BOLIVIA 2011
Embargoed for Release until 12:01 GMT on 7 June

LATIN AMERICA
AND THECARIBBEAN

Bolivia 262

Mexico 343

Brazil 274

Panama 353

Colombia 289

Peru 363

Ecuador 299

Suriname 374

Guatemala 309

Trinidad and Tobago 386

Guyana 319

Venezuela 393

Honduras 333

261

Status of tropical forest management 2011

Boliviapart thereof ) and (northwestern) Cochabamba.
There are twelve tropical forest types, which arerich in timber species such as Swietenia macrophylla(mara), Hura crepitans (ochoó), Calophyllum spp(palo maría) and rubber, as well as NTFPs such as
Bertholletia excelsa (Brazil nut). The semi-humid
forest, the Chiquitania, is located mainly in thedepartment of Santa Cruz and is characterized by
species such as Astronium urundeuva (cuchi) andTabebuia spp (tajibo). Sub-Andean and Andean
forests cover the western flank of the Andean chain
at altitudes between 400 and 3500 m. These arecharacterized by Lauraceae and Meliaceae up to
900 m, by walnut–pine forests (Juglans australis andPodocarpus spp) between 1200 m and 1700 m and,beyond that up to 2700 m, by Alnus acuminata(aliso) (ITTO 2006).

Forest resources
The landlocked country of Bolivia has a land area of
110 million hectares and an estimated populationin 2010 of 10.4 million people (United Nations
Population Division 2010). It is ranked 113th outof 182 countries in UNDP’s Human Development
Index (UNDP 2009). Bolivia has the following
broad biogeographical zones: the high-altitude,
unforested altiplano (highlands in the Andean
mountain zone), with peaks exceeding 6000 m;
los yungas and los valles, which include the valleys
on the eastern flank of the Andes; and the tropicallowlands of Amazonia (el oriente), containing
moist tropical forests in the northeastern part andsubtropical plains in the southeast (El Chaco).
About half the country – mainly in the northernand eastern lowlands – is less than 500 m above sea
level. Bolivia has the sixth-largest area of tropicalrainforests in the world and the 15th-largest forest
area. FAO (2010a) estimated the total forest area
at 57.2 million hectares, while the Government of
Bolivia (2009, citing Olguin 2009) estimated it at
52.4 million hectares.
Forest types. Few countries have as great a diversityof ecosystems as Bolivia; the major biomes aretropical forests, including tropical humid forestsand semi-humid forests; mountain forests and highAndean grassland plains; savannas; and wetlands.a
The tropical forests of Bolivia lie in the departmentsof Beni, Pando, Santa Cruz, La Paz (the northern

262

Permanent forest estate. Land-use plans covering
agriculture, forests and other land uses exist for
about 76.5 million hectares of the country (ITTO2006). Under Decree DS 26075 (February 2001)
about 41.2 million hectares of forest have been
declared as lands for permanent forest production(i.e. PFE); nevertheless, these forests are underpressure and at least three million hectares havealready been converted to agriculture.a The areaclassified as production PFE comprises several
tenure regimes: Indigenous lands, individual
landholdings, public forests under concessions(including concessions assigned to local socialgroups – agrupaciones sociales del lugar – ASLs;
see below), and public forestlands withoutclassification. Of the 41.2 million hectares of thenominal PFE, 28.1 million hectares are classified forsustainable forest production without restrictions,
2.4 million hectares are classified as potentially
productive but reserved for recreational or other
non-timber use, and the remaining 10.7 million
hectares are classified as legally protected areas(Table 1 shows these figures net of the 3 million
hectares converted to agriculture).

Forest ecosystem healthDeforestation and forest degradation. FAO(2010b) estimated the annual forest-cover change
between 2000 and 2005 at 270 000 hectares,
or 0.5% per year, which is considerably higher

BOLIVIA

Table 1 Permanent forest estate

*
**
‡
†

ReportingYear

Estimatedtotal forest
area, range(million ha)

Total closed
natural forest(’000 ha)

2005*
2010

52.2–59.5
52.4–58.7

47 99936 700**

PFE (’000 hectares)
Production
Protection
NaturalPlantedTotal

17 00025 100‡31 76038 27360
73

14 70013 100†As reported in ITTO (2006).
Calculated using the ratio of forest with greater than 60% forest cover estimated by UNEP-WCMC (2010) (64.1%) and the total
natural forest area as estimated by FAO (2010a) (57.2 million hectares).
The nominal area is 28.1 million hectares, but at least 3 million hectares have been deforested and converted to agricultural uses.
In the PFE, non-forested areas can only be counted as forest if there is a strong intention to reforest.
Based on an estimate by UNEP-WCMC (2010) of IUCN protected-area categories I–IV.

Table 2 shows the estimated area of primary forest,
degraded primary forest and secondary forest; no
in-depth assessment of forest condition has yet been
made, however.

than the estimated deforestation for the period
1990–2000 of 161 000 hectares per year (ibid.).
The Government of Bolivia (2009) estimated thatover 300 000 hectares of forest are currently being
lost per year as a result of an expanding agriculture/
livestock frontier; fire; infrastructure projects (e.g.
roads, dams and energy infrastructure); mining; andan expansion of coca production. Illegal logging
is one of the main causes of forest degradation inlowland forests. Fuelwood extraction has degraded
forest fringes, especially in mountainous areas anddry forests. Accumulated deforestation in Bolivia is
about 6 million hectares, of which about 3 million
occurred in the last decade, about 80% of it illegally(Government of Bolivia 2008). Approximately 82%
of deforestation occurs in the north and east ofSanta Cruz as a result of agro-industry development(biofuels, sugarcane and soy), while deforestation
around Cobija in Pando and Riberalta in Beni
and in northern La Paz tends to be a result of smallscale shifting cultivation (ibid.). Legal, policy andinstitutional weaknesses stimulate deforestationand promote forest degradation, exacerbatedby the politicization of forestry institutions anda lack of innovative approaches that promoteforest management over clearing (ibid.). Road
development plans in the Amazon could further
increase the rate of colonization and lead tosignificant deforestation and forest degradation(ibid.).

Vulnerability of forests to climate change. The
effects of climate change can be observed in an
increase of extreme events like droughts and floods,
the retreat of glaciers (by more than 60% in somecases) and higher levels of vulnerability in natural
ecosystems, water resources, food security, healthand infrastructure (Government of Bolivia 2008).
Taking into account Bolivia’s topography, climatechange could potentially cause major alterationsin the geographical and altitudinal distributionof forest species and ecosystems. In parallel,poverty related to environmental degradation andan increase in the vulnerability of marginalized
communities increase pressure on forest resources,
resulting in further deforestation and environmental
degradation, particularly in the more populated
mountainous areas.

SFM policy framework
Forest tenure. A portion of forests are publicly
owned and others are in lands that have been
granted under both private individual landholdings
and collective rights for Indigenous people andagro-extractive communities. Yet available dataon forest tenure reform are confusing. ITTO andTable 2 Forest condition
PFE

Non-PFE

Total’000 haArea of primary forest
Area of degraded primary forest
Area of secondary forest
Area of degraded forest land--

38 200
10 0003000

Source: Government of Bolivia (2009).

263

Status of tropical forest management 2011

RRI (2009) estimated the extent of governmentadministered forests at 22.9 million hectares (butdid not provide clear criteria for these estimates).
Using official sources, Pacheco (2008) estimatedthe publicly owned PFE at 16 million hectares,
comprising forest classified as protected areas (9million hectares), forests granted as concessions toeither timber companies (4.8 million hectares) or
ASLs (0.7 million hectares), and forest reserves tobe granted as non-timber forest concessions (1.3
million hectares) (Table 3). These numbers areindicative only, since the area of forest concessions
declined recently and the process for the allocationof non-timber forest concessions has been delayed.
A portion of the PFE has being encroached illegally(P. Pacheco, pers. comm., 2010).
The area of forest that has formally been granted
to individual and collective landholders has grownover time, and there is an ongoing process of land
titling. It is unclear how much forest is in private
hands because official data were unavailable forthis report. Using data from the land regularization
process, Pacheco (2008) estimated that at least 4
million hectares of forests were in the hands of
medium- and large-scale landholders, although this
could be much higher if informally encroachedpublic forests are taken into account.
The forestland controlled by smallholders is
estimated at about 2.6 million hectares, while
the total land under colonization in the lowlands
is about 3.8 million hectares (ibid.). The areaof forest in the hands of communities, mainly

Indigenous groups, has also grown over time due tothe formalization of Indigenous community lands(tierras comunitarias de origen – TCOs).
About 20 million hectares have been claimed by
Indigenous groups, but the titling of these lands is
conditional on a process of verification of needs andthe rights of other landholders. The titling process
has been relatively slow and bureaucratic, although
it has accelerated under the current administration.
Currently, about 11.4 million hectares of land
have formally been granted to Indigenous people(National Institute for Agrarian Reform 2010),
not all of which is forested. Taking into account all
the Indigenous land claims admitted by the state,
Pacheco (2008) estimated that 8.7 million hectaresof forests were controlled by Indigenous people.
The creation of TCOs has a potentially positiveeffect in bringing together Indigenous communities
with private commercial actors in the forest sector.
The National Law 3760 (2007) adopted the United
Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous
Peoples, with the likely effect of strengthening local
forest ownership. Nevertheless, despite efforts toclarify access to and ownership of forest resources,
there are still frequent land invasions and illegal
logging in Indigenous territories, legal forest
concessions and forest protected areas, jeopardizing
efforts to achieve SFM.a Table 3 summarizes
estimates of tenure in the PFE.
Criteria and indicators. In 1995, Bolivia adopted
the Tarapoto Proposal of C&I for the sustainabilityof the Amazon forest, which was sponsored by the

Table 3 Forest area, by tenure
Ownership category
State ownership (national, state orprovincial government)
Other public entities (e.g.
municipalities, villages)
Total public
Owned by local communities and/orIndigenous groups
Private owned by firms, individuals,
other corporate*

Total area Of which PFE Notes’000 ha-15 293-681-

15 974
11 406-

4000

Includes forests granted as concessions to timber companies
and ASLs, barracas* and protected forests.
Correspond to municipal forest reserves granted to ASLs.

Includes forestlands under admitted TCOs, and forestlands
occupied by smallholder colonists.
Includes only titled land in favour of medium- and large-scale
landholders, and does not include the amount of PFE that has
been informally encroached.

Barracas are areas of forest held by a person or family under locally recognized exclusive rights to harvest rubber or Brazil nuts.
Between 1930 and the mid 1980s both Brazil nut and rubber extraction coincided and barraca owners held labourers under afeudal dependency living permanently on the estate. The area of barracas declined from 3.5 million hectares at its peak to lessthan 1.8 million hectares in 2005 (de Jong et al. 2006).
Source: ITTO estimate based on Pacheco (2008).

264

BOLIVIA

Riverine vegetation, Tambopata Transboundary Conservation Area, Bolivia. © H. Castro/Conservation International

Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organization. The
Government of Bolivia used the ITTO C&I in its
submission to ITTO for this report.a
Forest policy and legislation. The Bolivian
Constitution (Constitución Política del Estado –CPE), adopted in 2009, has created a new legislative
framework in Bolivia. The CPE restates the keyrole that natural forests play in the developmentof Bolivia (CPE Article 386) and confirms theprovisions for SFM and forest conservation madein the Forest Law 1700 (1996; CPE articles 38 and
299). On the basis of the CPE and the result of a
recently conducted national assessment of forest
policy and law implementation, Bolivia is reviewing
the Forest Law with the aim of expanding the scope
beyond timber to integrated forest management.a
Law 3525 of November 2006 regulates the
production and use of NTFPs. Regulations were
put in place in 2008 to implement the National
Forest Development Fund (Fondo Nacional de
Dessarrollo Forestal – FONABOSQUE), which was
designed to promote SFM. Supreme Decree 29643(2008) established norms and incentives to support
forest management for both timber and NTFPs
by rural and Indigenous communities throughcommunity forestry organizations.a

The current forest policy is driven by the broader
national development plan for 2006–2011 entitled
Bolivia Digna, Soberana, Productiva y Democratica
para Vivir Bien. This plan recognizes that natural
resources play an important role in the country’s
development. Hydrocarbons, minerals, hydropower
and renewable biological resources (i.e. biodiversity
and forests) are considered to be the four pillarsof economic development. A more specific forest
development plan (Plan para la Revolución Rural,
Agraria y Forestal) was produced in 2007. A national
policy for the integrated management of forests(Politica Nacional para la Gestión Integral de losBosques) was announced in 2008, along with anational plan for integrated forest management, thelatter of which is being pilot-tested in the northernpart of the Bolivian Amazon.a In March 2010,
the National Forest and Reforestation Program(Programa Nacional de Forestación y Reforestación)
was installed through Presidential decree (BO-DSN443) with the aim of contributing to biodiversity
protection, forest restoration, SFM, the reductionof deforestation and the creation of new forests.
Also in 2010, the National Strategy on Forest
and Climate Change was produced with the aimof promoting integrated forest management as aframework for forest-related initiatives to address265

Status of tropical forest management 2011

climate-change adaptation and mitigation. These
recent documents will also help the process ofreformulating Forest Law 1700.
Institutions involved in forests. The Departmentof Environment, Biodiversity, Climate Change andForest Management and Development, under the
Ministry of Environment and Water, has overall
responsibility for forest administration at thenational level. The General Directorate of Forests(Dirección General Forestal) within the Departmentof Environment, Biodiversity, Climate Change
and Forest Management and Development is
responsible for the implementation, monitoring andevaluation of forest management and conservation,in close coordination with departments, prefectures(prefecturas) and municipalities (municipíos).
The Forestry Superintendency (Superintendencia
Forestal), which was the regulating body in 2005
(ITTO 2006), was replaced in 2009 by the
Authority for the Social Monitoring and Control
of Forests and Lands (Autoridad de Fiscalización yControl Social de Bosques y Tierras – ABT), whichdevelops programs for the control, monitoring andsupervision of the use of forest and land resources;
issues permits for forest exploitation; and guarantees
the sustainable management of forests according to
the law. However, the transition from the Forestry
Superintendency to the ABT caused delays inadministrative, financial and control processes.
FONABOSQUE, which is financed throughforest taxes, has been functional since 2008; it isdesigned to provide incentives for SFM and forest
conservation but to date it has been relatively
unsuccessful.
Sustenar, a decentralized unit created in 2007, is
responsible for the implementation of two programs(Sustentar and Conservar), the aim of which is tosupport sustainable production forestry and forest
conservation at the local level.
Among the NGOs that have experience inmonitoring access to and the use of forests are the
Friends of Nature Foundation (Fundación Amigosde la Naturaleza), the Bolivian Institute of Forestry
Research (Instituto Boliviano de Investigación
Forestal), currently linked to the Gabriel Rene
Moreno Public University (Universidad Autonoma
Gabriel Rene Moreno), Conservation International(Conservación Internacional) and others.
The Law of Popular Participation (Ley deParticipación Popular, Ley 1702, 1996) conferred266

more autonomy on local governments andurban and rural municipalities and gave them
responsibility for, among other things, the use
and management of forests. Territorial grassroots
organizations such as ‘peasant communities’and ‘neighbours’ councils’ were recognized andgiven tasks in the new structure for the use of
public resources (ITTO 2006). The 1994 Law ofPopular Participation (Ley 1551) subdivided the
Bolivian territory into 311 municipalities, eachgiven an equitable share of resources. It created
prefectures in the country’s nine departments withresponsibility for the regulation, planning andcoordination of activities in the municipalities
within them. Prefectures develop and implement
forest development plans, including for watershedmanagement, forest plantations, conservation,and extension and research. They are also incharge of implementing Decree BO-DS-N443(see above), and they prepare programs to support
municipalities in forest management.
Municipalities propose to the ministry thedelimitation of the PFE as municipal reserves(reservas municipales) and support ASLs in the
management of their delimited forests. They
also have control of forest management planningand planned deforestation activities, regulate
and control forest use, and detect illegal forestry
activities.a However, even though the regulations
are clear between these decentralized levels,
widespread poverty limits the prioritization of forest
management on the local development agenda; alack of resources is reflected in the weak capacityof local agencies to apply the regulations. At themunicipal level, FMUs are also weak due to a lackof funds and because the institutional framework
under construction is generating uncertainty among
local actors (G. Ulloa, pers. comm., 2010).
The country is strengthening the ability of its
personnel to implement SFM by providing
in-service training and maintaining forestry
education at a high level, including throughspecialization courses in forest management at the
University of Cochabamba (ITTO 2006).
The FSC established the Bolivian Council for
Voluntary Forest Certification (Consejo Bolivianopara la Certificación Forestal Voluntaria) in 1995 tooversee the establishment of a certification system
in Bolivia. The private sector is organized through a
producers’ association coordinated by the Bolivian
Forestry Chamber (Cámara Forestal de Bolivia).

BOLIVIA

The Chamber also includes a technical component
known as the Promabosque which, among othertasks, promotes SFM in natural and planted forests.

Status of forest management
Forest for production
According to Forest Law 1700 (1996), access toforest resources in the PFE is based on:•

Forest concessions in state lands (tierras fiscales)
for large-scale companies.

•

Forest concessions in state lands for ASLs.

•

Harvesting permits in privately owned forest
lands, divided into two categories – sustainable
forestry with management plans, and conversion
permits (permisos de desmonte).

•

Forest management in TCOs.

Forest concessions are granted for a period of 40
years, subject to a five-yearly audit of the forest
management plan (which has not been effective
in practice) and operational annual plans for the
extraction of timber and NTFPs. Management
plans and auditing are also required in TCOs
and private forests. The exclusive user rights ofIndigenous groups are guaranteed in TCOs.
In privately owned forests, a permit for conversion
to other economic land uses can also be obtained.
The rules for forest management plans are describedin Forest Law 1700 and complementary regulations(Supreme Decree 24453/96). A management plan
must be prepared by a professional forester who is
independent of the concessionaire. In 2003, a totalof 86 commercial forest concessions were operating

in an area of 5.47 million hectares, most of themwith valid management plans (ITTO 2006). In
2008, 3331 FMUs were in place over a total areaof 9.68 million hectares, including 83 commercial
forest concessions covering 5.6 million hectares,
243 TCOs covering 930 000 hectares, and 32 ASLs
covering 720 000 hectares (see Box 1).a
Although a system of auditing has been developed
it has proven difficult to monitor concessions.a
Nevertheless, the certification of a significant areaof forest indicates that a high standard of forest
management is being achieved in many FMUs
(regulations under Forest Law 1700 recognize
audits carried out by an international system ofvoluntary forest certification, properly accredited
by credible international bodies). In the past, forest
owners have complained about the complicatedprocedures (in particular for local communities)
in fulfilling the demands for inventory and forest
management planning and the high transaction
costs that are incurred in the planning process.a The
ABT has therefore attempted to reduce this burden
by allowing smaller forest owners (in particular)
to comply with a reduced set of planning andmanagement standards.a
In coming years the recently approved National
Plan for the Integrated Management of Forests is
expected to introduce a series of modifications toforest management systems deployed in FMUs.
It will broaden the focus of forest management
plans to improve control over resources, including
timber and NTFPs, increase community-based
production forestry, and include the management
and conservation of forest services.aBox 1 Forest permits in FMUs, 2008
Rights category

Communally owned
TCOs
ASLs
Privately owned
Long-term extraction contracts
Forest enterprises (concessions)*
Total

Number of
permits

Total area (ha)Mediansize of FMU
(ha)

876
243
32
2095
2
83
3331

580 000
930 000
720 000
1 820 000
230 000
5 400 000
9 680 000

662
3827
22 500869
115 000
65 060*

These data may no longer be valid since the area of forest concessions was reduced significantly in mid 2010, from 5.4 million
hectares (granted in 1996) to about 3.2 million hectares in 2010. Barracas are included under long-term extraction contracts andconcessions. No recent information on approved plans in individual landholdings, TCOs or community lands was available for thisreport.
Source: Government of Bolivia (2009).

267

Status of tropical forest management 2011

Table 4 Commonly harvested species for industrial roundwood
Species

Notes

Hura crepitans (ochoó)*
Dipteryx odorata (almendrillo)
Tabebuia spp (tajibo)*
Amburana cearensis (roble)*
Ceiba spp (ceiba)*

By far the most harvested species (>1 million m3 per year).
About 87 000 m3 per year (average 2006–08).
About 75 000 m3 per year (average 2006–08).
About 53 000 m3 per year (average 2006–08).
About 45 000 m3 per year (average 2006–08).

*
Also listed in ITTO (2006).
Source: Personal communications with Bolivian foresters and administrators – see endnote b.

Silviculture and species selection. Detailed
technical norms for silvicultural management(IDF 003-2006) were introduced in 1997 andcomplemented in 2006. They include adaptive
management according to forest type and pre- andpost-harvesting inventories; the marking of future
crop trees and seed trees; the cutting of climbers;
and liberation thinning.a Permanent sample plots
must be established after harvesting to monitor
regeneration. In reality, only those FMUs that
follow a certification regime are fulfilling theserequirements; the large majority of forest owners
ignore silvicultural activities after logging.a
Harvesting itself must be conducted according toprescriptions and a detailed annual operational
plan.
There are more than 2000 tree species in Bolivia,of which at least 220 have been used and marketed(ITTO 2006). In the past, forest operations in
Bolivia were based on the selective logging of a few
valuable species, in particular Swietenia macrophylla(mara) and Cedrela odorata (cedro). In recent years,
the number of harvested species has increased andthis has resulted in higher removals. In 1995 (before
the enactment of Forest Law 1700), for example,
mara accounted for around 16% of the commercial
timber removed (ITTO 2006); currently, however,it officially constitutes less than 1%. The volume
of cedro harvested in 2000 was more than 100 000
m3; today less than 20 000 m3 of that species isharvested annually.b In addition to the species listed
in Table 4, important timber species harvested in
Bolivia include Anadenanthera colubrine (curupaú),Caesalpinia pluviosa (momoqui), Vochysia haenkeana(cambará), Aniba guianensis (canelón), Terminalia
amazonica (verdolago), Ficus spp (bibosi), Swartzia
jorori (jorori), palo maría, Sterculia apetala (sujo),
Cariniana ianarensis (yesquero blanco) andSchizolobium amazonicum (serebó).
Planted forest and trees outside the forest. In
2008 the total area of planted forests in Bolivia

268

was estimated at around 73 000 hectares.a Planted
forest plots are generally small and include
both indigenous and exotic tree species. A large
proportion of the planted forest is located in thedepartments of Cochabamba and Chuquisaca. Most
has been established under programs supported byinternational organizations, the main focus being
on local communities with various aims including
increasing revenues for small landowners, restoring
degraded lands and eradicating coca plantations(ITTO 2006).
The major species planted – mostly in higheraltitude areas – are Eucalyptus globulus and Pinus
patula; these two comprise about 90% of the total
plantation area. Although considered relatively
ineffective for controlling soil erosion, both species
were planted for this purpose because they wereconsidered suitable for cool climates (ITTO 2006);
today they are major providers of fuelwood andlocal timber. Other species planted include Alnus
acuminata, Pinus radiata, P. pseudostrobus, Cupressus
lusitanica and Acacia spp. More than 25 speciesof eucalypt and pine have been tried. Private
plantations using teak and high-yielding eucalypts
have been established in recent years in lowlands
on private land; such plantations are expected
to expand, particularly on former pasture land.b
Plantation timber is not yet used to any great extent
in international trade.
Forest certification. In 2005 Bolivia had thelargest area of certified natural tropical forest in
Latin America. As of September 2010, there were
20 certified management units (including one
small timber plantation) covering a total area of
1.72 million hectares (FSC 2010), down fromabout 2.2 million hectares in 2005 (ITTO 2006).
Growth in the international market for certified
wood products from Bolivia has been slow and thedecrease in certified forest area can be attributed
to a lack of market incentives. Many Bolivian
companies see little attraction in maintaining forest

BOLIVIA

management certification in the long term.b Legaland institutional uncertainty for investments has
also become a disincentive (G. Ulloa, pers. comm.,
2010).
Estimate of the area of forest sustainably
managed for production. In 2009, there were3331 forest management plans covering an area of
9.68 million hectares.a There are 19 natural-forest
FMUs with valid FSC certificates, ranging in size
from 15 000 to 220 000 hectares and covering a
total area of 1.72 million hectares; this constitutes
the estimate of sustainably managed natural forest
given in Table 5. In addition, 40 000 hectares ofplanted forests are considered to be well managed(ITTO 2006), comprising community forests
in mountain regions and one certified timber
plantation in the lowlands. The 2.4 million hectaresof production forests set aside for protection
purposes are not counted in the estimates given in
Table 5.
Timber production and trade. The estimatedindustrial roundwood production in Bolivia
in 2009 was 910 000 m3 (ITTO 2010); theGovernment of Bolivia (2009) estimated the total
average annual log production at 1.77 million m3.
On average an estimated 460 000 m3 of sawnwood
were produced annually between 2007 and 2009
(ITTO 2010). Nearly 100% of log production
and 85% of sawnwood are used domestically(ibid.), although there are reports of increased
exports in recent years, mainly to China. Although
the country produces a significant quantity ofcertified wood, access to environmentally sensitive
international markets is limited.
The wood-products industry consists primarilyof small and medium-sized enterprises withmostly obsolete technology producing solid wood
products.a In 2008, 428 sawmills were registeredby the ABT and there were an estimated 2100

enterprises in secondary wood-processing.a
The current insecurity of tenure for industrial
enterprises has resulted in insufficient investment inforest industry and there is a risk that the relatively
high standard of wood-processing will disappear. A
major handicap for Bolivia’s wood industry is thehigh cost of production per unit volume due tofactors such as a low rate of extraction per hectare;the high cost of forest management; and the costof essential inputs such as machinery, fuel andtransportation. Wood prices are more than twice
as high as in Brazil, Bolivia’s principal competitor(USAID 2008).
Non-timber forest products. Brazil nut (alsocalled castaña) is by far the most important NTFP
exported by Bolivia, with annual production
exceeding 45 000 tonnes. Palm hearts (palmito –Euterpe predatoria) are harvested mostly in private
forests and are subject to management plans;
nationally, annual production amounts to about
350 tonnes. Wild cocoa (Theobroma cacao) iscollected as a niche export product. Many other
NTFPs are used locally, such as the fruits and leavesof the motacú palm (Attalea phalerata); medicinal
plants (e.g. uña de gato – Uncaria tomentosa); wild
fruits (e.g. majo – Oenocarpus bataua and hoja depatujú – Phenakospermum guianense); and materials
for roofing. Fuelwood collection is an important
activity. Hunting provides protein for local
communities, and some native species (e.g. caiman– Caiman yacare) are bred in captivity.
Forest carbon. According to inventories of
GHG emissions made by the National Climate
Change Program (Programa Nacional de Cambios
Climáticos), the vast majority (83%) of CO2
emissions stem from changes in land use, inparticular the conversion of forests to fields andpastures for agriculture and livestock. Gibbs et al.
(2007) estimated the forest biomass carbon stockat 2469–9189 MtC, while FAO (2010a) estimated

Table 5 Management of the production PFE (’000 hectares)
Reporting
year

Total

Available for
harvesting

2005*
2010

17 00025 1005470
9680*****‡NaturalWithmanagement
plans
5470
9680‡

Certified

2210
1720

2210

60

PlantedWith
management
plans
-

1720

73

-

Sustainably
managed

Total

Certified

00.2

As reported in ITTO (2006).
Only a relatively small portion of this is probably under concession, since it also comprises private (individual and collective) land.
According to Government of Bolivia (2009); however, it is unclear if management plans have been formally approved for the entire
area.

269

Status of tropical forest management 2011

it at 4442 MtC. The carbon capture potential of
Bolivia’s forests has been estimated at 2.4 tonnesof carbon per hectare per year for dry tropicalforest ecosystems, and 5–8 tonnes of carbon perhectare per year in humid tropical forests (USAID
2008). Bolivia submitted a readiness idea note to
the Forest Carbon Partnership Facility in 2008
but then ceased involvement with the Facility. The
government received exploratory missions from
UN-REDD in 2009 and submitted its National
Joint Program to UN-REDD in 2010. Funds havealso been made available by bilateral cooperation
agencies for implementing pilot projects related
to REDD+. Experience with certified emission
reductions through the Noel Kempff Mercado
Climate Action Project will assist Bolivia’s future
participation in REDD+ schemes. Table 6
summarizes Bolivia’s REDD+ potential.

Forest for protection
Soil and water. In general, forests in the upper
watersheds are a high priority for maintaining
functional landscapes. These forests protect soils on
steep slopes and improve downstream water quality
by reducing siltation; they catch, hold, and slow
runoff from precipitation, thereby reducing peakflows and flooding and stabilizing flows during thedry season. The 1992 Environmental Law (Ley 1333
del Medio Ambiente) dedicates two chapters to soil
and water protection and defines soil and watershed
conservation as a specific responsibility of the state.
Many small-scale plantations have been establishedto protect watersheds in the Bolivian Andes,
mainly to control soil erosion but also as a local
source of fuelwood and products for local markets.
Examples of market-like payments, compensationand incentive schemes for conserving hydrologicalservices have been developed in certain municipalities(USAID 2008), mostly in Santa Cruz.
Biological diversity. Bolivia is ranked seventhin the world for the diversity of its birds, tenthfor other vertebrates and 15th for primates; italso contains at least 18 000 species of plants, ofwhich approximately 2700 are trees.a There is ahigh degree of endemism and many of Bolivia’s
ecosystems are undisturbed. Fifteen mammals,
16 birds, one reptile, 26 amphibians and one
plant species found in forests are listed as criticallyendangered, endangered or vulnerable on the
IUCN red list of threatened species (IUCN 2011).
Bolivia has eight plant species listed in CITES
Appendix I and 319 in Appendix II (UNEPWCMC 2011). Timber species include mara,
Cedrela spp and Podocarpus parlatorei. Cedrela spp
are listed in Appendix III.
Protective measures in production forests.
Detailed regulations have been established under
Forest Law 1700 for commercial forestry operations
to assist in protecting watersheds and soil. Forest
management plans must make special provision forbiological corridors, the regulation of hunting andthe conservation of endangered plant and animal
species. About 2.4 million hectares of production
forests have been set aside for protection purposes.a
Extent of protected areas. Bolivia’s National
System of Protected Areas (Sistema Nacional deAreas Protegidas – SNAP) comprises 22 protectedareas of national interest and numerous others at
the departmental and municipal level covering an
area of 10.7 million hectares, which is about 16%
of Bolivian territory. All major ecosystem types
are represented. SNAP is an ambitious program
given the human and financial constraints faced
by Bolivia. A foundation for the development of
SNAP, FUNDESNAP, was created in 2000.
SNAP comprises five official protected-area
categories: national parks; natural monuments;
wildlife sanctuaries; wildlife reserves; and naturalareas for integrated use. Five protected areas,
covering a total area of 4 million hectares situatedin lowland areas, are interconnected throughpermanent production forests (ITTO 2006).

Table 6 Forest carbon potential
Biomass
forestcarbon(MtC)% forestwithcanopycover >60%

Deforestation/
degradation
potential to2030

2469–9189

64+++

Enhancement Forest areachangeof carbon
monitoringsinkcapacity
capacity
to 2030+++

Forest/GHG
inventory
capacity++

Importance Engagementinof forest
international
fire/
REDD+
biomass
processes
burning+++++++ high; ++ medium; + low; estimate of national forest carbon based on Gibbs et al. (2007); estimate of % total forest with canopy cover>60% based on UNEP-WCMC (2010).

270

BOLIVIA

Table 7 Management of the protection PFE (’000 hectares)***

Reportingyear

Protection PFE

Attributed to IUCN
categories I–IV

Allocated for soil
and waterWith management
plans

Sustainably
managed

2005*
2010

14 70013 1007660
10 7006790-

3500**

2380
2690

As reported in ITTO (2006).
Comprising the Noel Kempff and Madidi national parks and a private reserve covering about 109 000 hectares.

The Noel Kempff National Park was extended
in 2005 through the buy-out of logging rights
for 832 000 hectares of forest by a consortiumof three organizations and its incorporation
into the national park as part of a large-scalecarbon offset project. This first known REDD
project has certified nearly 1 million tons of CO2(Government of Bolivia 2008). However, nofinancial compensation has been paid due to a lackof institutional and legal agreements and regulations
regarding the distribution of carbon credits.
Estimate of the area of forest sustainably
managed for protection. The estimated 10.7
million hectares of forested protected areas in the
SNAP benefit from decrees or simple management
directives and are staffed with forest rangers.
Additional efforts to develop management plans
and to protect the integrity of the forest have been
made in two national parks – the 1.52-millionhectare Noel Kempff National Park, which isone of the largest and most intact national parks
in the Amazon Basin, and the Madidi National
Park, which is located in the upper Amazon region
covering an area of about 1.89 million hectares andwas supported for several years by an ITTO-funded
project. The Noel Kempff National Park and anarea of about 1.17 million hectares comprising
the lower-lying areas of the Madidi National Parkare counted in Table 7 as sustainably managed
protection PFE. Insufficient information is available
on the status of management in other protectedareas.

Socioeconomic aspects
Economic aspects. Forestry accounted for 0.9%
of GDP (approximately US$39 million) and the’wood and wood products’ sector represented
1.1% of GDP (approximately US$45 million) in2008 (National Institute of Statistics of Bolivia2010). The forest sector contributes directly to thegeneration of more than 90 000 jobs, and about
160 000 families benefit from employment in

the forest sector (Government of Bolivia 2008).
Community forest-user groups are responsible
for less than 6% of forest production (Pacheco2008) because most of the harvest is conducted on
private lands and in forest concessions. A significant
informal sector is involved in logging and industrial
operations.
Livelihood values. Tropical forests are of greatvalue to forest-dwellers, including Indigenous
peoples who have subsistence user rights for
non-commercial purposes throughout the forest
estate without the need for permits; hunting andfishing are the most important activities. Forest
areas are also considered as a reserve of available
land and are used for subsistence agriculture.
Pacheco (2005) estimated that about 1.3 million
people rely on forest resources for at least part oftheir livelihoods, including 180 000–200 000
Indigenous people. An estimated 25 000–30 000
families live in or next to dense forests inthe northern Amazon in Bolivia and rely on
agro-extractive systems and the seasonal collectionof Brazil nuts for income. Some 500 000–600 000
colonists and small-scale farmers settled in Santa
Cruz, Chapare and Yungas harvest subsistence
goods from forests (e.g. fuelwood, wood forbuilding, fodder and fruits) and obtain indirect
benefits from forests, such as through ecosystemservices (Pacheco 2005). About 400 000 people
living in the temperate valleys of Cochabamba,
Tarija and Chuquisaca use forest resources – mainly
fueldwood – for subsistence (ibid.).
Social relations. The inclusion and empowerment
of Indigenous and other marginalized social groups
has been a major political achievement in Bolivia,
especially the enactment of Law 1702 on public
participation. What is still uncertain, however, is theform that such social inclusion and empowerment
will take and the mechanisms through which
they will be achieved (USAID 2008). A variety of
new laws and regulations guarantee local rights
to the use of forest resources, but the system still271

Status of tropical forest management 2011

needs to be fully implemented. In fact, weak law
enforcement and land-tenure problems are creatingsocial unrest and jeopardizing the introduction of
SFM. Local tensions between legally defined forest
users and other interested parties remain unabated.
Illegal logging of high-value timber species is anunresolved problem. Illegal crops, particularly coca,
are planted by farmers in fields and small openings
and are often a major reason for violence in forested
areas.a

Key points•

Bolivia has an estimated PFE of 38.3 million
hectares (compared with 31.8 million hectares
in 2005), comprising 25.1 million hectares ofnatural production forests (compared with 17.0
million hectares in 2005), 13.1 million hectaresof protection forest (compared with 14.7
million hectares in 2005) and 73 000 hectaresof planted forest (compared with 60 000
hectares in 2005).

Summary•

An estimated 1.72 million hectares of thenatural production PFE (all of which is
certified) are under SFM. An estimated 2.69
million hectares of protection PFE are underSFM.

•

A large area of partly unexploited forest in the
Amazon Basin remains protected due to its
remoteness. However, there are plans to open up
these areas for economic development.

•

The management of forest resources has been
decentralized and is undertaken at the prefecturelevel and by municipalities and a variety of local
community-based and Indigenous institutions,which lack sufficient resources and capacity.

•

About 30% of the PFE is owned by local andIndigenous communities.

•

The once well-established wood-processing
industry with a strong body of professional
knowledge and with significant areas ofcertified forests is confronted by a number ofdifficulties, including high costs. In addition,access to markets for certified timber remains
problematic and the lack of a significant pricepremium may make it difficult to maintain highstandards.

•

The system of protected areas in Bolivia isambitious, but there is a lack of capacity andfunding to fully implement it.

•

In many areas, illegal logging and illegal crops
are major constraints to the full adoption of
SFM and the effective conservation of protectedareas.

The new governance paradigm and development
model in Bolivia has brought dramatic changes.
While it provides new opportunities for forest
management, a number of challenges must
be tackled in the longer term. Forest-related
policies and laws are generally progressive but
there is insufficient capacity to implement themand difficulties in assigning responsibilities andauthority to the various levels of government.
The capacity of Indigenous organizations needs
strengthening to ensure that Indigenous rights
are upheld, particularly within the protected-areasystem. Land tenure and property rights remain
uncertain, leading to a lack of investment in forest
management and downstream wood-processing.
Plans to open up large areas in the Amazon throughroad development could increase colonization andexacerbate deforestation and forest degradation.
Nonetheless, Bolivia has made remarkable progress
towards SFM in the past 15 years. It has launched
and implemented a comprehensive and ambitious
reform of its forest sector and embarked on amajor process of conferring property rights fornatural forests to Indigenous communities. Forest
certification is a major factor in the introduction of
SFM practices – although the area of certified forest
has declined in recent years as economic rewards
have failed to materialize. New management
paradigms have been defined recently to include
a broader integrative forest management concept
for SFM. While generally this is a positive
development, there is a risk that it will lead to alowering of the standards of forest management.

272

BOLIVIA

EndnotesaGovernment of Bolivia (2009).

b

Information derived from discussions held withrepresentatives of government, civil society and the private
sector at an international workshop on governance and
REDD, held 30 August–3 September 2010, Oaxaca,
Mexico.

References and other sources
FAO (2010a). Global forest resources assessment 2010 country
report: Bolivia (available at http://www.fao.org/forestry/fra/67090/en/).
FAO (2010b). Global Forest Resources Assessment 2010 Full
Report. FAO, Rome, Italy.
FSC (2010, website accessed June 2010). FSC certification
database (searchable database available at http://info.fsc.org/
PublicCertificateSearch).
Gibbs, H., Brown, S., Niles, J. & Foley, J. (2007). Monitoringand estimating tropical forest carbon stocks: making REDDa reality. Environmental Research Letters 2 (available at http://
iopscience.iop.org/1748-9326/2/4/045023/fulltext).
Government of Bolivia (2008). Readiness plan idea note
Bolivia. Prepared by the Ministry of Development
Planning-National Climate Change Programme for theForest Carbon Partnership Facility (available at www.
forestcarbonpartnership.org).
Government of Bolivia (2009). Informe sobre el progresoalcanzado en a ordenación sostenible do los bosquestropicales de Bolivia. Ministerio de Desarrollo Rural y
Tierras. Viceministerio de gestión y desarrollo forestal.
October 2009. Prepared by Namiko Nagashiro.
ITTO (2006). Status of Tropical Forest Management 2005. ITTO,
Yokohama, Japan (available at http://www.itto.int/en/sfm/).

IUCN (2011, website accessed January 2011). IUCN red list of
threatened species (searchable database available at www.
redlist.org).
de Jong, W., Ruiz, S. & Becker, M. (2006). Conflicts andcommunal forest management in northern Bolivia. Forest
Policy and Economics 8 (2006) 447–457.
National Institute for Agrarian Reform (2010). Saneamiento ytitulacion de tierras 1996-2010. Powerpoint presentation.
Instituto Nacional de Reforma Agraria.
National Institute of Statistics of Bolivia (2010, website accessed
December 2010). Instituto Nacional de Estadística deBolivia (available at http://www.ine.gob.bo/).
Olguín, L. (2009). Superficie de bosques en Bolivia.
Unpublished.
Pacheco, P. (2005). Towards a forestry strategy in Bolivia: helping
forests to help people. Report to FAO. FAO, Rome, Italy.
Pacheco, P. (2008). Cambios recientes y nuevos desafíos para lagestión de los bosques. In Belpaire, C. & Ribero, M. (eds)
Estado Ambiental de Bolivia 2007–2008. Liga de Defensa delMedio Ambiente, La Paz, Bolivia.
UNEP-WCMC (2010). Spatial analysis of forests withinprotected areas in ITTO countries. Data prepared for
ITTO. 2010.UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, UK.
UNEP-WCMC (2011, website accessed January2011). UNEP-WCMC species database: CITES-listed
species (searchable database at available at www.cites.org/
eng/resources/species.html).
United Nations Population Division (2010, website accessed
July 2010). World population prospects: the 2008 revision(searchable database available at http://esa.un.org/UNPP/).
USAID (2008). Bolivia tropical forestry and biodiversity
assessment. Final report. Prepared for the United States
Agency for International Development, Contract Number
511O-00-08-00040-00.

ITTO (2010, website accessed October 2010). Annual Review
statistics database (available at http://www.itto.int/annual_
review_output/?mode=searchdata).
ITTO & RRI (2009). Tropical forest tenure assessment. trends,
challenges and opportunities. ITTO, Yokohama, Japan andRights and Resources Initiative, Washington, DC, UnitedStates.

273

Status of tropical forest management 2011

Braziland epiphytes. In the open humid forests the trees
are more widely spaced and palm creepers andbamboos are more common.

Forest resources
Brazil has a land area of 846 million hectares andan estimated population in 2010 of 195 million
people (United Nations Population Division 2010);
the country is ranked 75th out of 182 countries
in UNDP’s Human Development Index (UNDP2009). Ninety-three per cent of the country is
below 800 m in altitude. The highest peaks, atabout 2500 m, are found on the northern borderwith Venezuela and in the southeast on the Atlantic
coast. The vast Amazon Basin contains the world’s
largest area of tropical rainforest; the majority of it
is Brazilian territory. FAO (2010a) and Governmentof Brazil (2010) both estimated Brazil’s total forest
cover in 2010 at 519 million hectares, including
both tropical and non-tropical natural and planted
forests; an estimated 354 million hectares of thetotal was in the Amazon.a
Forest types. Brazilian forests can be classified
broadly as Amazon rainforest, Atlantic rainforest(Mata Atlântica) (28.8 million hectares), central
cerrado savanna (70 million hectares), arid caatinga(46.8 million hectares) and the wetlands of thePantanal (8.55 million hectares; Government ofBrazil 2010).
The two main forest types in the Amazon are dense
and open ombrophilous (humid) forests. The
dense humid forests are characterized by large andmedium-sized trees (with canopy up to 50 m andemergent trees up to 40 m) and abundant lianas274

The predominant vegetation in the cerrado issavanna (forested, arborized and steppe). Savanna
formations also predominate in the Pantanalbiome, which also contains savanna as well as small
areas of semi-deciduous and deciduous forest.
The caatinga comprises predominantly steppesavanna, interrupted by clusters of deciduous andsemideciduous forest and savanna. To the north,pioneer formations occur, represented by marshes
and swamps on the coast. The Mata Atlântica
biome consists of humid (dense, open and mixed)
and seasonal (deciduous and semi-deciduous)
forests. Pioneer formations occur, represented bymarshes and swamps along the coast, and savanna
occurs in small areas in the northeast near thecoast.aBrazil has more mangrove forests than any
country other than Indonesia, with about 1.3
million hectares, which is 8.5% of all mangroves.
Mangroves occur on the northern coastline,
intermittently in estuaries and coastal lagoons in
the northeast, and south beyond the Tropic of
Capricorn (Spalding et al. 2010).
Permanent forest estate. Brazil’s tropical-forest
PFE may be considered to comprise 117 million
hectares of federal and state conservation units(Sistema Nacional de Unidades de Conservaçãoda Natureza – SNUC – and Sistema Estados
Unidades de Conservação da Natureza, respectively),
106 million hectares of Indigenous lands, 50.2
million hectares of legal reserves and permanent
preservation areas on rural properties, and 36.1
million hectares of ‘other public forest’ protectedby law.1 This area includes the Amazon, caatinga,cerrado and Mata Atlântica biomes and may include
some non-forest and some non-tropical forest.
Box 1 shows the areas in each specific conservation
unit category.
1 Federal and state conservation units and Indigenous lands include
forest and other kinds of vegetation. For some categories the area may
be under-estimated because of a lack of data on land under state
responsibility (e.g. federal conservation units). ‘Other public forests
protected by law’ refers to public forests listed in the National Registerof Public Forests. They are not yet assigned to any function; however,according to Law 11 284/2006, public forest should be maintained asforests indefinitely.

BRAZIL

Table 1 Permanent forest estate
Reportingyear

Estimatedtotal forest
area, range(million ha)

Total closed
natural forest(’000 ha)

2005*
2010

444–515519

489 515264 700

PFE (’000 hectares)
Production
Protection
NaturalPlantedTotal

98 100
135 000

372 910316 650

3810
6650**

217 000
175 000

As reported in ITTO (2006).
Being mostly privately owned and not required by law to be maintained as forest, strictly speaking this area is not part of the PFE
but is included here to minimize confusion. Includes some non-tropical planted forest..
Source: Government of Brazil (2010) , CNUC (2011), and personal communications – see endnote b.
***

The SNUC, which was established by Law
9985/00, is divided into two groups:•

35% of rural properties located in savanna areasin the Legal Amazon.

••

20% of rural properties located in forest orother vegetation in other (i.e. non-Legal
Amazon) regions.

•

20% of rural properties in native grasslands inany region.

•

Units of integral protection, whose purpose is topreserve nature – use does not involve theconsumption, collection, damage or destructionof natural resources. Categories in this group are
ecological stations, biological reserves, nationalparks, national monuments and wildlife refuges.
Sustainable use units, which aim to reconcile
nature conservation with sustainable use,
involving the collection and use, commercial orotherwise, of a portion of a unit’s natural
resources. Categories in this group include
national (and state) forests (florestas nacionais –FLONAs), extractive reserves and sustainable
development reserves.

There are 69.4 million hectares of units of integral
protection, 25.5 million hectares of FLONAs, 10.2
million hectares of sustainable development reserves
and 12.3 million hectares of extractive reserves inthe tropical PFE (J. Lorensi do Canto, pers. comm.,
2011; CNUC 2011).2 The estimate of protection
PFE in Table 1 comprises the total area of forest in‘units of integral protection’ plus the total area of
Indigenous lands.
Under the Brazilian Forest Code (Law 4771/65),
the following percentages (at least) of private
land must be maintained under native vegetation(called ‘legal reserves’), in addition to permanent
protection areas (areas to be preserved along rivers,
hills and others):•

80% of rural properties located in forest areas in
the Legal Amazon.3

2 Data are for both federal and state lands.
3 The Legal Amazon was set by law for economic planning reasons. It
comprises the states of northern Brazil (Acre, Amazonas, Amapá, Pará,Rondônia, Roraima and Tocantins), part of the states of Mato Grossoand Maranhão, and a small portion of the state of Goiás. It covers an
area of more than five million km2, which is about 61% of the Brazilian
territory.

Legal reserves are forest areas that may be harvested
for timber and other products on the basis ofsustainable forest management plans (planos demanejo florestal sustentável – PMFSs – see below).
The extent to which these restrictions are adhered
to is unclear.
The total PFE reported here is considerably lessthan that reported for 2005, most likely due todifferences in definition of what constitutes PFE
rather than to a significant change in legal status
or forest area. The Government of Brazil did not
make an official submission for the 2005 survey;
therefore, the data presented here for 2010 are likely
to be more accurate than those given in ITTO
(2006).

Forest ecosystem healthDeforestation and forest degradation. Brazil lostan estimated 2.19 million hectares of forest per
year in the period 2005–10. This is an annual rateof deforestation of 0.42%, which is lower than theestimated annual rate of deforestation in the period
2000–2005 (0.57%) (FAO 2010b). In the period
2005–09 about 1.07 million hectares of forest waslost per year in the Amazona and 929 000 hectares
were lost per year in the cerrado (FAO 2010a).
Brazil has an estimated 477 million hectares ofprimary forests (Table 2).
The Brazilian government’s National Institute forSpace Research (Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas

275

Status of tropical forest management 2011

Box 1 Brazil’s PFE, by tenure type and government jurisdiction

Conservation units
FLONAs/state forests
Extractive reserves
Sustainable development reserves
Units of integral protection

Production PFE

Protection PFE
million ha

Total

16.1
9.40
12.3
0.67
0.64
9.53
48.64

35.8
33.6
69.4
106

16.1
9.40
12.3
0.67
0.64
9.53
35.8
33.6
118.04106
50.2

FederalState
FederalState
FederalState
FederalState

Subtotal
Indigenous lands
Legal reserves and permanent preservation areas onprivate land
Other public land
Total

50.2
36.1
134.94175.4

36.1
310.34

Includes the Amazon, caatinga, cerrado and Mata Atlântica biomes; may include some non-forest and some non-tropical forest.
Note:
Source: CNUC (2011) and personal communications – seen endnote b.

Espaciais) monitors forest cover in the Amazon bysatellite using four operating systems: PRODES,DETER, DEGRAD and DETEX. These systems
are complementary and are designed to meetdifferent goals. PRODES (Program for the
Calculation of Deforestation in the Amazon –Monitoramento da Floresta Amazônica Brasileira
por Satélite) has measured the annual rate ofclearcutting since 1988. Using Landsat satellite
images, it can account for deforestation that takes
place on areas greater than 6.25 hectares. DEGRAD(System for Mapping Forest Degradation –Sistemade Mapeamento de Degradação Florestal), which
was developed in 2007, uses images from theLandsat and CBERS (China–Brazil Earth Resources
Satellite) satellites to map areas in the process ofdeforestation where forest cover is not completely
removed and therefore not counted by PRODES.
DETER (System of Deforestation Detection in
Real Time – Detecção de Desmatamento em Tempo
Real) uses MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging
Spectroradiometer) and CBERS satellite data to
publish, on a monthly basis, maps of areas greaterthan 25 hectares which have either been completely
deforested or are in the process of deforestation.
DETEX (Detection of Selective Logging Activities),
developed with the support of the Brazilian Forest
Service (Serviço Florestal Brasileiro), generates
information for monitoring management plans

276

in forest concessions (created by Law 11 284/06)
and in public forests in general. Using images fromLandsat and CBERS, multi-temporal DETEX
studies have been conducted in national forests andforest concessions, especially in the vicinity of the
BR-163 and BR-319 roads to identify instances of
exploratory timber activity. All public forests in the
Amazon have been monitored by this system since2008.
An estimated 244 000 hectares of FLONAs wereaffected by fires in 2008, and a similar area wasburned in 2007.a
Vulnerability of forests to climate change. Brazil
is vulnerable to climate change, not least becauseof its fragile, biologically diverse ecosystems (Lèbre
La Rovere & Pereira 2007). The Amazon forests
and Pantanal wetlands are of particular concern.
A number of studies suggest a drying trend inAmazon forests, such as an increased frequency ofyears with reduced precipitation, as was particularly
the case in 1997, 1998, 2005 and 2010 (Perez2011). Such dry years make spontaneous fires more
frequent. These droughts have started to change
the general view that Amazon forests can resist fire
because of the moisture stored beneath the densetree canopy. It has been suggested that extreme
droughts could breach the flammability thresholdof Amazon forests, triggering a feedback loop that
leads to increasingly frequent wildfires (ibid.) andBRAZIL

Table 2 Forest condition*
PFE

Non-PFE

Total’000 haArea of primary forest
Area of degraded primary forest
Area of secondary forest
Area of degraded forest land--

477 000
36 500**-*All forests.
**‘Other naturally regenerated forest’.
Source: FAO (2010a).

affecting vast areas of previously unburnt Amazon
forests. Changing rainfall patterns, especially in the
drought-affected northeast region of the country,
could reduce the quality and quantity of water
resources available for agriculture. The hydrologicalservices of Amazon forests require further study tofacilitate adaptation. The monitoring of climate
variability and its effects on the Amazon forests
is also important because of the crucial role thatthose forests play as the world’s largest storage ofterrestrial carbon.

SFM policy framework
Forest tenure. Even though much production
forest is privately owned, under the 1988 Federal
Constitution (Article 225) forests are considered
to be a common asset for all inhabitants, andownership and tenure disputes are a major problem.
Private owners are only able to exercise their rights
within the limits imposed by the 1965 Forest
Code, which regulates the harvesting of timberresources. There are legal stipulations to set aside‘legal reserves’ and ‘permanent preservation areas’ inprivate forest areas (Article 2). More than one-thirdof the tropical PFE is owned by Indigenous
communities (Table 3).
Extractive reserves are state-owned areas in which
use rights are granted to traditional extractive
populations whose subsistence is based on theharvesting of naturally growing products such aslatex, nuts, fruits and oils as well as on agriculture
and animal-raising. The purpose of extractive
reserves is to protect the livelihoods and culturesof those traditional extractive populations and toensure the sustainable use of natural resources in thereserves. There are 62 extractive reserves in Brazil(mostly in the Amazon), comprising a total area of
12.96 million hectares – 12.3 million hectares ofwhich are on federal lands and 667 000 hectares ofwhich are on state lands (Box 2). Although timber
harvesting is generally not permitted, these areas
are counted as part of the production PFE (in total,
12.3 million hectares in the Amazon). All extractive
reserves have a management plan prepared by the
managing agency (the Chico Mendes Institute of
Biodiversity Conservation).
Under the Federal Constitution, Indigenous lands(lands traditionally occupied by Amerindians) aredefined as: “those where they live on a permanent
basis, those used for their productive activities,
those essential to the preservation of environmental
resources necessary for their well-being and for their
physical and cultural reproduction, according totheir habits, customs and traditions”. Amerindians
have the permanent possession and “exclusive useof the riches of the soil, rivers and lakes” existing on
their lands. Nevertheless, such lands constitute theproperty of the state and, as public goods of special

Box 2 Area of federal and state extractive reserves, by biome (ha)BiomeAmazonCerradoCoastalMata Atlântica
Total

Area of federal extractive reserves
11 597 193

Area of state extractive reserves
667 438

107 249-587 6761178
12 293 296

667 438

Source: CNUC (2011).

277

Status of tropical forest management 2011

Table 3 Forest area, by tenure*
Ownership category

Total area Of which PFE Notes’000 haState ownership (national, state orprovincial government)-

Other public entities (e.g.
municipalities, villages)
Total public
Owned by local communities and/orIndigenous groups
Privately owned by individuals, firms,
other corporate-

113 000-

113 000
106 000-

54 100Includes federal conservation units, which comprise forest andother kinds of vegetation (and therefore may overestimate PFE
in this category); in some cases the area may be anunderestimate because of a lack of data for forests under state
responsibility. Also includes ‘Other public forests protected bylaw’, which refers to public forests registered in the National
Register of Public Forests. Such forests are not yet assigned toany function; according to Law 11284 (2006), however, publicforest should be maintained as forests indefinitely.

Includes forest and other kinds of vegetation. These forests
remain the property of the state.
Includes ‘legal reserves’ and ‘permanent preservation areas’ onrural properties and forests under PMFSs in the Amazon andcaatinga biomes.

*
Tropical forests only.
Source: Government of Brazil (2010).

use, besides being inalienable and unavailable(can not be disposed of or alienated), they cannot
be the object of use of any kind by anyone otherthan the Amerindians themselves.a Of the 106
million hectares of forest in the Amazon allocatedto Indigenous communities, 1.75 million hectares
have been ‘bounded’, 8.1 million hectares have been‘declared’, 3.6 million hectares have been ‘approved’
and 92.2 million hectares have been ‘regularized’(i.e. full rights have been secured).a
According to FAO (2010a), communities in Brazil
have management rights in 160 million hectares ofpublicly owned forest (including indigenous lands
outside the Amazon region).
In 2009 President Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva
approved Law 11952, which provides for thelegalization of occupied federal land in the Legal
Amazon through the sale and grant of right ofuse of real estate. The aim of the law is to reduce
legal uncertainty, which promotes the illegal
appropriation of land, the intensification of agrarian
conflicts and deforestation. Under the law, certain
unallocated federal land will be transferred tomunicipalities in order to expedite its privatization.
The law establishes size limits for areas to be
privatized, the terms of payment and other legal
and financial aspects.
Under the new law, squatters occupying up to 100
hectares of land will be given title to the land free ofcost. Lots measuring between 100 and 400 hectares

278

will be sold at a ‘symbolic cost’, and holdings of
400–1500 hectares will be sold at market prices.
Larger lots of up to 2500 hectares will be auctioned
to the highest bidder. Anything larger can only besold with congressional approval.4
Criteria and indicators. The Government ofBrazil participates in the Tarapoto C&I processcoordinated by the Amazon Cooperation Treaty
Organization and used the ITTO C&I in its
submission to ITTO for this report.a
Forest policy and legislation. Brazil is a federationof 26 states, a federal district and more than 5500
local governments (municipalities – municípios).
The adoption of a new constitution in 1988
prompted decentralization in the managementof natural resources and the implementation ofdevelopment programs. Considerable politicaland tax power and fiscal revenue shifted from thecentral government to states and municipalities, andprivatization and economic liberalization policies
were also pursued.
Forest-related legislation includes:•

Law 4771 (1965) – Forest Code (as amended).

•

Law 5197 (1967) – Protection of Fauna.

•Law 6938 (1981) – National Environmental
Policy.

4 www.illegal-logging.info/item_single.php?it_id=3493&it=news.

BRAZIL•

Law 9433 (1997) – Water Resources Policy.

•

Law 9605 (1998) – Environmental Crimes.

•

Decree 3179 (1999), which establishes penalties
for forest crimes.

•

Decree 3420 (2000), creating the National
Forest Programme.

•

Decree 4340 (2002), which regulates articles of
Law 4771 and various other laws. It also
provides regulations for the exploitation,
suppression and clear-cutting of forests andsucceeding formations; PMFSs; forest
replanting; and licences to transport forest
by-products.

•

Law 11 284 (2006) (the Public Forest
Management Law), which provides for publicforest management for sustainable production,
creates the Brazilian Forest Service within the
structure of the Brazilian Ministry of theEnvironment, establishes the National Forest
Development Fund (Fundo Nacional de
Desenvolvimento Florestal – FNDF), and makesother provisions.

•

Resolution 378 (2006), which defines
undertakings that may potentially cause
national or regional environmental impact andmakes other provisions; and subjects forest
exploitation to permits issued by the Brazilian
Institute of Environment and Renewable
Resources (Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente
e dos Recursos Naturais Renováveis – IBAMA).

•

Resolution 379 (2006), which creates andregulates the database on forest management at
the National Environmental System (Sistema
Nacional do Meio Ambiente) level.

•

Decree 6063 (2007), which regulates, at thefederal level, provisions of Law 11 284.

•

Resolution 406 (2009), which establishes
technical standards to be adopted in theformulation, presentation, technical evaluationand implementation of PMFSs for logging
purposes in native forests and their succeeding
formations in the Amazon biome.

