STATUS OF TROPICAL FOREST MANAGEMENT 2011

BRAZILand epiphytes. In the open humid forests the trees
are more widely spaced and palm creepers andbamboos are more common.

Forest resources
Brazil has a land area of 846 million hectares andan estimated population in 2010 of 195 million
people (United Nations Population Division 2010);
the country is ranked 75th out of 182 countries
in UNDP’s Human Development Index (UNDP2009). Ninety-three per cent of the country is
below 800 m in altitude. The highest peaks, atabout 2500 m, are found on the northern borderwith Venezuela and in the southeast on the Atlantic
coast. The vast Amazon Basin contains the world’s
largest area of tropical rainforest; the majority of it
is Brazilian territory. FAO (2010a) and Governmentof Brazil (2010) both estimated Brazil’s total forest
cover in 2010 at 519 million hectares, including
both tropical and non-tropical natural and planted
forests; an estimated 354 million hectares of thetotal was in the Amazon.a
Forest types. Brazilian forests can be classified
broadly as Amazon rainforest, Atlantic rainforest(Mata Atlântica) (28.8 million hectares), central
cerrado savanna (70 million hectares), arid caatinga(46.8 million hectares) and the wetlands of thePantanal (8.55 million hectares; Government ofBrazil 2010).
The two main forest types in the Amazon are dense
and open ombrophilous (humid) forests. The
dense humid forests are characterized by large andmedium-sized trees (with canopy up to 50 m andemergent trees up to 40 m) and abundant lianas274

The predominant vegetation in the cerrado issavanna (forested, arborized and steppe). Savanna
formations also predominate in the Pantanalbiome, which also contains savanna as well as small
areas of semi-deciduous and deciduous forest.
The caatinga comprises predominantly steppesavanna, interrupted by clusters of deciduous andsemideciduous forest and savanna. To the north,pioneer formations occur, represented by marshes
and swamps on the coast. The Mata Atlântica
biome consists of humid (dense, open and mixed)
and seasonal (deciduous and semi-deciduous)
forests. Pioneer formations occur, represented bymarshes and swamps along the coast, and savanna
occurs in small areas in the northeast near thecoast.aBrazil has more mangrove forests than any
country other than Indonesia, with about 1.3
million hectares, which is 8.5% of all mangroves.
Mangroves occur on the northern coastline,
intermittently in estuaries and coastal lagoons in
the northeast, and south beyond the Tropic of
Capricorn (Spalding et al. 2010).
Permanent forest estate. Brazil’s tropical-forest
PFE may be considered to comprise 117 million
hectares of federal and state conservation units(Sistema Nacional de Unidades de Conservaçãoda Natureza – SNUC – and Sistema Estados
Unidades de Conservação da Natureza, respectively),
106 million hectares of Indigenous lands, 50.2
million hectares of legal reserves and permanent
preservation areas on rural properties, and 36.1
million hectares of ‘other public forest’ protectedby law.1 This area includes the Amazon, caatinga,cerrado and Mata Atlântica biomes and may include
some non-forest and some non-tropical forest.
Box 1 shows the areas in each specific conservation
unit category.
1 Federal and state conservation units and Indigenous lands include
forest and other kinds of vegetation. For some categories the area may
be under-estimated because of a lack of data on land under state
responsibility (e.g. federal conservation units). ‘Other public forests
protected by law’ refers to public forests listed in the National Registerof Public Forests. They are not yet assigned to any function; however,according to Law 11 284/2006, public forest should be maintained asforests indefinitely.

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Table 1 Permanent forest estate
Reportingyear

Estimatedtotal forest
area, range(million ha)

Total closed
natural forest(’000 ha)

2005*
2010

444–515519

489 515264 700

PFE (’000 hectares)
Production
Protection
NaturalPlantedTotal

98 100
135 000

372 910316 650

3810
6650**

217 000
175 000***

As reported in ITTO (2006).
Being mostly privately owned and not required by law to be maintained as forest, strictly speaking this area is not part of the PFE
but is included here to minimize confusion. Includes some non-tropical planted forest..
Source: Government of Brazil (2010) , CNUC (2011), and personal communications – see endnote b.

The SNUC, which was established by Law
9985/00, is divided into two groups:•

35% of rural properties located in savanna areasin the Legal Amazon.

••

20% of rural properties located in forest orother vegetation in other (i.e. non-Legal
Amazon) regions.

•

20% of rural properties in native grasslands inany region.

•

Units of integral protection, whose purpose is topreserve nature – use does not involve theconsumption, collection, damage or destructionof natural resources. Categories in this group are
ecological stations, biological reserves, nationalparks, national monuments and wildlife refuges.
Sustainable use units, which aim to reconcile
nature conservation with sustainable use,
involving the collection and use, commercial orotherwise, of a portion of a unit’s natural
resources. Categories in this group include
national (and state) forests (florestas nacionais –FLONAs), extractive reserves and sustainable
development reserves.

There are 69.4 million hectares of units of integral
protection, 25.5 million hectares of FLONAs, 10.2
million hectares of sustainable development reserves
and 12.3 million hectares of extractive reserves inthe tropical PFE (J. Lorensi do Canto, pers. comm.,
2011; CNUC 2011).2 The estimate of protection
PFE in Table 1 comprises the total area of forest in‘units of integral protection’ plus the total area of
Indigenous lands.
Under the Brazilian Forest Code (Law 4771/65),
the following percentages (at least) of private
land must be maintained under native vegetation(called ‘legal reserves’), in addition to permanent
protection areas (areas to be preserved along rivers,
hills and others):•

80% of rural properties located in forest areas in
the Legal Amazon.3

2 Data are for both federal and state lands.
3 The Legal Amazon was set by law for economic planning reasons. It
comprises the states of northern Brazil (Acre, Amazonas, Amapá, Pará,Rondônia, Roraima and Tocantins), part of the states of Mato Grossoand Maranhão, and a small portion of the state of Goiás. It covers an
area of more than five million km2, which is about 61% of the Brazilian
territory.

