研究ノート

Migrants or Study Abroad? An analysisof the study abroad experience of foreign
students in an English taught degree
program in Japan
Roy Gerard HEDRICK III

Intro
As part of a research project, I worked with Professor Neriko Doerr tointerview a class of students at Doshisha University’s ILA Program about theirexperience as study abroad students. The direction of this research wasderailed before it even began due to a single question. When asked if they werewilling to participate in research about “study-abroad students” we were
surprised to learn that these students rejected that label. We quickly discovered
that, at least within the context of the ILA program, the term “study abroad”
has become a loaded term. “We are not study abroad!” almost every student in
the room responded, which seemed naturally contradictory. Many of them areofficially here on “study abroad” visas, and in the eyes of the university and theeyes of the Japanese government, they are officially labeled as study abroad. Yet
they do not feel comfortable identifying themselves as study abroad students.
Their unexpected response reveals a contradiction that goes to the heart ofwhat we mean by “study abroad.”
These students argue that Japan, or a specific region, city, or town in Japan,“is now their ‘home’ because they see their future there, because they feel athome and comfortable there, because Japan was never “not home,” and because
they have “no intention of going elsewhere.”1 This came as a shock to bothProfessor Doerr and myself. At the time I had spent eight years in Japan as a
1

Neriko Musha Doerr, Gregory Poole, and Roy G. Hedrick,“‘Post-study-abroad students,’‘Never study abroad students,’and the politics of belonging: The global education effectof Japan’s English-Medium campus,”The Global Education Effect and Japan, March
2020, 119.

309

14_Roy Gerard Hedrick.indd 309

22/02/28 20:09

論文

student, and often referred to myself as a study abroad student (ryugakusei).
My enrollment was done through the Office of International Students, and myvisa said “ryugakusei.” Yet though I had never thought carefully about the label,the objection among the ILA students made sense to me when I heard it. I
certainly feel at home here in Japan and have no plans to return homepermanently anytime soon. Further thought on this topic led to our article
examining the experiences and perceptions of students who studied at the ILA.
Students in that program have a complicated relationship with the concept ofstudy abroad. The phrase “study abroad student” carries with it certain
expectations and connotations for both native Japanese and other study abroad
students. Many of the students at the ILA feel that these connotations do notaccurately apply to them. Their relationships with other Japanese, otherforeigners, and their own identity presents a situation not quite the same asthat presented by study abroad materials.
In this writing, I examine how temporary study-abroad students make thehost country their home. I will do so by introducing three students who wereenrolled in the ILA program at the time of their interviews. These students
have all spent the majority of their lives abroad but have now settled in Kyoto.
This will demonstrate that despite being outsiders to Japan, be it culturally or
officially, they have found a place they feel comfortable in Japanese society.
While they may not officially have permanent residency nor are close to
applying for it, they feel comfortable here and have made choices with longterm residency in mind. In doing so, they challenge the assumptions of study
abroad programs, along with their assumed category of study abroad student.
Long-term study abroad students, like those in the ILA program, are anoften-overlooked group when it comes to materials related to study abroad.
While the wording and emphasis of study abroad materials may differ slightly,
much of it focuses on the goals of study abroad. These goals are often stated tobe the fostering of “global knowledge,” “global competence,” and “cross-cultural
adaptability” among the participants of study abroad. Their focus varies from
how to best measure learning outcomes accurately, to how to foster the desired
outcomes. 2 The main issue with these outcomes is that they tend to focus on
the student’s life after they return to their home country. The study abroad
experience is assumed to be something temporary, a once-in-a-lifetime learning
experience, thus the focus of this research is on short-term study abroad
310

14_Roy Gerard Hedrick.indd 310

22/02/28 20:09

Migrants or Study Abroad? An analysis of the study abroad experience of foreign students in an English taught degree program in Japan

programs such as semester-long or short-term summer exchange programs. In
this article, using examples from interviews and observations of students on
campus, I will examine the disconnect that exists between the expectations ofstudy abroad programs, and the experiences of students in the ILA Program.
Doing so will allow us to see that the students of long-term study abroad
programs view their time in the host country as something permanent. To
them, it is not a host country, but their new home. In short, this study helps us
to understand a facet of learning abroad that is often overlooked.

