7, and 2.51.

1. 2. Research Purpose
To Examine the Imperative for Technical and Vocational Education (TVE)
Enhancement. Recognizing the significance of technical and vocational education,
China enacted the Vocational Education Law in April 2022. Article 3
accentuates the equalization of vocational and general education. This revised
legislation ensures that vocational students have equal opportunities for further
education, employment, and career advancement, thereby eliminating
discriminatory policies. The evolution of both vocational and general education
is intended to progress in harmony.
To Explore TVE’s Historical Development. Given the economic and policy
framework mentioned above, the importance of enhancing technical andvocational education (TVE) becomes clear. For those aiming to explore thepotential of vocational education in driving high-quality progress in China, theinitial step involves exploring its historical development, extracting relevant
experiences and insights, and subsequently charting a path for the future.
Currently, technical and vocational education in China is categorized into two
primary streams: technical and vocational school education, and technical andvocational training, as outlined by Wu & Ye (2018)2. This article specificallydirects its focus toward the domain of technical and vocational school education(TVSE), covering three crucial dimensions: policy, system, and development
representation supplemented by statistical data. By drawing upon an extensive
collection of original texts concerning China’s TVSE policies, this study willcomprehensively outline the evolution and transformative phases spanning from2

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Wu and Ye refer to Article 12 of the Vocational Education Law of the People’s Republicof China that “the state shall, in accordance with the economic development level and thesituation of universal education of various regions, implement the educational division at
different stages mainly after junior middle school, institute and improve a technical andvocational education system under which technical and vocational education andvocational training shall be developed concurrently, and technical and vocational
education shall be connected with other forms of education with coordinated developmentof both. Therefore, they concluded that technical and vocational education in mainland
China includes two indispensable parts: One is vocational school education, the other isvocational training. The two parts are equal in status and complement each other.”

The Policy, System and Performance of the Technical and Vocational School Education in China: A Historical Perspective (1949-2022)

1949 to 2022, while also presenting well-founded recommendations.

1.3. Article Structure
The analysis of TVSE development will be meticulously categorized into
three distinct historical periods: 1949-1978, 1978-2000, and 2000-2022. Section 3
will explore the evolutionary trajectory of TVSE policies, while Section 4 will
elaborate on the transformation of TVSE systems. These discussions willencompass the interplay between policies and systems across different historicalepochs, illustrating how shifts in policy have intricately influenced the TVSE
system. Additionally, in Section 5, this article will employ specific data todelineate both the achievements and shortcomings of TVSE development in
China. The Section 6 will provide a comprehensive overview of the developmentof TVSE in China, and will subsequently offer relevant recommendations basedon this analysis.

2. Literature Review
First, this article references multiple studies for a comprehensive view ofChina’s TVSE policies, covering various policy aspects including administrative
systems, operational frameworks, talent cultivation, facility construction, andteacher training (Li & Zhou, 2009; Schmidtke & Peng, 2012). It categorizes thehistorical trajectory of Chinese TVSE using phases proposed by Wu & Ye (2018)
and Kuang & Shi (2019), highlighting stages of adjustment, correction, reform,
improvement, and eventual stability. Kuang & Shi (2019) also present aframework encompassing restoration, reconstruction, and rapid expansion.
Second, building upon research by Liao (2004) and Stewart (2015), this article
delves into the complexities of China’s TVSE school systems. Liao emphasizes
creating a flexible and efficient educational system suited to various local
conditions, and Stewart’s observations categorize the modern vocational
education system into three segments: junior secondary vocational schools,
upper secondary level, and tertiary vocational education. These viewpoints form
the foundation of this article. However, there is a lack of comprehensive studies
synthesizing the developmental history of China’s TVSE system and its
connection with policy evolution.
Third, based on the findings of the aforementioned research, this article

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adopts a time frame division similar to Wu & Ye (2018): adjustment and turmoil(1949-1978), reform and enhancement (1978-2000) and sustained progress (20002022). In an effort to address the research gaps, this article not only
comprehensively outlines the developmental process of vocational education in
China but also provides an analysis of the interplay between policies andsystems. This analysis is supplemented by data analysis to review theperformance of China’s vocational education.

3. Evolution of TVSE Policy During 1949 to 2022
3. 1. The Path of Adjustment and Development (1949-1978)
Background and Characteristics of TVSE Policies During 1949 to 1978. From1949 to 1978, which encompassed the period from the establishment of New
China to the beginning of reform and opening up, China faced economic
underdevelopment and a significant need for skilled professionals. There was astrong emphasis on rapidly expanding secondary vocational education to
support economic growth. However, during the Cultural Revolution, thevocational education approach, particularly the “part-time work-study schools” 3,
faced criticism, leading to a halt in vocational education progress due to politicalreasons.
Main Developmental Strategy: Focus on Developing Vocational Secondary
Education Schools. In 1949, vocational schools in China had only 300,000 students
combined. To align specialized secondary education with national progress, theMinistry of Education convened a nationwide conference on secondary
education in March 1951 and established the direction for specialized secondary
schools which were tasked with nurturing technical personnel in various
sectors. In 1954, China introduced the Decision on Improving Specialized
Secondary Education Policies. This policy outlined specific regulations, clarified
leadership structures, and drew inspiration from Soviet educational practices to

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Liu Shaoqi ( 刘少奇), the chairman of the PRC (1959-1965), developed the “two educational
systems and two labor systems,” merging Marxist-Leninist theory with China’s realities.
It comprises two elements: full-time school and eight-hour work and part-time schoolwith part-time work-study. Liu introduced this concept, which was widely tested andpromoted in China’s socialist education phase, offering valuable insights. Cities had parttime work-study specialized vocational schools, while rural areas established similar
agricultural middle schools.

The Policy, System and Performance of the Technical and Vocational School Education in China: A Historical Perspective (1949-2022)

enhance teaching quality. Simultaneously, China formulated policies for technicalschools. In 1954, the Ministry of Labor issued the Draft Interim Measures forTechnical Schools, a comprehensive document governing school administration,
curriculum, enrollment, and faculty.
Political Influence on Policy During this Period. From 1958 to 1960, during theGreat Leap Forward Movement, the “part-time work-study schools” model
emerged under the 1958 Instructions on Educational Work. In July 1961, theNational Working Conference on College and Secondary School Adjustments led
to reduced enrollments through the merger or dismantling of specialized
secondary and rural vocational middle schools, continuing until the Cultural
Revolution began.
The Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) brought a distinctive phase. On July 18,
1967, the People’s Daily published an article, “Overthrowing the General
Backstage of the Revisionist Education Line,” falsely claiming that part-timework-study schools hindered development and should be banned, hindering
vocational education progress, with general schools becoming the primary
providers of secondary education.