Legal reserves are forest areas that may be harvested
for timber and other products on the basis ofsustainable forest management plans (planos demanejo florestal sustentável – PMFSs – see below).
The extent to which these restrictions are adhered
to is unclear.
The total PFE reported here is considerably lessthan that reported for 2005, most likely due todifferences in definition of what constitutes PFE
rather than to a significant change in legal status
or forest area. The Government of Brazil did not
make an official submission for the 2005 survey;
therefore, the data presented here for 2010 are likely
to be more accurate than those given in ITTO
(2006).

Forest ecosystem healthDeforestation and forest degradation. Brazil lostan estimated 2.19 million hectares of forest per
year in the period 2005–10. This is an annual rateof deforestation of 0.42%, which is lower than theestimated annual rate of deforestation in the period
2000–2005 (0.57%) (FAO 2010b). In the period
2005–09 about 1.07 million hectares of forest waslost per year in the Amazona and 929 000 hectares
were lost per year in the cerrado (FAO 2010a).
Brazil has an estimated 477 million hectares ofprimary forests (Table 2).
The Brazilian government’s National Institute forSpace Research (Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas

275

STATUS OF TROPICAL FOREST MANAGEMENT 2011

Box 1 Brazil’s PFE, by tenure type and government jurisdiction

Conservation units
FLONAs/state forests
Extractive reserves
Sustainable development reserves
Units of integral protection

Production PFE

Protection PFE
million ha

Total

16.1
9.40
12.3
0.67
0.64
9.53
48.64

35.8
33.6
69.4
106

16.1
9.40
12.3
0.67
0.64
9.53
35.8
33.6
118.04106
50.2

FederalState
FederalState
FederalState
FederalState

Subtotal
Indigenous lands
Legal reserves and permanent preservation areas onprivate land
Other public land
Total

50.2
36.1
134.94175.4

36.1
310.34Note:
Includes the Amazon, caatinga, cerrado and Mata Atlântica biomes; may include some non-forest and some non-tropical forest.
Source: CNUC (2011) and personal communications – seen endnote b.

Espaciais) monitors forest cover in the Amazon bysatellite using four operating systems: PRODES,DETER, DEGRAD and DETEX. These systems
are complementary and are designed to meetdifferent goals. PRODES (Program for the
Calculation of Deforestation in the Amazon –Monitoramento da Floresta Amazônica Brasileira
por Satélite) has measured the annual rate ofclearcutting since 1988. Using Landsat satellite
images, it can account for deforestation that takes
place on areas greater than 6.25 hectares. DEGRAD(System for Mapping Forest Degradation –Sistemade Mapeamento de Degradação Florestal), which
was developed in 2007, uses images from theLandsat and CBERS (China–Brazil Earth Resources
Satellite) satellites to map areas in the process ofdeforestation where forest cover is not completely
removed and therefore not counted by PRODES.
DETER (System of Deforestation Detection in
Real Time – Detecção de Desmatamento em Tempo
Real) uses MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging
Spectroradiometer) and CBERS satellite data to
publish, on a monthly basis, maps of areas greaterthan 25 hectares which have either been completely
deforested or are in the process of deforestation.
DETEX (Detection of Selective Logging Activities),
developed with the support of the Brazilian Forest
Service (Serviço Florestal Brasileiro), generates
information for monitoring management plans

276

in forest concessions (created by Law 11 284/06)
and in public forests in general. Using images fromLandsat and CBERS, multi-temporal DETEX
studies have been conducted in national forests andforest concessions, especially in the vicinity of the
BR-163 and BR-319 roads to identify instances of
exploratory timber activity. All public forests in the
Amazon have been monitored by this system since2008.
An estimated 244 000 hectares of FLONAs wereaffected by fires in 2008, and a similar area wasburned in 2007.a
Vulnerability of forests to climate change. Brazil
is vulnerable to climate change, not least becauseof its fragile, biologically diverse ecosystems (Lèbre
La Rovere & Pereira 2007). The Amazon forests
and Pantanal wetlands are of particular concern.
A number of studies suggest a drying trend inAmazon forests, such as an increased frequency ofyears with reduced precipitation, as was particularly
the case in 1997, 1998, 2005 and 2010 (Perez2011). Such dry years make spontaneous fires more
frequent. These droughts have started to change
the general view that Amazon forests can resist fire
because of the moisture stored beneath the densetree canopy. It has been suggested that extreme
droughts could breach the flammability thresholdof Amazon forests, triggering a feedback loop that
leads to increasingly frequent wildfires (ibid.) andBR AZIL

Table 2 Forest condition*
PFE

Non-PFE

Total’000 haArea of primary forest
Area of degraded primary forest
Area of secondary forest
Area of degraded forest land--

477 000
36 500**-*All forests.
**‘Other naturally regenerated forest’.
Source: FAO (2010a).

affecting vast areas of previously unburnt Amazon
forests. Changing rainfall patterns, especially in the
drought-affected northeast region of the country,
could reduce the quality and quantity of water
resources available for agriculture. The hydrologicalservices of Amazon forests require further study tofacilitate adaptation. The monitoring of climate
variability and its effects on the Amazon forests
is also important because of the crucial role thatthose forests play as the world’s largest storage ofterrestrial carbon.

SFM policy framework
Forest tenure. Even though much production
forest is privately owned, under the 1988 Federal
Constitution (Article 225) forests are considered
to be a common asset for all inhabitants, andownership and tenure disputes are a major problem.
Private owners are only able to exercise their rights
within the limits imposed by the 1965 Forest
Code, which regulates the harvesting of timberresources. There are legal stipulations to set aside‘legal reserves’ and ‘permanent preservation areas’ inprivate forest areas (Article 2). More than one-thirdof the tropical PFE is owned by Indigenous
communities (Table 3).
Extractive reserves are state-owned areas in which
use rights are granted to traditional extractive
populations whose subsistence is based on theharvesting of naturally growing products such aslatex, nuts, fruits and oils as well as on agriculture
and animal-raising. The purpose of extractive
reserves is to protect the livelihoods and culturesof those traditional extractive populations and toensure the sustainable use of natural resources in thereserves. There are 62 extractive reserves in Brazil(mostly in the Amazon), comprising a total area of
12.96 million hectares – 12.3 million hectares ofwhich are on federal lands and 667 000 hectares ofwhich are on state lands (Box 2). Although timber
harvesting is generally not permitted, these areas
are counted as part of the production PFE (in total,
12.3 million hectares in the Amazon). All extractive
reserves have a management plan prepared by the
managing agency (the Chico Mendes Institute of
Biodiversity Conservation).
Under the Federal Constitution, Indigenous lands(lands traditionally occupied by Amerindians) aredefined as: “those where they live on a permanent
basis, those used for their productive activities,
those essential to the preservation of environmental
resources necessary for their well-being and for their
physical and cultural reproduction, according totheir habits, customs and traditions”. Amerindians
have the permanent possession and “exclusive useof the riches of the soil, rivers and lakes” existing on
their lands. Nevertheless, such lands constitute theproperty of the state and, as public goods of special