The Research Field: A Short Introduction to the ILA
When the term “study-abroad” is used in promotional materials, it most often
refers to a short-term exchange program of one or two semesters abroad at ahost university, before returning to their “home” university. Yet the ILA, which
stands for the Institute of the Liberal Arts, is not a short-term study-abroad
program. Instead, it is an English taught, four-year undergraduate degree
program. It is open to both r yugakusei and Japanese nationals who areinterested in receiving an English-language education and a bachelor’s degree inthe liberal arts. Students choose one of three concentrations upon entering the
program: Humanities and the Human Sciences, Business and Economics, orPolitics and Policy Studies. Students are encouraged to take courses outside of
their concentration, and required courses are kept to a minimum in order toenable this. Most courses are taught entirely in English, though many of theteachers are also capable of speaking Japanese to at least some degree.
Occasional language assistance for classes is given by these teachers, but
students are expected to have a fluent English ability. While there is noJapanese language requirement to enroll, students in the ILA are encouraged totake Japanese language courses offered by the CJLC. 3 These vary from2

For an understanding of some of the challenges of assessing the globalizing effect see:Darla K. Deardorff, “Understanding the Challenges of Assessing Global Citizenship.” The
Handbook of Practice and Research in Study Abroad (Routledge 2010): 368-386.
For information on some of the thought behind program designs see the following:
William Brustein, “It takes an Entire Institution: A Blueprint for the Global University”
The Handbook of Practice and Research in Study Abroad: Higher Education and theQuest for Global Citizenship 1st Edition (Routledge 2009): pp 249-265.Brustein, William.
“It Takes an Entire Institution: A Blueprint for the Global University” The Handbook of

311

14_Roy Gerard Hedrick.indd 311

22/02/28 20:09

論文

introductory Japanese to highly advanced levels a native Japanese speaker
would struggle to complete.
A key feature of the ILA is that it is somewhat separated from the main
Doshisha Ca mpus. The vast majority of I LA classes ta ke place on the
Karasuma campus, which is about a five-to-ten-minute walk away from themuch larger Imadegawa and Shinmachi campuses. While this is not that far
physically, there is a logistical and mental distance between the three campuses.
While there are some exchange students on the two larger campuses, such as
those in the Center for Global Education (an exchange program taught mostly
in English) and in the Center for Japanese Language and Culture (an intensive
language program taught entirely in Japanese), ILA students tend to stick to
the Karasuma campus where they are closer to their classes. Due to this, in the
hallways and lounges of the Karasuma campus, it is not uncommon to hear
English being spoken among the students. While all of Doshisha’s campuses are“Japanese” buildings on “Japanese” campuses, there is a “global” atmosphere on
the Karasuma campus not present on the other two campuses.
The st udent s of t he I L A c ome f rom a w ide ra nge of c ou nt r ie s a ndbackgrounds. While not strictly a “study abroad” or exchange program, the ILA
is made up of many students from abroad and is somewhat disconnected fromtypical university life at a Japanese university. It was put best by one of myinterviewees, “I feel comfortable here because everyone has an international
background. That is really interesting for me because I don’t have to be special
anymore because everyone is special. No one belongs here.” It is expected that
few at the ILA share your background, very little can be assumed about yourfellow classmate from outside observations. This combined with the distancefrom the main campus means that the ILA exists separate from larger
Doshisha University life. Students like those in the ILA program get little noticein existing materials on study abroad.

Existing Materials on Study Abroad
Some more recent work has begun to explore beyond the traditional view of
3

The Center for Japanese Language and Culture, an intensive Japanese language
program. Until recently it was a program open to anyone, but now is reserved solely forexchange students and foreign students studying at Doshisha.

312

14_Roy Gerard Hedrick.indd 312

22/02/28 20:09

Migrants or Study Abroad? An analysis of the study abroad experience of foreign students in an English taught degree program in Japan

study abroad as temporary. Shanthi Robertson examines the concept of“st udent- m ig ra nt s” a nd t he “educ at ion - m ig rat ion nex us” i n her b o okTransnational Student-Migrants and the State: The Education-Migration
Nexus. Her research examines the “staggered process of entry” of studentmigrants into Australia through a process called the “education-migration
nexus.” The education-migration nexus is described by the author as a “longterm migration trajectory” that exists as an uneasy combination of international
education and skilled migration policies in Australia and other Organization for
Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) nations. It exists as a “complex
web of regulatory systems that simultaneously enabled and constrained theirability to enter the state temporarily as students and then to accumulate thecapital required to become skilled migrants.”4 While on one hand it enabledstudents to transition from temporary work visas to permanent residency, it
was also a convoluted process that could block a person’s advancement for thesmallest of reasons. One of the examples given is a student whose English
ability was fluent, but still spoke with a strong Chinese accent. While she
excelled on the grammar and written portion, she failed to get a high enoughscore on the spoken portion of the IELTS (International English Language
Testing System) exam to get into the university course she wanted to take.
Without this course, she was unable to finish her degree, without her degree
she could not get PR (Permanent Residency) and without that she would haveto wait another year before her husband and child could join her in Australia.
For these students their journey is one “fraught with specific challenges andobstacles” as the requirements for permanent residency could change at any
time, and there were specific goals that had to be completed in a timely mannerin order to remain in Australia. This “education-migration nexus” shows us thatstudy abroad has become vastly more complicated than originally thought.
While the exact form of the nexus that exists in Australia does not quite exist
in Japan, the situation for the ILA students is very similar. There is a set pathmost of these students have in mind in order to gain permanent residency,
though many of the ILA students lack some of the urgency that was implied inRobertson’s writing. This is in part due to how positively many of the ILA
students are viewed by the larger population of Japan.
4

