ISSN 1880-8468
Technical Report ofInternational Development Engineering
国際開発工学報告

TRIDE-2014-05

June 5, 2014

Abstracts of Bachelor Theses
Presented in Feburary 2014

Department of International Development Engineering,
Graduate School of Science and Engineering,Tokyo Institute of Technology
http://www.ide.titech.ac.jp/TR

Preface

Bachelor theses of Department of International Development Engineering, Tokyo Institute ofTechnology were presented successfully on August 5, 2013 and February 28, 2014,
respectively. This technical report consists of the abstracts of those theses.

Technical Report of International Development Engineering
TRIDE-2014-03b
Table of Contents(Completing in September 2013)
天然ゼオライトによる重金属の吸着....................................................................................................... 陳子和/ Chen Zihe

1

Selective Catalytic Reduction of Nitrogen Oxide by Propene over CeriaZirconia............................................................................................. Bantan Furat Mohmmedalia

3

有機酸を分解する新規酵母を接種した高速コンポスト化........................................................................................................................ 荒谷 彰吾

5

タケを原料としたエタノール生成のための前処理の効果............................................................................................................................ 松尾 遼

7

鉄筋コンクリートの電着工法に対する鉄およびアルミニウム陽極の適応...................................................................................................................... 平井

雄之

9

祐太

11

............................................................................................................................ 張 逸群

13(Completing in March 2014)
東京－熊谷間における夏季東京湾海風の年代変化...................................................................................................................... 寢占Application of Thermal Image Velocimetry to Dust Devil-Like Vortex

WRF-CHEMを用いた関東域海風挙動のシミュレーション........................................................................................................................ 三井 智章

15

実都市幾何における三次元熱放射過程を考慮したLES数値解析........................................................................................................................ 吉田 祐麻17

直接・間接排出に着目した市町村別CO2排出量の可視化.......................................................................................................................... 王

旭陽

19

成

21

隆介

23

塩害及び中性化におけるフライアッシュを用いた
海水練り鉄筋コンクリートの寿命予測.............................................................................................................................. 易
FOSS GIS の実現可能性の研究：ルアンパバーン世界遺産地域のケース...................................................................................................................... 片桐ニッケル水素電池におけるパルス充電のduty比及び電流値が充放電効率に及ぼす影響.......................................................................................................................... 高健太

25Passenger Characteristics and Mode Choice Competition between High Speed Railand Air Transport in China............................................................................................................................ 康 書陽27

タイの工業団地立地に対する交通インフラの影響.......................................................................................................................... 齋藤

亘

29

森

31

梁集合体のジオメトリが凝着力に及ぼす影響.......................................................................................................................... 島原

干満帯における電気防食を適用した欠陥を有する塗装鋼材の劣化に関する
実験的検討........................................................................................................................ 志村 恭平

33

菜種油・大豆油系廃食油を原料としたバイオディーゼル生成に対する遊離脂肪酸除去の影響............................................................................................................................ 石 振強

35

開発途上国における鉄道貨物輸送実態の国際比較........................................................................................................................ 祖田 真志

37

湖沼汚泥由来の人工ゼオライトによるクロム（Ⅲ）の除去........................................................................................................................ 高松 貴大

39

Development of motion capture software for simultaneous measurement
system of radio channel response and body motion............................................................................................................................ 陳 高超

41

大域的射影変換を用いた画像マッチングに関する研究.............................................................................................................................. 陳陽

43

基礎の沈下によって引き起こされる盛土中央の圧力減少(Central pressure drop underneath embankments caused by basal settlement).................................................................................................................... 中村 淳一郎

45

銀イオンによる殺菌効果の定量的評価.................................................................................................................... 日比生 拓也

47

Development of channel sounder with universal software radio platform(汎用ソフトウェア無線機を用いた電波伝搬測定装置の開発)............................................................................................................................ 閔 天楊

49

温度がシリコンゴムとガラスの弾性接触における凝着ヒステリシスに及ぼす影響............................................................................................................................ 傅 冠达51

複雑地形における津波の遡上解析に関する研究........................................................................................................................ 松本 光希

53

給水養生装置の電気化学的補修工法への適用に関する研究.......................................................................................................................... 山本

周

55

1

2

プロペンを還元剤とした CeO2-­‐ZrO2 複合触媒による NO 選択還元	
  
	
  
	
   	
  
学籍番号：08-­‐20000	
  氏名：バンタン	
  フラート	  指導教官：日野出	
  洋文	
  
	
  
	
  
CeO2(1)-ZrO2(6)で省略）と１対１の質量比でJRC-CEO-2 と JRC-ZRO-6 （ 以 下 CeO2(2)ZrO2(6)で省略）を混ぜた（上記の触媒を混ぜるにはエタノールを使用した）。共沈法では、硝酸ジルコニル二水和物 ZrO	  (NO3)2	  ·
2H2O(Wako)と硝酸二アンモニウムセリウムⅣ
Ce(NH4)2(NO3)6 （Kanto Chemical）が前駆体として使用し、同じモル比で混ぜた。硝酸ジル
コニル二水和物を 70ml のイオン交換水に溶
解して、pH を 0.5〜1.0 に調整するために
HNO3 溶液を添加した （硝酸二アンモニウム
セリウムⅣ の粒子が均一に溶解するために、pH を調整する必要がある）。その後、硝酸二アンモニウムセリウムⅣを溶解し、溶液中に最終的に 9〜11 の pH を調整する NH3 溶液を添加する。各調製工程は、30 分の攪拌時間が必要である。さらに、ビーカーの上に配置
する時計皿により、溶媒の蒸発を防止した。
空気中で 8 時間の熟成をした後、時計皿を取り外して、イオン交換水を用いて加水分解を行った。乾燥のための前処理として濾過（真空フィルタリング）を行った。次いで試料を100℃で約 8 時間乾燥した。乾燥した触媒をメノウ乳鉢で粉砕し、電気炉で焼成するために焼成ボートに詰められる。焼成は、空気雰
囲気下 550℃で 4 時間行った。共沈法の触媒の結果は(Zr0.5Ce0.5	
 O2)である。焼結現象があるので、焼成後の触媒は、乳鉢で再び粉砕した。出来上がった全て混合サンプルが粉砕した後、 円形ペレット触媒に成形されて、篩いを用いて触媒の粒径が、0.71〜1.00 ミリメー
トルに調整されている。機械的混合法の場合
では、焼成前と焼成後の触媒の活性を比較するために、焼成前と焼成後の活性実験を行った。
	  活性実験は固定床流通反応装置で行われた。
反応ガスは、1500ppm の NO、10％の O2 、1500	  ppm の C3H6、及び He をバランスガス
としてから構成されていた。0.9〜1.4g の触媒に 13000	  h−1 の空間速度（約４mL/s の総ガス流量）を流した。温度は 150〜550℃まで段階的に変更した。NO と NO2 濃度は、窒素酸化物分析計（島津製作所、NOA-7000）によ１	  はじめに	 	  	 	  高い燃料効率及び CO2 の低排出ガスを有す
るディーゼルエンジンが未来の輸送およびリモート発電似広く使われていると予測する[1]。しかし、酸性雨や光化学スモッグの原
因物質の一つであるリーンバーンエンジン排気中の NOx の低減が大きな課題である。さま
ざまな対策方法の中に、炭化水素による NOxの選択還元触媒（HC-SCR）が同時に NOx と未燃炭化水素を除去することができ移動発生源に由来する窒素酸化物を除去するために効果
的かつ経済的な技術であることが証明されている。現在のパフォーマンスは、特に商用アプリケーションでは、その低温領域での性能は十分ではないため、希薄燃焼条件下でのC3H6-SCR は、過去数十年の間に大きな注目を集めている。HC-SCR 反応が、NO2 生成反応及び NO2 と炭化水素の反応によって進行しているという機構が多くの研究者によって提案されている	
 [2]。	 	  上記の課題を解決するために CeO2-ZrO2 複合触媒の NO 選択還元に対する活性を本研究のテーマとして調べられた。CeO2 は無害で経済的な材料であり、酸素貯蔵物質として注目されている。CeO2 の存在により、NO から NO2への酸化反応を促進し、NO の還元性が増加させると報告された。ZrO2 の CeO2 への添加によって低温領域での CeO2 の酸素貯蔵能力、酸化還元性、耐熱性、優れた触媒活性を向上させる[3]。	 	
 ２	
  触媒調製および実験	 	 	  触媒は２つの方法によって調製した：①機
械的混合法、②共沈法である。機械的混合法
では、JRC-ZRO-(３,５,６)と JRC-CEO-(１,２)の５つの触媒を前駆体として使った。５つの前駆体を５５０℃で焼成してから、各触媒の活性実験が行われた。その結果を基づいて、機械的混合法に使用された触媒は JRCZRO−６と JRC−CEO-(１,２)であった。１対１の質量比で JRC-CEO-1 と JRC-ZRO-6（以下3って分析された。N2O 分析は、ガスクロマト
グラフ（GL サイエンス、GC-323w）を用いて、CO2 および CO 分析には、ガスクロマト
グラフ（GL サイエンス、GC-390）が使用された。触媒を評価するために、TG	  -DTA、
XRD、窒素吸着（オートゾーブ 1MP/ TSU、
BET 分析）が使用された。
図２	
  機械的混合法及び共沈法のプロペンを還元剤としての NO から N2 への還元活性実
験結果

３	
  結果と考察	  図１では、機械的混合法の前駆体によってNO から N2 への還元活性実験結果を示している 。 そ の 中 で 最 も 活 性 の 高 い 触 媒 は JRCZRO-6 であった。その結果を基づいて、JRCZRO の前駆体の中から JRC-ZRO-6 を選択した。一方、JRC-CEO はほぼ同じ結果を示したため、両方を試すことにした(以下の図でBC:焼成前、AC:焼成後の意味を示している)。

図３	
  機械的混合法及び共沈法のプロペンを還元剤としての C3H6 から CO2 への還元活性
実験結果
	
  	
 	
 
	
 

４	
  結論 	 	 	
  機械的混合法で調製した触媒がプロペンを還元剤としてセリア−ジルコニアによる NO から N2 への選択還元を示した。	
 機械的混合法が共沈法より高い活性を表した。機械的混合法の中では CeO2(1)-ZrO2(6)が最も活性の高い触媒であった。その理由としては、焼成や比率の影響があると予測されている。比率を変化することによってさらなる高い活性が得られると思われている。	
 
	
 