Box 2 Area of federal and state extractive reserves, by biome (ha)BiomeAmazonCerradoCoastalMata Atlântica
Total

Area of federal extractive reserves
11 597 193

Area of state extractive reserves
667 438

107 249-587 6761178
12 293 296

667 438

Source: CNUC (2011).

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STATUS OF TROPICAL FOREST MANAGEMENT 2011

Table 3 Forest area, by tenure*
Ownership category

Total area Of which PFE Notes’000 haState ownership (national, state orprovincial government)-

Other public entities (e.g.
municipalities, villages)
Total public
Owned by local communities and/orIndigenous groups
Privately owned by individuals, firms,
other corporate-

113 000-

113 000
106 000-

54 100Includes federal conservation units, which comprise forest andother kinds of vegetation (and therefore may overestimate PFE
in this category); in some cases the area may be anunderestimate because of a lack of data for forests under state
responsibility. Also includes ‘Other public forests protected bylaw’, which refers to public forests registered in the National
Register of Public Forests. Such forests are not yet assigned toany function; according to Law 11284 (2006), however, publicforest should be maintained as forests indefinitely.

Includes forest and other kinds of vegetation. These forests
remain the property of the state.
Includes ‘legal reserves’ and ‘permanent preservation areas’ onrural properties and forests under PMFSs in the Amazon andcaatinga biomes.

*
Tropical forests only.
Source: Government of Brazil (2010).

use, besides being inalienable and unavailable(can not be disposed of or alienated), they cannot
be the object of use of any kind by anyone otherthan the Amerindians themselves.a Of the 106
million hectares of forest in the Amazon allocatedto Indigenous communities, 1.75 million hectares
have been ‘bounded’, 8.1 million hectares have been‘declared’, 3.6 million hectares have been ‘approved’
and 92.2 million hectares have been ‘regularized’(i.e. full rights have been secured).a
According to FAO (2010a), communities in Brazil
have management rights in 160 million hectares ofpublicly owned forest (including indigenous lands
outside the Amazon region).
In 2009 President Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva
approved Law 11952, which provides for thelegalization of occupied federal land in the Legal
Amazon through the sale and grant of right ofuse of real estate. The aim of the law is to reduce
legal uncertainty, which promotes the illegal
appropriation of land, the intensification of agrarian
conflicts and deforestation. Under the law, certain
unallocated federal land will be transferred tomunicipalities in order to expedite its privatization.
The law establishes size limits for areas to be
privatized, the terms of payment and other legal
and financial aspects.
Under the new law, squatters occupying up to 100
hectares of land will be given title to the land free ofcost. Lots measuring between 100 and 400 hectares

278

will be sold at a ‘symbolic cost’, and holdings of
400–1500 hectares will be sold at market prices.
Larger lots of up to 2500 hectares will be auctioned
to the highest bidder. Anything larger can only besold with congressional approval.4
Criteria and indicators. The Government ofBrazil participates in the Tarapoto C&I processcoordinated by the Amazon Cooperation Treaty
Organization and used the ITTO C&I in its
submission to ITTO for this report.a
Forest policy and legislation. Brazil is a federationof 26 states, a federal district and more than 5500
local governments (municipalities – municípios).
The adoption of a new constitution in 1988
prompted decentralization in the managementof natural resources and the implementation ofdevelopment programs. Considerable politicaland tax power and fiscal revenue shifted from thecentral government to states and municipalities, andprivatization and economic liberalization policies
were also pursued.
Forest-related legislation includes:•

Law 4771 (1965) – Forest Code (as amended).

•

Law 5197 (1967) – Protection of Fauna.

•Law 6938 (1981) – National Environmental
Policy.

4 www.illegal-logging.info/item_single.php?it_id=3493&it=news.

BR AZIL•

Law 9433 (1997) – Water Resources Policy.

•

Law 9605 (1998) – Environmental Crimes.

•

Decree 3179 (1999), which establishes penalties
for forest crimes.

•

Decree 3420 (2000), creating the National
Forest Programme.

•

Decree 4340 (2002), which regulates articles of
Law 4771 and various other laws. It also
provides regulations for the exploitation,
suppression and clear-cutting of forests andsucceeding formations; PMFSs; forest
replanting; and licences to transport forest
by-products.

•

Law 11 284 (2006) (the Public Forest
Management Law), which provides for publicforest management for sustainable production,
creates the Brazilian Forest Service within the
structure of the Brazilian Ministry of theEnvironment, establishes the National Forest
Development Fund (Fundo Nacional de
Desenvolvimento Florestal – FNDF), and makesother provisions.

•

Resolution 378 (2006), which defines
undertakings that may potentially cause
national or regional environmental impact andmakes other provisions; and subjects forest
exploitation to permits issued by the Brazilian
Institute of Environment and Renewable
Resources (Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente
e dos Recursos Naturais Renováveis – IBAMA).

•

Resolution 379 (2006), which creates andregulates the database on forest management at
the National Environmental System (Sistema
Nacional do Meio Ambiente) level.

•

Decree 6063 (2007), which regulates, at thefederal level, provisions of Law 11 284.

•

Resolution 406 (2009), which establishes
technical standards to be adopted in theformulation, presentation, technical evaluationand implementation of PMFSs for logging
purposes in native forests and their succeeding
formations in the Amazon biome.