Shanthi Robertson, Transnational Student-Migrants and the State The EducationMigration Nexus (Houndmills, Basingstoke, England: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 3.

313

14_Roy Gerard Hedrick.indd 313

22/02/28 20:09

論文

While once viewed as a temporary sojourn with a purely educational
motivation, international education research has “begun to recognize thatstudying overseas is both a form in itself of labor migration, and a precursor tosubsequent migrations.”5 Robertson stated that, at least in Australia, media andthe public imagination, along with a good bit of academic discourse, have tended
to divide student-migrants into two highly limited stereotypes. The first beingthat of the savvy, professional and elite “designer migrants” who need no“analytic attention nor settlement support.”6 These students are viewed as theideal migrant, those who, after living in Australia for years while going throughthis “education-migration nexus” have become accultured to life in Australia.
But at the same time, foreign students are also cast as ‘back-door migrants’ whoeither exploit the education system for disingenuous purposes or become
victims of the unscrupulous global education industry. They are viewed in anegative light, as those taking advantage of the education system in order tofurther their migration goals. Instead, Robertson argued that most studentmigrants were somewhere in the middle of these two stereotypes and hopedthat a qualitative approach would help shed some light on the diversity of theirexperiences. Robertson’s work was an attempt to expand upon existingtransnationalism research by examining this effect, which she calls “middlingtransnationalism.” Middling transnationalism refers to how student-migrants
show characteristics of both “highly skilled and highly mobile ‘flexible citizens’
and of vulnerable and exploitable labour migrants.” They are a “blurring ofboundaries around different categories of migrants” and examining the “complex
interplays of strategizing, obligation, desire and uncertainty” 7 that shape thestudent-migrant experience.
While the education-immigration nexus may not exist in the same form inJapan as it does in Australia, it shows us that these students are more than justtemporary visitors and presents to us a view of students as migrants. In
Robertson’s work we hear very little of the experiences of the students except
for when it directly relates to the nexus. It is instead centered around themechanism and logistics of the “education-migration nexus.” The students she
5
6
7

Karine Tremblay,“Academic Mobility and Education,”Journal of Studies inInternational Education 9, no. 3 (2005): pp. 196-228.
Robertson, Transnational Student-Migrants, 16.
Robertson, Transnational Student-Migrants, 5.

314

14_Roy Gerard Hedrick.indd 314

22/02/28 20:09

Migrants or Study Abroad? An analysis of the study abroad experience of foreign students in an English taught degree program in Japan

researched were also in quite a different educational environment than those in
the ILA. The students in Robertson’s work also mainly have come fromdeveloping countries, making the stakes of their migration are considerably
higher than many of those in the ILA. In addition, many of them were earlier
in their migration process than students in the ILA. But by focusing on theexperiences of the students themselves, we can see not only how they are
similar to migrants, but also how their present themselves to others despite
their precarious position in society.

Alice

8

Alice was born and raised in England and is here as a study abroad student
on a study abroad visa.9 When asked, “Where are you from?” Alice confidently
and quickly answered, “England.” If you take a look at her visa it says that she
is a “study abroad student” from England, she even speaks with a slight English
accent. While she is officially a “study abroad student” in the eyes of theJapanese government and her host university, she does not like to be identified
as a “study abroad” student. She no longer views England as where she belongs,“I never lived in England as an adult. I don’t know what England is like to live
in or work in.” Furthermore, she stated that there was nowhere in England shewould really consider her home. She stated that, “If I consider myself a study
abroad student, I don’t consider myself a resident and that is a very weird place
to be.” She views herself as a resident of Japan, to her it is home, not a
temporary host.
Born and raised in England, Alice is currently a student within the global
culture concentration of the ILA. Alice grew up in a rather small village ofaround 100 people, attending an elite private school in a nearby area. She had
trouble fitting in with kids at the elite school because of her rural origins, andtrouble fitting in with the kids in her village due to attending the elite school.
8
9This, and all other names used during this article are pseudonyms. All other information
about their lives, unless otherwise noted, is unchanged.
The visa issued to students at the ILA lists the status as “ 留 学 ” which means “study
abroad” in English. Typically, it lasts until the student’s enrollment ends, though forsome programs it must be renewed every year. Those with a study abroad visa are notallowed to work, but they can apply for permission to work part time for up to 28 hours
per week.