3. 2. M anifestation and Reform: Structural Transformation of Secondary
Education (1978-2000)
Background and Characteristics of TVSE Policies During 1978 to 2000. After the
Cultural Revolution, China favored general education. Criticisms in the late1970s highlighted the need for two graduate types: academic and vocational (Wu& Ye, 2018). A transformative shift began in 1978 with reform and opening-up
policies, reviving TVSE.
Post the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of theParty in 1978, the Chinese government introduced the Education Priority
Development Strategy, aiming to rebalance educational institutions at all levels.
It expanded agricultural middle schools, specialized secondary schools, andtechnical schools, setting the stage for TVSE reform and advancement. The
primary goal was to balance general education and TVSE, fostering both andhigher vocational education.
Rebalance General Education and TVSE. A pivotal moment occurred in 1980
with the publication of the influential document titled “Report on the Reform of
the Secondary Education Structure” by The State Council of China.

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Acknowledging the emerging status of TVSE, the report proposed strategies tosubstantially increase the enrollment of students in diverse vocational schools
within the senior secondary education system. It delineated regulations
governing the development of vocational education, encompassing curriculum,
system, school administration, management, and academic faculty, thus laying
the foundation for subsequent TVSE reforms.
In 1985, a pivotal moment arrived with The Central Committee of theCommunist Party of China issuing the Decision on the Reform of the Education
System. Firstly, this directive advocated for the expansion of vocational
education and exposed historical biases against it. Secondly, this landmark
policy marked the inception of higher vocational (specialist) schools, whichcatalyzed the establishment of higher vocational education 4. Moreover, it
provided clarity on the TVSE system for the first time, representing afoundational milestone in the development of China’s TVSE system. Most
importantly, the policy aimed to rebalance the general-vocational education ratio
through a “diversification strategy” at the secondary school level5. It assigned acentral role to vocational secondary education within China’s TVSE framework.
Reflection on Shortcomings in TVSE. China made significant efforts to enhance
TVSE during this period. In 1991, the State Council issued the Decision on
Developing Vocational and Technical Education, acknowledging challenges in
the 1990s, such as limited awareness in certain regions, inadequate investment,
outdated management and educational systems, teaching quality, poor
implementation of the employment access system, student motivation, andregional disparities. To address these issues and facilitate progress, the decision
outlined objectives and strategies for the 1990s.
China’s commitment to advancing TVSE was further emphasized in 1993
4

5

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In his article “Research on the Connotative Development of Higher Vocational
Education,” Dong (2014) noted that in June 1999, the State Council, in the Decision on
Deepening Education Reform and Comprehensively Promoting Quality Education, forthe first time, proposed the vigorous development of higher vocational education. Thisinitiative led to the gradual transformation of adult colleges and universities, into
vocational and technical colleges, creating a collaborative effort aimed at nurturing
technical application-oriented talents.
According to the policy, after completing junior high school, some students would attend
general secondary schools, while others would pursue vocational education at the seniorhigh school level. Similarly, some high school graduates would enroll in traditional
universities, while others would opt for higher vocational education.

The Policy, System and Performance of the Technical and Vocational School Education in China: A Historical Perspective (1949-2022)with the State Council’s Outline on Education Reform and Development. Thisurged governments nationwide to prioritize vocational education, encouraging
comprehensive development plans and collaboration among various sectors,
leading to changes in the TVSE system.
Reform of Higher Vocational Education. Additionally, concerning higher
vocational education, the State Education Commission of the PRC acknowledged
the weakness of specialized courses within China’s higher education system. In
1991, the Commission issued the Opinions on Strengthening the Work of Higher
Vocational (Specialist) Schools, which proposed measures to enhance school
quality, address employment concerns for graduates, and transform higher
vocational (specialist) schools. These schools, once referred to as “compressed
general undergraduate education,” progressively evolved into a pivotal
component of China’s TVSE.

3. 3. Improvement and Steady Development (2000-2022)
Background and Characteristics of TVSE Policies During 2000 to 2022. The
National Medium and Long-term Education Reform and Development Plan
(2010-2020) emphasized the importance of vocational education in fosteringskilled talent to support China’s economic growth. It called for improvements invocational education quality and expansion of vocational training programs. In
addition, the “Made in China 2025” in 2015 focused on transforming China into ahigh-tech manufacturing powerhouse, this initiative highlighted the significanceof vocational education in providing technical expertise. It emphasized modern
apprenticeships and school-enterprise cooperation as crucial components6.
The Evolving Landscape of TVSE Legislation After 2000. China underwent
significant regulatory improvements for TVSE during this era. In 1998, thegovernment promulgated the Higher Education Law of the People’s Republic ofChina, solidifying the fundamental framework for higher vocational education at
a legal level. The Vocational Education Act, effective from 1996, mandated
nationwide establishment and refinement of TVSE. The Educational

6

China’s vocational education policies after 2000 have evolved to prioritize thedevelopment of a skilled workforce, aligning with the changing demands of its economy.
The policies reflect a commitment to enhancing the quality of vocational education,
fostering innovation in training approaches such as modern apprenticeships and schoolenterprise cooperation.
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Revitalization Action Plan for the 21st Century unveiled during the 15th
National Congress of the Communist Party of China in 1998, envisioned an
integrated TVSE system where primary, secondary, and higher vocational
education harmonized with general education, in alignment with the Vocational
Education Act.
To further enact the Vocational Education Act, the State Council released theDecision on Improving the Reform and Development of Vocational Education in
September 2002. This decision outlined seven crucial avenues for enhancing
TVSE, including recognizing its pivotal role, aligning TVSE with economic andsocial development, adapting teaching to meet societal and corporate needs,
bolstering TVSE in rural and western regions, reinforcing the nexus between
TVSE and labor market demands, augmenting education investments, andenhancing government leadership to ensure the sustainable and robust
development of TVSE. This comprehensive decision furnished explicit guidance
to address contemporary challenges facing China’s TVSE.
Cultivation of Modern Apprenticeship System. In 2014, the Ministry of
Education issued the Opinions on Launching the Pilot Modern Apprenticeship
System. This initiative sought to improve the integration of work and talenttraining, enhance collaboration between TVSE schools and businesses, andestablish a robust modern apprenticeship system. This marked the initiation ofChina’s modern apprenticeship policy. Following this, China introduced its
inaugural set of modern apprenticeship pilot programs in 2015.
The “Made in China 2025” unveiled by the State Council in 2015, delineated acomprehensive ten-year strategy for China’s manufacturing sector. This
strategic blueprint placed a strong emphasis on the modern apprenticeshipsystem and school-enterprise collaboration as integral components for nurturing
technical and skilled talent, thereby ensuring the advancement of the
manufacturing industry7. In 2016, the Ministry of Social Affairs and Ministry of
Finance jointly issued the Pilot Work Plan for the New Apprenticeship System
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The Made in China 2025 initiative aimed to transform some traditional universities into
applied technology institutions, establish practical training centers, and launch modern
apprenticeship pilot programs to cultivate a highly skilled workforce. The initiative also
encouraged collaboration between enterprises and educational institutions to develop
research professionals, technical experts, and interdisciplinary talents required by the
manufacturing industry. It advocated for reforms in the recruitment and training models
for engineering doctoral and master’s programs.