図１	
  機械的混合法の前駆体のプロペンを還元剤としての NO から N2 への還元活性実験
結果
	  図２では機械的混合法および共沈法によって調製された触媒の NO から N2 への還元活性実験結果、図３では２つの方法によって調製された触媒の C3H6 から CO2 への酸化活性実験結果を示している。両図では焼成後のCeO2(1)-ZrO2	
  (6)が最も高い活性を表している。他の機械的混合法の触媒はほぼ同じ結果を示しているが、共沈法の触媒は NO から N2への還元活性の最も低い活性を表している。
それらの結果から、共沈法によって、ジルコ
ニアの NOx 還元に対する活性が低下すると考えられる。一方、機械的混合法の触媒は比較的に高い活性を示したが、混合比の調整によって活性がより向上できると考えられる。焼成前後のデータを比較すると、焼成も触媒活性に影響することが分かった。

参考文献	
 
	
 
[1]	
 Jie	
 Liu,	 Environ.	
 Sci.	 Technol.,	
 47,	
 
4528	
 (2013)	
 [2]	
 R.Burch,	
 T.C.	
 Watling,	
 Appl.Catal.B,	
 
11,	
 207	
 (1997)	
 [3]	
 S.Matsumoto,	
 Catalysis	
 Today,	
 90,	
 3–
4,	
 (2004)	
 	
 4High-speed composting by inoculation of novel yeast that degrades organic acids
Student Number: 09-00962 Name: Shogo ARAYA Supervisor: Kiyohiko NAKASAKI

1 Introduction

3 Results and discussion

Managing the ever-increasing waste materials
produced in our society has become an essential area ofstudy in recent years. Among waste materials, organic
fractions such as food waste originating from households,
restaurants, and food processing factories can bereclaimed as compost for agricultural use. One of thesignificant characteristics of food waste composting isthat the pH decreases in the early stages of composting,and it is well known that the low pH inhibits vigorous
organic matter degradation in the composting.
In this study, a yeast strain RB1, which has a highability of degrading organic acids, was used as an
inoculum in order to prevent the decrease in pH and toaccelerate organic matter degradation.

3-1 Time course of composting
The effect of inoculation on composting is shown in
Fig. 1, which illustrates changes in temperature, pH, andconversion of carbon during the 10-day composting
period. In Run A, temperature immediately increased
after the start of composting and reached to 60°C at day
2. The pH also increased from the beginning, and finallyleveled off at approximately pH 8.5. In contrast,
temperature started to increase after the turning of day 2
and reached 60°C by day 4 in Run B, and the pH of Run
B only began to rise at day 2 of composting, finallyreaching a pH of 8.5 by day 8. Both temperature and pH
of Run A increased faster than those of Run B, whichindicated that strain RB1 effectively increased thetemperature and pH in the early stages of composting.
The conversion of carbon was used to better understandthe amount of organic matter degraded. The conversionof carbon for Run A rose faster than that for Run B by
about 2 days, but the difference in the conversion ofcarbon between Run A and Run B became small in thelater stages, suggesting that the effect of inoculation with
RB1 was more significant at the start of composting.

2 Materials and methods

Conversion of C (%)

pH (-)

Temperature (。C)

2-1 Compost material and composting operation
Commercial rabbit food was used as a representativemodel of food waste so that reproducible data could beobtained. The rabbit food, sawdust, and seeding material
were mixed at a ratio of 10:9:1 and 4 types of organic
acids characteristically contained in food waste (acetic
acid, propionic acid, butyric acid, and lactic acid) wereadded to create a raw compost mixture. The
concentration of organic acids in the raw compost
mixture was adjusted by referring to the previous study[1]. Two types of composting experiments were
performed. Run A included inoculation of the compost
with a yeast strain RB1, which has a high degradation
activity against organic acids, and Run B was the control
composting without inoculation of RB1. At the start ofboth experimental runs, the moisture content was
adjusted to 60% by addition of distilled water. Initial
temperature was at around 27°C, and after temperaturereached to 60°C by self-heating due to organic matterdecomposition, 60°C was maintained by the increase or
decrease in air flow rate. The period of composting was
set at 10 days. The concentration of CO2 in the exhaustgas from the reactor was measured continuously, andwith air flow rate at that time, the CO2 evolution rate andthe conversion of carbon corresponding to the rate oforganic matter decomposition were quantified.

70
60
50
40
30
20
9
8
7
6
5
4
60

A
B

A
B

40
A
B

20
0

4
6
8
10
Time (d)Fig. 1 The courses of temperature, pH, and conversion ofcarbon during composting for Run A (inoculated)
and Run B (control).
Organic acids degradation during composting underboth conditions is shown in Fig. 2. In Run A, acetic acid,propionic acid, and lactic acid were instantly degradedafter the start of composting, though butyric aciddegradation was delayed by approximately 1 day. For thecontrol composting, acetic acid and lactic aciddegradation began at day 2 after initiation of composting,whereas a decrease in propionic acid and butyric acidwas observed after 3 days of composting. The reason forthe delayed degradation of propionic acid may be thatpropionic acid is a fatty acid with an odd number ofcarbons, and that of butyric acid may be that butyric acidwas degraded through acetic acid by β-oxidation. As
mentioned above, the ease of degradation depended upon
the types of organic acids; however, all acids were

2-2 Physicochemical analyses
The compost samples collected at days 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, and 10 were measured for pH, moisture content, andconcentration of organic acids. The concentration oforganic acids was determined using a high pressureliquid chromatography (HPLC) system equipped with a
UV monitor.
2-3 Microbial analysis of compost samples
A dilution plating method was used to determine thecell density of bacteria and yeasts, including that of theRB1 strain inoculated into the raw compost material.
The microbial community in the compost samples wasdetermined by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis(DGGE) analysis [2]. In the DGGE analysis, bacterial
16S rRNA gene fragment was used. Characteristic bands
in the DGGE gel were excised and base sequences of the
DNA contained in the bands were determined.
502

Mesophilic and thermophilic bacteria proliferated
faster in Run A than Run B. From these results, it is
proposed that the role of RB1 in the compost was todegrade organic acids, thus adjusting the environmental
conditions to promote the growth of othermicroorganisms that contribute to organic matter
degradation.

Conc. of organic acids (g/kg-ds)

completely degraded in both composting conditions by
the end of the 10-day composting period. The pH
increase during composting corresponded well with theobserved changes in organic acids concentrations in theearly phase of composting. In the middle phase ofcomposting, the pH continued to increase even after theorganic acids diminished. This was likely due to the
production of alkaline substances such as NH3 that is
associated with protein degradation that occurs duringcomposting.
16A

3-3 Changes in bacterial community
The dynamic changes in a bacterial community
determined by the DGGE fingerprint during compostingprocess are shown in Fig. 4. It was observed that,except for bands 1, 2, and 3, the bands with high lightintensity for both composting conditions, such as band 4,
5 (12), 6, 7, 10, and 11 (13), were similar when thetemperature was increased to 60 °C. These results
suggest that the microorganisms dominant during thethermophilic stages of composting with RB1 inoculation
were also dominant during composting without RB1
inoculation. The RB1 inoculation may have accelerated
the proliferation of those bacteria by adjusting theenvironmental conditions to optimize their growth.

B
Acetic acid
Propionic acid
Butyric acid
Lactic acid

12
8
4
0

0

2

4
6
8
10
Time (d)Fig. 2 The courses of concentration of organic acids
during composting for Run A (inoculated) and
Run B (control).

3-2 Microbial succession
The growth curves of yeast and mesophilic andthermophilic bacteria during composting for Run A andRun B are shown in Fig. 3. In Run A, the cell density ofyeast, which is mainly RB1, initially proliferated rapidly
and then drastically decreased to non-detectable levels by
day 2 of the inoculated compost. The rapid decrease ofRB1 corresponded to the increase of composting
temperature, suggesting that 60 °C is too high for the
RB1 strain to survive. The rapid growth of RB1
coincided closely with the decrease in organic acids;
hence, this finding suggests that RB1 contributed to thedegradation of the organic acids in the raw compost
material.
10
9 (a)
8
A
7
B
6
5
4
3
10
9 (b)
8
7
6
A
5
B
4
3
10
9 (c)
8
7
6
A
5
B
4
3
0
2
4
6
8
10
Time (d)Fig. 3 The courses of cell density for yeast (a),mesophilic bacteria (b), and thermophilic
bacteria (c) during composting for Run A(inoculated) and Run B (control).

Fig. 4 PCR-DGGE fingerprint during composting for
Run A (inoculated) and Run B (control).

Log. cell density (CFU/g-ds)

4 Conclusions
The inoculation of yeast strain RB1 accelerated thedegradation of organic acids present in the raw compost
material, thus both mesophilic and thermophilic bacteria
proliferated faster in the compost with RB1 inoculation
than in that without inoculation. RB1 cells died withincrease in temperature, and this affected the early stagesof composting prior to the thermophilic stage. The RB1strain accelerated the composting process by at least 2days by eliminating the initial lag phase seen in thegrowth of other microorganisms.

References[1] Sundberg, C., et al.: Characterisation of source-separated household waste intended for composting,
Bioresour. Technol., 102, 2859-2867, (2011)[2] Kuok, F., et al.: Effects of turning on the microbialconsortia and the in situ temperature preferences of
microorganisms in a laboratory-scale swine manurecomposting, Bioresour. Technol., 116, 421-427,(2012)
6

The effects of pretreatments for bioethanol production from bamboo
Student Number：09-22001 Name：Ryo MATSUO Supervisor：Kiyohiko NAKASAKI
2-3 Saccharification of pretreated bamboo powder
The enzyme used for the saccharification of bamboo
powder was Meicerase (CEPB-5394, Meiji Co., Ltd.),
which was derived from Trichoderma viride. The pretreatedbamboo powder was added to 0.1M citric acid buffer
solution with the pH adjusted to 5.5. The mixture wassterilized by autoclaving at 121℃ for 20min. The filter
sterilized Meicelase solution was then added to the mixture,and the concentrations of bamboo and Meicelase were
adjusted to 20 and 1 g/L, respectively. Saccharification was
conducted at 35℃ for 96 h. The concentrations of glucose
after saccharification were determined using a HPLC systemequipped with RI monitor.