315

14_Roy Gerard Hedrick.indd 315

22/02/28 20:09

論文

She was also sick very often, being in and out of the hospital so often that she
wasn’t even able to graduate high school. For these reasons she felt she had
little connection to those around her, never really making close friends. For her
it wasn’t a hard decision to try study abroad.
When she was younger, she had exposure to Japanese culture in numerous
ways. Like most kids growing up in the 90s, she was exposed to Japanese
anime when she was a kid, watching Pokémon after school quite often with aJapanese friend. She even visited Japan when she was younger. She first visited
Japan at the age of 13 with her father for a Judo exposition. When she turned
18, having some experience in the country and a basic understanding of thelanguage, she decided to move to Japan on her own. She spent three years in
Aichi studying Japanese at an intensive language school while also working
close to full time as an English teacher. When she had turned 21, she hadcompleted that language program and felt that she had “outgrown” the city she
was in. She came across the ILA program at an open house, and after spending
some time discussing her future with some of the permanent professors in the
program, decided to enroll. She plans on continuing to graduate school once shecompletes the ILA and has no plans to return permanently to England.
While she identifies as English, it is often assumed she is American before
she speaks. Her accent makes it clear she is not, however, and she does notmind this identification based on other’s perceptions. What she did not like was
the label of a “study abroad student.” She views herself as an Englishwoman,
whose home is Japan. This is because she doesn’t view her current place inJapan as temporary, she has made a life here, in fact more than she has evermade back home in England. She stated, “I never lived in England as an adult. I
don’t know what England is like to live in or work in.” Because of this, sherejects the label of “study abroad.”. “I would not classify myself as a study
abroad student. I own my own house in Japan. I own property. I have a dog. I
plan on staying here.” It is not only a sense of belonging to her present plans,
but also her future intent and commitment to live in Japan.
While legally she is “just” a temporary student, in the ways that matter toher she is a resident of Japan. Her rejection of the term study abroad is becauses he v iew s he r l i fe , a nd t he l ive s of ot he r s i n t he I L A , a s s o met h i ng
fundamentally different from a study abroad student. Her belief is that Japan is
not “abroad.” She lists numerous reasons for this belief. The first being that her
316

14_Roy Gerard Hedrick.indd 316

22/02/28 20:09

Migrants or Study Abroad? An analysis of the study abroad experience of foreign students in an English taught degree program in Japanapplication originated from Japan. She stated that herself and “everyone apartfrom 2 or 3 in my intake were internal Japanese intakes. They applied from inJapan.” Due to the fact she and other students have “weird passport situations
or are long term in Japan” their position is different from that of a traditional
study abroad student, though seemingly typical for the ILA. She states thatthey have already become part of Japanese culture (or were always part of it)
and their application to this program is just continuing this.
She believes t hat she has fou nd a place in Japa nese society a nd ca n
successfully navigate it. She stated that her most memorable experiences while
in Japan was “doing normal life stuff. Those moments, accomplishing those sortsof things in Japanese and feeling like an upstanding member of society, as muchas I ever will be one*laughs*, was really memorable.” The experiences she foundmost memorable were not the ones that the discourse of study abroad would
lead you to believe. She did not talk about how different life in Japan was, theadventures she had, or the cultural misunderstandings she had. Instead, hermost memorable experiences were things that people experience living life
anywhere. Buying a house, raising a dog, experiences that she would be proudof even if she had done them back in England. There was some pride in being
able to do these things in Japanese, but that was just an added bonus. To her,Japan isn’t some fundamentally different place, but her home.
Unlike the student-migrants presented in Robertson’s work, she has made her
own path to life in Japan. A lot of this is due to her more privileged upbringing,
the sense of pressure and importance to remaining in Japan is absent for her.
She has no need to send money back home to support her family, and what she
has learned will be just as useful back home if she one day decides to return.
This is unlikely, however, because as a native English speaker she can always
find work as an English teacher. Entry into the country was also much easierfor her, there was no “migration-education nexus” for her to navigate. She
obtained a visa from her school, and upon graduation, will likely be able toobtain permanent residency easily due to having obtained a degree in Japan aswell as living in Japan for an extended time. While the pressures and issues she
faces are different, she does follow a similar pathway to permanent residency
like those in Robertson’s work. She is not “just study abroad,” but a “studentmigrant”.
For Alice she does not mind being identified as a foreigner based upon her
317

14_Roy Gerard Hedrick.indd 317

22/02/28 20:09

論

文

appearance or how she speaks. She claims she is “English” and is aware of theadvantages that being foreign can give her. Instead she takes issue with theidea of Japan being “abroad” to her. She is fluent in Japanese, owns a house inJapan, and has worked and studied in Japan for many years. Despite this, she
identifies as non-Japanese, and has no intention of “becoming” Japanese. She
believes that one can be non-Japanese, but also find Japan as their home. This is
the key difference between study abroad and students at the ILA to her. Bob’sviews on his place in Japanese society were also very similar to that of Alice.