•

A number of normative instructions relating toforest use.a

The enactment of the Public Forest Management
Law in 2006 was a significant achievement.
Previously, although large areas of forest are locatedon public land in Brazil, there was no regulatory
framework to deal with their management. This
made it difficult for the government to establish
policies that could ensure the maintenance of
those forests as an asset belonging to all Brazilians.
In the case of the Amazon the situation was evenmore worrisome because for decades the advanceof agriculture had led to large losses of forest coverand land-grabbing. In 2004, the federal government
initiated the formulation of a legal framework toallow for the management of public land in a waythat would halt land-grabbing, introduce a forest
concessions system to maintain the capacity of theforests to provide goods and services in perpetuity,and serve as a socioeconomic development
alternative. The 2006 law and subsequent
resolutions, decrees and instructions were the result.
In 2004 the Government of Brazil announced its
Action Plan to Prevent and Control Deforestationin the Amazon involving eleven ministries led by
the President’s Cabinet. The action plan comprises
144 actions under three main strategies: land-tenure
and territory planning; environmental monitoring
and control; and incentives for sustainableproduction. Under the action plan, by 2008
ten million hectares of Indigenous territories, 20
million hectares of protected areas and 3.9 million
hectares of ‘sustainable settlement’ projects had
been created and 66 000 illegal land titles had beencancelled.b
Institutions involved in forests. The Ministryof Environment (Ministério do Meio Ambiente –MMA) is responsible for forestry as well as forplanning, coordinating and controlling activities
related to the national environment policy andpolicies for developing the Amazon. It supervises
the activities of IBAMA and the Brazilian Forest
Service, chairs the National Council for theEnvironment (Conselho Nacional do Meio Ambiente)
and takes part in the President’s Chamber for
Natural Resources Policies, which coordinatesvarious aspects related to forests. Other agencies
with responsibilities related to forest resources
include the National Colonization and Agrarian
Reform Institute (Instituto Nacional de Colonização
e Reforma Agrária), and the Indian National
Foundation (Fundação Nacional do Índio), whichis responsible for the preservation of Amerindianculture. In 1999, a Secretariat for Biodiversity
and Forests was created in MMA. Among otherfunctions, IBAMA, which was established in 1985,

279

STATUS OF TROPICAL FOREST MANAGEMENT 2011

implements and coordinates the National Forest
Program. In some states in the Legal Amazon and
the Northeast Region, state-government institutions
issue forest management permits and conduct state
forest inspections.
The National Forest Commission (Comissão
Nacional de Florestas – CONAFLOR), which
was established by Decree 3420/00, is composedof 39 representatives distributed between thegovernment (20 representatives) and civil society(19 representatives), including federal government
agencies and entities, state environmental agencies,
civil-society groups, forest industry, NGOs andeducational and research institutions. CONAFLOR
provides guidelines for the implementationof procedures in national forests and enables
the participation of various interest groups indeveloping public policies for the forest sector.a
The Public Forest Management Law (2006)
established the Brazilian Forest Service as an agencyof the federal government under the MMA, withresponsibility over public forest management forsustainable production; thus, it is responsible
for concessions (i.e. timber harvesting and theextraction of NTFPs) in FLONAs and otherpublic forests. The Brazilian Forest Service isalso responsible for managing the FNDF and
the National Register of Public Forests (Cadastro
Nacional de Florestas Publicás). The goal of the
National Register is to set up a database of
geo-referenced data for the identification of publicforests in order to provide public managers and the
population in general with a reliable database onforest management.a
The main instruments used by the Brazilian
Forest Service for the sustainable production andmanagement of federal public forests are forest
concessions and allotment to local communities.
A forest concession is a chargeable warrant for
the right to practise SFM for the exploitation of
a forest’s products and services. The allotmentof public forests to local communities is carriedout through the identification of areas occupied
by traditional populations, such as Indigenous
communities, slave-descendant communities(known as quilombolas) and settlements. The
Brazilian Forest Service assists in the identificationof those populations and encourages and promotes
community forest management by providing
technical support and capacity-building.a

280

A draft Bill before the Brazilian Congress would,
if passed, transform the Brazilian Forest Service
into an autonomous institution. As part of theFederal Government administration under the
MMA, the Service currently lacks the necessary
institutional conditions to efficiently carry out thetasks allocated to it under the law, thus hindering,for example, the speed at which concessions areassessed and approved (or otherwise). Currently, theService has 240 employees, of whom only 56 arecareer public servants. As the Service consolidates
itself, increasing institutional demands – such as
the increasing number of concession applications– will require a speedy, dynamic process to build
up and enlarge its workforce. According to aninternal study, an additional 760 new positionsof ‘environment’ career specialists and 62 new
director-level positions will be needed by 2012.a
The Commission on Public Forest Management(Comissão de Gestão de Florestas Públicas –CGFLOP) is an advisory body of the Brazilian
Forest Service which aims to advise, evaluate
and propose guidelines for the management ofpublic forests in Brazil, especially regarding theAnnual Forest Concessions Plan (Plano Anualde Outorga Florestal). The CGFLOP, which wasestablished by Law 11 284/06 and regulated by
Decree 5795/06, is composed of 24 representatives
appointed by the holders of the respective agencies,groups, organizations and sectors involved in theprocess and designated by the Minister of State for
the Environment. The Commission meets at least
twice a year or as requested by its chairman or atleast one-third of its members.
Average total annual direct investment by thefederal government in forest management,
administration, research and human resource
development in the period 2005–09 was about
141 million reais (R$), including R$56.1 million
through the MMA, R$9.72 million throughthe Brazilian Forest Service and R$25.8 million
through IBAMA. Some R$26.1 million was
allocated to the Chico Mendes Institute of
Biodiversity Conservationa, which is responsible forthe management of all federal conservation units.
The aim of the FNDF is to foster the developmentof forest-based sustainable activities in Brazil andpromote technological innovation in the sector. Its
main source of funds is revenue generated by forest
concessions in compliance with the percentages