•

A number of normative instructions relating toforest use.a

The enactment of the Public Forest Management
Law in 2006 was a significant achievement.
Previously, although large areas of forest are locatedon public land in Brazil, there was no regulatory
framework to deal with their management. This
made it difficult for the government to establish
policies that could ensure the maintenance of
those forests as an asset belonging to all Brazilians.
In the case of the Amazon the situation was evenmore worrisome because for decades the advanceof agriculture had led to large losses of forest coverand land-grabbing. In 2004, the federal government
initiated the formulation of a legal framework toallow for the management of public land in a waythat would halt land-grabbing, introduce a forest
concessions system to maintain the capacity of theforests to provide goods and services in perpetuity,and serve as a socioeconomic development
alternative. The 2006 law and subsequent
resolutions, decrees and instructions were the result.
In 2004 the Government of Brazil announced its
Action Plan to Prevent and Control Deforestationin the Amazon involving eleven ministries led by
the President’s Cabinet. The action plan comprises
144 actions under three main strategies: land-tenure
and territory planning; environmental monitoring
and control; and incentives for sustainableproduction. Under the action plan, by 2008
ten million hectares of Indigenous territories, 20
million hectares of protected areas and 3.9 million
hectares of ‘sustainable settlement’ projects had
been created and 66 000 illegal land titles had beencancelled.b
Institutions involved in forests. The Ministryof Environment (Ministério do Meio Ambiente –MMA) is responsible for forestry as well as forplanning, coordinating and controlling activities
related to the national environment policy andpolicies for developing the Amazon. It supervises
the activities of IBAMA and the Brazilian Forest
Service, chairs the National Council for theEnvironment (Conselho Nacional do Meio Ambiente)
and takes part in the President’s Chamber for
Natural Resources Policies, which coordinatesvarious aspects related to forests. Other agencies
with responsibilities related to forest resources
include the National Colonization and Agrarian
Reform Institute (Instituto Nacional de Colonização
e Reforma Agrária), and the Indian National
Foundation (Fundação Nacional do Índio), whichis responsible for the preservation of Amerindianculture. In 1999, a Secretariat for Biodiversity
and Forests was created in MMA. Among otherfunctions, IBAMA, which was established in 1985,

279

Status of tropical forest management 2011

implements and coordinates the National Forest
Program. In some states in the Legal Amazon and
the Northeast Region, state-government institutions
issue forest management permits and conduct state
forest inspections.
The National Forest Commission (Comissão
Nacional de Florestas – CONAFLOR), which
was established by Decree 3420/00, is composedof 39 representatives distributed between thegovernment (20 representatives) and civil society(19 representatives), including federal government
agencies and entities, state environmental agencies,
civil-society groups, forest industry, NGOs andeducational and research institutions. CONAFLOR
provides guidelines for the implementationof procedures in national forests and enables
the participation of various interest groups indeveloping public policies for the forest sector.a
The Public Forest Management Law (2006)
established the Brazilian Forest Service as an agencyof the federal government under the MMA, withresponsibility over public forest management forsustainable production; thus, it is responsible
for concessions (i.e. timber harvesting and theextraction of NTFPs) in FLONAs and otherpublic forests. The Brazilian Forest Service isalso responsible for managing the FNDF and
the National Register of Public Forests (Cadastro
Nacional de Florestas Publicás). The goal of the
National Register is to set up a database of
geo-referenced data for the identification of publicforests in order to provide public managers and the
population in general with a reliable database onforest management.a
The main instruments used by the Brazilian
Forest Service for the sustainable production andmanagement of federal public forests are forest
concessions and allotment to local communities.
A forest concession is a chargeable warrant for
the right to practise SFM for the exploitation of
a forest’s products and services. The allotmentof public forests to local communities is carriedout through the identification of areas occupied
by traditional populations, such as Indigenous
communities, slave-descendant communities(known as quilombolas) and settlements. The
Brazilian Forest Service assists in the identificationof those populations and encourages and promotes
community forest management by providing
technical support and capacity-building.a

280

A draft Bill before the Brazilian Congress would,
if passed, transform the Brazilian Forest Service
into an autonomous institution. As part of theFederal Government administration under the
MMA, the Service currently lacks the necessary
institutional conditions to efficiently carry out thetasks allocated to it under the law, thus hindering,for example, the speed at which concessions areassessed and approved (or otherwise). Currently, theService has 240 employees, of whom only 56 arecareer public servants. As the Service consolidates
itself, increasing institutional demands – such as
the increasing number of concession applications– will require a speedy, dynamic process to build
up and enlarge its workforce. According to aninternal study, an additional 760 new positionsof ‘environment’ career specialists and 62 new
director-level positions will be needed by 2012.a
The Commission on Public Forest Management(Comissão de Gestão de Florestas Públicas –CGFLOP) is an advisory body of the Brazilian
Forest Service which aims to advise, evaluate
and propose guidelines for the management ofpublic forests in Brazil, especially regarding theAnnual Forest Concessions Plan (Plano Anualde Outorga Florestal). The CGFLOP, which wasestablished by Law 11 284/06 and regulated by
Decree 5795/06, is composed of 24 representatives
appointed by the holders of the respective agencies,groups, organizations and sectors involved in theprocess and designated by the Minister of State for
the Environment. The Commission meets at least
twice a year or as requested by its chairman or atleast one-third of its members.
Average total annual direct investment by thefederal government in forest management,
administration, research and human resource
development in the period 2005–09 was about
141 million reais (R$), including R$56.1 million
through the MMA, R$9.72 million throughthe Brazilian Forest Service and R$25.8 million
through IBAMA. Some R$26.1 million was
allocated to the Chico Mendes Institute of
Biodiversity Conservationa, which is responsible forthe management of all federal conservation units.
The aim of the FNDF is to foster the developmentof forest-based sustainable activities in Brazil andpromote technological innovation in the sector. Its
main source of funds is revenue generated by forest
concessions in compliance with the percentages

BRAZIL

outlined in the Public Forest Management
Law (2006). Moreover, the FNDF may receive
donations from national and international public
and private entities.
It was estimated that R$2.2 million would beallocated in 2010 for measures to bolster forest
management. Based on estimated future revenue
from forest concessions, the FNDF will have an
allocation of R$4 million in 2012 and R$29 million
in 2015.
FNDF resources are to be allocated primarily to
projects in the following areas:

and Sustainable Use of Forest’ program, the aim ofwhich is to support the reforestation, conservationand forest recovery of degraded or converted areas
and the sustainable use of native areas through
SFM.
The Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation(Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária –EMBRAPA) spent an average R$2.37 million onforest-related research per year in 2005–09. In thesame period the total annual research expenditureby the Ministry of Science and Technology, throughsuch institutions as the National Institute of
Amazonian Research (Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas
da Amazonia), based in Manaus, the Mamirauá
Institute of Sustainable Development and the
Emílio Goeldi Museum, was R$21.3 million.a•technological research and development inforest management•

technical assistance and forest extension•

recovery of degraded areas with native species•

rational and sustainable economic use of forest
resources•

control and monitoring of forest activities anddeforestation•

capacity-building in forest management•

environmental education

Universities, large forestry enterprises, and NGOs
such as the Amazon Institute of People and theEnvironment (Instituto do Homem e Meio Ambiente
da Amazônia) also engage in forestry research.
University education in forestry started in 1960;
currently, 51 universities offer teaching and researchin forest management.a There are about 7000 forest
engineers working in Brazil, 1600 with master’s
degrees and 300 with PhDs.

•

environmental protection and natural resources
conservation.a

Status of forest management

The Amazon Fund, which was established in 2008
by Decree No 6527, aims to attract donations
for non-refundable investments in deforestation
prevention, monitoring and combat, and also
to promote the conservation and sustainable useof forests in the Amazon biome. Specifically it isdesigned to support projects in the following areas:

Forest for production•

public forests and protected areas management•

environmental control, monitoring andenforcement•

SFM

By law the use of natural forest resources on bothprivate and public land requires the presentation ofa PMFS to IBAMA and its approval by that bodyand/or the relevant state environment agency.

•

economic activities developed as a result of
forest sustainable use•

ecological–economic zoning, land-use planningand land regulation•

biodiversity conservation and sustainable use•

recovery of degraded areas.

In 2010 the Brazilian Development Bank
established the ‘Support to Reforestation, Recovery

The forest management system adopted for
Amazonian dense tropical rainforest is a polycyclic
system involving the selective logging of commercial
forest species in cutting cycles of 25–35 years.
FMUs are usually divided into annual production
units according to the cutting cycle adopted.

Since 2006 forest management (i.e. timber
harvesting) has been permitted in Brazil’s publicforests through forest concession contracts thatcan span up to 40 years. Concessions are granted
through a transparent tendering and/or bidding
process for the production of timber and/or
non-timber products or services. Each year theBrazilian Forest Service prepares an Annual Forest
Concessions Plan, which is a major instrument ofpolicy planning for forest concessions in publicforests. A national policy to support community

281

Status of tropical forest management 2011

forest management has also been implemented(Decree 6874/2009) with the aim of encouraging
and organizing the country’s forest management
activities, and it also establishes minimum prices for
NTFPs.
MMA Normative Instruction 5 (2006) introduced
important changes to the parameters of forest
management on both public and private land. The
main features were:•

The maximum allowable harvest is 30 m3 perhectare when harvesting is mechanized and10 m3 per hectare when the operation does notuse heavy machinery, with harvesting cycles of
35 years and ten years, respectively.

•

For those forest species whose minimum cutting
diameter had not previously been determined,
the minimum cutting diameter is set at 50 cm.

•

At least 10% of each exploited tree species
which could be harvested are to be left standing
as seed bearers, selected in each 100-hectare
working unit.

•

A tracking system (chain of custody) is requiredfor harvested trees.

•

The use of waste wood is allowed.

Since September 2006, forest producttransportation has been controlled through anational information system, IBAMA’s Forest
Origin Document system. Under it, forest products
are tracked from their harvest to the final stage ofmarketing. The entire supply and transportation
chain must be updated online in real time. The
system has significantly improved the control ofillegal logging in Brazil.a
A forest planning process called Modeflora(Digital Model of Forest Exploitation), hailed as atechnological breakthrough in forest management,
has been tested successfully by EMBRAPA
researchers. It consists of the georeferencing andgeomonitoring of all phases of forest management,from the preparation of a forest management plan
to its implementation, combining the use of forest
inventory techniques, operational research and arange of technologies such as global positioning
systems (GPS), GIS, radar and satellite images(Figure 1). Modeflora enables a reduction of at least
30% in the cost of preparing and implementing
forest management plans. It also reduces field error
and increases the accuracy of tree-tracking and282

micro-zoning by enabling the production of maps
at a scale of 1:15.a
In public forests under forest concession, theBrazilian Forest Service subsidizes the price ofwood for those concessionaires who promote valueadding near the forest concession, the installationof permanent plots, and biodiversity monitoring.
Nevertheless, despite the existence of pilot projects
in SFM and technical standards for the adoption ofbest forest management practices in the Amazon,
the level of adoption of these practices is still
incipient.a
Control and law enforcement in the Amazon are
extremely difficult because of the vastness of thearea, poor infrastructure, a lack of capacity and thelarge number of actors contributing to deforestationand illegal logging. Other problems facing forestryin Brazil are the remoteness of many forestsfrom centres of commerce and control; the weakeconomic competitiveness of SFM as a land use;
the lack of competitiveness of the tropical timberindustry, for various reasons; extensive degraded
forests; lack of full-cost pricing and the abundantavailability of low-cost timber; and a serious
shortage of management skills (ITTO 2006).
The scarcity of information on forest management
for business people and a lack of technical capacity
are other barriers to the widespread adoptionof SFM. Most employers still do not know themeaning of SFM and are unaware of the potential
financial benefits of good forest management. The
technologies adopted by these timber companies
generally correspond to the practices used for
decades in conventional exploitation.a
The enlargement of the agricultural frontier, whichcauses deforestation and is associated with illegal
wood supply, continues to be a limiting factor
to the promotion of forest management in the
Amazon.aBox 3 shows the planning process before thecommencement of logging in the Amazon.
Silviculture and species selection. The main
silvicultural process proposed for the Brazilian
Amazon is as follows:•

E minus 2 years (where E = forest harvesting
event) – delimitation and subdivision of theannual production unit (external delimitationand internal subdivision to facilitate themapping of trees).

BRAZIL•E minus 1 year – forest inventory at 100% (i.e.
the measurement of all commercial trees withdbh ≥ 40 cm).

•

E minus 1 year – liana cutting (for commercial
species above the minimum cutting diameter).

•E minus 1 year – installation and measurementof permanent plots.

•

E minus 1 year – exploration planning (primaryand secondary roads; pre-selection of trees basedon inventory; preparation of map of annual
production unit).

•

E minus 1 year – opening of roads, sidings andmarshalling yards (forest roads, bridges,
drainage system, and 25x25 m marshallingyards).

•

E – forest harvesting (reduced impact).

•

E plus 1 year – assessment of damage caused byharvesting (evaluation of remaining trees, skid
trails and cutting quality).

•

E plus 1 year, E plus 3 years, and henceforth
every five years – re-measurement of permanentplots.

•

E plus 4 years – silvicultural treatments (e.g.
girdling of non-commercial trees to make room
for commercially promising trees).

As reported above, the maximum allowable harvest
is 30 m3 per hectare when harvesting is mechanizedand 10 m3 per hectare when the operation does notuse heavy machinery, with harvesting cycles of 35
years and ten years, respectively.
Table 4 lists some commonly harvested tropicaltimber species.

Box 3 Flow-chart of Amazon logging planning
process
Georeferencing of the forest area (owner/concessionaire)
Prior-authorization request made to relevant
environmental agency (owner/concessionaire)
Analysis and consideration of prior-authorization
request (environmental agency)100% inventory carried out (owner)Technical analysis of the sustainable forest
management plan (environmental agency)
Development of PMFS (owner)Statement of responsibility on forest maintenanceregistration (termo de responsabilidade demanutenção da floresta) (owner)
Authorization of the PMFS
(environmental agency)
Development of the annual operating plan(owner)
Submission of the annual operating report(owner/concessionaire)
Analysis of the annual report and technicalinspections (environmental agency)

Table 4 Commonly harvested tropical species for industrial roundwood
Species
Manilkara huberi (maçaranduba)
Dinizia excelsa (angelim)
Goupia glabra (cupiúba)
Hymenaea courbaril (jatobá)*
Erisma uncinatum (cedrinho)**

Volume (m3) transported in 2007
592 395
390 330
361 628
336 662
293 922

Also listed in ITTO (2006).

Source: Personal communications – see endnote b.

283

Status of tropical forest management 2011

Planted forest and trees outside the forest.
Brazil’s plantation estate comprises about 4.52
million hectares of Eucalyptus species, 1.79
million hectares of Pinus species, and 344 000of other species (including Acacia mearnsii, A.
mangium, Schizolobium amazonicum, Tectona
grandis, Araucaria angustifolia and Populus spp),
for an estimated total plantation area of 6.65
million hectares.a Significant areas of plantations(especially Pinus spp) are outside the tropics. There
are also about 128 000 hectares of rubber (Hevea
brasiliensis) plantation. Even though planted forests
account for little more than 1% of the total forest
area in Brazil, they make a substantial contribution
to industrial wood production.
Forest certification. As of October 2010, a totalof 6.16 million hectares of natural and planted
forests had been certified under the FSC umbrellain Brazil. Of this, about 2.70 million hectares were
natural tropical forest and 2.13 million hectares
were planted tropical forest (FSC 2010); mostof the remainder were non-tropical plantations.
The certified natural forest includes 47 000
hectares in the Antimary State Forest in the stateof Acre, which is being managed according toa management plan developed under an ITTO
project.
The Brazilian forest certification system(Certificação Florestal – CERFLOR), was initiatedin the 1990s and became operational for planted
forests in 2003. As of 16 September 2010, a totalof 1.25 million hectares of forest plantations
were certified under CERFLOR, but the only
CERFLOR-certified native-forest operation(73 000 hectares in the Amazonian state ofRondônia) was under suspension.5 CERFLOR isendorsed by the PEFC.
Estimate of the area of forest sustainably
managed for production. Brazil’s native-forest
concession system for public forests is still in an
early stage of implementation, with only one
concession (covering an area of 96 300 hectares)
approved in the Amazon. In total, 2.94 million
hectares of Amazonian forest and (295 000 hectaresof caatinga) are subject to approved PMFSs; allextractive reserves are also subject to management
plans. An estimated 2.70 million hectares of natural
tropical forest are certified by the FSC (FSC 2010).
On the available information, therefore, the total
5 www.inmetro.gov.br/qualidade/cerflor.asp.

284

A rubber-tapper community in the Antimari State Forest, Acre,
Brazil.

area of natural tropical production PFE considered
to be under SFM is at least 2.70 million hectares(Table 5).
Timber production and trade. On average, anestimated 247 million m3 of logs were produced
annually in Brazil in the period 2005–08,
comprising 81 million m3 of logs from naturalforests and 166 million m3 of logs from plantations.
FAO (2010a) estimated that over half of this is
fuelwood.
Brazil produced an estimated 23.7 million m3of (non-coniferous) tropical logs for industrial
purposes in 2009, down from a peak of 29.7
million m3 in 2003. About 15.5 million m3 oftropical sawnwood were produced in 2009 (upslightly from the 14.4 million m3 produced in2003), of which 1.06 million m3 were exported. In
the same year, Brazil produced about 600 000 m3 oftropical plywood, down from a peak of 1.38 million
m3 in 2003 (ITTO 2010).
Brazil’s production of tropical logs is less than
one-quarter of total industrial roundwood
production, which was 105 million m3 in 2009.
Log-processing capacity in the Legal Amazon
declined from 10.4 million m3 per year in 2004 to
5.8 million m3 per year in 2009 (ibid.).
Non-timber forest products. Brazil owes its nameto brazilin, a red dye from Caesalpinia echinata,and to the dye extractors, brasileiros. A very large
number of NTFPs (e.g. food, medicinal plants,
perfumes, dyes and tannins, natural rubber,
Brazil nut, handicraft and construction materials,
exudates, honey and wax) are used locally. About
45 700 tonnes of Brazil nut were harvested in 2009,
and the export of this product was worth US$20.3
million.a About 121 000 tonnes of açai berries,
7890 tonnes of latex, 3790 tonnes of copaiba oil

BRAZIL

Table 5 Management of the production PFE (’000 hectares)
Reporting
year

Total

Available for
harvesting

2005*
2010

98 100
135 000

15 340***‡†NaturalWithmanagement
plans
5250
15 340**

Certified

1360

3810

PlantedWith
management
plans
1350

2700

6650‡

3380†

Sustainably
managed

1160
2700

Total

Certified

1350
3380†

As reported in ITTO (2006).
Comprises 3.04 million hectares under PMFSs in the Legal Amazon and 12.3 million hectares of extractive reserves, all of which are
subject to management plans.
Tropical and non-tropical.
Tropical certified plantations (other tropical plantations may have management plans, but data were unavailable).

and 644 tonnes of cumaru almonds were harvested
in the Amazon in 2009.a
Forest carbon. Brazil has the world’s largest forest
carbon stock. Gibbs et al. (2007) estimated thetotal forest biomass carbon stock at 54 700–82 700
MtC and FAO (2010a) estimated it at 62 000
MtC. An estimated 54% of Brazil’s GHG emissions
come from land use and deforestation and 25%
come from the agricultural sector (Lèbre La
Rovere & Pereira 2007). In 2008 Brazil created
the Amazon Fund (see above) as a tool to combat
deforestation and promote sustainable developmentin the Amazon. The goal is a 70% reduction in
deforestation by 2018 (compared with the average
between 1996 and 2006). REDD+ is considered
to be a major opportunity in efforts to achieve thistarget. Any project funded through the Amazon
Fund must comply with Brazil’s National Planon Climate Change. Through internationalarrangements, for example with the Government of
Norway, considerable funding is being provided toinitiate the Amazon Fund and for the developmentof an effective forest monitoring system.
Brazil is closely engaged in the international
REDD+ Partnership and is co-chairing this process
in 2011. The country has been a participant in
the Forest Carbon Partnership Facility since 2008
and is a recipient country of the Forest Investment
Program. Significant investments in forest carbon

are also being made at the state level. In Acre,for example, a US$100 million investment madethrough the Inter-American Development Bankwas used to initiate, in the period 2007–10, a major
investment promotion with the aim of creating asustainable financing scheme for REDD+ in thatwestern Amazonian state. Through REDDES,
Brazil participates in and benefits from an ITTO
project implemented by the Amazon Cooperation
Treaty Organization for capacity-building on
monitoring land use, land-use change and forestsin the Amazon region. Table 6 summarizes Brazil’s
current forest carbon potential.

Forest for protection
Soil and water. The Amazon Basin produces 20%of the world’s freshwater; it is therefore vital that its
soil and water resources are properly protected. An
estimated 243 million hectares of forest in Brazil aremanaged primarily for soil and water protection.a
Biological diversity. Brazil’s forests containa significant share of the world’s biodiversity,
including an estimated 56 000–62 000 higher
plant (not including mosses, lichens and fungi)
and mammal species. The Amazon is home toabout 20% of the world’s plant species, 20%of bird species and 10% of mammal species.
Sixty-four mammals, 78 birds, five reptiles, 24
amphibians, eight arthropods and 14 plants foundTable 6 Forest carbon potential
Biomass
forest carbon(MtC)% forestwithcanopycover>60%

54 700–82 700

51

Deforestation/ Enhancement Forest areachangeof carbon
degradation
sink capacity monitoring
potential tocapacity
to 2030
2030
+++

+++

+++

Forest/GHG
inventory
capacity+++

Importance Engagementinof forest
international
fire/
REDD+
biomass
processes
burning++++++++ high; ++ medium; + low; estimate of national forest carbon based on Gibbs et al. (2007); estimate of % total forest with canopy cover>60% based on UNEP-WCMC (2010).

285

Status of tropical forest management 2011

in Table 1 and Table 7 comprises conservation units
of integral protection and Indigenous reserves. The
estimate is considerably less than that reported
in ITTO (2006), most likely due differences indefinition of what constitutes PFE rather than to asignificant change in legal status or forest area.

in Brazil’s forests are listed as critically endangered,endangered or vulnerable on the IUCN red list of
threatened species (IUCN 2010). Wood species in
the Amazon considered endangered or threatenedwith extinction are Amburana cearensis var. acreana(cerejeira), Peltogyne maranhensis (pau-roxo),
Bertholletia excelsa (castanheira), Swietenia
macrophylla (mogno – also known as mahogany)
and Euxylophora paraensis (pau-amarelo). There arealso seven such species in the Mata Atlântica biome
and two in the cerrado/caatinga.a

All conservation units of integral protection (i.e.
federal and state lands in the categories nationalparks, biological reserves, ecological reserves,
national monuments and wildlife refuge areas)
must have management plans. These are technicaldocuments which, depending on the purposes of theconservation unit, establish the limits of the unit andthe rules for its management and use, including the
installation of infrastructure. However, the status ofthese management plans is unclear: some of them areunder preparation but, for others, the preparation
process has not yet begun. Management plans forconservation units of integral protection require,among other things, studies on vegetation, wildlife
and soils and socioeconomic surveys in order tosupport zoning and the identification of appropriate
management practices.b

Brazil has 28 plant species listed in CITES
Appendix I, 429 in Appendix II and 3 in Appendix
III (UNEP-WCMC 2011), including mogno, cedro
and a few other tree species for which production
and trade is minimal. The Brazilian National Policy
and Strategy for Biodiversity and the National
Biodiversity Programme are designed to address thesituation through in situ and ex situ measures andthe management of biotechnology.
Protective measures in production forests.
Measures taken to protect the production forestsas part of the country’s forest conservation strategy
include a moratorium on the harvesting and sale ofover-harvested species such as mogno and virola;
the introduction and implementation of measures
to control illegal logging through sophisticateddevices for timber-tracking and satellite datatransfer; limiting the area allowed for farming inforest properties in the Amazon; yield regulationin natural selection forests; forest restoration; theestablishment of ecological corridors; incentives
for municipalities that have environmental
conservation areas through the transfer of a‘products and services tax’; and broadening thescope of eligible activities for CDM support.a

Estimate of the area of forest sustainably
managed for protection. Data on the status ofmanagement of the protection PFE were unavailable
for the purposes of this report (Table 7). However,vast areas of the Amazon are currently under nothreat of deforestation or other significant humaninduced disturbance due to their remoteness.

Socioeconomic aspects
Economic aspects. Forest-based industries
contributed an estimated 3.4% to Brazil’s GDP
in 2007, down from 4.5% in 2003. An estimated580 000 people were directly employed in theformal forest and wood products sector in Brazil
in 2010a, although data on the number of people
employed in that part of the sector specifically
based on natural tropical forests were unavailable
for this report.

Extent of protected areas. There is uncertainty
about the extent of protected areas in Brazil; partly
this stems from differences in the definition of‘protected’ and the extent to which extractive uses
are permitted. The estimate of protection PFE given
Table 7 Management of the protection PFE (’000 hectares)
Reportingyear

Protection PFE

Attributed to IUCN
categories I–IV

Allocated for soil
and waterWith management
plans

Sustainably
managed

2005*
2010

271 000
175 000

19 00040 200**243 000

-

-

*
**

As reported in ITTO (2006).
Amazon biome only. An additional 643 000 hectares in the caatinga biome, 5.23 million hectares in the cerrado biome and 2.21
million hectares in the Mata Atlântica biome are in IUCN categories I–IV.
Source: CNUC (2011) and personal communications – see endnote b.

286

BRAZIL

Livelihood values. The Indigenous communities
in the Amazon, dwellers in extractive reserves, andcaatinga forest users in the northeast depend inlarge measure on forests for subsistence. However,no data on the extent of this dependence wereavailable for this report.
Social relations. There are 227 Indigenous societies
in Brazil, with a total population of about 600 000
people. These people have rights to 106 million
hectares of land in the Amazon, which is 13% of
the national land area. Demarcation of the land isvery slow, however, which leads to encroachment
and conflict, and there is insufficient support foreconomic development (Sobral 2009).
The slow process of recognition and approvalof tenure causes dissatisfaction on the part ofIndigenous communities. Nevertheless, the situation
has improved in some areas; Indigenous peoples’organizations are now both stronger and more
numerous and Indigenous communities have started
to grow, thus reducing fears of their extinction.
On the other hand, the majority of Indigenous
people still suffer from economic marginalization,
malnutrition and inadequate assistance andprotection (as they remain under the guardianship ofthe federal government). The quilombolas are anothermarginalized group with land rights: the government
recognizes their right to the land where they live
but, again, the process of formal recognition is slow
(ibid.). The majority of the Amazon’s inhabitants arerecent settlers and differences in their backgrounds
lead to frequent friction.

Summary
Significant advances have been made towards
sustainable management in the Brazilian Amazon;
for example, the area of certified natural forest
has doubled since 2005. Despite continuing
deforestation, clearance rates have declined
dramatically in the last five years. Moreover,funds are being made available to improveforest management and protection, forest law
enforcement is being strengthened, and new laws
and regulations provide for improvements inforest management. A number of data-gathering
services are greatly improving the availability andtimeliness of forest-related information, althoughdata on the management of forested protectedareas were unavailable for this report. Efforts arealso under way to clarify land tenure and to put

FLONAs under management plans, and large
areas of forest are managed by Indigenous andother local communities (although the processof recognition and approval of tenure is slow).
Nevertheless, significant problems remain in theapplication of SFM in the tropical PFE. They
include poor infrastructure; the remoteness of many
forests from centres of commerce and control;
the weak competitiveness of SFM as a land use;
declining wood-processing capacity in the Amazon;
and a lack of awareness about SFM – and its
potential benefits – among timber operators. Given
that development will continue in the region,
probably at an accelerated rate, the Governmentof Brazil is pursuing several models to improve thecompetitiveness of natural forest management as aland use. It is also working to address institutional
barriers to SFM and recent initiatives offer hopethat the area of tropical PFE under SFM will
expand significantly in the future.

Key points•

Brazil has a tropical-forest PFE of 310 million
hectares, the largest in the tropics. Despite
continuing deforestation, there are still hugeforest resources in the Amazon.

•

There has been a significant increase in the areaof certified natural forest in the Amazon.

•

At least 2.70 million hectares of natural tropicalforest production PFE are being sustainably
managed; insufficient information was available
to estimate the area of protection PFE somanaged.

•Vast areas of the Amazon are currently under nothreat of deforestation or other significant
human-induced disturbance due to theirremoteness.

•

Since 2006, timber harvesting has been
permitted in Brazil’s public forests throughforest concession contracts that can span up to
40 years; this system is in the early stages of
implementation.

•

A wide range of policies, strategies, laws andregulations have been developed to facilitate
forest administration, improve timber legality
and achieve SFM. Law enforcement has beenstrengthened, but the vastness of the resource
and the spread of colonization make it difficult
to control forest illegality.

287

Status of tropical forest management 2011•

New laws have been enacted in an effort toimprove the clarity of forest tenure in the
Amazon and the management of public lands.
Large areas of forest are allocated to Indigenous
and quilombola communities, and a new law
will increase opportunities for squatters to own
land. Nevertheless, disputes over tenure remain
a significant problem.

EndnotesaGovernment of Brazil (2010).

b

Personal communications with officials in the Brazilian
Forest Service, 2008, 2010, 2011.

References and other sources
CNUC (2011, website accessed January 2011). Cadastro
Nacional de Unidades de Conservação (available at
http://www.mma.gov.br/sitio/index.php?ido=conteudo.
monta&idEstrutura=119).
Convention on Biological Diversity (2010, website accessed
October 2010). LifeWeb. Consolidating the Brazilian
National System of Conservation Units – SNUC. Annex
5: List of Brazilian protected areas. http://www.cbd.int/
lifeweb/project.shtml?did=6351
FAO (2010a). Global forest resources assessment 2010 country
report: Brazil (available at http://www.fao.org/forestry/fra/67090/en/).
FAO (2010b). Global Forest Resources Assessment 2010 Full
Report. FAO, Rome, Italy.
FSC (2010, website accessed October 2010). FSC certification
database (searchable database available at http://info.fsc.org/
PublicCertificateSearch).
Gibbs, H., Brown, S., Niles, J. & Foley, J. (2007). Monitoringand estimating tropical forest carbon stocks: making REDDa reality. Environmental Research Letters 2 (available at http://
iopscience.iop.org/1748-9326/2/4/045023/fulltext).
Government of Brazil (2010). Report of progress towardachieving sustainable forest management in Brazil.
Submission to ITTO by the Brazilian Forest Service,
Brasilia, Brazil.

288

ITTO (2006). Status of Tropical Forest Management 2005. ITTO,
Yokohama, Japan (available at http://www.itto.int/en/sfm/).
ITTO (2010, website accessed November 2010). Annual Review
statistics database (available at http://www.itto.int/annual_
review_output/?mode=searchdata).
IUCN (2010, website accessed March 2010). IUCN red list of
threatened species (searchable database available at www.
redlist.org).
Lèbre La Rovere, E & Pereira, A. (2007, website accessed
December 2010). Brazil and climate change: a country
profile. Available at http://www.scidev.net/en/climatechange-and-energy/policy-briefs/brazil-climate-change-acountry-profile.html.
Perez C. (2011, website accessed February 2011). The
burning question. eco Amazonia (available at http://www.
oecoamazonia.com/en/articles/9-artigos/140-the-burningquestion).
Sobral, M. (2009). Progress in Brazil. ITTO Tropical Forest
Update 19:2.
Spalding, M., Kainumu, M. & Collins, L. (2010). World Atlas ofMangroves. Earthscan, London, UK.
UNDP (2009). Human Development Report 2009. United
Nations Development Programme, New York, UnitedStates.
UNEP-WCMC (2010). Spatial analysis of forests withinprotected areas in ITTO countries. UNEP–WCMC,
Cambridge, UK. Data prepared for ITTO, 2010.
UNEP-WCMC (2011, website accessed March
2011). UNEP-WCMC species database: CITES-listed
Species (searchable database at available at www.cites.org/
eng/resources/species.html).
United Nations Population Division (2010, website accessed
December 2010). World population prospects: the 2008
revision (searchable database available at http://esa.un.org/
unpp/p2k0data.asp).

COLOMBIA

Colombia
Forest types. The moist forest of the Darien
Chocó on the Pacific coast covers about 4.9
million hectares. It includes terrace forests
containing valuable timber species such as Virola
spp, Brosimum utile, Campnosperma panamensis,
Jacaranda copaia, Couma macrocarpa, Tabebuia
rosea and Humiriastym procerum; there are also large
tracts of swamp and ‘catival’ forests characterized bystands of Prioria copaifera.
Box 1 Forest cover, by biogeographical region

Forest resources
Colombia has a land area of 114 million hectares
and an estimated population in 2010 of 46 million
people (United Nations Population Division 2010).
It is ranked 77th out of 182 countries in UNDP’s
Human Development Index (UNDP 2009).
Colombia can be divided into five biogeographicalregions: Amazonia, Orinoco, Andes, Caribbean and
the Pacific, each of which is composed of a numberof ecoregions. The Andes comprise the Eastern,
Central and Western Cordilleras. The Pacific region
is a coastal strip about 50 km wide between theWestern Cordillera and the Pacific Ocean. The
Amazon and Orinoco regions lie to the southeastand east of the Eastern Cordillera; their main rivers
are the Putumayo and the Caqueta in the Amazon
Basin and the Guaviare and the Meta in the
Orinoco Basin. On the northern Caribbean coast,
the Sierra de Santa Marta rises to over 5000 m
above sea level.
FAO (2010a) estimated Colombia’s total forest areaat 60.5 million hectares, the Institute of Hydrology,
Meteorology and Environmental Studies (Institutode Hidrologia, Meteorologia y Estudios Ambientales –IDEAM) (2010) estimated the area of natural forest
at 61.5 million hectares (Box 1) and Governmentof Colombia (2011) estimated it at 56.9 million
hectares. IDEAM (2010) and FAO (2010) both
estimated the area of planted forest at 405 000
hectares.

RegionForest cover(million ha)

AndeanPacific
AmazonOrinocoCaribbean
Total

10.2
4.9
40.8
4.6
1.0
61.5

Source: Derived from IDEAM (2010).

The various moist forest types of the Amazon coverabout 40.8 million hectares, or 90% of Colombia’s
Amazonian territory. The main timber species are
Couma macrocarpa, Virola spp, Jacaranda copaia andCedrela odorata. The moist forests of the Orinoco
cover about 4.6 million hectares.
In the Caribbean, the two main forest types – themoist forests of Urabá-Magdalena, and dry forests– have been reduced to about 1 million hectares,
which is less than 20% of their initial area. The
several types of submontane and montane Andean
forests have also been reduced in size and, in total,
now cover about 10.2 million hectares; common
tree species include Quercus humboltii (roble) andPodocarpus spp. Colombia’s mangroves cover an
estimated 408 000 hectares (Spalding et al. 2010),
more than 75% of which are on the Pacific coast.
Permanent forest estate. There is no formal PFE
in Colombia; the estimates presented in Table 1
are indicative only. A forest law drafted in 2006
distinguishes between forest protected areas (areas
forestales de protección) and forest production areas(areas forestales de producción), but this law has notbeen enacted (see below).
Forests in Colombia are classified as national forest
reserves (reservas forestales de orden nacional) and289

Status of tropical forest management 2011

national parks (as part of the National Park System– Sistema de Parques Nacionales Naturales – SPNN).
Other categories used for management are private
reserves (reservas naturales de la sociedad civil) andintegral reserves (distritos de manejo integrado y deconservación).

hectares (0.4%) per year estimated for the period
1990–2000. However, a specific study by IDEAM(2010) using high-resolution MODIS imagery
indicated that about two million hectares of forests
were lost between 2000 and 2007 – a deforestation
rate of nearly 300 000 hectares per year.

In 1959, Law 2 established seven national forest
reserves covering 51.3 million hectares, of which
43.2 million hectares were still forested in 2002.a
The SPNN includes 55 protected areas in IUCN
categories I–IV, which cover nearly 12.6 million
hectares (9.3 million hectares of which areforestedb). An estimated 8.74 million hectaresof national parks has been established on landoriginally designated as national forest reserves;
thus, the forest area actually managed as national
forest reserves is 34.8 million hectares.b Not allforest in national forest reserves is regarded as partof the PFE; in the absence of clearer data, therefore,
the production PFE estimated in ITTO (2006)is used in Table 1 as the basis for the estimate for2010.

Deforestation is highest in the Amazon (Caquetá,
Putumayo and Guaviare rivers); the Pacific region(moist forest); the Andean region (sub-humid
high-altitude forests, tropical dry Andean forests,
pre-montane forests and forests in the Andean
foothills) and the Caribbean region (sub-humid
and dry forests in the plains, and riparian forests)(Government of Colombia 2008). Accordingto Romero et al. (2008), the main cause of
deforestation is colonization, including throughsmall-scale and medium-scale agriculture, which
contributes to about 73% of deforestation. In
certain areas, illegal crops are another significant
cause.
Small-scale logging is the most important cause offorest degradation: Romero et al. (2008) estimatedthat 42% of all logging carried out in Colombia is
illegal. Table 2 shows an estimate of primary andsecondary forest in Colombia.

Forest ecosystem healthDeforestation and forest degradation. Basedon a visual classification of Landsat images madeby IDEAM, FAO (2010b) estimated the averageannual rate of deforestation in the period 2000–10
at about 101 000 hectares (0.17%) per year,
significantly lower than the estimated 190 000

Vulnerability of forests to climate change.
Colombia’s climate varies considerably between andwithin regions. In the Pacific region, for example,
average annual rainfall varies between 3000 and
10 000 mm, depending on location. Changing

Table 1 Permanent forest estate
Reporting year

2005*
2010
*
**
‡

Estimatedtotal forest
area, range(million ha)

Total closed
natural forest(’000 ha)49.6–65.6
56.9–64.4

51 43751 300**

PFE (’000 hectares)
Production
Protection
NaturalPlanted

Total

5500
5500*

14 50815 240

148
405‡

8860
9340

As reported in ITTO (2006).
Derived from Government of Colombia (2009) and personal communications (see endnote b).
IDEAM (2010).

Table 2 Forest condition
PFE

Non-PFE

Total’000 haArea of primary forest
Area of degraded primary forest
Area of secondary forest
Area of degraded forest land*
‘Other naturally regenerating forest’.
Source: FAO (2010).

290

-

-

8540
51 600*-COLOMBIA

Box 2 Land ownership ('000 ha)
Category
Forest reserves
National parks
Peasant reserves
Without category*

State-owned(public)

Community-owned
Resguardos indígenas Consejos comunitarios

Area overlap*

14 2775858
501

18 086
3478

2454
2

1 area-10 7414

1

somei.e. between resguardos indígenas and consejos comunitarios.

Source: Personal communications (see endnote b).

patterns in temperature and rainfall could leadto changes in forest ecosystems. For example,
changes in humidity (in windward and leeward
areas) could cause considerable change in mountain
forest ecosystems, including cloud forest (bosquede niebla). Pacific forests and cloud forests host asignificant portion of the country’s biodiversity andthe consequences of their exposure to changing
climatic patterns are unknown.
Forest fire has increased in frequency and intensity
in recent years, possibly partly as a result of climatechange. Colombia has prepared a map on thesensitivity of ecosystems to fire; the most sensitive
are in the Orinoco and Amazon regions (IDEAM
2010). Generally, natural hazards affecting forests
include those associated with the El Niño/Southern
Oscillation phenomenon; hurricanes occasionallyaffect forests on the Caribbean coast.

SFM policy framework
Forest tenure. Since 1973 under Law 89/1890
the state has recognized the rights of Indigenous
communities to land, and the 1991 Constitution
recognizes the ancestral rights to land of Indigenous

and Afro-Colombian traditional communities andtheir right to control and use their communal forest
territories according to their social and culturalvalues. About half the country’s forests (29.8
million hectares) are titled to Indigenous peoples (inwhat are known as resguardos Indígenas) in the wider
Amazon region and Afro-Colombian communities
in the Pacific region (in consejos comunitarios), andmost of the remainder is state-owned (Table 3).
Afro-Colombian and Indigenous communities haveobtained titles to more than 35 million hectaresof land, of which around 29.8 million hectares areforest. In some cases, there is overlap between these
titles and national forest reserves (20.4 million
hectares of overlap) and national parks (3.5 million
hectares of overlap) (IDEAM 2010). About half amillion hectares are designated as peasant reserves(reservas campesinas), which are set aside as special
development areas for rural communities. Box 2
shows the breakdown of state and community owned
forests in Colombia.
Criteria and indicators. Colombia has developed
its own set of C&I for SFM based on the ITTO
C&I and is also involved in the C&I processcoordinated by the Amazon Cooperation Treaty

Table 3 Forest area, by tenure
Ownership category
State ownership (national, state orprovincial government)
Other public entities (e.g.
municipalities, villages)
Total public
Owned by local communities and/orIndigenous groups
Private owned by firms, individuals,
other corporate

Total area Of which PFE Notes’000 ha31 377-0-31 37729 867-200-

Includes about 15.4 million hectares of state/federal forest
land.

Comprises 26.3 million hectares of Indigenous territories(resguardos indigenas) and 3.5 million hectares ofAfro-Colombian land (consejos communitarios).
Owned by companies or associations.

Source: Government of Colombia (2009), IDEAM (2010).

291

Status of tropical forest management 2011

Organization. The Government of Colombia used
the ITTO C&I in its submission to ITTO for thisreport.aForest policy and legislation. Colombia’s principal
forestry policy is defined in the National Forestry
Development Plan (Plan Nacional de Desarollo
Forestal) published in 2000, which is designed
to span 25 years and comprises 16 sub-programs
to promote planted forests and natural forest
management. The National Biodiversity Policy(Política Nacional de Biodiversidad), issued in 1995,
and its associated action plan, has three components– conserve, understand and utilize (conservar,
conocer y utilizar) – and 92 actions.
In early 2006 the Colombian Congress passed andthe President signed a new General Forest Law (LeyGeneral Forestal, Ley 1021), replacing the 1959
forest law. This law was challenged, however, anddeclared unconstitutional by the Constitutional
Court on the basis that it did not sufficiently take
into account the requirements of the International
Labour Organization’s Convention 169 (Indigenous
and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989). As aconsequence, in addition to the National Forestry
Development Plan, the government’s priorities withregard to forests are established under the 2007 law
on a national development plan for 2006–10 (Ley
1151, 2007).b
Regulations for conservation and forest
management include the Forest Law (1959), which
established the seven national forest reserves, a1974 decree (Decreto 2811), which adopted the
National Code of Renewable Natural Resources(Código Nacional de Recursos Naturales Renovables yde Protección al Medio Ambiente), the 1993 General
Environment Law (Ley General Ambiental, Ley 99),
which adopted the National Environmental System,
and a 1996 decree (Decreto 1791), which adopted aforest harvesting regime.
In 2010, Law 1377 was approved, which permits theuse of planted forests for production purposes, even if
they have been declared as protection forests. In orderto improve efficiency and competitiveness it also
eliminates the requirement that the owners of planted
forests receive government permission to harvest theircommercial plantations. Regulations that restrict theexport of logs from natural forests have been in place
for more than 15 years; only roundwood harvested inplanted forests may be exported.

292

Institutions involved in forests. Law 99 (1993)
created the Ministry of Environment, which
replaced the former forest service (Instituto de
Desarrollo de los Recursos Naturales Renovables).
In 2001, the Ministry of Environment became
the Ministry of Environment, Housing andTerritorial Development (Ministerio de Ambiente,
Vivienda y Desarrollo Territorial), now known
as MINAMBIENTE. According to Law 1377
(2010), the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural
Development (Ministerio de Agricultura yDesarrollo Rural – MADR) is the main agency forcommercial plantation forestry, the formulationof policies for commercial forest activities, andthe implementation of an incentive program(Certificado de Incentivo Forestal) to support
commercial forest development. MINAMBIENTE
formulates policy on the environment andrenewable natural resources and establishes
the broad guidelines, rules and criteria for theenvironmental regulation of land use, including
forestry (in close collaboration with MADR withregard to commercial forest plantations).
Law 99 (1993) also created five entities to promoteresearch on the conservation and sustainable useof biodiversity in Colombia: IDEAM; Instituto deInvestigaciones Marinas y Costeras ‘José Benito Vivesde Andreis’; Instituto de Investigación de Recursos
Biológicos ‘Alexander Von Humboldt’; Instituto
Amazónico de Investigaciones Científicas; andInstituto de Investigaciones Ambientales del Pacífico
‘John Von Neumann’. These institutes have no
specific functions in forestry, but they do influence
forest management and conservation.b The
National Corporation for Forestry Research andDevelopment (Corporación Nacional de Investigacióny Fomento Forestal – CONIF), created in 1974,
supports the forest administration through capacitybuilding and research, and performs knowledge
management functions in natural resource
management.b
Colombia is one of the most decentralizedcountries in Latin America: 40% of total public
expenditure is managed locally (by municipalities).
The management of forests is part of the National
Environmental System (Sistema Nacional
Ambiental), which was established by Law 99(1993) and consists of 33 autonomous regional
corporations (corporaciones autónomas regionales ylas corporaciones de desarrollo sostenible). These areresponsible for the management and administration

COLOMBIA

of all natural resources in the area of theirjurisdiction, including the granting of concessions,permissions and authorizations for forest harvesting(ITTO 2006).

implementation of a national forest inventory, andremote sensing techniques are now used widely
and the knowledge base about forest resources is
improving.b

International and Colombian NGOs play animportant role in the development and monitoringof forest resources – they include WWF, The
Nature Conservancy, Conservation International
and Fundación Natura. Public universities, suchas Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Universidad
de Tolima, Universidad Distrital Francisco José deCaldas and Universidad Industrial de Santander, also
have functions in forest research and development.
There are no major forest industry associations andinternational donor support for forestry is relatively
limited.

Silviculture and species selection. Forest
harvesting is generally carried out under timberlicence contracts and authorizations granted to
private owners by regional corporations. There
are 19 regional corporations in major forest areas,
which allocate, on average, about 100 cutting
permits per year; nationwide, therefore, about 1900
cutting permits are granted annually.a Generally,
there is no systematic application of silviculture,even though this is required for ongoing logging
activities under Decreto 2811 (1974; Article 213)
and Decreto 1791 (1996, Article 5b) (ITTO 2006).

Status of forest management
Forest for production
Colombian regulations related to the harvesting oftimber resources differentiate between public andprivate lands. For public land, access is obtained
through permits and concession contracts; forprivate land, special authorizations are required.
No forest concession has been allocated in naturalforests in the last 25 years. Cutting permits,which include legal requirements for management
procedures, are used widely in natural forests. When
forests are converted to other land uses or for thedevelopment of infrastructure, the law stipulatescompensation measures, generally in the form ofprotective planted forests. There is considerable
legislation governing forest management, withdetailed instructions on the preparation ofmanagement plans. However, the degree of control
exercised by regional corporations in charge offorest management is not clear and there may belarge differences in the way in which management
standards are applied in different parts of thecountry (ITTO 2006). Work has started on the

IDEAM (2010) reported that more than 14
million m3 were harvested in the period 2004–09.
About 251 timber species are used, but nine species
predominate. The average harvest in natural forest isin the range of 20–50 m3 per hectare. Many timber
species are subject to uncontrolled salvage logging,
especially in the Pacific region, among themBrosimum utile (sande, huina), Carapa guianensis(andiroba), Cedrela odorata (cedro), Prioria copaifera(cativo), Campnosperma panamensis (sajo) andTabebuia serratifolia/T. rosea (cedro rosado). Table
4 lists five commonly harvested timber species inColombia.
Planted forest and trees outside the forest.
The estimated planted forest area in 2010, bothfor production and for protection purposes, was
405 000 hectares. The main plantation species
are Pinus caribaea, P. oocarpa and, in particular,
P. patula (pino candelabro); these comprise
55% of the total planted forest area. Eucalypts(including Eucalyptus globulus, E. camaldulensis
and E. urophylla) account for about 20% of theplanted forest area, and Acacia mangium andother broadleaved species, in particular Gmelina

Table 4 Commonly harvested species for industrial roundwood
Species

Notes

Eucalyptus spp*
Pinus spp (pino)*
Prioria copaifera (cativo)*

From commercial plantations; more than 500 000 m3 per year.
At least four species; more than 200 000 m3 per year.
Often in nearly pure stands (cativales; more than 100 000 m3 peryear).
100 000+ m3 per year (Cauca and Nariño regions).
Widely distributed; outdoor and indoor use, furniture.

Campnosperma panamensis (sajo)
Cariniana pyriformis (abarco)**
Also listed in ITTO (2006).
Source: Government of Colombia (2009).

293

Status of tropical forest management 2011

Estimate of the area of forest sustainably
managed for production. Little information
is available on the quality of natural forest
management in Colombia. Data on the extent of
natural forests under forest management plans are
scarce, although about 19 million hectares of forest
land have been classified or described under forest‘ordination’ plans, which are the major planning
instruments used by regional corporations tomanage forest land.barborea and Tectona grandis (teak, teca), arealso widely planted. Indigenous species usedin plantations include Cordia alliodora (vara dehumo), Bombacopsis quinata (ceiba tolúa), Tabebuia
rosea, Alnus acuminata (aliso), Lafoensia speciosa
and Quercus humboltii (roble) (ITTO 2006). The
country intends to increase its planted forest area,
particularly for production purposes, to 5 million
hectares or more in coming years.a
The National Forestry Development Plan proposesthat larger plots of degraded forest should be
identified as potential production forest, butcurrently no large permits have been granted.
Pilot projects have developed management plans
and silvicultural interventions for certain areas,
including three ITTO-supported field projects– in Guaviare (74 000 hectares, including 2500
hectares of managed natural forest), Chocó (2000
hectares of protective planted forest) and an areaof 64 000 hectares of degraded natural forest andplanted forest in San Nicolás/Río Negro. In the
Amazon region there are pilot areas totalling about
120 000 hectares that include sustained-yield
management (ITTO 2006). In all these pilot areas,
forest management plans have been prepared andare being implemented through multi-stakeholder
approaches. An estimated 200 000 hectares ofprotective plantations were established in the period
2002–2010.b

ITTO activities support forest management in a
number of areas. The forest area influenced by theformer ITTO project in San Nicolás/Río Negro
continues to benefit from high forest management
standards. These areas together cover about
50 000 hectares of natural forests. In addition,
the small community managed certified forests in
Chocó (9742 hectares) are counted in Table 5 assustainability managed. Other initiatives that are
implementing SFM-based approaches include the
USAID-supported More Investment in Alternative
Sustainable Development Program (Programa Mas
Inversión para el Desarrollo Alternativo Sostenible),which funded five community forest projects in
the Pacific region in the period 2007–10 over an
area of about 120 000 hectares of natural forest.
Also in the Pacific region (Department of Chocó)
the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime(UNODC) is funding the Monte Bravo project,which is supporting local communities to formulatea sustainable forest plan for 38 000 hectares ofnatural forest and to assemble an efficient systemfor extraction and wood processing. In addition, theEuropean Commission has supported, since 2007,
the projects Bosques FLEG [Forest Law Enforcement
and Governance] Colombia and Proyecto Forestal
Guaviare over an area of 97 000 hectares in the
Amazon region. Thus, the total natural forest area
considered to be under SFM in the production PFE
is around 315 000 hectares.

Forest certification. Voluntary certification is
gaining ground in Colombia. In 2005 two planted
forest areas covering 58 444 hectares were certified(ITTO 2006). In December 2010, three forest
plantations covering an area of 96 167 hectares
were certified by the FSC; in addition, a group
community certification in natural forests has
been issued in Chocó (comprising the Darién
community and Dos Bocas Rio Sucio), covering a
total area of 9742 hectares (FSC 2010). Thirty-fivechain-of-custody certificates were valid in
December 2010.

Table 5 Management of the production PFE (’000 hectares)
Reporting
year

Total

Available for
harvesting

2005*
2010

5500
5500

2150
-

*

294

As reported in ITTO (2006).

NaturalWithmanagement
plans-

CertifiedSustainably
managed

0
9

200

148

PlantedWith
management
plans
80

315

405

150

Total

Certified

58
96

COLOMBIA

Timber production and trade. The productionof industrial roundwood from natural and planted
forests in 2009 was estimated at 2.05 million m3,
compared with 3.01 million m3 in 2004 (ITTO
2011). Nearly all this timber served the domestic
market. Industrial wood is used in Colombia forsawnwood, plywood, particleboard and pulp. An
estimated 723 000 m3 of sawnwood was produced
in 2009, compared with 407 000 m3 in 2005
(ITTO 2011). Overall, total domestic production
is relatively low compared with the economic
potential of the country. Fuelwood production isestimated at 10–12 million m3 per year and has
remained more-or-less stable in the past ten years.a
Non-timber forest products. More than 300
NTFPs are known in Colombia. A wide range of
medicinal herbs are gathered and used locally andsometimes sold in local markets or even packaged
for more distant markets.a Few data are available
on the variety, value and production systems of
NTFPs, however. Guadua angustifolia (guadua),
a native bamboo, is used mainly for local housing
construction but also by modern architecturaldesigners and in handicrafts. In the departmentsof Caldas, Quindío, Risaralda, Tolima and Valledel Cauca the natural area of guadua is about
21 000 hectares, supplemented by 5100 hectaresof plantations; total annual production exceeds
250 000 m3 (CONIF 2004). The principal NTFPs
harvested in natural forests are rubber, palm fruits(particularly Mauritia flexuosa – canangucha– and Euterpe precatoria – asahí), fruits from
Theobroma grandiflorum (copoazu), Euterpe oleracea(palm hearts), Chamaedorea spp (xate leaves) for
ornamental use, and wildlife, especially fish andreptiles. Coca, although illegal, is widely grown.
Forest carbon. Information on forest carbon
in Colombia is relatively limited, with existing
information at the national level distributed among
various entities and institutions. Gibbs et al. (2007)
estimated the total forest biomass carbon stockBox 3 Average forest carbon per hectare, by region
RegionLiving biomass
above ground (t/ha)

Carbon(t/ha)

Andes
Pacific
AmazonOrinocoCaribbean

251
182
257
203
245

126
91.0
128
101
122

Note:
One tonne of carbon is equivalent to 3.67 tonnes of CO2e.
Source: IDEAM (2010).

in the range 2529–10 085 MtC, Eggleston etal. (2006) estimated it at 11 467 MtC and FAO(2010) estimated it at 6805 MtC. IDEAM (2010)
made a preliminary estimate at the tier 1 level forthe five main biogeographical regions (Box 3),
and estimated total biomass carbon stock at 7443
MtC. The carbon capture and storage potential ofColombia’s forests through reduced deforestationand forest degradation and enhanced forest
restoration and establishment is relatively high.
In partnership with ITTO, Colombia implemented
one of the first projects on forest carbon storage
and sequestration, starting in 1999. This projectgenerated knowledge and experience on carbon
accounting and the benefit-sharing issues
surrounding a potential REDD+ mechanism;
it is now integrated with the World Bank’s
Biocarbon Fund. Colombia is also participating
in international REDD+ initiatives, including
the Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (since2008) and the REDD+ Partnership (since 2010).
The Government of Colombia is an observerat UN-REDD. Table 6 summarizes Colombia’s
current forest carbon potential.

Forest for protection
Soil and water. Colombia is one of the ten mostproductive countries in terms of freshwater yield(ITTO 2006). Environmental campaigns have been

Table 6 Forest carbon potential
Biomass
forestcarbon(MtC)
2529–10 085

Deforestation/ Enhancement Forest area
% forest
changeof carbon
degradation
withsink capacity monitoring
potential to
canopycapacity
to 20302030
cover >60%
60

+++

+++

++

Forest/ Importance Engagementinof forest
GHG
internationalfire/
inventory
REDD+
biomass
capacity
processes
burning+++++++++ high; ++ medium; + low; estimate of national forest carbon based on Gibbs et al. (2007); estimate of % total forest with canopy cover>60% based on UNEP-WCMC (2010).

295

Status of tropical forest management 2011

launched in major cities to inform communities
about the importance of water conservation.
Fifty-two protection forest areas have beenclassified, covering about 306 000 hectares.a In
addition to the SPNN, over 3.8 million hectaresof land are classified for their protective functions,comprising forest reserves (522 000 hectares),productive–protective forest reserves (252 000
hectares), integrated management districts (2.78
million hectares) and conservation districts(300 000 hectares). Through its system of regional
corporations, the government promotes watershedreforestation projects: in the past 15 years, morethan 310 000 hectares of new protective plantations
have been established.b Many Colombian electricity
and water companies charge customers an extra fee
to cover the cost of watershed management.a

Forest landscape restoration under the ITTO–Cornare forest
carbon project in Valle San Nicolas.

of protected area are the SPNN and civil-society
reserves. The SPNN comprises 55 protectedareas in IUCN categories I–IV, covering nearly
10.3 million hectares (9% of the country’s landarea). Thirteen percent of the Amazon region
and 13% of the Andean region are in protectedareas, of which 9.34 million hectares are forested(IDEAM 2010, WCMC-UNEP 2010). Nationalparks overlap about 40% of the territories owned
by Indigenous communities, or about 1 million
hectares (Kernan et al. 2006). No data are available
on the connectivity of the protected-area system.
According to UNEP-WCMC (2010), about 8.3
million hectares of protected areas in IUCN classes
I–IV have a crown cover of 60% or more.

Biological diversity. Colombia has one of thehighest levels of species diversity in the world,
boasting some 55 000 plant species, of which
one-third are endemic (Colombia is one of the
top 20 countries in the world in this respect), as
well as 1721 bird species and 205 reptile species.
Forty-three mammals, 73 birds, 203 amphibians,
four reptiles, one arthropod and 13 plants foundin forests are listed as critically endangered,endangered or vulnerable on the IUCN red list of
threatened species (IUCN 2011). Six plant species
are listed in CITES Appendix I, 250 plant species
are listed in Appendix II and two species are listed
in Appendix III (UNEP-WCMC 2011). Timber
species listed in Appendix II include Swietenia
macrophylla, S. mahagoni and Guaiacum officinale.
At least 40 tree species in Colombia are threatenedby over-exploitationa, including, besides those listed
in CITES appendices, Aniba perutilis (comino
crespo), sande, Cariniana pyriformis (abarco),
Huberodendron patinoi (carra) and Humiriastrum
procerum (chanó).a

Estimate of the area of forest sustainably
managed for protection. In some areas theintegrity of forest protected areas is secure but inother areas it is threatened by a lack of control,
the activities of guerrillas and paramilitaries, anddrug-trafficking. It is considered that the 456 000
hectares of forests that fulfil particular soil andwater protection functions are sustainably managed
because they are covered by management plans andtheir management is financed partly by payments
for ecosystem services (Table 7).c Large tracts ofother protection forest may also be secure due totheir remoteness.

Extent of protected areas. The total extent
of protected area in Colombia is 12.6 million
hectares, including both forested and non-forested
land (IDEAM 2010). The two main categories
Table 7 Management of the protection PFE (’000 hectares)
Reportingyear

Protection PFE

Attributed to IUCN
categories I–IV

Allocated for soil
and waterWith management
plans

Sustainably
managed

2005*
2010

8860
9340

8860
9340

312
456**

456

456

*
**

296

As reported in ITTO (2006).
Comprises water and soil protected areas and special reforestation areas for water and watershed protection.