Bob
Unlike Alice, Bob had a more “international” upbringing so to speak. His
mother is from Germany, and his father from the United Kingdom. At the timeof his birth, however, his parents were missionaries in South Korea. His place ofbirth was an accident, he was born premature while his parents were in South
Korea. Shortly after his birth his family moved to Germany for around six
months, and then moved to England, where he lived until he was 18 years old.
He often moved back and forth between England and Germany as a child inorder to visit family.
Once it came time for college, he moved to Austria to attend the Universityof Vienna. He enrolled in the Japanese Studies program there but stated that he“wasn’t a fan.” He had always been more interested in Japanese history, but the
program he was in focused more on modern Japanese culture. After two years
he decided to attend a three-month summer exchange program to help improve
his Japanese, and while there he attended Doshisha’s open campus. He met oneof the Professors during his visit and became interested in the ILA. He statedthat he was “basically recruited” to the program at this time. So while the ILA
was the first time he has spent an extended time in Japan, it wasn’t his firsttime abroad.
He spent a lot of his life going abroad, from England to Germany to Austria,
and like many others in the ILA, he does not like the “where are you from?”question. In part because it is a rather annoying question for him to answer. He
spoke about his typical experience when being asked about his background,“Are you English or German? ...Okay, where were you born? Korea? That
doesn’t help.” The question did not irritate him as much as it did others I
318

14_Roy Gerard Hedrick.indd 318

22/02/28 20:09

Migrants or Study Abroad? An analysis of the study abroad experience of foreign students in an English taught degree program in Japan

interviewed, because he thought it was to be expected. “People are superficial,even if I am here for the next 40 years. No one is ever gonna come up to me
and go, ‘Look at how Japanese you are! Congratulations!’” He knows he is an
outsider, both visually and culturally. “Even if I live the rest of my life here, no
one is gonna call me Japanese. You can’t make people accept you.” Even though
he has learned how to communicate in Japanese and participate in Japanesesociety, he is well aware of the face he will never become Japanese, “I can learn
to understand Japanese people and how people interact socially and how they
communicate with each other. But that doesn’t make me Japanese. It doesn’tmean people will accept me as Japanese.” In fact, he even mentioned some of
the issues he has faced, “I get looks. I get kids pointing at me all the time,‘gaikokujin.’ That wont stop.” But instead of being demoralized by this, it drove
him to improve. “It means you always have to keep pushing yourself to interact
and better yourself. Get better at Japanese, get better at whatever, you know.
Being a foreigner can be difficult, but it can be great.” Bob was extremely
positive about his place and experiences in Japan. Unlike others, he didn’t seem
bothered by the first impression being a foreigner tended to give off.
Despite the conscious knowledge of the fact that he will never become
Japanese, Bob still believes that Japan is where he belongs. “I want to stay inJapan...I could live here the rest of my life. I would be very happy about that
idea. It doesn’t mean I can’t be part of Japanese society.” The main difference
from how he spoke about being part of Japanese society and how Aliceapproached it is that he acknowledged that it is a lot of work to fit in. “It is up
to you to create life. If you don’t want to feel isolated, it is up to you to integrateyourself. It is up to you to meet Japanese people. It is up to you to understandJapanese people.” To become part of Japanese society, you have to learn how to
become part of it. He was aware his language skills were a little lacking but
knew how to otherwise participate in Japanese society. He even mentioned
others he had seen who had not put in the work, “Some foreigners I find here in
Japan, the ones I feel really isolated are the people who make no effort to try
and understand Japan and what Japanese think.” Bob believes that belonging issomething that must be worked towards. Not something that just comes withtime or experience, but something that you must actively attempt to do.
Unsurprisingly, Bob felt that Japan was where he belonged, in almost thesame words as Alice, he stated that, “In a way you feel like you are integrating319

14_Roy Gerard Hedrick.indd 319

22/02/28 20:09

論文

into society in a very special way. Maybe not the way that is normal, but you
are integrating yourself and you know that.” Just like Alice, he felt that he, andthe rest of the ILA, were a part of Japanese society. Similar to Alice he had
also made his own path to Japan. He had transferred to the ILA, and upon
graduation planned to work in Japan. He also believed he would have no trouble
finding a job as a native English speaker and was open to the possibility ofgaining permanent residency one day. Despite this he is well aware that he is
not Japanese, and never will be Japanese, but he can learn to become part ofJapanese society.