BR AZIL

outlined in the Public Forest Management
Law (2006). Moreover, the FNDF may receive
donations from national and international public
and private entities.
It was estimated that R$2.2 million would beallocated in 2010 for measures to bolster forest
management. Based on estimated future revenue
from forest concessions, the FNDF will have an
allocation of R$4 million in 2012 and R$29 million
in 2015.
FNDF resources are to be allocated primarily to
projects in the following areas:

and Sustainable Use of Forest’ program, the aim ofwhich is to support the reforestation, conservationand forest recovery of degraded or converted areas
and the sustainable use of native areas through
SFM.
The Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation(Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária –EMBRAPA) spent an average R$2.37 million onforest-related research per year in 2005–09. In thesame period the total annual research expenditureby the Ministry of Science and Technology, throughsuch institutions as the National Institute of
Amazonian Research (Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas
da Amazonia), based in Manaus, the Mamirauá
Institute of Sustainable Development and the
Emílio Goeldi Museum, was R$21.3 million.a•technological research and development inforest management•

technical assistance and forest extension•

recovery of degraded areas with native species•

rational and sustainable economic use of forest
resources•

control and monitoring of forest activities anddeforestation•

capacity-building in forest management•

environmental education

Universities, large forestry enterprises, and NGOs
such as the Amazon Institute of People and theEnvironment (Instituto do Homem e Meio Ambiente
da Amazônia) also engage in forestry research.
University education in forestry started in 1960;
currently, 51 universities offer teaching and researchin forest management.a There are about 7000 forest
engineers working in Brazil, 1600 with master’s
degrees and 300 with PhDs.

•

environmental protection and natural resources
conservation.a

Status of forest management

The Amazon Fund, which was established in 2008
by Decree No 6527, aims to attract donations
for non-refundable investments in deforestation
prevention, monitoring and combat, and also
to promote the conservation and sustainable useof forests in the Amazon biome. Specifically it isdesigned to support projects in the following areas:

Forest for production•

public forests and protected areas management•

environmental control, monitoring andenforcement•

SFM

By law the use of natural forest resources on bothprivate and public land requires the presentation ofa PMFS to IBAMA and its approval by that bodyand/or the relevant state environment agency.

•

economic activities developed as a result of
forest sustainable use•

ecological–economic zoning, land-use planningand land regulation•

biodiversity conservation and sustainable use•

recovery of degraded areas.

In 2010 the Brazilian Development Bank
established the ‘Support to Reforestation, Recovery

The forest management system adopted for
Amazonian dense tropical rainforest is a polycyclic
system involving the selective logging of commercial
forest species in cutting cycles of 25–35 years.
FMUs are usually divided into annual production
units according to the cutting cycle adopted.

Since 2006 forest management (i.e. timber
harvesting) has been permitted in Brazil’s publicforests through forest concession contracts thatcan span up to 40 years. Concessions are granted
through a transparent tendering and/or bidding
process for the production of timber and/or
non-timber products or services. Each year theBrazilian Forest Service prepares an Annual Forest
Concessions Plan, which is a major instrument ofpolicy planning for forest concessions in publicforests. A national policy to support community

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STATUS OF TROPICAL FOREST MANAGEMENT 2011

forest management has also been implemented(Decree 6874/2009) with the aim of encouraging
and organizing the country’s forest management
activities, and it also establishes minimum prices for
NTFPs.
MMA Normative Instruction 5 (2006) introduced
important changes to the parameters of forest
management on both public and private land. The
main features were:•

The maximum allowable harvest is 30 m3 perhectare when harvesting is mechanized and10 m3 per hectare when the operation does notuse heavy machinery, with harvesting cycles of
35 years and ten years, respectively.

•

For those forest species whose minimum cutting
diameter had not previously been determined,
the minimum cutting diameter is set at 50 cm.

•

At least 10% of each exploited tree species
which could be harvested are to be left standing
as seed bearers, selected in each 100-hectare
working unit.

•

A tracking system (chain of custody) is requiredfor harvested trees.

•

The use of waste wood is allowed.

Since September 2006, forest producttransportation has been controlled through anational information system, IBAMA’s Forest
Origin Document system. Under it, forest products
are tracked from their harvest to the final stage ofmarketing. The entire supply and transportation
chain must be updated online in real time. The
system has significantly improved the control ofillegal logging in Brazil.a
A forest planning process called Modeflora(Digital Model of Forest Exploitation), hailed as atechnological breakthrough in forest management,
has been tested successfully by EMBRAPA
researchers. It consists of the georeferencing andgeomonitoring of all phases of forest management,from the preparation of a forest management plan
to its implementation, combining the use of forest
inventory techniques, operational research and arange of technologies such as global positioning
systems (GPS), GIS, radar and satellite images(Figure 1). Modeflora enables a reduction of at least
30% in the cost of preparing and implementing
forest management plans. It also reduces field error
and increases the accuracy of tree-tracking and282

micro-zoning by enabling the production of maps
at a scale of 1:15.a
In public forests under forest concession, theBrazilian Forest Service subsidizes the price ofwood for those concessionaires who promote valueadding near the forest concession, the installationof permanent plots, and biodiversity monitoring.
Nevertheless, despite the existence of pilot projects
in SFM and technical standards for the adoption ofbest forest management practices in the Amazon,
the level of adoption of these practices is still
incipient.a
Control and law enforcement in the Amazon are
extremely difficult because of the vastness of thearea, poor infrastructure, a lack of capacity and thelarge number of actors contributing to deforestationand illegal logging. Other problems facing forestryin Brazil are the remoteness of many forestsfrom centres of commerce and control; the weakeconomic competitiveness of SFM as a land use;
the lack of competitiveness of the tropical timberindustry, for various reasons; extensive degraded
forests; lack of full-cost pricing and the abundantavailability of low-cost timber; and a serious
shortage of management skills (ITTO 2006).
The scarcity of information on forest management
for business people and a lack of technical capacity
are other barriers to the widespread adoptionof SFM. Most employers still do not know themeaning of SFM and are unaware of the potential
financial benefits of good forest management. The
technologies adopted by these timber companies
generally correspond to the practices used for
decades in conventional exploitation.a
The enlargement of the agricultural frontier, whichcauses deforestation and is associated with illegal
wood supply, continues to be a limiting factor
to the promotion of forest management in the
Amazon.aBox 3 shows the planning process before thecommencement of logging in the Amazon.
Silviculture and species selection. The main
silvicultural process proposed for the Brazilian
Amazon is as follows:•

E minus 2 years (where E = forest harvesting
event) – delimitation and subdivision of theannual production unit (external delimitationand internal subdivision to facilitate themapping of trees).