The Policy, System and Performance of the Technical and Vocational School Education in China: A Historical Perspective (1949-2022)

in Enterprises, with the objective of enhancing partnerships between TVSE
schools and businesses.
Additionally, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China andthe State Council, in 2017, issued the Guiding Opinions on Quality Improvement
Actions, highlighting the role of enterprises and TVSE in enhancing talenttraining. This emphasized the importance of modern apprenticeships and newenterprise apprenticeships in structural reforms aimed at improving supply-side
quality.
Collaboration between the Labor Market and Vocational Education. The
provision of vocational education is oriented towards high-value-addedindustries, with adjustments made to align with the pace of industrial
transformation (Zheng & Yin, 2019). Additionally, there is a focus on offering
vocational education programs that cater to disciplines within the tertiaryindustry sector. Zheng Hao, in his article, noted a significant shift in thecomposition of students in secondary vocational schools between 2014 and 2017,
and the enrollment proportion change in tertiary industry subjects in secondary
vocational schools8.
In 2021, the General Office of the Central Committee of the Communist Partyof China and the General Office of the State Council issued the Opinions on
Promoting the High-quality Development of Modern Vocational Education. This
document emphasizes the importance of optimizing the vocational education
supply structure, aligning closely with major national strategies, and staying
attuned to the trends of industrial upgrading and technological advancements.
It emphasizes that TVSE should promote the growth of essential majors alignedwith societal requirements, modernize traditional majors, and discontinue

8

During 2014 to 2017, there was a notable increase in the proportion of students in thefields of transportation, education, and information technology, with each experiencing an
increase of 1.58 percentage points, 1.5 percentage points, and 1.27 percentage points,
respectively. Furthermore, in the span from 2005 to 2017, the enrollment proportion in
tertiary industry subjects in secondary vocational schools exhibited an upward trend.
This increase occurred prior to the corresponding rise in the proportion of the tertiaryindustry in the GDP, highlighting an interesting alignment between educational choices
and economic shifts during this period (Zheng & Yin, 2019).
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programs with oversupply or low employment rates9.
Continuous Support for TVSE. China’s TVSE has been undergoing continuousreform and development in recent years. Recognizing the growing importanceof TVSE, China has consistently introduced policies to support its advancement.
In 2019, the State Council introduced the National Vocational Education
Reform Implementation Plan, outlining objectives and requirements for China’s
TVSE system. This plan aimed to establish an internationally advanced TVSE
system within China by enhancing its quality and relevance.
In 2020, the Ministry of Education issued a notice regarding enrollment insecondary vocational schools. It emphasized the need to strike a balance
between general and vocational education and expand opportunities for
specialized secondary students to access higher-level vocational education.
A pivotal moment arrived in 2022 when China revised the Vocational
Education Law, explicitly elevating vocational education to a level equal togeneral education in terms of legal significance. The revised law underscoredthe importance of deepening industry-education integration, strengthening
school-enterprise collaboration, and prioritizing high-quality development within
TVSE. This revision solidified China’s unwavering commitment to fostering a
dynamic and responsive technical and vocational education system.

4. Evolution of TVSE System in Response to Policy Changes
During 1949 to 2022
4. 1. The Emergence and Transformation of TVSE System (1949-1978)
Background and Characteristics of TVSE System During 1949 to 1978. During
this period, TVSE aimed at rapidly expanding vocational secondary institutions
954

The directive places a premium on fostering the development of various emerging fields
critical to industries such as advanced manufacturing, new energy, new materials,
modern agriculture, modern information technology, biotechnology, and artificial
intelligence. Concurrently, there is an accelerated effort to establish programs in areas of
immediate demand, including preschool education, nursing, healthcare, and housekeeping.
Additionally, traditional majors like iron and steel metallurgy, chemical medicine,construction engineering, and textile manufacturing are earmarked for transformation
and upgrading. Simultaneously, there is a concerted focus on phasing out majors
characterized by oversupply, low employment rates, and diminishing job prospects.
Educational institutions are actively encouraged to diversify their offerings by introducing
more programs that cater to market demands. This approach aims to create aprofessional system seamlessly integrated with both the industrial and innovation chains.

The Policy, System and Performance of the Technical and Vocational School Education in China: A Historical Perspective (1949-2022)

to meet economic and political needs. The TVSE system was in its early stages,
with aspects like management, school systems, and enrollment not highly
developed. Vocational education transitioned into a public, democratic model,
divided into primary and secondary levels, with a limited presence of higher
technical education in colleges and universities, as stated by Bai (Bai & Su, 2012).
The Formation of TVSE System. In October 1951, the Government
Administration Council introduced the Academic System Reform Regulations,establishing the framework for China’s education system from 1949 to 1958.
This regulation delineated the distinct roles of various school types, including
those focusing on vocational education, as illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1 The Education System Stipulated in the Academic System Reform Regulations

Note: *Represents that this kind of school has no strict restrictions on enrollment age.
Data source: Adapted from Academic System Reform Regulations.
In the school management system, TVSE included specialized secondary
schools and technical schools. Technical schools were established following the1954 Draft Interim Measures for Technical Schools. Regarding the school-

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running system, the 1954 Decision on Improving Specialized Secondary
Education Policies specified study durations for various majors, mostly 3-4
years. In terms of funding, specialized secondary schools used a three-tierfinancial system, while technical schools adopted a people’s bursary approach.
The curriculum focused on a “learn by doing” philosophy, and teacher
recruitment mainly involved full-time instructors with technical expertise.
The Disruption of TVSE System. From 1958 to 1978, China went through theGreat Leap Forward, followed by a three-year adjustment phase and the
Cultural Revolution. This period witnessed rapid yet unguided growth in TVSE
under the “general line of building socialism with greater, faster, better, andmore economic results.” Specialized secondary schools, technical schools, andagricultural middle schools were central. Three school types emerged guided
by The Instructions on Educational Work (1958): full-time, “part-time workstudy,” and amateur schools. From 1966 to 1976, during the Cultural Revolution,
vocational education stagnated as the nation focused on general education.