COLOMBIA

Socioeconomic aspects
Economic aspects. Although forests cover morethan half of Colombia, their contribution to its
GDP is only about 1%.a This is due partly tothe absence of large-scale timber concessions andrelated industries and to widespread uncontrolled
deforestation and degradation, which makes woodabundant and keeps domestic prices for timberand fuelwood low. In Colombia, there is little priceincentive for natural forest management.a The
trade balance in forest products is negative becauseof the import of pulp and paper, although the gap
declined from US$280 million in the 1990s to
US$50 million now.a It is estimated that the forest
sector provides employment for 54 000 people,
comprising 24 000 in forest industry and 30 000 inreforestation (ITTO 2006).
Livelihood values. Hundreds of plants are usedby local communities for medicinal purposes.
The domestication of wild animals is anotherimportant economic activity, including species
as different as crocodiles and butterflies. The
gathering of ornamental plants, particularly
orchids, is important in the low-level cloud forestand contributes locally to livelihoods. Illegal coca
production and trade remain the most attractive
economic activities for many colonists living in thefoothills of the Andes in the agricultural frontierareas of Alto Putumayo, Alto Caquetá, Macarena,
Guaviare, Nariño and Magdalena Medio. This is
despite a sharp decrease in production area, from
more than 170 000 hectares in 2000 to 81 000
hectares in 2008 (UNODC 2009).
Social relations. The main forest zones are
inhabited nearly exclusively by Indigenous or
Afro-Colombian communities. Their traditional
lifestyles are linked closely to the use of forest
resources through shifting cultivation and hunting,fishing and the gathering of forest products. The
1991 Constitution and laws 99 and 70 (1993)
recognize this and make specific reference to suchtraditional forest uses. There are conflicts overtimber resources and illegal crops between local
forest users and the armed forces of various factions.
A considerable number of Colombian Indigenous
and Afro-Colombian organizations are active in
the national dialogue on forests, including theOrganización Nacional de Indígenas de Colombia, theConsejo Regional Indígena del Cauca, the Asociaciónde Cabildos Indígenas del Norte del Cauca and theOrganización Indígena de Antioquia. Representing
Afro-Colombian communities are the Proceso de
Comunidades Negras, the Conferencia Nacional de
Organizaciones Afrocolombianas, the Asociación deAfrocolombianos Desplazados and the Movimiento
Nacional Cimarrón.

Summary
Nearly the entire natural forest estate of Colombia
is officially protected and the main forest products
are ecosystem services or forest products otherthan timber. The 1991 Constitution recognizes therights of Indigenous peoples and Afro-Colombians
over their territories and their right to control anduse their communal forest territories according totheir social and cultural values. Forests in Colombia
are administered within the wider context ofenvironmental management, and existing policy
goals emphasize protection and conservation
functions as well as forest restoration and forest land
rehabilitation. Generally, there is little control overforest resources on the ground and illegal activities
in forest areas appear to be widespread. Large forest
tracts remain inaccessible for legal management
activities because rebels and paramilitaries exercise
control over them. Despite these difficulties there is
progress in the collection of data on tropical forestsand biodiversity, the demarcation of property
boundaries and the provision of land titles, theimplementation of conservation programs, and theenforcement of land-use plans and regulations.

Key points•

Colombia has an estimated PFE of 15.2 million
hectares (compared with 14.5 hectares in 2005),
comprising 5.5 million hectares of potential
production PFE (the same as in 2005, mainly
degraded forests available for plantations), 9.34
million hectares of protection forest (comparedwith 8.86 million hectares in 2005) and
405 000 hectares of planted forest (comparedwith 148 000 hectares in 2005).

•

At least 771 000 hectares of natural forest,
comprising 315 000 hectares of production PFE
and 456 000 hectares of protection PFE, areconsidered to be under SFM; about 9000
hectares of community-managed natural forest
is certified. Forest land-use plans exist over an
area of about 19 million hectares.

297

Status of tropical forest management 2011•

Combined, Indigenous communities in the
Amazon region and Afro-Colombiancommunities, mainly in the Pacific region, own
nearly 30 million hectares of natural forests,
nearly half the total forest estate.

•

No specific standards have been established forlarge-scale timber production forestry and nopolicy for timber concessions is in place.

•

There are well-established systems for protectedareas and biodiversity monitoring.

•

The wider role of forests in providing ecosystemservices (such as hydrological services) is
recognized in Colombia and considerable areasof forest benefit from payments for them.

EndnotesaGovernment of Colombia (2009).

b

Discussion and information exchange with the sustainable
forest management group (Grupo de Desarrollo Sostenible deBosques), Dirección de Ecosistemas, Ministerio de Ambiente,
Vivienda y Desarrollo Territorial, 2011.

c

ITTO estimate.

References and other sources
CONIF (2004). Sector Forestal Colombiano. Fuente de Vida,
Trabajo y Bienestar. Corporación Nacional de Investigación yFomento Forestal. Bogotá DC, Colombia.
Eggleston, H., Buendia, L., Miwa, K., Ngara, T. & Tanabe,
T. (eds) (2006). IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse
Gas Inventories. Prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas
Inventories Programme. Institute for Global Environmental
Strategies, Kamakura, Japan.
FAO (2010a). Global forest resources assessment 2010
country report: Colombia (available at http://www.fao.org/
forestry/fra/67090/en/).
FAO (2010b). Global Forest Resources Assessment 2010 Full
Report. FAO, Rome, Italy.
FSC (2010, website accessed December 2010). FSC
Certification Database (searchable database available at
http://info.fsc.org/PublicCertificateSearch).
Gibbs, H., Brown, S., Niles, J. & Foley, J. (2007).
Monitoring and estimating tropical forest carbon
stocks: making REDD a reality. Environmental Research
Letters 2 (available at http://iopscience.iop.org/17489326/2/4/045023/fulltext).
Government of Colombia (2008). Readiness plan idea note
Colombia. Prepared by Ministerio de Ambiente, Vivienday Desarrollo Territorial for the Forest Carbon Partnership
Facility.

298

Government of Colombia (2009). Reporte sobre la evaluaciónde los criterios e indicadores para la ordenación sostenible delos bosques tropicales naturales para la OIMT. Ministerio deAmbiente, Vivienda y Desarrollo Territorial, Direccion deEcosistemas, Bogotá DC, Colombia.
Government of Colombia (2011). Colombia readinesspreparation information note. Forest Carbon Partnership
Facility (available at http://www.forestcarbonpartnership.org/fcp/).
IDEAM (2010). Informe Anual sobre el Estado del Medio
Ambiente y los Recursos Naturales Renovables en Colombia:
Bosques 2009. Instituto de Hidrología, Meteorología yEstudios Ambientales, Bogotá DC, Colombia.
ITTO (2006). Status of Tropical Forest Management 2005.
ITTO, Yokohama, Japan (available at http://www.itto.int/
en/sfm/ ).
ITTO (2011, website accessed March 2011). Annual Review
statistics database (available at http://www.itto.int/annual_
review_output/?mode=searchdata).
IUCN (2011, website accessed March 2011). IUCN red listof threatened species (searchable database available at www.
redlist.org).
Kernan, B., Monje, C. & Hildebrand, P. (2006). Report on
Tropical Forests and Biological Diversity. Country Strategy
Statement FY 2006–2010. USAID/Colombia, Bogotá DC,
Colombia.
Spalding, M., Kainumu, M. & Collins, L. (2010). World
Atlas of Mangroves. Earthscan, London, UK.
Romero, M., Cabrera, E. & Ortiz, N. (2008). Informe
Sobre el Estado de la Biodiversidad en Colombia 2006–2007.
Instituto de Investigación Alexander von Humboldt, Bogotá,
Colombia.
UNDP (2009). Human Development Report 2009. United
Nations Development Programme, New York, United States.
UNEP-WCMC (2010). Spatial analysis of forests withinprotected areas in ITTO countries. Data prepared for ITTO.
UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, UK.
UNEP-WCMC (2011, website accessed March
2011). UNEP-WCMC species database: CITES-listed
species (searchable database at available at www.cites.org/eng/
resources/species.html).
United Nations Population Division (2010, website accessed
July 2010). World population prospects: the 2008 revision(searchable database available at http://esa.un.org/UNPP/).
UNODC (2009). Colombia: Coca Cultivation Survey. United
Nations Office on Drugs and Crime and Government ofColombia, Bogotá DC, Colombia (available at http://www.
unodc.org/documents/crop-monitoring/Colombia_coca_survey_2008.pdf ).

ECUADOR

EcuadorInga spp, Pourouma chocoana and Ceiba pentandra(kapok). The main commercial species in the driersemi-humid forests in central areas and the south
coast are Cordia alliodora (laurel), Pseudosamanea
guachapele, Tabebuia spp and various Bombacaceae(e.g. Ceiba and Bombax spp, and balsa – Ochroma
lagopus).

Forest resources
Ecuador has a land area of 27.7 million hectares
and an estimated population in 2010 of 13.7
million people (United Nations Population
Division 2010). Ecuador is ranked 80th out of 182
countries in UNDP’s Human Development Index(UNDP 2009). The country comprises four main
biogeographical zones: the Andean mountains(sierra); the Pacific coast; the Amazon Basin; and,1000 km from the coast in the Pacific Ocean,the Galapagos Islands. FAO (2010a) estimatedthe forest area at 9.87 million hectares in 2010,
which is 36% of the land area. The Governmentof Ecuador (2009) estimated the total forest area at
11.2 million hectares.
Forest types. There are three major forest types:
Amazon rainforest, comprising about 62% of theforest estate; montane (sierra) forests of various
types in the Andes (on the western and eastern
slopes, at lower and upper levels, and towards theAndean high peaks), comprising about 21% of theforest estatea; and tropical rainforest in the coastal
plains of the Pacific region (mainly in Esmeraldas
Province), which contains about 17% of the forests.
Mangrove forests were once widespread but now
cover only about 158 000 hectares (Spalding et al.
2010).
The most common commercial species in the morehumid northern part of the country are Protium
and Dacryodes spp, Laureaceae, Brosimum utile,

Permanent forest estate. Ecuador has not defineda PFE but there is a clear distinction between
forests for (potential) production and forest forprotection, and the latter is clearly delimited.a The
Government of Ecuador (2009) estimated the total
area that is potentially used as production forest at
4.51 million hectares and the total area of protected
forests at 6.55 million hectares, but the production
forest area that can be considered as permanent
forest estate is only about 2 million hectares (Table1).a Protection forests are classified in the national
system of protected areas (Sistema Nacional de Áreas
Protegidas – SNAP). The area of forest that might
be considered PFE is about 8.7 million hectaresa,
most of it part of the SNAP. Only a small portionof the production PFE is considered economicallyharvestable due to steep slopes in mountainous
terrain, low timber density, difficulty of access, andsocial constraints (ITTO 2006). There are about
175 000 hectares of planted forests.a

Forest ecosystem healthDeforestation and forest degradation.
Ecuador has the highest rate of deforestation of
any South American country. This is due to anumber of factors, including policies favouring
the development of pastures and commercial
agriculture; colonization; oil and timber
exploration; insecure land tenure; and weak public
institutions. Aquaculture for shrimp production has
expanded rapidly on the Pacific coast in the past
15 years and is responsible for the loss of nearly
80 000 hectares of mangrove forests.a FAO (2010b)
estimated the annual loss of forest cover between
2005 and 2010 at an average 198 000 hectares(1.89%) per year. In relative terms, deforestation
is highest in the dry forest of the southern coastal
region (more than 2% per yeara), but it is also highin the humid tropical lowland forests of the Pacificcoast and is increasing in the Amazon region.

299

Status of tropical forest management 2011

Table 1 Permanent forest estate
Reportingyear

Estimatedtotal forest
area, range(million ha)

Total closed
natural forest(’000 ha)

2005*
2010

8.4–11.4
9.87–11.2

10 8545813*****‡†PFE (’000 hectares)
Production
Protection
NaturalPlanted

Total

3100
1964‡

7564
8693

164
175

4300
6554†

As reported in ITTO (2006).
Calculated using the ratio of forest with greater than 60% forest cover estimated by UNEP-WCMC (2010) (58.9%) and the total
natural forest area as estimated by FAO (2010a).
Includes harvested areas in state forests (patrimonio forestal del estado), as reported by Government of Ecuador (2009).
Includes public protection forests and the area in SNAP. Some of this area may no longer be forested.a

SFM policy framework

Illegality and corruption contribute indirectly to
deforestation and biodiversity loss by undermining
enforcement by government institutions (USAID
2006).

Forest tenure. Most of Ecuador’s forests are
owned by local communities and Indigenous
groups (ancestral Indigenous or Afro-Ecuadorian),although the majority are not subject to official
land titles. The National Strategy for Sustainable
Forest Development (Plan Nacional de Desarrollo
Forestal Sostenible) 2007–2011 includes legal
provisions for the allocation of forests to Indigenous
communities, farmers and other groups alreadyin possession of forest lands on the condition thatthey guarantee the sustainable management andconservation of the allocated forests.a The country’s
2008 Constitution also fully recognizes the rights ofIndigenous communities (see below).

Table 2 summarizes forest condition. Intact orslightly degraded primary forests cover about
3.9 million hectares, and secondary forests andscrublands (matorrales) together cover about 6.3
million hectares. Most of the secondary forests arein the Pacific coast region.a
Vulnerability of forests to climate change.
Ecuador is highly vulnerable to the impacts ofclimate change due to its geographical location,
rugged topography and exposure to El Niño events,
as well as to the dependence of key economic
sectors on resources that are affected by climate.
Many population centres are at high altitudes andrely particularly on receding alpine glaciers andhigh-elevation forests and grasslands for their watersupply. High-altitude ecosystems are likely to suffer
more from climate-change impacts than lower-lying
areas (IUCN 2009). Uncontrolled forest fires area major threat, particularly on the Pacific coast;landslides in mountainous regions are also common
after heavy rainfall.

There is a great deal of overlap between the areasin the SNAP and private and Indigenous lands.
International support is needed to help secure
tenure, mark boundaries and establish participatory
surveillance systems over 1.6 million hectares ofIndigenous land.a Table 3 summarizes the foresttenure situation.
Criteria and indicators. Ecuador established its
own set of C&I for SFM based on those of ITTO.
This has been used in strategic planning but today
its use is limited.a The Government of Ecuador
used the ITTO C&I in its submission to ITTO for
this report.a

Table 2 Forest condition
PFE

Non-PFE

Total’000 haArea of primary forest
Area of degraded primary forest
Area of secondary forest
Area of degraded forest land
Source: Derived from Government of Ecuador (2009).

300

-

-

3900
1300
1200
3800

ECUADOR

Table 3 Forest area, by tenure
Ownership category
State ownership (national, state orprovincial government)
Other public entities (e.g.
municipalities, villages)
Total public
Owned by local communities and/orIndigenous groups
Private owned by firms, individuals,
other corporate

Total area Of which PFE Notes’000 ha
3940

-

-

-

3940
6830

-

40

-

State production forests and SNAP/patrimonio forestal delestado.
Municipalities regulate freshwater protection and thus also
large parts of protection forests.
Includes forested areas and formerly forested areas now used asvillage agricultural land.
Mainly forest plantations; agroforestry plantations are notconsidered forest land.

Source: Based on ITTO & RRI (2009).

Forest policy and legislation. Ecuador’s 20thconstitution since 1830 was approved in September
2008. The rights established by its Article 84
enfranchise thousands of Indigenous people,
many of them living in forested areas. Along with
Indigenous rights, the Constitution recognizes therights of naturea and the role of the state in theconservation, sustainable use and restoration offragile ecosystems such as the páramo (non-forested
sub-alpine areas), humid areas, mangroves, cloudforests and tropical dry and humid forests (Article406). Article 407 prohibits extractive activities inprotected areas, including timber harvesting.b
The Forest Law (Codificación de la Ley Forestal yde Conservación de Áreas Naturales y Vida Silvestre,
L.74-PCL. RO 64), which dates from 1981, assigns
the ownership and control of all forest resources tothe national government. The provisions of the Forest
Law were never fully implemented, however, andmany substantial changes in the administration andcontrol of Ecuador’s forests have been made by the
Ministry of Environment (Ministerio del Ambiente).a
The Forest Law provides the legal basis for the
SNAP and for the protected-area system that was
created under Article 86 of the 1998 Constitution(patrimonio de áreas naturales del estado – PANE).
A new forest law based largely on the examples ofChile and Costa Rica was prepared in 2001 but
never approved.a The Forest Law (1981) is underrevision to reflect the new orientation of the state as
defined by the new Constitution.b The baseline of
the revision is the National Strategy for Sustainable
Forest Development 2007–2011, a multistakeholder document that lays out a vision for
SFM and forest conservation and which recognizes
the important role of local communities and othersectors in achieving SFM.b

The National Forest and Reforestation Programme(Plan Nacional de Forestación y Reforestación), which
was approved in September 2006, includes amongits goals the creation of 750 000 hectares of new
industrial forest plantations, 150 000 hectaresof agroforestry schemes and 100 000 hectares ofprotective plantations in a 20-year period.
In September 2008, the Ministry of Environment
launched its SocioBosque Program as one of theelements of a national REDD framework (seebelow). SocioBosque provides economic incentives tolandowners who voluntarily decide to protect theirforest. SocioBosque aims to preserve natural forestsand other native ecosystems and thereby protect
their ecological, economic, cultural and spiritualvalues. It also aims to achieve a significant reduction
in deforestation and associated emissions of GHGs.
SocioBosque is fully financed by public funds but
additional funds are required from internationalsources, including those associated with REDD, inorder to fully accomplish its goals.a
Institutions involved in forests. Many Ecuadoriangovernment institutions have responsibilities related
to forests and the conservation of biodiversity. At
the national level, the Ministry of Environment
and its Forest Service (Dirección Forestal, under
the Sub-Secretaría del Patrimonio Nacional)
administers forests and protected areas, enforces theForest Law and international treaties, implementsinternational conservation projects, and approves
environmental assessments. Through Executive
Decree 931 of February 2008, responsibility forindustrial plantations and agroforestry was assigned
to the Ministry of Agriculture, Aquaculture andFisheries (Ministerio de Agricultura, Acuaculturay Pesca), which subsequently created in the same
year a specific institution (Unidad para el Desarrollo

301

Status of tropical forest management 2011

Forestal del Ecuador – PROFORESTAL) to
fulfill this task. The Ministry of Environment is
responsible for the program to establish and manage
protective plantations (Programa de Plantaciones
para la Protección y Conservación de los Recursos
Naturales).
The principal state institution in charge of theplanning and operation of production forestryis the National Secretariat for Planning andDevelopment (Secretaría Nacional de Planificacióny Desarrollo – SENPLADES), which is in chargeof the implementation of the overall development
plan for Ecuador. SENPLADES closely coordinates
forest planning with the Forest Service and
PROFORESTAL.
Ecuador has more than 60 non-profit
environmental NGOs. Some, such as Fundación
Natura, are large, while others may consist of only
a few people working on a specific environmental
problem in a restricted geographic area. Indigenousorganizations have a profound impact on theconservation of biodiversity and forests because they
represent the owners of over 6 million hectares ofland, much of it in the biodiversity-rich Amazon.
Many Ecuadorian businesses are involved in theextraction and processing of natural resources.
National and international companies involvedin oil production, mining, tourism, agribusinessand the wood industry, for example, can stimulate
deforestation and forest degradation. Oil isparticularly important to Ecuador’s economy. Oil
exploration, extraction, transport and processing
can cause large-scale, permanent direct and indirect
negative impacts on forests.
Forest-owners and timber industries areorganized in associations (Asociación Ecuatoriana
de Industriales de Madera – AIMA, Asociación
Ecuatoriana de Productores de Teca y Maderas
Tropicales – ASOTECA and others) and special
initiatives (e.g. Corporación de Manejo Forestal
Sustentable – COMAFORS). They play an active
part in policymaking and forest development. Eight
universities offer forestry education, including
la Escuela Superior Politécnica de Chimborazo,
Universidad Técnica Estatal de Quevedo, Universidad
Técnica de Esmeraldas, Universidad Nacional deLoja, Universidad Agraria del Ecuador, Universidad
Técnica del Norte, Universidad Estatal del Sur deManabí and Universidad Internacional SEK.a

302

Status of forest management
Forest for production
Forest use is regulated through a number of norms
dealing with forest management, particularly:•

Rules on Sustainable Forest Management for
Timber Harvesting in Moist Forests (Normas
para el Manejo Forestal Sustentable para
Aprovechamiento de Madera en Bosque Húmedo –Acuerdo Ministerial 039, 2004).

•

Rules for Timber Harvesting in Plantation
Forests and Trees in Agroforestry Systems(Normas para el Aprovechamiento de Madera en
Bosques Cultivados y de Árboles en Sistemas
Agroforestales – Acuerdo Ministerial 040, 2004).

•

Rights to Timber Harvesting (Derecho deAprovechamiento de Madera en Pie – Acuerdo
Ministerial 041, 2004).

•

Directives on Log-scaling for Forest Control at
Road Checkpoints (Instructivo de Cubicación deMaderas para Controles Forestales en Vías
Terrestres – Acuerdo Ministerial 053, 2001).

Forest harvesting in state production forests requires
a forest inventory, the preparation of a forest
management plan, the physical demarcation ofconcession limits, social payments and payments
for silvicultural treatments. A forest-control entity
called Vigilancia Verde has been in place since 2001
with the overall task of supervising the flow offorest products from the forest to the marketplace.
Another body, Regencia Forestal, was created toincrease the transparency of Vigilancia Verde,to provide technical assistance and support law
enforcement in forest operations, and to oversee theimplementation of C&I in forest management.
There is no coordinated approach to naturalforest management in Ecuador; many potential
management techniques have not yet been put
into practice. Before 1980, several licensed logging
concessions operated in defined areas with specified
annual yields. The legal and practical provisions
were similar to those operating in many othercountries and, as elsewhere, there were serious
difficulties of control, supervision and protection.
Concession management was abandoned in theearly 1980s (ITTO 2006). Ecuador now uses a
system of short-term logging licences which, in
addition to its impact on the quality and efficiency
of logging operations, has encouraged foresters to

ECUADOR

consider other ways of ensuring future long-term
supplies of timber, particularly through thedevelopment of forest plantations and agroforestry.
There is strong pressure on the natural-forest
resource from informal and illegal operators, who
resist regulations they see as unrealistic. Illegal
logging is therefore widespread; it is estimated, forexample, that 85% of the Cedrela odorata (cedro)
harvested in the Ecuadorian Amazon is illegal.a
Most timber harvesting today is done on
Indigenous and small-farmer community lands andprivate lands. Legal harvesting is carried out under
three kinds of permit: cutting permits (the great
majority until 2005 – ITTO 2006); areas harvested
according to simplified forest management plans(Programas de Aprovechamiento Forestal Simplificado– PAFSIs), which mainly involve non-mechanized
extraction; and areas with integrated management
and sustainable management areas (Programas deAprovechamiento Forestal Sustentable – PAFSUs),
which involve relatively large areas that are suitablefor industrial harvesting. In 2009, 921 forest
management permits (PAFSIs and PAFSUs) were
issued (up from 815 in 2008). In 2008, a total of
205 000 m3 of timber were harvested from about
10 000 hectares in PAFSUs and 259 000 m3 fromabout 29 000 hectares in PAFSIs.a
Silviculture and species selection. Diameter
limits are assigned for each harvestable species andare relatively low: for example, the limit is 40 cm
for cedro and 35 cm for Tabebuia chrysantha andMyroxylon peruiferum.a Post-harvesting treatments
in natural forests are compulsory and include
liberation thinning, the cutting of lianas and,based on a silvicultural assessment, enrichment
planting.a About 120 timber species are used in thedomestic market. The prime species harvested arefrom forest plantations (eucalypts and pines). In
natural forests, 80% of the harvested volume comesfrom about 25 species (ITTO 2006). Besides thoselisted in Table 4, important commercial species are

Semi-natural production forest in Ecuador, with Cordia alliodora
and Terminalia spp.

Virola spp, Otoba glycycarpa (sangre de gallina),
Cedrelinga catenaeformis (chuncho), Podocarpus
spp and Prumnopitys spp (romerillo, azucena) fromthe southeastern forests, and Tratinnickia glaziovii(copal).
Planted forests and trees outside the forest.
The creation of new forests and agroforestry
plantations is a major goal of Ecuador’s forest andenvironmental policy, and PROFORESTAL wascreated to fulfill ambitious industrial-plantation
and agroforestry targets. The total state budget
allocated to this purpose in 2008 was US$15
million.a The total area of planted forest in 2008
was about 175 000 hectares, which was 11 000
hectares more than reported in 2005 (ITTO 2006).
About 80% of the plantations are composed of
eucalypt and pine species and located in the Andes;
the remaining 20% is mainly in the coastal region
and largely comprises balsa and a range of otherindigenous species such as laurel, Schizolobium
parahybum (pachaco), Jacaranda copaia, Parkia
multijuga (cutanga), chuncho and Hyeronima
alchornoides (mascarey). Some certified plantations
and agroforestry schemes are now exploiting these

Table 4 Commonly harvested species for industrial roundwood
Species

Notes

Eucalyptus globulus (eucalipto)
Ochroma lagopus (balsa)
Brosimum utile (sande)*
Cordia alliodora (laurel)*Pinus radiata and P. patula (pino)*

From plantations in mountainous areas, 190 000 m3 in 2008.
From plantations more than 40 000 m3 annually.
The main natural forest species in the Pacific region.
From secondary forests, pastures and plantations.
From forest plantations in mountainous regions.

Also listed in ITTO (2006).
*
Source: Government of Ecuador (2009).

303

Status of tropical forest management 201119 species for their roots (mainly as medicines),
25 species for their bark and 19 species for theirseeds (Añazco et al. 2004). NTFPs of commercial
importance include Guadua (bamboo); latex;
gum; palm products, particularly palm hearts;and medicinal plants. Tagua (vegetable ivory), theseed of the palm Phytelephas macrocarpa, is usedcommercially in handicrafts, as are fibres of Bactris
gasipaes and Carludovica palmata (paja toquilla).
Widely used NTFPs in Ecuador’s Amazon forests
include Genipa americana, a natural colorant;
Poulsenia armata and Byrsonima japurensis fortheir fibre; Caryodendron orinocense and Plukenetia
volubilis as vegetable oil; and Uncaria tomentosa,
Croton lechleri and Strychnos peckii for medicinal
purposes.a On average, exports of NTFPs were
worth US$13 million per year between 2006 and2008.aresources. Tectona grandis (teak, teca), Acacia
mangium and Gmelina arborea are planted inlowland areas and Alnus acuminata (aliso) is plantedin the mountains.
Forest certification. As of mid 2010, five FMUs
managing planted forests and semi-natural forests
were certified under the FSC, covering a total areaof 41 200 hectares (FSC 2010). No natural forests
were certified.
Estimate of the area of forest sustainably
managed for production. The estimated areaof natural-forest production PFE under SFM is
at least 176 000 hectares (Table 5), comprising
forests that are currently managed under PAFSUs
with adequate supervision by authorities and somesemi-natural forest stands that have been managed
for more than 20 years.a The latter areas include
private forest lots and planted and natural forests inthe sierra managed by communities.

Forest carbon. One of the objectives of the
National Development Plan, designed under theleadership of SENPLADES, is the cessation of
deforestation. The Ministry of Environment has
identified the following elements of a national
REDD strategy: forestry control; management
information systems; a GHG monitoring system;land-tenure regularization in forest areas; SFM;
afforestation and reforestation; and an appropriate
legal and institutional framework. SocioBosque is an
important element of the strategy.

Timber production and trade. It is estimated thatabout 4.8 million m3 of roundwood was extracted
annually from Ecuadorian forests between 2006
and 2008a, including for fuelwood. Of the total
in 2006 an estimated 460 000 m3 of industrial
roundwood was harvested in tropical naturalforests and 480 000 m3 were harvested in planted
forests.a Total industrial log production in 2009 wasestimated at 711 000 m3, down from 1.81 million
m3 in 2000 (ITTO 2011). In 2009 Ecuador
exported about 74 000 m3 of logs, 55 000 m3 ofsawnwood, 3000 m3 of veneer and 67 000 m3 ofplywood (ibid.). There are two large wood industry
groups in Ecuador – Durini and Alvarez-Barba– and hundreds of smaller formal and informal
wood-using enterprises (USAID 2006).

According to national carbon inventories, Ecuador’sforests and other wooded land contain about 420
MtC, of which 320 MtC are in natural forests.a
Gibbs et al. (2007) estimated the national-level
forest biomass carbon stock at 351–1379 MtC, andEggleston et al. (2006) estimated it at 2071 MtC.
Ecuador has the highest deforestation rate in Latin
America, resulting in significant carbon emissions,mainly in the lowlands; it has considerable
potential for carbon capture and storage (Table
6). The Government of Ecuador is taking firm

Non-timber forest products. At least 589 species
are used as NTFPs in Ecuadorian forests, of which
79 species are used for their edible fruits, 68
species for their leaves, 28 species for their flowers,

Table 5 Management of the production PFE (’000 hectares)
Reporting
year

Total

Available for
harvesting

2005*
2010

3100
1964

115

*
**

304

NaturalWithmanagement
plans
65
86

Certified

0
0

101

164

PlantedWith
management
plans
65

176**

175

90

Sustainably
managedTotal

As reported in ITTO (2006).
includes 21 000 hectares of semi-natural forest as enrichment plantings with local species in natural forest areas.

Certified

21
41

ECUADOR

Table 6 Forest carbon potential
Biomass
forestcarbon(MtC)% forestwithcanopycover >60%

Deforestation/
degradation
potential to2030

351– 1379

59+++

Enhancement Forest areachangeof carbon
sink capacity monitoring
capacity
to 2030++++

Forest/GHG
inventory
capacity+

Importance Engagementinof forest
international
fire/
REDD+
biomass
processes
burning++++++++ high; ++ medium; +low; estimate of national forest carbon based on Gibbs et al. (2007); estimate of % total forest with canopy cover>60% based on UNEP-WCMC (2010).

steps towards REDD (Chiu 2009). For example,
it is preparing a low-carbon development planfor 2010–2012 and a national REDD+ strategy
with support from the German government andConservation International (Government of
Norway 2010). Ecuador is also involved in the
UN-REDD process and the REDD+ Partnershipand the government has established permanent
forest monitoring facilities through the Center for
Remote Sensing.

Forest for protection
Soil and water. Protection and protected forests
are regulated through the 2003 Environmental Law(Texto Unificado de Legislación Ambiental, Libro
III: Del Régimen Forestal, DE-3516) and the 1999
Law of Environmental Management (Ley de Gestión
Ambiental 37, RO-245). There are 162 registeredprotection forests in Ecuador, covering an area of
about 2.3 million hectares.a Protection forest lands
include state land as well as privately owned or
occupied land on steep slopes or water catchments
and other areas unsuitable for agriculture or
livestock production. Municipal governments
provide drinking water and protect forests forthis purpose. The provision of clean, abundant
water is an ecosystem service that may help pay
for conservation; for example, Quito’s water fund,
FONAG, is paying part of the cost of protecting
and restoring the Cayambe–Coca EcologicalReserve.
Biological diversity. Ecuador has a wide range of
ecosystems and is considered a megadiverse country.
It has more than 20 100 plant species, of which
5317 are endemica, and there are also at least 369
native mammals, 1616 birds, 394 reptiles and 415
amphibians. Most of the 1435 species found inforests (34 mammals, 56 birds, 155 amphibians,
eleven reptiles, one arthropod, twelve molluscs and1166 plants) that are listed as critically endangered,endangered or vulnerable on the IUCN red list of

threatened species are endemic to the Galapagos
Islands (IUCN 2011). On the mainland, 14 species
are so listed (ibid.). Eight plant species are listed
in CITES Appendix I and 584 in Appendix II(UNEP-WCMC 2011). Swietenia macrophylla andCedrela spp are protected under national law.aProtective measures in production forests.
Amendments made in 2004 to the 1981 Forest
Law introduced new harvesting rules in accordancewith reduced impact logging as a prerequisite for
harvesting. Logging is prohibited within specified
distances of waterways, lakes and rivers, on slopes
greater than 45%, in the highest areas of microwatersheds (línea de cumbres de microcuencas
primarias), and in various ‘special areas’.a
Extent of protected areas. The 2008 Constitution
defines, in its Article 405, a new sub-category of
the SNAP, the PANE, which includes 35 special
protected areas, including major national parks,
reserves and wildlife preservation areas. On the
Ecuadorian mainland, protected areas cover 4.67
million hectares (17% of the total land area),
distributed in various categories defined by law(national parks, biological reserves, ecologicalreserves, geo-botanical reserves, bird reserves,
wildlife reserves, etc). The protected area estatealso includes about 2 million hectares of soil andwater protection areas, mostly forested, classified
in IUCN categories V and VI.a The total protectedarea comprises non-forested areas and also 1.55
million hectares of lowland rainforest. In addition,
the biological reserve of the Galapagos Islands
covers 14.1 million hectares of land and marine
ecosystems.
Some protected areas are threatened byencroachment. For example, Podocarpus National
Park, a unique montane primary forest relictof more than 120 000 hectares, is threatenedby illegal gold-mining and associated mercury
contamination.

305

Status of tropical forest management 2011

There are three major biosphere reserves besides
Galapagos – Yasuní, Sumaco Napo Galeras, andPodocarpus–El Condor – which, combined,
cover nearly 3 million hectares. There are also
five biological corridors in mainland Ecuador(corredor ecológico Llanganates-Sangay, corredor
biológico Awacachi, corredor ecológico CuyabenoPañacocha, corredor de conservación comunitaria ElÁngel-Golondrinas, and corredor ecológico AntisanaLlanganates) connecting 20 protected areas.aa high number of small timber extractors andwood-processing units with low capital input
and by poor working conditions; it has difficulty
delivering high-quality processed products. It isestimated that there are more than 500 units ofactive extractors and timber companies, most ofthem producing less than 2000 m3 annually. An
estimated 235 000 people are in employment
linked to the forest and timber industry, which is
8% of the country’s active economic population.a

Estimate of the area of forest sustainably
managed for protection. Little information
was available for this report on the quality ofmanagement in the protection PFE (Table 7).
About 2.21 million hectares of protected areas
reportedly had management plans in 2009.a The
129 000-hectare Condor Biosphere Reserve, partof a transboundary conservation area on the borderwith Peru, was threatened by the expansion ofunsustainable agriculture and cattle-ranching,but its integrity has been substantially improved
through a project supported by various donors,
including ITTO. Forest management planning has
advanced in the Yasuni National Park (985 000
hectares) in the Napo region. A United Nationsadministered international trust fund, initiatedthrough SocioBosque, has been put in place toguarantee payments for non-exploitation of theconsiderable oil reservoirs in the core area of Yasuni(500 000 hectares). The core areas of the Condor
Biosphere Reserve and Yasuni National Park, bothnearly 100% forested, are counted in Table 7 assustainably managed.

Livelihood values. Forests have great value for local
forest-dwellers, with hunting and fishing the mostimportant activities. Forests are also considered asa land reserve and are converted for subsistence
agriculture. About 7.5 million hectares of forest
are used directly or indirectly by Indigenous
communities to provide at least part of theirlivelihoods.a It is estimated that about 850 000
people depend directly on forest resources for theirlivelihoods.a
Social relations. The country’s populationconsists of four broad groups – Mestizo (65%);
Amerindian (25%); Spanish descendant (7%); andAfro-Ecuadorian (3%) – each of which has a uniqueculture. Amerindian groups play a particularly
important role in the management of forests andthe conservation of Ecuador’s biodiversity because
they control large areas of forested land. Conflicts
over oil exploitation and illegal harvesting arewidespread and illicit crops are found in certain
forest areas (ITTO 2006). Recently, as part of theSocioBosque program, Indigenous communities andorganizations signed 20-year agreements with the
Ministry of Environment under which, in returnfor preserving native forests, landowners receive
annual incentive payments from the government.
These agreements reinforce existing titles.

Socioeconomic aspects
Economic aspects. The GDP of Ecuador was
US$108 billion in 2009, of which forest-based
activities contributed about 2% (USAID 2006).
However, data are quite unreliable due to thehigh level of informality in the forest sector. The
forest and timber industry is characterized by
Table 7 Management of the protection PFE (’000 hectares)
Reportingyear

Protection PFE

Attributed to IUCN
categories I–IV

Allocated for soil
and waterWith management
plans

Sustainably
managed

2005*
2010

4300
6554**

1790
4670‡

2403
2355

513
2211

629

*
**
‡

306

As reported in ITTO (2006).
Includes water and soil protection forests and protected areas. UNEP-WCMC (2010) estimated the total area of forested protectedareas at 2.085 million hectares. Partly there is overlap of areas in the various categories.
Includes the land area of the Galapagos Islands, not all of which is forested.

ECUADOR

Summary
Ecuador, a megadiverse country, suffers thehighest rate of deforestation of any Amazonian
country – primarily as a result of increased access,colonization, oil and timber exploration, a lack of
incentives for conservation, insecure land titles,
and weak public institutions. Ecuador has a large,
often contradictory and unclear body of laws andregulations that affects the sustainable managementof its biodiversity and tropical forests and whichusually is only partially enforced. The Forestry
Law is under revision, taking into account the newframework provided by the 2008 Constitution.
SFM is a long way from being achieved in most of
Ecuador’s production and protection forests. On thepositive side, there is a declared political willingness
to increase the country’s capacity to manage andconserve forest resources sustainably.

•

There is a discrepancy between forest
regulations and actual harvesting practice. The
high rigour of legal provisions for harvesting
operations may push forest users towards
illegality.

•

Considerable efforts have been undertaken inrecent years in the management of theprotection PFE and there is increased politicalsupport for forest conservation. The emergenceof REDD+ could further strengthen the
management of the protection PFE.

EndnotesaGovernment of Ecuador (2009).

b

Ministry of Environment website, accessed October 2010.
Available at www.ambiente.gov.ec.

ePersonal communications with officials in the Governmentof Ecuador, 2010.

Key points

References and other sources•

Añazco, M., Loján, L. & Yaguache, R. (2004). Productos
Forestales no Madereros en el Ecuador (PFNM). Una
Aproximación a su Diversidad y Usos. Ministerio delAmbiente. Quito, Ecuador.

•

Ecuador has no officially designated PFE. An
estimated 8.69 million hectares of forest might
be considered to constitute a PFE (comparedwith 7.56 million hectares in 2005), comprising
1.96 million hectares of natural production
forest (compared with 3.10 million hectares in2005), 6.55 million hectares of protection forest(compared with 4.30 million hectares in 2005)
and 175 000 hectares of planted forest(compared with 164 000 hectares in 2005).
An estimated 176 000 hectares of the
production PFE is under SFM. No naturalforest is certified. About 2.21 million hectares ofprotected areas have valid management plans
and an estimated 629 000 hectares of theprotection PFE is under SFM.

•

Information on the forest sector is often poorand contradictory.

•

There is strong pressure on the forest frominformal and illegal operators resisting change
towards SFM, and illegal logging is widespreadin all three forest regions.

•

Pronounced social and ethnic divisions
complicate SFM and forest conservation. In
many cases, and despite new legislative
provisions, forest tenure remains unclear.

Chiu, M. (2009). Ecuador: taking firm steps towards REDD.
UN-REDD Newsletter 4 (2009).
Eggleston, H., Buendia, L., Miwa, K., Ngara, T. & Tanabe,
T. (eds) (2006). IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse
Gas Inventories. Prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas
Inventories Programme. Institute for Global Environmental
Strategies, Kamakura, Japan.
FAO (2010a). Global forest resources assessment 2010 country
report: Ecuador (available at http://www.fao.org/forestry/fra/67090/en/).
FAO (2010b). Global Forest Resources Assessment 2010 Full
Report. FAO, Rome, Italy.
FSC (2010, website accessed July 2010). FSC certification
database (searchable database available at http://info.fsc.org/
PublicCertificateSearch).
Gibbs, H., Brown, S., Niles, J. & Foley, J. (2007). Monitoringand estimating tropical forest carbon stocks: making REDDa reality. Environmental Research Letters 2 (available at http://
iopscience.iop.org/1748-9326/2/4/045023/fulltext).
Government of Ecuador (2009). Informe nacional del Ecuador
sobre el estado de la ordenación forestal sostenible dolos bosques tropicales. September 2009. Prepared by
Mario Añazco Romero. Ministry of Environment, Quito,
Ecuador..
Government of Norway (2010). Synthesis report: REDD+
financing and activities survey. Prepared by anintergovernmental taskforce. Government of Norway, Oslo,
Norway.

307

Status of tropical forest management 2011

ITTO (2006). Status of Tropical Forest Management 2005. ITTO,
Yokohama, Japan (available at http://www.itto.int/en/sfm/).
ITTO (2011, website accessed January 2011). Annual Review
statistics database (available at http://www.itto.int/annual_
review_output/?mode=searchdata).
ITTO & RRI (2009). Tropical forest tenure assessment. trends,
challenges and opportunities. ITTO, Yokohama, Japan andRights and Resources Initiative, Washington, DC, UnitedStates.
IUCN (2009, website accessed October 2009). Corridors –routes for adaptation (available at www.iucn.org/knowledge/
news/focus/2009_eba/ground/?uNewsID=4135).
IUCN (2011, website accessed July 2010). IUCN red list of
threatened species (searchable database available at www.
redlist.org).
Spalding, M., Kainumu, M. & Collins, L. (2010). World Atlas ofMangroves. Earthscan, London, UK.

308

UNDP (2009). Human Development Report 2009. United
Nations Development Programme, New York, UnitedStates.
UNEP-WCMC (2010). Spatial analysis of forests withinprotected areas in ITTO countries. Data prepared for
ITTO. UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, UK.
UNEP-WCMC (2011, website accessed March 2011).
UNEP-WCMC species database: CITES-listed species(searchable database at available at www.cites.org/eng/
resources/species.html).
United Nations Population Division (2010, website accessed
July 2010). World population prospects: the 2008 revision(searchable database available at http://esa.un.org/UNPP/).
USAID (2006). Report on Tropical Forests and Biological Diversity.
Country Strategy Statement FY 2007–2012. United States
Agency for International Development, Quito, Ecuador.

GUATEMALA

Guatemalain Guatemala are classified as conifer forests,
broadleaved forests, mixed forests and mangrove
forests. Their characteristics and distribution are as
follows:•

Closed natural pine forest in the highlands(bosque de pino denso) – these are dominated by
one or several Pinus spp (pine species), Abies
guatemalensis (pinabete), Cupressus lusitanica(cypress), Taxodium mucronatum (sabino) or
Juniperus comitana (juniperus). The mostcommercially important species is Pinus oocarpa.
The closed natural pine forests cover about
300 000 hectares and can be found in
Huehuetenango, San Marcos, Quiche, Baja
Verapaz and Totonicapan.

•

Broadleaved forest (bosque latifoliado) – in thistropical humid forest type, more than 300 tree
species have so far been identified, but twogenera, Dialium and Brosimum, predominate.
The largest areas of broadleaved forest are in the
Petén but there are also areas in Alta Verapaz,
Izabal, Quiche and Huehuetenango. They cover
more than 3 million hectares.

•

Mixed hardwood and pine forest (bosque mixto)– these cover about 600 000 hectares, composedof two main tree associations: pine–oak, andLiquidambar styraciflua (liquidambar). Cypress,
Betulaceae (Ostyra spp and Alnus spp) and
Lauraceae (Ocotea spp, Nectandra spp and Perseaspp) occur in this forest type. It is
predominantly found in Quiche,
Huehuetenango, Alta Verapaz, Chiquimula andZacapa.

•Relicts of mangrove forest (bosque de manglar)
cover about 17 700 hectares on the Pacific coast,
particularly in estuaries and lagoons (Spalding etal. 2010). The largest areas are in thedepartments of Retalhuleu, Santa Rosa,
Escuintla, Jutiapa, Suchitepequez and San
Marcos.

Forest resources
Guatemala has a land area of about 10.9 million
hectares and an estimated population in 2010 of
14 million people (United Nations Population
Division 2010). It is ranked 78th out of 182
countries in UNDP’s Human Development Index(UNDP 2009).
The country can be divided into three main
biogeographical regions. The first, where most of
the population lives, comprises highlands madeup of several mountain chains stretching from theborder with Mexico southwards to the border with
Honduras. The highest peaks are steep volcanic
cones reaching more than 4000 m above sea level;
the country’s main conifer forests are found there.
The second is the Pacific plain, stretching along the
Pacific coast, which is characterized by rich volcanic
soils and is highly developed for agriculture. The
third, the Petén, is a flat, low-lying region in
the north of the country bordering Mexico andBelize. This is mainly a limestone plateau covered
with dense humid tropical forests, swamps andgrasslands, and features the ruins of ancient Mayan
cities. Recent estimates of Guatemala’s forest area
range from 3.66 million hectares (FAO 2010a) to
4.55 million hectares (Government of Guatemala
2010, based on 2003 satellite cover interpretation).
Forest types. Ten physiographic regions, sevenbiomes, 14 ecoregions, 66 ecosystems and 14 life
zones have been identified in the country.a Forests

Permanent forest estate. The estimated total
area of PFE is 2.46 million hectaresa (Table 1),comprising 1.14 million hectares of production
forest, 1.24 million hectares of protection forest and85 000 hectares of planted forest.b The distributionof the PFE by forest type is as follows: tropical309

Status of tropical forest management 2011

fires and drug-trafficking.a The country has about
one million hectares of secondary forests (bosques
secundarios, arbustales). Table 2 indicates forest
condition; about 37% of the total forest area isconsidered to be more-or-less intact.a

hardwood forest – 1.7 million hectares; conifer
forest – 100 000 hectares; mixed hardwood andpine forest – 130 000 hectares; and open woodlands
and secondary forests – at least 500 000 hectares(ITTO 2006).

Vulnerability of forests to climate change.
Possible consequences of climate change in
Guatemala include variations in precipitation andtemperature patterns, accompanied by changes
in soil moisture, soil chemistry and species
composition and structure. Local and nationalhydrological cycles could be disrupted, andsurface water supplies could become unreliable(Government of Guatemala 2001). Observationsin the Petén suggest that lakes and other water
bodies there are recording consistently lower
volumes than previously. A change in climate could
directly affect the productivity of agriculture andforestry and diminish livelihoods (Tolisano &López-Selva 2010). Climate change could also havea significant impact on conservation needs andpriorities. For example, under some future climate
scenarios, a considerable number of protectedareas will no longer be able to fulfill their role ofprotecting representative habitat for species targeted
for conservation (Mansourian et al. 2009). As aconsequence, changes to forest management may berequired, including habitat restoration with a focus
on resilience.

Forest ecosystem healthDeforestation and forest degradation. According
to FAO (2010b), Guatemala lost about 56 000
hectares per year in the period 2006–2010, anannual deforestation rate of 1.47%. Overall,between 1990 and 2010, Guatemala lost 23% of its
forest cover, or around 1.1 million hectares (FAO
2010b).
There has been deforestation in the conifer forestsof the highlands for centuries, but today it mostly
takes place in the Petén. Large-scale deforestation
started there in the 1970s as a result of a landcolonization program initiated by the government
and accelerated in the 1980s, when entire villagesof Indigenous people sought refuge during thecountry’s civil war (ITTO 2006). An estimated
78% of the deforestation in the Petén is caused byshifting cultivation and the remainder is caused bycattle-ranching and other causes, such as mineraland petroleum development.a The degradation andfragmentation of forests result from widespread
illegal logging and fuelwood gathering, unmanaged
Table 1 Permanent forest estate
Reportingyear

Estimatedtotal forest
area, range(million ha)

Total closed
natural forest(’000 ha)

2005*
2010

2.85–4.29
3.65–4.51

2824
1850*****‡PFE (’000 hectares)
Production
Protection
NaturalPlanted
1140
1140

71
85‡

1240
1240

Total

2451
2465

As reported in ITTO (2006).
Calculated using the ratio of forest with greater than 60% forest cover estimated by UNEP-WCMC (2010) (50.6%) and the total
natural forest area as estimated by FAO (2010a).
According to Government of Guatemala (2010), with the entire area situated in the PFE. FAO (2010a) estimated the total planted
forest area at 173 000 hectares, which probably includes tree plantations on agricultural land.

Table 2 Forest condition
PFE

Non-PFE

Total’000 haArea of primary forest
Area of degraded primary forest
Area of secondary forest
Area of degraded forest land*
Corresponds to the total area deforested since 1960.
Source: Derived from Government of Guatemala (2010).

310

-

-

1620
1800
1000
1100*

GUATEMALA

SFM policy framework
Forest tenure. Forest ownership in Guatemala
may be public or private. An estimated 1.5
million hectares of forest are owned by local andIndigenous communities, 1.4 million hectares
are national forests, and about 930 000 hectares
are municipally/communally owned (Table 3).
Indigenous communal lands (known as ejidales)
have special status by law. Because of the civil war(which ended formally in 1996), the ownershipof about 212 000 hectares of forest is uncertain,
although some of this area is owned privately. Landtenure was complicated by the displacement in the
1980s and 1990s of more than one million people
from their traditional lands (ITTO 2006) and by
the existence of a number of overlapping claims.
Despite recent efforts, therefore, tenure rights,
particularly among the poor, remain insecure.
Under Programa de Incentivos para Pequeños
Poseedores de Tierras de Vocación Forestal oAgroforestal (PINPEP) Law No 3937 (Decreto51), which was approved in late 2010 (Rights andResources Initiative 2011), the National Forest
Institute (Instituto Nacional de Bosques – INAB)
has established a program of incentives for smallscale owners of land with forestry or agroforestry
potential to engage in natural forest management
and agroforestry. Under the program, economic
incentives are available to small-scale landowners
with secure property titles in natural forest for up to
five years to support approved forest management
initiatives, and to small-scale landowners proposing
agroforestry activities on land suitable for forestry.a
Criteria and indicators. Guatemala is involved in
the Lepaterique C&I process of Central Americancountries. For the last decade the country has been

engaged in a major effort to test and adopt FSC
standards as a binding instrument for monitoring
forest management. The country has also adapted
the ITTO C&I to use as an instrument formonitoring progress towards SFM at the national
level. The Government of Guatemala used the
ITTO C&I in its submission to ITTO for thisreport.aForest policy and legislation. The present forest
law (Decreto 101-96 Ley Forestal, October 1996)
emphasizes the importance of reforestation andforest conservation and makes reference to SFM(Article 48). New implementation rules for thislaw were approved in December 2005 (Resolution
01/43), including with respect to the system of
incentives for forest management.a The Law on
Protected Areas (Ley de Áreas Protegidas, Decreto
4-89, 1989), amended in 1996 and 1997, regulates
the Guatemala System of Protected Areas (Sistema
Guatemalteco de Areas Protegidas – SIGAP).
The ministry in charge of rural development
until 2000 (Ministerio de Agricultura, Ganaderíay Alimentación – MAGA) established anenvironmental policy in 1998, identifying
sustainable development as its primary goal.
The current forest policy, which was formulated
in 1999, promotes the concept of productive
management of natural forests (fomento al manejo
productivo de bosques naturales), with the aimof making natural forests a feature of economic
development in order to conserve biodiversity andimprove the living conditions of forest-dependent
people. The policy also defines policies for forest
biodiversity and protected areas.a A national
strategy for the conservation and sustainable use of
biodiversity was approved in 1999.

Table 3 Forest area, by tenure
Ownership category
State ownership (national, state orprovincial government)
Other public entities (e.g.
municipalities, villages)
Total public
Owned by local communities and/orIndigenous groups
Private owned by firms, individuals,
other corporate

Total area Of which PFE Notes’000 ha
1367

-

934

-

2301
1531

-

212

-

Legal forest estate owned and administered exclusively bygovernment.
Community-managed, but governments invariably retain strong
authority.
Privately owned forest lands where rights cannot be unilaterally
terminated by government.
Other lands, including individually owned forests and also
forests with unclear ownership.

Source: Derived from Government of Guatemala (2010).

311

Status of tropical forest management 2011

Based on the forest policy, a strategic plan wasdeveloped that includes financial mechanisms
such as incentive payments for reforestation (e.g.
PINPEP), afforestation/reforestation under the
CDM, and payments for ecosystem services,
especially water. In 2009, the National Policy for
Rural Development (Política Nacional de Desarollo
Rural Integral) was approved that addresses forests
as an integrated element in rural landscapes.a The
national climate-change policy (2009) emphasizes
the role of forests in reducing GHG emissions,particularly through REDD+.a
Institutions involved in forests. Through acongressional decree approved in December 2000
(Decreto 90-2000), the Ministry for Environment
and Natural Resources (Ministerio de Ambientey Recursos Naturales – MARN) shares authority
over natural resources with MAGA. However, therelative responsibilities of the two ministries forforest management remain unclear.a
INAB was created in 1996 as an independentand decentralized state agency. It is responsiblefor developing SFM in natural forests and for theestablishment and management of planted forests.
MAGA chairs INAB’s board (junta directiva),
which also comprises representatives of MARN,
the private sector, civil society and the national
association of municipalities. INAB is supported
through a national incentive program (Programade Incentivos Forestales – PINFOR). INAB isalso responsible for forest inventories and the
preparation of forest management plans in bothplanted and natural forests.
The National Council of Protected Areas (Consejo
Nacional de Areas Protegidas – CONAP), establishedunder MARN in 1989, is responsible for managing
SIGAP, including the Maya Biosphere Reserve in
the Petén, the largest tract of closed humid tropicalforest in Guatemala, and the Sierra de las Minas
Biosphere Reserve. CONAP is also responsible
for the delivery and supervision of long-term
community and industrial concessions, particularlyin the multiple-use zone of the Maya Biosphere
Reserve. Some of the communities that became
involved in forest management under this concept
have managed, with international support, to certify
their forest operations.a
The forest industry is represented politically by
Gremial Forestal de Guatemala, which is also amember of the INAB board. The Cluster Forestal

312

is a multi-sectoral forum that promotes the roleof forests in Guatemalan society. The National
Association of Municipalities (Asociación Nacionalde Municipalidades) represents local governments on
the boards of INAB, CONAP and MARN. Local
governments are taking increasing responsibility
for the management of forests under a process ofdecentralization that is an expression of national
reconciliation after the civil war. Each national
institution has its own criteria for decentralization.
Municipalities are required to create environmental
offices and are encouraged to conduct reforestation
projects; municipalities can keep 50% of therevenues from concessions and harvesting licences(ITTO 2006). By the end of 2006, a total of 108
municipal forest offices had been established.a
An association of NGOs (Asociación Nacional de
Recursos Naturales y Medio Ambiente) participatesin the supervisory committee of INAB and in
the consultative groups of MARN and CONAP.
Another association, the National Council for
Sustainable Forest Management Standards (Consejo
Nacional de Estándares de Manejo Forestal Sostenible
para Guatemala) maintains a national dialogue on
forests and promotes forest management standards
and certification.

Status of forest management
Forest for production
Forest management goals vary throughout thecountry. The community forests in the highlands
consist mainly of coniferous or mixed forests andprincipally produce fuelwood and construction
wood for household consumption and the domestic
market.a In contrast, community forest operations in
the tropical broadleaved forests of the Petén produce
timber from both high-value and lesser-known
species for national and international markets, aswell as NTFPs (Tolisano & López-Selva 2010).
The Maya Biosphere Reserve was created in1990 and covers an area of 2.11 million hectares.
It has three zones: the core zone, consisting of
national parks and biotopes (747 800 hectares);the multiple-use zone, where forest concessions arelocated (864 300 hectares); and the buffer zone,
where cooperatives and municipal common lands
are located and where land use is generally restricted(about 500 000 hectares). About 540 000 hectaresof forests have been granted as forest concessions in
the multiple-use zonea; these concessions constitute

GUATEMALA

the largest FMUs in the country. Of the 18 FMUs
nationally, twelve are community concessions,four are cooperatives or municipal common lands
in mountainous areas, and two are industrial
concessions situated in the Petén.a All concessions
are required to obtain FSC forest certification
within three years of their establishment (Stoian &Rodas 2006).

Silviculture and species selection. Forest
concessions in the Petén are managed according to apolycyclic silvicultural system with a cycle of 30–40
years.a The logging intensity is 1.5–3 trees (3–4 m3)
per hectare. Thirty per cent of commercial trees must
be kept as seed trees.a The minimum cutting diameterfor caoba and Cedrela odorata (cedro) is 60 cm (55 cm
in certain FMUs); for other species it is 45 cm.

The 1996 Forest Law made the preparation offorest management plans compulsory for long-term
forest users. Timber harvesting in the PFE requires
an approved forest management plan and a licenceissued through INAB; INAB-approved forest
management plans are required for planted forests,
including agroforests. Forest concessions in theMaya Biosphere Reserve must fulfil similar review
and licensing procedures, but through CONAP.a
Some operators have cited the overlap in forest
management responsibilities between INAB and
CONAP as a bureaucratic complication.aOf the 424 known indigenous tree species, 320 are
considered to be suitable for certain uses (ITTO2006); about 25 species are traded. Traditionally
important commercial species in the mountainous
areas are pines (Pinus oocarpa, P. pseudostrobus
and P. maxiinoi), cypress and Quercus spp (roble).
Caoba and cedro are the main commercial species
in the hardwood forests of the Petén; despite heavy
logging in the past 60 years or so, both species
occur in abundance in all forest layers (ITTO2006). Table 4 shows five species that constitutethe most commonly harvested species for industrial
roundwood.

INAB has adopted a methodology prepared by
the former Regional Forest Program for Central
America and the Tropical Research and Higher
Education Centre (Centro Agronómico Tropical deInvestigación y Enseñanza) involving the preparationof simplified management plans for hardwood
forests and forest management plans for Central
American conifer forests (ITTO 2006). In 2008,
a total area of 692 200 hectares in the PFE wascovered by management plansa, 483 000 hectares ofwhich were in tropical hardwood forests, 172 000
hectares of which were in mixed forests and 37 200
hectares of which were in pine forests. These areas
are unchanged since 2005 (ITTO 2006).
The most serious problem in forest management
is extensive small-scale illegal logging of single
trees. In the tropical hardwood forests, Swietenia
macrophylla (caoba) and the various species of
Cedrela are the species most targeted by illegal
logging. In the highlands, illegal logging particularly
threatens pinabete and cypress (ITTO 2006).

Planted forest and trees outside the forest. The
total planted forest area in 2008 was estimatedat 85 000 hectaresa, an increase of about 14 000
hectares over the estimate in ITTO (2006). Most
plantations consist of local pine species. About 2.2
million hectares of non-forested land are considered
suitable for tree-planting.a
Relatively small areas of tree plantations arescattered throughout the country; these are often
established without a clear purpose (ITTO 2006).
Four conifer species (P. caribaea, P. maximinoi, P.
oocarpa and C. lusitanica) and two broadleaved
species (Tectona grandis – teak, teca – 4000 hectares,
and Gmelina arborea) make up 70% of existing
plantations, and Hevea brasiliensis is planted forboth rubber and timber (ibid.). The forest policy
seeks to encourage the establishment of 15–20 000
hectares per year through the use of incentives inorder to generate wood and other products for theforest industry and local consumption.a

Table 4 Commonly harvested species for industrial roundwood
Species

Notes

Swietenia macrophylla (caoba)*
Lonchocarpus castilloi (manchiche)*Calophyllum brasiliense (santa maría)*
Bucida buceras (pucte)*
Pinus spp (tajibo)*

50% of total export value in 2008, 17% in volume.
Mainly for domestic use.
Mainly for domestic use.
Exported for flooring and parqueting.
Most important timber for domestic use.

*
Also listed in ITTO (2006).
Source: Government of Guatemala (2010).