Maria
This isn’t quite the case for Maria. Like Alice, Maria also spent most of herchildhood abroad. When I initially met her, I assumed she spent her entire lifein America until coming to Japan for the ILA. She acted and sounded just likethe typical American university student. She identifies, however, in her own
words as a “hafu10” and has spent her high school years in Japan before joining
the ILA. Unlike Alice, she is not officially a “ryugakusei” in the eyes of theuniversity or the Japanese government. Since she has dual citizenship,
American and Japanese, she is officially enrolled as a domestic Japanese student.
She does not require a ryugakusei visa, and therefore doesn’t qualify for any of
the ryugakusei advantages, such as scholarships and support. At the same time,
her university experience is much different from that of a typical exchange
student. Instead, she is sort of a mix of the two, “It’s weird because I thinkinstitutionally, I am a domestic student. But in a sense culturally I am not adomestic student because I am not involved in circles anymore, I don’t go to thesame classes, I don’t study the things they do, not even in the same language.”
She stands between the two categories, not a study abroad student, but notquite a typical domestic student either.
10 While the definition of ハ ー フ (hafu) is not quite set in stone. It is a Japanese term often
used to refer to a person born to one ethnically Japanese parent and one non-Japaneseparent. This term is considered derogatory by some and is the focus of much research.
While it does play a role in how these students perceive themselves, some of the larger
issues of hafu identity are outside of the scope of this paper. Maria wasn’t particularly
happy with some of the connotations and uses of the word, but she stated she often uses
it because it is the best way to explain her background.

320

14_Roy Gerard Hedrick.indd 320

22/02/28 20:09

Migrants or Study Abroad? An analysis of the study abroad experience of foreign students in an English taught degree program in Japan

Maria was born in the United States and spent her childhood in South
Carolina. Her father is American, and her mother is Japanese. The two met inuniversity while her mother was doing study abroad in America. When she wasthirteen, her parents decided it was time to move to Japan. Her father, aconservative Christian, felt he had a calling from God to come to Japan andteach, so they all moved to Japan together. Her family moved to Gunma Japan,
an area known to be rather rural except for the Subaru factory. She jokingly
called herself a “country girl in both senses,” she had grown up in the
countryside in South Carolina and also in “inaka” Gunma. While she was
exposed to Japanese language and culture as a child it was to a very limited
degree, she said that she viewed herself as American. So unsurprisingly, when
she first arrived, she hated Japan. “13-year-old Maria was like, ‘I am going backto America!’” She didn’t really speak the language fluently, or know how to livein Japan, and she had left everything she knew behind. So unsurprisingly she
faced many issues at the school she attended. The school, which had opened
rather recently, was described by Maria as an “immersive school.” Half theclasses were taught in Japanese, and half were taught in English. Unfortunately,
it was a newer school with mainly Japanese students, so by junior high (which
is when Amanda began) not many kids were willing to speak English. This is
how Maria learned Japanese, she needed to in order to communicate with herclassmates. Even so, her Japanese was not up to a high school level, sheconstantly struggled with the Japanese taught classes. While she excelled in the
English taught programs, she’d barely pass or even fail the Japanese sections.
With what she expected was a little help from her teachers, her grades were
just good enough for her to enroll into the IB department and she completed
her high school degree in English. After high school, she decided to go touniversity in Japan, especially after seeing Doshisha during an open campus,“the moment I was on campus I was like, ‘Oh! I wanna go here!’” While initiallyMaria wanted to go back to the states for college, she eventually decided on the
ILA. It was a lot easier on her family if she remained in Japan, plus she fell inlove with the program after visiting their open house. It offered her a chance to
see more of Japan, something she was unable to do while living in Gunma. Herparents recently returned to the United States, and she has elected to stay inJapan. She decided to stay in Japan, not just to finish her degree (which had lessthan a year left when her parents decided to return), but she also intends to
321