4. 2. Progressive Enhancement of the Education System (1978-2000)
Restructuring of Secondary Education: Shaping the Landscape. From 1978 to
2000, a pivotal policy titled “Report on the Reform of Secondary Education
Structure” played a central role in reshaping China’s secondary education
landscape. Traditional schools underwent conversions into vocational institutions,aided by legislation to standardize and legitimize vocational education. This
period marked significant transformations in China’s TVSE system.
Numerous regular high schools transformed into vocational (technical) schools,
vocational middle schools, and agricultural middle schools. Vocational middle
schools and agricultural middle schools emerged as institutions integrating
general education with vocational and technical components, initiating
diversified school offerings. Private secondary vocational schools also flourished,obtaining resources from village committees, individuals, local governments, andenterprises to retain rural talents. Simultaneously, governmental reforms aimed
at restructuring vocational high school operational models.
The Foundation of Higher Vocational Education. The foundation of higher
vocational education solidified during this era. Urban areas and prominent
enterprises were encouraged to establish specialized colleges and short-term
vocational institutions to diversify educational offerings. These institutions

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The Policy, System and Performance of the Technical and Vocational School Education in China: A Historical Perspective (1949-2022)

charged tuition fees, followed daily study schedules, and admitted graduates
based on merit to enhance investment efficiency and student competence. Whilespecialized colleges were initially seen as condensed versions of undergraduate
education lacking vocational attributes, they gradually assumed significant roles
within the TVSE system post-1999. The introduction of five-year higher
vocational education gained momentum10.
Evolution of School Form and Funding. During this period, secondary
vocational education schools mainly recruited junior high school graduates witha 2–3-year schooling period. Technical schools admitted unmarried individuals
aged 15 to 22 with junior high or senior high school diplomas (mainly junior highschool graduates), offering a schooling period of three years and 1-2 years
respectively 11. National financial appropriation was the primary source of
education funding. After 1993, entrants and graduates of specialized secondary
schools and technical schools paid fees for education, and graduates had moreautonomy in job selection compared to earlier times of state-mandated job
assignments12.
Curriculum Structure: Synthesis of Theory and Application. The curriculum
structure of TVSE emphasized integrating theoretical learning and practicalapplication. In 1986, the State Education Commission introduced a curriculum
framework13 for specialized secondary schools, encompassing general, core, andspecialized courses. Engineering majors typically adhered to a ratio of 45:35:20,
while adjustments were made for other disciplines.
Technical schools featured a curriculum blending cultural, technical theory,and practical courses14. Vocational senior high schools offered a curriculum
10

11

12
13

14

Information source: State Council’s Notice Transmitting the Report from the Ministry of
Education and the National Development and Reform Commission on Accelerating theDevelopment of Higher Education (1983) and Notice Regarding Approval for the Pilot
Implementation of Three Five-Year Technical Vocational Colleges (1985).
Information source: Notice from the Ministry of Labor and Personnel and the National
Education Commission on Issuing Regulations for Vocational Schools in 1986 and Reporton the Reform of Secondary Education Structure in 1980.
Information source: Outline of China’s Educational Reform and Development, releasedby State Council in 1993.
Opinions on the Formulation and Revision of Teaching Plans for Full-time Regular
Specialized Secondary Schools (Four-Year Programs) (Trial Implementation) was
released by State Education Commission of the PRC in 1986.
Information source: Notice from the Ministry of Labor and Personnel and the National
Education Commission on Issuing Regulations for Vocational Schools in 1986.
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comprising political, cultural, professional, and internship categories, withproportions varying between engineering and liberal arts. At least 30% of classhours were allocated to professional studies, including internships15. By 1988,
nine professional categories were officially recognized for specialized secondary
schools, in accordance with the provisions stipulated in the National Directoryof Professions (Trades) for Vocational High Schools.
Development of Teacher Training System. To tackle the shortage of TVSE
academic staff, China initiated systematic teacher training endeavors. This
included the expansion of vocational and technical teacher training colleges. In
the late 1980s, universities such as Tianjin, Zhejiang, Tongji, and Xi’an Jiaotong
established dedicated teacher training centers. After 1998, teacher training
efforts expanded to encompass conventional universities and higher TVSE
colleges, resulting in the establishment of 50 training bases for TVSE educators.
In 1993, qualification standards for TVSE teaching staff were defined by theState Council16. Vocational colleges recruited industry professionals, managers,
and skilled artisans as part-time instructors. A dual-title system encompassing
teaching and professional technical titles was implemented in TVSE institutions.
Colleges and universities were encouraged to conduct separate teacher training
programs to enlist graduates of specialized secondary schools as instructors.

4. 3. F o r m a t i o n a n d D e v e l o p m e n t o f T V S E S y s t e m w i t h C h i n e s eCharacteristics (2000-2022)
Contemporary TVSE Landscape. Since the year 2000, a distinctive Chinese
TVSE system has gradually taken shape. Building upon the reforms andadvancements following the State Council’s issuance of the Outline of China’s
Educational Reform and Development, the educational framework has evolved,
as illustrated in Figure 2.

15

Information source: Opinions on the Formulation of Teaching Plans for Vocational Senior
Secondary Schools (Three-Year Programs), released by State Education Commission of
the PRC in 1986.
16 Qualification standards were defined in Outline of China’s Educational Reform andDevelopment, released by State Council in 1993.

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The Policy, System and Performance of the Technical and Vocational School Education in China: A Historical Perspective (1949-2022)

Figure 2 The TVSE System with Chinese Characteristics

Data Source: The author compiled this information based on relevant policies.
As evident in Figure 2, contemporary Chinese TVSE encompasses vocational
secondary education, higher vocational education (2-3 years), and innovative
combinations of secondary and higher vocational education. Vocational
secondary education predominantly involves secondary vocational schools (3years) and technical schools (2-6 years), with specialized secondary schools (3years) and vocational senior secondary schools (3 years) falling under theumbrella of secondary vocational schools. A novel approach, such as the fiveyear higher vocational education and the middle school-to-undergraduate (3+4years) model, provides a seamless educational journey for TVSE students fromhigh school to undergraduate levels.
Modernizing TVSE Curriculum and Majors. China has been actively developinga modern TVSE curriculum system with a focus on employability. In 2008,
China’s Ministry of Education initiated a shift in specialized secondary school
teaching from subject-oriented to skill-oriented, aimed at nurturing students’
vocational abilities. TVSE institutions have increased the emphasis on
professional skills courses, with these courses, including practical training,