1 Introduction
Increasing world-wide concern regarding petroleum
shortage and carbon dioxide emission has resulted in greater
demand for alternative energy sources. As one of thepromising sources of sustainable energy, bioethanol has
attracted attention in recent years. Although the ethanol
production from edible biomass, such as cornstarch andsugarcane, has been highly developed and is currently being
employed, this technology of bio-ethanol from agricultural
production does not solve the issue of food competitivenessand the development of ethanol production from inediblebiomass has been required.
Because of its fast growth, bamboo is a promisingbiomass resource [1]. Furthermore, overgrowing of bamboo
in private fields is problem in Asia, and efficient use ofbamboo is necessary for its disposal as well. Therefore, theuse of bamboo as the raw material of bioethanol is useful.
In this study, we investigated the effect of pretreatment on
bamboo for efficient saccharification and ethanol production,
and applied Electric beam (EB) and Microwave (MW)
irradiations as pretreatment methods.

Concentration of glucose (g/L)

3.5

2 Materials and methods
2-1 Pulverization of bamboo
Moso bamboo, which is obtained in Shizuoka, Japan, wasused as a raw material for ethanol production. Bamboo waspulverized into fine powder that has an approximately 50
μm of average particle size using a grinder (PA-C, MarudaiCo.).
2-2 Electron beam and microwave irradiations
In order to enhance the efficiency of saccharification,bamboo powder was further treated by electron beam andmicrowave irradiations.
In the EB irradiation pretreatment, 50 milligrams ofbamboo powder was added to 180µL of 18.6% hydrogen
peroxide, and irradiated with accelerated electrons at 90 kV,
200 mA for 5 min by using an electron beam irradiator(EB-engine, Hamamatsu photonics K.K.). Irradiated sample
was put in a microtube with 500 µL of ultrapure water. As
the control experiment, bamboo powder added to 180µL of
hydrogen peroxide was placed at room temperature for 5
min. Both the bamboo powder samples in the hydrogen
peroxide with and without irradiation of the electron beam
were added to 500µL of ultrapure water in the microtubes,
and were stored at -30℃.
In the MW pretreatment, 1gram of bamboo powder was
put into a microwave reactor with 10 mL of distilled water.
The reactor was irradiated and heated using microwave(Wave magic, EYELA). The heating temperature was varied
at 180, 190, and 200 ℃ , and each temperature wasmaintained for 10, 20, and 30min. The concentration of

3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0

None
H2O2
EBI
Fig. 1 The glucose concentration after the liquid-statesaccharification of bamboo fine powder which are
non-pretreated, hydrogen peroxide pretreated andElectron Beam Irradiation pretreated (n=3)

2-4 Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation of
microwave pretreated bamboo powder
Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) was
carried out using bamboo powder pretreated by microwave
at 190℃ for 30 min. In order to maintain the high activityof the yeast, culture broth containing yeast extract andpolypepton was put to microwaved bamboo powder after
washing with distilled water. Filter sterilized Meicelase
solution and Saccharomyces cerevisiae precultured on YM
agar plate at 30℃ for 36h, were then added to the mixture,and the concentrations of bamboo, yeast extract, Polypepton,
and Meicelase were adjusted to 300, 3, 5, and 15g/L,
respectively. SSF was conducted at 35℃ for 96 h, and theconcentrations of glucose and ethanol were determinedusing the HPLC with RI monitor.

3 Results and discussion
3-1 Effects of electric beam irradiation
The concentrations of glucose after 96-h saccharification ofbamboo powder with and without electron beam irradiation
were compared in Fig. 1. The concentrations of glucose
produced from the bamboo powder without pretreatment,
hydrogen peroxide pretreated bamboo powder, and electron
beam pretreated bamboo powders were 1.80, 1.77, and 2.69

5-HMF and furfural in the supernatant of processed
samples were determined using a HPLC with UV
monitor.

17

from liquid or solid were calculated. The concentration of
glucose originated from liquid is low, so it wasconsidered that high ethanol production could be stillobtained without glucose produced from liquid fraction.

g/L, respectively. The concentration of glucose produced
from electron beam-pretreated bamboo powder was higher
than that from both the bamboo powder without
pretreatment and hydrogen peroxide-pretreated bamboo
powders. The result indicates that electron beam
pretreatment promotes following saccharification.

3-2 Effects of microwave
The concentrations of glucose after 96-hsaccharification of bamboo powder pretreated by
microwave irradiation with different conditions werecompared in Fig. 2. Microwave pretreatments in all theconditions examined were effective for the enhancementof saccharification, and the concentrations of glucose
were higher than that of non-treatment. Especially in thecases of 190℃30min and 200℃ 30min, the effect of the
pretreatment on bamboo was high. The changes of theprocessing time did not result in the remarkabledifference in the concentration of glucose at all thetemperature conditions examined. Compared toconcentrations of glucose at 190℃ and 200℃, those of
180℃ were lower by 1g/L at least. On the other hand,the concentrations of glucose at 190℃ and 200℃ did
not differ significantly each other. Therefore the effect ofthe microwave depended on the temperature changes
more than time changes, especially from 190℃.
Compared to EB irradiation, MW irradiation attained
higher glucose concentration. Therefore, for thefollowing fermentation, the bamboo pretreated by
microwave at 190℃ for 30 min was chosen for ethanol
production.

Fig. 3 The glucose, xylose, 5-HMF and furfural concentrations
after the saccharification of bamboo fine powder
pretreated by microwave at 190℃ for 30 min.

3-4 SSF of pretreated bamboo fine powder
The courses of concentrations of glucose, xylose andEthanol during SSF of microwave pretreated bamboo fine
powder at 190℃ for 30min. Although small amount of
glucose remained after 96h, the ethanol concentration was
24.8 g/L. the application of SSF was effective for producing
high concentration of ethanol.

Concentration of glucose (g/L)

5
4

10min
20min
30min

3
2
1
0

180

190
200
Temperature (C。)
Fig. 2 Glucose concentration after the liquid-stateFig. 4 Courses of concentrations of glucose and Ethanol during
Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation (SSF) of

saccharification of bamboo fine powder pretreated by

microwave pretreated bamboo fine powder (n=3)

microwave

4. Conclusion

3-3 The detection of Inhibitors
It was known that intense pretreatment leads to thegeneration of inhibitors against the growth of a
microorganism such as 5-HMF and furfural which aredecomposed substances of glucose and xylose. It has
already been investigated that yeasts could be inhibitedby 5-HMF and furfural in the previous study [2].
Therefore the concentrations of inhibitors in supernatantof bamboo sample after the irradiation by MW at 190℃
for 30min was determined. The concentration of 5-HMF
and furfural were 0.65g/L and 2.16g/L. Fig. 3 shows theconcentration of glucose after saccharification of bamboo
fine powder which is pretreated by microwave at 190℃
for 30 min and the proportion of glucose which comes

In this study, high concentration, 24.8g/L, of bioethanol
was produced by using SSF of bamboo fine powderwhich is pretreated by microwave at 190℃30 min.

References[1]

Scurlock, J. M. O., D. C. Dayton, and B. Hames.
"Bamboo: an overlooked biomass resource?." Biomass
and bioenergy 19.4 (2000): 229-244.
[2] Lee, Hawon, et al. "Tolerance of Saccharomyces
cerevisiae K35 to lignocellulose-derived inhibitory
compounds." Biotechnology
andBioprocess
Engineering 16.4 (2011): 755-760.

28

Application of Fe or Al as External Electrode in Electrodeposition
Method for Reinforced Concrete
Student number: 09-19909 Name: Yuji HIRAI Supervisor: Nobuaki OTSUKI
From these results, electrodeposition method using Fe or
Al electrode showed almost same or higher repairing
effect to induce deposition products than conventional
method using Ti mesh. Especially when Fe or Al
electrode is used with Mg-ace solution the method
showed highest performance about deposition state
3.1.2 Chemical analysis (X-RD) electrodeposits property
Chemical compound deposited on surface ofspecimen was removed and analyzed by X-RD. From theresult, it is estimated that when deposition compoundconsists of Mg(OH)2 and MgAl(OH)14!xH2O it showshigh performance about deposition situation.

1. Introduction
Nowadays the deterioration of RC structures iswidely reported. So it is necessary to maintain or manage
these structures to use for long time. Repair of cracks isimportant from the view point of durability of RC
structures. For that purpose electrodeposition method is
one of the most effective repair methods. By this method
the filling of cracks and reforming of concrete surface
with electrodeposition product of chemical compounds
can be achieved.
Electrochemical
Repairmethodsuch
aselectrodeposition method has high effective features that
overcome disadvantages of conventional repair methods,
such as injection, surface sealing and local repair
method.
On the other hand, high construction cost is a big
issue of electro chemical repair methods. About half ofthe cost is for Ti mesh which is used as external electrode.
Therefore, in this study, in order to solve this problem,the application of Fe or Al as electrode is investigated;since Fe and Al are more economic (about 1/10 times)
than Ti mesh and easy to construct.
Based on these backgrounds, the objective of thisstudy is set as follows: usage of Fe or Al electrode forelectrodeposition method. Furthermore, to achieve thisobjective, these 3 subjects are investigated as follows.
(1) Deposition situation based on surface covering rate,and deposition depth.
(2) Resistivity against Cl- penetration based on NaClwater immersion test.
(3) Resistivity against cracking based on bending test.

3.1.3 Elution situations of Fe or Al electrode during 14
days charging

Fig 1.Device
Table 1. Electrodeposition Condition
namingelectrodesolution

Fe 1.
Fe
*M

Fe 2.
Fe
**MA

Fe 3.
Fe
W

Al 1.
Al
M

Al 2.
Al
MA

Al 3.
Al
W

*M: Mg Acetate [Mg(CH3COO)2 [0.1mol/L]]*MA: Mg Acetate + Aluminum compound[ Mg(CH3COO)2 [mol/L]+Al2(OH)5Cl・nH2O [0.1mol/L]]***Conventional Condition

2. Experimental Procedure
2.1 Specimen
Mortar specimens (40×40×160mm) were casted
with ordinary portland cement; w/c is 0.5 and s/c=2.5.
Steel rebar was embedded with 15mm mortar cover.
Crack of 0.4±0.1mm wide was induced in specimen
along the rebar.
2.2 Electrodeposition Method
Electrodeposition method was performed on thesemortar specimens for 14days with a 2.0A/m2. The device
consisted of external electrode (anode), external solution,
rebar in mortar specimen (cathode) and DC power supply,
as shown in Fig 1. Electrodeposition conditions areshown in Table 1.