14_Roy Gerard Hedrick.indd 321

22/02/28 20:09

論

文

work in Japan after her graduation.
While her pathway to the ILA and even her official status was different, justlike Alice Maria was against being called a study abroad student. While she isofficially not a study abroad student, she does have a different experience than adomestic student and is often treated like an exchange student by others. In
fact, she implies that she thinks the entire ILA is better described as adomestic program. “It is closer to be a domestic student. Because even though
we always study is different, at least we are still on the same campus, we are
immersed in the same culture every day, it is not like we are here and arecompletely new.” Just like Alice and Bob, Maria thinks that the experience of an
ILA student is fundamentally different than that of a typical study abroad
student, “Some of it is intentions, but I think it is the people we interact is alittle different. It is not ‘abroad’ anymore.” Their day-to-day life is different fromthat of a study abroad student, so she dislikes being identified as one. She statesthat neither is really a good fit for what the ILA is, but if she had to choose
between the two, she would say they are closer to domestic students. ILA
students come into the program with an expectation of taking at least four
years to graduate, and according to her this changes how they approach theirlife in Japan. The fact that the exchange program is longer and many intend tostay in Japan upon completion of their degree means that these students aremuch more likely to view their time in Japa n as something more tha ntemporary.
While she may not officially be a student-migrant and does not have to visit
the Immigration Office to renew her visa or deal with the excessive andneedless paperwork at the Office of International Students. She is a Japanesecitizen enrolled into a Japanese University as a normal student. Even though
she is not a student migrant, she shares a similar experience with otherstudent-migrants in the ILA. Just like Bob, she is often viewed as an outsider
who is just here temporarily. She struggles with the language like otherforeigners and is excluded due to her looks. She is a student-migrant in spirit
and is proof that just “being Japanese” within the ILA can be very complicated.

Conclusion
The students in Doshisha’s ILA program subvert the expectations of a study
322

14_Roy Gerard Hedrick.indd 322

22/02/28 20:09

Migrants or Study Abroad? An analysis of the study abroad experience of foreign students in an English taught degree program in Japanabroad program in almost every way. At first, it seems like it would be easy to
dismiss the ILA as not being a “real” study abroad program. But as we can see
from how the term “study abroad student” impacts everything they do andtheir struggles trying to find a place in Japanese society, that even though they
may not be study abroad in the modern sense, the monolith of the study abroad
industry hangs over their heads. The ILA even takes its own promotional
slogans from this discourse. The front page of their website states, “Make your
Education an Adventure,” but to these students their time in the ILA is not anadventure, but their normal everyday life.
We see this especially when speaking to Alice. She did not talk about
immersing herself in Japanese culture or having life changing experiences.
Instead, her most memorable experiences were things that people experienceliving life anywhere. Buying a house, raising a dog, experiences that she would
be proud of even if she had done them back in England. She believes that she ishere permanently, has done steps to make it so, and believes that she is a partof Japanese society, even though officially she is here as a student.
Ben believes the same thing, that long term students become a part of thelocal society. He was aware his language skills were a little lacking but knew
how to otherwise participate in Japanese society. Bob believes that belonging issomething that must be worked towards. Not something that just comes withtime or experience, but something that you must actively attempt to do.
As a Japanese citizen Maria’s situation is somewhat different. While she is not
actually a study abroad student, she is still treated as a study abroad student.
On top of being treated differently because of how she looks, she also moved toJapan as a teenager and is still learning how to fit into society. Having Japanesecitizenship hasn’t quite made her a “normal Japanese,” and she must still
struggle to find her place in Japan while overshadowed by the connotations
study abroad brings to life as a college student in Japan.
When speaking to students within this program, the ILA is not an adventure
for them, but the beginning of their lives. The unique setting of the ILA also
helps to push them towards living a permanent life in Japan. The diverse
student body, and classes that question assumptions many people make about
identity and borders push these students to question themselves and their rolein society. While this is study abroad in the traditional sense, it does not quite
match up with the how study abroad is presented in promotional materials. To
323

14_Roy Gerard Hedrick.indd 323

22/02/28 20:09

論

文

these students, Japan is not just a host country or a temporary adventure, but
their new home. Their experiences challenges many of the assumptions of therole study abroad plays. In short, this study helps us to understand a facet oflearning abroad that has been neglected by current research.

324

14_Roy Gerard Hedrick.indd 324

22/02/28 20:09

Migrants or Study Abroad? An analysis of the study abroad experience of foreign students in an English taught degree program in Japan

