Ambiguity & Truth
Delivered many places“Make it clear.” This fundamental assumption of communication would seem to be
an attainable goal. Objectify the audience, understand their desires—appeal to theirinterests, eliminate the extraneous and presto “effective communication.”
Well, maybe not.
Some months ago I came upon a book by Leo Steinberg called the Incessant Last
Supper, based on what may be the greatest single work of western painting, Leonardo
DaVinci’s Last Supper. I’ve always loved the painting and have been looking at it forover a half-century beginning with a penny print I bought in kindergarten. In 1951, notmany years after World War II, I visited it for the first time. It was in terrible shape,
covered with mold and dirt and darkened by centuries of wear and bad restoration –Nevertheless the genius that Leonardo had invested in the work showed through andcould not be denied. I had occasion to visit Milan frequently because I was doing a lotof work for Olivetti, at that time one of the most progressive of all European industrialconcerns. In the eighties they initiated a complete restoration of the painting. Sadly,
Olivetti is no longer an extraordinary example of how a corporation could be a good
citizen as well as a profitable business, in fact it no longer exists. On one of my visits toItaly, they arranged for me to visit the painting in the process of being restored.
An attractive middle aged matron in a brown business suit was concentrating her
attention on the face of Christ, high above the floor on a scaffold that had been
constructed next to the painting. I say painting instead of fresco because, as many ofyou know, the Last Supper was an experiment in using untested pigments and binders
that Leonardo was interested in. This is one of the reasons the work has fared sobadly since it was first created. Dr. Pinin Brambilla Barcillon, who had the incredible
responsibility of restoring the work single handedly, motioned me up the scaffold
alongside her, inches away from the head of Christ, the centerpiece of the painting
towards which all forms converged – I cannot describe my emotions as I realized theprivilege of seeing Leonardo’s work from a vantage point that few will ever have.
The head was a pointillist composition of tiny dots and fragments of color that desolved

www.milt onglaser .com

into an abstraction as you got closer. Dr. Brambilla sat behind an optical instrument that
illuminated one square inch of the painting’s surface at a time (a day’s work) as she
looked through a magnifying lens – Her primary tools were a scalpel, a cotton swab,
soap and water. Layer by layer she was cleaning away the dirt, waxes, varnish andover-painting of centuries. I tried to imagine what might be going through her mind,
considering that if she took one extra swipe with her swab, the world’s most precious
patch of paint could be irreversibly gone. As it was, only half the original pigment ofChrist’s face existed once the various retouchings had been carefully removed. Afterrevealing the real Leonardo fragment Dr. Brambilla would float in a thin neutral film ofwatercolor around it to unify the image.
As I looked at it, I realized that re-creating the image in the mind, out of the bits andpieces that remain, makes the work even more evocative than it might have beenoriginally, a point I want to get to a bit later. I’ve returned to re-visit the sublime
masterpiece at ground level many time since then and I urge all of you to do thesame since the painting and the space it defines are unreproducible. The first thing
you’ll observe is that your preconceptions about Leonardo’s style are challenged—it
is not dark and defined by dramatic chiaroscuro: on the contrary it is more like an
impressionist painting full of fragmented cerulean blue, white and pink. Despite all of
this I never understood why the work was so compelling until I read Leo Steinberg’s
remarkable book.
At this point some of you must be asking “Am I at the right keynote? What does thishave to do with marketing or communication?” Bear with me.
The painting is a demonstration of how the brain works and a revelation of how belief
conditions our senses of reality. It is not an attempt to illustrate one moment in time.
That apparently was too simple for Leonardo. If you approach the work with the ideathat it illustrates the words ‘one of you shall betray me’ all the figures in the painting
assume poses that clearly respond to those words with shock honor and revulsion.
One of the principles of Renaissance communication was that the position of a figure
revealed character and emotion.
On the other hand if you shift the message you hold in your mind to the institutionof the Eucharist, “Take this and eat: this is my body,” the meaning of the apostles’
gestures change before your eyes in response to this first call to communion.
www.milt onglaser .com