80

40
20

No deposit60

No deposit

surface covering rate (%)

Surface Covering Rate (%)
1000Fe 1. Fe 2. Fe 3. Al 1. Al 2. Al 3. *Ti

Fig 2. Surface Covering Rate

8
6
4
2

No deposit

3. Results and discussion
3.1 Deposition state
3.1.1 Deposition state on mortar surface and inside the crack
Deposition state on mortar surface based on surface
covering rate, and inside the crack based on deposition
depth were investigated respectively.
The results of surface covering rate and deposition
depth are shown in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3.

Deposition Depth[mm]No deposit

deposition depth[mm]100Fe 1. Fe 2. Fe 3. Al 1. Al 2. Al 3.

Fig 3. Deposition Depth

9

*Ti

***Ti
Ti
M

real

Cl-Penetraion depth[mm]Elusion Situation [mg/cm2]

Elusion Situation[mg/cm2]

2

Estimation

1

0
Fe 1.

Fe 2.

Cl- penetration depth [Inside Crack]

60
40
20
0

Fe 1.

Fe 2.

Al 1.

Ti

control

Electrodeposition Condition

Al 1

Fig. 5 Cl-Fig
penetration[Inside Crack]
4. Elusiondepth
Situation
To evaluate the elution situation, elution amount
was investigated and compared to estimation which was
calculated from integrated current.
The results are shown in Fig 4. From the result it
can be said that the amount flown out was significantly
small that these electrodes have enough durability during
14 days charging. And these amount can be estimated by
calculation.
3.2 Resistivity against Cl- penetration
To evaluate resistivity against Cl- penetration ofmortar specimen repaired with electrodeposition method
using Fe or Al electrode, NaCl immersion test was
conducted. After charging for 14days, specimens were
immersed into 10% NaCl water for 7 days, then Clpenetration depth and amount of Cl- ion around rebar
were investigated.
(1) Cl- penetration depth
Cl- penetration depth was evaluated by silver nitratespray test. When Cl- exists, silver nitrate changes tosilver chloride, then surface color becomes white. The
length from surface to boundary line of the change ofcolor is defined as Cl- penetration depth.
The results are shown in Fig 5. From the result, it isclarified that electrodeposition method using Fe
electrode with Mg-ace + aluminum compound solution
or Al electrode Mg-ace solution have high repair effectto improve resistivity against Cl- penetration.
(2) Amount of Cl- ion around rebar
The results are shown in Fig 6. From the result, it isclarified that electrodeposition using Fe electrode with
Mg-ace solution have higher performance to improve
protection from corrosion. Mg-ace+ aluminumcompound solution or Al electrode3.3 Resistivity against cracking
Resistivity against cracking of mortar specimen
repaired with electrodeposition method using Fe or Al
electrode was evaluated based on bending test.
The results are shown in Fig 7. From the result it isconfirmed that electrodeposition method using Fe or Al
electrode can improve resistivity against cracking at
same level as those without crack.
4. Comprehensive evaluation
Table 2. shows comprehensive evaluation of Fe or
Al electrode for electrodeposition method. Al electrodecombined with Mg-ace solution showed higher
performance than other conditions; even compared withconventional condition using Ti mesh.

Cl- concentration around rebar[ppm]Cl- concentraion
around rebar [ppm]

4
2
0

Fe 1.

Fe 2.

Al 1.

Ti

control 1. control 2.

Fig 6. Cl- concentration around rebar*control 1: no repaired specimen with crack**control 2: no repaired specimen without crack
Bending Strength [N/m2]

Bending Strength[N/m2]
15
10
5
0

Fe 1.

Fe 2.

Al 1.

Ti

ControlFig 7. Bending strength
Table 2. Comprehensive evaluation
Elect
-rode

Solution

Surfacecovering

CrackclosureChemicalcompoundAgainstCl-attack

Againstcracking

Fe

M

◎

○

Fe6(OH)12-(CO3)○○

MgAl(OH)14!
-xH2O
Fe6(OH)12-(CO3)
Mg(OH)2○○

Mg(OH)2

Fe

MA

◎

◎

Fe

W

×

×

-

×

null

◎

○

○

null

×
-

null
-

Al

M

◎

◎

MgAl(OH)14!
-xH2O

Al

MA

○

○

MgAl(OH)14!
-xH2O

Al
Ti

W
M

×
-

×
-

Mg(OH)2

Mg(OH)2

Mg(OH)2

Compare to Ti mesh◎means improved ○means same ×means change for the worth

conventional using Ti mesh, such as deposition situation,
resistivity against Cl- penetration and resistivity against
cracking.

5. Conclusion
Fe and Al have enough performance as electrode ofelectrodeposition method. From experimental results,
using Fe or Al electrode have higher repairing effect than

10

The interannual variation of the sea breeze arrival timeat Tokyo and Kumagaya in summer
Name: Yuta Nejime

Supervisor: Prof. Kanda

0.20

1960

0.15
ratio

2010

0.10
0.05

8:00
8:20
8:40
9:00
9:20
9:40
10:00
10:20
10:40
11:00
11:20
11:40
12:00
12:20
12:40
13:00
13:20
13:40
14:00
14:20
14:40
15:00
15:20

0.00

Fig. 1 The ratio of distribution of sea breeze
arrival time at Otemachi
0.20

1960
2010

0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00

2:30
2:40
2:50
3:00
3:10
3:20
3:30
3:40
3:50
4:00
4:10
4:20
4:30
4:40
4:50
5:00
5:10
5:20
5:30
5:40
5:50
6:00
6:10
6:20
6:30
6:40
6:50
7:00

1. Introduction
The impact of urbanization to sea breeze
behavior has been one of the hot research
topics1) because of its mitigation effect ofurban heat island. Both simulations2) anddata analyses3) have suggested the sea breeze
delay by urbanization. However, less known
is the effect of both urbanization and global
warming on sea breeze behavior. One of thereasons for the scarcity is difficulty ininvestigating the sea breeze behavior in olddays due to the lacking of data.
This research focused on the change in sea
breeze behaviors between 1960s and 2000s
using routine observation records of Japanmeteorological agency. Through the analysis,
the effect of urbanization and synoptic
climate change on sea breeze behavior was
separately discussed.

ratio

ID: 09B18360

Lag time of sea breeze arrival
between Otemachi and Kumagaya

Fig. 2 Frequency distribution of the sea breeze
arrival time from Otemachi to Kumagaya

2. Methodology
Analysis days were selected from the following
criteria: (1) no rainfall, (2) more than 7hsunshine and (3) wind direction southeast to
south-southwest during mean maximum windvelocity. Analysis periods were July to
September between 1965 and 1969 for old data
and between 2010 and 2012, for the current
situation, respectively.
Sea breeze arrival time was estimated by
specific humidity, wind direction, wind velocity
and temperature following the method by
Gamo4). The old data was available only in
autographic recording and thus all the data wasdigitalized before the analysis.
Multiple linear regression analysis for the sea
breeze arrival time at Otemachi and Kumagaya
were conducted in order to separate the urban
impact and synoptic climate change to the sea
breeze behavior.
The multiple regression was derived from thefollowing climate condition as explanatory
variables: sunrise time(𝑇𝑟 ), synoptic pressure
gradient (U: positive in Southeast, V: positive inSouthwest), daily temperature difference (𝛥𝑇) ,daily amount of global solar radiation (𝑄) andrainfall amount on the previous day (𝑅). Heretime difference between sunrise time and sea
breeze arrival time was set as explained
variable.
Since we selected climate condition as the
explanatory variables, the derived multiple
regressions expected to reflect the surface
condition; remember sea breeze was affected byboth climate and surface conditions. The
difference of the derived equations from 1960s
and 2010s data could explain the difference insurface conditions between two periods.

3. Result3.1 Sea breeze arrival time
The number of the analysis days were 108 in
2010s and 76 in 1960s at Otemachi, and 17 in2010s and 24 in 1960s at Kumagaya.
Fig.1 is the histogram of sea breeze arrival
time at Otemachi. The sea breeze arrival timein 1960s seems to be earlier than that in 2010s.
Average time of sea breeze arrival was 10:23 in2010s and 10:10 in 1960s, respectively.
Fig.2 shows that the lag time of sea breeze
arrival from Otemachi through Kumagaya. The
required time in 2010s was later than those in11

1960s; the average time was 4:52 in 2010s and4:15 in 1960s, respectively, suggesting difficultyof sea breeze penetration by urbanization.

Estimated sea breeze arrival timefrom regression formula

16:00

3.2 Effect of urbanization and synoptic climatechange on sea breeze behavior
Multiple regression in 1960s and in 2010s were
derived as follows:
𝑇𝑝 = 𝑇𝑟 + 0.168 + 19.0 ∗ 𝑈 + 21.5 ∗ 𝑉 + 8.9 ∗ 10−3 ∗ 𝛥𝑇+(−4.6 ∗ 10−4 ) ∗ 𝑄 + (−4.1 ∗ 10−4 ) ∗ 𝑅(Eq.1)
𝑇𝑝 = 𝑇𝑟+ 0.117 + 279.7 ∗ 𝑈 + 313.3 ∗ 𝑉 + 1.99 ∗ 10−2 ∗ 𝛥𝑇
+8.5 ∗ 10−4 ∗ 𝑄 + 5.9 ∗ 10−4 ∗ 𝑅(Eq.2)

Substituting 2010s input data to the above
equations gives the insight of the difference of
surface conditions between two periods. Fig.3
shows the sea breeze arrival time estimated in
the 2010s equation (Eq.2) tended to be late thanthose in 1960s, possibly reflecting the differenceof the drag effects by urban obstacles likebuildings. Substitution of 1960s data to theequations also showed the similar result (notshown).
Meanwhile, substituting data in 1960s and2010s to the 2010s equation (Eq.2) could givethe effects of change in synoptic climate. Fig.4
shows the estimated sea breeze arrival time in2010s was earlier than those in 1960s. One of
the considerable reasons could be the large
temperature difference between land and sea
surface brought by global warming. Due to thebig thermal inertia in sea, the change in sea
surface temperature by the global warming
could be smaller than in land. Using Eq.1 also
shows a same trend (not shown).
The significance of the above results was
confirmed by F-test and T-test.