313

Status of tropical forest management 2011

Forest certification. The National Council for
Sustainable Forest Management Standards hasdeveloped national certification standards forboth natural and planted forests, which are now
implemented throughout the country.a With
international support, considerable effort was madein the period 2002–05 to certify forests in the
PFE. By December 2005, a total area of 522 870
hectares in 15 FMUs had been certified under the
FSC umbrella (ITTO 2006). In December 2010,
there were eight FSC certificates, of which two
were group certificates and six were certified FMUs
in community concessions; the total certified area
was 481 440 hectares (FSC 2010), the majority ofwhich was in the Maya Biosphere Reserve.
While there has been only a relatively small decline
in the certified forest area since the last survey,
there is a concern that the trend is downward rather
than up. In particular, the considerable transaction
costs incurred by local communities to maintaincertification status, and the lack of adequate pricepremiums for certified timber and timber products,
raise questions over the long-term viability ofcertification in the Guatemalan context.
Estimate of the area of forest sustainably
managed for production. About 700 000 hectaresof the production PFE are under some sort ofmanagement, of which about 260 000 hectares areconifer and mixed forests, both natural and planted.
Assessments of the management of community
forest concessions indicate that forest management
is being applied in most of these community
forests. At least 630 000 hectares of natural-forest
production PFE are considered to be under SFM(Table 5), comprising the certified forests and thosenatural pine forests and mixed forests managed
according to defined management principles.b
Timber production and trade. Total roundwood
production, including for fuelwood, was estimatedat 16 million m3 in 2008 (Tolisano & López-Selva

2010). Total industrial roundwood production
in 2009 was 443 000 m3 (of which an estimated363 000 m3 was coniferous), slightly morethan the estimated 419 000 m3 in 2004 (ITTO
2011). Approximately 90% of harvested timber is
destined for the national market. Total sawnwood
production declined from about 200 000 m3 in2000 to 54 000 m3 in 2009 (ibid.); however, thedata are unreliable and it is estimated that a largepart of the timber production is processed by the
informal sector and thus is not recorded in official
statistics.
About 75% of total sawnwood production isexported to other countries in Central America
and the Caribbean and to North America, mostly
as certified products. Caoba is the most important
export species by value, followed by Calophyllum
brasiliense (santa maría), Cybistax donnell-smithii(palo blanco), cedro and Castilla elastica (castilla).
A considerable volume of timber – up to 30–50%
of the official roundwood production – is harvested
illegally (Stoian & Rodas 2006). Fuelwood andcharcoal are important products in local markets.
Non-timber forest products. Amonginternationally traded NTFPs are pine resin,pine seeds from mountain forests, copal (Bursera
bipinnata, Protium copal and other species), xate
leaves (from the Chamaedorea palm), Pimenta
dioica (pimiento) and chicle gum (Manilkara
zapota – a dominant tree in the primary forests of
the Petén). An estimated 4.2 million pounds of xate
and 300 000 pounds of chicle gum are produced
annually, worth US$660 000 and US$ 310 000,
respectively.a Community concession-holders havelong-standing experience with forest enterprises
through the management, harvesting and marketingof NTFPs, in particular chicle gum and xate.
Another species used as an NTFP is hombre grande(Quassia amara), a natural biocide used in organic
agriculture in the Petén.

Table 5 Management of the production PFE (’000 hectares)
Reporting
year

Total

Available for
harvesting

2005*
2010

1140
1140

540
540**,‡

*
**
‡

314

NaturalWithmanagement
plans
697
697‡

Certified

520
481

672

71

PlantedWith
management
plans
27

630

85

27‡

Sustainably
managedTotal

As reported in ITTO (2006).
Comprising timber concessions, community concessions and community forests.
Since more recent data were unavailable, assumed unchanged since 2005 (as reported in ITTO 2006).

Certified

80

GUATEMALA

Forest carbon. It is estimated that more than
60% of Guatemala’s GHG emissions are caused
by deforestation and forest fires (Governmentof Guatemala 2008). Thus, efforts to reduce
deforestation and unmanaged fires could produce asignificant reduction in national GHG emissions.
Gibbs et al. (2007) estimated national-level forest
biomass carbon stock in the range 787–1150 MtC.
FAO (2010a), in contrast, estimated it at only 281
MtC.
Guatemala is one of 37 countries selected by the
Forest Carbon Partnership Facility to prepare
its national REDD+ strategy, and the country’s
readiness idea note was approved in 2008.
Guatemala has been participating in the REDD+
Partnership since 2010 and is an observer in
UN-REDD. Table 6 summarizes Guatemala’s
current forest carbon potential.

Forest for protection
Soil and water. In Guatemala, in situ and ex situ
biodiversity and forest conservation is carried out
under the jurisdiction of MARN, the associated
National Council for Protected Areas, and INAB.
The system of protected areas, SIGAP, comprises
nearly 950 000 hectares of special protection forests(zonas de amortiguamiento).a An estimated 201 900
hectares of forest land are managed primarily forsoil and water protection; this includes the area
managed by PINFOR (18 200 hectares) and several
pilot forests (13 000 hectares), as well as 24 700
hectares of protected forests in the Manantiales
reserve and the forest area of the Sierra de la Minas
Biosphere Reserve (146 000 hectares of a total
protected area of 236 000 hectares).a The Direct
Forest Support Pilot Program (Programa Piloto de
Apoyos Forestales Directos) finances the sustainable
protection and conservation of natural forests byproviding payments for conservation activities toprotect watersheds, particularly natural forests, andwater resources. Such payments are designed to

A specimen of caoba (Swietenia macrophylla) in the Petén.

reduce the conversion of forest land to agriculture
and to improve the security of water supplies inrural areas. Payments are provided to beneficiaries
for five years. An estimated 220 registered owners
are now participating in the project, with more than
33 000 hectares of natural forest under protection.a
Biological diversity. Guatemala is a very biodiverse
country, with flora and fauna representative ofboth temperate and tropical America. CONAP(2008) reported the total number of plant species
in Guatemala at 10 364 species, although it also
noted that floristic research in Guatemala is at an
early stage of development. There are 6463 known
species of flowering plant, 28 species of conifer,
637 species of fern, 527 species of orchid and 519
species of moss (ibid.). The most recent count ofvertebrate fauna reported 3025 species, including
735 bird species, 244 mammal species, 143

Table 6 Forest carbon potential
Biomass
forestcarbon(MtC)% forestwithcanopycover >60%

Deforestation/
degradation
potential to2030

787–1150

51++

Enhancement Forest areachangeof carbon
sink capacity monitoring
capacity
to 2030+++

Forest/GHG
inventory
capacity+

Importance Engagementinof forest
international
fire/
REDD+
biomass
processes
burning+++++++ high; ++ medium; + low; estimate of national forest carbon based on Gibbs et al. (2007); estimate of % total forest with canopy cover>60% based on UNEP-WCMC (2010).

315

Status of tropical forest management 2011

amphibian species, 243 reptile species, and 1033
fish species (IARNA 2009). Thirteen mammals,
nine birds, seven reptiles, 81 amphibians, three
invertebrates and five plants found in forests arelisted as critically endangered, endangered orvulnerable on the IUCN red list of threatened
species (IUCN 2011). Two plants (including theconifer Abies guatemalensis) are listed in CITES
Appendix I, 288 (including Swietenia macrophylla
and S. humilis) are listed in Appendix II and two arelisted in Appendix III (UNEP-WCMC 2011).

protected areas are considered to be part of the PFE(ITTO 2006). Forty-three reserves in the SIGAP
are smaller than 1000 hectares and five are larger
than 100 000 hectares. More than 150 private
natural reserves covering about 30 000 hectares
are registered with CONAP, and several additional
properties are in the process of being registered.a
CONAP maintains responsibility for legally
recognizing private natural reserves and INAB
collaborates with reserve operators on projects,
including payments for ecosystem services.a

According to the list of endangered species
published by CONAP, there was an increase of
1.3% in the number of endangered plant species
from 1999 to 2006 (CONAP 2008).

Estimate of the area of forest sustainably
managed for protection. Little information isavailable for estimating the extent of protection
PFE under SFM. Those areas protected for waterand soil conservation are considered to be under
SFM because they are subject to well-resourced
management programs, as are the 30 000 hectaresof private reserves, which are mostly used for
ecotourism (Table 7).

Protective measures in production forests.
Concession-holders are required, among otherthings, to conserve seed trees, set aside areasfrom which tree-felling is excluded, make special
provisions for biological corridors, regulate hunting,and conserve endangered plants and animals (ITTO2006).
Extent of protected areas. Legally protected areas(i.e. those in the SIGAP), comprising both forest
and non-forested land, cover about 3.3 million
hectares (Box 1), or 30% of the national territory.
This is about 200 000 hectares more than reported
in ITTO (2006). However, some of the ecoregions
specified in Box 1, although nominally forest, arelikely to be partly without forest cover. Forty-sevenof the 121 protected areas in Guatemala are interconnected.a About 1.2 million hectares of thoseSocioeconomic aspects
Economic aspects. Guatemala’s forest sector
is estimated to contribute approximately 2.5%
of GDP through the production of timber and
NTFPs. It generates an estimated 37 000 jobs,
involving about 1.5% of the economically active
population.a
Livelihood values. Hunting and the gatheringof edible plants such as Manilkara zapota havebeen of great importance for the Mayan culture
for centuries. In the humid forest zone, bothBox 1 Distribution of Guatemala’s protected areas, by ecoregion
Ecoregion*
Atlantic humid forests
Pine-oak forests
Motagua Valley thornshrub
Petén Veracruz humid forests
Sierra Madre Chiapas humid forests
Yucatan humid forests
Central American montane forests
Central American dry forests
Mangroves (Belizian coast)
Mangroves (Tehuantepec-El Manchon)
Mangroves (northern region)
Total

Extent of SIGAP protectedareas (ha)% of total
ecoregion

172 800
234 000
46 0002 523 000
7100
11 300251 000
21 40028 5004600
1800
3 301 500

22
8
20
53
1
93
42
3
80
5
94

Ecoregions without SIGAP areas are the Chiapas montane forests, the depression dry forests, and the Pacific coast dry mangrove
forests.
Source: CONAP (2008).

*

316

GUATEMALA

Table 7 Management of the protection PFE (’000 hectares)*

Reportingyear

Protection PFE

Attributed to IUCN
categories I–IV

Allocated for soil
and waterWith management
plans

Sustainably
managed

2005*
2010

1240
1240

836
836

184
235

-

265

As reported in ITTO (2006).

Indigenous communities and colonists use forest
products in their households; products include thefibres of bayal (Desmoncus spp) and sabal (palmleaves) for housing. In the highlands, fuelwood
harvested in forests is the most important source ofenergy (ITTO 2006).
Social relations. Guatemala has 24 ethnic groups.
More than two-thirds of the population is of
Indigenous descent and 61% lives in rural areas(Tolisano & López-Selva 2010). There is a long
tradition of forest conservation, particularly in thehighlands. For many years Guatemala has been
implementing a decentralization policy aimed at
engaging municipal governments and traditionaland Indigenous communities in the issuing of
permits, monitoring, and the enforcement of
national policies.a Local institutions are in charge offorest administration, and a village council generally
deals with forest-related issues. However, such local
institutions, communities and local NGOs havelong been excluded from forest management, except
in a few cases in the Petén. Since the end of the civil
war there has been participation in the classificationand management of protected areas throughnational and regional roundtables (mesas de diálogo)
and in forest development through consultation
roundtables convened by INAB.

forests and agroforestry. A relatively high percentageof the production PFE is certified and more thanhalf of it is considered to be under SFM.

Key points•

Guatemala has an estimated PFE of 2.46
million hectares (compared with 2.45 million
hectares in 2005), comprising 1.14 million
hectares of natural production forest (asestimated for 2005), 1.24 million hectares ofprotection forest (as estimated for 2005) and85 000 hectares of planted forest (comparedwith 71 000 hectares in 2005).

•

An estimated 630 000 hectares of the
production PFE are under SFM, including
481 000 hectares of certified forest. An
estimated 265 000 hectares of the protection
PFE are considered to be under SFM.

•

The system of protected areas and themonitoring of biodiversity are both longestablished. Information on the status ofprotected-area management is limited, however.

•Considerable efforts have been made in the last
decade or so to reorganize the control andmanagement of forest resources; this has
included the decentralization of management
and law enforcement. There have also beensignificant efforts to develop an ongoing multistakeholder dialogue on forest conservation anddevelopment•

There is long-standing experience in the
management of conifer forests. The concession
management policy introduced in lowland
rainforests 6–8 years ago continues to play animportant economic and ecological role in theregion and is helping to improve livelihoods andsupport forest conservation. Nevertheless, there
are considerable threats, including illegal
logging and drug-trafficking.

•A large area (more than one-third) of the
production PFE is certified, but there areconcerns about the long-term viability of

Summary
Forests play an important role in Guatemala. In
the uplands, large areas are owned by communities,
who manage natural pine and mixed forests for
multiple uses. In the rainforests of the Petén, large
community-run timber concessions allow local
people to improve their livelihoods on the basis offorest resources. However, SFM is hindered by highrates of deforestation and forest degradation driven
by agricultural expansion, mining, illegal logging,drug-trafficking and other threats. Great efforts arebeing made in the country to maintain an active
dialogue on forest-based development and various
incentive programs are in place to protect existing
forests and support the development of planted

317

Status of tropical forest management 2011

certifying forests given the considerable
transaction costs incurred by local communities
to maintain certification status and the lack ofadequate price premiums for certified timber
and timber products.

EndnotesaGovernment of Guatemala (2010).

b

ITTO estimate.

References and other sources
CONAP (2008). Guatemala y su Biodiversidad: Un EnfoqueHistórico, Cultural y Económico. Consejo Nacional deÁreas Protegidas, Guatemala City, Guatemala.
FAO (2010a). Global forest resources assessment 2010
country report: Guatamala (available at http://www.fao.
org/forestry/fra/67090/en/).

ITTO (2006). Status of Tropical Forest Management 2005. ITTO,
Yokohama, Japan (available at http://www.itto.int/en/sfm/).
ITTO (2011, website accessed February 2011). Annual Review
statistics database (available at http://www.itto.int/annual_
review_output/?mode=searchdata).
IUCN (2011, website accessed February 2011). IUCN red list of
threatened species (available at www.redlist.org).
Mansourian, S., Belokurov, A. & Stephenson, P. (2009). The roleof forest protected areas in adaptation to climate change.
Unasylva 60, 231/232.
Rights and Resources Initiative (2011, website accessed February2011). News from RRI: Forest community actions in
Guatemala achieve passage of PINPEP law (available at
http://www.rightsandresources.org/blog.php?id=632).
Spalding, M., Kainumu, M. & Collins, L. (2010). World Atlas ofMangroves. Earthscan, London, UK.

FAO (2010b). Global Forest Resources Assessment 2010 Full
Report. FAO, Rome, Italy.

Stoian, D. & Rodas, A. (2006). Community forest enterprisedevelopment in Guatemala: a case study of Cooperativa
Carmelita R.L. Rights and Resources Initiative,
Washington, DC, United States (available at http://www.
rightsandresources.org/documents/files/doc_220.pdf )j.

FSC (2010, website accessed December 2010). FSC certification
database (searchable database available at http://info.fsc.org/
PublicCertificateSearch).

UNDP (2009). Human Development Report 2009. United
Nations Development Programme, New York, UnitedStates.

Gibbs, H., Brown, S., Niles, J. & Foley, J. (2007). Monitoringand estimating tropical forest carbon stocks: making REDDa reality. Environmental Research Letters 2 (available at http://
iopscience.iop.org/1748-9326/2/4/045023/fulltext).

UNEP-WCMC (2010). Spatial analysis of forests withinprotected areas in ITTO countries. Data prepared for
ITTO. UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, UK.

Government of Guatemala (2001). Primera Communicación
Nacional sobre Cambio Climático. Ministerio de Ambiente y
Recursos Naturales, Guatemala City, Guatemala.

UNEP-WCMC (2011, website accessed April 2011).
UNEP-WCMC species database: CITES-listed species(searchable database at available at www.cites.org/eng/
resources/species.html ).

Government of Guatemala (2008). Guatemala readiness planidea note. Submitted to the Forest Carbon Partnership
Facility.

United Nations Population Division (2010, website accessed
July 2010). World population prospects: the 2008 revision(searchable database available at http://esa.un.org/UNPP/).

Government of Guatemala (2010). Encuesta de informaciónpara indicadores a nivel nacional. Submission to ITTO by
INAB, Guatemala City, Guatemala.

Tolisano, J. & López-Selva, M. (2010). Guatemala Biodiversity
and Tropical Forest Assessment. United States Agency forInternational Development, Washington DC, United States.

IARNA (2009). Perfil Ambiental De Guatemala 2008: Señales
Ambientales Críticas Y Su Relación Con El Desarrollo.
Instituto de Agricultura, Recursos Naturales y Ambiente,
Universidad Rafael Landivar, Guatemala.

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GUYANA

GuyanaClathrotropis brachypetala (aromata). Seasonal
forests have a lower canopy and include deciduoustrees; they are found in the North Rupununi andupper Berbice areas. Dry evergreen forests occupy
belts of leached white sands and are also foundthroughout the Pakaraima mountains (ITTO2006).

Forest resources
In 2010 the estimated population of Guyana
was 761 000 people (United Nations Population
Division 2010) and the country is ranked 114th outof 182 countries in UNDP’s Human Development
Index (UNDP 2009). It has a very humid climate
and can be divided into four biogeographical zones:
the narrow coastal plain; the ‘rolling hills’ – anextensive, forested area with sandy acid infertile
soils reaching 90 m above sea level; a Precambrianlowland region of tropical rainforest; and, bordering
Venezuela and Brazil, the Pakaraima mountains, aforested sandstone plateau 1000 m or more above
sea level. FAO (2010) estimated that Guyana had
15.2 million hectares of natural forest in 2010,
which is 71% of the total land area (21.5 million
hectares). Guyana has an estimated 39 600 hectaresof mangroves, the largest tracts of which are in thenorthern half of the country (Spalding et al. 2010).
Forest types. The Government of Guyana
recognizes the following forest types: dry evergreen
forest, marsh forest; montane forest; swamp
forest mangrove forest; and mixed forest.a The
composition of the forest changes considerablyfrom north to south and reflects varied topographic
and geological conditions. Mixed forest is the mostcommon type and the most important source oftimber; common species include Mora gonggrijpii(morabukea), Chlorocardium rodiei (greenheart),
Vouacapoua macropetala (sarabebeballi) andPermanent forest estate. About 13.6 million
hectares have been classified as state foresta,
although FAO (2010) estimated that the actualarea of this estate is 12.2 million hectares. About
6.85 million hectares of state forest is allocatedto commercial use and 1.11 million hectares toresearch and protection.b The remaining state
forest land, mainly in the south of the country,
is unallocated; a lack of ready access and long
distances to market make the commercial
harvesting of these forests economically infeasible
at present. Gazetted state forest is strictly allocatedfor production, harvesting, biodiversity and research
and will not or is not converted in anyway to
non-forested uses.a Therefore, all state forest may be
regarded as part of the PFE (Table 1).
Agricultural leases may be issued by the Guyana
Lands and Surveys Commission for areas outsidestate forest. If an agricultural lease overlaps withareas within state forest the lessee must apply to the
Guyana Forestry Commission (GFC) prior to any
removal of timber.b

Forest ecosystem healthDeforestation and forest degradation. Most of
Guyana’s forests are still intact, unexploited andnot threatened by the expansion of agriculture,
although more than half of the forest estate has
been categorized as ‘naturally regenerating’ (Table2). In its submission for this report the Governmentof Guyana did not report the area of forest affectedby mining, slash-and-burn agriculture or fire.a
The total area of forest formally converted toagriculture to 2009 was 25 121 hectares. FAO(2010) estimated the deforestation rate in Guyana
in the period 2005–10 at 0%. According to a recent
study (GFC & Pöyry Forest Industry 2010), thedeforestation rate for the period 1990–2009 was
0.02% per year, increasing to 0.06% in 2010.

319

Status of tropical forest management 2011

Table 1 Permanent forest estate
Reportingyear

Estimatedtotal forest
area, range(million ha)

Total closed
natural forest(’000 ha)

2005*
2010

16.9
15.2–20.5

16 916
13 600*****‡†

PFE (’000 hectares)
Production
Protection
NaturalPlanted

Total

5450
11 090‡6442
12 212†

12
12a

980
1110

As reported in ITTO (2006).
Calculated using the ratio of forest with greater than 60% forest cover estimated by UNEP-WCMC (2010) (89.2%) and the total
natural forest area estimated by FAO (2010).
Includes that part of the Iwokrama forest allocated for production. Also includes 4.24 million hectares of state forest currently
unallocated to either production or protection.
Includes forest on Amerindian lands within the state forest estate but excludes forest on private property.

Table 2 Forest condition
PFE

Non-PFE

Total’000 haArea of primary forest
Area of degraded primary forest
Area of secondary forest
Area of degraded forest land

-

-

6790
0
8415*
0

*
‘Other naturally regenerating forest’.
Source: FAO (2010).

Vulnerability of forests to climate change.
The mean annual temperature is projected toincrease by 0.9–3.3 °C by the 2060s (McSweeney
et al. undated). All climate-change projections
indicate substantial increases in the frequency ofdays and nights that are considered hot in thecurrent climate. This will affect forest growth andincrease the vulnerability of forest ecosystems.
Guyana’s low-lying coastal plains are vulnerable
to sea-level rises that may occur due to the effects
of global warming (ibid.). In its submission to the
UNFCCC, Guyana completed a vulnerability andadaptation assessment, the first step towards theformulation of a climate-change adaptation strategy
for Guyana. The first draft of the Low Carbon
Development Strategy was published in June2009 and the third draft in May 2010, outlining
a comprehensive approach to fostering Guyana’s
development while combating climate change(Office of the President 2010).

SFM policy framework
Forest tenure. The bulk of Guyana’s forests isowned by the state (Table 3). Under the Forest
Law and national forest policy, the ownership of allforest resources, except those on private property
and Amerindian (Indigenous) Lands, are vested

320

in the state. About 1.31 million hectares of forest
has been formally gazetted as Amerindian lands.
State Lands, formerly called Crown Lands, arecontrolled by the Commissioner of Lands andSurveys. The GFC, the Guyana Geology and Mines
Commission (GGMC) and the Lands and Surveys
Department administer, respectively, land that isused for forestry, mining and agriculture. Each ofthese three government agencies may issue titles
for different purposes over the same land (National
Development Strategy Secretariat 2000).
Criteria and indicators. Guyana was a participant
in the development of the Tarapoto C&I, which
was coordinated by the Amazon Cooperation Treaty
Organization. In 2001 the GFC reviewed both theTarapoto and ITTO C&I in the development of
a new national forest plan. The submission of theGovernment of Guyana to ITTO for this report
was in the ITTO C&I reporting format.a
Forest policy and legislation. The overall objectiveof Guyana’s national forest policy, as set out inits 1997 National Forest Policy Statement, is“the conservation, protection, management andutilisation of the nation’s forest resources, while
ensuring that the productive capacity of the forests
for both goods and services is maintained orenhanced”.a

GUYANA

Table 3 Forest area, by tenure
Ownership category
State ownership (national, state orprovincial government)
Other public entities (e.g.
municipalities, villages)
Total public
Owned by local communities and/orIndigenous groups
Privately owned by individuals, firms,
other corporate
Total

Total area Of which PFE Notes’000 ha12 200

12 2000-

12 200
1307

-

1676

-

2983

-

Managed by the GFC.

Gazetted Amerindian lands.
Amerindian areas that have not been gazetted; agriculturalleases; transported properties*; etc.

*

Privately owned. The owner of a transported property theoretically owns the land from the centre of the earth to the sky above
subject to government interests (e.g. airplanes flying overhead, minerals, etc).
Source: ITTO estimate based on data in Government of Guyana (2009) and FAO (2010).

The specific objectives are to:•Promote sustainable and efficient forest
activities which utilize the broad range of forest
resources and contribute to national
development while allowing fair returns to local
and foreign entrepreneurs and investors.

•

Achieve improved sustainable forest resourceyields while ensuring the conservation of
ecosystems, biodiversity and the environment.

•

Ensure watershed protection and rehabilitationby preventing and arresting the erosion of soils
and the degradation of forests, grazing lands,
soil and water; promoting natural regeneration,afforestation and reforestation; and protecting
the forest against fire, pests and other hazards.

The policy was prepared over two years through aprocess of broad consultation with sector interest
groups and was formally approved by Cabinet in
October 1997. It recognizes that there have beenchanges in Guyana’s economic, social and politicalenvironment over the nearly 50 years since theprevious forest policy was published. It marks asignificant shift in emphasis from the developmentof the timber resources to a broader approach to
management for multiple goods and services for thenational benefit.
The Forest Act – Chapter 67.01 of the Laws ofGuyana – governed the administration of Guyana’s
forests from 1953 to January 2009, when the
Parliament passed the Forest Bill (2009). As of
October 2009, however, this Bill was still awaiting
assent by the President of Guyana. When it comes
into effect it will repeal Law 67.01 (and others)
and is designed to “consolidate and amend the law

relating to forests”. Specifically, it sets out to providefor:•

The sustainable forest management of state
forests.

•

The protection and conservation of forests(excluding the Iwokrama forest, Kaieteur
National Park, and any other area designated asa conservation area, all of which are dealt with
under other laws).

•

The regulation of forest operations and activities
relating to forest produce and quality control forvalue-added forest produce, having regard to
Guyana’s international legal obligations.

Features of the Forest Bill (2009) include thefollowing:•

Before granting or renewing any concession overan area of state forest 8097 hectares or smaller,
the GFC shall– by public notice invite applications for aconcession over the area and notify thelocations where the relevant documents
may be inspected or bought–•

provide any other publicity that the GFC
considers necessary to bring the invitation
to the attention of persons likely to beinterested in obtaining a concession over
the area.

The GFC shall make available for inspection atits offices and for sale at a reasonable pricecopies of all documents in its possession
concerning the forest produce and other featuresof the area that the GFC considers relevant to
the preparation of applications.

321

Status of tropical forest management 2011•

A consolidated effort towards maintaining
environmental integrity and social development
in communities by using relevant sections ofboth the Amerindian Act (2006) and theEnvironmental Protection Act (1996). Specificprovisions are made for community forest
management and extractive and primaryprocessing forest operations.

•

Recognition of the importance of ensuring
sustainability in forest resource use. Part 2 of
the Bill deals with SFM, recognizing that theminister has overall directive input on all
activities.

•

Forest concession agreements are streamlinedwith specific size classes. More importantly, thesystem for granting and renewing these
agreements is systematic and transparent inkeeping with international best practices.

•

A proposal to make mandatory the submissionof annual and management plans by larger
concessions, and a further stipulation that all
harvesting activities are to be carried out incompliance with approved plans.

•

Allowance for competitive bidding in forest area
allocation in the event of multiple applications,
thereby improving transparency in the process.

•

It provides communities with a clear means ofacquiring and securing rights to manage forest
areas and of benefiting from their local forest
while ensuring sustainability, stimulating
income generation and fostering environmental
stability.

•

•

•

•

It addresses areas such as afforestation,
occupational health and safety, forest
conservation, the maintenance of soil and water
quality, and the preservation of biologicaldiversity.
It guards against pricing below the true market
value. The GFC and the Forest Products andMarketing Council of Guyana (FPDMC) advise
stakeholders on prevailing market prices.
The clauses on forest offences and the appeals
which may be made are also strengthened toreflect more severe penalties for abuse of power,
negligence and misconduct.
It allows for the more efficient and optimal useof Guyana’s state forest resources bystrengthening the revenue system. This is done322

by creating a more efficient revenue structure
which seeks to capture area management fees,
fees for the standing stock of timber, an
incentive to encourage SFM, and other related
charges. The Bill provides for these monies to be
paid over to the Consolidated andContingencies Fund.
•

It provides a robust mechanism for theauthorization of state forest leases in cases of achange in ownership and effective control.

Institutions involved in forests. The GFC
was created in 1979 under the GFC Act 67:02.
In 2008 a new law, the GFC Act 2007, waspassed by Parliament to “repeal and replace
the Guyana Forestry Commission Act 1979,
re-establish the Guyana Forestry Commission,and provide for incidental matters”. The GFC isa semi-autonomous public agency with the aimof encouraging the development and growth offorestry in Guyana on a sustainable basis. Amongother things it advises the Minister of Agriculture
on and carries out forest policy, and administers
the Forests Act, including by carrying out theCommission’s functions under that Act andcollecting and recovering all fees, charges, levies,
premiums, fines, penalties, costs, expenses, andother monies payable under the Act.
The GFC is also mandated to:•

Prepare plans, codes of practice and guidelines
for the conservation and management of forests.

•

Research, collate, analyse, prepare anddisseminate data, statistics and otherinformation about forests and all aspects offorestry, including forest ecology and the use offorest produce.

•

Make forest inventories.

•

Provide or facilitate education and training inforestry and forestry-related jobs.

•

Provide forestry extension services and give
advice to persons and communities interested or
involved in forestry.

•

Provide an inspection, certification andaccreditation service for quality control of forest
produce.

•

Represent the Government in regional andinternational forestry meetings and negotiations,and in relation to Guyana’s international
obligations concerning forestry.

GUYANAThe GFC is a member of the Cabinet
Sub-Committee on Natural Resources andEnvironment. This body, comprising policy andtechnical representatives, provides guidance andtechnical support to Cabinet. Its work is supportedby the Natural Resources and Environment
Advisory Committee, which is chaired by thePrime Minister and coordinated by the Adviser
to the President on Sustainable Development.
In 2010, 260 people were employed in publicforest institutions, including 60 with university
degrees or an equivalent qualification. Total public
expenditure in the forest sector in 2010 was 500
million Guyanese dollars.b
At the operational level, the GFC works in close
collaboration with the FPDMC and the Forestry
Training Centre. The Minister of Agriculture has
established a Technical Committee comprising
the GFC and the Forest Producers Association(FPA) and a Ministerial Committee comprising
the GFC, the FPA and the Guyana Manufacturing
and Services Association as part of efforts to fostera closer working relationship with the private sector
and industry stakeholders. These fora allow open
dialogue and act as problem-solving mechanisms
for issues related to natural resource management,
including in areas of harvesting, forest industry andexport regulations.
One forest producers’ association and a numberof smaller, community-based loggers’ associations
represent loggers and sawmillers in the forest sector
and endeavour to ensure collaboration in activities
such as training, information, public awareness andinstitutional development. National environmental
NGOs are weak, but international environmentalorganizations are assuming independent roles inforest control and information-sharing, partly incollaboration with the forest administration.

exploratory permits (see below) or if they are for‘forest conservation operations’, which are definedby the Bill as the preservation of forests for the
purpose of carbon sequestration or any otherform of environmental service1; the conservationof biological diversity; or ecotourism. Forest
operations under these larger concessions can only
be carried out after the GFC has approved a forest
management plan of at least five years’ duration andan annual operations plan for the concession area.
Exploratory permits may be granted under theBill for exploratory operations within a specified
area of state forest with a view to later applying fora concession in the area. The Bill does not statea limit on the size of the forest area that may beallocated under such permits. The Bill also specifies
the parameters of community forest managementagreements.
In its submission to ITTO, the Government of
Guyana reported forest use on the basis of theForest Act (1953), since the Forest Bill (2009) was
yet to come into effect.a Under the Forest Act,
forest harvesting permits are allocated according to
the following three categories:•

Timber sales agreements (TSAs): concessions are
granted on a lease of 20 years or more over an
area of 24 000 hectares or more. As of June
2010, 25 TSAs had been allocated to local andinternational companies covering an area of
4.53 million hectares ( 47.7% of all state
forest).a The average size of a TSA is 75 000
hectares (ranging from 50 000 to 100 000
hectares), and companies may hold more than
one TSA at a time.

•

Wood cutting leases (WCLs): licences are granted
on 3–10-year leases for areas of 8000–24 281
hectares. As of June 2010, there were twolicences covering a total area of about 30 500
hectares.a•State forest permits (SFPs): cutting permits are
granted on an annual basis for areas of state
forest up to 8094 hectares in size. SFPs are
generally issued to small-scale operators; 386
permits covering a total area of 1.35 million
hectares were allocated as of June 2010 (14.2%

Status of forest management
Forest for production
The Forest Bill (2009) makes significant changes tothe allocation of state forest for harvesting. Under
the Bill, the GFC may grant forest concessions
up to 8097 hectares in size for the harvesting offorest produce, including timber. Concessions
may be larger on application by holders of

1 This provision is designed to allow conservation organizations to pay anamount equivalent to that which would have been paid for commercial
harvesting rights for the exclusion of timber harvesting from particularforest areas.

323

Status of tropical forest management 2011of all commercial allocations).a,b There are also
permits called 'SFPs in conversion'.2•

State forest exploratory permits: before a WCL ora TSA is issued, a three-year exploratory permit
may be granted to allow the collection of
information for the preparation of aninvestment proposal, an environmental andsocial impact assessment, and a forest
management plan. In June 2010, six
exploratory permits covering an area of
797 000 hectares were in effect.a

In 1998 the GFC introduced the Code ofPractice for Timber Harvesting based on FAO’s
Model Code of Forest Practice. The Code, which
was revised in 2002 (GFC 2002), prescribesinternationally accepted standards for exclusionareas and buffer zones, 100% pre-harvest inventory,road construction, felling, skidding, trucking,operational and camp hygiene, and occupational
health and safety. Besides exclusion areas andbuffer zones, the Code restricts logging on slopes
greater than 40% and sets a minimum distance of
10 m between harvest trees to minimize the size of
canopy openings.
The Code of Practice for Timber Harvesting
is not prescribed under the Forest Bill (2009).
Instead, the Bill specifies that the GFC “may at
any time submit to the Minister a proposed codeof practice to regulate any class or description offorest operations”. Such a code, if adopted by theminister, must then be adhered to during forest
operations.
Guyana’s forests are characterized by a
predominance of relatively slow-growing,high-density timber species and smaller trees
compared with most other tropical regions due tothe inherently low fertility of soils derived from theancient Guiana Shield. Commercial timber occurs
in spatially segregated ‘reefs’ or stands in which one
or two commercial species dominate. Nevertheless,a large proportion of the commercial stock in thesestands is defective (hollow or crooked), possibly
due to the poor nutrient status of the soils anda very low rate of natural disturbance (which
2 These are areas exceeding 24 000 hectares that were previously issued
as SFPs. These concessions are being regularized and some are being
converted to the larger-sized category (TSAs) while others are being
reduced to the smaller category (SFPs). The use of these areas is forsustainable production. The word ‘conversion’ therefore does not referto land use but to a process of recategorization. These areas were notincluded in the figures provided for TSAs or SFPs.

324

seems to have resulted in overmature stands), andcommercially viable stands are usually separated bystands that are nearly devoid of commercial species.
Forest harvesting is, therefore, highly selective; on
average, 2–3 trees are felled per hectare, with anaverage yield of about 7 m3. The national forest
plan guidelines prescribe a cut of up to 20 m3 perhectare on a 60-year cycle. Owing to the limited
range of commonly used species, however, theextraction rate is only about half this maximum
allowable cut.
Guyana has developed principles, policies andguidelines for improved forest management andtimber harvesting practices. This is reflected in
the 1997 national forest policy as well as in forest
legislation, forest management guidelines and codesof practice. Among these guidelines are:•Code of Practice for Timber Harvesting•

Guidelines for Conducting Management-level
Inventory and 100%-level Inventory•

Guidelines for the Preparation of Forest
Management Plans and Annual Operational
Plans.

Prior to the approval of operations, large
concessions (TSAs) are required to submit to the
GFC a detailed management plan and annual
operations plan. The latter specifies, among otherthings, the forest blocks to be harvested thatyear and the volume to be extracted. Volume iscalculated based on area and felling cycle and tags
are issued accordingly. Prior to the renewal of
operations for the following year, harvested blocks
are inspected by GFC field staff to ensure adherence
to the annual operations plan.
Also stipulated in the management guidelines is therequirement that all large concessions allocate 4.5%of the total area to biodiversity conservation for thelife of the concession. A number of criteria are set
out for the selection and identification of this area:•

The area identified must be representative of thevarious vegetation types found in thatconcession and the area identified must
represent all flora and fauna found in theconcession.

•

No harvesting may take place within this area
once approved for biodiversity conservation.

•

The GFC must conduct a reconnaissance survey
to verify that the area selected is indeed

GUYANA

representative of the vegetation type(s) found in
the concession.
•

The GFC must give official approval for thisarea to be allocated to biodiversity conservation.

A national log-tracking system was established in
1999 and is based on international best practiceto ensure transparency.a It works on the groundthrough the GFC’s 26 forest stations, enablinga forest officer to track timber from the stump.
Harvesting can therefore be monitored to ensurethat the requirements established in the approvalof management plans and annual operation plans
are met. The system, further developed in recent
years with ITTO assistance, reduces the risk ofover-harvesting within a concession and helps
ensure that harvesting is carried out only in thoseareas identified and approved by the GFC for
harvesting.
The log-tracking system functions via the use of log
tags which are assigned (free of charge) to operators
at the annual renewal of their licences. Each
operator is given a unique set of tags, which arevalid only for a period determined by the GFC (twoyears for SFPs and one year for large concessions).
Half of the tag is affixed to the stump at the timeof felling and the other half, which bears the same
sequence of numbers, is affixed to the produce
being conveyed. All timber is tagged, including
logs, lumber, piles, poles and posts.
The system is currently applied to all forestry
operations in state forests and on Amerindian
reservations and private properties. All timber
legally originating in Guyana can therefore be
traced back to the stump. A bar-code system isunder development. This system of log-tagging
appears to have been accepted by the industry andhas increased the capability of the GFC to monitor
timber transactions.
Reduced impact logging techniques are promotedby the ITTO-funded Forestry Training Centre, Inc,a subsidiary of the GFC, through demonstration
forests and hands-on training. To October 2009
the Forestry Training Centre had provided training
for 1036 persons from academic institutions, forest
administration, NGOs, logging enterprises andcommunities. This figure includes 345 persons
from community-level operations, largely in
Indigenous communities, who received training in2010.bThe Iwokrama International Centre for Rainforest
Conservation and Development (known as
the Iwokrama forest) is responsible for the
management, conservation and sustainable
development of almost 372 000 hectares of tropicalrainforest, which the government of Guyana
allocated as a way of demonstrating that tropicalforests can provide economic benefits while also
conserving biodiversity. Its operation has been
supported by a range of donors, including ITTO.
The GFC is coordinating a program of workon forest law enforcement and legality with thesupport of the Forest Products Development andMarketing Council, the Forestry Training Centre
Inc., and private-sector counterparts. One of theoutputs of this process has been the developmentof the Guyana Legality Assurance System (LAS)
through a process of stakeholder consultationand participation. In June 2006, Proforest (aninternational firm specializing in forest legality
systems) was contracted to assist in the development
and field-testing of an independent, transparent
and suitable timber legality verification system
for Guyana’s forest sector. The LAS complements
other efforts towards ensuring legality, suchas ongoing concession-level monitoring, thenational log-tagging and tracking system, and theimplementation of the Code of Practice for Timber
Harvesting.
A memorandum of understanding between the
Government of Guyana and the Governmentof Norway outlines a number of activities
to be undertaken in 2009–10, including theestablishment of a system for independent forest
monitoring (IFM). This will build on work alreadyunder way in Guyana and will allow for thedevelopment of a mechanism for assessing illegality
in the forest sector. It will cover all significant
drivers of deforestation and forest degradation in
Guyana and thus has direct links to a REDD+
monitoring program. The IFM is not intended
to replace the LAS, ongoing dialogue with theEuropean Union’s Forest Law Enforcement,
Governance and Trade initiative, or existing legality
procedures/systems. Instead, it will serve as anational system of legality assessment at the broader
country level, addressing relevant drivers of forestchange that are linked to forest legality/illegality
and providing a system that can be recognizedglobally. The IFM will be implemented in state
forests and Amerindian villages that opt into the325

Status of tropical forest management 2011

country’s Low Carbon Development Strategy. It
will be applied to logs (roundwood, piles, poles
and posts) and lumber. It will cover all stages of
the chain of custody – harvesting, transportation,
processing and export. The initial activity in late2010 was to be a scoping mission. The GFC will
implement recommendations over a one-year
period. Thereafter, monitoring assessments will be
conducted at two-year intervals (or less).
Silviculture and species selection. The default
silvicultural system in use in Guyana is naturalregeneration with polycyclic cuts, without
post-harvest silvicultural interventions. Under theForest Act (1953), yield is regulated by a minimum
diameter limit of 34 cm, while forest management
plans for WCLs and TSAs must specify the cutting
cycle and yield per cutting cycle; they must also
indicate species for harvesting and harvesting rules.
The Forest Bill (2009) does not specify a minimum
diameter limit.
There are more than 1000 tree species in Guyanese
forests, more than 30 of which are marketed andexported to destinations in Asia, Europe, North
America and the Caribbean (Table 4 shows five of
these). Chlorocardium rodiei (greenheart), Peltogyne
venosa (purpleheart), Eperua spp (wallaba) andHymenaea courbaril (locust) are some of the species
most favoured by international markets. In the
Iwokrama forest, the second most abundant species
after greenheart is Dicorynia guianensis (wamaradan,also known as Angelique in French Guiana) (K.
Rodney, pers. comm., 2011).
Greenheart is resistant to attack by marine borers
and is highly valued, especially as piling for wharvesand for other marine applications. The ‘special’
category of timber, which includes greenheart,
purpleheart, bulletwood, red cedar, brown silverballi
and letterwood, accounted for about 35% of totallog production in 2009.b The production of piles
and chainsaw lumber is not included in thesefigures. Other important species are Goupia glabra(kabukalli), Trattinickia spp (ulu), Pouteria speciosa(suya), Aspidosperma spp (shibadan), Simarouba
amara (marupa), Carapa guianensis (crabwood) andCatostemma commune (baromalli).
Planted forest and trees outside the forest. About
12 000 hectares of planted forest, mainly Pinus
caribaea, were established in the 1960s. They wereoriginally intended to supply a pulp industry but
are now maintained as permanent sample plots326

under the management of the GFC.b No newplanted forests are being established.b FAO (2010)
reported that there were no planted forests inGuyana.
Forest certification. ITTO (2006) reported that
two concessionaires were engaged in the processof obtaining forest-management and chainof-custody certification under the FSC, while
two more had shown an interest in pursuingcertification. Currently, however, there is only one
certified forest area – the Iwokrama forest (372 000
hectares, including 184 500 of production forestsin the ‘sustainable utilization area’, FSC 2010).3
The estimated sustainable yield in Iwokrama's
sustainable utilization area is about 22 000 m3
per year (Iwokrama International Centre for Rain
Forest Research and Development 2009).
Estimate of the area of forest sustainably
managed for production. Table 5 shows thatthe total size of the production PFE and the area
allocated to concessions or otherwise under licencehave both increased compared with 2005. Guyana
is making good progress towards SFM and thelog-tracking system has added transparency to thesystem. The Government of Guyanab reported that“all concession harvesting activities are managed
in keeping with sustainable forest management
principles … There is overall compliance with
GFC principles and management practices acrossissued concessions. GFC has 26 field stations
as well as mobile stations that monitor forest
operations. Additionally, routine monitoringand environmental audits are conducted to testcompliance with set principles and practices.
These have overall indicated positive results
and compliance.” On the basis of an estimate
provided by the Government of Guyana, FAO(2010) reported that the entire state forest estate(12.2 million hectares) was under sustainable
management.
In 2005, two concessionaires were working towards
the certification of their forests under the FSC
scheme. Several companies have since had someexperience with certification (K. Rodney, pers.
comm., July 2010):•

Barama Co. Ltd., a wholly-owned subsidiaryof Samling Global Limited with concessions

3 The Iwokrama forest was the second Guyanese forest to be certified.
The Barama concession was the first, but lost its certificate following an
FSC audit (K. Rodney, pers. comm., 2011).

GUYANA

Table 4 Commonly harvested species for industrial roundwood
Species

Notes

Peltogyne venosa (purpleheart)

Used mainly in high-end internal construction applications and for
furniture and components.
Used mainly for outdoor structural applications and marine works.
Used mainly for furniture, and components.
Used mainly for building construction, especially flooring.
Used mainly for heavy construction, house framing, flooring anddecking.

Chlorocardium rodiei (greenheart)*
Swartzia leiocalycina (wamara)Mora excelsa (mora)*
Goupia glabra (kabukalli)*
Also listed in ITTO (2006).
Source: Government of Guyana (2009).

Table 5 Management of the production PFE (’000 hectares)
Reporting
year

Total

Available for
harvesting

2005*
2010

5450
11 0903800
6710**,a***NaturalCertifiedWith
management
plans
3730
0
4053a
184.5

Total

520

12

520

12

PlantedCertifiedWith
management
plans
0
0
0

0

As reported in ITTO (2006).
Existing TSAs, WCLs and SFPs.

covering about 1.6 million hectares of forest(Barama 2010), had certification, but this has
lapsed.
•Sustainably
managedDemerara Timbers Ltd (DTL) has a chain-ofcustody certificate in compliance with a UK
government standard.

•

Variety Woods & Greenheart Limited hassought FSC certification but it is unclear how
far it has progressed.

•

Toolsie Persaud Ltd underwent a pre-assessment
audit with The Forest Trust.

•

Iwokrama’s joint venture partner (Tigerwood
Guyana Inc) has an FSC chain-of-custodycertificate.

Although Iwokrama is the only operation in
Guyana with an FSC forest-management certificate,
the strong field presence of the GFC, moves by
several companies towards certification, and thedevelopment of a trained cadre of forest operators
suggests that a significant area of the Guyana’s forest
is being managed in a way that is consistent withsustainability. At the very least it seems unlikely thatthe area under such management has declined since
the previous report.
Timber production and trade. Total industrial
log production was 299 000 m3 in 2009, downfrom 474 000 m3 in 2006 and 366 000 in 2004
(ITTO 2011). About 64 000 m3 of sawnwood were

produced in 2009, an increase over the 56 000 m3
produced in 2004 and the 50 000 m3 produced
in 1999. Plywood production, on the other hand,declined from 87 000 m3 in 1999 to 54 000 m3 in2004 and to 21 000 m3 in 2009 (ibid.).
The total export value of logs, sawnwood andplywood in 2009 was US$48.1 million, comparedwith US$38.3 million in 2004 and US$31.3
million in 1999 (ibid.). In 2009, Guyana exported
91 000 m3 of logs, 49 000 m3 of sawnwood and
17 000 m3 of plywood (ibid.).
In January 2009 the Government of Guyana
introduced a national log export policy that
increased the export commission rate on key
species used locally in value-added production.
The policy was in response to the perceived needamong various stakeholders to stimulate morevalue-added activities in Guyana, to increase the useof lesser-used species, and to ensure that domestic
downstream processors of logs receive adequate
supplies of materials. The policy has three elements:•

Raise the export commission rate from 2% to7% from January 2009, to 10% from January
2010, and to 12% in the period January–
December 2011, for logs of the following
species: purpleheart, Cedrela fissilis, C. odorata(red cedar), Piratinera guianensis (letterwood),
Manilkara bidentata (bulletwood), Bagassa
guianensis (cow wood), Diplotropis purpurea

327

Status of tropical forest management 2011

(tatabu), kabukalli, shibadan,
Humiria balsamifera (tauroniro), Tabebuia
serratifolia (washiba), Loxopterygium sagotii(hububalli), Dipteryx odorata (tonka bean),Hymenolobium flavum (darina), greenheart andLicaria canella (brown silverballi).
•

Raise the export commission rate from 2% to
7% in January 2009 and to 10% in the period
January 2010 to December 2011 for logs of thefollowing species: Swartzia benthamiana(itikiboroballi), Ocotea rubra (determa),
wamara, Tabebuia capitata or insignis (hakia),
mora, Parahancornia fasciculata (dukali), Ocotea
puberula (keriti silverballi), wallaba, Terminalia
amazonica (fukadi) and Jacaranda copaia (futui).

•

Impose the same export commission rates as
specified in the first part of the policy to theexport of squares with dimensions of 20.3 cm x
20.3 cm and greater (or 8” x 8” and greater) to
the following species: purpleheart, red cedar,
letterwood, kabukalli, shibadan, washiba,
hububalli and tonka bean.a

Only companies holding forest concessions are
permitted to export logs. The log export policy is
expected to induce a reduction in the volume ofwood exported in log form and as squares.
Non-timber forest products. Many NTFPs are
harvested from natural forests but only a few are
extracted commercially. Significant volumes of
Euterpe oleracea (palm heart, manicole) are exported
in canned form; in 2008 about 2.7 million palm
hearts were harvested in Guyanan forests, up from
2.48 million in 2007.b Nibi and kufa (rattan-like
Heteropsis flexuosa and Clusia spp) are used for
furniture-making and exported to the Caribbean
islands, the United Kingdom and North America.
Fibres of Mauritia flexuosa (ité palm) are used tomake baskets, mats and other items for export.
Other products include latex from Manilkara
bidentata (balata), Bixa orellana (annatto dye) andCarapa guianensis (crabwood oil). Mangrove bark isexported for tanning leather. There is a legal tradein wildlife, especially birds, reptiles and amphibians.
Forest carbon. Gibbs et al. (2007) estimatedGuyana’s forest carbon at 2490–3740 MtC andFAO (2010) estimated it at 1629 MtC. Since 2000,
GHG emissions from deforestation are estimatedto have averaged about 22.6 million tonnes ofCO2e per year (Government of Guyana 2008). In
preparing its REDD+ strategy the Governmentof Guyana engaged with the Forest Carbon
Partnership Facility and UN-REDD, and it is anactive member of the REDD+ Partnership. On 9
November 2009 the governments of Guyana and
Norway signed a memorandum of understandingthat sets out how the two countries will “worktogether to provide the world with a relevant,replicable model for how REDD+ can align thedevelopment objectives of forest countries with theworld’s need to combat climate change”. Norway
committed to providing financial support of up to
US$250 million by 2015 for results achieved by
Guyana in limiting emissions from deforestationand forest degradation under its Low Carbon
Development Strategy (Office of the President
2010). This strategy sets out Guyana’s approach totransition to a green economy, with the stated aimof combating climate change while simultaneously
promoting economic growth and development. It
sets out how Guyana’s economy can be realigned
along a low-carbon development path by investing
payments received for avoided deforestation
into strategic low-carbon sectors (Governmentof Guyana 2011). The increase in deforestation
reported in 2010 may be due partly to an
expectation of tighter controls under this strategy.
Guyana has also established a National Climate
Committee comprising representatives of a numberof government agencies, NGOs and the private
sector. This committee has a reporting responsibility
to the Government and the Parliament of Guyana.
The National Climate Unit within the Ministryof Agriculture is the implementing entity for the

Table 6 Forest carbon potential
Biomass
forestcarbon(MtC)% forestwithcanopycover >60%

Deforestation/
degradation
potential to2030

2490–3740

89.2+

Enhancement Forest areachangeof carbon
sink capacity monitoring
capacity
to 2030++++++

Forest/GHG
inventory
capacity++

Importance Engagementinof forest
international
fire/
REDD+
biomass
processes
burning+++++++ high; ++ medium; + low; estimate of national forest carbon based on Gibbs et al. (2007); estimate of % total forest with canopy cover>60% based on UNEP-WCMC (2010).

328

GUYANA

Table 7 Management of the protection PFE (’000 hectares)***

Reportingyear

Protection PFE

Attributed to IUCN
categories I–IV

Allocated for soil
and waterWith management
plans

Sustainably
managed

2005*
2010

980
1110

980
1040

-

243
332**

243
332**

As reported in ITTO (2006).
Comprises Conservation International’s conservation concession (which, strictly speaking, is part of the production PFE but is notcounted there), the protected portion of the Iwokrama forest, and Kaieteur National Park.

committee and manages and coordinates day-to-day
climate-change procedures. Guyana has alsoestablished an Office for Climate Change and a
REDD+ Secretariat to execute aspects of climaterelated activities and REDD+. Table 6 summarizes
Guyana’s carbon potential.

Forest for protection
Soil and water. Forests are still intact over large
areas. There are, however, threats to biodiversity andto soil and water, of which mining – particularly forgold – may be the greatest. Small-scale gold-mining
takes place over a wide area; impacts include
localized deforestation, the removal of topsoil andthe pollution of watercourses with sediment andmercury. Trees felled by gold-miners cause blockages
to rivers, sometimes resulting in downstream
flooding. Guyanese soils are essentially alluvial; they
are acidic, with a pH as low as 3.6, and quickly
degenerate once trees are removed (Clarke 2006).
Biological diversity. Guyana’s large areas of intact
forest ecosystems have a very high conservationand ecological value. More than 1200 vertebrate
species were counted in a 1997 inventory, including
198 mammals, 728 birds, 137 reptiles and 105
amphibians, and more than 6000 flowering plant
species, of which about one hundred are forest treesof commercial interest. It is almost certain thatmany more species remain to be discovered. No
species found in Guyana’s forests are listed on the
IUCN red list of threatened species (IUCN 2011).
Guyana has two plant species listed in CITES
Appendix I, 42 in Appendix II and one in Appendix
III (UNEP-WCMC 2011). Bulletwood is protectedunder the Forest Act for its value to Indigenous
communities and because of the limited occurrenceof this species in Guyanan forests.
Protective measures in production forests. The
Code of Practice for Timber Harvesting includes
provisions for protecting watercourses, reducing theimpact of logging on residual stands and conserving
protected wildlife. Forest management plans must

identify representative biodiversity reserves covering
at least 4.5% of the productive forest area thatare then excluded from harvesting. The GFC’s
monitoring division monitors TSAs against thestandards prescribed by the Code.
Extent of protected areas. Guyana has two
formally established protected areas in forests (bothof which are established under separate laws): theKaieteur National Park, which is 63 000 hectares
in size, and the Iwokrama forest, of which 187 500
hectares are set aside for forest conservation
purposes. Under the proposed National Protected
Areas System, more areas could be allocatedfor protection, including Shell Beach (which
includes mangrove forests), Kanuku Mountains,
Mount Roraima, and Orinduik Falls.4 In 2002
Conservation International was awarded a 30-year
conservation concession of 81 000 hectares to thesouth of Iwokrama called the Upper EssequiboConservation Concession.5 There are also eleven‘GFC reserves’ covering a total area of 17 800
hectares. UNEP-WCMC (2010) estimated that
there were 1.04 million hectares of forest in IUCN
protected-area categories I–IV.
Estimate of the area of forest sustainably
managed for protection. The estimated area ofprotection PFE under sustainable management
is at least 331 500 hectares (Table 7). This area
comprises the Kaieteur National Park, Conservation
International’s conservation concession, and theconservation area set aside in the Iwokrama forest. The
area under sustainable management has increased since2005, due mainly to the addition of CI’s conservation
concession but also to a slight amendment in the sizeof Iwokrama’s conservation area.

4 www.guianashield.org/joomla/index.php?option=com_
content&view=article&id=173:wwf-grant-agreements&catid=1:latestnews&Itemid=50〈=en, accessed 9/9/09.
5 www.conservation.org/FMG/Articles/Pages/guyana_conservation_
concession.aspx, accessed 9/9/09; the Upper Essequibo Conservation
Concession Guyana fact sheet; seen at http://www.conservation.org/
Documents/guyanaconcession_factsheet.pdf.

329

Status of tropical forest management 2011

Socioeconomic aspects
Economic aspects. An estimated 24 100 people
are employed in forest operations in Guyana and19 800 people in the forest products industry.b
There is also considerable – but un-estimated– informal and unrecorded employment andeconomic activity. The total value of wood exports
in 2008 was US$56.7 millionb; the country also
exported fuelwood valued at about US$151 000
and NTFPs (not including canned palm hearts)
valued at about US$96 000.a
Livelihood values. Forests are an integral partof Amerindian culture and are important for the
supply of building materials, fibres for textiles
and weaving, and tannins and dyes, as well as forwildlife, fruit, seeds and nuts that are hunted orgathered for food. Medicines are obtained from
more than 130 plant species (van Andel et al.
2003). Some communities have undertaken thecommercial harvesting of these resources.
Social relations. Amerindians comprise 9.1% of
the Guyanese population and own 13.9% of theland. Amerindian communities are generally locatedin areas remote from urban centres and rely on
subsistence fishing, shifting cultivation and hunting.
The creation of a Ministry of Amerindian Affairs
in 1992 has facilitated a more participatory role
for these communities in national development.
The Amerindian Act (2006), too, gives Amerindian
communities legal powers to manage and conserve
their lands. Ninety-six communities have titles, butanother ten communities do not have formal legal
title to the lands they occupy. Guyana’s Low Carbon
Development Strategy identified, as a priority
activity, the titling of these areas.b The Amerindian
Act empowers Amerindian communities to create
and enforce protected areas on their lands. A
community can, for example, prohibit or control
entry and access to its territory and traditional
knowledge, prohibit or control mining, zone its
lands, protect sacred sites, and regulate hunting,fishing, tourism and research. All Amerindian lands
are owned collectively by communities (called‘villages’) and administered through village councils(Anon. 2008).
Amerindian communities are afflicted by severesocial and health problems, particularly incommunities adjacent to gold-mining and timber
concessions. The Ministry of Amerindian Affairs
and the GGMC have collaborated to train a

330

A greenheart tree in a logging concession, Guyana.

number of rural residents as rangers to complement
GGMC’s monitoring efforts in mining districts.
The Iwokrama forest initiative has had significant
success in involving local Amerindian communities
in forest management (Bakken Jensen 2005).
The GFC has managed a number of outreach,
communications and extension programs with
communities and Amerindian groups. It hasestablished a community forestry program which
entails the formation of community forestry
organizations, which are provided with accessto state forest lands and, in some cases, withequipment. Several Amerindian communities havealso been provided with extension services andtraining in reduced impact logging. In the North
Rupununi area, a community forestry project has
been implemented, reduced impact logging skills
transferred and other forest management services
extended (Government of Guyana (2008).
When it comes into force the Forest Bill (2009) will
provide communities (including but not restricted
to Amerindian communities) with a means ofacquiring clear and secure rights to manage andbenefit from their local forests on a sustainablebasis in order to help meet local needs, stimulate

GUYANA

income generation and economic development, andenhance environmental stability. Under the Bill,
properly established community groups can apply
to the GFC for community forest use agreementsthat would authorize the group to occupy a
specified area of state forest and to manage it inaccordance with the agreement.
The GFC’s Community Development Unit,
which sits within its Planning and Development
Division, has a mandate to build capacity in forestbased communities. Community forestry is being
formally undertaken on an area of about 114 000
hectares under SFPs.a

Summary
Most of Guyana’s forests are still intact, unexploitedand not threatened by the expansion of agriculture.
Guyana is pursuing a well-designed forest
management and control system in its timber
production forests. A new law, the Forest Bill, isawaiting assent by the President of Guyana. Thislaw will provide for the sustainable management,
protection and conservation of state forests and theregulation of forest operations, and it will also makeconsiderable changes to the allocation of state forest
for harvesting. The Guyana Forestry Commission
appears to be well-organized and responsive andhas a substantial field presence. Guyana has madeprogress in a number of areas, including thedevelopment of a legality assurance system andindependent forest monitoring, which will not only
provide a basis for international scrutiny and accessto REDD+ initiatives but also enable the validationand improvement of existing forest management
systems. At the forest industry level, however,significant progress is required to fully realize theSFM goal.

Key points••

Guyana has an estimated PFE of 12.2 million
hectares (compared with 6.44 million hectares
in 2005), comprising 11.1 million hectares ofnatural production forest (compared with 5.45
million hectares 2005), 1.11 million hectares ofprotection forest (compared with 980 000
hectares in 2005) and 12 000 hectares ofplanted forest (the same as reported in 2005).
A new forest law is due to come into effect.