Bibliography

Klekowski von Koppenfels, Amanda. Migrants or Expatriates? Americans in Europe.
London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2014.
Brockington, Josepth L., and Margaret D. Wiedenhoeft. “The Liberal Arts and Global
Citizenship: Fostering Intercultural Engagement through Integrative Experiences andStructured Reflection.” The Handbook of Practice and Research in Study Abroad,2010, 117-32. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203876640-16.
Carlson, Jerry S. Study Abroad: The Experience of American Undergraduates in Western
Europe and the United States. New York, NY: Council on International Educational
Exchange, 1991.
Deardorff, Darla K. “Understanding the Challenges of Assessing Global Citizenship.” The
Handbook of Practice and Research in Study Abroad, 2010, 368-86. https://doi.
org/10.4324/9780203876640-29.
Doerr, Neriko Musha, ed. The Global Education Effect and Japan: Constructing New
Borders and Identification Practices. Routledge, 2021.
Doerr, Neriko Musha, Gregory Poole, and Roy G. Hedrick. “‘Post-Study-Abroad Students’‘Never Study Abroad Students,’ and the Politics of Belonging: The Global Education
Effect of Japan’s English-Medium Campus.” The Global Education Effect and Japan
Constructing New Borders and Identification Practices, 2020, 119-46. https://doi.
org/10.4324/9780429292064-8.
Doerr, Neriko Musha. “Desired Learning, Disavowed Learning: Scale-Making Practices andSubverting the Hierarchy of Study Abroad Experiences.” Geoforum 54 (2014): 70-79.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2014.04.005.
Doerr, Neriko Musha. “Learning as Othering: Narratives of Learning, Construction ofDifference and the Discourse of Immersion in Study Abroad.” Intercultural Education
28, no. 1 (2017): 90-103. https://doi.org/10.1080/14675986.2017.1288482.
Doerr, Neriko. “Do ‘Global Citizens’ Need the Parochial Cultural Other?: Discourses of Study
Abroad a nd L ea r n i ng by D oi ng .” C o mp a r e: A Jo ur n a l of C o mp a r a t iv e a n d
International Education 43:2 (2010): 224-43. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2012.70
1852.
Fujita, Yuiko. Cultural Migrants from Japan: Youth, Media, and Migration in New Yorkand London. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2009.
Goodwin, Craufurd D, and Michael Nacht. Abroad and beyond Patterns in American
Overseas Education. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 1988.
Hoffa, William, and Stephen C. DePaul. A History of Us Study Abroad: 1965-Present.
Carlisle, PA: Forum on Education Abroad, 2010.
Hovland, Kevin, Caryn McTighe Musil, Ellen Skilton-Sylvester, and Amy Jamison. “It Takes
a Curriculum: Bringing Global Mindedness Home.” The Handbook of Practice andResearch in Study Abroad, 2010, 488-506. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203876640-36.
Komisarof, Adam. At Home Abroad: The Contemporary Western Experience in Japan.
Chiba, JP: Reitakudaigakushuppankai, 2012.
Laubscher, Michael R. Encounters with Difference: Student Perceptions of the Role of outof-Class Experiences in Education Abroad. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1994.
Robertson, Shanthi. Transnational Student-Migrants and the State the Education-Migration
Nexus. Houndmills, Basingstoke, , England: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.

325

14_Roy Gerard Hedrick.indd 325

22/02/28 20:09

論文

Tremblay, Karine. “Academic Mobility and Education.” Journal of Studies in International
Education 9, no. 3 (2005): 196-228. https://doi.org/10.1177/1028315305277618.

326

14_Roy Gerard Hedrick.indd 326

22/02/28 20:09

Migrants or Study Abroad? An analysis of the study abroad experience of foreign students in an English taught degree program in Japan

Abstract

Migrants or Study Abroad? An analysisof the study abroad experience of foreign
students in an English taught degree
program in Japan
Roy Gerard HEDRICK III

In this article, I explore the disconnect between the current discourse of
study abroad materials and the actual experience of long-term study abroad
students.
Using data from in-depth interviews and observations, I explore the conceptof study abroad in relation to the identities of students in Doshisha’s Institute of
the Liberal Arts. The phrase “study abroad student” carries with it certain
expectations and connotations for both native Japanese and other study abroad
students. Many of the students at the ILA feel that these connotations do notaccurately apply to them. Contemporary study abroad materials focuse on the“three goals” of study abroad: fostering global knowledge, global competence,and cross cultural adaptability. Much of these materials try to figure out how
best to measure these learning outcomes accurately, while others suggest
activities to best achieve these desired outcomes. The focus of this is mainly on
short-term, credit-seeking students who usually spend six months to a year
abroad before returning home. This distinction highlights a gap in our current
understanding of study abroad, there are many other types of study abroad
students, the I LA being one program that is very different . I nstead ofconforming to the three educational goals of study abroad and viewing
themselves as temporary, these students view themselves as permanent
migrants. In so doing, they subvert the assumed borders created by thediscourse of study abroad.

327

14_Roy Gerard Hedrick.indd 327

22/02/28 20:09

14_Roy Gerard Hedrick.indd 328

22/02/28 20:09