BR AZIL•

E minus 1 year – forest inventory at 100% (i.e.
the measurement of all commercial trees withdbh ≥ 40 cm).

•

E minus 1 year – liana cutting (for commercial
species above the minimum cutting diameter).

•E minus 1 year – installation and measurementof permanent plots.

•

E minus 1 year – exploration planning (primaryand secondary roads; pre-selection of trees basedon inventory; preparation of map of annual
production unit).

•

E minus 1 year – opening of roads, sidings andmarshalling yards (forest roads, bridges,
drainage system, and 25x25 m marshallingyards).

•

E – forest harvesting (reduced impact).

•

E plus 1 year – assessment of damage caused byharvesting (evaluation of remaining trees, skid
trails and cutting quality).

•

E plus 1 year, E plus 3 years, and henceforth
every five years – re-measurement of permanentplots.

•

E plus 4 years – silvicultural treatments (e.g.
girdling of non-commercial trees to make room
for commercially promising trees).

As reported above, the maximum allowable harvest
is 30 m3 per hectare when harvesting is mechanizedand 10 m3 per hectare when the operation does notuse heavy machinery, with harvesting cycles of 35
years and ten years, respectively.
Table 4 lists some commonly harvested tropicaltimber species.

Box 3 Flow-chart of Amazon logging planning
process
Georeferencing of the forest area (owner/concessionaire)
Prior-authorization request made to relevant
environmental agency (owner/concessionaire)
Analysis and consideration of prior-authorization
request (environmental agency)100% inventory carried out (owner)Technical analysis of the sustainable forest
management plan (environmental agency)
Development of PMFS (owner)Statement of responsibility on forest maintenanceregistration (termo de responsabilidade demanutenção da floresta) (owner)
Authorization of the PMFS
(environmental agency)
Development of the annual operating plan(owner)
Submission of the annual operating report(owner/concessionaire)
Analysis of the annual report and technicalinspections (environmental agency)

Table 4 Commonly harvested tropical species for industrial roundwood
Species
Manilkara huberi (maçaranduba)
Dinizia excelsa (angelim)
Goupia glabra (cupiúba)
Hymenaea courbaril (jatobá)*
Erisma uncinatum (cedrinho)**

Volume (m3) transported in 2007
592 395
390 330
361 628
336 662
293 922

Also listed in ITTO (2006).

Source: Personal communications – see endnote b.

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STATUS OF TROPICAL FOREST MANAGEMENT 2011

Planted forest and trees outside the forest.
Brazil’s plantation estate comprises about 4.52
million hectares of Eucalyptus species, 1.79
million hectares of Pinus species, and 344 000of other species (including Acacia mearnsii, A.
mangium, Schizolobium amazonicum, Tectona
grandis, Araucaria angustifolia and Populus spp),
for an estimated total plantation area of 6.65
million hectares.a Significant areas of plantations(especially Pinus spp) are outside the tropics. There
are also about 128 000 hectares of rubber (Hevea
brasiliensis) plantation. Even though planted forests
account for little more than 1% of the total forest
area in Brazil, they make a substantial contribution
to industrial wood production.
Forest certification. As of October 2010, a totalof 6.16 million hectares of natural and planted
forests had been certified under the FSC umbrellain Brazil. Of this, about 2.70 million hectares were
natural tropical forest and 2.13 million hectares
were planted tropical forest (FSC 2010); mostof the remainder were non-tropical plantations.
The certified natural forest includes 47 000
hectares in the Antimary State Forest in the stateof Acre, which is being managed according toa management plan developed under an ITTO
project.
The Brazilian forest certification system(Certificação Florestal – CERFLOR), was initiatedin the 1990s and became operational for planted
forests in 2003. As of 16 September 2010, a totalof 1.25 million hectares of forest plantations
were certified under CERFLOR, but the only
CERFLOR-certified native-forest operation(73 000 hectares in the Amazonian state ofRondônia) was under suspension.5 CERFLOR isendorsed by the PEFC.
Estimate of the area of forest sustainably
managed for production. Brazil’s native-forest
concession system for public forests is still in an
early stage of implementation, with only one
concession (covering an area of 96 300 hectares)
approved in the Amazon. In total, 2.94 million
hectares of Amazonian forest and (295 000 hectaresof caatinga) are subject to approved PMFSs; allextractive reserves are also subject to management
plans. An estimated 2.70 million hectares of natural
tropical forest are certified by the FSC (FSC 2010).
On the available information, therefore, the total
5 www.inmetro.gov.br/qualidade/cerflor.asp.

284

A rubber-tapper community in the Antimari State Forest, Acre,
Brazil.

area of natural tropical production PFE considered
to be under SFM is at least 2.70 million hectares(Table 5).
Timber production and trade. On average, anestimated 247 million m3 of logs were produced
annually in Brazil in the period 2005–08,
comprising 81 million m3 of logs from naturalforests and 166 million m3 of logs from plantations.
FAO (2010a) estimated that over half of this is
fuelwood.
Brazil produced an estimated 23.7 million m3of (non-coniferous) tropical logs for industrial
purposes in 2009, down from a peak of 29.7
million m3 in 2003. About 15.5 million m3 oftropical sawnwood were produced in 2009 (upslightly from the 14.4 million m3 produced in2003), of which 1.06 million m3 were exported. In
the same year, Brazil produced about 600 000 m3 oftropical plywood, down from a peak of 1.38 million
m3 in 2003 (ITTO 2010).
Brazil’s production of tropical logs is less than
one-quarter of total industrial roundwood
production, which was 105 million m3 in 2009.
Log-processing capacity in the Legal Amazon
declined from 10.4 million m3 per year in 2004 to
5.8 million m3 per year in 2009 (ibid.).
Non-timber forest products. Brazil owes its nameto brazilin, a red dye from Caesalpinia echinata,and to the dye extractors, brasileiros. A very large
number of NTFPs (e.g. food, medicinal plants,
perfumes, dyes and tannins, natural rubber,
Brazil nut, handicraft and construction materials,
exudates, honey and wax) are used locally. About
45 700 tonnes of Brazil nut were harvested in 2009,
and the export of this product was worth US$20.3
million.a About 121 000 tonnes of açai berries,
7890 tonnes of latex, 3790 tonnes of copaiba oil