15:00
14:00
13:00
12:00
11:00
10:00
9:00
8:00
7:00
7:00

8:00

9:00

10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00(real) Sea breeze arrival time in 2010s

Estimated sea breeze arrival timefrom regression formulaFig. 3 Estimated sea breeze arrival timefrom observed data in 2010s(Reflected the surface condition)

21:00
20:00
19:00
18:00
17:00
16:00
15:00
14:00
13:00
12:00
11:00
10:00
9:00
8:00
7:00
7:00

8:00

9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00(real) Sea breeze arrival time in each terms

Fig. 4 Estimated sea breeze arrival time fromeach regression formula(Reflected the climate condition)

Reference
1)Yamamoto, H., Mikami, T., Takahashi, H.:
Influence of Sea Breeze on the Daytime Urban
Heat Island in Summer in the Tokyo
Metropolitan Area, Journal of Geography,
Vol.120, p.325-340, 2011
2)Kusaka, H., Kimura, F., Hirakuchi, H.,
Mizutori, M.,: The effects of land-use alterationon the sea breeze and daytime heat island in theTokyo Metropolitan area, Jornal of the
Meteorological Society of Japan, Vol.78, No.4,
p.405-420, 2000
3)Yoshikado, H. and Kondo.: Inland penetrationof the sea breeze over the suburban area ofTokyo, Boundary-Layer Meteorology, Vol.48,
p389-407, 1989
4)蒲生 稔：海風前線位置を読み取る方法の比較，
公害，Vol.26，p.31-39

4. Conclusion
The delay of sea breeze arrival time byurbanization was found from long term
observation analysis and multiple regression
analysis. This tendency was also supported bysimulations. Climate condition are also
important role to generate the sea breeze, andthey advance the sea breeze arrival time in2010s.

12

熱画像風速測定法 TIV による塵旋風の二次元空間速度分布解析
学籍番号：10B15311	
  氏名：張	  逸群	
  指導教官：神田	  学，稲垣 厚至	
 1	  はじめに	 いる。その影響を避けるため、ハイパスフィル
ターを利用してそれらの模様を除去する。

	  TIV（Thermal Image Velocimetry）はサーモカ
メラで撮影された熱画像動画を画像解析にかけることで、物体表面近傍の 2 次元風速分布を測定する手法である。本研究は TIV を塵旋風の観測に応用するものである。人工芝の張られた屋
外運動場での屋外大気観測を実施し、これにより観測された塵旋風の（１）流れ場の可視化及び、（２）定量的な解析を行うことを目的とする。

4	
  観測概要	 	  2013 年 2 月 20 日東京工業大学大岡山キャンパスにある人工芝で覆われたスポーツグランド2	  塵旋風（Dust devil）	
 塵 旋 風 と は 地 表 面 付 近 で 発 達 す る 半 径 10100m 程度の鉛直渦のことであり、渦により地表面の塵が巻き上げられることで可視化されたものを指す。これまでの屋外観測により、静穏な晴天日に発生しやすいことが知られている。これまでに超音波風速計やドップラーライダーを用いた観測が実施されているが、前者は定点の時系列情報しか得られず、後者は空間分布構造を観測することができるものの、1 次元の視線方向風速成分のみ得られるため、詳細な 2 次元
風速の空間分布構造を観測した例はこれまでにない。これに対して本研究で用いる TIV では、
2 次元風速の水平分布を計測できる点において新たな知見が得られることが期待される。

3	
  測定手法	 	  TIV とは PIV (Particle Image Velocimetry)でと同様のアルゴリズム用い、粒子画像の代わりにサーモカメラで捉える物体表面温度分布を時系列的に追跡することで、熱分布構造の移流速度分布を求め、そこから地表面近傍の 2 次元風速分布を推定する手法である。表面温度の移流速
度と風速の関係については、超音波風速計を用いて熱画像と同時刻の風速を測り、そこで得られる風速と TIV で求められる移流速度を比較する。これまでの観測から、両社は概ね線形関係[1]にあることが分かっており、本研究でもそのような関係を用いた。
ところで、観測される地表面温度画像には地表面の不均一性などに起因した模様が含まれて

図 1	
  (a) 観 測領 域 (人 工芝 グ ラン ド)， (b)輝 度温 度 ，(c)温 度変 動 ，(d)移 流速 度 ベク
トルにて観測を行った。地上 47 m の建物の屋上でサーモカメラ（FlIR, SC5200）を設置し、ピクセル
数は 256×320 pixels で、フレームレートは 100
Hz で観測した。またグランドでは 5 台の超音波風速計を鉛直方向に並べて設置し、TIV の精度検証に使用した。

13

観測は 11 時 20 分から 12 時 50 分までの約１時間半行った。ここでは塵旋風の見られた、12時 05 分から 12 時 10 分のデータの解析結果を紹
介する。

5	
  結果	
 
5.1.	
  TIV に よ る 塵 旋 風 流 れ の 可 視 化	  サーモカメラによる観測結果を図 1 に示す。
図 1a、b、c、d はそれぞれ可視画像、輝度温度の生画像、ハイパスフィルターをかけた輝度温
度、TIV から算出された移流速度ベクトル分布を表す。
	  図 1b を図 1c と比べると、図 1b ではグランドの模様が明瞭に映り、流れ場の様子はほとんど確認できない。一方、フィルターをかけた図 1c
では模様の影響が解消され、半径約 30 m の大きな渦構造が可視化された。

図 3 TIV, 数値 解析 及びラ ンキン 渦モ デル
でで 算出 された (a) 接線 方向 速度，(b) 視線
方向 速度 ，(c) 渦度
NS: 数値 解析 （Raasch and Franke, 2011）
RM: Rankine’s combined vortex model

5.2.	
  移 流 速 度 と 風 速 の 比 較
図 2 は TIV により算出された移流速度と超音波風速計で測定した高度 1.5 m での風速を時間
解像度 0.1sec で比較したものであり、両者よく一致していることが確認できる。

る。本手法で得られる速度分布は地表面近傍の値であることから、より摩擦の影響が色濃く表れたものと考えられ、測定高度の高い数値解析の結果（高度1 m）ではよりランキン渦のモデルに近い値が得られたものと考えられる。

5.3.
塵旋風の定量的解析
	  TIVで得られた計算された2次元風速分布を用いて、塵旋風の定量的な解析を行った。図 3はTIV、数値解析 (LES, S. Raasch and T. Franke,2011 )，及びランキン渦のモデルより得られた
視線方向に対する接線方向速度（図 3a）、視線方向速度（図 3b）、渦度（図 3c）の分布を示す。

6	
  まとめ
サーモカメラおよび超音波風速計を用いた観測を実施し、TIVを適用することで塵旋風の２次
元速度場分布を観測した。塵旋風周りの風速分
布について、渦心を中心としたアンサンブル平均を行い、定量的な解析を行った。その結果、数値解析とランキン渦のモデルに一致していることが確認できた。

参考文献[1] 神田学，稲垣厚史，久米村秀明:“サーモカメラを用いた壁面近傍風速の計測手法開発”，
ながれ,Vol.31, pp.491-493, 2012[2] 稲垣厚至，神田学：熱画像風速測定法TIVによる地表面近傍の大気乱流観測，ながれ，
32，307-312，2013．
[3] Adrian RJ (1991) Particle-imaging techniques
for experimental fluid mechanics. Annu Rev Fluid
Mech 23: 261-304[4] (9) Raasch, S. and T. Franke, 2011: Structureand formation of dust devil-like vortices in theatmospheric boundary layer: A high-resolution
numerical study. J. Geophys. Res., 116, D16120,
DOI: 10.1029/2011JD016010, Supplementary
animation: 10.5446/9352

図 2	
  	
  TIV と超 音波 風速計 で計算 され た風速の時 間変 化	  SA:	  超 音 波風 速計， TIV:	
  熱 画 像風 速測定 法	
  	
  TIV及び数値解析の結果はアンサンブル平均した結果となっている。これらの図より、渦度の分布が本観測結果および数値解析の結果が一致していることが確認された。一方で、渦心から離れた個所では接線方向速度が大きく、視線方
向速度はゼロに近づく傾向が得られた。これは周囲の流れ場及び地表面摩擦の影響と考えられ

14

Simulation of Sea Breeze penetration in Kanto
region by using WRF-CHEM
ID: 10B22713 Name: Tomoaki Mitsui
1. Introduction
One of the hot issues in urban
meteorology has been the impact ofurbanization to sea breeze behavior as

Supervisor: Prof. Kanda

shown in Fig 1. Three different passive
scalars were released from the Tokyo bay,
Sagami Bay and the free atmosphere justbefore the onset of sea breeze.

well as mitigation effect of sea breeze on
urban heat island. For example, Varquez
et al1) pointed out that urbanization
disturbs sea breeze penetration to inland
in their simulations. However, in theprevious studies sea breeze front wasestimated by change of temperature,humidity, and wind velocity at somespecific surface observation points, and
thus
it
is
difficulttoanalyze

3. Result and Consideration
In Figure 2, time evolution of sea breeze
front was shown as well as the
distribution of the scalar at 13:00; line in
Figure 2 represents the front at 13:00,
14:00, 15:00, 16:00, and 17:00 from thebottom to top. Sea breeze front was
identified, based on the spatial gradientof the scalar.

3-dimentional features including strong
vertical mixing in the front.
For better understanding of sea breeze
behavior and its impact to urban climate,
WRF-CHEM (Weather Research andForecasting model – Chemistry) was used.
WRF-CHEM is one of WRF packages,
which support passive scalar transport
option. Sea breeze can be identified by

Sea breeze front was delayed in SDLC
as clearly confirmed by sea breeze front
at 17:00. The difference in sea breeze
front between SDLC and VEGE showsurban effect, i.e.. thermal effectassociated with urban warming and thedrag effect by urban geometry.
Scalar concentrations near surface bothfrom the Tokyo bay and free atmospheretracing passive scalars. To see the urban
effects on sea breeze, two simulations
were done: one considered realistic urban
features (SDLC): the other revised allurban grids to the grassland category(VEGE). SDLC was carried out withhighly sophisticated urban modeling.
2. Simulation settings

at 13:30 in SDLC are shown in Figure 3.
The scalar fell down from the freeatmosphere in advance of the sea breeze
front.
The free atmosphere is known for its dry
and high potential temperature, thus thissubsidence flow can contribute to thewarming up of Saitama area. The
subsidence flow seems to be related with

September 14th 2011 was selected as
analysis day. The domain setting isstrong updraft and vertical mixing infront of sea breeze; these eroded the free15

atmosphere.