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typically constituting two-thirds of the total curriculum hours17. In 2009, theMinistry of Education delineated the vocational secondary education curriculum
into two main categories: introductory public courses and professional skills
courses. Introductory public courses generally account for about one-third of
the total class hours, equivalent to approximately one academic year.
Meanwhile, professional skills courses, comprising about two-thirds of the total
hours, include substantial on-the-job practice amounting to approximately one
academic year18.
When it comes to designing majors, alignment with market demand is crucial.
The selection of TVSE school majors should reflect the human resource
requirements of industries and enterprises, adapting to regional economic
structures in accordance with the dynamics of industrial restructuring.
Evolution of Higher Vocational Education. In terms of higher vocational
education, China’s Ministry of Education adjusted curriculum content and study
durations for higher vocational (specialist) schools in 200019: Practical teaching
methods like experimental courses, practice sessions, training, course design,and graduation projects were integrated into these schools. The standard study
period for higher vocational (specialist) schools ranges from two to three years,
with extensions for part-time programs. Typically, three-year majors involvearound 1600-1800 class hours, while two-year majors generally entail 1100-1200
class hours. Practical teaching constitutes at least 40% of total teaching hours
for three-year majors and not less than 30% for two-year majors.
In addition, the development of higher vocational education at theundergraduate level has been initiated. Starting from 2006, China’s Ministry of
Education has been advancing the elevation of private specialized courses
colleges to undergraduate level. Non-governmental specialized courses colleges
meeting specific criteria can seek approval to become undergraduate
institutions. Traditional universities are encouraged to undergo transformation

17

Information source: The Ministry of Education issued the Several Opinions of the
Ministry of Education on Further Deepening the Teaching Reform of Vocational
Secondary Education in 2008.
18 Information source: The Ministry of Education issued the Principles of the Ministry of
Education for Formulating Teaching Plans for Secondary Vocational Schools in 2009.
19 Information Source: The Ministry of Education issued the Opinions of the Ministry of
Education on Strengthening the Training of Talents in Higher Vocational (Specialist)
Schools in 2000.

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into applied technology institutions through pilot programs and demonstrative
guidance, with a focus on undergraduate vocational education. When an
independent college evolves into an autonomous higher education institution,it’s encouraged to define itself as an applied technology institution (Kuang &Shi, 2019).
Modernizing Teacher Training System and “Double-Qualified” Teachers.
Concerning teaching quality and faculty, China has blended modern network
technology with education. Modern information technology is vital for enhancing
teaching quality, promoting co-creation and sharing of teaching resources, andmaximizing the use of high-quality teaching materials20.
In 2006, China’s Ministry of Education proposed that professional course
teachers and practical instructors in specialized secondary schools engage inover two months of enterprise or production service practice every two years.
Between 2007 and 2010, the Ministry of Education and Finance selected 250
exemplary educators for 1-2 months of international study, focusing on advanced
vocational education teaching concepts and methods. This aimed to cultivate
high-level vocational education teaching experts. Additionally, China optimizes
the proportion of “double-qualified” teachers 21, enhancing integration ofacademic qualifications and practical skills among educators.
Innovative School-Enterprise Collaboration and Modern Apprenticeships:
Blending Practical Experience and Learning. To enhance the integration ofpractical experience and learning within TVSE schools, China actively promotes
innovative methods of school-enterprise collaboration and modern
apprenticeship. This involves schools tailoring talent development to meet
20

During the “Eleventh Five-Year Plan” period, China introduced 1,000 high-quality
courses that blend work and learning to enrich curriculum development. About 3,000
nationally planned teaching materials have been developed in collaboration with industry
companies, closely aligned with actual production.
21 “Double-qualified teachers” refer to an educational model where teachers possess bothpractical industry experience and expertise, as well as a background in classroom
teaching and education. This model aims to ensure that students receive comprehensive
training that encompasses not only theoretical knowledge but also practical skills.
Double-qualified teachers are responsible not only for teaching methods and classroom
management but are also skilled in imparting practical vocational skills and industry
knowledge. The goal of this educational model is to provide students with more practical
vocational skills training to meet market demands and enhance graduates’
competitiveness in the job market. This educational model is widely employed in
vocational education in China to promote skills training and career development.
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industry demands, furnishing intern opportunities for students, while enterprises
provide conducive learning environments. TVSE schools actively advocate the“double certificate”22 system, combining academic and vocational qualifications.
Alternatively, schools might partner with enterprises for teacher training,with businesses dispatching skilled professionals to offer educational services.
Furthermore, the Chinese government encourages enterprises to establish
research and development centers and experimental hubs within TVSE schools,
enhancing program quality and curricular innovation. In the final year of
specialized secondary school, students undertake internships in enterprises,
while higher vocational college students dedicate at least half a year to practicaltraining23.

5. Development Representation of TVSE During 1949 to 2022
5. 1. Turbulent Development and Extremely Unbalanced (1949-1978)
In the initial years following the establishment of the People’s Republic ofChina, TVSE predominantly catered to the demands of economic development,
leading to a steady growth of specialized secondary schools (SSS). However, theCultural Revolution (1966-1976) severely impeded the progress of vocational
education. This disruption resulted in an imbalanced development between
general education and TVSE.
22

The “Dual-Certificate System” in Chinese vocational education refers to a system where students
simultaneously earn two certificates upon completing their vocational training or education. One
certificate typically represents the academic or theoretical aspects of their training, while theother certifies their practical skills and competence in a specific vocational field. The Decision on
Accelerating the Development of Modern Vocational Education issued by the State Council ofChina in 2014 emphasized the active promotion of the dual-certificate system.
This system aims to provide a more comprehensive and holistic education byrecognizing both the theoretical knowledge and practical abilities of students. It
enhances graduates’ competitiveness in the job market by offering a well-rounded skill
set, making them better prepared for real-world work scenarios. The dual-certificate
system is an important component of vocational education in China, aligning education
with industry needs and promoting career readiness among students.
23 In 2006, the Ministry of Education issued a policy document titled “Opinions of the
Ministry of Education on the Pilot Implementation of the Combination of Work and Studyand School-Enterprise Cooperation in Vocational Education.” This policy aimed tovigorously promote the training model that combines work and study and encourages
collaboration between educational institutions and enterprises. It aimed to gradually
establish and improve the system of work-study integration, achieving a new breakthroughin the reform and development of TVSE education in China in the new era.
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The Policy, System and Performance of the Technical and Vocational School Education in China: A Historical Perspective (1949-2022)

Table 1 The Development Situation of SSS and RSSS between 1949 and 1978

SchoolGrowth rate

Annualaverage growth rate(%)