•

Gold-mining is a significant cause of forest
degradation and environmental pollution.

•

At least 520 000 hectares of production PFE isbeing managed sustainably. Given the generallack of threats to the forest, the high-quality
training available to forest operators, andpositive moves by the Guyana Forestry
Commission to institute improved tracking andmonitoring systems, this is likely anunderestimate.

•

At least 332 000 hectares of protection PFE isbeing managed sustainably. Given the generallack of threats to Guyana’s forests, this is also
likely to be an underestimate.

•

Wood exports make a significant contribution
to Guyana’s foreign-exchange earnings. A newnational log export policy has been introducedwith the aim of encouraging local woodprocessing.

•

Guyana has considerable potential forparticipation in a global REDD+ scheme foravoided deforestation and forest degradation.

EndnotesaGovernment of Guyana (2009).

b

Personal communications with officials of the Governmentof Guyana, 2009, 2010.

References and other sources
van Andel, T., MacKinven, A. & Bánki, O. (2003).
Commercial Non-timber Forest Products of the Guiana
Shield: An Inventory of Commercial NTFP Extraction andPossibilities for Sustainable Harvesting. The Netherlands
Committee for IUCN, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
Anon. (2008, website accessed March 2010). Available at
cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/guyana_legal_survey.doc.
Bakken Jensen, O. (2005). Iwokrama’s plan for SFM. ITTO
Tropical Forest Update 15/2.
Barama (2010, website accessed July 2010). Available at http://
www.baramaguyana.com/eng/about/overview.htm.
Clarke, G. (2006). Law compliance and prevention andcontrol of illegal activities in the forest sector in Guyana.
Preliminary report prepared for the World Bank. The WorldBank.
FAO (2010). Global forest resources assessment 2010 country
report: Guyana (available at http://www.fao.org/forestry/fra/67090/en/).
FSC (2010, website accessed July 2010). FSC certification
database (searchable database available at http://info.fsc.org/
PublicCertificateSearch).

331

Status of tropical forest management 2011

GFC (2002). Code of Practice for Timber Harvesting. 2nd edition.
Guyana Forestry Commission, Georgetown, Guyana.

Available at www.iwokrama.org/dwsite/Forestry%20
Survey%20and%20Estimated%20Sustainable%20
Yields%20.html.

GFC & Pöyry Forest Industry (2010). Guyana REDD+
monitoring reporting and verification system (MRVS)
interim measures report. GFC and Pöyry Forest Industry,
Georgetown, Guyana.

McSweeney, C., New, M. & Lizcano, G. (undated). UNDP
climate change country profiles: Guyana (available at http://
country-profiles.geog.ox.ac.uk/).

Gibbs, H., Brown, S., Niles, J. & Foley, J. (2007). Monitoringand estimating tropical forest carbon stocks: making REDDa reality. Environmental Research Letters 2 (available at http://
iopscience.iop.org/1748-9326/2/4/045023/fulltext).

National Development Strategy Secretariat (2000, website
accessed January 2010). Guyana national development
strategy (available at http://www.ndsguyana.org/document.
asp).

Government of Guyana (2008). Republic of Guyana Forest
Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF) Readiness Plan Idea
Note (R-PIN). Ministry of Agriculture, Georgetown,
Guyana.

Office of the President (2010). A low-carbon development
strategy: transforming Guyana’s economy while combatingclimate change. Third draft, May 2010. Office of the
President, Republic of Guyana.

Government of Guyana (2009). Report of progress towardachieving sustainable forest management in Guyana.
Submission to ITTO by the Guyana Forest Department,
Guyana.

Spalding, M., Kainumu, M. & Collins, L. (2010). World Atlas ofMangroves. Earthscan, London, UK.

Government of Guyana (2011, website accessed January 2011).
Guyana’s Low Carbon Development Strategy (available at
http://www.lcds.gov.gy/).
ITTO (2006). Status of Tropical Forest Management 2005. ITTO,
Yokohama, Japan.
ITTO (2011, website accessed March 2011). Annual Review
statistics database (available at http://www.itto.int/annual_
review_output/?mode=searchdata).
IUCN (2011, website accessed March 2011). IUCN red list of
threatened species (searchable database available at www.
redlist.org).
Iwokrama International Centre for Rain Forest Research andDevelopment (2009, website accessed September 2009).

332

UNDP (2009). Human Development Report 2009. United
Nations Development Programme, New York, UnitedStates.
UNEP-WCMC (2010). Spatial analysis of forests withinprotected areas in ITTO countries. UNEPWCMC,
Cambridge, UK. Data prepared for ITTO (see Annex 1).
UNEP-WCMC (2011, website accessed March
2011). UNEP-WCMC species database: CITES-listed
species (searchable database at available at www.cites.org/
eng/resources/species.html).
United Nations Population Division (2010, website accessed
January 2010). World population prospects: the 2008
revision (searchable database available at http://esa.un.org/
unpp/p2k0data.asp).

HONDURAS

Hondurasof a 2009 analysis. FAO (2010a) estimated the total
forest area at 5.19 million hectares, which is morethan the estimate reported in FAO (2006) of 4.65
million hectares.

Forest resources
Honduras, the second-largest country in Central
America, has a land area of 11.2 million hectares
and an estimated population in 2010 of 7.6 million
people (United Nations Population Division 2010).
Honduras is ranked 112th out of 182 countries
in UNDP’s Human Development Index (UNDP2009). It comprises three distinct biogeographic
regions. The central highlands cover about 60%of the country, with fertile valleys and steep slopes
between 700 m and 1900 m above sea level, thehighest peak reaching more than 2800 m. A second
region is the vast northern coastal plain abutting
the Caribbean Sea, which can be divided into two
subregions: the central plain covered mainly bygrassland, swamps, secondary palm forests and pine
forests; and the northeastern plain – the Mosquito
Coast (La Mosquitia) – which is sparsely populated
and covered by pine forests, humid forests and somemangrove forests. The third biogeographic region isa narrow strip of land along the Gulf of Fonseca on
the southern Pacific coast, which mainly comprises
agricultural land and some remnant mangroves.
According to the most recent national forest
inventory (ENF 2006), forests cover an area of 5.79
million hectares (52% of the land area), including
4.83 million hectares of assessed forests and another
960 000 hectares of unclassified forests. The
Government of Honduras (2010a) estimated thetotal forest area at 6.66 million hectares on the basis

Forest types. The central highlands and theMosquito Coast savannas are covered by nearly two
million hectares of pine and mixed forests, while
about 3.5 million hectares of broadleaved forests
cover much of the Caribbean coast, the Agalta
mountains and the eastern lowlands (ENF 2006);
these constitute the country’s major closed forests.
Honduras is one of the few tropical countries withlarge areas of natural conifer forests, which arecomposed of one or several of seven Pinus species,
as well as species of the genus Abies. At lower
altitudes (up to 700 m above sea level), P. caribaea(pino costanero) dominates; between 700 and 1400
m, Pinus oocarpa (pino ocote) occurs often in purestands; and between 1500 m and 1900 m above sea
level a mixture of pino ocote, P. maximinoi (pinollorón) and P. tecumumanii (pino rojo) constitutes
the major forest layer. Above 2000 m, P. ayacahuite,
P. pseudostrobus (pinabete), P. hartwegii (pino demontaña) and species of the genus Abies occur.
Natural pine forests are used intensively by local
communities and by industry.
Tropical broadleaved forests are found mostly inthe north. The most common species are Vochysia
hondurensis, Virola koschnyi, V. sebifera, Luehea
seemanii, Terminalia amazonia, Cordia alliodora,
Cedrela mexicana, Ceiba pentandra, Carapa
guianensis and Tabebuia guayacan. The Acrocomia
palm is common in all these forests. Mangroves arefound on the Caribbean coast, notably in protectedlagoon and estuarine formations; they extent overabout 62 000 hectares (Spalding et al. 2010).
Permanent forest estate. Honduras defines its
PFE as those forests that are included in protectedareas and declared micro-watershed areas, andthose areas of production forests that are coveredby forest management plans.a In all those areas, it
is prohibited to change the land use from forests
to other uses. As of 2009 the entire area of the
production PFE and 57% of the protection PFE
had been delimited on the ground.a The PFE
extends over an estimated area of 3.62 million
hectares, including about 2.5 million hectares of333

Status of tropical forest management 2011

The existence of pine forests in Honduras isclosely linked to repeated fire, which aids theirregeneration, but frequent human-induced fires
have led to their widespread degradation. The
productivity and genetic quality of the pine forests
have declined, mainly as a result of fire, disease andselective felling. Table 2 shows that the majority ofremaining natural forest in Honduras is considered
to be degraded primary forest.

tropical broadleaved forests, 1.1 million hectaresof conifer forests (some of them mixed withbroadleaved species) and 70 000 hectares ofmangrove forests (Table 1).a The potential PFE (i.e.
including forests that could be included in the PFE
in the future) has been estimated at 4.68 million
hectares (ENF 2006).

Forest ecosystem health

Vulnerability of forests to climate change. While
Honduras is largely unaffected by the earthquakesthat afflict other Central American nations, it isvulnerable to hurricanes and frequent flooding
along the north coast and in other regions.
Climate models project an increased frequency
and severity of such storms, constituting a risk toforest ecosystems and the people who depend on
them. In terms of the relative number of deaths
and economic losses (Harmeling 2010), Honduras
was one of three countries (the other two being
Bangladesh and Myanmar) most affected byextreme weather events between 1990 and 2009.

Deforestation and forest degradation.
Deforestation averaged an estimated 120 000
hectares per year between 2005 and 2010, anannual rate of 2.16% (FAO 2010b), the highest ratein the Americas. Deforestation is most prevalent
in the eastern tropical broadleaved forest. In thepast, deforestation was due to agro-industrial
development, mainly for banana plantations. Today,
demand for land by small-scale farmers is thought
to be the major cause (ITTO 2006); often, suchsmall-scale farmers ultimately sell the deforested
land to larger farmers and agro-industrial owners.
In recent years, people involved in illegal activities(i.e. drug-trafficking) have also acquired this sort ofland.

SFM policy framework

Forest degradation is also widespread in the humid
broadleaved forests, due mainly to small-scale
illegal logging (Paaby Hansen & Florez 2008).

Forest tenure. With the passing of a law on themodernization of agriculture (Ley de Modernización
Agrícola, Decreto 31-92) in 1992, some state-owned

Table 1 Permanent forest estate
Reportingyear

Estimatedtotal forest
area, range(million ha)

Total closed
natural forest(’000 ha)

2005*
2010

5.38
5.19–6.66

3811
2630*****‡†PFE (’000 hectares)
Production
Protection
NaturalPlanted

Total

1590
1096‡

3238
3617

48
48

1600
2521†

As reported in ITTO (2006).
Calculated using the ratio of forest with greater than 60% forest cover estimated by UNEP-WCMC (2010) (50.6%) and the total
natural forest area as estimated by FAO (2010a).
According to Government of Honduras (2010b).
Includes the declared protected areas and proposed protected areas according to ENF (2006).

Table 2 Forest condition
PFE

Non-PFE

Total*’000 haArea of primary forest
Area of degraded primary forest
Area of secondary forest
Area of degraded forest land

-

-

457**
3823
550
-

*
Based on a total forest area of 4.8 million hectares, as per ENF (2006).
**
Primary tropical broadleaved forests only. The figure for secondary forests includes young pine and broadleaved forest.
Source: ENF (2006).

334

HONDURAS

forests were transferred to municipal and private
ownership (ITTO 2006). Today, forest ownershipmay be public (tierras nacionales), which is under
the direct administration of the forest service,municipal, community or private (Table 3).
There are still many claims for the use of forests,
particularly over public lands, and large tracts ofhumid forest have no clear ownership status. Thus,
there is still considerable uncertainty about forest
tenure. An estimated 60% of forest administrators
do not know exactly the areas and borders of their
FMUs (ENF 2006).
The 2007 Forest Law (Decreto 98-2007) provides
for the participation of communities in forest
consultative councils and the regularization offorested lands through the demarcation of areasfor protection, conservation and community
management. According to a recent decree,
the ownership of public lands that have been
appropriated informally by communities andprivate landowners will be defined and given legal
status, and the administration of public forest
lands will be strengthened. The law’s implementing
regulations were finalized in early 2009. Since thelaw was passed, five new titles of 40 000 hectares
have been granted to five communities, andfour consultative councils have been established,increasing community participation in the processof drafting regulations (ITTO & RRI 2009).
Indigenous property rights have not been resolved,
however.
Criteria and indicators. Honduras has adopted
the ITTO C&I to monitor progress towards SFM.
The Forestry Action Plan (Plan de Acción Forestal –PLANFOR) 1996–2015 is aligned to the principles

of sustainable forest development, the conservationof ecosystems, integrated watershed management,
forest utilization and industrialization, and forestry
extension and research. The Government of
Honduras used the ITTO C&I in its submission to
ITTO for this report.a
Forest policy and legislation. Forest Law 98 (Ley
Forestal, Areas Protegidas y Vida Silvestre), enacted in
2007, replaced Forest Law 85 (1972). The new law
addresses the conservation of national forests andintroduces provisions to support the managementof forests by communities, such as technical supportand subsidies for tree-planting. Nevertheless, ingeneral the legal provisions pertaining to forests
remain weak and illegal activities by some actors
persist as a serious hindrance to the widespread
adoption of SFM.
The vision for the period 2002–2025, articulated
in the national forestry policy, views the sector’s
contribution to economic development asfollows: “Forest resources and their biodiversity
are conserved and managed efficiently, increasing
production and productivity of goods and services,increasing forest cover, recuperating deforested
areas and generating benefits through the threemain basic functions of forest – economic, socialand environmental/ecological – significantly
contributing to the socioeconomic development of
all Honduran people and specifically supporting
poverty reduction”.
Local governments have increased responsibilities
for forests and protected-area management underthe 2007 Forest Law and the 1990 Municipalities
Law (Ley de Municipalidades 134-90, revised

Table 3 Forest area, by tenure
Ownership category

Total
area*

Of which PFE Notes

State ownership (national, state orprovincial government)*
Other public entities (e.g.
municipalities, villages)
Total public
Owned by local communities and/orIndigenous groups
Private owned by individuals, firms,
other corporate

2230

-

Including 1.2 million hectares of forest protected areas.

570-

Ejidal**/municipal (335 000 hectares) and communities(235 000 hectares).

2800
160

-

1840

-

’000 haTribal and forest consultative councils.
Private individuals (1.83 million hectares) and enterprises(30 000 hectares).

*
Based on a total forest area of 4.8 million hectares, as per ENF (2006).
**
Community land.
Source: Derived from ENF (2006).

335

Status of tropical forest management 2011

in 2010). In state forests and private forests
this responsibility is limited to informationand control but, in the case of ejidales (areas ofcommunity land), management has been entirely
decentralized to municipalities, as long as theactivities undertaken are embedded in a sustainable
development approach (for details see Vallejo &Coronado 2006). Box 1 shows the responsibilities
of municipal governments in the management offorests in the ejidales.
Institutions involved in forests. Three institutions
have responsibilities for forests and biodiversity
at the national level: the National Institute ofConservation of Forests, Protected Areas andWildlife Development (Instituto Nacional deConservación y Desarrollo Forestal, Areas Protegidas
y Vida Silvestre – ICF), which replaced manyof the functions of the former State Forestry
Administration (Administración Forestal del Estado–
Corporación Hondureña de Desarrollo Forestal –AFE-COHDEFOR), the Secretariat for Natural
Resources and Environment (Secretaría de Recursos
Naturales y Ambiente – SERNA); and the Secretariat
for Agriculture and Cattle Ranching (Secretaría de
Agricultura y Ganadería – SAG).
Perhaps the most significant change in recent years
is that the forest administration (i.e. the ICF) is
now administratively and financially independentof the SAG. The ICF was established in 2008
by Decree No 98-2007 as a dependency of the

President’s Office and has a mandate to implement
the National Policy on Conservation, Forestry,Protected Areas and Wildlife (la Política Nacional deConservación y Desarrollo Forestal, Áreas Protegidas y
Vida Silvestre; Article 14). It brings many previously
disparate activities, roles and responsibilities into
one organization, including:•Supporting the creation and operation ofcommunity consultative boards to improveparticipation and transparency in the
management of forest resources.

•

Supporting forest management and reforestation
programs through government-funded incentive
programs.

•

Implementing the national forest program
2010–2030, which is now a legal obligation.

The Research System for National Forests,
Protected Areas and Wildlife (Sistema deInvestigación Nacional Forestal, Áreas Protegidas
y Vida Silvestre) has been created to promote
applied and scientific forestry research, involving
municipalities and other organizations capableof sustaining forest research. In addition, thestate, through the ICF, will promote and support
forest certification as an incentive for SFM and toguarantee the quality of forest products.a
The National Forestry School (Escuela Nacionalde Ciencias Forestales) provides technical support
for the implementation of forest policy alongBox 1 Municipal government responsibilities for forest management in ejidales
Area

Responsibilities

Exploitation
Protected areas••

Rationalize the use and exploitation of municipal resources.
Create municipal areas.

Economic resources••

Provide a hearing for the procedure of including ejiadal forest in the public forest register.
Obtain resources and invest them in environmental protection.

Protection••

Charge taxes for extracting or otherwise exploiting forest resources.
Protect municipal ecosystems and the environment.

•

Preserve forests for water protection and preserve watersheds.

Administration and norms••

Participate in the prevention of forest fires, pests and diseases.
Grant permits or contracts for the establishment of forest industries.

•

Assist in administering forest law enforcement and governance.

Reforestation••

Grant permits or contracts together with the forest authority, when they concur on forest exploitation.
Promote reforestation projects.

Control and monitoring••

Implement reforestation works at the sources of water supply.
Supervise compliance with the norms related to waste industries.

•

Monitor protected areas and sources of water supply.

Source: Modified from Vallejo & Coronado (2006).

336

HONDURAS

with the Agenda Forestal Hondureña, an organizedstakeholder platform promoting SFM. About
690 people dealing with forests are employed ingovernmental institutions.

Status of forest management
Forest for production
Forest management plans have been mandatory inproduction forests for more than 15 years, basedon management and silvicultural norms establishedin 1995–96. Before a forest management plan isprepared, the forest owner must clearly establish
legal tenure (ITTO 2006). Besides directions forsilviculture and harvesting, management plans
should contain prescriptions covering the protectionof soil, water and biodiversity and measures for the
management of fire, pests and diseases.
Forest harvesting is based on a contract between
the ICF and the forest owner, which also specifies
the silvicultural and conservation measures of theforest management plan. Before harvesting, theowner must give a bank guarantee in favour of the
ICF, which is cancelled once all silvicultural andconservation measures are complete. Incentives
to promote SFM include exemption from taxes
up to a certain amount if a forest owner invests
in reforestation; technical assistance to preparereforestation plans; and the provision of seeds andnursery stock.
The sustainable management of pine forests should
be relatively straightforward. Honduran pine forests
have a great capacity for regeneration if fire canbe controlled and used effectively to accelerate
re-growth and if regenerating seedlings areprotected from animals. Pines are fast-growing and,if management guidelines are followed, continuous
production is assured (ITTO 2006). However,in many cases the harvesting plan is the only
component of the forest management plan applied.
Illegal practices are still common in FMUs andthere is a general problem of non-compliance withmanagement prescriptions.a As a result, average
production has dropped to 1–2 m3 per hectare per
year, much less than the 4–5 m3 per hectare per
year considered feasible if sustainable silvicultural
practices were to be applied.a
There is little experience in the management ofbroadleaved forests in Honduras and there are few
management prescriptions for SFM. A former

Pine forest area in central Honduras.

ITTO project examined the impact of intensive
harvesting on lesser-used species in the broadleaved
forests of northeastern Honduras and resulted in
the development of new management prescriptions.
Honduran broadleaved forests carry a total
commercial timber volume of about 33.5 million
m3, with an average stocking of 22 commercial trees
per hectare (ENF 2006). The commercial stock of
conifer forests is estimated at 72 million m3.
As of early 2010, management plans covered a totalof 1 095 622 hectares of pine forests, most of them
privately owned, and 96 000 hectares of tropicalmoist forests.a In total, 903 FMUs had management
plans, 97 of which were in public forests, 78
in forests under the responsibility of municipal
governments and 728 in private forests.a The total
AAC in the pine forests was 1.97 million m3.a
The extent to which management plans arebeing applied is unclear, however. In 2005, theEnvironmental Investigation Agency (EIA), an
NGO, described what it believed was an “illegal
logging crisis in Honduras”, in which an estimated
80% of mahogany and up to 50% of pine wasbeing produced in violation of government
regulations (EIA 2005).
Silviculture and species selection. Of 332 forest
tree species inventoried in the country (ENF 2006),
about 25 are used commercially in significant
quantities. The two most important species by
far are pino costanero and pino ocote (Table 4).
Important hardwood species in the broadleaved
forests, in addition to those listed in Table 4, are
Dialium guianesis (andiroba), Vochysia guatemalensis(san juán), Brosimum alicastrum (ramón, breadnut),
Virola koschnyi (palo de sangre), Terminalia

337

Status of tropical forest management 2011

Table 4 Commonly harvested species for industrial roundwood
Species

Notes

Pinus caribaea (pino costanero)*
Pinus oocarpa (pino ocote)*
Calophyllum brasiliense (santa maria)*
Cordia alliodora (laurel)*Ceiba pentandra (ceiba)*

From natural pine forests and plantations.
From natural pine forests.
Mainly for domestic use.
From off-forest areas, village plantations and natural forests.
Mainly off-forest trees are harvested.

Also listed in ITTO (2006).
*
Source: Government of Honduras (2010b).

amazonica (cumbillo), Swietenia macrophylla(mahogany), Carapa guianensis (macho), Cedrela
odorata (cedro) and Tabebuia rosea (apamate).
Planted forest and trees outside the forest.
Because natural pine forests are so abundant, there
has been relatively little development of planted
forests. Based on data from 2000, the planted forest
estate is estimated at about 48 000 hectares (nomore recent data were available for the preparationof this report, although there are indications thatnew planted forests have been established, especiallyon the north coast). Nearly all planted forests are
privately owned and the main plantation species
are native pines (up to one-third of all plantations).
Species such as Gliricidia sepium, Leucaena spp,
Gmelina arborea and eucalypt species are an
essential part of agroforestry; another important
planted tree is Tectona grandis (teak, teca).
Forest certification. Certification is supported by
the ICF and promoted by the Honduran Council
for Voluntary Forest Certification (CH-CFV),
which is a national initiative of the FSC. However,there is little market incentive for certification. In
2010 a total area of 34 300 hectares was certified
in natural broadleaved and pine forests for wood
production and 76 600 hectares were certified for
NTFPs (Elaeis oleifera and Carapa guianensis) (FSC2011). An additional 3370 hectares of planted
forest was certified.
Estimate of the area of forest sustainably
managed for production. About 700 000 hectaresof the production PFE are subject to some kind ofmanagement, a figure which includes an estimated
265 000 hectares of pine and mixed forests
outside the humid forest zone (ITTO 2006). It isestimated that an area of at least 276 000 hectaresof natural PFE is sustainably managed (Table 5).
This comprises about 180 000 hectares of naturalpine forests managed effectively by communities(of which a portion is certified)a and the certified

338

forest area for the production of timber and NTFPs(see above). It also includes an area of about 45 000
hectares of tropical broadleaved forests in the upper
Cangrejal River Basin, where local communities
have benefited from considerable support from theinternational community in managing their forests.
Timber production and trade. Total annual
roundwood production in 2006 was estimatedat 10.8 million m3, of which about 9.9 million
m3 was fuelwood (FAO 2010a). In 2009, theestimated production of industrial pine logs was
750 000 m3 (compared with 920 000 m3 in 2005
and 744 000 m3 in 2000), while the production oftropical hardwoods was 20 000 m3, compared with
15 200 m3 in 2005 and 12 000 m3 in 2000 (ITTO
2011). Total sawnwood production in 2009 was
349 000 m3 (342 000 m3 of which was coniferous),compared with 406 000 m3 in 2005 and 437 000
m3 in 2000 (ibid.).
Nearly all Honduran wood production serves thedomestic market, although a small amount of pinesawnwood is exported to other countries in theregion. Official production figures do not take into
account timber harvested illegally. Based on data in
EIA (2005), illegal production might have exceeded
official production by a factor of 3–4 as recently
as 2004, but few data are available on whether
such illegal production has since been curbed. In
2008, a timber-tracking manual (Manual de laCadena de Custodia para Madera Aserrada de Bosque
Latifoliado) was introduced but, to date, it has only
been applied in the Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve.a
Non-timber forest products. Fuelwood in theform of firewood and charcoal (70% of whichcomes from hardwood forest species such as Quercus
spp – roble) is the most economically important
NTFP in Honduras. It is an essential energy
source for many people, especially rural people.
Internationally tradable NTFPs include pine resin,HONDURAS

Table 5 Management of the production PFE (’000 hectares)*

Reporting
year

Total

Available for
harvesting

2005*
2010

1590
1096

1070
1096

NaturalWithmanagement
plans
671
1096

Certified

187

48

PlantedWith
management
plans
28

276

48

31

Sustainably
managed

37
111

Total

Certified0
3.4

As reported in ITTO (2006).

with an estimated production in 2008 of 14 800
barrelsa, liquidambar resin (76 barrels in 2008a(compared with 251 barrels reported in ITTO
2006), and pine seeds for export. Also, Indigenous
communities in the forests of the Mosquito Coast
have been producing about of 80 000 litres ofbatana oil (derived from the American oil palm
– Elaeis oleifera) for export per year for the last
seven years (C. Sandoval, pers. comm., 2010), andtheir operations were certified recently by the FSC(FSC 2011). Besides its use as timber, Brosimum
alicastrum also produces what is known as Mayannut, which has been a staple food for the Maya for
more than 2000 years.
Forest carbon. ENF (2006) estimated the total
forest carbon stock in the living biomass at
294–402 MtC, Gibbs et al. (2007) estimated it
at 852–1268 MtC, and FAO (2010a) estimatedit at 330 MtC. The potential for carbon captureand storage by reducing deforestation and by
restoring forests and expanding planted forests is
relatively high (Table 6). Forest fires are frequent:
it is estimated that more than 55 000 hectares offorests burn each year.a Honduras has submitted
a readiness idea note to the Forest Carbon
Partnership Facility and is a member of the REDD+
Partnership.

Forest for protection
Soil and water. Many municipalities manage
micro-watersheds declared for the protection of
freshwater sources (ITTO 2006). Such micro-

watersheds are delimited in the field (generally
fenced) and no activities are permitted other thanfor the protection of water resources. A total forest
area of 544 000 hectares has been classified for the
primary purpose of protecting water and water
resources, of which 319 000 hectares are in the
PFE.a In addition, about 494 000 hectares havea specific role in soil protection as well as otherfunctions (ENF 2006).
Biological diversity. The forests of Honduras
are characterized by flora and fauna that are
representative of both temperate and tropical
America. Detailed biological inventories are
not unavailable, although it is known that there
are more than 700 breeding bird species andan additional 225 that are migratory (ITTO2006). Five mammals, seven birds, six reptiles,
60 amphibians and four plants found in forests
are listed as critically endangered, endangered orvulnerable on the IUCN red list of threatened
species (IUCN 2011). Two plant species are listed
in CITES Appendix I, 171 in Appendix II and two
in Appendix III (UNEP-WCMC 2011).
Protective measures in production forests. Forest
management plans contain detailed prescriptions
for protective purposes, such as the maintenanceof unlogged strips along watercourses, reduced
impact logging, logging restrictions on slopes
and vulnerable areas, and specific provisions
for biodiversity conservation in both pine andbroadleaved forests.a

Table 6 Forest carbon potential
Biomass
forestcarbon(MtC)% forestwithcanopycover >60%

Deforestation/
degradation
potential to2030

852–1268

51++

Enhancement Forest areachangeof carbon
sink capacity monitoring
capacity
to 2030+++

Forest/GHG
inventory
capacity+

Importance Engagementinof forest
international
fire/
REDD+
biomass
processes
burning+++++++ high; ++ medium; + low; estimate of national forest carbon based on Gibbs et al. (2007); estimate of % total forest with canopy cover>60% based on UNEP-WCMC (2010).

339

Status of tropical forest management 2011

Extent of protected areas. SERNA, in partnershipwith The Nature Conservancy and WWF,
undertook a conservation gap analysis to 2008 to
better define conservation priorities. As a result,
Honduras established a 12% conservation goal forthe country’s 59 terrestrial ecosystems. In 2009
there were 51 declared terrestrial protected areas,
covering nearly all ecosystems over a total area of
1.37 million hectares. Another 21 areas covering
509 000 hectares were proposed to be added tothe protected-area network in order to address
deficiencies identified in the gap analysis (Paaby
Hansen & Florez 2008). UNEP-WCMC (2010)
estimated the forest area in IUCN categories I–IV
at 976 000 hectares. The Río Plátano Biosphere
Reserve in northeastern Honduras is designed
to protect the largest intact lowland tropicaland pine forests within Honduras and includes
community-based production forest (some of whichis certified). All cloud forests (bosques nublados)are protected in ten national parks, eight wildlife
reserves and 18 biological reserves; even so, mostare degraded (ITTO 2006). Honduras is part of the
Mesoamerican Biological Corridor.
Estimate of the area of forest sustainably
managed for protection. In 2010, management
plans had been prepared for 19 protected forest
areas covering a total area of about 608 000
hectares.a Areas that are co-managed by NGOs orthat receive support from the international donor
community (e.g. USAID, UNDP, the Global
Environment Facility and the World Bank) haveapproved protected-area management plans inplace, including the Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve,
The Tawahka Biosphere Reserve, the Patuca
National Park, the El Chile Biological Reserve,
the Güisayote Biological Reserve, the Cuero y
Salado Wildlife Refuge, the Jeannette Kawas
Park, the Wildlife Refuge and Islas de la Bahía.
The Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve, which covers
439 000 hectares, is part of the largest extant areaof relatively undisturbed tropical rainforest in
Honduras and one of the few remaining in Central
America. Management plans are being implemented
in its totally protected portion and considerable
efforts are being made in forest law enforcement.
This area is counted here as sustainably managed(Table 7), although until recently a threat was posedby illegal loggers seeking mahogany and othervaluable hardwoods (EIA 2005).

340

Socioeconomic aspects
Economic aspects. Forestry contributes
significantly to Honduran national income, peaking
at more than 10% of GDP late in the 1990s. In
2006, the sector’s economic contribution was 9.9%of GDP, making forestry the fourth most importanteconomic activity (AFE-COHDEFOR 2008). The
forest sector generates nearly 68 000 direct jobs anda similar quantity of indirect jobs (ibid.).
Livelihood values. Honduras has high levels ofpoverty in both rural and urban areas. Forests
constitute an important supplement to livelihoods– both in the provision of goods and services andfor land. Informal harvesting and trade in a variety
of forest products are important in forested areas
to sustain livelihoods. Nevertheless, these issues
need to be tackled to make informal forest use
compatible with the objectives of SFM (ITTO2006).
The concept of payments for ecosystem services has
gained momentum in recent years, but experiences
are nascent. Most focus on water resources as
the principal service emanating from forests, andother services such as carbon sequestration andecotourism warrant further exploration.
Social relations. Even though the law has madeprovisions for local communities to own forests,
there are great difficulties in practice in protecting
these forests from encroachment, timber theft andillegal hunting. For example, the La Mosquitia
Biosphere Reserve and the Indigenous communities
of Miskito, Pech and Garifuna are greatly
threatened by unregulated colonization (ITTO2006).

Summary
It is estimated that 80 000–100 000 hectares ofmainly broadleaved forests are lost annually to the
expansion of agriculture as well as to forest fire andillegal felling. Pine forests sustain the livelihoods ofmany communities in the highlands of Honduras.
These forests, although stable in area, have declined
in productivity and genetic quality. This is ofconcern because the forest sector, which is largely
reliant on this resource, generates an estimated
68 000 direct jobs.
Management of the broadleaved natural forests in
Honduras is sometimes more a matter of extracting
the most valuable species than of silvicultural

HONDURAS

Table 7 Management of the protection PFE (’000 hectares)*

Reportingyear

Protection PFE

Attributed to IUCN
categories I–IV

Allocated for soil
and waterWith management
plans

Sustainably
managed

2005*
2010

1600
2521

434
434

352
319

608

439

As reported in ITTO (2006).

management. Silvicultural and conservation
measures described in forest management plans
are often not respected and there is a risk thatlogged-over areas will become degraded. Illegal
logging is probably widespread. More attention has
been paid to protected areas in recent years but inmany areas they remain vulnerable to degradationand clearing.

Key points••

Honduras has an estimated PFE of 3.62 million
hectares (compared with 3.24 million hectares
in 2005), comprising 1.1 million hectares ofnatural production forest (compared with 1.59
million hectares in 2005), 2.52 million hectaresof protection forest (compared with 1.6 million
hectares in 2005) and 48 000 hectares ofplanted forest (as in 2005).
An estimated 276 000 hectares of the natural
production PFE is under SFM, including
111 000 hectares of certified forest. An
estimated 439 000 hectares of the protection
PFE is under SFM.

•

The broadleaved moist forest could make alarger contribution to sustainable developmentin Honduras if all goods and services were taken
into account and illegal activities controlled.

•

A new forest law has been in place since 2007. A
new forestry administration assumed oversightof forest production in 2008, under the
direction of the President’s Office.

••Management norms for the pine forests havebeen formulated and are being implemented insome of these forests. Silvicultural prescriptions
for the sustainable management of moist
broadleaved forests also exist but the extent towhich they are being applied is unclear.
Forest tenure, particularly on public land,remains subject to dispute, and large tracts ofbroadleaved forests have no clear ownershipstatus.

EndnoteaGovernment of Honduras (2010b).

References and other sources
AFE-COHDEFOR (2008). Anuario estadístico forestalde Honduras (available at http://www.icf.gob.hn/
DOCUMENTOS/anuario%20estadistico%20
forestal%202008%20VERSION%202.pdf ).
EIA (2005). The Illegal Logging Crisis in Honduras: How US
and EU Imports of Illegal Honduran Wood Increase Poverty,
Fuel Corruption and Devastate Forests and Communities.
Environmental Investigation Agency, Washington, DC,
United States.
ENF (2006). Resultados del inventario de bosques y árboles.
Evaluación Nacional Forestal, Secretaria de Agricultura yGanaderia, Tegucigalpa, Honduras.
FAO (2005). Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005. FAO
Forestry Paper 147. FAO, Rome, Italy.
FAO (2010a). Global forest resources assessment 2010
country report: Honduras (available at http://www.fao.
org/forestry/fra/67090/en/).
FAO (2010b). Global Forest Resources Assessment 2010. FAO
Forestry Papers 163. FAO, Rome, Italy.
FSC (2011, website accessed February 2011). FSC
certification database (searchable database available at
http://info.fsc.org/PublicCertificateSearch).
Gibbs, H., Brown, S., Niles, J. & Foley, J. (2007).
Monitoring and estimating tropical forest carbon
stocks: making REDD a reality. Environmental Research
Letters 2 (available at http://iopscience.iop.org/17489326/2/4/045023/fulltext).
Government of Honduras (2010a). Readiness project idea
note. Submitted to the Forest Carbon Partnership
Facility. Available at http://www.forestcarbonpartnership.
org/fcp/.
Government of Honduras (2010b). Informe de Honduras
basado en los criterios e indicadores para la ordenación
forestal sostenible de los bosques tropicales. Preparedby Alejandra Reyes, Antonio Murillo, Rafael Oqueli,
Melissa Núñez, Karina Hernández, Henry Granados andYosenia Castellanos. Instituto Nacional de Conservacióny Desarrollo Forestal, Areas Protegidas y Vida Silvestre,
Tegucigalpa, Honduras.
Harmeling, S. (2010). Global Climate Risk Index 2011.
Germanwatch, Bonn, Germany.
ITTO (2006). Status of Tropical Forest Management 2005.
ITTO, Yokohama, Japan (available at http://www.itto.
int/en/sfm/).

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Status of tropical forest management 2011

ITTO (2011, website accessed January 2011). Annual
Review statistics database (available at http://www.itto.
int/annual_review_output/?mode=searchdata).
ITTO & RRI (2009). Tropical forest tenure assessment.
trends, challenges and opportunities. ITTO, Yokohama,Japan and Rights and Resources Initiative, Washington,
DC, United States.
IUCN (2011, website accessed January 2011). IUCN redlist of threatened species (searchable database available atwww.redlist.org).
Paaby Hansen, P. & Florez, E. (2008). Tropical forestsand biodiversity faa 118 and 119 analyses. USAID,
Washington, DC, United States.
Spalding, M., Kainumu, M. & Collins, L. (2010). World
Atlas of Mangroves. Earthscan, London, UK.
UNDP (2009). Human Development Report 2009. United
Nations Development Programme, New York, UnitedStates.

342

UNEP-WCMC (2011, website accessed March
2011). UNEP-WCMC species database: CITES-listed
species (searchable database at available at www.cites.org/
eng/resources/species.html).
UNEP-WCMC (2010). Spatial analysis of forests withinprotected areas in ITTO countries. Data prepared for
ITTO. UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, UK.
United Nations Population Division (2010, website accessed
August 2010). World population prospects: the 2008
revision (searchable database available at http://esa.
un.org/unpp/p2k0data.asp).
Vallejo, M. & Coronado, I. (2006). Descentralización de laGestión Forestal en Honduras: Mirando Hacia el Futuro.
CIFOR and the International Development ResearchCentre, la Paz, Bolivia.

MEXICO

Mexicotemperate/subtropical region is Quercus (oak) forest,
which may be pure or mixed with other temperateclimate broadleaved species such as Liquidambar
styraciflua (sweet gum) and Fagus mexicana (beech).
The ‘conifer and broadleaved forests’ category of
the national forest inventory is characterized bya few dominant species, such as Pinus and Abies,
combined with various species of Quercus, Cupressus
and Juniperus.

Forest resources
With a land area of 194.2 million hectares, Mexico
is the third-largest country in Latin America
after Brazil and Argentina. It had an estimatedpopulation in 2010 of 110 million people (United
Nations Population Division 2010). Mexico isranked 53rd out of 182 countries in UNDP’s
Human Development Index (UNDP 2009). The
country is mainly mountainous, with more thanhalf of its land area above 1000 m. The northwestof the country supports dry, open forest but tropicalmoist forests are found further south, where rainfall
is higher. The Southern highlands are composedof a number of steep mountain ranges, deep
valleys and dry plateaux, including the Chiapas
highlands bordering Guatemala, which constitutean important forest zone. CONAFOR (2010) andFAO (2010a) estimated the total forest area at 64.8
million hectares, of which 31.4 million hectares arein the tropics. According to the definition of forest(adopted at a workshop held in March 2009) usedin the context of climate change, there were about
85.5 million hectares of forests in Mexico in 2007,
including shrub forests (matorales) and ‘vegetation’cover in arid zones (Government of Mexico 2010a).
Forest types. Mexico’s eco-climatic zones canbe divided into three approximately equal areas:
tropical (in the south and southeast), subtropical/
temperate, and semi-arid/arid. The tropical region
includes rainforests, which originally covered about
6% of the country. The major forest type in the

Tropical forests are found on slopes along the Gulf
of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean, on the Isthmus
of Tehuantepec and in southern Yucatán in thestates of Campeche, Chiapas, Oaxaca, Quintana
Roo, Tabasco and Veracruz. They can be divided
into three major types: high forests (selva alta),
with a canopy height of 30 m and above composedof a large variety of species such as Brosimum
spp, Bursera spp, Cedrela odorata, Dialium spp,
Lonchocarpus spp, Manilkara zapota, Tabebuia spp,
Terminalia spp and Swietenia macrophylla; medium
forests (selva mediana), with a canopy height of
15–30 m and species such as Lysiloma spp, Bucida
buceras, Manilkara zapota and Ceiba spp; andlow forests (selva baja) with a height of 4–15 m
and species such as Annona glabra, Calophyllum
brasiliense and Eugenia spp.
Mexico has 770 000 hectares of mangroves(Spalding et al. 2010). They occur in a considerable
variety of settings and formations on both the
Pacific and Atlantic coastlines and in conditions
that range from arid to wet tropical.
Permanent forest estate. Mexico does not have aformally allocated PFE. The estimate of tropical
production PFE shown in Table 1 for 2005 wasbased on data supplied by the Government of
Mexico to ITTO in conjunction with a C&I
workshop convened in April 2005 and the estimate
of protection PFE was based on data reported by an
ITTO diagnostic mission to Mexico. The estimatesfor 2010 are based on data supplied in Governmentof Mexico (2010a and 2010b).

Forest ecosystem healthDeforestation and forest degradation. Mexico
suffered rapid deforestation and degradationin the period 1970–2000. For example, theestimated average annual deforestation rate in the343

Status of tropical forest management 2011

Table 1 Permanent forest estate
Reportingyear

Estimatedtotal forest
area, range(million ha)

Total closed
natural forest(’000 ha)

2005*
2010

64.0–65.2
64.8

33 12022 600*****‡

PFE, tropical forests only (’000 hectares)
Production
Protection
Total
NaturalPlanted
7880
8400

100
171‡

5600
3649

13 58012 220As reported in ITTO (2006).
Calculated using the ratio of forest with greater than 60% forest cover estimated by UNEP-WCMC (2010) (35.1%) and the total
natural forest area as estimated by FAO (2010a).
Tropical, including plantations for production and for protective functions.

Vulnerability of forests to climate change.
The climate varies greatly from north to south.
The varied topography results in further climaticdifferences between the various regions of thecountry. In the north, rainfall can be as low as 50
mm per year, while in the south and the central
highlands there are distinct wet and dry seasons,with rainfall of up to 550 mm per month. The
rainfall received in these regions is controlled largelyby the North American monsoon and the positionof the Intertropical Conversion Zone. Coastal areas
are vulnerable to hurricanes from both the Atlantic
and Pacific oceans.

period 1990–2000 was about 354 000 hectares(FAO 2010b). In the past decade, however, theannual rate of net forest loss has diminished, toabout 155 000 hectares, although an estimated
250 000–300 000 hectares of forest were degraded
between 2005 and 2010 (Government of Mexico
2010a). Uncontrolled logging (over-harvesting
and/or illegal logging), forest fires, grazing
in forests, forest diseases and pests, fuelwood
harvesting, population pressure and shifting
cultivation are the main direct causes of forest
degradation.a
Various factors have helped to reduce forest loss
in recent years. These include greater government
support for forestry and conservation; low prices
for agricultural commodities; a general shift ofpeople from rural areas to urban centres; and thelow suitability for agriculture of most remaining
forest lands. In addition, efforts are being madeto address deforestation and forest degradation
through an emerging REDD agenda. According to
the Government of Mexico (2010b), deforestationin areas where forest management plans are being
executed is significantly lower than in areas where
no management plans are established, indicatingthat forest management may reduce deforestation.
The same is true for areas within and outside
federally protected areas. Table 2 shows the best
available estimates of forest condition.

Mean annual temperature has increased by 0.6 ˚Csince 1960, a rate of around 0.13 ˚C per decade,with the rate of increase most rapid in the dry
season (McSweeney et al. undated). Mean annual
rainfall in Mexico has not shown any consistentincrease or decrease since 1960. Climate models
project an increase in average annual temperature
in Mexico of 1.1–3 ˚C by 2060 and substantial
increases in the frequency of days and nights thatare considered ‘hot’ in the current climate (ibid.).
In the tropical part of Mexico, an increased
frequency and intensity of tropical storms has
been observed in the past 10–20 years.a Climate
models suggest that tropical hurricanes are likely
to become more intense under a warmer climate
as a result of higher sea surface temperatures, butthere is uncertainty over changes in frequency andTable 2 Forest condition
PFE

Non-PFE

Total*’000 haArea of primary forest
Area of degraded primary forest
Area of secondary forest
Area of degraded forest land*

All forests – no data available specifically for tropical forest.

Source: CONAFOR (2010).

344

-

-

34 30030 500-MEXICOchanges to storm tracks and their interactions withother features of climate variability, such as the El
Niño–Southern Oscillation (ibid.). Fire is a serious
problem, particularly in the semi-arid parts of thecountry, and is caused mainly by agricultural andgrazing activities.

SFM policy framework
Forest tenure. Tenure rights are relatively secure in
Mexico, although agrarian conflicts persist in someareas.a Article 5 of the 2003 Forest Law (see below)
states that the forest resources belong to communes(ejidos), local communities, Indigenous peoples
and Indigenous communities, private landowners
or the government, depending on the location of
the forest (ITTO 2006). Most of Mexico’s forests(55–68%, depending on the source) are owned
by 8500 communities and ejidos or by individuals(27–33%), with relatively few state-owned forests(Table 3).
The risk of deforestation and degradation is higher
in areas with unresolved land-tenure conflicts,
where illegal logging and forest fires are the mostcommon problems (Government of Mexico 2010a,
2010b). Problems of access to some areas whereconflict is high due to the presence of organizedcrime (sometimes drug-related) or political unrest
hampers further the clarification of land rights.
About 2 million hectares are disputed among
Indigenous groups or between Indigenous andother communities.b
Criteria and indicators. Mexico has acomprehensive national forest program as well as
the National Strategic Forestry Plan 2025 (Programa
Estratégico Forestal – PEF 2025). Combined, these
set the framework for SFM. Mexico has developed

C&I frameworks for both its temperate forests(based on the Montreal Process framework) and its
tropical forests (based on the ITTO C&I). Mexico’s
submission to ITTO for this report was not in the
ITTO C&I reporting format.
Forest policy and legislation. As one of the main
actions specified in PEF 2025, a new forest law (theGeneral Law for Sustainable Forest Development,
Ley General de Desarrollo Forestal Sustentable –LGDFS) was prepared in 2003 and its regulations
enacted in 2005, when the incorporation of theforest sector in a broader environmental framework
was formalized. The law emphasizes the importanceof forest ecosystem services and their consideration
in forest management.
The LGDFS establishes eight instruments: Forest
Development Planning (La Planeación del Desarrollo
Forestal); the National Forest Information System(Sistema Nacional de Información Forestal); theNational Forest and Soil Inventory (Inventario
Nacional Forestal y de Suelos); forest zoning; theNational Forest Registry (Registro Forestal Nacional);
official forest regulations (Normas Oficiales
Mexicanas en Materia Forestal); the National System
of Forest Management (Sistema Nacional de Gestión
Forestal); and an annual satellite assessment offorest-cover change.
A number of special programs have been set up
in the last 15 years to bring greater consistency
to forest policy. Among the most important are
the Forest Development Program (Programa de
Desarrollo Forestal – PRODEFOR); the National
Reforestation Program (Programa Nacional de
Reforestación), which is designed to promote thereforestation of deforested and/or degraded areas;
the Program for the Conservation and Sustainable
Management of Forest Resources in Mexico

Table 3 Forest area, by tenure
Ownership category

Total*Of which PFE Notes’000 haState ownership (national, state orprovincial government)
Other public entities (e.g.
municipalities, villages)
Total public
Owned by local communities and/orIndigenous groups
Privately owned by individuals, firms,
other corporate

2900

-

0

-

2900
45 700-17 000-National forests and forests that have not been allocated to anon-state owner.

The total area is unclear and varies according to source.
The total area of privately owned forest is unclear. Plantation
development also affects the area that is classified under
privately owned forests.

*
Includes non-tropical forests. Note that the total differs to that shown in Table 1 due to differing sources.
Source: Government of Mexico (2010b), CONAFOR (2010).

345

Status of tropical forest management 2011

(Programa de Conservación y Manejo Sustentable
de Recursos Forestales en México); the program forpromoting and developing commercial plantations(PRODEPLAN) and, among various programsfor ecosystem services, the Program for Payments
for Environmental and Hydrological Services(Programa de Pago por Servicios Ambientales ehidrológicos) under the broader ProÁrbol programof the National Forestry Commission (Programade Desarrollo Forestal – CONAFOR). These
programs are geared mainly towards community
development and the reduction of poverty throughthe restoration of natural capital.
Institutions involved in forests. Mexico is a
representative, democratic and federal republic
comprising 31 states and one federal district.
Each state is autonomous in all internal affairs.
Many of the states have considerable interest inenvironmental issues such as forest restorationand conservation, and several have their own
secretariats for environmental and forestry issues(ITTO 2006). At the federal level, the Secretariat
for Environment and Natural Resources (Secretaríade Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales de México –SEMARNAT) is the government agency responsible
for natural resources, including forests. With the
new forest law entering into force, SEMARNAT
was assigned the task of “formulating andrunning the national policy for sustainable forest
development, and assuring its coherence withenvironmental and national natural resources aswell as those policies related to rural development”.
This function is carried out in coordination
with CONAFOR through the eight instruments
established in the LGDFS.
SEMARNAT is responsible for the sectoral planand maintains control over the formulation of forest
management plans. Through its recently created
32 state offices, CONAFOR is responsible for,among other things, the implementation of PEF
2025.b CONAFOR has the objective of developing,encouraging and driving activities associated withproduction, conservation and restoration in forests,
as well as participating in the formulation of plansand programs and the application of SFM policy.
The Federal Office for Environmental Protection(Procuraduría Federal de Protección al Ambiente –PROFEPA) is in charge of inspection, surveillanceand sanctions within forest production areas andnatural protected areas. There are also technicaland capacity-building institutes such as the346

National Forest and Agriculture Research Institute(Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales yAgropecuarias).
Other institutions that play a supportive and/or
complementary role in conserving and managing
Mexico’s forest estate are the National Commission
for Natural Protected Areas (Comisión Nacionalde Áreas Naturales Protegidas); the National
Biodiversity Commission (Comisión Nacional parael Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad); and the
National Institute of Ecology (Instituto Nacional deEcología).
NGOs play a major advocacy role on behalfof communities and are also important in
information-sharing and capacity-building forcollaborative forest management. Community
organizations have a strong influence on the use andmanagement of forest areas. However, communities
still need to be more strongly involved in thedevelopment of forest policy if they are to become
active agents in the design of solutions rather
than simply receivers of subsidies (Government of
Mexico 2010a).

Status of forest management
Forest for production
SEMARNAT issues authorizations to owners forforest harvesting, based on technical studies andforest management plans (programas de manejo
forestal) as required by forest law. Three kinds ofharvesting permit are available: small-scale, for areasof up to 20 hectares; medium-scale, for areas of
20–250 hectares; and commercial scale, for areas
larger than 250 hectares in size (ITTO 2006).
PROFEPA is responsible for the enforcement of
harvesting authorization. Even though capacity
for law enforcement is growing and forest law
clearly establishes measures to punish unauthorized
land-use change and illegal logging, insufficienthuman and financial resources are available toenforce laws effectively. Moreover, there are areas
within the country where government personnel
have limited access due to the presence of organizedgroups of illegal loggers and drug-traffickers(Government of Mexico 2010a).
Tropical production forests in Mexico are located in
the states of Campeche and Quintana Roo, where
forest management is conducted largely by ejidos.
Ejidos not only harvest natural forests, they also

MEXICOconduct enrichment planting and forest restoration
activities on the basis of forest management plans.
The total area of potentially managed tropicalforests is estimated at 8.4 million hectares.a Logging
in tropical forests is carried out by forest owners andcommunities as well as by contractors working fortimber traders or the forest industry. Forest owners
must employ at least one forestry professional
who is in charge of forest management, and theymust also present a forest management plan and a
yearly harvesting plan. Minimum cutting diameters
vary by state. In Quintana Roo, for example, theminimum diameter is 55 cm for high-value species
and 35 cm for other species (ITTO 2006).
The majority of forest production is carried out by
ejidos. The extent of forest within ejidos varies, fromaround 300 hectares to nearly 450 000 hectares. An
estimated 9 million hectares of closed forests (bothtemperate and tropical) are covered by management
plansc for the production of timber and/or NTFPs.
The estimated total tropical forest area harvested
annually is 750 000 hectares, distributed in 584
forest management units.
Timber harvesting in moist tropical forest involves
the selective cutting of high-value tree species, inparticular Cedrela odorata (cedro rojo) and Swietenia
macrophylla (caoba) and 20–30 common hardwood
species. Well-established silvicultural systems
known as the Silvicultural Development Method(Método de Desarrollo Silvícola) and the Mexican
Method of Forest Management (Método Mexicanode Ordenación de Montes) are applied in temperate
and pine forests. In the Mayan zone in the state of
Quintana Roo, several well-functioning FMUs areapplying polycyclic forest management and someare certified (ITTO 2006). In general, however,ejidos find themselves in a vicious circle: income
derived from forest activities is often insufficient
to justify the long-term investments required to
improve their operations.b

A national forest and soils inventory involving
26 220 geo-referenced permanent plots was carriedout between 2004 and 2007. About 20% of theplots were re-measured in 2008–09.
Silviculture and species selection. According toGovernment of Mexico (2010b), approximately
1.4% of total national timber production comesfrom tropical species (common and precious).
Caoba and cedro rojo are the most economicallyimportant species harvested in natural forests.
In some ejidos these two species are also used inplantations and for enrichment planting. Besides
the species listed in Table 4, the following species
are harvested in significant volumes: Brosimum
alicastum (ramón), Bucida buceras (pucte), Ceiba
pentandra (seiba), Bursera simarouba (chaka),
Dalbergia spp (guanciban, granadillo), Dendropanaxarboreus (sac-chaca), Dialium guineense (tamarindo),
Enterolobium cyclocarpum (guanacaste),Pseudobombax ellipticum (amapola), Simarouba
glauca (pasak), Tabebuia donnell-smithii (guayacán)
and Terminalia amazonica (roble).a
Planted forest and trees outside the forest. In
2006 Mexico had an estimated 170 000 hectaresof planted forests in the tropics, including 88 000
hectares for timber production.a FAO (2010a)
reported a total planted forest area (tropical andtemperate) of 3.20 million hectares and estimatedthe annual increase in the total area of planted
forests country-wide in the period 2005–10 at
162 000 hectares.
The main planted species in tropical Mexico are
eucalypts (Eucalyptus urophylla, E. grandis andE. urograndis), Gmelina arborea (melina), Hevea
brasiliensis (hule, for timber production) and
Tectona grandis (teca). The latter is becoming
increasingly important, with plantations now
covering about 19 000 hectares.a Increasingly,
native species are being used in new plantations.

Table 4 Commonly harvested species for industrial roundwood
Species

Notes

Swietenia macrophylla (caoba, kobchi)*

The most important harvested species by value; together with cedrorojo accounts for about 15% of the annual production.
Both caoba and cedro rojo are being planted due to shortage ofsupply.
Known also as sabicu or wild tamarind. Wood is highly valued,
especially for shipbuilding.
Common wood for construction and furniture.
Decorative species for interior use.

Cedrela odorata (cedro rojo)*
Lysiloma latisiliquu; L. bahamensis (tzalam)*Lonchocarpus lanceolatus (machiche)*Metopium brownei (chechen, palo roso)**
Also listed in ITTO (2006).
Source: Government of Mexico (2010b).

347

Status of tropical forest management 2011

The estimated area of cedro rojo and caoba
plantations in 2010 was 25 000 hectares.a There
are about 4000 hectares of plantations of othernative species, in particular Terminalia amazonica,
Tabebuia spp and Ceiba pentandra; outside thetropics, most plantations are of pines.a Chamaedorea
elegants (palma camedor) is the main tree species
planted for NTFPs. A national forest inventory in1994 estimated that 10.7 million hectares of land
were available in Mexico for the establishment ofplanted forests, although only 4–5 million hectares
are suitable for that purpose (ITTO 2006).

hectares of production forests are not yet sustainably
managed (Government of Mexico 2010b). Of
the 8500 ejidos, about 2500 were conducting
commercial harvesting in 2008 (ibid.). Staff at
CONAFOR estimate that about 750 000 hectaresof the tropical production PFE is under sustainable
management.b This is the figure used in Table 5;
it includes the six formerly certified natural forests(where management has not changed significantly
since certification lapsed) and semi-natural planted
forests in three other ejidos now in the process ofcertification.

Forest certification. As of February 2011, about
614 000 hectares of forest were certified (mostly
outside the tropics, down from 750 000 in
mid 2010) (FSC 2011). In December 2010 an
estimated area of 98 960 hectares of forests (inboth tropical and temperate areas) were in theprocess of certification.b A total of 31 FMUs ofnatural and planted forests are FSC-certified, thegreat majority of them in ejidos. In 2006 there
were six FSC-certified FMUs covering about
163 000 hectares of tropical forests in Quintana
Roo, but as of December 2010 none of thosecertificates remained valid. The main reason for thenon-renewal of certificates appears to have been
financial rather than technical, particularly thehigh transaction costs for maintaining certification
status and the lack of a sufficient price premiumfor certified timber and timber products. The only
valid certified forests in tropical Mexico were twoplanted forests covering an area of about 20 600
hectares and a small area of 12 000 hectares ofnatural forests (FSC 2011).

Timber production and trade. Total roundwood
production in Mexico was estimated at morethan 40 million m3 in 2008.a There are differing
estimates of tropical hardwood production. About
495 000 m3 of tropical industrial roundwood
was produced in 2008 (7.3% of total industrial
roundwood production), of which 37 683 m3 wereof the ‘noble’ species cedro rojo and caoba and theremainder were of common hardwood species.c
ITTO (2011) reported a total non-coniferous
tropical industrial roundwood production of
942 000 m3 in 2008.

Estimate of the area of forest sustainably
managed for production. As most forests are either
community or privately owned, the implementationof SFM requires extensive and continuous
consultation with landowners. SEMARNAT
estimates the total area managed sustainably inthe country at 9 million hectares, while 12 million

Nearly the entire volume of industrial roundwood
production is for internal consumption. The areaof cedro, caoba and teak plantations is increasing tohelp satisfy demand for high-quality hardwoods.a
Non-timber forest products. NTFPs play animportant role in the economies of many ejidos
in the tropical part of Mexico.a More than 1000
species are used as NTFPs throughout Mexico,of which 70 are subject to some form of control(ITTO 2006). NTFPs include ornamental plants,
resin, bamboo fibres, wax, tannin and gums,
medicine, fruits, nuts, spices and honey. Naturalgum (chicle natural) from Manilkara zapota)
recently became an important niche product forexport, providing employment for more than 2000
people in the states of Campeche, Quintana Roo
and Yucatán.a Besides chicle, the most important

Table 5 Management of the production PFE (’000 hectares)
Reporting
year

Total

2005*
2010

7880
8400

Natural (tropical forests)
CertifiedWith
Available for
harvesting
management
plans
8600
8600
163
8400
750
12

*

As reported in ITTO (2006).

**

Includes semi-natural planted forests.

348

Sustainably
managed

Total

163

100

PlantedWith
management
plans
34

750**

171

84

Certified

0
20.6

MEXICOproducts from tropical regions include copal,
products from different palms such as Chamaedorea
spp (palma camedor or palmilla), Sabal spp (palmade sombrero), Scheelea liebmannii (palma real),
Byrsonima crassifolia (fruits of nanche) and Pimenta
dioica (pimienta gorda).
Forest carbon. According to Gibbs et al. (2007),
Mexico’s tropical forests contain 4360–5920 MtC
in their biomass. Masera et al. (2001) estimatedthe total forest carbon stock of Mexican forests(temperate and tropical) at about 17.8 GtC.
According to the Government of Mexico (2010a),
14% of Mexico’s total GHG emissions areproduced by deforestation and forest degradation,
including as a result of forest fire, erosion andpests. In preparing for REDD+, Mexico has
been able to build on its relative strengths, suchas policy experience in community forestry andecosystem services as well as on past investments inforest assessment and management (Governmentof Mexico 2010a). Mexico is engaged in theForest Carbon Partnership Facility and is one of
the recipient countries of the Forest Investment
Program. It is also a leading country in the REDD+
Partnership and is engaged in UN-REDD as anobserver. Mexico has a REDD working group in
CONAFOR, a working group on climate change
in SEMARNAT, and an inter-secretary commission
on climate change to ensure the consideration offorests in the wider climate-change agenda. Table 6
indicates Mexico’s forest carbon potential.