Think of it, two completely separate ideas in two different moments in time being
simultaneously conveyed.
The mural is filled with irreconcilable contradictions. The table is too large for the space
its in, yet too small to accommodate the apostles. Christ is enlarged (astonishingly thisis almost never observed) so that seated he is as tall as Matthew and Bartholomew
who are standing. Because Leonardo is interested in saying two different things at thesame time, the painting can be read left to right where the apostles on our left have
only heard the announcement of betrayal and those on the right are responding to thetheme of the Eucharist. On the other hand, Christ is also speaking directly to us withhis dual nature expressed in his two hands, his nervous right simultaneously referringto the treason dish and a glass of wine, his left offering redemptive self-sacrifice. It’s
important to understand that the apostles are not aware of the entire gesture. They,
after all, can only see Christ in profile. Only we can see how all the forms in the painting
converge on the triangular form of Jesus to represent his divinity.
Of course for us the question is why would the most lucid mind in human history
introduce so much ambiguity in a work that intends to affect its viewers? Ambiguity
incidentally is a military term that means to be attacked from two sides at once. Theanswer may have to do with the way we process information. The human brain is aproblem-solving organ, a characteristic that probably is at the center of our dominanceover other species. The brain frequently remains inert until a problem is presented to it.
In the case of The Last Supper, the profound ambiguity it contains alerts and stimulates
the brain into action. DaVinci clearly believed that ambiguity was a way of arriving at thetruth. As a result, the painting moves us in a deeper and more profound way than any
direct statement.
I suggest that all of us involved in communicating ideas to others can learn a lot from
Leonardo. Of course, the truth of the Last Supper has been unfolding for centuries
and our work usually has to be understood in seconds. Five hundred years later
another genius, Pablo Picasso, spent many years depicting subjects from several
different points of view at once, understanding that any single point of view wasa misrepresentation. Before I go any further, let me apologize to Leo Steinberg for
reducing his brilliant observations to a simple-minded proposition.
In our practice we frequently use a less elevated version of the ambiguity principle towww.milt onglaser .com

create a puzzle that the audience can solve within a short length of time. Clearly, theperiod of time between seeing something and understanding it is critical, too short andthe viewer is not engaged, too long and you lose his attention and frequently generate
confusion and resentment.
Since ambiguity seems often to be a central and powerful tool of communication, thenext question might be what is its relationship to telling the truth. Of course the truth
has never been easy to determine and one could say that at this moment the truth has
become more elusive than ever. Yet we must begin with the presumption that telling
the truth is essential for human survival.
Several years ago on a flight from Las Vegas to Dallas a hostess entered the aisle witha vigorously steaming tray of hot towels. As she approached me, I observed that thesteam was actually coming from a wineglass next to the towels—”What is that?”
I asked the hostess, who I later found out was a former kindergarten teacher andgrandmother. “Dry ice and water,” she replied, “Is that for the drama?” I asked. “Yes,”
she replied. For whatever the reason that brief conversation continues to haunt me.
What can it mean when a freezing glass of dry ice is used to simulate a steaming towel
on a plane trip? Can this modest deception benefit either the airline or its passengers?
Where was the decision made to do it? In the boardroom? In the advertising agency?
On the flight itself? Does the airline believe that the drama of the steaming towels will
suggest a policy of concerned service? What happens to the customer in the last row
of the plane when he is handed a cold towel while the tray above his head is steaming
madly? Does he doubt his own nervous system? Does he believe he has had a stroke?
What makes me uncomfortable with all of this? Why do I believe that harm is beingdone?
I once created a test called The Road to Hell. I had just finished illustrating a sectionof Dante’s Divine Comedy for an Italian publisher. When I first got the assignment
I was unhappy that I had been given Purgatory as a subject as opposed to Inferno.
As an illustrator, Hell had always seemed more interesting to me. Frankly, I neverquite understood the difference between Hell and Purgatory. As you may know,
the difference is simply that those in Hell are not aware of what put them in Helland are doomed to be there forever. Those in Purgatory are aware of their sins andconsequently have the possibility of getting out by moving to a higher plane. This fact
www.milt onglaser .com

immediately made Purgatory more relevant to me, in part, because Purgatory is wheremost of us are right now. In any event, awareness of what we actually do in life seems
worth thinking about.
Let me read you The Road to Hell, a series of questions that become more difficulty thedeeper you go. The first couple are easy, would you—
1. Design a package to look larger on the shelf?
2. Do an ad for a slow-moving, boring film to make it seem like a lighthearted comedy?
3. Design a crest for a new vineyard to suggest that it’s been in business for a longtime?
4. Design a jacket for a book whose sexual content you find personally repellent?
5. Design an advertising campaign for a company with a history of known discriminationin minority hiring?
6. Design a package for a cereal aimed at children, which has low nutritional value andhigh sugar content?
7. Design a line of T-shirts for a manufacturer who employs child labor?
8. Design a promotion for a diet product that you know doesn’t work?
9. Design an ad for a political candidate whose policies you believe would be harmful tothe general public?
10. Design a brochure piece for an SUV that turned over more frequently than averagein emergency conditions and caused the death of 150 people?
11. Design an ad for a product whose continued use might cause the user’s death?
When I gave this test to students between the ages of 21 to 28, I discovered thatin a group of 20, 3 or 4 of them were willing to go all the way—That is, participate inadvertising a product whose use might cause the user’s death. These were generally
idealistic young people as yet seemingly uncorrupted by money or professional life.
However, they drew the line at harming their family, friends or neighbors.
The other day in the country, I thought I’d make a Greek salad for lunch. Tomatoes are
not quite in season but I had some good onions, peppers, cucumbers as well as a small
square of feta and some excellent olives, olive oil and Greek oregano. As I was adding
the feta to the salad I checked the nutritional label; it read 70 calories per serving. “Notbad” I thought, and crumbled the cheese into the bowl. Something made me examine
the label again. Under “number of servings” it said 7. I had just added 490 calories to adiet-conscious lunch for my wife and myself…I wondered how did a thimbleful of feta
www.milt onglaser .com