1949-1978

1949-1957

1957-1965

1965-1978

SSS

135.7

1.5

-0.5

6.2

RSSS

2981.7

4.0

8.2

21.0

Note: SSS Specialized Secondary School. RSSS Regular Senior Secondary
Schools.
Data source: China Statistical Yearbook 1999 20-2.
Preliminary Development. Under the influence of the First Five-Year Plan
(1953-1957), TVSE played a crucial role in addressing the urgent need forintermediate and junior technical personnel in national construction. Notably,
significant progress was observed in specialized secondary schools (SSS).
According to available statistics, in 1952, the number of SSS increased to1,710, marking a 1.5-fold increase compared to 1949. By the end of the First
Five-Year Plan in 1957, China had 1,320 SSS, enrolling 123,000 students, with
778,000 students attending classes. This represented a substantial increase of
122% in terms of in-school students compared to 1952.
Uneven Development and Regression. After the end of the Great Leap Forward
movement to the end of the Cultural Revolution, the development of general
education and vocational education had become increasingly imbalanced. From1957 to 1965, the average annual growth rate of RSSS was 8%, while that of SSS
was -1% (Table 1). From 1965 to 1978, the average annual growth rate of SSS
was 6%, while that of RSSS was 21%, nearly four times that of SSS. In 1978, thenumber of SSS was 2760, while that of RSSS was 49215.

5. 2. Steady Development and Achieved a Relatively Balanced State (1978-2000)
The Policy Context During this time Period. In 1978, China embarked on a pathof reform and opening-up, which led to rapid economic growth. During thisperiod, TVSE experienced significant development, in line with policies aimed
at enhancing various types of secondary vocational schools within the secondary
education system.
To stimulate the growth of TVSE, two key measures were implemented. The

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first involved the revival and establishment of specialized secondary schools(SSS) and technical schools (TS). The second measure entailed the substantial
expansion of vocational senior secondary schools (VSS) through thetransformation of certain traditional middle schools into vocational secondary
schools. The term Vocational Secondary Education Schools (VSES) included not
only SSS and TS but also other vocational schools operating at the senior highschool level.

Thousand

25

90%
80%

20

100%

800

90%

700

80%
70%

70%
60%

15

Numberof VSES

50% RSSS
40%

10

30%
VSES

20%

5

10%
0
2000

1995

1990

1985

1980

1978

0%

a) School Numbers

10 thousand

100%

600

VSES

60%

500

50%

400

40%

300

30%
20%

200

RSSS

100

10%
0%

1978 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
Entrants of RSSS

0

Entrants of VSESb) Entrants

Figure 3 Changes of Schools and Entrants in the Composition Ratios of Secondary Education at
the Senior High School Level in China

Data source: China Statistical Yearbook 2021 21-5, 2022 21-9.
Consistent Development of Vocational Secondary Education School. According to
the data from China Statistical Yearbook, the number of VSES schools
experienced rapid growth during this period at an average annual growth rateof 9.4%. In the year 2000, the total number of VSES schools reached 19,727,
which represented an approximately six-fold increase compared to the number
in 1978. At the same time, the number of RSSS schools decreased by about 70%
during this period. This might had been influenced by the policy of converting
regular high schools into vocational secondary schools. Furthermore, theproportion of VSES schools in China’s senior high school education increased64

The Policy, System and Performance of the Technical and Vocational School Education in China: A Historical Perspective (1949-2022)

significantly, rising from 5.3% in 1978 to 57.5% in 2000 (Figure 3). As a result,the number of VSES schools even surpassed that of regular senior high schools.
Between 1978 and 2000, the average annual growth rate of VSES enrollment
was 10.6%, resulting in an overall increase of approximately 9 times in the total
number of VSES enrollments. On the other hand, the enrollment in RSSS
declined by 32%. In the year 2000, RSSS enrolled 4.727 million students, while
VSES enrolled 4.083 million students, with RSSS enrollment slightly surpassingthat of VSES. The general-to-vocational enrollment ratio in 2000 was
approximately 1.5:1, although not achieving complete balance, China madeprogress in achieving a better regular-to-vocational enrollment balancecompared to 1978.

5. 3. Comprehensive Development of TVSE but still with Shortcomings (20002021)
The Policy Context During this time Period. Influenced by the policy Decision of
the State Council on Vigorously Promoting the Reform and Development ofVocational Education in 2002, both the “quality” and “quantity” of the TVSE
system gained equal importance. Beginning in 2001, the cultivation of highquality skilled talents became a new objective for TVSE. Despite some notableachievements, challenges persisted, including a decrease in the growth rate andan imbalanced education system.
The Process Status of TVSE Schools at the Senior High School Level. From 2000
to 2021, the number of VSES schools in China decreased by approximately 50%,
reaching 9786 in 2021, and their share within the senior high school system
dropped from 57% to 40%. The composition of school types in VSES remained
relatively stable during this period. According to China Statistical Yearbook,over these two decades, secondary vocational schools (SVS) consistently
represented the largest portion of VSES, accounting for 76% in 2021, while adultspecialized secondary schools (ASSS) had the smallest share at 10%.
In contrast, the count of RSSS (14585 in 2021) remained relatively stablethroughout this period. As indicated in Figure 4, the annual growth rate of
VSES declined and remained negative for an extended period, with only RSSS
showing slow growth. However, after 2016, the number of RSSS schools began
to increase more rapidly.

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6%
4%
2%
0%
-2%
-4%
-6%

VSES

-8%

RSSS

-10%
2021

2019

2020

2018

2016

2017

2015

2014

2013

2012

2011

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

-12%

Figure 4 The Growth Rate of VSES and RSSS Schools

Data source: China Statistical Yearbook 2022 21-26, 2022 21-11.
The Enrollment Situation within Senior High School Education. From 2000 to
2021, in the Chinese senior high school education system, the general-tovocational enrollment ratio has exhibited a brief trend of equilibrium followedby an increasing imbalance. Figure 5 illustrates the annual changes inenrollment numbers for VSES and RSSS and the corresponding variations in
the general-to-vocational enrollment ratio. During the period from 2000 to 2010,
the general-to-vocational enrollment ratio gradually evolved towards a balanced
state at approximately 1:1. However, after 2010, the general-to-vocational
enrollment ratio started to experience an increasing imbalance, resulting in awidening gap between the enrollment numbers of VSES and RSSS (Figure 5).