BR AZIL

Table 5 Management of the production PFE (’000 hectares)
Reporting
year

Total

Available for
harvesting

2005*
2010

98 100
135 000

15 340***‡†NaturalWithmanagement
plans
5250
15 340**

Certified

1360

3810

PlantedWith
management
plans
1350

2700

6650‡

3380†

Sustainably
managed

1160
2700

Total

Certified

1350
3380†

As reported in ITTO (2006).
Comprises 3.04 million hectares under PMFSs in the Legal Amazon and 12.3 million hectares of extractive reserves, all of which are
subject to management plans.
Tropical and non-tropical.
Tropical certified plantations (other tropical plantations may have management plans, but data were unavailable).

and 644 tonnes of cumaru almonds were harvested
in the Amazon in 2009.a
Forest carbon. Brazil has the world’s largest forest
carbon stock. Gibbs et al. (2007) estimated thetotal forest biomass carbon stock at 54 700–82 700
MtC and FAO (2010a) estimated it at 62 000
MtC. An estimated 54% of Brazil’s GHG emissions
come from land use and deforestation and 25%
come from the agricultural sector (Lèbre La
Rovere & Pereira 2007). In 2008 Brazil created
the Amazon Fund (see above) as a tool to combat
deforestation and promote sustainable developmentin the Amazon. The goal is a 70% reduction in
deforestation by 2018 (compared with the average
between 1996 and 2006). REDD+ is considered
to be a major opportunity in efforts to achieve thistarget. Any project funded through the Amazon
Fund must comply with Brazil’s National Planon Climate Change. Through internationalarrangements, for example with the Government of
Norway, considerable funding is being provided toinitiate the Amazon Fund and for the developmentof an effective forest monitoring system.
Brazil is closely engaged in the international
REDD+ Partnership and is co-chairing this process
in 2011. The country has been a participant in
the Forest Carbon Partnership Facility since 2008
and is a recipient country of the Forest Investment
Program. Significant investments in forest carbon

are also being made at the state level. In Acre,for example, a US$100 million investment madethrough the Inter-American Development Bankwas used to initiate, in the period 2007–10, a major
investment promotion with the aim of creating asustainable financing scheme for REDD+ in thatwestern Amazonian state. Through REDDES,
Brazil participates in and benefits from an ITTO
project implemented by the Amazon Cooperation
Treaty Organization for capacity-building on
monitoring land use, land-use change and forestsin the Amazon region. Table 6 summarizes Brazil’s
current forest carbon potential.

Forest for protection
Soil and water. The Amazon Basin produces 20%of the world’s freshwater; it is therefore vital that its
soil and water resources are properly protected. An
estimated 243 million hectares of forest in Brazil aremanaged primarily for soil and water protection.a
Biological diversity. Brazil’s forests containa significant share of the world’s biodiversity,
including an estimated 56 000–62 000 higher
plant (not including mosses, lichens and fungi)
and mammal species. The Amazon is home toabout 20% of the world’s plant species, 20%of bird species and 10% of mammal species.
Sixty-four mammals, 78 birds, five reptiles, 24
amphibians, eight arthropods and 14 plants foundTable 6 Forest carbon potential
Biomass
forest carbon(MtC)% forestwithcanopycover>60%

54 700–82 700

51

Deforestation/ Enhancement Forest area
degradationof carbonchangepotential tosink capacity monitoring2030
to 2030
capacity
+++

+++

+++

Forest/GHG
inventory
capacity+++

Importance Engagementof forestin
fire/international
biomassREDD+
burning
processes++++++++ high; ++ medium; + low; estimate of national forest carbon based on Gibbs et al. (2007); estimate of % total forest with canopy cover>60% based on UNEP-WCMC (2010).

285

STATUS OF TROPICAL FOREST MANAGEMENT 2011

in Brazil’s forests are listed as critically endangered,endangered or vulnerable on the IUCN red list of
threatened species (IUCN 2010). Wood species in
the Amazon considered endangered or threatenedwith extinction are Amburana cearensis var. acreana(cerejeira), Peltogyne maranhensis (pau-roxo),
Bertholletia excelsa (castanheira), Swietenia
macrophylla (mogno – also known as mahogany)
and Euxylophora paraensis (pau-amarelo). There arealso seven such species in the Mata Atlântica biome
and two in the cerrado/caatinga.ain Table 1 and Table 7 comprises conservation units
of integral protection and Indigenous reserves. The
estimate is considerably less than that reported
in ITTO (2006), most likely due differences indefinition of what constitutes PFE rather than to asignificant change in legal status or forest area.
All conservation units of integral protection (i.e.
federal and state lands in the categories nationalparks, biological reserves, ecological reserves,
national monuments and wildlife refuge areas)
must have management plans. These are technicaldocuments which, depending on the purposes of theconservation unit, establish the limits of the unit andthe rules for its management and use, including the
installation of infrastructure. However, the status ofthese management plans is unclear: some of them areunder preparation but, for others, the preparation
process has not yet begun. Management plans forconservation units of integral protection require,among other things, studies on vegetation, wildlife
and soils and socioeconomic surveys in order tosupport zoning and the identification of appropriate
management practices.b