become a serving? You all know the answer.
After lunch I turned on the TV to watch the ball game. A commercial for a nasty-looking
green salve to treat arthritis was on, showing a smiling young woman testifying to theefficacy of the medication. “I was barely able to move my fingers” she said, “and now
I can type for hours without any pain.” At the bottom of the screen in 6 point, barely
visible type, were the words “results may not be typical”. Could I have picked any
more trivial examples to indicate the lies we experience in daily life? Perhaps not, but
the truth is we are subjected to a thousand of such misrepresentations every day of ourlives. So pervasive is the culture of small distortions that we can no longer recognizethem as lies. To quote Mc Luhan, “The fish in water doesn’t know it’s in water”—
nevertheless the assault has changed our brains and our view of reality and truth.
Most of us here today are in the transmission business. While we don’t often originate
the content of what we transmit, we are an essential part of communicating ideas
to a public that is affected by what we say. Should telling the truth be a fundamental
requirement of this role? Is there a difference between lying to your wife and friends
and lying to people you don’t know? Certainly one thing that makes lying easier isthinking of the audience not as citizens but as consumers—the consumer is anotherspecies, and in professional life they are often thought of as the “other”. To quote
Elaine Pagels in her book, The Origins of Satan, “The social and cultural practice ofdefining certain people as ‘others’ in relationship to one’s own group may be, of course
as old as humanity itself.” While marketing is obsessed with the way groups behave
it doesn’t generally conceive of those groups as being our fathers, mothers, sistersor friends, this would make the job far too complex. Rather, these groups are thoughtof as ‘markets’ with generalized characteristics that make manipulating them seem
ethically acceptable. One thing seems consistent, the greater the psychic distance theeasier it is to persuade people to act against their own self-interest.
The issue seems more significant than ever. Today, given the aggressive distortionof truth and reality that pervades our civic and business life. It is not a coincidence
that Karl Rove, a brilliant marketing man is, next to the President himself, the mostimportant man in Washington and perhaps the world.
What is truly frightening is the degree to which lying has become acceptable in ourpublic life. I’m not sure when the word “spin” replaced “lie” but it is characteristicwww.milt onglaser .com

of how our language has become a way of deflecting or distorting reality. We seemto be awash in lies from business, the government, and almost every institution wehave traditionally looked to as a source of belief. Our government has embarked on
an investigation to determine whether the atrocities performed at Abu Ghraib wereaberational or systemic. What would be equally important is an examination of whether
lying has become systemic in our nation and the way our government speaks tous. The relative lack of public outrage as government and business lies are revealed
is troubling, and may indicate how the American sense of what truth is has been
profoundly shaped by our most pervasive educational medium, advertising.
Actually it works two ways, advertising influences our relationship to government andgovernment influences our view of advertising. A recent somewhat homophobic adby Anheuser-Busch (no relation), in addition to characterizing Miller as a “sissy” beer,“outed” the Miller Beer Corporation as being owned by a South African company,
paralleling the outing, by unknown government insiders, of CIA Agent Valerie Plame.
As you all know, that event was triggered because her husband told the truth about
whether or not nuclear materials were being shipped from Niger. In my memory thisis the first time that the patriotism of a competitor has been questioned in order topromote beer sales. Marketing can be shameless.
Politicians and businessmen have re-discovered the power of Lenin’s old idea that alie repeated often enough, becomes the truth. This dark assumption throws a pall over
America as well as the entire world and endangers democracy itself. When people
believe that their government systemically lies to them they become cynical. Cynicism
breeds apathy and a sense of powerlessness that causes people to withdraw frompublic life. It is not coincidental that less than half our population votes. If only 44%
of our country vote and we are equally divided ideologically, it means that 20% of theelectorate control the fate of our nation—this has become a profound threat to thefuture of our republic and democracy itself. We can only call this a systemic scandal
and observe that those in power have done very little to change the condition. Whichraises one last question. From our government’s point of view, have we become the“other”?

www.milt onglaser .com