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The Policy, System and Performance of the Technical and Vocational School Education in China: A Historical Perspective (1949-2022)

1000

1.6

(10 thousand)

900

1.4

800

1.4

700

1.2
1.0

600
500

0.8

1.0

400

0.6

300

RSSS

200

0.4

VSES

100

0.2
2021

2020

2019

2018

2017

2016

2015

2014

2013

2012

0.0
2011

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2002

2001

2000

0

2003

The Ratio of RSSS to VSES

Figure 5 The Enrollment Changes in the General Vocational Enrollment Ratio in Chinese SeniorHigh School Education

Data source: China Statistical Yearbook 2022 21-9, 2022 21-11.
Regional Disparities in Senior High School Education. In the period from 2012
to 2020, the Eastern region consistently had the largest proportion of vocational
schools, and the distribution of schools across regions remained stable (Figure6a). In 2014, the State Council emphasized the need to establish vocational
schools in densely populated and economically disadvantaged areas with specificindustrial needs. Consequently, by 2020, about 59% of VSES graduates camefrom the central and western regions, totaling around 2.28 million graduates,
representing a stable growth trend (Figure 6b).

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12

100%
90%

10

80%
70%

Thousand文

10 thousand

8

60%

6

50%
40%

4

30%
20%

600

65%

500

59.3%
60%

400
55%
300
200

50%

50.6%

2

10%

45%

100
0

40%
2020

2018

2016

2014

2012

2010

2008

0
2006

2020

2019

2018

2017

2016

2015

2014

2013

2012

0%

2004

論

North China

Northeast China

East China

Central China

China's central and western regions

Southern China

Southwest China

The nationwide total

Northwest China

The sum total

Percentagea) Regional Disparityb) The Changing Proportion of
Graduates from VSES

Figure 6 Regional Disparities in the Number of VSES and Changing Proportion of Graduatesfrom VSES

Data source: China Statistical Yearbook 2013 20-33, 2014 21-33, 2015 21-27, 201621-27, 2017 21-17, 2018 21-17, 2019 21-17, 2020 21-17, 2021 21-17.
Note: The term “Central and Western regions” is a general designation for
China’s Central and Western regions, and it mainly includes 18 provinces(autonomous regions and municipalities).
Assessment of TVSE Teacher Resources. TVSE has made notable progress inteacher resources. According to 2022 data from China’s Ministry of Education,over 55% of TVSE subject teachers now hold dual qualifications, exceeding the
50% threshold (56% in vocational secondary schools, 59% in higher vocational
colleges, and 59% in undergraduate vocational colleges). In terms of theireducational qualifications, 94% of vocational secondary school teachers haveundergraduate degrees or higher, rising to 99% in higher vocational colleges.
Furthermore, 41% of full-time teachers in higher vocational colleges possess
postgraduate degrees or higher, addressing the longstanding issue of inadequate

68The Policy, System and Performance of the Technical and Vocational School Education in China: A Historical Perspective (1949-2022)

teacher qualifications effectively.
In general, the number of full-time teachers in VSES has remained relatively
stable since 2004. However, there has been a growing disparity in full-timeteacher numbers between VSES and RSSS. In terms of development rates, both
VSES and RSSS have exhibited significant fluctuations in the number of fulltime teachers, showing a negative growth trend over the past decade (Figure 7).
In 2004, VSES employed approximately 0.94 million full-time teachers, and by
2020, this number had increased to 1.14 million. In addition, RSSS had around1.19 million full-time teachers in 2004, and this number increased to 1.93 million
in 2020.
In 2020, the student-to-teacher ratio in VSES slightly decreased fromapproximately 6.0 in 2004 to 5.7 in 2020. In contrast, the student-to-teacher ratio
in RSSS became 4.5 in 2020. This indicates that VSES faces relative inadequacy
in terms of teacher resources when compared to RSSS (Figure 7b).
9.0

12%

8.0

10%

7.0

8%

6.0

6%

5.0

4%

4.0
3.0

VSES

2.0

a) Growth Rate

2020

2018

2016

2014

2012

2006

0.0
2004

2020

2018

2016

2014

RSSS

1.0

RSSS
2010

2006

2004

2008

VSES

-4%

2012

-2%

2010

0%

2008

2%

b) Student-to-Teacher Ratio

Figure 7 The Growth Rate and Student-to-Teacher Ratio of VSES and RSSS Full-Time Teachers

Data source: China Statistical Yearbook 2022 21-9, 2021 21-1, 2020 21-1, 2019 21-1,
2018 21-1, 2017 21-1, 2016 21-1, 2015 21-1, 2014 21-1, 2013 20-1, 2012 20-1, 2011 201, 2010 20-1, 2009 20-1, 2008 20-1, 2007 21-1, 2006 21-1, 2005 21-1.
The Development of Higher Vocational (Specialist) Schools (2000-2021). Since
2000, China has implemented multiple policies to promote the development ofhigher vocational education. In the year 2000, there were 442 higher vocational(specialist) schools (HVS). By 2021, this number had grown to over three times
the original count, with a total of 1,486 HVS schools. The number of HVS has

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seen continuous and steady growth, with its proportion among all Regular andVocational HEIs (RVHEIs) increasing from 42.5% in 2000 to 53.9% in 2021.
Although the growth rate of HVS schools has declined in the past decade, theoverall trend has remained positive, indicating sustained development (Figure 8).
45%

70%

42.1%

40%

Proportion of HVS in RVHEIs

60%

35%

53.9%
50%

30%

42.5%

25%

40%

20%

30%

Annual Average Growth Rate

15%

20%

10%

Annual Average Growth Rate

2020

2019

2018

2017

2016

2015

2014

2013

2012

2011

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

2000

0%

2021

10%
1.2%
0%

5%

Proportion of HVS in RVHEIs

Figure 8 The Annual Average Growth Rate of HVS and Proportion of it within RVHEIs

Data source: China Statistical Yearbook 2022 21-6.