Figure

4

shows

SDLC

brought more scalar from the freeatmosphere than VEGE did reflecting
aforementioned thermal and dynamical
effects by urbanization.
4. Conclusion
Sea breeze behavior was simulated in
SDLC and VEGE tracing passive scalaradvection. The following results were

Figure 1. Domain settings

Tracer 1 [ppmv]

obtained.
(1) The comparison of SDLC case and
VEGE case showed sea breezeadvanced more in VEGE case than in
SDLC case, possibly reflecting urban
effect.
(2) Subsidence flow in front of sea breeze

Figure 2. Time evolution of Sea Breeze Front

occurred. The scalar transportation fromthe free atmosphere was larger in SDLC
than that in VEGE, due to the difference
theverticalmixing[ppmv]

of intensity of
between them.
References

1） Varquez, A.C.G., Nakayoshi M, Kanda M, : The
Effects of the Distribution of Highly Detailed
Urban Surface Parameters on a Sea Breeze

Figure 3. Scalar concentration near surface both

Simulation in Kanto, 2011 (submitted)

from the Tokyo bay and free atmosphere at 13:30

2） 蒲生稔、海風前線位置を読み取る方法の比較、公害、in SDLC (T1: Tracer 1 is from the Tokyo bay, T2:

vol. 26、p31-39、1991

Tracer 2 is from free atmosphere).

Figure 4. Scalar concentration near surface from free atmosphere at 15:30(left figure shows SDLC, right figure shows VEGE).
16

Large-Eddy Simulation of Coupling
Real Urban Geometry Field and 3D Radiative Process
Student ID : 10_25829

Name : Yuma YOSHIDA Supervisor : Manabu KANDA, Atsushi INAGAKI

1. Introduction

2.2 3D radiative process

In this study, LOCALS-UCSS developed by
Yasunobu Ashie of NILIM is used to reproduce
thermal boundary condition on the building
and ground facets. This model is considering
the multi refraction process of radiation. The
resulted sensible heat flux distribution fromthe each surface facets are input as the thermalboundary condition of LES model.

Atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) is
driven by mechanical and buoyancy effects
created at the ground surface. In urban areas,
the surface geometry has a three-dimensional
complexity due to the building array, andcauses complex aerodynamic and thermal
effects on the flow field within the ABL. To
examine their effects, especially focusing on theeffect of heat, urban air flow is simulated usinglarge-eddy simulation (LES) with input of
three-dimensional sensible heat flux databasecalculated in an urban heat balance model.
In a field of meteorology, LES is used tosimulate an air flow within and above theurban canopy. However, most of the cases arecarried out under neutral stratification, andnot many studies consider the effect of heat. On
the other hand, mainly in the architectural
field, realistic three-dimensional energybalance solved to simulate a detail thermal
environment in cities, in which sensible heat
flux from the each building facets could beobtained.
Based on the two research directionalities
above, urban air flow is simulated using LES
with implementing a realistic thermal input
from building facets and the ground
represented by a 3D energy balance model.

Two kinds of radiation models are used toreproduce
realistic
thermalboundary
conditions in cities. 3D-Rad considers multi
refraction of long and short wave radiations,which has large calculation load. Ray-Tracing
method just considers the shade and sunlit
area on building facets, and assigns a constantsensible heat flux. Fig.1 shows verticallyintegrated sensible heat flux.

2. Methodology

Fig1: Vertical integrated sensible heat flux[Kms-1]

2.3 Ray-Tracing method

Right:3D-Rad, Left:Ray-Tracing

2.1 Basic equation of LES

In this study, Parallelized Large-Eddy
Simulation (PALM) was used. Basic equation ofthis model is Navier-Stokes equation, thecontinuity equation, and first principle ofthermodynamics.
ui
uk ui   ijk f j uk   i 3k f 3u gk
t
xk



3.1 Calculation conditions
Numerical settings in LES are shown in
Table 1. Grid size in z is stretched with thefactor of 1.08 above z=1750m.



*
1 p*

g i 3  ki 0 xi xk

(1)

u i
0
x i

(2)



3. Numerical Setting

Table1: Calculation Conditions
Domain size
4000m×4000m×4619m
5m×5m×5m(z<1750m)
Grid size
Note: z>1750 z-direction
grid size is stretched





uk 
u k  
(3)
t
x k
x k
Then, u i is x i direction velocity, p is pressure, 0 is density (1.0 constant in this model),  ispotential temperature. Upper bars represents
spatial filtered value. In this study, coriolis
force is neglected.

Initial wind velocity

3.0 m s-1, 10.0m s-1

Sensible heat flux input

0.186 Km s-1

Date of calculation

4th June 2013 12pm

Boundary condition
Calculation time

17

Cyclic (x, y)
Slip (top)Non-Slip (Bottom)
10800 sec (v3)7200 sec (v10)4.2 Thermal effects on convective layer

3.2 Simulation site

Fig.4 compares  w
normalized byconvective scale velocity w* with function of
convective layer model. zi is ABL height.
Simulation results entirely follow the model
values except lower part of v10 case in which
the turbulent intensity becomes larger than themodel value. This is considered to be a waketurbulence from the buildings because thismodel is developed based on an experiment in aflat field without large obstacles.

Shinjuku is chosen as calculation site.
Fig.2 shows building height distribution. This
area includes high-rise skyscraper area in thecenter, and park in the south and east regions.

Fig2: Building height of calculation site

3.3 Simulation cases
8 cases of simulation were conducted.
3D-Rad, Ray-Tra, Floor Heat, are different
method to give the heat distribution. No heat isneutral calculation used as a reference.

Fig4: Normalized  w profile
Left: _v3, Right: _v10

Table2 shows the simulation case.
Case
3D-Rad_v3
Ray-Tra_v3
Flour Heat_v3
No heat_v3
3D-Rad_v10
Ray-Tra_v10
Flour Heat_v10
No heat_v10

Initial velocity

3.0 m/s

10.0 m/s

Heating method

Fig5 is 30 min averaged w at xy and xz
cross sections for V3 cases. 3D-Rad has thermalroll but the other cases have no rolls. Thisimplies that the difference in the pattern ofsurface heating could invoke a large structure
above.

LOCALS-UCSS
Ray-Tracing method
Floor and Roof only
Neutral
LOCALS-UCSS
Ray-Tracing
Floor and Roof only
Neutral

4. Result
4.1 Thermal effects on Surface layer
Fig.3 is vertical profiles of turbulent
intensity normalized by friction velocity.

Fig5: Left: z=397.5m cross w contour
Right: x=3200m cross w contour
From upper, 3D-Rad,Ray-Tra,Floor Heat

Fig3: Normalized turbulent intensity  u ,  w
Upper:  u , Lower:  w
Left: _v3 case, Right: _v10 case

Reference

As a result, wall heating weaken  u but,strengthen  w . Especially  w of v3 case isstronger than neutral case.

[1]

18

Ashie, Y., Kono, T., (2011) : Urban-scale CFD
analysis in support of a climate -sensitive designfor the Tokyo Bay area, International Journal of
Climatology, Vol.31, pp 174-188衛星画像を用いたチャオプラヤ川中流域における大規模浸水現象の定量化と要因考察
学籍番号：07_23649 氏名：逸見聡
第一章

JAXA は 2011 年 11 月 5 日から 12 月 27 日まで観測を行った。この衛星の解像度は 3.0m と大変優れているが、 解析期間が限定的であり、観測エリアは主要な都市部のみである。

序論

2011 年、タイのチャオプラヤ川流域において夏から秋にかけて大規模な洪水が発生した。特に下流域に位置するアユタヤやバンコクなどのエリアでは市街地への浸水など目に見える被害が大きく、タイ国
のみならず周辺国の経済活動へも大打撃を与える結果となった。
そこで本研究では、ENVISAT 衛星画像と HJ-1A
衛星画像を利用して氾濫域の推定を行い、その結果をもとに今回の浸水現象の時系列推移を水文、気象条件などのデータと比較し、要因分析を行う。2011
年の洪水のみならず、近年タイにおいては洪水の規模・頻度ともに増加傾向にある。その要因は地球温暖化による年降水量の変動幅増大、をはじめとして様々指摘されており、実に複合的である。様々なデータとの比較により浸水要因を洗い出してゆくことで、今後起こりうる洪水の対策及び被害軽減に少しでも役に立つことが期待できる。
また、本研究の対象エリアはチャオプラヤ川の中流域である。以下の図 1 に示す。

図1
第二章

指導教官：木内豪

第三章

衛星画像解析による浸水域の推定

氾濫域抽出のため、本研究では HJ-1A、ENVISATの 2 種類の衛星データを利用した。ENVISAT のデータは解像度こそ 150m と粗いが、雲の影響を受けないため広域での氾濫解析に適している。一方のHJ-1A 画像は、雲の影響を受けてしまうため広域での浸水域抽出には適さないが解像度が 30m と高い。
この長所をもつ HJ-1A 画像と ENVISAT 画像の比較を局所的に行うことで精度 を高め、最 終的に
ENVISAT 画像で全体の解析を行う。解析フローの概要を図 2 に示す。

図2

対象エリア（左図はタイ全土）

浸水域推定のフロー

手順①における NDWI（Normalized Difference
Water Index：正規化水指標）は、HJ-1A の可視光
（バンド 3）と近赤外光（バンド 4）それぞれの反射率の値から、GREEN にバンド 3、NIR にバンド4 を当てはめ、次の計算式により求められる。

既往の研究

本研究のような人工衛星による氾濫域の推定が行われた事例を二つ紹介する。
一つは、UNOSAT により公表されている浸水マップである。その解析エリアは流域全体を網羅しているが、解析に用いられた衛星 MODIS の解像度は250m と粗く、その頻度も約一カ月に一度程度と氾濫域推移の把握には十分ではない。
もう一つが、GISTDA と JAXA の共同により行われた解析である。これには航空機搭載多周波・多偏波合成開口レーダである Pi-SAR-L が用いられ、

NDWI 

GREEN  NIR(-1≦NDWI≦1)
GREEN  NIR

手順⑤の両画像の浸水域比較では、以下の条件を設定して適合率を求め、その値が最大となるような
後方散乱強度を ENVISAT の閾値とし、全体の浸水域抽出を行った。

19

表1

浸水域
非浸水域

ENVISAT

適合率 第四章

浸水域適合評価の指標

第五章

HJ-1A
浸水域 非浸水域
a
b
c
d

ad
 100(%)
abcd

浸水域推移からみる洪水特性の考察

浸水現象の考察にあたり、降雨量、水位、流量な
どの水文・気象条件、その他標高、土地利用などの様々なデータを用いた。第三章のフローにより求められた解析結果と考察内容を一部抜粋して紹介する。