Forest for protection
Soil and water. Large parts of Mexico’s forest estate
are classified as water protection areas (cuencas deamortiguamiento), particularly in the tropical southeastern part of the country. For example, 40% of
the country’s freshwater is produced in the Selva
Lacandona, a tropical forest in the state of Chiapas.a
The Government of Mexico supports watershed
protection through a system of payments for

Chicle and timber production in a certified ejido in Quintana
Roo (left: tree of Manilkara zapota; right: tree of Swietenia
macrophylla).

ecosystem and watershed services (programa de pago
por servicios ambientales e hidrológicos de ProÁrbol).
ProÁrbol produces maps that identify zones that are
eligible for payments for hydrological services. No
figures are available on the extent of forests set aside
for mainly water and soil protection purposes.
Biological diversity. Mexico is one of the world’s
top ten most biologically diverse countries withregard to the number of vertebrate and vascularplant species. It has the highest diversity of reptilesof any country and is third for bird diversity andfourth for terrestrial mammals. There are more
plant species in Mexico than in the United States
and Canada combined. Seventy mammals, 26 birds,
54 reptiles, 196 amphibians, eight arthropods and47 plants found in forests are listed as criticallyendangered, endangered or vulnerable on the
IUCN red list of threatened species (IUCN 2011).

Table 6 Forest carbon potential
Biomass
forestcarbon(MtC)% forestwithcanopycover >60%

Deforestation/
degradation
potential to2030

4360–5920

35*++

Enhancement Forest areachangeof carbon
sink capacity monitoring
capacity
to 2030++++++

Forest/GHG
inventory
capacity+++

Importance Engagementinof forest
international
fire/
REDD+
biomass
processes
burning+++++++++ high; ++ medium; +low; estimate of national forest carbon based on Gibbs et al. (2007); estimate of % total forest with canopy cover>60% based on UNEP-WCMC (2010).
*
Tropical forests only.

349

Status of tropical forest management 2011

Mexico has listed 53 plant species in CITES
Appendix I and 1439 plant species in Appendix II,
including Swietenia macrophylla (UNEP-WCMC
2011).
Extent of protected areas. About 24.4 million
hectares of tropical and temperate forests andsemi-arid woodlands are officially declared asprotected areas (áreas naturales protegidas), of which
53% (12.9 million hectares) are part of the national
system of protected areas (Sistema Nacional deAreas Naturales Protegidas – SINAP).a This figure
is significantly higher than that reported in ITTO
(2006), of 17.9 million hectares. Discrepancies
remain in the definition and number of protectedareas; for example, it appears that some designatedprotected areas are on private land, and theirprotection status is unclear (ITTO 2006). In thetropical zone, 19 forested protected areas and one
monument – with various designations, such as
biosphere reserves, national parks, flora and fauna
reserves, and monuments – are integrated in SINAP,
covering a total area of about 3.015 million hectares(Box 1).a In the temperate zone, twelve forested
protected areas are part of SINAP, covering an areaof 1.25 million hectares.a
Estimate of the area of forest sustainably
managed for protection. The majority of Mexico’s
tropical forests have protected-area status; generally,

this status is respected and laws are enforced.aConsequently, all those protected areas in SINAP
are considered in this report to be under SFM(Table 7).

Socioeconomic aspects
Economic aspects. The direct contribution of thetropical timber sector to employment could be as
high as 90 000 jobs, but a considerable numberof people employed in the sector work informallyand are not counted in official statistics.a The
contribution of the national forest sector to GDP
in 2007 was about US$2 billion (1.5%)a, comparedwith 1% in 2003 (ITTO 2006). In 2009, about
26% of the national consumption of wood products
was produced domestically and the remainder(mainly cellulose and paper) was imported, valued
at more than US$5 billion (CONAFOR 2010).
Livelihood values. It is estimated that 12–13
million people live in forest areas in Mexico, about
five million of whom are Indigenous. Most forestdependent Indigenous people live in conditions of
extreme poverty, with limited access to education,
public services and labour (Government of Mexico
2010b). Impoverished people tend to rely on
fuelwood as an energy source for cooking, which
may cause forest degradation where fuelwood is
scarce. In Mexico, tropical forests are nearly entirely

Box 1 Forested protected areas in tropical Mexico
Protected area

State

Area (ha)Calakmul Biosphere Reserve
Sian Ka’an Biosphere Reserve
Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve
Montes Azules – Selva Lacandona Biosphere Reserve
Parque Nacional Isla Contoy
Pantanos de Centla Biosphere Reserve
Chamela – Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve
La Encrucijada Biosphere Reserve
Yum Balam Flora and Fauna Protection Area
Arrecifes de Sian Ka’an Biosphere Reserve
Lacantún Biosphere ReserveÁrea de Protección de Flora y Fauna Chan-KinÁrea de Protección de Flora y Fauna Uaymil
Ría Lagartos Biosphere Reserve
Ría Celestún Biosphere Reserve
Los Petenes Biosphere Reserve
Parque Nacional de Xcalak
Parque Nacional Huatulco
Monumento Natural Bonampak
Total

Calakmul, Campeche
Quintana Roo
Veracruz
ChiapasQuintana Roo
TabascoJaliscoChiapasQuintana Roo
Quintana Roo
ChiapasChiapasQuintana Roo
Yucatán
Yucatán and CampecheCampeche
Quintana Roo
OaxacaChiapas723 185528 148
155 122331 2005126
302 70713 142144 868
154 052
34 92761 87412 18589 11860 34881 482282 858
17,94911 8914357
3 014 539

Source: www.conanp.gob.mx/que_hacemos/sinap.php.

350

MEXICO

Table 7 Management of the protection PFE (’000 hectares)***

Reportingyear

Protection PFE

Attributed to IUCN
categories I–IV
(tropical only)

Allocated for soil
and waterWith management
plans

Sustainably
managed

2005*
2010

5600
3649**

1040
3015

-

3015

3015

As reported in ITTO (2006).
Only forested protected areas classified in SINAP in tropical areas.

owned by ejidos, and forest management for timberand NTFPs generates a significant part of family
livelihoods.a
Social relations. Communities in Mexico are
greatly involved in both forest management andconservation. There are many models for good
resource management and forest enterprises,
such as the PROCYMAF (Programa de Desarollo
Forestal Comunitario), a community forest
management project.a Generally, however, ejidos
and communities lack the organization and funds
to manage forests and woodlands effectively.a Thereis also often a divergence between national interests
to protect and manage forests and particular local
interests. There is an ongoing conflict in tropicalforests in the states of Chiapas and Oaxaca overa lack of access to land and insecurity of tenure(Government of Mexico 2010a).

Summary
The management of Mexico’s forests differs
greatly between the pine and oak forests in thetemperate zone, the forests in semi-arid regions,and the moist tropical forests in the south. The
majority of tropical forests are managed bycommunities. Problems that obstruct progress
towards the sustainable management of closed
forest areas in ejidos include a lack of resources
and know-how for the economic use of forest
resources, and discrepancies in the objectives
between communities, the private sector and forest
authorities. There have been considerable advancesin policies that give greater recognition and rights
to ejidos and communities. Nevertheless, land
allocation and land-use change remain a key issue in
Mexico’s forests.
Good progress has been achieved in forest
certification, although to date much of it has beenoutside the tropics. The government has taken
steps to tackle deforestation and forest degradation
through REDD+, address shortcomings in the

sector, combat illegal logging and improve fire
management.

Key points•

Mexico has no formally designated PFE.
Nevertheless, about 12.2 million hectares(compared with 13.6 million hectares in 2005)of tropical forest may be considered toconstitute a tropical-forest PFE, comprising
8.40 million hectares of natural production
forest (compared with 7.88 million hectares in2005), 3.65 million hectares of protection forest(compared with 5.60 million hectares in 2005)
and 171 000 hectares of planted forest(compared with 100 000 hectares in 2005).

•

Differences in estimates of the PFE between
2005 and 2010 are most likely due to the lackof a formal PFE rather than to real change.

•

Overall, the rate of deforestation has apparently
slowed but is still high in some states.
Over-harvesting and the illegal harvesting offorest resources are still widespread, although
now less so in the tropics than in the temperate
zone.

•

An estimated 750 000 hectares of the tropical
production PFE and the entire protection PFE
is under SFM.

•

Considerable efforts are under way to increase
the planted-forest estate, including with local
broadleaved species.

•

Ejidos, local communities and private owners
hold tenure rights to more than 90% of
Mexico’s forests. The area of state-owned forests
is less than 5%. Nevertheless, continuing
conflicts over land use and land-use change areapparently inhibiting SFM in some states,
including in the tropics.

•

Mexico is actively pursuing REDD+ as a major
new instrument for encouraging the protection

351

Status of tropical forest management 2011and management of natural forests, mainly
through community-based forest management.

ITTO (2011, website accessed January 2011). Annual Review
statistics database (available at http://www.itto.int/annual_
review_output/?mode=searchdata).

aGovernment of Mexico (2010b).

IUCN (2011, website accessed January 2011). IUCN Red listof threatened species (searchable database available at www.
redlist.org).

b

Information derived from discussions held withrepresentatives of government, civil society and the private
sector at the international workshop on governance and
REDD, held 30 August­–3 September 2010 Oaxaca,
Mexico.

Masera, O., Ceron, A. & Ordóñez, J. (2001). Forestry
mitigation options for méxico: finding synergies between
national sustainable development priorities and global
concerns. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Climate
Change 6(3-4): 289-310.

c

Personal communications with officials at SEMARNAT,2010.

McSweeney, C., New, M. & Lizcano, G. (undated, website
accessed March 2011). UNDP climate change country
profiles: Mexico (available at http://country-profiles.geog.
ox.ac.uk/).

Endnotes

References and other sources
CONAFOR (2010, website accessed July 2010). Available at
http://www.conafor.gob.mx/portal/.
FAO (2010a). Global forest resources assessment 2010 country
report: Mexico (available at http://www.fao.org/forestry/fra/67090/en/).
FAO (2010b). Global Forest Resources Assessment 2010 Full
Report. FAO, Rome, Italy.
FSC (2011, website accessed February 2011). FSC certification
database (searchable database available at http://info.fsc.org/
PublicCertificateSearch).
Gibbs, H., Brown, S., Niles, J. & Foley, J. (2007). Monitoringand estimating tropical forest carbon stocks: making REDDa reality. Environmental Research Letters 2 (available at http://
iopscience.iop.org/1748-9326/2/4/045023/fulltext).
Government of Mexico (2010a). Readiness preparation proposal.
Submitted to the Forest Carbon Partnership Facility(available at http://www.forestcarbonpartnership.org/fcp/
node/257).
Government of Mexico (2010b). Informe de Avances deMéxico sobre el Estado de la ordenación forestal en losbosques tropicales y templados. Submission to ITTO by
CONAFOR, Mexico City, Mexico.
ITTO (2006). Status of Tropical Forest Management 2005. ITTO,
Yokohama, Japan (available at http://www.itto.int/en/sfm/).

352

SEMARNAT (2005). Vulnerabilidad y adaptacion (available
at http://www.semarnat.gob.mx/queessemarnat/
politica_ambiental/cambioclimatico/Documents/enac/
sintesis/070110%20HENAC.2.VYA_compl.pdf ).

Spalding, M., Kainumu, M. & Collins, L. (2010). World
Atlas of Mangroves. Earthscan, London, UK.
UNDP (2009). Human Development Report 2009. United
Nations Development Programme, New York, UnitedStates.
UNEP-WCMC (2010). Spatial analysis of forests withinprotected areas in ITTO countries. Data prepared for
ITTO. UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, UK.
UNEP-WCMC (2011, website accessed January2011). UNEP-WCMC species database: CITES-listed
species (searchable database at available at www.cites.org/
eng/resources/species.html).
United Nations Population Division (2010, website accessed
March 2010). World population prospects: the 2008
revision (searchable database available at http://esa.
un.org/unpp/p2k0data.asp).

PANAMA

Panamaas well as species from the Cicadaceae, Rubiaceae,
Mirsinaceae, Musaceae and other families.
Panama’s mangroves cover about 174 000 hectares(Spalding et al. 2010) on the Pacific coast and,to a lesser extent, on the Atlantic coast. Tropicalevergreen humid forests, receiving 2500 mm rain
per year or more, occur typically in low-lying andmedium-altitude areas of the Atlantic coast, where
they cover a considerable area. Other forest types
characterized by the dominance of a few species are:•Oak (Quercus spp) montane forests, which arefound in the Talamanca mountains. These aresometimes fully closed, with a dominant storeyof two species of oak and a few other species.

•

Cativo (Prioria copaifera) forests, which arefound alongside mixed forest stands, always in
the proximity of rivers on inundated areas at
low altitudes, covering about 40 000 hectares.

•

Orey (Campnosperma panamensis) forests, which
occur on poorly drained ground in the western
Atlantic coastal region in Bocas del Toro
Province, covering about 3500 hectares.

Forest resources
Panama has a land area of 7.48 million hectares
and an estimated population in 2010 of 3.5 million
people (United Nations Population Division 2010).
Panama is ranked 60th out of 182 countries in
UNDP’s Human Development Index (UNDP2009). It can be divided into four biogeographicalzones: the Cordillera de Talamanca, which extends
southwards from Costa Rica in the west, withpeaks of more than 3000 m; the central lowlands,
which are bisected by the Panama Canal; the largely
forested eastern region (Darién), characterized by aseries of mountain ranges (San Blas and Portobello)
up to 1000 m in altitude and hilly landscapes up to
800 m; and the lowlands on the Caribbean coast.
Nearly 90% of the country lies below 1000 m.
FAO (2010a) estimated the forest area at 4.29
million hectares (57% of the land area), while theGovernment of Panama (2009a) estimated it at
3.07 million hectares (41% of the land area).
Forest types. The prevalent forest type in Panama
is deciduous tropical semi-humid forest, together
with dry, moist submontane and montane forests.
Stands of the tropical semi-humid deciduous forest
are heterogeneous, with Cavallinesia platanifolia
an emergent species above the forest canopy.
Anacardium excelsum and Hura crepitans are among
the most common species in the dominant storey.
The lower storey contains various species of palms

Permanent forest estate. According to existingland-use plans, 75% (5.6 million hectares) of theland area in Panama is suitable for forest use.a In
some areas, forests are used in shifting cultivationand for cattle-ranching with low productivity. The
1994 Forest Law (Ley Forestal 1/94) classifies forest
into production, protection and ‘special’ areas;
the latter includes scientific, historic, educational,
tourism and recreational areas. Indigenous
territories (comarcas1) contain an estimated 150 000
hectares of production forest. About 140 000
hectares in the provinces of Colon, Bocas del Toro
and Veraguas have not yet been harvested and may
also be considered potential production forest.
The Government of Panama (2009a) reported 2.3
million hectares of permanent production forests,
which is an increase of nearly 300 000 hectares
over that reported for 2005. The production
PFE shown in Table 1 is unchanged from 2005
but the protection PFE has increased due to theclassification of additional protected areas.
1 In Panama, the comarca indígena is an administrative region for an
area with a substantial Indigenous population. Three comarcas areequivalent to provinces and two smaller comarcas are subordinate toprovinces and considered equivalent to a corregimiento (municipality).

353

Status of tropical forest management 2011

Table 1 Permanent forest estate
Reportingyear

Estimatedtotal forest
area range(million ha)

Total closed
natural forest(’000 ha)

2005*
2010

2.9–3.5
3.1–4.3

3052
2110*****‡PFE (’000 hectares)
Production
Protection
NaturalPlanted

Total

350
350‡

1986
2301

56
71

1580
1880‡

As reported in ITTO (2006).
Calculated using the ratio of forest with greater than 60% forest cover estimated by UNEP-WCMC (2010) (49.2%) and the total
natural forest area as estimated by FAO (2010a).
According to Government of Panama (2009a).

Forest ecosystem healththe Kuna Yala (also known as San Blas) comarca,
since most of its 47 communities are on low-lying
coralline atolls. Some communities have alreadyindicated a need to re-locate to the mainland.

Deforestation and forest degradation. On
average, Panama lost an estimated 42 000
hectares of forest per year in the 1990s (1.18%
per year, FAO 2010b). ANAM (2008) estimatedthe deforestation rate of natural forests between
2000 and 2008 at about 27 800 hectares (0.96%)
annually, significantly less than in the previous
decade, and FAO (2010b) put the rate at 0.36%
for the period 2005–10. The highest rate of
deforestation was in Darien Province, where nearly
4400 hectares were being cleared per year, followed
by Colon Province (3700 hectares), the Ngäbe
Bugle comarca (3400 hectares) and Bocas del Toro
Province (3000 hectares) (ANAM 2008). Drivers ofdeforestation include urbanization, cattle-ranching,agro-industrial development, unregulated shifting
cultivation (rozas), open mining, poor logging
practices, charcoal-making and fire (ITTO 2005).
Table 2 shows the estimated area of degraded andsecondary forests.

SFM policy framework
Forest tenure. Forest ownership is divided into
public, private, comarcas and, since 2008, a new
category of Indigenous land rights known as tierras
colectivas. The majority of the forest estate, however,is state-owned (Table 3). The 1972 Constitution
recognizes comarcas and gives the Indigenous
communities therein authority to manage theirlands. In total, the comarcas comprise 28% of
the national territory, several of which are mostly
forested (e.g. Emberá Wounaan comarca, 90%;
Kuna Yala comarca 86%, Government of Panama
2009b). As of 2008, the government agency
responsible for legal landholding titles, Programa
Nacional de Administración de Tierras, had legalized
102 000 land titles, but none in natural forest areas.
Criteria and indicators. The Government ofPanama used the ITTO C&I in its submission to
ITTO for this report.a

Vulnerability of forests to climate change.
Human-induced forest fire currently affects, on
average, about 7000 hectares of forest annually.a
The main issue related to vulnerability andadaptation to climate change pertains to low-lying
villages and communities that would be threatenedby a rise in sea level. This is especially true for

Forest policy and legislation. Forests do notreceive high political priority in Panama due totheir low contribution to economic development.a

Table 2 Forest condition
PFE

Non-PFE

Total’000 haArea of primary forest
Area of degraded primary forest
Area of secondary forest
Area of degraded forest land*

-

-

700
2000
730
900

*
An estimated 2 million hectares of former forest land is thought to be heavily degraded, mainly in the Central Cordillera.
Source: Government of Panama (2009a).

354

PANAMA

Table 3 Forest area, by tenure
Ownership category

Total area Of which PFE Notes’000 haState ownership (national, state orprovincial government)
Other public entities (e.g.
municipalities, villages)
Total public
Owned by local communities and/orIndigenous groups
Private owned by individuals, firms,
other corporate

3955

3955

3955
753

3955
753

60

0

The 1994 Forest Law states that state forests include all naturalforests, the soils on which those forests are located, and statelands suitable for forestry. Nevertheless, under certain
conditions state forest lands can be titled (Larson 2006).
Natural forests in comarcas.
Regulations for forest management clearly recognize private
property rights to forests.

Source: Government of Panama (2009a).

Under a recent amendment to Law 30 (Leysobre Estudios de Impacto Ambiental, 1994),
environmental impact assessment processes may be
bypassed if the government determines there is a‘social interest’ in doing so. In 2010 an office wascreated in the Ministry of the Presidency (Ministeriode Presidencia) called ProDar, the goal of which is todevelop the Darien Gap, an area of forest separating
Darien Province from Colombia. Plans that could
affect forests there include the construction of aconnecting road with Colombia (the ‘missing link’in the Pan American Highway), the constructionof an electricity transmission line to Colombia
through the Emberá Wounaan comarca, andpetroleum exploration. Mining is anotherdevelopment priority for the government, which
could affect forests in the Cordillera de Talamanca.
In 2008 the Government of Panama published the
National Forest Development Plan (Plan Nacionalde Desarrollo Forestal: Modelo Forestal Sostenible).
Key elements of that policy are the establishmentof a PFE; inventories and forest management
plans for production and protection forests; andenvironmental impact assessments for production
forestry. With a change of government, however,the future of this plan is uncertain.

and research, and extension. By mid 2010,
however, the fund was still not functioning, andall forest-related taxes were going to generalrevenue.a Law 1/94 is currently being revisedwith a view to incorporating, among otherthings, forest management planning, forest
certification, forest auditing, regulations for
FONDEFOR, direct and indirect incentives fornatural and planted forests, the demarcation of
the PFE, the participation of stakeholders, andthe creation of a C&I national commission.
•

Law 24/1992 created incentives for reforestation
and Article 43 of Law 1/94 states further that all
private forest land covered by forests, either
natural or planted, is exempt from national
taxes, provided that the landowner is registeredin the Registro Forestal and a certificate ofownership has been issued. Although aimed atenterprises, associations, community
organizations and cooperatives, according tosome commentators only commercial
enterprises have benefited from the incentives sofar. Problems relate to tax evasion, theover-stating of costs, and a failure to maintainplantations over time.

•

The Wildlife Law (24/95) establishes thatwildlife is part of the natural patrimony ofPanama and provides for the protection,
restoration, research, management anddevelopment of the country’s genetic resources,
including rare species.

•

The 1998 General Law on the Environment(Ley General de Ambiente, 41/98) establishes thebasic principles and norms for the protection,conservation and restoration of the environment
and promotes the sustainable use of natural
resources. It governs the administration of the

The main laws pertaining to forests are set out
below.
•

Panama’s first specific forest law (Law 1/94) was
passed in 1994, replacing Law 39 (1966), withthe aim of conserving and managing forest
resources sustainably. It emphasizes logging andreforestation and established the National Fundfor Forest Development and Protection (Fondode Protección y Desarrollo Forestal –FONDEFOR) to assist in forest promotion,
protection, management, supervision, control

355

Status of tropical forest management 2011environment and integrated social andeconomic objectives, and recognizes the right ofIndigenous communities to manage forests inthe comarcas (Article 98).
•

Decree Law No 2 (2003) approves a set of forest
management guidelines for Panama.

•Law 5 (Ley sobre Delito contra el Medio
Ambiente, 2005) sets out penalties forenvironmental crimes, such as illegal logging.

•

The Tierras Colectivas Law (Ley 72 sobre Tierras
Colectivas, 2008) establishes a procedure for theawarding of collective ownership oflands traditionally occupied by Indigenous
peoples and communities that are not within
the comarcas.

Panama is highly centralized, but this may change.
The aim of Law 37 on the Decentralization of
Public Administration, enacted in 2009, is “thepromotion of systematic decentralization of public
administration in the municipalities, to achievesustainable development of the country through thedelegation and transfer of administrative, economic,
political and social competence of the Executive
Body, in a gradual, progressive, orderly, regulated
and responsible manner”.
Institutions involved in forests. The 1998 GeneralLaw on the Environment established the National
Environment Authority (Autoridad Nacional del
Ambiente – ANAM) as an autonomous entity.
ANAM has a mandate to rule on matters of natural
resources and the environment, including forests,
and to ensure compliance with and the enforcementof applicable laws, regulations and national policies.
ANAM develops basic principles and norms forthe protection, preservation and restoration of
the environment and promotes the sustainable
use of natural resources, including forests. There
are about 130 forest professionals in Panama, ofwhom approximately 50 work for ANAM.a Within
ANAM, the forest department (Departamento
de Desarrollo y Manejo Forestal) is responsible
for the implementation of the National Forest
Development Plan, but it has limited capacity.
In 2008 the Aquatic Resources Authority(Autoridad de los Recursos Acuáticos de Panamá)assumed responsibility for mangrove forest
management outside protected areas. The
Authority of the Panama Canal (Autoridad delCanal de Panamá) has a specific mandate for the356

management and conservation of forests in thevicinity of the Panama Canal.
Various NGOs are active in forest management andconservation, including the National Association
for the Conservation of Nature (Asociación
Nacional para la Conservación de la Naturaleza), the
NATURA Foundation (Fundación NATURA) andthe National Reforestation Association of Panama(Asociación Nacional de Reforestadores de Panamá).

Status of forest management
Forest for production
Integrated land-use planning has been applied inseveral provinces since 2005. In that year, the first
integrated forest plan was prepared for 27 000
hectares in the Emberá-Wounaan comarca, with thehelp of WWF. Plans have also been prepared for an
additional 45 000 hectares in the comarcas.
Forest management in natural forests is carried out
by way of various types of timber-cutting licences.
These include logging permits for domestic use (e.g.
for housing and boat–building), special permits
for subsistence (granted to poor individuals for
cutting a small number of trees for personal use orfor sale to commercial enterprises), five-year forest
concessions for areas 1000–5000 hectares in size,and 20-year concessions for areas larger than 5000
hectares.
Logging in natural forests on private lands requires
a forest inventory, a management plan and themarking of the trees to be cut. On state lands, anenvironmental impact assessment is also required.
The allocation of concessions larger than 5000
hectares is subject to public bidding. On sites
smaller than 5000 hectares, the entity seeking theconcession must publish its intentions for threeconsecutive days in a national newspaper so thatany conflicting claims on the area in question canbe addressed. If any of the area overlaps with acomarca, authorization by the comarca authority isrequired.
Under the Forest Law (1994), permits andconcessions for logging on comarcas and Indigenous
reserves are authorized by ANAM and by the
congress of the respective comarca, after a studyof the “scientific management plan” (Article 44).
Nevertheless, virtually no incentives or special
programs are available to promote or facilitate thePANAMA

production PFE, selective logging is conductedunder existing community permits, generally done
without regard to forest management guidelines(ITTO 2005). Moreover, Indigenous communities
have been known to sell their rights to such permits
to private companies at low prices.a

Twelve-year-old teak plantation on former pasture land in
Panama.

management of natural forests, which encourages
the high-grading of forests (mainly through cutting
permits), without regard to sustainability.b
Before 2002, 29 forest concessions were granted
over 67 150 hectares; since then, no new forest
concession licences have been requested or issued.
Seventeen permits (covering 3400 hectares of forest)
have been issued on private farms and 66 permits(covering 15 000 hectares) have been issued tocommunities. Six community permits have been in
operation since the end of 2004, while ANAM had
granted 5854 subsistence permits as of 2008.b
As of mid 2009, forest inventories had been
conducted over 127 000 hectares (including 94 500
hectares in the PFE). Seventeen forest management
plans had been approved in the PFE for an areaof 25 300 hectares, integrated forest/land-use
management plans had been developed for about
47 000 hectares, and an additional 140 000 hectares
were under consideration for further management
planning.a Nevertheless, over the majority of theForest management is occurring in some privately
owned plantations and national parks, and in
privately owned tracts of forests located mostly ineastern Panama. The Forest Law stipulates thatthe granting of licences for new concessions isconditional on the preparation of integrated forest
management plans for SFM and independent
monitoring of implementation, but few such plans
have been prepared.
Silviculture and species selection. No formal
silvicultural systems are applied in natural forests.
The most commonly harvested tree species areshown in Table 4; 12–15 tree species are harvested
and marketed to a significant extent. Species
commonly harvested in the past include Carapa
guianensis (tangare), Prioria copaifera (cativo),
Tabebuia rosea (oak), Calophyllum brasiliense(maria), Copaifera aromatica (cabimo), Dalbergia
retusa (cocobolo), Ocotea spp (bambito) and
Swietenia macrophylla (caoba). Species now being
considered in the market include Miroxylon
balsamum (bálsamo), Platymiscium pinnatum(quira), Hieronyma alchorneoides (zapatero), Puteria
spp (platano), Gyranthera darinensis (cucharo) andAstronium graveolens (zorro). Since 1970 about 50
species have been used by rural communities for
local use.a
Planted forest and trees outside the forest. In
2009 there were about 71 000 hectares of planted
foresta, an increase of 15 000 hectares over thatreported in ITTO (2006). Most are privately

Table 4 Commonly harvested species for industrial roundwood
Species

Notes

Anacardium excelsum (espavé)*

Important timber species over the past ten years with an annual
cut of more than 5000 m3.
Major timber species in the national market annual cut more than
4000 m3.
Important timber species that has maintained its value for many
years.
Old secondary forests, annual cut nearly 2000 m3.
From plantations, increasingly important in the national timbermarket; nearly 7000 m3 per year.

Miroxylum balsamum (bálsamo)*
Bombacopsis quinata (cedro espino)*
Cedrela odorata (cedro amargo)
Tectona grandis (teca)**

Also listed in ITTO (2006).

Source: Government of Panama (2009a).

357

Status of tropical forest management 2011

owned.a About 1.2 million hectares of land ispotentially available for plantation development.a
Of the total planted forest estate, 59 000 hectares
have been established since 1992a,b, the majority
by private and community landowners. While themain plantation species before 1990 was Pinus
caribaea (pino caribe), Tectona grandis (teak, teca)
has become the major species, with more than
47 000 hectares established since 1995.a Combined,
teca and pino caribe (11 000 hectares in 2008)
account for about 82% of the planted area. Other
planted species include valuable timber species
such as Cordia alliodora (laurel, planted as a shadetree for cacao), Bombacopsis quinata (cedro espino),
Terminalia amazonia (amarillo), caoba, zapatero,
Dipteryx panamensis (almendro) and cocobolo.

78 000 m3 in 2005 (ITTO 2011), but there isalso considerable production that is not officiallyregistered.b
Sawnwood production in 2009 was estimated atonly 9000 m3, down from about 30 000 m3 in2005 (ITTO 2011). The production of veneer
and plywood was negligible (ibid.). Total installedsawmill capacity is unknowna, although it has
been estimated at 200 000 m3 (ITTO 2006). The
primary processing industry is very small. There areabout 250 small secondary processing units using
antiquated equipment located in the periphery of
Panama City and in the central provinces.a
Panama exported about 7000 m3 of tropical
hardwood logs in 2009, down from about 37 000
m3 in 2008 and nearly 80 000 m3 in 2004. The
main exported timber is a planted species, teca, but
a significant quantity of bálsamo is also exported.

Forest certification. Nine companies have valid
FSC certificates covering a total area of 16 430
hectares (FSC 2011); all are for teak plantations.
No natural forests have been certified.

Non-timber forest products. Numerous wildlife
species provide important sources of protein in
Indigenous territories, including Agouti paca(conejo pintado), saino and venado. Many plants
are collected for medicinal purposes. Handicraft
products are important, such as the palm fruit
Phytelephas seemannii (tagua, known as vegetableivory) and more than 70 species producing
fibres such as Astrocaryum spp (chunga, used forbaskets), Socratea durissima (jira) and, in particular,
Carludovica palmata (the Panama-hat palm). The
wood of Dalbergia retusa is also the main raw
material for wooden handicrafts. Poles and theleaves of the palms Cryosophila guagara and Sabal
mauritiiformis (guágara) and various species ofbamboo are used for local construction. Fruits
and nuts from forest trees are collected for local
use and sale, including Borojoa patinoi (borojó),
a fruit with aphrodisiac properties, the fruit of
Quararibea cordata, which was introduced from
Colombia, and the oil of Jessenia bataua (aceite detrupa, an alternative to palm oil). The key cultural
plant for both the Kuna and the Embera is Genipa

Estimate of the area of forest sustainably
managed for production. Of the 350 000 hectaresof production forests, 27 000 hectares managed
by the forest enterprise of five communities in
Río Tupiza in the Emberá-Wounaan comarca canbe considered as sustainably managed for timber
production, as can an area of about 17 000 hectaresin Río Marragantí (Table 5). Another 18 000
hectares have been inventoried in Río Tuqueza
and an inventory for 10 000 hectares in Río
Chucunaque is being prepared (Diaz 2009, I. Diaz,pers. comm., 2010). The total area of forest coveredby management plans is about 72 000 hectares.
More than 1000 small landowners manage about
60 000 hectares of planted forest (ANAM 2008),
which can also be considered as well managed.
Timber production and trade. Total roundwood
production in 2005 was estimated at 1.54 million
m3, the majority of which was for fuelwood(FAO 2010a). Official industrial log production
was estimated at 42 000 m3 in 2009, down from

Table 5 Management of the production PFE (’000 hectares)
Reporting
year

Total

Available for
harvesting

2005*
2010

350
350

86
86**

*
**

358

NaturalWithmanagement
plans
63
72

CertifiedSustainably
managed

Total

0

56

PlantedWith
management
plans
32

44

71

47

0
0

As reported in ITTO (2006).
Comprising forests under concession or private and community permits.

Certified

12
16

PANAMA

americana, which is used for body-painting (C.
Potvin, pers. comm., 2010).
Forest carbon. According to Government ofPanama (2009b), forests and other wooded land
stock 1250 million tonnes of carbon in the fivecarbon pools (above and below-ground living
biomass, dead wood, litter, and soil organic carbon),of which 620 million tonnes are in living forest
biomass. Gibbs et al. (2007) estimated the forest
biomass carbon stock at 509–763 MtC and FAO(2010a) estimated it at 367 MtC.
Panama was one of the first countries to preparea REDD+ readiness plan for the Forest Carbon
Partnership Facility. Panama is participating in
UN-REDD and is a member of the REDD+
Partnership. Panama’s engagement in global
REDD negotiations was high to early 2010, but it
is unclear how the new government will position
itself. Panama has also submitted five reforestation
projects to the CDM.
A good proportion of Panama’s forests are intact, andthere is considerable potential to enhance carbon
stocks through forest restoration and reforestation(Government of Panama 2009b; Table 6).

Forest for protection
Soil and water. Forests managed principally
to protect soil and water cover about 156 000
hectares.a An estimated 406 500 hectares areclassified under the National System of Protected
Areas of Panama (Sistema Nacional de Áreas
Protegidas de Panamá – SINAP) as protection
forests.a Most of this forest is situated in thewatershed of the Panama Canal, which covers an
area of 518 000 hectares (ITTO 2005); forests havethe important function of protecting the Canalfrom siltation and ensuring an adequate supplyof water for the locks. The Ministry of Health,supported by ANAM, has a program of forest
restoration and reforestation in small watersheds
that serve as water sources for rural communities
and municipalities, supporting 200 tree nurseries.a

Biological diversity. Panama is very biodiverse forits size, with more than 10 400 species of vascularplants, 259 mammal species, 957 bird species, 229
reptile species and 179 amphibian species, and 1059
plant species are endemic.a Eleven mammals, 16
birds, 50 amphibians, one insect and eleven plants
found in forests are listed as critically endangered,endangered or vulnerable on the IUCN red listof threatened species (IUCN 2011). Four plant
species are listed in CITES Appendix I, 462 species– mainly from the families Orchidaceae, Cactaceae
and Zamiaceae, but also the tree species Swietenia
macrophylla, S. humilis, Guaiacum officinale and G.
sanctum – are listed in Appendix II, and three arelisted in Appendix III (UNEP-WCMC 2011).
Protective measures in production forests. No
protective measures are applied in the production
PFE beyond some general measures described in
the Forest Law. However, in those areas where
integrated forest management plans are being
implemented, high standards of soil and water
protection are being applied.a
Extent of protected areas. Currently 34% of thetotal land area of Panama is classified as underprotection. The legal basis for this is Resolution
JD-022-92, which defines the SINAP, and the1998 General Law on the Environment. SINAP(which includes the production PFE) covers morethan 2.95 million hectares, of which 2.69 million
hectares are terrestrial and 1.88 million hectares
are forested.a The smallest protected area is 290
hectares in size, the largest greater than 0.5 million
hectares.a Protected areas (not including the
production PFE) are distributed according to thefollowing management categories (not all of which
are forested):•

Seventeen national parks with a total area of 1.3
million hectares, of which 1.08 million hectares
are forested (IUCN category II).

Table 6 Forest carbon potential
Biomass
forestcarbon(MtC)% forestwithcanopycover >60%

Deforestation/
degradation
potential to2030

509–763

49++

Enhancement Forest areachangeof carbon
sink capacity monitoring
capacity
to 2030++++

Forest/GHG
inventory
capacity+

Importance Engagementinof forest
international
fire/
REDD+
biomass
processes
burning++++++ high; ++ medium; + low; estimate of national forest carbon based on Gibbs et al. (2007); estimate of % total forest with canopy cover>60% based on UNEP-WCMC (2010).

359

Status of tropical forest management 2011•

Three natural monuments totaling 5700
hectares (IUCN category III).

•

Five forest wildlife sanctuaries (136 000
hectares), six (partly forested) wetlands (192 000
hectares) and two protected landscapes (13 000
hectares), all corresponding to IUCN category V.

There are also 20 areas covering a total of
580 000 hectares in hydrological reserves, natural
recreational areas, biological corridors, multiple-use
areas and municipal protected areas not classified
into IUCN categories.a
The Darien National Park encompasses nearly 59%
of the total forested protected area. Twenty-four of
the 65 protected areas in SINAP are reported to beinterconnected.a
Estimate of the area of forest sustainably
managed for protection. An estimated 722 000
hectares of forests in the protection PFE are coveredby administrative instruments (ITTO 2005) andbenefit from some form of management.a Simple
management plans exist for 29 protected forested
areas, covering about 368 000 hectares, althoughthese are generally not implemented due to a lackof financial resources and personnel.a Oestreicher
et al. (2009) concluded, however, that a great
majority of Panama’s forests in protected areas has
been protected effectively by applying a balanceof strong surveillance and enforcement measuresand stakeholder participation to find protection
strategies that generate alternative livelihood
options and economic benefits from conservation
for local communities. The core protected forest
area in the watershed of the Panama Canal/
Chagres National Park (about 180 000 hectares) is
generally considered well managed.b About 108 000
hectares of forested protected areas are physicallydemarcated.a These areas, together with the core
forest zone of the Panama Canal/Chagres National
Park and the high mountain cloud forest area of
the La Amistad International Park/Bocas del Toro

A member of the Kuna Yala community, Panama.

(which stretches across the border between Panama
and Costa Rica and covers about 80 000 hectares)
comprise the estimate of the protection PFE
considered to be under SFM shown in Table 7.

Socioeconomic aspects
Economic aspects. The contribution of the forest
sector to GDP was a low US$510 million in2008 (about 0.3% of GDP).a The sector makes
an important contribution locally, however,particularly in Indigenous communities. The
National Forest Development Plan estimated thepotential value of forest services at US$3180 per
hectare, of which US$782 is the estimated carbon
value. The forest sector employs about 10 600
people, many of them working in forest plantation
development. An additional 2000 people are
employed in processing units such as sawmills andtimber workshops.a

Table 7 Management of the protection PFE (’000 hectares)
Reportingyear

Protection PFE

Attributed to IUCN
categories I–IV

Allocated for soil
and waterWith management
plans

Sustainably
managed

2005*
2010

1580
1880

1040
850**

326
406‡

396
396

180
368

*
**
‡

360

As reported in ITTO (2006).
According to UNEP-WCMC (2010). The Government of Panama (2009a) estimated 1.1 million hectares.
156 000 hectares are allocated strictly for watershed protection; 406 000 hectares are considered protection forests in moregeneral terms.

PANAMA

Livelihood values. Forty-four per cent of Panama’s
population lives in rural areas. Most of these people
are classified as either poor or extremely poor
(Larson 2006). Forests are generally considered acommon good and there is little awareness among
stakeholders – local communities, settlers invading
forest areas from other regions, and commercial
logging operators – of sustainable management
practices. ANAM gives special consideration to thecomarcas, where community forest concessions cancontribute to the livelihoods of local communities.
Such an approach has been tested through an
ITTO project in the Kuna Yala communities on the
Atlantic coast, with limited success.

Key points

Social relations. Indigenous peoples comprise 10%of the Panamanian population. The seven major
Indigenous groups – Ngabes (60% of the total
Indigenous population), Kunas (21%), Emberá,
Buglé/Bokata, Wounaan, Nasos and Bri-Bri(Moreno 2005) – (headed by a total of eleventraditional authorities) are represented in an apex
body, the Organisation Coordinadora Nacional delos Pueblos Indigenas de Panamá, which acts as aunited body in Indigenous matters (C. Potvin, pers.
comm., 2010). There is constant migration between
comarcas and tierra collectivas and urban centres forschooling and employment (ibid.).

•

Panama has an estimated PFE of 2.30 million
hectares (compared with 1.99 million hectares
in 2005), comprising 350 000 hectares ofnatural production forest (the same as estimatedfor 2005), 1.88 million hectares of protection
forest (compared with 1.58 million hectares in2005) and 71 000 hectares of planted forest(compared with 56 000 hectares in 2005).

•

An estimated 44 000 hectares of the production
PFE is under SFM. No forest is certified. An
estimated 368 000 hectares of the protection
PFE is under SFM.

•

The forest law recognizes the rights ofIndigenous communities to manage forests in
Indigenous reserves (comarcas).

•

Until recently, at least, the Government ofPanama has been fully engaged in REDD
negotiations and initiatives. The new
government has placed an emphasis on
development, including through the economic
development of Darien.

•

ANAM has insufficient human and financial
resources to carry out the field-level monitoring
and control of forest operations necessary toensure adherence to forest-related laws andregulations.

•

The private sector and civil society have been
involved only minimally in the preparation of
SFM policies and strategies. REDD-readinessplanning and ANAM’s new forest strategy may
lead to a more inclusive role for all stakeholders
in forest-based development.

•

There is a lack of information on the state of theforests and silviculture in the country’s naturalforests and an apparent lack of research andtraining capacity.

•

Illegal logging is widespread in the humid
forests, even in protected areas, and remains asignificant impediment to SFM.

Summary
The management of Panama’s PFE remains
problematic. Some pilot efforts have been initiatedand increased attention has been paid recently
to the preparation of inventories and forest
management plans, but small-scale subsistencelogging is still being carried out with little
oversight and makes a significant contribution tocontinuing forest degradation. Forest plantations
are continuously being developed, mainly on
private properties, and are the main driver of forest
development. The wood-processing industry is ina poor state, with antiquated equipment and anunder-supply of legally produced timber. Large
areas of forest are classified as protected, but arelatively small area of these is considered to beunder SFM. Forest management appears strongest
near the Panama Canal, indicating the importanceof forests for watershed protection, while increased
efforts are being undertaken to improve themanagement of production and protection forestsin the comarcas.

EndnotesaGovernment of Panama (2009a).

b

Information derived from the report of, and discussions
with participants at, a training workshop on ITTO criteria
and indicators, held 29 March–2 April 2004, Panama City,
Panama, attended by 42 people from government, civilsociety and the private sector.

361

Status of tropical forest management 2011

References and other sources
ANAM (2008). National report to the forest law compliance andgovernance process. Workshop FAO/ITTO, Accra Ghana.
Report prepared by MINEEF.
Diaz, I. (2009). Aplicación de los criterios e indicadores para eldesarrollo forestal sostenible de Panamá. Estudio del Casode la Empresa Forestal Comunitaria del Rio Tupiza. Reportto ITTO.
FAO (2010a). Global forest resources assessment 2010 country
report: Panama (available at http://www.fao.org/forestry/fra/67090/en/).
FAO (2010b). Global Forest Resources Assessment 2010 Full
Report. FAO, Rome, Italy.
FSC (2011, website accessed January 2011). FSC certification
database (searchable database available at http://info.fsc.org/
PublicCertificateSearch).
Gibbs, H., Brown, S., Niles, J. & Foley, J. (2007). Monitoringand estimating tropical forest carbon stocks: making REDDa reality. Environmental Research Letters 2 (available at http://
iopscience.iop.org/1748-9326/2/4/045023/fulltext).
Government of Panama (2009a). Informe sobre los criterios
e indicadores de la OIMT para la ordenación sostenible
de los bosques tropicales. Formatos con respuestas para laactualización del progreso alcanzado por Panamá desde2004 a 2008 en materia de ordenación forestal. Preparedby Irving Diaz and 19 others. Autoridad Nacional del
Ambiente, Panama City, Panama.

ITTO (2006). Status of Tropical Forest Management 2005. ITTO,
Yokohama, Japan (available at http://www.itto.int/en/sfm/).
ITTO (2010, website accessed August 2010). Annual Review
statistics database (available at http://www.itto.int/annual_
review_output/?mode=searchdata).
IUCN (2011, website accessed April 2011). IUCN red list of
threatened species (searchable database available at www.
redlist.org).
Larson, A. (2006). Panama country case study. Rights andResources Initiative, Washington, DC, United States.
Moreno, A. (2005). Plan de desarrollo de los pueblos Indígenas,
Proyecto PPRRN-CBMAP II.
Oestreicher, J., Benessaiah, K., Ruiz-Jaen, M., Sloan, S., Turner,
K., Pelletier, J., Guay, B., Clark, K., Roche, D., Meiners, M.
& Potvin, C. (2009). Avoiding deforestation in Panamanianprotected areas: An analysis of protection effectiveness andimplications for reducing emissions from deforestationand forest degradation. Global Environmental Change 19:279–291.
Spalding, M., Kainumu, M. & Collins, L. (2010). World Atlas ofMangroves. Earthscan, London, UK.
UNDP (2009). Human Development Report 2009. United
Nations Development Programme, New York, UnitedStates.
UNEP-WCMC (2010). Spatial analysis of forests withinprotected areas in ITTO countries. Data prepared for
ITTO. UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, UK.

Government of Panama (2009b). Readiness preparation
proposal (RPP). Submitted to the Forest Carbon
Partnership Facility, October 2009 (available at http://www.
forestcarbonpartnership.org/fcp/node/257).

UNEP-WCMC (2011, website accessed April2011). UNEP-WCMC species database: CITES-listed
species (searchable database at available at www.cites.org/
eng/resources/species.html).

ITTO (2005). Consecución del Objetivo 2000 y la ordenación
forestal sostenible en Panamá. Report of the diagnostic
mission. Presented at the thirty-seventh session of theInternational Tropical Timber Council, December 2005.
ITTO, Yokohama, Japan.

United Nations Population Division (2011, website accessed
January 2011). World population prospects: the 2008
revision (searchable database available at http://esa.un.org/
unpp/).

362

PERU

Peru
are generally 35–40 m in height. These forests
have been used intensively in the past, leaving large
expanses of secondary forest (purma) dominatedby stands of fast-growing, light-demanding pioneer
species.
There are about 11.2 million hectares of arid andsemi-arid forests on the coast and semi-humid
forests in mountain and inner-mountain valleys.a
Peru has about 5300 hectares of mangroves at
Tumbes, in the extreme north bordering Ecuador(Spalding et al. 2010).

Forest resources
Peru has a land area of 129 million hectares and an
estimated population in 2010 of 28 million people(United Nations Population Division 2010). It
is ranked 78th out of 182 countries in UNDP’s
Human Development Index (UNDP 2009).
Peru has three broad ecoregions: the desert coastal
region, which covers 13.6 million hectares; thesemi-arid Andean mountain range (sierra), which
covers 39.2 million hectares; and the Amazon
Basin, including the eastern humid slopes of
the Andes, covering 75.7 million hectares. FAO(2010a) estimated Peru’s forest cover at 67.9
million hectares, which is 53% of the total land
area; 92% of these forests are in the Amazon Basin.
Other estimates of forest area include 71.3 million
hectaresa and 72 million hectares (Government of
Peru 2010).
Forest types. The main forest type in Peru is humid
forest (rainforest) in the Amazon. It covers about
57 million hectares, with sub-types that dependon altitude and soils, particularly their position
in relation to rivers. Terrace and hill forests – onrolling terrain with moderate slopes – are the mostwidespread humid forest sub-type, covering about
37 million hectares. The alluvial forests, including
those on the lower river terraces, offer some of thebest potential for integrated forest management andagroforestry because of their vigorous growth, flat
terrain and good accessibility; their upper stories

Permanent forest estate. Under the 2000 Forest
Law (Ley 27308/2000), the forest is classified
into the following categories: production forests(permanent and in reserve); forests on protection
land; forests for future use (forest plantations,secondary forests and degraded forests forrestoration); natural protected areas; forests in
Indigenous and rural communities; and local
forests. Permanent production forests are intended
for timber and non-timber production and theconservation of forest resources, and an approved
forest management plan is required. As of 2010,33.3 million hectares of permanent production
forests had been classified within the PFE.a
However, only an area of 18.7 million hectares
has so far been allocated for production purposes(Kometter 2010), and this figure is used in Table
1 for the production PFE. The area of protection
forest is about 19.4 million hectares, including
forests designated in the national protected-areasystem, privately protected areas, and regional
protected areas (áreas de conservación regionales).a
About 15.4 million hectares of forests areunallocated. The total planted forest is estimatedat 820 000 hectaresa, nearly 600 000 hectares ofwhich are for timber and fuelwood production andthe remainder are for protection.a The map in Box
1 shows Peru's production forests.

Forest ecosystem healthDeforestation and forest degradation. The
estimated average annual rate of forest change
in Peru in the period 1990–2000 was 269 000
hectares, or 0.4%; between 2000 and 2010 it was
94 000 hectares (0.1%) (FAO 2010b). Directcauses of deforestation include the development363

Status of tropical forest management 2011

Box 1 Permanent production forests, Peru

Amazon region; agricultural policies favouring
cash-crop development; development policies thatfavour energy generation; and new investment
opportunities due to globalization (ibid.). About
one-third of the forest estate is degraded or
secondary (Table 2).
Vulnerability of forests to climate change. Peru
is highly vulnerable to climate change, having
low-lying coastal areas; arid and semi-arid areas,
forested areas and areas liable to forest decay; areas
prone to natural disasters; areas liable to droughtand desertification; areas of high urban atmosphericpollution; areas with fragile ecosystems, including
mountainous ecosystems; and an economy thatis highly dependent on income generated fromthe production, processing, export and/or on
consumption of fossil fuels and associated energyintensive products.

Note:
Inserted as supplied, in original language.
Source: Government of Peru.

of new infrastructure such as highways (e.g.
carretera Iquitos–Nauta, the Brasil–Peru Interocean Highway and carretera Pucallpa–Lima);
new settlements in the Amazon Basin, including
the expansion of urban centres; the expansionof the agricultural frontier, including for cash
crops and shifting cultivation; the expansionof oil exploitation and hydro-electric schemes;
mining in the southern part of the Peruvian
Amazon; illegal logging; and the illicit cultivationof coca (Government of Peru 2010). Indirectcauses of deforestation include migration to thePeru has 70% of the world’s tropical glaciers, manyof which are retreating at a rapid rate (there has
been a decrease of 30% of glacial mass in 40 years;
Government of Peru 2008). A prolonged glacial
melt will exacerbate water shortages, mainly in thedrier areas of the country.
Peru is strongly affected by hydro-meteorologicalphenomena associated with el Niño. An estimated
72% of registered emergencies (e.g. droughts, heavy
rains, floods, frosts, hailstorms, avalanches andlandslides) are related to these phenomena, which
increased more than six-fold between 1997 and2006. Climate models project that el Niño will
intensify in coming decades.
According to the Government of Peru (2008), there
was a mean increase in temperature in the 20th
century of 0.31 °C and climate models projectthat there will be a minimum increase in mean
temperature of 2.6 °C in the next 50 years. Almost
the entire agricultural sector is suffering from

Table 1 Permanent forest estate
Reportingyear

Estimatedtotal forest
area, range(million ha)

Total closed
natural forest(’000 ha)

2005*
2010

65.2–86.4
67.9–72.0

64 20455 990**

*
**
‡
†

364

PFE (’000 hectares)
Production
Protection
NaturalPlantedTotal

24 60018 700‡41 15038 920200–300
820†

16 30019 400As reported in ITTO (2006).
Calculated using the ratio of forest with greater than 60% forest cover estimated by UNEP-WCMC (2010) (81%) and the total
natural forest area as estimated by FAO (2010).
Includes only state production forests for timber use.
Comprises 580 000 hectares of production plantation, 240 000 hectares of plantations for protective purposes.

PERU

Table 2 Forest condition
PFE

Non-PFE

Total’000 haArea of primary forest
Area of degraded primary forest
Area of secondary forest
Area of degraded forest land

30 3005600
1200-

10 4007100
4500-

40 70012 7005700-

Source: Derived from Government of Peru (2010).

increasing water stress due to melting glaciers andchanging precipitation patterns. The productivityof especially small-scale agricultural production
systems is under threat, particularly in mountainous
regions, jeopardizing the income of smallholder
families.
Through a supreme decree, the Government of
Peru recently established the National Commission
for Climate Change (Comisión Nacional de Cambio
Climático) led by the Ministry of Environment(Ministerio del Ambiente – MINAM) comprising
representatives of government agencies, NGOs
and the private sector. The 2003 Climate Change
National Strategy is being updated. Forests andtrees play an important role in Peru’s climatechange adaptation strategy. However, adaptationand mitigation strategies remain separate, and forest
activities are considered to deal with mitigation
rather than adaptation.

SFM policy framework
Forest tenure. Table 3 shows Peru’s forest area by
tenure. Forest lands are classified as public forests,
Indigenous forests or private forests. Communities
own an estimated 12.6 million hectares of thecountry’s forests (ITTO & RRI 2009), and nearly
1200 Indigenous communities possess land

rights in the Peruvian Amazon. However, there is
uncertainty over this ownership.a
Criteria and indicators. Peru has developed
standards for forest management. It has adopted
national C&I based on the Tarapoto Process, andconcession management plans are based on these.
The Government of Peru used the ITTO C&I in
its submission to ITTO for this report.a
Forest policy and legislation. The revised
national forest strategy prepared in 2002 wasofficially adopted by the Peruvian government inAugust 2004 (in Decreto Supremo 031-2004-AG)(ITTO 2006). It is implemented through theForestry and Wildlife Law (Ley Forestal y de Fauna
Silvestre – Ley 27308), which was adopted in
2000. The law prescribes several options for SFM
and reforestation, including 40-year concessions
for commercial timber, NTFPs, ecotourism andenvironmental services (Article 10); the sustainable
management of forests belonging to Indigenous
communities (Article 12); the sustainable
management of local forests by local governments
and rural populations (Decree 014/2001); and theestablishment of 40-year reforestation concessions(Article 28) (ITTO 2006).
As a consequence of the ratification of the UnitedStates–Peru Trade Promotion Agreement, in 2007

Table 3 Forest area, by tenure
Ownership category

Total
area*

Of which PFE Notes

State ownership (national, state orprovincial government)

54 500**’000 haOther public entities (e.g.
municipalities, villages)
Owned by local communities and/orIndigenous groups
Private owned by individuals, firms,
other corporate***

39 3002900
13 20013 2001950

1650

PFE: publicly administrated forests, including forest concessions
for timber and Brazil nut, state reforestation and protectedareas.aForests reserved for communities and Indigenous groups (ITTO& RRI 2009).
Tierras de comunidades indígenas (ITTO & RRI 2009).
Industrial owners and smallholders combined.a (ITTO & RRI
2009 gave a figure of 5.2 million hectares.)

Note that the total is in the range given in Table 1.
Includes 15.2 million hectares of forests that are not yet classified.

365

Status of tropical forest management 2011

the Government of Peru embarked on a process
to reform the forest policy and law as well as torestructure and decentralize the system of forest
administration and governance. This was done ona fast track through a series of supreme decrees,
including the issuance of a new forest law. However,
the outcome was highly controversial and led to a
prolonged period of (at times violent) protest by
civil society and Indigenous people. Ultimately it
led to the rescinding of the forest law and otherrelated decrees and to the formation of a nationalroundtable for dialogue and reconciliation.
The approval of transference of responsibilities
from the National Institute of Natural Resources(Instituto Nacional de Recursos Naturales –INRENA, the former forest service) to regional
governments for forest-sector administration andgovernance was enacted by Supreme Decree No
011-2007-AG. Decentralization focuses on four
key faculties: administration; control; monitoring;and promotion. The process of decentralizing
facilities to regional governments has been slow
and problematic, and the transfer of funding andresources is proving to be a major obstacle.
Based on the extended reform dialogue since2007, a process to completely review the forest law
and forest policy was launched in 2009 throughthe creation of a multi-stakeholder platform toadvance the reform process in a participative andtransparent way. The proposed new law emphasizes
issues relating to the governance of forest resources
and SFM and particularly refers to participatory
forest management and the need to apply theprinciple of free, prior and informed consent
to the management and conservation of forest
resources. The draft law proposes the creation of
the National Forest and Wildlife Service (Servicio
Nacional Forestal y de Fauna Silvestre – SERFOR)
under the Ministry of Agriculture as the national
forest authority. It further recognizes regional
governments as the regional forest authorities
following the prescriptions of Article 51 of theOrganic Law on Regional Governments (Ley
Orgánica de Gobiernos Regionales).
The National Forest Conservation Program for
Climate-Change Mitigation (Programa Nacionalde Conservación de Bosques para la Mitigación delCambio Climatico) was launched in July 2010
and is considered to be the country’s major forest
development plan. The project Conserving
Community Forests (Conservando Bosques

366

Comunitarios) is the Program’s first intervention,
aiming to generate direct financial transfers to
Indigenous communities that contribute to forest
conservation.
Institutions involved in forests. Restructuring
and decentralization processes are ongoing in
the administration of forests in Peru and there
have been rapid and sometimes chaotic changes(Kometter 2010). The first steps were taken in2007 with the dismantling of INRENA andthe redistribution of its forest administrationand governance functions to the Ministry ofAgriculture (Ministerio de Agricultura – MINAG),
the newly created MINAM, and the Agency for
the Supervision of Forest Resources and Wildlife(Organismo Supervisor de Recursos Forestales y delFauna Silvestre – OSINFOR). OSINFOR was
created in June 2008 under the Presidency of theCouncil of Ministers (Presidencia del Concejo de
Ministros) and oversees forest-related taxation,
the sustainable management of forest goods andservices and forest conservation. Within MINAG,a new General Directorate of Forests and Wildlife(Direccion General de Flora y Fauna Silvestre –DGFFS) was created in 2008. However, for mostof the period since its creation the DGFFS has
operated with a very limited budget and few staff.
In mid 2010, based on the proposals made in thedraft forest law, SERFOR was made operational
under MINAG, with particular functions in a new
system of decentralized forest management under
the regional authorities for forests and wildlife(Government of Peru 2010). The National Service
for Protected Areas (Servicio Nacional de Areas
Naturales Protegidas – SERNANP) under MINAM
manages the National System of Public Protected
Areas (Sistema Nacional de Areas Naturales Protegidas
por el Estado – SINANPE). MINAM is also
responsible for the development of REDD+ in Peru.
Indigenous peoples’ associations have an
increasing influence on the development of forest
policies in Peru. The Inter-ethnic Association for
Development of the Peruvian Jungle (Asociación
Interétnica de Desarrollo de la Selva Peruana) andthe National Institute for the Management ofAndean, Amazonian and Afro-Peruvian Settlements(Instituto Nacional de Desarrollo de Pueblos Andinos,
Amazónicos y Afroperuanos), which deals with theprotection of the interests and cultural heritagesof Indigenous peoples in Peru as well as territorialreform, are both strongly involved in forest issues.

PERU

Box 2 Active forest concessions by administrative region (December 2009)
RegionNumber of concessions

Total area (ha)Average area (ha)

48
250
85
34
171
588

284 3422 644 756
1 267 111
494 668
2 871 925
7 562 802

5923
10 57914 907
14 54916 79412 861

HuánucoLoretoMadre de Dios
San Martin
Ucayali
Total
Source: Based on Kometter (2010).