Brazil has 28 plant species listed in CITES
Appendix I, 429 in Appendix II and 3 in Appendix
III (UNEP-WCMC 2011), including mogno, cedro
and a few other tree species for which production
and trade is minimal. The Brazilian National Policy
and Strategy for Biodiversity and the National
Biodiversity Programme are designed to address thesituation through in situ and ex situ measures andthe management of biotechnology.
Protective measures in production forests.
Measures taken to protect the production forestsas part of the country’s forest conservation strategy
include a moratorium on the harvesting and sale ofover-harvested species such as mogno and virola;
the introduction and implementation of measures
to control illegal logging through sophisticateddevices for timber-tracking and satellite datatransfer; limiting the area allowed for farming inforest properties in the Amazon; yield regulationin natural selection forests; forest restoration; theestablishment of ecological corridors; incentives
for municipalities that have environmental
conservation areas through the transfer of a‘products and services tax’; and broadening thescope of eligible activities for CDM support.a

Estimate of the area of forest sustainably
managed for protection. Data on the status ofmanagement of the protection PFE were unavailable
for the purposes of this report (Table 7). However,vast areas of the Amazon are currently under nothreat of deforestation or other significant humaninduced disturbance due to their remoteness.

Socioeconomic aspects
Economic aspects. Forest-based industries
contributed an estimated 3.4% to Brazil’s GDP
in 2007, down from 4.5% in 2003. An estimated580 000 people were directly employed in theformal forest and wood products sector in Brazil
in 2010a, although data on the number of people
employed in that part of the sector specifically
based on natural tropical forests were unavailable
for this report.

Extent of protected areas. There is uncertainty
about the extent of protected areas in Brazil; partly
this stems from differences in the definition of‘protected’ and the extent to which extractive uses
are permitted. The estimate of protection PFE given
Table 7 Management of the protection PFE (’000 hectares)
Reportingyear

Protection PFE

Attributed to IUCN
categories I–IV

Allocated for soil
and waterWith management
plans

Sustainably
managed

2005*
2010

271 000
175 000

19 00040 200**243 000

-

-

*
**

As reported in ITTO (2006).
Amazon biome only. An additional 643 000 hectares in the caatinga biome, 5.23 million hectares in the cerrado biome and 2.21
million hectares in the Mata Atlântica biome are in IUCN categories I–IV.
Source: CNUC (2011) and personal communications – see endnote b.

286

BR AZIL

Livelihood values. The Indigenous communities
in the Amazon, dwellers in extractive reserves, andcaatinga forest users in the northeast depend inlarge measure on forests for subsistence. However,no data on the extent of this dependence wereavailable for this report.
Social relations. There are 227 Indigenous societies
in Brazil, with a total population of about 600 000
people. These people have rights to 106 million
hectares of land in the Amazon, which is 13% of
the national land area. Demarcation of the land isvery slow, however, which leads to encroachment
and conflict, and there is insufficient support foreconomic development (Sobral 2009).
The slow process of recognition and approvalof tenure causes dissatisfaction on the part ofIndigenous communities. Nevertheless, the situation
has improved in some areas; Indigenous peoples’organizations are now both stronger and more
numerous and Indigenous communities have started
to grow, thus reducing fears of their extinction.
On the other hand, the majority of Indigenous
people still suffer from economic marginalization,
malnutrition and inadequate assistance andprotection (as they remain under the guardianship ofthe federal government). The quilombolas are anothermarginalized group with land rights: the government
recognizes their right to the land where they live
but, again, the process of formal recognition is slow
(ibid.). The majority of the Amazon’s inhabitants arerecent settlers and differences in their backgrounds
lead to frequent friction.

Summary
Significant advances have been made towards
sustainable management in the Brazilian Amazon;
for example, the area of certified natural forest
has doubled since 2005. Despite continuing
deforestation, clearance rates have declined
dramatically in the last five years. Moreover,funds are being made available to improveforest management and protection, forest law
enforcement is being strengthened, and new laws
and regulations provide for improvements inforest management. A number of data-gathering
services are greatly improving the availability andtimeliness of forest-related information, althoughdata on the management of forested protectedareas were unavailable for this report. Efforts arealso under way to clarify land tenure and to put

FLONAs under management plans, and large
areas of forest are managed by Indigenous andother local communities (although the processof recognition and approval of tenure is slow).
Nevertheless, significant problems remain in theapplication of SFM in the tropical PFE. They
include poor infrastructure; the remoteness of many
forests from centres of commerce and control;
the weak competitiveness of SFM as a land use;
declining wood-processing capacity in the Amazon;
and a lack of awareness about SFM – and its
potential benefits – among timber operators. Given
that development will continue in the region,
probably at an accelerated rate, the Governmentof Brazil is pursuing several models to improve thecompetitiveness of natural forest management as aland use. It is also working to address institutional
barriers to SFM and recent initiatives offer hopethat the area of tropical PFE under SFM will
expand significantly in the future.

Key points•

Brazil has a tropical-forest PFE of 310 million
hectares, the largest in the tropics. Despite
continuing deforestation, there are still hugeforest resources in the Amazon.

•

There has been a significant increase in the areaof certified natural forest in the Amazon.

•

At least 2.70 million hectares of natural tropicalforest production PFE are being sustainably
managed; insufficient information was available
to estimate the area of protection PFE somanaged.

•Vast areas of the Amazon are currently under nothreat of deforestation or other significant
human-induced disturbance due to theirremoteness.

•

Since 2006, timber harvesting has been
permitted in Brazil’s public forests throughforest concession contracts that can span up to
40 years; this system is in the early stages of
implementation.

•

A wide range of policies, strategies, laws andregulations have been developed to facilitate
forest administration, improve timber legality
and achieve SFM. Law enforcement has beenstrengthened, but the vastness of the resource
and the spread of colonization make it difficult
to control forest illegality.

287

STATUS OF TROPICAL FOREST MANAGEMENT 2011•

New laws have been enacted in an effort toimprove the clarity of forest tenure in the
Amazon and the management of public lands.
Large areas of forest are allocated to Indigenous
and quilombola communities, and a new law
will increase opportunities for squatters to own
land. Nevertheless, disputes over tenure remain
a significant problem.

EndnotesaGovernment of Brazil (2010).

b

Personal communications with officials in the Brazilian
Forest Service, 2008, 2010, 2011.

References and other sources
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