結論と今後の課題

本研究では、ENVISAT と HJ-1A という二種類の衛星データを用いて時系列の浸水域情報を作成した。
本研究の画像処理により得られた情報は、上記の通り様々な情報と比較した非常に事細かな分析が可能であり、今後様々な氾濫解析の検証に用いるためのデータとして大いに役立つことが期待できる。
浸水現象の推移においては、河川の流下能力に大きく依存することが推測できる。流下能力の小さいエリアでは氾濫が広がりやすいが、それが下流への氾濫拡大を遅らせる効果も発揮していたと考えられる。浸水域の時系列変化の考察にあたっては気象条
件、土地利用など様々なデータとの比較を行ってきたが、標高などの微地形による特徴まで考慮したものではなかった。これらの本研究において不足していた要素も考慮することが出来れば、より精度の高い要因考察が可能となり今後の災害対策にも更に役立つことだろう。
参考文献[1] 佐山敬洋、建部祐哉、藤岡奨、牛山朋来、萬矢敦啓、田中茂信：2011 年タイ洪水を対象にした緊急対応の降雨流出氾濫予測、土木学会論文集[2] UNOSAT,Maps,Thailand,
URL: http://www.unitar.org/unosat/maps/tha

図3[3] 一般財団法人リモート・センシング技術センタ

解析結果の比較ー：Pi-SAR によるタイ洪水解析

図 3 に 8 月 3 日、9 月 2 日の解析結果の比較を示す。黒点は、Yom 川における観測点の位置である。
比較すると上流からの氾濫が進んでいることが分かるが、この要因は、河川の急激な水位上昇に起因する越流発生によるものと考えられる。図 4 は観測点
Y.16 における河川の水位変動（黒色）と左岸と右岸の標高（それぞれ緑色、青色）および一日ごとの降
雨量（赤色）を示したグラフである。8 月から 9 月にかけての水位上昇と氾濫拡大の水位が比例しており、また左岸側の標高が低くこれが Yom 川流域全体
で左岸側の氾濫がより大きく広がっている事にも関連していると推測できる。

URL:https://www.restec.or.jp/wp-content/uploads/
2012/10/b8854c0d9d9d875d819065fa1bd1f5fa.pdf[4] 大吉慶、河野宜幸、島田政信、祖父江真一：航空機搭載Lバンド合成開口レーダ（Pi-SAR-L）によるタイ王国の洪水災害観測[4] 小森大輔：2011 年タイ国チャオプラヤ大洪水はなぜ起こったか、盤谷日本人商工会議所所報[5] 東京大学生産技術研究所沖研究室：2011 年タイ
国水害調査結果（第 4 報）
[6] 近藤純正：蒸発散量と降水量の気候学的関係―研究の指針―、日本気象学会、1998

図4

観測点 Y.16 における流下能力と流量関係

20

Visualization of Direct and Indirect CO2 Emission of each Municipality in Japan
Student Number: 09-04026

1

Name: Xuyang WANG

municipality depending on the rate of persons engaged in eachbusiness category.
3) Industry sector
A counter-measures evaluation model (G-BEAMS [4]) is used
to estimate CO2 emission. NOx emission data is allocated toeach mesh depending on the rate of population, production
value, etc. Then CO2 emission of industry sector in Japan isallocated to each mesh depending on the spatial distribution ofNOx emission because the CO2 emission is proportional toNOx emission in Japan.
4) Transportation sector
We multiply the data for roads of each municipality and foreach vehicle type of a) mileage travelled (km/year) and b) CO2
emission factor (g-CO2/km). Then take into consideration theincrease in the amount of the emission during start and stop of
automobiles in addition to the amount of the running emission.

Introduction

The IPCC concluded in the 5th assessment report that the
rapid rise of CO2 concentration is the result of human activities.
Considering the IPCC’s simulation results of climate change,
The Japanese government set the new target of 3.8 percent CO2
reduction by 2020 from the 2005 level while struggling toformulate a new energy policy assuming that all Japanese
nuclear reactors were idled. To achieve the target, Japanese
government needs to urgently plan domestic policies andlegislation for reduction measures.
However, local municipalities are not moving ahead with aplan to reduce global warming (except large local municipality).
One of the important reasons is that, up to now, the CO2
emissions were mainly estimated as an average of the whole
Japan. There is not enough data of CO2 emissions in eachmunicipality for local governments to plan their own policies
about global warming. Therefore, it is necessary to estimate theCO2 emissions in each municipality.
CO2 emissions fall into 2 types, direct emissions and indirectemissions. In this study, direct emissions mean the emissions
from different CO2 emitting regions which are derived fromindustry sector, transportation sector, commercial sector, andresidential sector. And indirect emissions mean the emissions
from the regions where the commodities are consumed
according to expenditure of money on the items for daily
household life. Consideration of the indirect CO2 emission isimportant because about 47% of CO2 emissions are caused by
the private consumption expenditure [3] and it is necessary tochange viewpoint of responsibilities of the energy consumer.
But there is no complete data of indirect CO2 emissions in eachmunicipality of Japan.
The objective of this study is 1) to unify direct CO2
emissions in each sector of Japan by using GIS, 2) to estimate
the indirect CO2 emissions from a data set of emission intensityfrom Embodied Energy and Emission Intensity Data for Japan
Using Input-Output Tables (3EID) and Household Expenditure
Survey (HES) and 3) to visualize these results. For the lack ofregion data, this study estimate direct/indirect CO2 emissions ineach municipality. In order to make people understand thecharacteristics of statistical data intuitively without special
knowledge, the results of direct/indirect emissions arevisualized by area cartogram. It can be used as a material whenplanning domestic policies and legislation for CO2 reduction
measures.

2

Supervisor: Shinya HANAOKA

2.2 Indirect CO2 Emission
In this study, indirect CO2 emission was calculated by using
the data below. All the data is for the year of 2005.
a) HES
The survey shows monthly income and expenditure ofhouseholds in prefectural capitals. In this study, the date ofannual household’s expenditures which were classified by 981
items in each prefectural capital was used. It was set as E.
b) 3EID
This data shows the environmental load due to the production
activities which are equivalent to money amount. There are 2
kind of 3EID, one is setting the emission intensity of importproducts as same as domestic goods. We call it domestic
emission intensity. The other one have considered the supply
chain of import products. We call it global emission intensity.
We used the 2 kinds of 3EID in this study but only show theresult of global in the article abstract. It was set as ic.
c) Population Census
In this study, numbers of households in each municipality
were used from the data. It was set as H.
The indirect CO2 emission was calculated by

𝐶𝐸𝑖 =

𝐻𝑖𝑗 [
𝑗

𝐸𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑘 + 𝑑𝑐𝑖𝑘 ](1)𝑘CEi: Annual CO2 emission in each zone i (kg-CO2/year)
j: the type of household which is divided into
two-or-more-person households and one-person household.
Hij: The number of type j households in zone i
Eijk: Annual expenditure to the item k by type j household typein zone i (yen/household/year)
icik: Emission intensity of indirect CO2 for the item k in zone i(t-CO2/million yen)dcik*: Emission intensity of CO2 by direct combustion for theitem k in zone i (town gas, LPG, kerosene and gasoline)(t-CO2/million yen)
*About dcik: This is the CO2 emissions intensity of town gas,
LPG, kerosene and gasoline by direct combustion when thesekinds of energy source are being used. The values of dcik arecalculated as the following (t/ million yen). The ethanol
blended fuel is treating as the same kind of gasoline.

Methodology

2.1 Direct CO2 Emission
Direct emissions were unified from the previous studies in eachsector.
1) Residential sector
First, we multiply the data of a) total area of floor space(detached houses; collective houses), b) energy consumption ofeach energy source and each energy use and c) heat value basis.
Then we allocate the figures calculated for each prefecture [2] toeach municipality depending on the rate of household of eachhousing type (detached houses; collective houses).
2) Commercial sector
First, we multiply the data of a) total area of floor space ofeach building use and b) energy consumption and the rate ofeach energy source and energy use of each building type. Then
we allocate the figures calculated for each prefecture [3] to eachdci (Kerosene) = 27.71;
dci (LPG) = 23.56;

dci (Gasoline) = 14.64;
dci (Town Gas) = 17.87(2)

The Figure 1 shows the estimation process of annual indirect
CO2 emissions in each municipality.

21b) 3EID, Formula 1
CO2 emission intensity of: (t- CO2 /million yen)
- Indirect CO2(due to the production activities)+Direct combustiona) Family Income and Expenditure Survey
Annual expenditure to each item per household (yen/household/year)-Total households/Two-or-more-person households( by prefectural capital )c) Population Census

Annual CO2 emission per household :(yen/household/year)-Total households/Two-or-more-person households

The number of households divide into
-Two-or-more-person households/One-person households( by prefectural capital )c) Population Census( by prefectural capital )Annual CO2 emission per household :(t- CO2 /household/year)-Two-or-more-person households/One-person households

The number of households divide into
-Two-or-more-person households/One-person households( by municipality)( by prefectural capital )Annual CO2 emission in each municipality (t- CO2 /year)- Two-or-more-person households/One-person households

Figure 1 Estimation process of indirect CO2 emission

2.3 Data Visualization
The statistical data was often expressed by Choropleth Map.
But in this study, when the range of CO2 emissions is large
between regions, you have to divide the legend with more kindsof colors. This makes it difficult to match the legend. Therefore,
so we used Area Cartogram, a map in which some thematic
mapping variable is substituted for land area. The space of the
map is distorted by the information of statistical data so thatpeople can understand the characteristics intuitively. In thisstudy, the methodology of area cartogram was quoted by thestudy of Inoue[8].

3Municipality
Prefecture

Results

The visualization results of direct/indirect CO2 emissions wereshown as the Figure 2 and 3. The area on the map shows thetotal CO2 emission and and the color shows the per-person CO2emissions.
For the direct emissions, the total CO2 emissions of someareas are significantly larger than others. This is because thethermal power stations which were giving a significant impact
on the environment. The data is for 2005, so the influence ofthermal power plants is great even before the Tohoku
Earthquake. So when all Japanese nuclear reactors were idled,
the reduction of CO2 emissions would be stringent. The
metropolises, industrial complex also have a large emission
because of the productive activity. The commercial andbusiness districts also have large emissions because which isderived from the transportation sector and commercial sector.
For the indirect emissions, the area of thermal power stations
and the industrial complex regions became normal. The total
indirect emissions are mostly from metropolises, prefectures.
This shows the CO2 emission from energy conversion has been
allocated to final consumers. When the density of household islarge, the indirect emission would be large. And when there isan active consummation, the per-person emissions would also
be large.
As the overall trend, the total amounts of direct emissions arelarger than the indirect ones. This shows the most CO2
emission is from the productive activity, but that is for the final
consumers.