The National Strategic Planning Centre (Centro
Nacional de Planeamiento Estratégico) also plays arole on questions relating to forest-tenure allocationand forest use.
National development institutions such as the
Peruvian Amazon Research Institute (Instituto deInvestigación de la Amazonía Peruana) continue
to play important roles in the promotion of SFM
at the local level. National and internationalNGOs are very active in Peruvian forestry andare influential in the development of policy. For
example, WWF Peru, Foro Ecológico, Conservation
International Peru, ProNaturaleza (Fundación
Peruana para la Conservación de la Naturaleza)
and Red Ambiental are important in driving forest
conservation and the forest concession reform
process. Various private-sector organizations arealso involved, the most active being the National
Forestry Chamber (Cámara Forestal Nacional),
the National Timber Corporation (Corporación
Nacional de la Madera del Perú) and regional forest
producer associations, in particular those of Madrede Dios and Ucayali. The University Agraria La
Molina has a strong forestry faculty that is actively
involved in SFM research and serves in an advisory
capacity to MINAG regarding CITES listings oftimber species.

Status of forest management
Forest for production
Details on the allocation of forest concessions in
Peru given in ITTO (2006) were still valid in 2010.
As of the end of 2009, 588 forest concessions had
been registered in the Huánuco, Loreto, Madrede Dios, San Martín and Ucayali regions of Peru
over a total area of 7.56 million hectares (Kometter
2010; Box 2). Five hundred forest concessions had
approved and valid contracts with government, 27
concession contracts were under review, contracts

had been annulled in 29 concessions, and 32
contracts were in the process of annulment. Of
all concessions (most of them established between
2002 and 2004), 85% had contracts at the
beginning of 2010 (Kometter 2010).
The average area per concession is quite small –12 900 hectares. Given their relatively small size,
their financial viability will depend in large measureon their ability to obtain good prices. Many are informerly selectively harvested areas such as the floodzone along Amazonian tributaries and constitute
what in some areas will be the third intervention
within the last 30–40 years (ITTO 2006). Sincemany primary species are no longer present in large
volumes, the concessions are increasingly harvesting
lesser-known species and intensifying their logging
operations.
In addition to forest concessions, there are
two other concession types that allow for the
exploitation of timber: Brazil nut concessions
and reforestation concessions. There are a total of983 Brazil nut concessions, all located in Madrede Dios, covering an area of 864 000 hectares(Kometter 2010). As of the end of 2009, 293
reforestation concessions covering 135 000 hectares
were registered in Peru, with most (245) located in
Madre de Dios over an area of 112 000 hectares.
The forest law still in force (Law 27308, 2000)
specifies forest audits every five years. The renewal
or suspension of concession agreements depends
absolutely on the results of such audits, which are
based on the application of a set of C&I for SFM
derived from ITTO and the Tarapoto Process(ITTO 2006). In addition, inspections are still
being carried out in forest concessions as partof the country’s CITES Appendix II mahogany
observation strategy (Kometter 2010).
Silviculture and species selection. The regulations
for concession agreements require the application of367

Status of tropical forest management 2011detailed silvicultural prescriptions. Concessionaires
must apply a polycyclic management system witha minimum rotation of 20 years.a A minimum
diameter limit is determined for each species, andat least 10% of adult trees of each species must
be retained in each harvest area as seed trees.a
Liberation thinning, refinement and enrichment
planting are specified to help regenerate forests after
harvesting.
At least 100 species are used for timber, but about
25 meet 80% of the demand.a In the past, the mostimportant timber species harvested in the Peruvian
Amazon was Swietenia macrophylla (caoba). Whilestill an important species, caoba is no longer in the
top ten harvested species by volume. However, thefalsification of information concerning the illegal
cutting of caoba and other illegal practices havebeen reported: in 2008, for example, 32 concessions
covering an area of more than 400 000 hectares
were prosecuted for such offences.a
Peru and Bolivia are the largest exporters of caoba,
while Guazuma spp (bolaina) and Calycophyllum
spruceanum (capirona) are the most traded species
in the domestic market. Other important species
include Virola spp (cumala) Amburana cearensis(ishipingo), Dipteryx micrantha (shihuahuaco),
Hura crepitans (catahua) and Cariniana decandra(cachimbo). Table 4 shows the five most commonly
harvested species, ranked by average sawnwood
production for the period 1991–2008. The mostimportant fuelwood species are Prosopis pallida(algarrobo), Eucalyptus globulus (eucalipto),
Calycophyllum spruceanum (capirona), Acacia
macracantha (huarango) and Polylepis spp(queuña).a
Planted forest and trees outside the forest. Peru
has the third-largest area of forest plantations
in tropical America (820 000 hectares). Most
plantations are located outside the Amazon in

the Andes and the main species being planted
are Eucalyptus globulus, Polylepis spp and Alnus
acuminata. Many of these plantations are on
poor soils and have had only limited success.a
Reforestation was declared of national interest by
Supreme Decree 003-2005-AG (2005); a national
reforestation plan has been developed and is to belaunched shortly.
In the Amazon, a considerable number of long-term
reforestation and enrichment-planting trials ofnative species such as Cedrelinga catenaeformis(tornillo), Simarouba amara (marupa), Parkia
velutina (pashaco) and others in the Peruvian
Amazon (e.g. in Jenaro Herrera, Bosque Von
Humbolt and Tingo Maria) have been established,with good results (ITTO 2006). However, thesetrials have not yet been expanded to an operational
scale. Reforestation concessions have been created
to promote planted forests in the Amazon using
valuable species. Numerous such concessions
have been registered but, to date, the associatedregulations have not been put in place.
Forest certification. The Government of Peru
promotes voluntary forest management certification
as a tool for SFM.a Since 2004, a national working
group on forest certification coordinated by WWF
Peru has been working on the establishment of an
FSC-accredited system for voluntary certification.
According to Kometter (2010), a total areaof 713 380 hectares was certified as of early
2010, including 15 forest concessions covering
458 600 hectares and 16 community forest areas.a
Combined, three export-oriented forest enterprises(Aserradero Espinoza, Empresa Forestal Venao,
and A&A Perú) have 256 100 hectares of certified
forest. Twelve native communities have a group
certificate over a total area of 150 700 hectares(ibid.). The certified area has increased more thantenfold since 2005.

Table 4 Commonly harvested species for industrial roundwood
Species

Notes*

Eucalyptus globulus (eucalipto)
Virola spp (cumala)**Cedrelinga catenaeformis (tornillo)**
Chorisia intregrifolia (lupuna)Cedrela odorata (cedro)**258 000 m3; from planted forests in Andean valleys.
218 000 m3; from low-lying and low hill Amazon forests.
173 300 m3; from low hill Amazon forests.
147 100 m3; from terrace and low hill Amazon forests.
127 000 m3; from inundated and low hill Amazon forests.

*
Volumes are average sawnwood production for the period 1991–2008.
**
Also listed in ITTO (2006).
Source: Kometter (2010).

368

PERU

Estimate of the area of forest sustainably
managed for production. Since 2005, regulated
concession management in the Peruvian Amazon
has been launched. All active concessions musthave a forest management plan and are closely
monitored. Nevertheless, it is too early to assess theeffect of this new system on SFM. Table 5 showsthe estimated sustainably managed production
forest in Peru comprising the FSC-certified forest
area and the 890 000 hectares under Brazil nut
concession (Kometter 2010).
Timber production and trade. There has been asteady increase in log production in Peru in recent
years, from 1.29 million m3 in 2003 to 2.37 million
m3 in 2009 (ITTO 2010). Sawnwood production
in 2009 was 1.12 million m3, more than doublethat in 2003. The export of logs is not permitted
but about 40% (480 000 m3) of sawnwood
production is exported (ibid.). The maximum
sustainable harvest under a 40-year polycyclic
system is estimated to be in the range 25–40 m3
per hectare (ITTO 2006); current off-take would
appear to be well below that. There are about
250 sawmills in Peru, most of which have a small
installed capacity (averaging 2900 m3 per year).
Only about 25% of sawmills have band-saws anda capacity of 10 000 m3 per year or more (ibid.).
The export value of timber products increased from
US$66 million in 2000 to US$191 million in 2008
(WWF Peru 2009).
Non-timber forest products. The use of NTFPs is
widespread in Peru. Over 130 products have been
identified in the Amazon for local consumption
and national and international trade. Tara (obtained
from Caesalpinia spinosa) is the basis of a growing
industry in Peru. It is an excellent source ofenvironmentally friendly tannins (tara tannins). It
is used as a hydrocolloid thickener and gelling agent
and has application in frozen desserts, instant soups,
cream cheese, baked goods and other products.

Logs at the Port of Pucallpa, Peru.

Brazil nut is another important NTFP produced
for export in Amazon forests, with an annual
production of more than 1 million kg. Extractsof Lonchocarpus nicou (barbasco) are exported as avegetative insecticide.
The production of palm hearts (palmito, 200 000
kg per year) is also important. Medicinal plants,
such as cat’s claw (Uncaria tomentosa – uña de gato,
500 000 kg per year), and sangre de grado (Croton
lechleri), are increasingly popular.a
Forest carbon. Gibbs et al. (2007) estimatedthe forest biomass carbon stock in the range
7690–11 520 MtC and FAO (2010a) estimatedit at 8560 MtC. Land use, land-use change andforestry contribute about 60% (110 000 gigagramsof CO2e) of Peru’s annual GHG emissions.
MINAM is responsible for REDD+ andcoordinates the National Commission on Climate
Change. A multi-stakeholder REDD Group (Mesa
REDD) was formed in 2008 to support MINAM
in the further development of REDD+ in Peru
(Government of Peru 2010).

Table 5 Management of the production PFE (’000 hectares)
Reporting
year

Total

2005*
2010

24 60018 700*****‡NaturalAvailable forWith
harvesting management
plans
8000
5000
8431
7563‡

Certified Sustainably
managed
59
713

560
1603

PlantedCertifiedWith
managementplans
200–300
8
0
Total

820

-

0

As reported in ITTO (2006).
Potential timber concession areas as classified by law (Government of Peru 2010).
Only timber concessions (unidades de manejo forestal and community concessions) valid as of end 2009 counted here.

369

Status of tropical forest management 2011

Peru is a participant in the Forest Carbon
Partnership Facility, and its REDD readinesspreparation proposal was approved in March 2011.
Peru is a recipient country of the Forest Investment
Program, and it benefits from bilateral support
programs in REDD+ in the Amazon region.
Several REDD+ pilot projects are under way inthe country’s forested regions. The proportion of
intact forests with crown cover greater than 60%
is high (81% of the total forest area). There is also
considerable potential to enhance carbon stocks
through forest restoration and reforestation in
deforested landscapes. Table 6 summarizes Peru’s
forest carbon potential.

Forest for protection
Soil and water. Soil and watershed conservation
are of considerable importance in Peru, particularlyin the Andes. The National Program for theManagement of Water Catchments and Soil
Conservation (Programa Nacional de Manejo deCuencas Hídrograficas y de Conservación de Suelos),which is implemented by Agrorural, is conducting
the country’s most extensive forestry program withthe aim of applying participatory approaches tosoil and water conservation based on reforestation.
In 2008, a legislative decree (Decree 1081) was
enacted to create the National System for Water
Resources (Sistema Nacional de Recursos Hídricos),which emphasizes the protection and restoration ofwatersheds. A total of 389 000 hectares of forest isclassified as exclusively for soil and water protection.
In addition, in 2007 an area of about 367 000
hectares was reforested for the single purpose ofprotecting destabilized watersheds.a
Biological diversity. Peru has a great range of
geographical conditions and is very biodiverse.
It contains 10% of the global total of flowering
plant species (40 000–50 000 plant species),
462 mammals, 1816 birds, 360 reptiles, 332
amphibians, 2000 sea fish and 797 freshwater fish
(ITTO 2006). Thirty-seven mammals, 61 birds,

77 amphibians, two reptiles and seven plants
found in forests are listed as critically endangered,endangered or vulnerable on the IUCN red list of
threatened species (IUCN 2011). Eight plants arelisted in CITES Appendix I, 363, including caoba,
are listed in Appendix II, and three (including
cedro) are listed in Appendix III (UNEP-WCMC
2011).
Protective measures in production forests.
Management-plan prescriptions for forest
concessions give clear and detailed instructions
on leaving protection strips along streams, andthey specify species to be protected and refer towildlife protection in concession areas. There arealso prescriptions for reduced impact logging andrelated measures.a Tree species that are officiallyexcluded from commercial harvesting are palo deora, romerillo, cedro de altura and nogal.a
Extent of protected areas. In 2001, new naturalprotected areas were defined and existing protectedareas were reclassified. The well-developed andrelatively well-funded system of protected areas,
SINANPE, now contains 61 protected areas
covering an area of 18.5 million hectares, or 15%of the country. Protected areas include nationalparks, national reserves, national sanctuaries andother zones (Box 3). SINANPE is complemented
by regional conservation areas (areas de conservación
regionales – ACRs). Recently there has been a moveto encourage the creation of ACRs by regional
governments: Presidential Resolution 205-2010SERNANP (dated 26 October 2010) is designed
to stimulate the creation of ACRs through regional
governments that are also financing such areas.
Three ACRs have been created: Choquequirao,
Bosque de Puya Raimondi-Titankayocc andAmpiyacu–Apayacu.
A large part of the protected-area network is heavily
forested. An estimated 13.7 million hectares offorested land are classified under IUCN protectedarea categories I–IV.a Many protected areas are

Table 6 Forest carbon potential
Biomass
forestcarbon(MtC)
7690–11 520% forest Deforestation/ Enhancement Forest areachangeof carbon
degradation
withsink capacity monitoring
potential to
canopycapacity
to 20302030
cover >60%
81

+++

++

++

Forest/GHG
inventory
capacity+

Importance Engagementinof forest
international
fire/
REDD+
biomass
processes
burning++++++++ high; ++ medium; + low; estimate of national forest carbon based on Gibbs et al. (2007); estimate of % total forest with canopy cover>60% based on UNEP-WCMC (2010).

370

PERU

Estimate of the area of forest sustainably
managed for protection. Large areas of theprotection PFE are under no imminent threat
due to their remoteness but are not counted here
as under SFM. A total area of about 11.6 million
hectares of protected area is clearly defined and iscovered by some sort of management planning.a
The area of protection PFE managed sustainably isestimated at 1.88 million hectares (Table 7). This
includes the core water protection forests of about
60 000 hectares and the totally protected portionof the Peruvian part of the transboundary protectedareas of Tambopata (1.09 million hectares) and El
Condor (253 000 hectares), both of which havebeen supported by ITTO and other international
donors, plus the areas under conservation andecotourism concessions.

Box 3 Categories of protected areas
Category
National parks
National reserves
National sanctuaries
Historical sanctuaries
Landscape reserves
Protection forests
Communal reserves
Reserved zones
Hunting reserves
Wildlife refuges
Small islands
Total SINANPE
Regional conservation
areas
Private conservation
areas
TOTAL

NumberArea (ha)

12
13
9
4
2
6
8
9
2
2
67
5

7 967 119
3 719 347
317 366
41 279711 818389 987
1 777 466
3 396 364
124 735
8 591
140 833
18 594 909
695 22720

124 99192

19 415 127

Socioeconomic aspects

Source: Kometter (2010).

Economic aspects. The contribution of the forest
sector to GDP is about 1.02% of a total GDP of
US$1.03 trillion.a An estimated 250 000 jobs are
generated directly by forestry activities, over 50%of them in the Peruvian Amazon (ITTO 2006).
The forest industry, including many small andmedium-sized enterprises, are mostly located in
Lima, Trujillo, Chiclayo, Cuzco, Iquitos, Pucallpa
and Tarapoto and employ more than 82 000 people(ibid.). The contribution of forestry, however, is
not only made through direct employment but also
through the provision of a wide range of goods for
consumption, handicrafts and small commerce.
Fuelwood collection is still the main extractive useof the country’s forests, in particular in forest-poor
mountain areas. Small-scale logging is important
both economically and socially in the Amazon, andnearly all forest areas close to the main rivers havebeen heavily harvested.

under pressure, however, including from conversion
to other land uses (particularly shifting cultivation
but also monoculture agriculture and illegal crops
such as coca), small-scale and large-scale timbertheft, illegal mining, oil and gas exploration, andillegal hunting and fishing.
In 2001 INRENA granted an area of 135 832
hectares as a ‘conservation concession’ for a periodof 40 years to a private association (the Amazon
Watershed Conservation Association – Asociaciónpara la Conservación de la Cuenca Amazónica). In
2010 a total of 423 000 hectares were under suchconcessions and another 55 000 hectares were
under ecotourism concessions. These areas are notcounted as part of the protected-area network. In
such concessions, protection activities, ecotourism
and the sustainable use of NTFPs may be carriedout, but not logging. It is expected that moreconcessions will be granted in the future for NTFPs
and conservation.

Livelihood values. Many NTFPs are used andtraded locally, such as fruits and vegetables likeaguaje (Mauritia flexuosa), camu-camu and palmito,
local bamboo (Guadua angustifolia), palms andTable 7 Management of the protection PFE (’000 hectares)***

Reportingyear

Protection PFE

Forests attributed
to IUCN categories
I–IV

Allocated for soil
and waterWith management
plans

Sustainably
managed

2005*
2010

16 30019 4003130
3404**

390
389

11 6001540
1880

As reported in ITTO (2006).
According to UNEP-WCMC (2010).

371

Status of tropical forest management 2011

fibres. Wildlife, particularly fish, is an importantsource of protein throughout the Amazon.
Social relations. The Peruvian Amazon remains
a frontier for settlers from other parts of Peru,
many of whom engage in small-scale agriculture
and the gathering of forest products, often illegally.
Poaching, the illegal harvesting of valuable timber
species and illegal mining are all widespread.a
Narcotic crops, particularly coca, are planted byshifting cultivators in fields and small openings
in the forests. The social impacts of the newconcession system are unknown. Logging byoutsiders of Indigenous and community lands cancause intra-community conflicts, including over the
distribution of payments.
More than 1354 Indigenous communities(comunidades nativas) are known to make theirliving in the Peruvian Amazon, occupying about
14.95 million hectares or 17% of the total area of
the Peruvian Amazon. Their livelihoods are closelyinterlinked with forests. An estimated 13.5 million
hectares of potentially productive forests are in areas
claimed by Indigenous peoples and about 1.75
million hectares are situated within Indigenous
reserves. About 100 timber licences are located in
the immediate vicinity of Indigenous territories(G. de Freitas, pers. comm., 2009). While newforms of collaboration and benefit-sharing arebeing established between concession-holders andlocal people, the new situation is also prone tomisunderstanding and conflict. Although REDD+
is developing rapidly in Peru, many local andIndigenous people see it as a threat. Considerable
efforts are needed to clarify REDD+ and related
forest issues with local stakeholders.

Summary
The forest sector of Peru has been undergoing
rapid change. After signing the Trade Promotion
Agreement with the United States in 2007, theGovernment of Peru embarked on a new process
to reform the forest policy and law as well as
to restructure and decentralize the system offorest administration and governance. This wasdone on a fast track through a series of supreme
decrees, including the issuance of a new forest law,decentralization efforts and new central institutions.
However, the outcome was highly controversial andled to a prolonged period of protest by civil society
and Indigenous peoples. Nevertheless, Peru has

372

taken significant steps towards integrating the forest
sector into the broader macroeconomic objectivesof sustainable development and has put in placea system of control that allows further progress in
SFM. An independent forest-control mechanism
has been established and a broad coalition of
stakeholders from the public and private sectors
and civil society works together to develop theforest agenda. The Government of Peru is engaged
in the development of REDD+ with a nested
approach and in a broad stakeholder dialogue todevelop REDD+ as a major instrument for forestbased development in the Amazon. Peru still facessome major challenges in enforcing and applying
regulations and planning instruments in the
country’s vast Amazon forests and in guaranteeing
the rights of Indigenous and local people.

Key points•

Peru has an estimated PFE of 38.9 million
hectares (compared with 41.1 million hectares
in 2005), comprising 18.7 million hectares ofnatural production forest (compared with 24.6
million hectares in 2005), 19.4 million hectaresof protection forest (compared with 16.3
million hectares in 2005) and 820 000 hectaresof planted forest (compared with 200–300 000
hectares in 2005).

•

An estimated 1.60 million hectares of the
production PFE is under SFM. About 713 000
hectares of natural production forest is certified(compared with 59 000 hectares in 2005). An
estimated 1.88 million hectares of protection
PFE is under SFM. Large areas of the protection
PFE, even if not formally under SFM, are under
no imminent threat due to their remoteness.

•

The rate of deforestation has declined. The
country has an ambitious plan to reduce
deforestation to zero by 2020 and has put inplace programs (e.g. the National Forest
Conservation Program) for this purpose.

•

A broad consultation process on the preparationof a new forest law and policy is under way andnew institutions have been created to manage
forests on the principles of SFM.

•

Despite the difficult macro-economic situation
for the timber trade, Peru has increased its
exports of hardwood timber and further
developed its domestic timber industry.

PERU

Nevertheless, most exports are in the form ofsawnwood and there has been only limited
development of further-processing in Peru.
•

There is considerable potential for REDD+ in
Peru. However, many local and Indigenous
people see it as a threat, and considerable efforts
are needed to clarify REDD+ and related forest
issues with local stakeholders.

EndnoteaGovernment of Peru (2009).

References and other sources
FAO (2010a). Global forest resources assessment 2010
country report: Peru (available at http://www.fao.org/
forestry/fra/67090/en//).
FAO (2010b). Global Forest Resources Assessment 2010 Full
Report. FAO, Rome, Italy.
FSC (2010, website accessed September 2010). FSC
certification database (searchable database available at
http://info.fsc.org/PublicCertificateSearch).
Gibbs, H., Brown, S., Niles, J. & Foley, J. (2007).
Monitoring and estimating tropical forest carbon
stocks: making REDD a reality. Environmental Research
Letters 2 (available at http://iopscience.iop.org/17489326/2/4/045023/fulltext).
Government of Peru (2008). Second national communication to
the UNFCCC. National Environmental Council of Peru,
Lima, Peru (available at http://www.adaptationlearning.net/
projects/peru-second-national-communication).
Government of Peru (2009). Informe sobre el Progreso del Peru
den Alcanzar la gestión forestal sostenible y el Objective
2000 de la OIMT (periodo de evaluación: 2002–2008).
Ministerio de Agricultura, Dirección General Forestal y deFauna Silvestre, Lima, Peru.

ITTO (2006). Status of Tropical Forest Management 2005. ITTO,
Yokohama, Japan (available at http://www.itto.int/en/sfm/).
ITTO (2010, website accessed December 2010). Annual Review
statistics database (available at http://www.itto.int/annual_
review_output/?mode=searchdata).
ITTO & RRI (2009). Tropical forest tenure assessment. trends,
challenges and opportunities. ITTO, Yokohama, Japan andRights and Resources Initiative, Washington, DC, UnitedStates.
IUCN (2011, website accessed April 2011). IUCN red list of
threatened species (searchable database available at www.
redlist.org).
Kometter, R. (2010). Situación del sector forestal del Peru.
WWF-Intercooperation internal paper.
Michell, T. & Hulme, M. (2000). A country-by-country analysis
of past and future warming rates. Tyndall Centre for
Climate Change research http://www.tyndall.ac.uk/sites/
default/files/wp1.pdf
Spalding, M., Kainumu, M. & Collins, L. (2010). World Atlas ofMangroves. Earthscan, London, UK.
UNDP (2009). Human Development Report 2009. United
Nations Development Programme, New York, UnitedStates.
UNEP-WCMC (2011, website accessed April2011). UNEP-WCMC species database: CITES-listed
species (searchable database at available at www.cites.org/
eng/resources/species.html).
United Nations Population Division (2010, website accessed
July 2010). World population prospects: the 2008 revision(searchable database available at http://esa.un.org/unpp/
p2k0data.asp).
WWF (2009). Analysis of Current situation of forest
concessions, forest sector reform and decentralization, andforest trade in Peru. WWF Peru Programme.

Government of Peru (2010). Peru readiness preparation
proposal. Submitted to the Forest Carbon Partnership
Facility, September 2010. (available at http://www.
forestcarbonpartnership.org/fcp/node/257).

373

Status of tropical forest management 2011

Suriname•

low savanna forest – 18 000 hectares•

high swamp forest – 483 000 hectares•

low swamp forest – 239 000 hectares•

mangrove forest – 100 000 hectares•

marsh forest – 468 000 hectares•

ridge forest – 35 000 hectares.

The Government of Suriname (2009a) estimatedthe total area of mangroves at 115 000 hectares, but
FAO (2010) put the area at 100 000 hectares andSpalding et al. (2010) at about 50 900 hectares.

Forest resources
In 2010 the estimated population of Suriname
was 524 000 people (United Nations Population
Division 2010), and the country is ranked 97th outof 182 countries in UNDP’s Human Development
Index (UNDP 2009). A lowland region and thesouthern highlands account for 80% of the country
and form part of the pre-Cambrian Guyana Shieldthat straddles Suriname, Guyana and French
Guiana. Along the northern edge of the shield liesa savanna belt, beyond which is a narrow swampy
coastal plain where 90% of the population isconcentrated. The estimated forest area is 14.8
million hectares (FAO 2010, Government ofSuriname 2009a), which is 91% of the total landarea (16.3 million hectares).
Forest types. Three broad forest zones can be
distinguished, corresponding to the three major
biogeographical zones: the hydrophytic forestsin the north, which comprise swamp forests,
mangroves and ridge and marsh forests; xerophyticsavanna forests in the savanna belt; and the
predominant mesophytic humid forest types of
the Guyana Shield. These, in turn, comprise thefollowing forest typesa:•

high dryland forest (rainforest) – 13.3 million
hectares•high savanna forest or dry evergreen forest –132 000 hectares

374

Permanent forest estate. There is no formallyestablished PFE in Suriname. Nevertheless, allformally established nature reserves and otherprotected and conservation areas have been
established by explicit legal documents thatprovide strict guidelines for protection and use,thus providing a reasonable guarantee that those
protected areas will be maintained as such. Since
the establishment of the first protected areas in
the 1950s, no protected area has been revoked.
Recently, a procedure has been introduced to use acompatible GIS–GPS system to determine the exact
location of boundaries and whether any given pointon the ground is inside or outside the nature reserveor other protected area.
Concession areas are also allocated on the basis of
explicit legal documents that provide information
on boundaries as well as guidelines for their
management and use. In practice, however, there
are few guarantees that these areas will remain in
the category of production forest. In the past, someconcessions have been converted to protection
areas or assigned to other economic uses (such as
mining or large-scale agriculture). This was thecase, for example, for the community forest in
the Brokopondo district, which was allocated toCambior (now Iamgold) for gold-mining, andsome concessions in the district of Marowijne,
which have been allocated to China Zhong Heng
Tai Investment (Suriname) NV for large-scaleoil-palm plantations. The vast majority of forests
in Suriname is legally classified “as forests to beprovisionally maintained”; forests thus classified will
be maintained as forest until such time that they arelegally designated to a specific use.

SURINAMEIn Table 1, PFE has been taken to include allformally established protected forest areas andall forest concessions and formally designatedcommunity forests, but forests “to be maintained
provisionally” have been excluded. Also excluded
are forested lands of the state that are leased to
private individuals for conversion (mainly toagriculture), as well as privately owned forested landthat is currently used for timber production but
could be converted to non-forest at any time at thediscretion of the owners.
Thus, 5.32 million hectares of forest may beconsidered to be designated as production forest
in the PFE, while 2.19 million hectares have been
designated for protection and conservation.
Since the PFE has restricted formal status,
its demarcation on the ground is minimal.
Concessionaires are supposed to demarcate theirconcession boundaries but, in practice, this is
generally confined to the cutting and maintenanceof outer boundaries of the cutting compartment
under harvest.

Forest ecosystem healthDeforestation and forest degradation. Suriname
does not face the population and migrationpressures that have led to deforestation in manyother countries. According to FAO (2010),

Suriname lost 18 000 hectares of forest between
1990 and 2010 (0.1%). The estimated forest loss
since 1650 is 400 000 hectaresa, or less than 3% of
the extant forest estate. Until about 1980, mining
on forested land was mainly for bauxite, which
was exported. In the 1980s, however, gold-mining
emerged as an activity of growing importance, both
economically and environmentally. The total area offorest destroyed due to gold-mining is about 90 000
hectaresa, including 30 000 hectares in the last
decade (Fox 2010). An estimated 14 000 small-scale
miners and service providers work in Suriname’sinterior (ibid.). There is no significant occurrence offorest fire from natural causes.
At least 13 million hectares of Suriname’s forest
estate is primary foresta; Table 2 presents anestimate of 13.8 million hectares, which is slightly
less than the estimate shown in FAO (2010). Of
the 4.5 million hectares of forest designated fortimber production, an estimated 744 000 hectares
have been logged selectively over time and more
intensively, though still selectively, in the last five
decades. This forest is considered ‘selectively logged
primary forest’. The low intensity of harvesting overrelatively long felling cycles has helped to maintainthese forests in relatively good shape. About
250 000 hectares of forest are used for shifting
agriculture and could be considered degraded; theextent of this area is not increasing.a There is also

Table 1 Permanent forest estate

*
**
‡
†

Reportingyear

Estimatedtotal forest
area, range(million ha)

Total closed
natural forest(’000 ha)

2005*
2010

13.6–14.8
14.8

14 10014 100**

PFE (’000 hectares)
Production
Protection
NaturalPlanted

Total

6890
5319‡

11 327
7513

7
13†

4430
2194

As reported in ITTO (2006).
Calculated using the ratio of forest with greater than 60% forest cover estimated by UNEP-WCMC (2010) (95.5%) and theestimated total natural forest area.
Includes inactive concessions (either not issued or revoked or lapsed), active concessions, and community forests.
Government of Suriname (2009a). The status of this planted forest in the PFE is unclear and is not included in the total.

Table 2 Forest condition
PFE

Non-PFE

Total’000 haArea of primary forest
Area of selectively logged primary forest
Area of degraded primary forest
Area of secondary forest
Area of degraded forest land

6769
744
0
0
0

7037
0
250
0
90

13 806
744
250
0
90

Source: ITTO estimate based on Government of Suriname (2009a) and FAO (2010).

375

Status of tropical forest management 2011degraded forest in the vicinity of mining operations,although the extent of this is unquantified.
Vulnerability of forests to climate change. The
mean annual temperature in Suriname is projected
to increase by 0.9–3.3 °C by 2060 (McSweeney
et al. undated). Increased rainfall variability andchanges in the geomorphology of the coast and inwater resources are also projected (Government ofSuriname 2002). Suriname’s low-lying coastal zone
is vulnerable to seal-level rise. This is Suriname’s
most fertile land, where most economic activities
are practised and where the population is mostly
concentrated (ibid.). Inland forests are vulnerable
to increased drought and forest fire in extreme elNiño years.

SFM policy framework
Forest tenure. According to the 1987 Constitution,
all forests, except those on privately owned land,
belong to the state. Accordingly, Table 3 shows that
almost all of Suriname’s forest estate is publicly
owned, although more than 1 million hectares havebeen allocated as private concessions (see below).
The Constitution does not provide for collective
rights or the collective use of land, but Amerindianand Maroon people (the latter being descendants ofslaves of African origin) claim these rights.
Criteria and indicators. The Forest Management
Act (1992) provides criteria for the sustainable useof forest resources. The Government of Suriname
used the ITTO C&I in its submission to ITTO for
this report.a

Forest policy and legislation. The Forest
Management Act (1992) covers the sustainable andrational use of forest resources, taking into accountthe interests of forest-dwellers and the conservationof nature and biological diversity. It provides
rules governing timber production (and, to someextent, timber processing) and export. It covers
the various licences for forest harvesting, including
different types of timber concession and the use ofcommunity forests.
A national forest policy was adopted in 2003
after an extensive process of consultation withstakeholders. This policy provides broad guidelines
for the use of forests for production, protection
and conservation. According to the policy, themain goal of forest management is “enhancing
the contribution of the forests to the national
economy and the welfare of the current and future
generations, taking into account the preservationof the biodiversity”. It contains economic,
sociocultural and environmental goals of equal
weight. The Interim Strategic Action Plan for theForest Sector was published in 2008.
An environmental law was drafted in 2001 anda revised version is under review by the Ministryof Labour, Technological Development andEnvironment. If enacted, this law will haveimportant procedural consequences for the issuanceof timber licences and the installation of timberprocessing units. In the absence of agreed national
C&I, the environmental impact assessments
described in the draft law will be essential formonitoring progress towards SFM.

Table 3 Forest area, by tenure
Ownership category

Total area Of which PFE Notes’000 haState ownership (national, state orprovincial government)

14 7527513

0

0

14 752
0

7513
0

24

0

Other public entities, including
municipalities, villages, etc.*
Total public
Owned by local communities and/orIndigenous groups
Private owned by individuals, firms,
other corporate

Source: Government of Suriname (2009a).

376

PFE includes nature reserves and other protected areas,
MUMAs, community forests, inactive concessions, and active
concessions held by firms, associations, individuals or families.
Non-PFE includes ‘forests to be provisionally maintained’, andforest for which leases have been issued for clearing anddevelopment.
With its centralized government structure, Suriname’s regional
governments at the district and local levels do not own (forest)
land.

SURINAME

Institutions involved in forests. The government
institutions responsible for the management andprotection of Suriname’s forest resources are the
Ministry of Physical Planning, Land and Forestry
Management, the semi-autonomous Foundation for
Forest Management and Forest Control (Stichting
voor Bosbeheer en Bostoezicht – SBB), and NB (theNature Conservation Division of the old Suriname
Forest Service – Lachtwet en BosBeheer, LBB). SBB
is responsible for the enforcement of the Forest
Management Act (1992) and, consequently, forthe management of production forests. NB is
responsible for the enforcement of the Nature
Conservation Act (1954) and the Game Act (1954)
and, consequently, for the management of nature
reserves and other protected areas. There has been
an ongoing process to establish a single authority
for the management of production and protection
forests, the Forest and Nature Management
Authority (Bosnas), but this is still pending.
Suriname has one university (Anton de Kom
University of Suriname) with a modest schoolfor forestry, one for biology and another forthe environment. Most currently active forestry
professionals in Suriname, however, received
their education abroad. The Institute for
Natural Resources and Engineering Studies isa well-established training institute for forestry
technicians, one level below the Bachelor of
Science. The Interim Strategic Action Plan for
the Forest Sector includes an ambitious training
component in line with the recommendations
made on the training needs of the forest sector in
the context of ITTO pre-project proposal PPD
97/04(I). The Jan Starke Vocational Training andRecreation Center provides forest-related vocationalcourses, although it is in decline.

restricted to salvage logging areas and conversion
forests.
In early 2010, a total area of 1.22 million hectares1
were under 68 active concessions, comprising 34
licences for areas smaller than 5000 hectares in size
(116 000 hectares in total), ten licences for areas
5000–10 000 hectares in size (69 000 hectares
in total), three licences for areas 10 000–15 000
hectares in size (32 300 hectares in total), fivelicences for areas 15 000–25 000 hectares in size
(83 700 hectares in total), twelve licences for areas
25 000–50 000 hectares in size (411 000 hectares intotal), and four licences for areas 100 000–150 000
hectares in size (507 000 hectares in total). In
addition, community cutting licences have been
issued for 437 000 hectares, and 114 000 hectares
have been designated as community forests for
Indigenous or Maroon communities. Six ICLs
have been issued for a total of 54 800 hectares, andone ICL for Submerged Wood has been issued for
116 000 hectares. In total, cutting licences of all
forms have been issued for about 2 million hectaresof forest.b

There are several systems for timber harvesting,including concessions, community forests andincidental cutting licences (ICLs). The proceduresfor granting concessions and licences were nottransparent in the past.

Effective forest management and forest production
control were virtually non-existent when SBB wasestablished in 1998 with a mandate to establish aleaner and more cost-effective forest management
organization than the Forest Service it replaced.
SBB subsequently developed a comprehensive
computerized log-tracking system, LogPro, tomonitor harvesting operations, the payment offorest fees and forest planning at the FMU level.
Although this system is still under development
it has already proved useful in promoting SFM.
GIS technology was introduced in the forest sector
with the support of the WWF Guianas program
for the mapping and planning of forest operations
on the ground. Initially this was done for SBB’s
own operations, but the system has been extended
gradually to logging companies and other private
operators in the forest to facilitate the mutual
exchange of planning and other information related
to ground-level activities. Training courses in theuse of GIS were conducted for representatives of theprivate sector, including consultants, who are being
hired increasingly by logging companies to prepare

Although for a decade or longer prior to theestablishment of SBB, ICLs had become a popular
way to evade the relative rigid requirements forconcessions, in the last decade this practice has
been redressed almost completely. ICLs are now

1 In October 2010 this had reportedly increased to 1.3 million hectares in
62 concessions, comprising 18 intensively managed concessions
covering 605 000 hectares, 16 extensively managed concessions
covering 55 000 hectares, and 28 “idle concession or preparatory
harvesting activities” covering 640 000 hectares.b

Status of forest management
Forest for production

377

Status of tropical forest management 2011

the planning of their operations to the (higher)
standards that now prevail.
The management and control style adopted by
SBB can be categorized as either intensive forest
management (for large concessions) or extensive forest
management (for small concessions).
Operators with a relatively large production
capacity, including operators that produce mainlyfor export, were deemed capable of causing
extensive damage to a large area of forest in a
relatively short time. A high priority was therefore
placed on ensuring their adherence to stringent
regulations. Application for concessions larger
than 5000 hectares must include a businessplan (including a financial feasibility plan forwood-processing and logging activities, and aforest management plan) that sets out the intended
approach of the applicant to the development of
the concession, if granted. After the granting of
the concession and before any actual harvesting, amore detailed overall management plan must be
submitted to SBB indicating the division of annual
cutting areas and the infrastructure to be built.
In addition, specific planning is required for eachannual cutting area for that year, including 100%
inventories and the detailed layout of skidding
roads, taking into account the maximum allowable
cut as suggested by the Celos Management System(normally 20–25 m³/hectare) and the selection
and marking of the trees to be felled (in the field aswell as on tree maps to be included in the planningdocuments for submission to SBB for approval).
Since the requirements for 100% inventories in
cutting blocks were introduced, about 17 500
hectares (175 blocks of 100 hectares each) havebeen surveyed in this way.
Restricting harvesting to inventoried 100-hectare
cutting blocks allows the close monitoring of
the actual cut in relation to inventoried stock.
According to observations of 87 cutting blocks
exploited between 2006 and 2009, the average
harvest in intensively managed concessions was
12.3 m3 per hectare.a The average annual harvest
area for concessions and community forests in the
PFE is about 13 500 hectares.
The approved harvest plan forms the basis ofproduction control by SBB. The trees actually
cut are labelled with a polyethylene label with aunique number that is issued by SBB from LogPro,
its computerized log-tracking system. These378

label numbers, together with the tree number asassigned in the 100% tally and indicated on thetree map included in the approved harvest plan,
must be entered in a felling register, as prescribedby law. The label numbers are thus linked to thetree numbers of the inventory. When the logs areprepared for transport from the production sitetheir label numbers are entered in a way bill. If
the original log is cross-cut prior to transport fromthe production site, the resulting smaller logs arenumbered with new labels linked to the number ofthe original log (and therefore automatically to thetree number assigned in the 100% tally). A copy ofthe felling register must be presented to the forest
guard covering the particular production area, who
forwards it to SBB headquarters, where it is enteredinto LogPro. Systematic inspections of sawmills
and other processing facilities are also conductedto ensure that any timber not seen during earlier
inspections is detected, registered, and entered into
LogPro.
Despite the establishment of these elaborate
planning and administrative procedures, for avariety of reasons only a relatively small area andonly a few operators are presently under such‘intensive’ management.
Extensive forest management is confined tosmaller operators, including those active incommunity forests. Such operators must maintainthe boundaries of their concessions and of theannual cutting areas in which they are active (justas in intensive management). Systematic 100%
inventories are not required, but the felled timbermust be registered in a felling register, as requiredfor intensive management operations. Extensive
forest management is applied in concessions where
the impact of harvesting on the economy and theenvironment is relatively low. The ultimate goal isthat all concessions are managed according to theprocedures of intensive management. All granted
licences, whether for intensively managed or
extensively managed concessions, are monitoredby SBB.b An estimated 10–20% of (commercial)
production is not registered (FAO 2010).
Although there is growing interest among private
forest-owners to produce timber on a sustainablebasis, for which they seek assistance from thegrowing number of consultants available for thiskind of supporting service, the practice is not wellestablished and cannot be enforced by SBB given

SURINAME

Forest river scene near Botopasie, Suriname. © istockphoto/B. Coenders

its current capacity.a It should be noted that timber
production in conversion forests is, by definition,unsustainable.
Under SBB, significant progress has been madetowards SFM in Suriname’s forests, but for a varietyof reasons the impact is currently sub-optimal.a A
major constraint is the relatively low educational
level of the forestry workforce, although, to someextent, this problem has been reduced by thedevelopment of a group of reasonably competent
forestry professionals acting as consultants to assist
in the planning of operations by both smaller andlarger operators. Another major constraint for theindustry is a lack of capital, which hampers theacquisition of equipment that would, for example,
enable the effective application of reduced impact
logging techniques. An even bigger constraint is of
an institutional nature: the formal establishmentof the Bosnas has been delayed for more than four
years, with a consequent impact on the availabilityof the resources needed for adequate coverage of theentire production forest area.a
Silviculture and species selection. The forests
are characterized by a wide variety of species –more than 600 tree species have been described.
Some 50 species are known as class A commercial
species and about 100 as class B. There has beena significant shift in the last three decades in thespecies harvested for industrial roundwood. An
important reason for this shift pertains to therestricted access to the production forests in more
remote parts of the interior during the country’s
civil war (1986–1993), which led to the use of
species previously considered useless or of low value.
Many such species proved highly suitable for somevery demanding applications in construction andfurniture manufacturing.
About 375 000 hectares of the PFE have been
inventoried for their standing timber stocks. Table 4lists some of the most commonly harvested species.
Planted forest and trees outside the forest. In
ITTO (2006) the area of forest plantations, andthe area of plantations under management plans,
were both reported at 7000 hectares. In this report,
the estimated planted-forest area has been adjusted
to 13 000 hectares on the basis of Suriname’s
submissiona, but the area under management
plans is probably zero (Table 5). The predominant

379

Status of tropical forest management 2011

Table 4 Commonly harvested species for industrial roundwood
Species

Annual harvest quantity (m3)

Qualea spp*
Dicorynia guianensis*
Goupia glabra*
Vochysia tomentosa
Vatairea guianensis

PFE
27 17522 11411 019
4621
6644

Notes

Non-PFE
6507
8136
3851
5502
1674

Harvested predominantly from highdryland forest.

*
Also listed in ITTO (2006). In the case of Qualea, Q. rosea was specified in ITTO (2006).
Note:
Data are averages for 2004–2008.
Source: Government of Suriname (2009a).

Table 5 Management of the production PFE (’000 hectares)
Reporting
year

Total

Available for
harvesting

2005*
2010

6890
5319

1740
2000

*

NaturalWithmanagement
plans
73
899

Certified

0

7

247

13

-

Total

Certified00

As reported in ITTO (2006).

planted species for industrial purposes is Pinus
caribaea, comprising about 58% of the plantation
estate. The principal indigenous species are Cedrela
spp, Cordia alliodora and Simaruba amara; the main
broadleaved exotic species are eucalypts. There islittle information about standing volume, growth
rates or current condition. No expansion of theplantation estate, or replanting of harvested sites, isplanned.
Forest certification. The FSC has certified one
forest area operated by Timberindustry Suriname
NV, with a total production area of 23 858 hectares(FSC 2010).
Estimate of the area of forest sustainably
managed for production. Of the 1.30 million
hectares in the PFE under concessions (plus another170 000 hectares under ICLs), 899 000 hectares
are covered by, in total, 21 management plans.a
Two concessions (one of which is FSC-certified),covering a total of about 89 000 hectares, areunder harvest using reduced impact logging toa high standard. A further 158 000 hectares ofconcessions are being harvested using ‘controlled’
logging (i.e. natural directional felling, and planned
skidding), and 655 000 hectares are being harvested
using sometimes poor techniques.a Given the
low volume of timber extracted per hectare, thefirst two of these harvesting categories (a total of
247 000 hectares) may be considered to be under

380

0
89

PlantedWith
management
plans
7

Sustainably
managedSFM. Apart from some areas where gold-mining
is occurring, the remainder of the production PFE
is likely to be under little threat of deforestation ordegradation.
Timber production and trade. The annual
production of industrial roundwood in 2009 wasestimated at 190 000 m3, up from about 94 000
m3 in 1999 and 159 000 m3 in 2004. Sawnwood
production increased from 28 000 m3 per year
in 1999 to 65 000 m3 per year in 2009, plywood
production decreased from 4000 m3 in 1999 to1000 m3 in 2009, and veneer production increased
from zero in 1999 to 3000 m3 in 2009 (ITTO
2011). Installed national sawmilling capacity is
estimated at 280 000 m3 per year. In total, morethan 160 species are harvested.a In 2009, Suriname
exported logs valued at US$2.70 million andsawnwood valued at US$2.80 million (ITTO
2011).
Non-timber forest products. NTFPs are used tovarying degrees by different groups, predominantly
people living in the country’s interior. Apartfrom incidental small-scale efforts, no significant
inventory of NTFPs has been conducted to date.
There is a significant export trade of Surinamese
wildlife: FAO (2010) reported that wildlife exports(mainly birds) were worth about US$404 000
in 2007 (a reduction of more than US$500 000
compared to 2004, due largely to a ban on bird

SURINAME

Table 6 Forest carbon potential
Biomass
forestcarbon(MtC)% forestwithcanopycover >60%

Deforestation/
degradation
potential to2030

663–2753

96+

Enhancement Forest areachangeof carbon
sink capacity monitoring
capacity
to 2030+++

Forest/GHG
inventory
capacity

Importance Engagementinof forest
international
fire/
REDD+
biomass
processes
burning++++++++ high; ++ medium; + low; estimate of national forest carbon based on Gibbs et al. (2007); estimate of % total forest with canopy cover>60% based on UNEP-WCMC (2010).

imports in the European Union during an outbreakof Avian flu). In 2006 an estimated 55 000 kgof medicinal plants valued at US$453 000 were
exported to the Netherlands.
Forest carbon. Suriname has a large and mostly
intact forest resource. The REDD+ mechanism
is designed to assist countries like Suriname byproviding positive incentives for conserving forestsand improving forest management. Taking into
account Suriname’s developmental needs, REDD+
could assist in mitigating some of the drivers ofdeforestation and forest degradation.
Gibbs et al. (2007) estimated Suriname’s forest
biomass carbon stock at 663–2753 MtC, and FAO(2010) estimated it at 3165 MtC. Box 1 shows
the quantity of carbon contained in Suriname’s
forests estimated by Tjon (1998) on the basis ofobservations in 30 plots distributed over a range offorest types.
Box 1 Forest carbon stock, Suriname
Carbon store (MtC)
PFE
Non-PFE
Above-ground biomass
Soil

1340
365

1210
330

Source: Based on estimates by Tjon (1998) of carbon stocks invarious forest.types.

Nearly one-third (31%) of Suriname’s GHG
emissions are produced by the land-use change
and forest sector (Government of Suriname 2002).
Since 2009 the Government of Suriname has
been developing a REDD+ readiness preparation
proposal in the framework of the Forest Carbon
Partnership Facility and is a member of the REDD+
Partnership. The preparation of a national REDD+
strategy is coordinated by the National REDD+
Working Group, which comprises representativesof governmental institutions, forest-dependentcommunities (Indigenous and Maroon peoples), thetimber industry, academia, civil society and otherobservers (Government of Suriname 2009b). Table
6 summarizes Suriname's forest carbon potential.

Forest for protection
Soil and water. No part of Suriname’s forest is
managed exclusively for the protection of soil andwater, but the relative lack of human pressuremeans that, in effect, vulnerable slopes in thehinterlands, the productive capacity of the soils,
and the water storage and production capacity ofthe vast majority of forested lands are generally
well conserved. Nevertheless, threats do exist. For
example, some waterways are contaminated withmercury as a result of uncontrolled gold-mining,
and river siltation and soil erosion are prevalent(ITTO 2003b, Fox 2010).
Biological diversity. Suriname has large intact
forest ecosystems of global significance and forests
have extremely high conservation and ecologicalvalues, particularly in the swamps and on the
Guyana Shield. The inventoried biota comprises
5800 species of plant, including 200 endemic
species, 185 species of mammals, 668 speciesof birds, 152 species of reptiles, 95 species ofamphibians and 790 species of fish (Malone 2007);
it is certain that much remains to be discovered.
Five mammals, one amphibian, one arthropod
and one plant are listed as critically endangered,endangered or vulnerable on the IUCN red list of
threatened species (IUCN 2011). Two plant species
are listed in CITES Appendix I, 30 in Appendix II
and one in Appendix III (UNEP-WCMC 2011).
Protective measures in production forests.
Harvesting guidelines to protect soil, waterand conservation values devised by SBB must
be incorporated in the harvesting plans ofconcessionaires and approved prior to actual
harvesting. They include the maximum allowable
cut per hectare and the alignment and maximum
area of skidding roads to be constructed in a felling381

Status of tropical forest management 2011

and currently comprises at least five significant-sizedcompanies. Local consumption as well as exports ofbottled water are growing steadily, although no dataon the value of these were available for this report.

compartment. In addition, rules are stipulated
in concession agreements regarding the storage
and disposal of chemicals, machine oils and otherchemical waste. These are closely monitored by SBB
and adhered to reasonably well by loggers, althoughstandards related to the spillage of used motor oils
and waste may slip through control from time totime, meaning that adherence may be less than
optimal.a

The Government of Suriname charges a fee per m³of timber felled and per hectare of forest concession
held. However, there are inconsistencies in thefee structure: for example, there is little differencein the level of fees for timber according to themarketability of species and therefore there is little
incentive to use lesser-known species (moreover,
local forestry entrepreneurs consider the fees to be
too high). The fees per area of concession are very
low, which tends to encourage the application forand holding of large concessions for speculation
rather than production. For these reasons, a revisionof the forest charges system has been prepared,
and will soon be enacted, in which the number oftimber classes for fee calculation will be increased,
there will be greater differentiation between timberclasses, and, overall, the average fee per m3 will be
reduced by about 50%. Concurrently, the fee per
area of concession will be increased significantly,
which will help to compensate government for thedecrease in revenue resulting from the reduction in
the fee per m³. The fee per area will be lower for
remote areas to encourage their development and to
alleviate pressure on timber production areas closer
to existing infrastructure.

Extent of protected areas. According to theGovernment of Suriname (2009a), an estimated1.89 million hectares of forest are contained withinprotected areas classified in IUCN protected-area
categories I–IV, including 1.15 million hectaresof lowland evergreen broadleaved rainforest. The
estimate of UNEP-WCMC (2010) is slightly lower,
at 1.46 million hectares. Of particular significanceis the Central Suriname Nature Reserve, createdin 1998 (1.6 million hectares). A further 245 000
hectares are in protected areas classified as IUCN
protected area categories V–VI. Just under
1.5 million hectares of protected areas are coveredby management plans (Table 7).a
Estimate of the area of forest sustainably
managed for protection. Most of the protectedarea – and a large area of ‘unprotected’ forest in
remote parts of the country – is intact due to a lackof development pressure. Therefore, all protectedareas subject to management plans are assumed to
be under sustainable management.

An estimated US$60 million has been invested inforeign-owned logging operations and processing
equipment. The Government of Suriname invests
in SFM through its funding of SBB and NB.
Combined, those two institutions have an annual
budget for forest management, administration,
research and human-resource development of
about US$2.56 million. Annual grants and loans
from international organizations amount to about
US$850 000.a In total, just under 1100 people
work in the forest sector to implement or support
forest management, including 133 with professional
qualifications (45 in government and 88 in theprivate sector) and 135 trained (part-time or
full-time) forest workers (51 in government and 84

Socioeconomic aspects
Economic aspects. Forest-based activities
contributed about 2% of Suriname’s GDP, which
was worth about US$1.8 billion in 2007. The
formal market value of timber and NTFPs wasestimated at about US$19 million and the valueof the informal market was estimated at US$2.52
million.a In addition, the Water Supply Companyof Suriname reported a production of 32 million m3
of drinking water in 2007, with an estimatedmarket value of US$18 million.a The water-bottlingindustry has developed rapidly in the last decade
Table 7 Management of the protection PFE (’000 hectares)
Reportingyear

Protection PFE

Attributed to IUCN
categories I–IV

Allocated for soil
and waterWith management
plans

Sustainably
managed

2005*
2010

4430
2194

1390
1890

1160
0

1460a

1460

*

382

As reported in ITTO (2006).

SURINAME

in the private sector). The private sector comprises
29 logging companies and about 30 consultants (17of whom are university-trained). In addition, thewood-processing sector has about 2400 employees.a
About 250 people are employed in the managementof protected areas (FAO 2010).
Livelihood values. An estimated 65 000 Amerindianand Maroon people rely on forests for 50% or moreof their livelihoods, particularly in the districts of
Sipaliwini, Brokopondo, Para and Marowijne.a Forest
resources are important for medicines, building
materials and fibres, but particularly for wild animals,
fruit, seeds and nuts, which are major food sources.
More than a thousand plant and animal species are
known to be used in one form or another (van Andelet al. 2003).
People inhabiting the more remote hinterlands havevery large areas of forests available for subsistence
purposes: while their daily activities would mostly
be confined to a couple of kilometres from theirsettlements, they may also undertake longer trips
by boat or by foot away from their settlements (e.g.
for prospecting, hunting and fishing). The issue of‘how much land’ is required for customary use has
emerged in discussions regarding the land rights
claims of Amerindian and Maroon peoples, and an
attempt has been made to identify the extent of thearea around their settlements that could eventually
be declared their economic zone. In the settlements
closest to Paramaribo and other urban centres, theneed to share living space has given rise to a certainbalance, whereby traditional lifestyles tend to be
confined closer to settlements. However, in largepart this issue remains to be resolved.
About 550 000 hectares of forest has been
allocated to Amerindian and Maroon peoples ascommunity forests. SBB considers these to be under‘extensive’ managementb, although some have been
over-exploited due to weak communal business
management capacity, which allows the forest
to be logged by entrepreneurs from outside thecommunities on the basis of very poor agreements.a
SBB, Celos (an agricultural research organization)and WWF are working together to provide trainingthat will enhance the capacity for sustainable
management among communities in the Pokigron
and Marshall Creek region.
Social relations. Suriname’s people comprise a racial
mix of Amerindians, Creoles, Hindus, Maroons,
Javanese, Chinese and Caucasians. About 10% of

the population is Amerindian or Maroon, who claim
collective land-use rights, including to forests.
Amerindian and Maroon groups have soughtinternational support for their land-rights claims,
including through the Inter American Court ofJustice. In 2007 this court delivered a verdict infavour of the Saramaccan tribes, who had filed acomplaint that the Government of Suriname had
neglected their land rights by granting concessions
and other rights to people from outside theircommunity without their permission. The Court
ordered the government to redress the disputed acts
and to recognize the claimed rights.
Land rights continue to be a difficult issue between
the government, tribal communities and otherstakeholders. The government has established an
official working group to help find a resolution.a
Seminars, workshops and other interactive
communication modalities involving all relevant
stakeholders have, to a certain extent, proveneffective in reconciling views over forest policy
development and SFM. Well-identified stakeholder
groups with strong voices in such processes are:•

The Platform for the Timber Sector in
Suriname (PHS), comprising a relatively small
but vocal number of private logging
entrepreneurs, with a persistent dislike of any
initiative undertaken by the SBB.

•

Representatives of Indigenous and Maroon
people who live in the forests in the hinterlandsof the country.

•

Several national and international NGOs,
including Conservation International, WWF
and Tropenbos Suriname.a

SBB has also often been able to provide effective
mediation in conflicts between concessionaires
over boundary demarcation. Where this mediation
proves insufficient, the protagonists may take thecase to a judicial court. Conflict prevention, or the
early resolution of emerging conflicts between the
Government of Suriname (particularly the forest
management agencies) and private operators, isattempted by providing for a representation of
relevant stakeholders in the governing bodies ofthe forest management agencies. Representatives of
stakeholders are also included in ad hoc committees
and work-groups dealing with particular issues
regarding the sustainable use and management of
the country’s forest resources.a383

Status of tropical forest management 2011

Not all attempts at conflict resolution have beensuccessful. Some stakeholders have failed to taketheir seats in the governing bodies of existing andproposed management agencies. It has also provenvery hard to obtain agreement between the forest
management agencies and some stakeholders,
particularly the PHS, on most of the issues subject
to discussion.a
In all sectors, including the forest sector, the rules
and requirements regarding health and safety inthe workplace are set out in the Safety Act (1947),
which is administered by the Ministry of Labor,
Technological Development and Environment.
The Directorate for Labor in this ministry conducts
frequent inspections in different working locations,
including sawmills and timber-harvesting sites. Thereis close correspondence between the prevailing labour
regulations and International Labour Organization(ILO) conventions. Labour unions play a role inassuring that ILO recommendations and regulations
are taken into account and adhered to. However,labour unions have only a limited role in companies
active in the forest sector.aAmong the 29 enterprises interviewed in thecontext of the present report, two deaths wererecorded in forest-based operations in the three
years to 2009. In addition, three cases of permanent
disabilities and six instances of injuries followed bycomplete recovery were recorded.a
The contribution of members of the Amerindianand Maroon communities to tree-spotting andbotanical research regarding plant species in theforest is indispensable, as is their contribution to all
forms of surveys in forest areas in the hinterlands.a

Summary
Suriname has taken some important steps towards
SFM. A GIS–GPS system has been introduced
to help locate boundaries of protected areas andto assist in the mapping and planning of forest
operations. A computerized log-tracking system isbeing rolled out. There is almost no deforestation,and most of the forest estate is primary forest.
There is an interim strategic action plan for
implementing the national forest policy. About
2 million hectares of forest are under licence,
although not all concessions are currently under
harvest. There has been an ongoing process toestablish a single authority for the management of
production and protection forests, the Bosnas, but384

this is still pending. A number of steps have beentaken to improve conflict resolution in Suriname’s
forests, but land rights are an ongoing issue between
government, Amerindian and Maroon peoples, andother stakeholders.

Key points•

More than 90% of Suriname is forested, andvery little deforestation is taking place.
Gold-mining has become a significant cause offorest and environmental degradation.

•

Suriname has an estimated PFE of 7.51 million
hectares (compared with 11.3 million hectares
in 2005), comprising 5.32 million hectares ofnatural production forest (compared with 6.89
million hectares in 2005) and 2.19 million
hectares of protection forest (compared with
4.43 million hectares in 2005).

•

As of late 2010, 62 logging concessions had
been allocated over a total area of 1.3 million
hectares.

•An estimated 247 000 hectares of the
production PFE is under SFM, including
89 000 hectares that are certified.

•

An estimated 1.46 million hectares of theprotection PFE is under SFM.

EndnotesaGovernment of Suriname (2009a).

b

Personal communications with officials of the Governmentof Suriname, 2010.