6. Conclusion
6. 1. Brief Summary
This section will provide a comprehensive summary and evaluation of the
discussed policy and system changes in TVSE, along with an analysis of theperformance and development of it based on relevant data. Building upon thisassessment, Section 6 will offer recommendations and a glimpse into the futureof vocational education in China. Here is a summarized journey of the changes
in TVSE in China:a) Pre-reform Era (1949-1978):
During the early stages of the PRC, the main strategy was to foster thedevelopment of vocational secondary education. At that time, there were notmany formal policies in place to support the growth of TVSE. Vocational
education, in this period, was primarily delivered through apprenticeships andpart-time work-study programs. The foundation of the TVSE system, however,70

The Policy, System and Performance of the Technical and Vocational School Education in China: A Historical Perspective (1949-2022)

was predominantly built upon the Academic System Reform Regulations.
Nonetheless, it played a pivotal role in cultivating a skilled labor force essential
for the nation’s industrialization endeavors.
b) Post-1978 to 2000:
In the period following 1978 and extending up to 2000, China embarked on ajourney of economic reforms and global engagement. This era witnessed a
substantial surge in investment and expansion in the realm of vocational
education. The nation’s objective was to revamp and diversify its workforce inalignment with the changing economic landscape. Throughout the 1990s, there
was a remarkable expansion of TVSE. The government bolstered its support
for TVSE institutions, while also extending its assistance to higher vocational
education. These initiatives culminated in a wider array of TVSE programs anda notable uptick in enrollment figures.
c) Emphasis on Quality (2000-present):
In the 2000s, China shifted its focus towards improving the quality of TVSE.
Curriculum reform, teacher training, and cooperation with the business sector
became priorities. The current modern TVSE system is comprehensive,spanning from level of junior high school to colleges, complemented by amodern apprenticeship system, dual-qualified teaching staff, and a dualcertificate talent development model. School terms and school management
have also become increasingly refined, aligning more closely with students’learning trajectories. Most importantly, while China’s TVSE strives for higher
quality, several challenges persist. As highlighted in Section 5, it is evident that
despite the significant accomplishments within the TVSE, the past decade has
witnessed a renewed expansion in the ratio of general education to vocational
education enrollment at the high school level. Despite this, TVSE continues tograpple with uneven development across different regions, with the teacherstudent ratio in vocational education remaining lower compared to that ingeneral education.

6. 2. Suggestions and Future Outlook
In the near future, China’s TVSE faces several challenges, including
imbalanced scale, structural disparities, school-enterprise collaboration issues, ashortage of qualified teachers, and limited societal recognition. High-quality
development, supported by the revised Vocational Education Law, is an ongoing

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process.
One primary challenge is the perception gap between vocational and general
education. The new law addresses this by elevating the status of technicalprofessionals, promoting national vocational skill competitions, and ensuring
equal opportunities for TVSE students in further education and careeradvancement. Improving school-enterprise collaboration is crucial, with thegovernment encouraging joint investment in talent development.
Enhancing teaching staff is a key focus. The law emphasizes “dual-qualified”
teachers and establishes a national teacher development and training system,
including tailored positions and innovative recruitment approaches.
The new Vocational Education Law also emphasizes the importance of TVSE
and vocational training institutions. Quality development in TVSE will produce
more qualified graduates, encouraging students to enroll in vocational schools
and stimulating the growth of vocational training institutions, significantly
shaping the future of technical and vocational education in China.
This article, constrained by word count, primarily focuses on TVSE, leaving
other aspects of technical and vocational education unexplored. Future researchaims to provide a more comprehensive perspective, encompassing funding,teaching staff, and undergraduate-level vocational education.

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The Policy, System and Performance of the Technical and Vocational School Education in China: A Historical Perspective (1949-2022)

Appendix

Chinese-English Translation Correspondence Table

Chinese nameEnglish Translation

Abbreviation in Essay

中等专业学校Specialized Secondary School

SSS

中等职业教育Vocational Secondary Education
School

VSES

中等职业学校

Secondary Vocational School

SVS

成人中等专业学校

Adult Specialized Secondary School

ASSS

技工学校

TechnicalSchool

TS

职业中学

Vocational Secondary School

VSS

职业高中

Vocational Senior Secondary
School

VSSS

普通高中

Regular Senior Secondary School RSSS

高职（专科）院校

Higher Vocational (specialist)
Schools

HVS

普通、职业高等学
校

Regular and Vocational HEIs

RVHEIsReferences
Bai, H.G. & Su, M. (2012). The Evolution of China’s Vocational Education System. Chinese
Vocational and Technical Education (18), pp 60-66. (in Chinese)Dong, G. (2014). Research on the Connotative Development of Higher Vocational Education. Beijing:
Higher Education Press. (in Chinese)
Kuang, Y. & Shi, W.P. (2019). 40 Years of Reform in Chinese Vocational Education. China
Reading Weekly (008). (in Chinese)
Li, M.Q. & Zhou Y. (2009). Summary of China’s Vocational Education Policies in the 60 Years
Since the Founding of New China. Education and Vocation (36), pp 5-8. (in Chinese)
Liao, Q.F. (2004). Experiences in and Lessons from the Development of Contemporary China’s
School System Reform. Journal of Nanjing Teachers College, 20 (02), pp 9-16. (in Chinese)
Stewart, V. (2015). Made in China: Challenge and Innovation in China’s Vocational Education
and Training System. Washington, DC: National Center on Education and theEconomy.
Shen, J.L. (2008). A Historical Review of the Vocational Education System and Policies since
the Founding of New China. Journal of Jiangsu Teachers University of Technology (08), pp
5-12. (in Chinese)
Schmidtke, C. & Peng C. (2012), Philosophy of Vocational Education in China: A Historical
Overview, Journal of Philosophy of Education (46), pp 432–448.
Wu, X.P. & Ye, Y.Q. (2018). Technical and Vocational Education in China. Beijing: Higher
Education Press.
Zheng, H. & Yin, D.T. (2019). Vocational Education Changes in the 70 Years of New China.
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Abstract

The Policy, System and Performance of
the Technical and Vocational School
Education in China: A Historical
Perspective (1949-2022)
Wenjun MIAOThis article delineates the trajectory of China’s technical and vocational
education (TVE) advancement, encompassing the period from the establishmentof New China to 2022, with a specific focus on technical and vocational school
education (TVSE). The developmental trajectory is dissected along thedimensions of policy, system and performance, elucidated in a chronologicalsequence.
The evolution of Chinese TVSE spanning 1949 to 2022 is delineated into three
distinct phases: 1949-1978, 1978-2000, and the post-2000 era, each characterized
by unique policy and systemic attributes. From 1949 to 1978, China establisheda foundational system primarily centered on specialized secondary schools andtechnical schools. Post-1978, a diverse array of technical and vocational schools
began to emerge. Particularly in the contemporary era, post-2000, China has
been shaping a modern TVSE system infused with distinct Chinesecharacteristics. Each temporal phase is underpinned by unique guiding policies,
resulting in distinct TVSE systems characterized by their own defining
attributes. In addition, this article aims to provide an integrated assessment andanalysis of China’s TVSE at different time periods, combining policy
backgrounds and developmental performance using the formal data.
China has attained notable milestones in the realm of TVSE, as evidenced by
the proliferation of diverse school typologies and an expanding societal
acknowledgment. Nonetheless, an equilibrium between general education andvocational education remains elusive, accompanied by prevalent biases against
vocational education. The imperative to augment the caliber of TVSE persists.
Keywords: T VE, TVSE, policies and systems, performance, chronologically,
modern TVSE system

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