References and other sources
van Andel, T., MacKinven, A. & Bánki, O. (2003). Commercial
Non-timber Forest Products of the Guiana Shield: An
Inventory of Commercial NTFP Extraction and Possibilities
for Sustainable Harvesting. The Netherlands Committee for
IUCN, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
FAO (2010). Global forest resources assessment 2010 country
report: Suriname (available at http://www.fao.org/forestry/fra/67090/en/).
Fox, B. (2010). Gold rush is growing threat to Suriname
rainforest. Associated Press, 31 August 2010 (available
at http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/
ALeqM5h7d2bEgNJaV-9s1ouca5UZi1sjKgD9HT9KN80).
FSC (2010, website accessed December 2010). FSC certification
database (searchable database available at http://info.fsc.org/
PublicCertificateSearch).
Gibbs, H., Brown, S., Niles, J. & Foley, J. (2007). Monitoringand estimating tropical forest carbon stocks: making REDDa reality. Environmental Research Letters 2 (available at http://
iopscience.iop.org/1748-9326/2/4/045023/fulltext).

SURINAME

Government of Suriname (2002). First national communication
to the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change. National Institute for Environment andDevelopment, Suriname.
Government of Suriname (2009a). Report of progress towardachieving sustainable forest management in Suriname.
Submission to ITTO by the Foundation for Forest
Management and Production Control, Ministry of PhysicalPlanning, Land and Forestry Management, Paramaribo,
Suriname.
Government of Suriname (2009b). Readiness preparation
proposal Suriname. Forest Carbon Partnership Facility(available at http://www.forestcarbonpartnership.org/
fcp/sites/forestcarbonpartnership.org/files/Documents/
PDF/Jan2010/RPP_Suriname_second_submission_11_
January_2010.pdf ).
ITTO (2003a). Annual Review and Assessment of the World
Timber Situation 2002. ITTO, Yokohama, Japan.
ITTO (2003b). Achieving the Year 2000 Objective andsustainable forest management in Suriname. Report of thediagnostic mission. Presented at the thirty-fifth session of
the International Tropical Timber Council, November 2003.
ITTO, Yokohama, Japan.
ITTO (2006). Status of Tropical Forest Management 2005. ITTO,
Yokohama, Japan (available at http://www.itto.int/en/sfm/).
ITTO (2011, website accessed March 2011). Annual Review
statistics database (available at http://www.itto.int/annual_
review_output/?mode=searchdata).

Malone, S. (2007). Management of environmental funds for thefinancial sustainability of biodiversity conservation: How
do we achieve effective management of protected areas andbuffer zones in Suriname. Paper presented at the RedLAC
Workshop, 8 – 11 May 2007, Lima, Peru.
McSweeney, C., New, M. & Lizcano, G. (undated). UNDP
climate change country profiles: Suriname (available at
http://country-profiles.geog.ox.ac.uk/).
Spalding, M., Kainumu, M. & Collins, L. (2010). World Atlas ofMangroves. Earthscan, London, UK.
Tjon, K. (1998). Monitoring tropical rainforest in Suriname.
Internal memorandum. NARENA/CELOS.
UNDP (2009). Human Development Report 2009. United
Nations Development Programme, New York, UnitedStates.
UNEP-WCMC (2010). Spatial analysis of forests withinprotected areas in ITTO countries. Data prepared for
ITTO. UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, UK.
UNEP-WCMC (2011, website accessed March
2011). UNEP-WCMC species database: CITES-listed
species (searchable database at available at www.cites.org/
eng/resources/species.html).
United Nations Population Division (2010, website accessed
January 2010). World population prospects: the 2008
revision (searchable database available at http://esa.un.org/
unpp/p2k0data.asp).

IUCN (2011, website accessed March 2011). IUCN red list of
threatened species (searchable database available at www.
redlist.org).

385

Status of tropical forest management 2011

Trinidad and Tobago

Forest resources
Trinidad and Tobago consists of two main islands
and a number of small islets; it has a total land areaof 513 000 hectares. In 2010 it had an estimatedpopulation of 1.34 million people (United Nations
Population Division 2010) and it is ranked
64th out of 182 countries in UNDP’s Human
Development Index (UNDP 2009).
Trinidad, the much larger island, is traversed bythree ranges of hills running more-or-less east to
west with a highest point in the northern rangeof 936 m. Tobago has a central ridge that runs
for two-thirds the length of the island and rises
to 576 m. FAO (2010) estimated the forest areaat 226 000 hectares. A new forest-cover map of
Trinidad and Tobago under development by theUnited States Department of Agriculture, expected
to be available by the end of 2010, will provide new
information on the country’s forest resources.a

Forest types. There are nine forest types in Trinidad
and Tobago: evergreen seasonal forest; semi-green
seasonal forest; deciduous seasonal forest; dryevergreen forest; montane forest; mangrove forest;
herbaceous swamp; palm marsh; and marsh
forest. The most widespread forest formation isevergreen (about 94 000 hectares – FAO 2010)and semi-evergreen seasonal forest (about 14 000
hectares – Pantin & Ram 2010), characterized in
the lowlands by two main canopy species, Carapa
guianensis (crappo) and Eschweilera subglandulosa(guatecare). Tropical evergreen submontane andmontane forests occur in the northern range ofhills. There are also about 14 000 hectares of swamp
forests (FAO 2010). Mangrove forests cover about
6500 hectares. The largest area of mangrove cover
is Caroni Swamp, which is south of Port of Spain(Spalding et al. 2010). Mangrove forests are widelyused for timber and charcoal production and play
an important role as near-shore fisheries, including
for oyster, crabs and shrimps (ibid.).
Permanent forest estate. An estimated 131 500
hectares of state-owned forests are designated as‘proclaimed forest reserves’ and 11 700 hectares
are designated as ‘unproclaimed forest reserves’,
comprising both natural and planted forests. These– and some other protection forests – constitute thePFE (Table 1). Only state forests are counted, since
the permanency of private forest is unreported.
FAO (2010) reported that the PFE (for production)
was ‘fixed’ at 143 000 hectares. Due to agricultural
encroachment, squatting for housing, and illegal
quarrying, however, the actual forest area has been
reduced.

Table 1 Permanent forest estate
Reporting year

2005*
2010
*

**

386

Estimatedtotal forest
area, range(million ha)

Total closed
natural forest(’000 ha)0.248–0.259
0.226

250
150**

PFE (’000 hectares)
Production
Protection
NaturalPlanted
128
127

15.4
15.4

59.1
59.1

Total

202.5
201.5

As reported in ITTO (2006).

Calculated using the ratio of forest with greater than 60% forest cover estimated by UNEP-WCMC (2010) (66.4%) andthe estimated total natural forest area.

TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO

Forest ecosystem healthincreased biodiversity loss, coral bleaching and anincreased risk of insect-borne diseases. The effects
of climate change and climate variability include
an increased frequency of flooding and extreme
weather events (such as hurricanes, which can havea major effect on forest structure). Rising sea level
is of concern, mainly in the Caroni Basin and forcoastal settlements. Increased coastal erosion has
been observed at Cedros and saltwater intrusion isa problem on the southwest peninsula of Trinidad.
Trinidad and Tobago is involved in the regional
efforts of the Caribbean Community to address
climate change, which are coordinated by the
Caribbean Community Climate Change Centre.

Deforestation and forest degradation. According
to FAO (2010), the total forest area decreased by3600 hectares between 2005 and 2010 and by
14 300 hectares between 1990 and 2010. Bothnatural forests and plantations are affected byover-harvesting, encroachment, fire and otherforms of damage, although the extent of thesehas generally not been quantified (ITTO 2006).
FAO (2010) reported that fire affected about 9500
hectares of forest and other wooded land in thefive-year period 2004–08. ITTO (2003) identified
non-legal settlement (squatting) as a major cause of
deforestation in forest reserves. Another factor thathas resulted in forest degradation is strip-mining ofsand and gravel; this activity has degraded forests
in large areas of the forest reserves, especially along
the southern foothills of the northern range. Table 2
presents available estimates of forest condition.

SFM policy framework
Forest tenure. Most forested land is owned andadministered by the state (Table 3). State-owned
forest accounts for 192 200 hectares, including all
the PFE, and the remainder is owned privately.

Vulnerability of forests to climate change. As asmall island state, Trinidad and Tobago is among
the most vulnerable countries to climate change andhas a relatively low adaptive capacity. According to
the Caribbean Community (CARICOM 2010), thedirect effects of temperature rises in the Caribbean
are periodical heat stress of the vegetation,

Criteria and indicators. Trinidad and Tobago hasa long history of systematic forest management. For
example, its block management and shelterwood
systems have been applied for more than 60 years(ITTO 2006), but it lacks a system of C&I suited
to its needs. Trinidad and Tobago’s submission to

Table 2 Forest condition
PFE

Non-PFE’000 haArea of primary forest
Area of degraded primary forest
Area of secondary forest
Area of degraded forest land

-

-

Total
62.4
146*
-

*
‘Other naturally regenerated forest’.
Source: FAO (2010).

Table 3 Forest area, by tenure
Ownership category
State ownership (national, state orprovincial government)
Other public entities (e.g.
municipalities, villages)
Total public
Owned by local communities and/orIndigenous groups
Privately owned by individuals, firms,
other corporate

Total area Of which PFE Notes’000 ha
192

143

-

-

192
-

143
-

34

-

Includes some planted forests.

Note:

FAO (2010) estimated the area of forest under public ownership in 2005 at 174 000 hectares and the area of forest under private
ownership at 56 000 hectares.
Source: ITTO estimate based on Government of Trinidad and Tobago (2010).

387

Status of tropical forest management 2011

ITTO for this report was not in the ITTO C&I
reporting format.
Forest policy and legislation. Trinidad and Tobago
adopted its first forest policy for the sustainable
management of its PFE in 1942. A revision wasmade in 1981 to take into account the significant
social, economic, political and technologicalchanges that had taken place in the country since
1942, but it was never adopted by government. A
further revision took place in 1998 and while thecabinet has approved this revision it has not been
adopted formally. There is an absence of an agreed
strategy and policy in the forest sector (ITTO2006).
Recently a new draft forest policy (2008) and adraft protected-areas policy were produced andpublic consultations undertaken. It is expectedthat the final review of both these policies will
be completed shortly for approval by Cabinet.
The purpose of the draft national forest policy
is to guide the sustainable management of theforest resources of the nation, including their use
and the impacts and consequences of that use. It
covers natural as well as plantation forests, includes
deforested and degraded forest lands, and addresses
forests located on both private and public lands.
The draft national forest policy recognizes thatwhile a few government agencies will have primary
responsibility for implementing the policy it will
inform the behaviour, programs and activitiesof all stakeholders, including state, private andcommunity groups.a
Institutions involved in forests. In Trinidad, theForestry Division of Agriculture, Land and Marine
Resources is the state’s sole management authority
for the forest sector, having responsibility forforestry, watershed management, wildlife, parks,use, research and services in support of the private
forest sector. In the last decade, three strategic plans
were produced for the Forestry Division to cover
the periods 2001–05, 2006–09 and 2009–12,
respectively. It is expected that the latter plan, if
approved, will enable the Division to be more
effective and efficient in delivering goods andservices demanded by emerging challenges. Apartfrom a restructuring of the existing professional
staff, several specialist positions are being sought
to meet the challenges of added roles and responsi­
bilities (the seeking of specialist positions was also
reported in ITTO 2006). In Tobago, forests are388

under the jurisdiction of the Assistant Conservatorof Forests, who reports to the Secretary ofAgriculture, Land Marketing and the Environment.
In 2008 the total number of people employed inpublic forest institutions in the country was 946(19% of whom were women), including 16 with auniversity degree or equivalent (FAO 2010).
Civil-society organizations are gradually becoming
more involved in forest management. Throughthe National Reforestation and Watershed
Rehabilitation Programme, for example, several
community-based groups and organizations are
becoming active in the growing and protection offorests. Others are involved in the protection ofleatherback turtles during the nesting season (from
April to August) and in other conservation-oriented
activities.a

Status of forest management
Forest for production
Both natural forests and particularly planted forests
are actively managed. About 75 000 hectares ofnatural forests are regarded as intensively managed
and have management plans. All forest reserves
and the external boundaries of the PFE have been
fully demarcated. However, the boundaries are
not properly maintained and there are frequent
incursions/encroachments. The police force andhonorary game wardens participate in forest patrols
to help control illegal activities. The most recent
official forest inventory was carried out in 1969; thelack of up-to-date data is an obstacle to forest policy
reform and financing (Patin & Ram 2010).
Up to the 1980s, management plans for forest
reserves were written and followed. These lapsed orwere not followed in a period spanning the early
1980s to 2003, but new management plans were
written for all forest reserves for the period 2004–08
and are being revised at present.a The managementof natural forests has followed a form of selection
known as the ‘open-range system’, with diameter
limits as the main form of control. Individuallylicensed loggers are allowed to cut a specified
number of trees or volume as defined by the
Forestry Division. In many cases this has amounted
to a ‘logger’s selection system’, uncontrolled by
the Forestry Division. In order to ensure adequate
controls a block system of management was
introduced, in which areas are opened up for saleon a polycyclic basis. Several variations of thisTRINIDAD AND TOBAGO

system have been employed from time to time,
known variously as silvicultural marking in blocks
and the periodic block system.
Because forest resources are limited, there are
no forest concessions. Some 400 private loggers(mainly wood-workers) are registered (licensed)
by the Forestry Division and allotted marked trees
for extraction and use. Illegal encroachment andillegal logging certainly occur in the PFE, although
their extent is unknown; the police-assisted patrols
no doubt reduce their preva­lence. In the case ofplantations, particularly Tectona grandis (teak)and Pinus caribaea (Caribbean pine), coupes to
be clearfelled are sub-divided into five-hectare
units and coupes to be thinned are sub-divided
into ten-hectare plots for allocation to sawmillers,
licensees, furniture manufacturers and logging
contractors.
Silviculture and species selection. The harvestingof plantation teak and Caribbean pine provided up
to 28% of the local timber supply in 2008 (Table4). Enrichment planting in natural forests is stillpracticed in depleted and poorly stocked forest to
improve the growing stock and thereby support
multiple use and sustainability.
Planted forest and trees outside the forest. The
total industrial planted-forest area is reported to
be stable at about 15 400 hectares, with felledplantations replaced with new plantations but
no new areas planted.a The planted forest estatecomprises 9100 hectares of teak (introduced from
Myanmar in 1913), 4200 hectares of Caribbean
pine and other pine species, and 2100 hectares of
mixed hardwoods.
Other species planted on a limited scale in bothpure and mixed stands, including by enrichment
planting, include Cedrela odorata (cedar), Cordia
alliodora (cypre), Swietenia macrophylla (mahogany)
and Tabebuia rosea (apamate).

In 1998 the government approved a private
reforestation program and made subsidies
available to assist private forest farmers. To
date, 3907 hectares of mixed hardwood forest
have been established on private lands. In 2004
the government also established the National
Reforestation and Watershed Rehabilitation
Programme to reforest denuded lands across thecountry. Operations commenced in 2005 and 1722
hectares of forests have been planted in various
areas. By the end of 2010 the total planted forest in
both state lands and private lands was likely morethan 21 000 hectares.a
Forest certification. So far no forests have beencertified in Trinidad and Tobago (e.g. FSC 2010).
Estimate of the area of forest sustainably
managed for production. Of the natural forests,
ITTO (2006) reported that 15 000 hectares
had been managed for many years according
to management plans which conform to basic
principles of SFM and are harvested according
to the periodic block system, which is considered
generally consistent with sustainability; there isno evidence to suggest that the management ofthese forests has changed (Table 5). The balanceof production forest has been managed under
the open-range system and is now considered to
be degraded (ITTO 2006). On the basis of an
estimate provided by the Government of Trinidad
and Tobago, FAO (2010) reported that 143 000
hectares of natural forest were under sustainable
management.
Timber production and trade. Trinidad andTobago produces modest quantities of industrial
timber and depends mainly on imports to cover its
needs for sawnwood, plywood and paper products.
Its net timber import bill in 2008 amounted toabout US$80 million.a Total industrial roundwood
production in 2009 was about 50 000 m3, which

Table 4 Commonly harvested species for industrial roundwood
SpeciesHarvested volume (m3), 2008

Tectona grandis (teak)*Spondias mombin (hogplum)
Cedrela odorata (cedar)
Pinus caribaea (Caribbean pine)*
Virola surinamensis (cajuca)
Others (estimated)
Total (estimated)

9536 (17.7% of total harvest)
6266 (11.6%)6254 (11%)
5711 (10.6%)
1857 (3.5%)
24 232 (45%)
53 856 (100%)*
Also listed in ITTO (2006). In the case of Pinus caribeaa, Pinus spp were listed.
Source: Government of Trinidad and Tobago (2010).

389

Status of tropical forest management 2011

Table 5 Management of the production PFE (’000 hectares)
Reporting
year

Total

Available for
harvesting

2005*
2010

128
127

75
75

*

NaturalWithmanagement
plans
75
75

Certified

15

15.4

PlantedWith
management
plans
15.4

15

15.4

15.4

Sustainably
managed

0
0

Total

Certified00

As reported in ITTO (2006).

(along with about 1750 m3 of imported logs)
yielded about 31 500 m3 of sawnwood and 2000
m3 of veneer (ITTO 2011). Plantation areas to bethinned or clearfelled are allocated to sawmillers
and woodworkers on a quota system. Annual blocks
to be thinned or clearfelled are notified for sale;
sawmillers are expected to indicate their interest in
working in particular areas. In 2009 there were 89
licensed sawmills whose combined input capacity
was 100 000 m3 per year.a These ranged in size
from typical family enterprises to large companies
and processed both the domestic supply of timberand imports of round logs and squares fromneighbouring Guyana and Suriname. In 2009
there were 118 registered and several unregistered
furniture factories that processed lumber into
finished products for domestic use and for exports.a

Forest carbon. FAO (2010) estimated the forest
carbon stock in the living forest biomass at 19
MtC. Alternatively, using forest data produced by
UNEP-WCMC (2010) the forest biomass carbon
stock can be estimated at 25–32 MtC.b Trinidad
and Tobago is not engaged in international REDD+
processes. There is, however, a carbon sequestration
project – the Nariva Ecosystem Restoration andCarbon Sequestration Project, which is financedby an investment loan from the World Bank. It
comprises two components. The first is to sequester
carbon through afforestation and reforestationof selected areas of the Nariva wetland ecosystemand the second is to mitigate methane emissions
through the restoration of surface hydrology. Table
6 summarizes Trinidad and Tobago’s current forest
carbon potential.

Non-timber forest products. Little information
was available for this report on the domestic
production of the country’s major NTFPs. Bamboo
is grown as a commercial crop. Some NTFPs areimported from Venezuela and the countries of the
Guyana Shield. Edible products such as wild tubers,
bush meat, honey, beeswax and thatching grass
are used extensively by rural communities but the
royalty rates for such items are nominal and there isvery little data capture of their harvest. In 2005 an
estimated 12 000 kg of bush meat and 60 000 kg of‘other plant products’ were harvested from forests(FAO 2010).

Forest for protection
Soil and water. There are about 2000 hectaresof protection plantations in the coastal regions.
It is generally recognized that there is a need toreforest and rehabilitate critical watersheds, but landoutside the forest is generally occupied. Efforts arebeing made to rehabilitate degraded land throughtree-planting in parts of the islands. Some 37 000
hectares of forest are reportedly managed primarily
for the protection of soil and water a (FAO 2010
reported an area of 51 300 hectares).
Biological diversity. Trinidad has surprising
biodiversity for its size, brought about by its
proximity to other Caribbean islands and,

Table 6 Forest carbon potential
Biomass
forestcarbon(MtC)% forestwithcanopycover >60%

Deforestation/
degradation
potential to
2030

19–32

66

+

Enhancement Forest areachangeof carbon
sink capacity monitoring
capacity
to 2030+-

Forest/GHG
inventory
capacity-

Importance Engagementinof forest
international
fire/
REDD+
biomass
processes
burning+-+++ high; ++ medium; + low; estimate of national forest carbon based on FAO (2010) and ITTO; estimate of % total forest with
canopy cover >60% based on UNEP-WCMC (2010).

390

TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO

particularly, to continental South America. Morethan 2280 species have been recorded, 215 ofthem endemic. There are over 100 mammals (therichest mammal biota in the Caribbean), 420 birds
and 70 reptiles. One bird and eight amphibians
found in forests are listed as critically endangered,endangered or vulnerable on the IUCN red list of
threatened species (IUCN 2011). Thirty plants
are listed in CITES Appendix II (UNEP-WCMC
2011).
Protective measures in production forests. Forest
management plans prescribe measures to protect
riverbanks, rare plants and wildlife in production
forests.

Shoreline forest vegetation, Trinidad and Tobago.
© istockphoto/R. McClean

ecotourism, in which forests will undoubtedly playa substantial role.a

Extent of protected areas. A system of 61 nationalparks and other protected areas was proposed in
1980. About 40 such national parks and otherprotected areas have been established and aremanaged by the Forestry Division; two are being
developed with funds from the Inter-American
Development Bank. FAO (2010) reported that
100 000 hectares had been proposed for the systemof national parks and protected areas, but only
8000 hectares of forests were being managed in thesystem. FAO (2010) reported that the conservationof biodiversity was the primary designation for
19 500 hectares of forest.

In 2005 the forest sector generated an estimated
7.42 million Trinidad and Tobago dollars. Total
public-sector expenditure in the sector in thatyear – including on the conservation of forest
biodiversity, reforestation, the protection of soil andwater, forest stand improvement, the establishment
and management of protected areas, and patrols toprotect turtles during the nesting season – was 88.1
million Trinidad and Tobago dollars (FAO 2010).
Pantin and Ram (2010) reported that total public
expenditure (capital and recurrent) on forestrelated activities amounted to US$10.78 million in
2005, US$10.71 in 2008 and US$12.43 million
in 2009, which was about 0.1% of GDP and lessthan one-third the estimated ‘basic’ annual funding
requirements for SFM. They concluded that theunderfunding was due primarily to “incorrect pricesignals and insufficient recognition of economic
values of forest services and products”. They
recommended that greater emphasis be placedon generating revenue for the provision of forest
ecosystem services, such as water production.

Estimate of the area of forest sustainably
managed for protection. Insufficient information
was available to estimate the area of sustainably
managed protection PFE (Table 7). Some
protection forests are covered by management plans
and are used widely for ecotourism.

Socioeconomic aspects
Economic aspects. Forests cover most requirements
for fuelwood and some of the nation’s timber needs.
At present, about 10 000 people are employed inlocal forest-related jobs and many others are linked
indirectly to forestry. The Tourism Master Plan aims
to make Trinidad and Tobago the foremost tourism
destination in the Caribbean. This will involve

Livelihood values. Forests do not generally
provide the living area of the poor but they
provide important subsistence products for many
people. There is no direct conflict between timber
harvesting and livelihood interests, but forest is
still being cleared for agriculture, mining for sands

Table 7 Management of the protection PFE (’000 hectares)*

Reportingyear

Protection PFE

Attributed to IUCN
categories I–IV

Allocated for soil
and waterWith management
plans

Sustainably
managed

2005*
2010

59.1
59.1

29.2
8

-

12
12

-

As reported in ITTO (2006).

391

Status of tropical forest management 2011and gravels, oil and gas exploration, and otherpurposes.
Social relations. Although there are no significant
social conflicts associated with the management of
the country’s forests, the draft forest policy proposes
the increased involvement of local communities
in forest management. Some ten sites have been
earmarked for recreation and are visited byapproximately 300 000 people annually.a

Summary
There has been little change in the status of forest
management in Trinidad and Tobago since 2005. A
new draft forest policy and a draft protected areas
policy have been produced and have undergone aprocess of public consultation. Management plans
for forest reserves are being revised. The lack of
up-to-date information about the forests, the lackof a modern forest policy, and the underfundingof forest management all hinder the application of
SFM.

Key points•••

Trinidad and Tobago has an estimated PFE of
201 000 hectares (similar to 2005), comprising
127 000 hectares of natural production forest(compared with 128 000 hectares in 2005),
59 100 hectares of protection forest (as for2005) and 15 400 hectares of planted forest (asfor 2005).
An estimated 15 000 hectares of the natural
production PFE is under SFM. No forest iscertified, and no estimate was possible for thearea of protection PFE under SFM.
A new draft forest policy and a draft protectedareas policy have been produced and haveundergone a process of public consultation.

EndnotesaGovernment of Trinidad and Tobago (2010).

b

ITTO estimate.

392

References and other sources
CARICOM (2010, website accessed December 2010).
Caribbean Community Climate Change Centre(available at http://www.caricom.org/jsp/community/
ccccc.jsp?menu=community).
FAO (2010). Global forest resources assessment 2010
country report: Trinidad and Tobago (available at http://
www.fao.org/forestry/fra/67090/en/).
FSC (2010, website accessed August 2010). FSC certification
database (searchable database available at http://info.fsc.org/
PublicCertificateSearch).
Government of Trinidad and Tobago (2010). Report of progress
toward achieving sustainable forest management in Trinidad
and Tobago. Submission to ITTO by the Forestry Division,
Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago.

ITTO (2003). Achieving the ITTO Objective 2000
and sustainable forest management in Trinidad andTobago. Report of the diagnostic mission. Availableat www.itto.int/direct/topics/topics_pdf.../topics_
id=2110000&no=1.
ITTO (2006). Status of Tropical Forest Management 2005.
ITTO, Yokohama, Japan (available at http://www.itto.
int/en/sfm/).
ITTO (2011, website accessed March 2011). Annual Review
statistics database (available at http://www.itto.int/
annual_review_output/?mode=searchdata).
IUCN (2011, website accessed March 2011). IUCN red list of
threatened species (searchable database available at www.
redlist.org).
Pantin, D. & Ram, J. (2010). Facilitating financing forsustainable forest management in small islands developing
states and low forest cover countries An analytical report
prepared by Indufor for the United Nations Forum on
Forests. Country case study: Trinidad and Tobago. Draft,
October 2010. Indufor, Helsinki, Finland.

Spalding, M., Kainumu, M. & Collins, L. (2010). World
Atlas of Mangroves. Earthscan, London, UK.
UNDP (2009). Human Development Report 2009. United
Nations Development Programme, New York, UnitedStates.
UNEP-WCMC (2010). Spatial analysis of forests withinprotected areas in ITTO countries. Data prepared for
ITTO. UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, UK.
UNEP-WCMC (2011, website accessed March
2011). UNEP-WCMC species database: CITES-listed
species (searchable database at available at www.cites.org/
eng/resources/species.html).
United Nations Population Division (2010, website accessed
April 2010). World population prospects: the 2008 revision(searchable database available at http://esa.un.org/unpp/
p2k0data.asp).

VENEZUELA

Venezuela

Forest resources
Venezuela has a land area of 91.2 million hectares
and a population in 2010 of 29 million people(United Nations Population Division 2010). It
is ranked 58th out of 182 countries in UNDP’s
Human Development Index (UNDP 2009).
Venezuela comprises three main biogeographicalregions: a narrow coastal area; the Andean
mountain range, which reaches 5000 m above sea
level and supports dry and humid montane andcloud forests; and the basins of the Orinoco andAmazon rivers. The Orinoco Plain is part of thellanos biome1, which covers 31% of the country.
The Guayana region (the states of Bolivar andAmazonas), which is part of the Guiana Shield,
occupies about half the country and contains 70%
of its forests. FAO (2010) estimated Venezuela’s
forest area at 46.3 million hectares.
Forest types. Tropical humid forest, Venezuela’s
most extensive forest type, occurs in the Orinocodelta, the Guayana region and in small areas southand southwest of Lake Maracaibo; it stretchesfrom sea level to 400 m in altitude. The mostcommon species found in the tropical humid
forest are Couroupita guianensis, Ceiba pentandra,
1 An extensive system of grasslands, seasonally-flooded plains and forests
shared by Venezuela and Colombia. It is located to the north and westof the Orinoco River and borders the Amazon Basin along its entire
southern edge. About 61% (27.5 million hectares) of the llanos biome
lies within Venezuela.

Coumarouna punctata, Erisma uncinatum andCarapa guianensis. Tropical mountain forest isfound in three zones: the Merida range; the coastal
range by the Caribbean; and the eastern massif in
the states of Sucre and Monagas. Cloud forest forms
in the Andes between 500 and 2000 m. Valuabletimber species found in Venezuela’s cloud forest
include Cedrela mexicana, Guarea spp, Roupalamontana, Terminalia spp, Virola sebifera, Rollinia
fendleri, Calophyllum brasiliense and, in higher areas,
species of Podocarpus. Deciduous forest occurs in
the llanos, generally on flat ground of the Orinoco
Plain, but has nearly disappeared due to conversion
to agriculture and pasture. Once-common species
in these forests include Swietenia macrophylla(caoba), Bombacopsis quinata, Tabebuia pentaphylla
and Ceiba pentandra. Venezuela has an estimated356 900 hectares of mangroves, a significant part ofwhich is under threat (Spalding et al. 2010).
Permanent forest estate. The entire forest area iscontained within specially designated areas (áreas
bajo régimen de administración especial – ABRAEs)
managed for specific purposes according to law.
About 16.2 million hectares of the country’s
estimated 46.3 million hectares of forest areallocated for production as part of the PFE, but
3.38 million hectares of these are classified asprotection forestsa and are therefore not includedin the estimate of production PFE shown in
Table 1. The production PFE is made up of 15
forest reserves (12.8 million hectares, of which
two reserves, El Caura in Bolivar and Imataca in
Delta Amacuro and Bolivar, make up about 8.8
million hectares) and four forest lots (lotes boscosos –covering about 83 000 hectares). The total planted
forest area is about 845 000 hectares, a considerable
part of which is in forest reserves. The total areaof officially classified protection forests (forests inprotected areas and forests set aside for soil andwater protection) is at least 19.6 million hectares(Table 1).

Forest ecosystem healthDeforestation and forest degradation. FAO(2010) estimated the average annual rate of
deforestation between 2000 and 2010 at 288 000

393

Status of tropical forest management 2011

Table 1 Permanent forest estate
Reportingyear

Estimatedtotal forest
area, range(million ha)

Total closed
natural forest(’000 ha)

2005*
2010

49.5–55.0
46.3

49 92625 300*****‡†

PFE (’000 hectares)
Production
Protection
NaturalPlantedTotal

13 00012 920‡34 46333 405863
845

20 60019 640†As reported in ITTO (2006).
Calculated using the ratio of forest with greater than 60% forest cover estimated by UNEP-WCMC (2010) (54.7%) and the total
natural forest area estimated by FAO (2010).
Areas for permanent forest production, including forest reserves (reservas forestales) and forest vocation land areas (areas devocación forestal) within the ABRAEs, less those forests classified as ABRAEs for protection (Government of Venezuela 2010).
Includes environmental recovery and protection areas (áreas de protección y recuperación ambiental (APRA) – 15.2 million
hectares; wildlife fauna reserves (reservas de fauna silvestre) – 0.3 million hectares; 3.38 million hectares of protection forests
classified in production ABRAE (Government of Venezuela 2010); and watershed and soil protection areas.

de Nuestra América). Nevertheless, land-use change
and human-induced forest degradation are expected
to have a larger impact on forest vulnerability in thenext two to five decades. Uncontrolled forest fires
occur regularly, both in natural and planted forest.
There are, on average, more than 3000 forest fires
annually, affecting at least 100 000 hectares of forest
per year.ahectares (0.6%). In the past, deforestation was
highest in the llanos; for the last 20 years, however,it has been highest in the drier northwestern Zulia
region, which has lost almost two-thirds of its forest
cover, and south of Orinoco (Guayana region).
The main causes of deforestation are the expansionof commercial crops and small-scale farming.
A significant part of Venezuela’s forest estate isdegraded (Table 2), caused partly by small-scaleand larger-scale mining, which is also a significant
cause of river pollution. Informal gold and diamondminers are particularly active in Bolivar state, where
there is a history of violent conflict between miners
and local Indigenous peoples. Successive Venezuelan
governments have taken steps to control mining in
the region but have made relatively little progress.b

SFM policy framework
Forest tenure. There is no forest cadastre in
Venezuela and thus it is difficult to estimate theownership status of forestsa, although the vast
majority is owned by the state (Table 3). There
are private forest lots in both natural and planted
forest areas, but their extent is unknown. The 1999
Constitution recognizes the right of Indigenous
people to the collective ownership of forest
territories, access to resources and cultural uses
(articles 119–126), but no demarcation or formal
recognition process is in place.b The extent to which
local communities have the right to administer,conserve and manage timber resources in ABRAEs
remains unclear. Venezuela’s legislature passed a
new law on Indigenous peoples and communities(Ley Orgánica de Pueblos y Comunidades Indígenas)
in 2005, which includes a provision ensuring theVulnerability of forests to climate change.
Climate change is considered by the Governmentof Venezuela to be a significant threat. Extreme
weather events such as inundations and extended
droughts are occurring with increasing intensity andfrequency, claiming lives and causing considerable
damage. Venezuela is participating in international
negotiations on climate-change adaptation andis playing a leading role on climate-related issues
within the Bolivarian Alliance for the Peoples of
Our America (Alianza Bolivariana para los Pueblos
Table 2 Forest condition
PFE

Non-PFE

Total’000 haArea of primary forest
Area of degraded primary forest
Area of secondary forest
Area of degraded forest land*--

Source: Derived from Government of Venezuela (2010) and personal communications – see endnote b.

394

21 00018 0007 000-

VENEZUELA

Constitution, which define the framework ofenvironmental rights. Sustainable natural resource
management is defined as a fundamental taskof the state; it is the basic principle of the 2006
Organic Law for the Environment (Ley Orgánica
del Ambiente), which replaced the 1976 Law for
the Environment. The 1983 Organic Law of Land
Management (Ley Orgánica para la Ordenación
del Territorio) defines territories that are under aspecific management regime, including naturalforests and areas for reforestation and rehabilitation(Article 15). The Penal Law of the Environment(Ley Penal del Ambiente), which came into force in
1992, defines offences against the environment. In
December 2008 a new law for the management of
biological diversity (Ley de Gestión de la Diversidad
Biológica) was passed, replacing the former law of2000.

Small-scale mining in Guiana, Venezuela.

land and property rights of Indigenous peoples
and communities (ITTO & RRI 2009). Thislaw recognizes ancestral rights to forestlands
and specifies the process for demarcating andtitling Indigenous lands. Approximately 700 000
hectares have been titled to Indigenous peoples’
communities in agricultural areas (ibid.).

Decree 6070 of June 2008 constitutes the Law on
Forests and Forest Management (Ley de Bosquesy Gestión Forestal), superseding the Forest Law(1966). It contains the framework for SFM andforest protection and recognizes the wider functionsof forests for the production of goods and services
as well as the environmental and cultural values
linked to forests.a Since 2009 the Forest Service(Dirección General de Bosques) has been developing
revisions to the new law, including provisions forthe national development plan (Proyecto Nacional
Simón Bolívar) and the emerging role of forests
in climate change. Those revisions are underdiscussion in the national legislature.

Criteria and indicators. Venezuela has a long
tradition of forest management and professional
foresters are involved at all levels of forest
production and conservation. The country is anactive member of the Amazon Cooperation Treaty
Organization, which has developed the TarapotoC&I framework for SFM and a platform for
dialogue between national forest authorities. The
Government of Venezuela used the ITTO C&I in
its submission to ITTO for this report.a

The country’s domestic timber trade is regulated by
the 1966 Forest Law for Soil and Water (Ley Forestal
de Suelos y de Aguas) and the international tradeby the Fiscal Law (Ley de Timbre Fiscal, Decreto

Forest policy and legislation. The frameworkfor forest conservation and management is laidout in articles 127–129 of the country’s 1999
Table 3 Forest area, by tenure
Ownership category

Total area Of which PFE Notes’000 haState ownership (national, state orprovincial government)
Other public entities (e.g.
municipalities, villages)
Total public
Owned by local communities and/orIndigenous groups
Private owned by individuals, firms,
other corporate

46 300-No distinction can be made between state ownershipcategories.

46 300
-

-

120

-

About 0.7 million hectares have been attributed to Indigenous
peoples’ groups, but it is unclear how much of this area isforested.
Mainly planted forests owned by private persons or enterprises.

Source: Government of Venezuela (2010).

395

Status of tropical forest management 2011363/1999). The latter includes tariff instruments
for the control of imports and exports and stipulates
that logs harvested in natural forests cannot beexported. Industrial logging (since 1978; Decree269) and mining (since 1989; Decree 2552) areprohibited in Amazonas, the country’s secondlargest state after Bolivar (ITTO 2006). The extent
to which these regulations are still being applied isunclear, however.
A new forest policy to replace the general policyof 1998 (Politica Nacional de Bosques) is underpreparation, with a view to better encompassing
the human dimension and sustainable development
approaches to forest management. The principle ofthe new forest policy is to secure the multiple andsustainable uses of forest resources, with particularemphasis on the livelihood values of forests for local
people. Special emphasis will be given to the controlof illegal logging and encroachment in forest
reserves by shifting cultivators and illegal miners.
Institutions involved in forests. The Ministry
for the Environment (Ministerio del Poder Popularpara el Ambiente – MPPA) is the lead ministry
responsible for forests (replacing the former
Ministry for Environment and Natural Resources).
The Forest Service is the MPPA’s implementation
agency. Other ministries involved in forest
development are the Ministry for Agricultureand Lands (Ministerio del Poder Popular para laAgricultura y Tierras – MAT) and the Ministry
for Sciences and Technology (Ministerio del Poder
Popular para la Ciencia, Tecnología e Industrias
Intermedias). Particularly south of Orinoco, which isalso an important development area, there is a lackof clarity on the relative roles and responsibilities of
institutions, in particular between the MPPA, MAT
and the Ministry for Energy and Petrol (Ministeriodel Poder Popular para la Energía y Petróleo, theformer Ministry for Energy and Mining).
Other important institutions supporting thedevelopment of SFM in Venezuela include theReforestation Company (Compañía Forestal de
Reforestación), which deals with plantation forest
development and forest restoration on public
and private land; and the Institute for National
Parks (Instituto Nacional de Parques), which deals
with forest conservation and protected areas.
The Forestry Institute of Latin America (Instituto
Forestal Latinoamericano) is responsible for forest
research, along with other institutions such as the
National Forest Products Laboratory (Laboratorio

396

Nacional de Productos Forestales) and the BotanicalInstitute Foundation of Venezuela (Fundación
Instituto Botánico de Venezuela). The university in
Merida, Universidad de los Andes, is the main bodyfor high-level forest education in the country.
To monitor forest management and trade in forest
products, the MPPA has a functional national
forest information statistical system (Sistema
Nacional de Información Estadística Forestal),initiated with the support of ITTO, and an
information system for forest inventory (Sistema
de Información Nacional del Inventario Forestal),
which allows the management of forest growthdata and the monitoring of forest carbon. The firstcomprehensive national forest inventory is underpreparation and results are expected in 2012.
Decentralization was proposed in the Law ofDecentralization (1989) and reinforced byprinciples embodied in the 1999 Constitution.
However, natural resource management and, inparticular, forest management remain under thecontrol of the centrally organized Forest Service– with the exception of urban forestry, which ismanaged directly by the municipalities (ITTO2006).

Status of forest management
Forest for production
In mid 2010, the total area managed underintegrated forest management plans for goods andservices was 4.38 million hectares, comprising
three forest reserves – Imataca, Guarapiche andTicoporo.a Timber harvesting in natural forests
is done on a relatively small scale in Venezuela.
Under the new national forest policy, the integrated
co-management of forests in collaboration withlocal populations will involve multiple land
uses and the production of timber, NTFPs
and ecosystem services. Model forest and land
management plans have been prepared to fully
integrate various interests in the management offorest reserves in Ticoporo (187 000 hectares, plan
approved in 2008) and Caparo (174 000 hectares,
plan currently at the approval stage); both reserves
are located in the llanos. Only small parts of thesereserves are dedicated to timber production and amultiple-use management approach is employed.
SFM for timber production is being tested overabout 3% of the 3.8 million hectares of the Imataca
Forest Reserve in the Guayana region.a

VENEZUELA

Two kinds of permit for timber production areavailable: forest concessions, granted for areasof more than 5000 hectares; and annual logging
permits, for areas smaller than 5000 hectares. Forest
concessions are granted for 20–40 years in forest
reserves and forest lots, the latter established by the
MPPA (ITTO 2006). The forest concession policy
lacks clarity. Concessions are officially granted at
public auction, but information about the process is
not available publicly and the criteria for awarding
concessions are not transparent.b Concessionaires
often struggle to comply with the forest law, butthere is no public information on how and to what
extent they fail to comply (ITTO 2006).
Because nearly all forest reserves north of the
Orinoco River are deforested, all forest concessions
are now south of the Orinoco in the Guayana
region. In mid 2003, 14 forest concessions wereoperating in forest reserves and in forest lots overa total of 1.21 million hectares (ITTO 2006). No
newer information was available for this report.b In
June 2010, through Governmental Decree 7.457,
the Social Forest Enterprise (Empresa Socialista
Forestal S.A.) was created under the MPPA toreform forest concession management.
All concessionaires are Venezuelan nationals.
Concession management is based on detailed
forest management plans (planes de ordenación ymanejo forestal – POMFs) that include inventories
of commercial timber species. High-grading, inwhich only the most valuable species are extracted, iscommonplace (ITTO 2006). By law, all concessions
must be managed by professional forest engineers
and trained foresters. Harvesting in concessions iscarried out on the basis of an annual cutting plan
approved by the MPPA. Concessionaires are required
to establish line enrichment planting after harvestingat a distance between strips of 30–50 m. Annual
logging permits require a simplified management
plan prepared by a forest engineer (ibid.).

Silviculture and species selection. The minimum
cutting diameter for native species was reassessed
through Government Resolution 30 of June 2009.
At least 40 species are harvested from naturalforests.a Commonly harvested species are shown in
Table 4; others include Copaifera officinalis (aceite),
Tabebuia rosea (apamate), Hymenaea courbaril(algarrobo), Catostemma commune (baramán),Sterculia apetala (camoruco), Carapa guianensis(carapa), Simarouba amara (cedro blanco), Ceiba
pentandra (ceiba), Brosimum alicastrum (charo),
Pterocarpus officinalis (drago), Hura crepitans(jabillo), Qualea dinizii (guarapo), Spondias mombin(jobo), Nectandra spp (laurel), Anacardium excelsum(mijao), Mora excelsa (mora), Erisma uncinatum(moreillo), Piptadenia spp (palo blanco), Cordia
alliodora (pardillo), Manilkara bidentata (purguo),
Tabebuia serratifolia (puy), Peltogyne pubescens(zapatero) and Pithecellobium saman (samán).a
Under Government Resolution 217 (2006) the
following species are completely protected and may
not be harvested: Tabebuia espectabilis (acapro),
Swietenia macrophylla (caoba), Cedrela odorata(cedro), Anacardium excelsum (mijao), Cordia
thaisiana (pardillo negro) and Bombacosis quinata(saqui saqui).a Under Government Resolution 35(2008), the harvesting of samán, the main species
remaining in the scattered forests north of the
Orinoco region, is prohibited in the states of Apure,
Aragua, Barinas, Portuguesa and Zulia.a
Planted forest and trees outside the forest.
There has been a tradition of official and private
plantations in Venezuela for nearly 60 years.
Venezuela had an estimated 727 000 hectares ofplantations in 1998 (of which 115 000 hectares
were private; ITTO 2006). The MPPA reported anincrease of planted forest between 2002 and 2007of 118 000 hectares (20 000 hectares by privatecompanies), which would bring the planted-forest
area to about 845 000 hectares. The majority ofthe plantations are for industrial purposes. The

Table 4 Commonly harvested species for industrial roundwood
Species

Notes

Pinus caribaea (pino caribe)*
Eucalyptus spp
Pithecellobium saman (samán)*Erisma uncinatum (moreillo)*
Manilkara bidentata (purguo)

From plantations – about 79% of the total harvest in 2004–08.
From plantations – about 10% of the total harvest in 2004–08.
From open forests – about 45 000 m3 per year.
From the Guayana region – about 30 000 m3 per year.
From the Guayana region – about 6000 m3 per year.

*
Also listed in ITTO (2006).
Source: Government of Venezuela (2010).

397

Status of tropical forest management 2011

Timber production and trade. Nearly the entire
volume of timber production serves the domestic
market. ITTO (2011) estimated a total industrial
roundwood production in 2009 of 2.35 million m3(1.71 million m3 of which was softwood, mainly
Pinus caribaeaa), up from 1.44 million m3 in 2005.
An estimated 93% of roundwood is cut outside
forest reserves and forest lots.a

most important species is Pinus caribaea (pinocaribe), which provides more than two-thirds ofthe country’s total roundwood production. Other
planted species include Eucalyptus spp, Gmelina
arborea, Leucaena leucocephala, Fraxinus americana,Cupressus lusitanica, Tabebuia rosea, cedro, caoba
and Tectona grandis.a
A new reforestation plan (Plan Socialista de
Plantaciones Forestales) was approved in early 2010
with the aim of establishing 2 million hectares ofadditional planted forests in the next 20 years.a A
plantation program using Acacia mangium has beenlaunched in the south of Apure state with the aimof planting 300 000 hectares of new forests there.a

A considerable portion of total industrial
roundwood production is used for pulp and paper.
A large part of the remainder is used for sawnwood:for example, an estimated 950 000 m3 of sawnwood
was produced in 2009 (ITTO 2011). Exports ofprimary timber products are negligible, but thevalue of primary wood product imports has grown
to over US$59 million per year, mostly comprising
sawnwood and plywood (ibid.). Hardwood
from Roraima state in the Brazilian Amazon isincreasingly important because of a new andwell-maintained road system (ITTO 2006).

Forest certification. As of October 2010,
Venezuela had one certified planted forest of Pinus
caribaea covering an area of 139 650 hectares.
Natural-forest certification has not generated
interest among producers in Venezuela because theentire production is used to satisfy the domestic
market, which is not yet demanding certified
timber.

Non-timber forest products. Between 30 and 50
NTFPs are important and used at the local, regionaland national levels. Among them are various palm
products for food, construction, medicine andhandicrafts, including the fruits of Bactris gasipaes(pejibaye), Dipteryx odorata (sarrapia), Mauritia
flexuosa (moriche palm) and Bactris gasipaes(pijiguao). The latter two are important foodsources for Indigenous communities in the Orinocodelta and the Amazon.a Cooking oil is extracted
from the Acrocomia aculeata palm (corozo).
Palm heart (palmito) from Euterpe oleracea is an
important export product; it is now increasingly
planted and integrated into multiple-use forest
management plans. Other products are various
nuts, including Brazil nut and merey (Anacardium
occidentale), pepper, cinnamon, bamboo, nutmeg,
aniseed, cumin, ginger, cucumber and resins,
many sold in the national market. A food additive

Estimate of the area of forest sustainably
managed for production. According to one
government estimate, 77% of the volume of timber
harvested – 40% from areas under POMFs and
37% from plantations of Pinus caribaea – wasderived from sustainably managed sources andtherefore met the ITTO Year 2000 Objective(ITTO 2006). The estimate of sustainably managed
natural-forest PFE given in Table 5 is moreconservative and corresponds to timber concessions
that have been managed according to forest
management plans for more than 25 years. An
estimated area of about 510 000 hectares of naturalforests is currently managed under rigid silviculturalprovisions by eight enterprises in forest reserves andforest lots.a

Table 5 Management of the production PFE (’000 hectares)
Reporting
year

Total

Available for
harvesting

2005*
2010

13 00012 9203120
4379*****

398

NaturalWithmanagement
plans
1480
4379**

CertifiedSustainably
managed

0
0

480

863

PlantedWith
management
plans
727

510

845

845

Total

Certified140
140

As reported in ITTO (2006).
Government of Venezuela (2010). Includes the production forest area of the Imataca Forest Reserve (about 1.37 million hectares).

VENEZUELA

extracted from Bixa orellana (onoto o achote) is also
widely used.a Heteropsis spruceana (mamure), a local
liana, has been used as a raw material for furniture
but is now threatened by over-use (ITTO 2006).
Forest carbon. Deforestation is a significant factor
in Venezuela’s carbon budget, accounting for morethan 40% of national GHG emissions (UNFCCC
undated). Human interference has affected large
areas of forest; many forests have been cleared for
agricultural and pasture development and otherprojects. Gibbs et al. (2007) estimated the biomass
carbon stock in a broad range of 2326–9202 MtC
and FAO (2010) did not provide an estimate. An
industrial plantation (Uverito) and a managed
protected area (Ticoporo Reserve) have been used
as case studies of carbon emissions reduction andsequestration. The Uverito plantation achieved a
net carbon storage of 6.2 MtC in 100 000 hectaresof new plantations at a net cost of US$17/tC(UNFCCC undated). The Ticoporo Reserve stored
an estimated 75 tonnes of carbon per hectare, or
7.5 MtC for 100 000 hectares of natural forest
management. The costs for this latter type of
project were estimated at about US$700 per
hectare, including the opportunity cost of land.
Thus, the cost for carbon storage was an estimated
US$9 per tonne of carbon (ibid.).
The Bolivarian Alliance of the Peoples of Our
America, of which the Government of Venezuela
is a member, made a submission to the Conferenceof the Parties to the UNFCCC in 2010 in which
it proposed that polluting countries directlytransfer financial and technological resources topay for the restoration and conservation of forestsand jungles, in favour of Indigenous peoples andancestral social structures. While Venezuela is anactive participant in climate-change negotiations,
it does not participate in any of the major ongoinginternational REDD+ initiatives (Table 6).

Forest for protection
Soil and water. A significant area of forest is set
aside for the protection of soil and water within
ABRAEs. These forests are classified under‘normative protection’ (protección normada) andinclude:•Soil and watershed protection forests (zonas
protectoras) – 7.9 million hectares.

•

Watershed reserves (reservas hidráulicas) –1.7 million hectares.

•

Reserves for dams and reservoirs (zonas dereserva para construcción de presas y embalses) –7800 hectares.

•

Protected areas for public infrastructure (áreas deprotección de obras públicas) – 133 400 hectares.

•

Critical areas for restoration (áreas críticas con
prioridad de tratamiento) – 4.5 million hectares.

•

Environmental rehabilitation and protection
areas (áreas de protección y recuperación
ambiental) – 2350 hectares.a

Fourteen ABRAEs serve primarily watershed
protection functions and extend over about 1.74
million hectares.a Large tracts of forests in the
Guayana region help to regulate the flow of water
into the Guri Dam, which provides 70% of thenation’s electricity. The most extensive protectedareas are in the Andean mountain belt, where
forests are important in watershed protection.
Biological diversity. The country harbours asignificant portion of the world’s biodiversity,
ranking in the top 20 countries in the number ofendemic plants, birds, amphibians and reptiles(ITTO 2006). More than 8000 plant species
have been recognized as endemic, as have some
122 amphibians, 66 reptiles, 40 birds and 15
mammals. Twenty-six mammals, 22 birds, two
reptiles, 65 amphibians, four arthropods andTable 6 Forest carbon potential
Biomass
forestcarbon(MtC)% forestwithcanopycover >60%

Deforestation/
degradation
potential to2030

2326–9202

55+++

Enhancement Forest areachangeof carbon
sink capacity monitoring
capacity
to 2030++++

Forest/GHG
inventory
capacity++

Importance Engagementinof forest
international
fire/
REDD+
biomass
processes
burning+++-+++ high; ++ medium; + low; estimate of national forest carbon based on Gibbs et al. (2007); estimate of % total forest with canopy cover>60% based on UNEP-WCMC (2010).

399

Status of tropical forest management 2011

three plants found in forests are listed as criticallyendangered, endangered or vulnerable on the
IUCN red list of threatened species (IUCN 2011).
Four plants are listed in CITES Appendix I, 163,
including Swietenia macrophylla and S. humilis,
in Appendix II, and two in Appendix III (UNEPWCMC 2011). Several timber species have special
protection status under national law, including
Podocarpus rospigliosii, Pterocarpus spp, Spondias spp,
Tabebuia espectabilis, Cedrela odorata, Anacardium
excelsum, Cordia thaisiana and Pithecellobium
saman.aProtective measures in production forests. The
Law on Forests and Forest Management requiresthat 10% of the managed production forest be
protected as a preservation zone, with emphasis on
areas along watercourses and swamps.a
Extent of protected areas. The estimated total
area contained in reserves compatible with IUCN
categories I–IV is 17.9 million hectaresa, including
94 ABRAEs, as shown in Box 1.
This amounts to nearly 20% of the national
territory, one of the largest proportions of any
country worldwide. As well as forests, protectedareas include montane ecosystems and othernon-forested areas. UNEP-WCMC (2010)
estimated the total area of forests in protected areas
conforming to IUCN protected-area categories I–
IV at 16.5 million hectares. Although the declaredprotected area is huge, only about 15–20% has
land-use and zoning plans. In addition, many
conservation sites are subject to unresolved landclaims by Indigenous groups (ITTO 2006). Someof the protected areas (e.g. the protected areaclassified within the Imataca Forest Reserve innortheastern Venezuela) have been seriously affectedby commercial gold and diamond mining. In 2008
the President of Venezuela ordered a complete
cessation of mining activities in protected areas.a

Estimate of the area of forest sustainably
managed for protection. Of the 265 ABRAEs withprotection status (including 64 protected areasa),
71 have forest management plans (Bevilacqua etal. 2004). Thirty-five per cent of the protectedareas in IUCN protected-area categories I–IV
have management plans or instructions for theiruse (reglamentos de uso) (ibid.). However, manyof these areas exist only on paper. Protected areas
are used for logging and mining – both illegal
and government-sanctioned – and other forms
of development, while some protected areas havebeen designated despite being cleared long ago.
It is difficult to secure the integrity of some ofthese areas, particularly in the llanos and south of
Orinoco, because of mining and other explorative
activities (ibid). For example, it has been reported
that legal and illegal miners and loggers haveencroached the Cainama National Park – famousfor Angel Falls, the world’s tallest waterfall – inrecent years.b Nonetheless, much of the protectedforest estate is intact and faces relatively little
development pressure.a It is estimated that about
10% of the protection PFE with management plans
can be classified as sustainably managed (Table 7).

Socioeconomic aspects
Economic aspects. Forests provide less than 1% ofGDP.a Data on the number of people employed in
the forest sector were unavailable for this report.
Livelihood values. NTFPs are essential for the
livelihoods of Indigenous peoples living in the
Guayana and Amazon regions. Wildlife and fish still
supplement the protein needs of a large part of the
population in the states of Bolivar and Amazonas.
Wildlife also provides raw material for handicrafts
and medicines. Intensified hunting and fishingwith new techniques and in-migration into frontierareas may increase pressure on some animal species

Box 1 Protected areas, Venezuela
ABRAE
National parks (parques nacionales)
Natural monuments (monumentos naturales)
Wildlife refuges (refugios de vida silvestre)
Wildlife sanctuaries (santuario de fauna silvestre)
Wildlife reserves (reservas de fauna silvestre)
Total
Source: Government of Venezuela (2010).

400

NumberArea (’000 ha)% of land area

43
36
7
1
7
94

13 100
4280
251
0.072
293
17 900

14.3
4.7
0.3
0
0.3
19.5

VENEZUELATable 7 Management of the protection PFE (’000 hectares)

*
**
‡
†

Reportingyear

Protection PFE

Attributed to IUCN
categories I–IV

Allocated for soil
and waterWith management
plans

Sustainably
managed

2005*
2010

20 60019 64020 60016 500**

1740
1740‡

7210
7250†

725

As reported in ITTO (2006).
UNEP-WCMC (2010).
Including reservas hidráulicas, zonas de reserva para construcción de presas y embalses and áreas de protección de obras
públicas.
Including the protected area in the new management plan of Caparo.

(ITTO 2006). Some 20 000 Warao Indians in the
Orinoco delta have a semi-nomadic lifestyle anddepend heavily on mangroves for fishing (Spalding
et al. 2010).
Social relations. Significant populations of
Indigenous people live in three forest reserves– Sipapo (1.2 million hectares) in Amazonas;
Imataca (3.7 million hectares) in Amacuro Delta
and Bolívar; and El Caura (5.1 million hectares)in Bolívar. The two main economic activities inthese reserves are logging and mining for gold anddiamonds, which have brought improved healthand education services to local people and induced
a trend towards settlement (ITTO 2006). They
have also brought non-indigenous settlers (colonos)
into the areas, increasing conflicts with local people
and pressure on existing forest resources, especiallyalong access roads and around settlements. Northof the Orinoco River, particularly in the Provinceof Barinas bordering Colombia, nearly all forest
reserves have been encroached by colonos.

Key points•

Venezuela has an estimated PFE of 33.4 million
hectares (compared with 34.5 hectares in 2005),
comprising 12.9 million hectares of natural
production forest (compared with 13.0 million
hectares in 2005) and 19.6 million hectares ofprotection forest (compared with 20.6 million
hectares in 2005).

•

Venezuela has the second-largest extent ofplanted forests in tropical America, with aplantation estate of 845 000 hectares. The
government has ambitious plans to continue
increasing the estate.

•

An estimated 510 000 hectares of the
production PFE and 725 000 hectares ofprotection PFE are under SFM. No naturalforest is certified.

•

The forests north of the Orinoco River (llanos)
are heavily degraded and encroached. South of
the Orinoco River are extensive and timber-richforest resources with good potential for SFM,
although this area is under increased pressure,with new roads and planned conversion toagriculture.

•

A national forest inventory is currently being
conducted and a forest database is underestablishment, which will help improve themonitoring of forest resources and theimplementation of SFM.

•

The Ministry in charge of forests and the Forest
Service have proposed revisions to the main
forest-related laws and are currently formulatinga new forest policy.

•

A national forest enterprise (Empresa Socialista
Forestal) was created in June 2010 that willprobably replace the former forest concession
structure.

Summary
Venezuela possesses considerable untouched forest
resources in its two largest states of Bolivar andAmazonas. Relatively modest logging concessions
and cutting permits have been granted over the past
40 years. Instead of increasing the harvest of naturalforests, a well-developed plantation sector is the mostimportant source of industrial timber in the country.
Over the past few years, the government has mademany political and institutional changes to the forest
sector, maintaining strong environmental provisions
and increasing legislative provisions for the inclusionof local communities in forest management. SFM has
not yet been fully achieved, however. The enforcementof forest regulations still requires strengthening andillegal logging, hunting and encroachment (e.g.
mining) are reportedly widespread. Nevertheless, abasis has been laid for the development of SFM andeffective forest conservation.

401

Status of tropical forest management 2011

EndnotesaGovernment of Venezuela (2010).

b

Information derived from the report of, and discussions
with participants at, a training workshop on ITTO criteria
and indicators, held 30 August–4 September 2004, Cuidad
Bolivar, Venezuela, attended by 47 people from government,
civil society and the private sector, updated through email
exchanges in 2010.

References and other sources
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& Lares, E. (2004). Las Areas Protegidas en Venezuela:
Diagnóstico de su Condición para el Período 1993-2003.
ACOANA, IUCN Venezuela, Fundación Polar andConservation International, Caracas, Venezuela.
FAO (2010). Global forest resources assessment 2010
country report: Venezuela (available at http://www.fao.
org/forestry/fra/67090/en/).
FSC (2010, website accessed December 2010). FSC certification
database (searchable database available at http://info.fsc.org/
PublicCertificateSearch).

Gibbs, H., Brown, S., Niles, J. & Foley, J. (2007).
Monitoring and estimating tropical forest carbon
stocks: making REDD a reality. Environmental Research
Letters 2 (available at http://iopscience.iop.org/17489326/2/4/045023/fulltext).
Government of Venezuela (2010). Informe sobre el estado
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Ministerio del Poder Popular pare el Ambiente,
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ITTO (2006). Status of Tropical Forest Management 2005.
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int/en/sfm/).

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Spalding, M., Kainumu, M. & Collins, L. (2010). World
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