Figure 2 Direct CO2 Emissions

Municipality
Prefecture

Figure 3 Indirect CO2 Emissions (global emission intensity)
useful material for the local governments to plan their own
policies and legislation for CO2 reduction measures. The
control of CO2 emissions in Japan can be facilitated.

References
4[1] Sawako Shigeto., et al.: An easily traceable scenario for 80% CO2 emission
reduction in Japan through the final consumption-based CO2 emission approach:A case study of Kyoto-city, Applied Energy 90, pp.201-205, 2012.
[2]Tonooka, Y., et al.: A detailed energy demand estimation and CO2 emission
inventory of residential house by prefecture and housing type in Japan, J. Environ.
Eng., AIJ, 592, pp.89-96, 2006. (in Japanese)[3]Tonooka, Y., et al.: CO2 emission reduction scenario in building sector in Japan,
CGER report I079-2008, pp.91-133, National Indtitute for Environmental Studies,2008. (in Japanese)[4]Nansai, K., Suzuki, et al.: Design of Georeference-Based Emission Activity
Modeling System (G-BEAMS) for Japanese emission inventory management,
Online proceeding of 13th International Emission Inventory Conference, pp.1-11,
June, Florida, USA, 2004.
[5] Ryo Inoue,: Studies on cartogram construction algorithms for better
visualization of statistical data on GIS, Papers of Research Meeting on Civil
Engineering Planning, 2005. (in Japanese)

Conclusion

This study estimated indirect CO2 emission in eachmunicipality unit which had not been estimated in the previous
studies. And the results of direct/indirect emissions werevisualized by area cartogram for offering for people canunderstand without special knowledge. The data was easily
compared to each other and the differences of eachmunicipality and spatial distribution CO2 emission was
expressed strongly. It can be used to analyze the characteristics
of CO2 emissions’ distribution and attribution in the future.
Both of the methodology and the results of this study can be a

22

塩害及び中性化におけるフライアッシュを用いた
海水練り鉄筋コンクリートの寿命予測
学籍番号: 10-00976 名前: 易 成 指導教員: 大即 信明
1 背景

表２. コンクリート供試体

世界的な水不足が懸念されている中, コンクリート分野におい

水セメント比(単位水量)て海水を有効利用することが日本コンクリート工学会などで検0.5(171kg/㎥)

討されている．小原の研究 1)によると, 普通ポルトランドセメン
0.7(174kg/㎥)

ト(以下 OPC)に高炉スラグ微粉末を混和することで海水練りコ

セメント種, FA置換率,% 練り混ぜ水
呼び記号水
0.5勿来(Ⅱ)FA10-W
JIS規格Ⅱ種FA, (10)海水
0.5勿来(Ⅱ)FA10-S
水
0.5相馬(×)FA10-W
JIS規格外FA, (10)海水0.5相馬(×)FA10-S
水
0.7能代(Ⅱ)FA10-W
JIS規格Ⅱ種FA, (10)海水0.7能代(Ⅱ)FA10-S

ンクリートの長寿命化の可能性が示された. しかし, 水不足が特

2.3 測定項目及び測定方法に懸念される発展途上国においては高炉スラグを生成する製鉄(1) Cl- 拡散係数
(JSCE)-G 572-2010 に従い, 曝露面とした打設下面以外をエポ

所は広く分布していない.
発展途上国での海水練りコンクリートの使用を考える際，石炭

キシ樹脂でシールしたコンクリート供試体を人工海水中に 4 ヶ火力発電所の産業副産物であるフライアッシュ(以下 FA)の利用

月または 12 ヶ月浸漬後, スライス法によって分析した結果をフが有効と考えられる.しかし，
海水練りコンクリートへの FA の適ィックの拡散方程式を用いて Cl- 拡散係数を算出した.

用可能性の検討およびその効果に関する詳細な知見は数少ない．

(2) 中性化速度係数
JIS A 1153 に従い, 曝露面とした打設上面と下面以外をアルミ

以上を踏まえ, 本研究では目的を(1) FA を用いた海水練り鉄筋
コンクリートの物性と腐食挙動の把握, (2) 塩害及び中性化におテープでシールしたコンクリート供試体を CO2 5%(一部 10%)のける FA を用いた海水練り鉄筋コンクリートの定量的な寿命予中性化促進環境下で, 曝露 4, 12, 16 週後, フェノールフタレイン

測を, Cl- 拡散係数, 腐食発生限界 Cl- 量, 中性化速度係数, 酸素法を用いて中性化深さの測定を行い, √t 則から中性化速度係数を透過量から評価した.

算出した. 算出した中性化速度係数は魚本式 2)を用いて大気中濃2 実験概要度 0.035%における中性化速度係数に変換した.

2.1 使用材料(3) 酸素透過量

本研究では, 練混ぜ水に水と ASTMD1141-98(2003) に準じた

50℃, NaCl 3%の塩害促進環境で曝露面とした打設下面以外を人工海水(Cl- 濃度 2%)を使用した. 細骨材に陸砂, 粗骨材に陸砂

エポキシ樹脂でシールした曝露 20 週後のモルタル供試体のカソ利を使用した. 供試体に設置する棒材に φ13mm×10cm の普通鉄ード分極曲線から得られた限界電流密度 3)を用いて算出した.

筋(SR235)を使用した. セメントに OPC と JIS で規定された FA(4) 腐食電流密度

Ⅱ種を 2 種類（能代 FA, 勿来 FA）と JIS 規格外の FA（相馬 FA）(3)と同じ条件で曝露したモルタル供試体の腐食電流密度をの計 3 種類を使用した.

ACインピーダンス法によって経時的に測定した. なお, FIBの腐

2.2 供試体

食判定基準 (0.2 μA/cm2)から供試体中鉄筋の腐食を判定した.
(5) 腐食発生限界 Cl- 量

本研究では, φ100×20cm の無筋の円柱コンクリート供試体と鉄筋をかぶり 10mm の位置に設置した 40×40×160mm3 の角柱モ

腐食電流密度から腐食したとみなされたモルタル供試体の鉄ルタル供試体を使用した. 表 1 に記した配合はコンクリートと筋近傍のモルタル中の Cl- 量を JCI-SC45 に従って分析し, コン

モルタル両方の供試体を作製し, 表 2 に記した配合はコンクリ

クリート中の Cl- 量に変換して算出した結果を腐食発生限界 Cl-ート供試体のみ作製した. コンクリート供試体は OPC を使用し量とした.

た場合打設後5日間, FAを混和した場合7日間湿空養生を行った.

2.4 寿命予測方法

モルタル供試体は練混ぜ水と同じ種類の水を用いて 7 日間水中本研究における寿命の定義を図1に示す. 塩害と中性化におけ-る潜伏期を算出する為に Cl- 拡散係数, 中性化速度係数, 酸素透養生を行った. なお, 海水練りによって初期に混入する Cl 量は3

約 3.0kg/m であった.

過量を把握した. なお, 塩害環境の進展期の算出を行う為に, 腐
食速度と酸素透過量の関係式 4)及び鳥取式 5)を用いた.

表１. コンクリート及びモルタル供試体
水セメント比(単位水量)

セメント種,(FA置換率 ,%) 練り混ぜ水
OPC, (0)JIS規格Ⅱ種FA, (10)0.5(171kg/㎥)

JIS規格Ⅱ種FA, (30)JIS規格Ⅱ種FA, (30)JIS規格外, (30)
OPC, (0)0.7(174kg/㎥)
JIS規格Ⅱ種FA, (30)

水
海水
水
海水
水
海水
水
海水
水
海水
水
海水
水
海水

呼び記号

0.5OPC-W
0.5OPC-S
0.5能代(Ⅱ)FA10-W
0.5能代(Ⅱ)FA10-S
0.5能代(Ⅱ)FA30-W
0.5能代(Ⅱ)FA30-S
0.5勿来(Ⅱ)FA30-W
0.5勿来(Ⅱ)FA30-S
0.5相馬(×)FA30-W
0.5相馬(×)FA30-S
0.7OPC-W
0.7OPC-S
0.7能代(Ⅱ)FA30-W
0.7能代(Ⅱ)FA30-S

3 実験結果23

海水練りの酸素透過量は水練りと概ね同じであり, FA の酸素
透過量は OPC に比べ小さくなることが確認され, FA のポゾラン反応による緻密化の可能性が示唆された.
(4) 腐食発生限界 Cl- 量
FA を混和した場合の腐食発生限界 Cl-は OPC と比べ小さくなった. これは, FAを混和した場合のpHはOPCよりも低くなるためだと考えられる.
3.2 腐食挙動
図 2 は塩害におけるモルタル中の鉄筋の腐食挙動である.
海水練りした場合の腐食発生は水練りより早い. 一方, FA を混和した場合の腐食発生は練混ぜ水によらず水練りした OPC よ
り遅いことが確認された. これは FA を混和した場合の Cl- 拡散係数が OPC の 3 分の 1 以下であるためと考えられる.
3.3 寿命予測
図 3 は塩害における, 図 4 は中性化における寿命予測である.
(1) 塩害における寿命予測
図3の結果から, 練混ぜ水に海水を使用すると水練りした同配合に比べて塩害における寿命は短くなる. これは初期混入塩分が存在するためであると考えられる. 一方, 海水練りした，FAを混和した海水練り鉄筋コンクリートの寿命は FA 置換率の増加に伴い水練りした OPC よりも長くなることが確認された. こ
れは，Cl- 拡散係数と酸素透過量が FA 置換率の増加に伴い小さくなることで潜伏期と進展期が伸びたためと考えられる. 特に水セメント比0.5 の場合, FAⅡ種を30%置換した海水練りの配合
は長い寿命を示し, 約 30 年であった. (能代と勿来の平均値)(2) 中性化における寿命予測
図4の結果から, 練混ぜ水に海水を使用すると水練りした場合の寿命と概ね同じとなる. FA を混和した海水練り鉄筋コンクリートの寿命は FA 置換率の増加に伴い水練りした OPC よりも短くなることが確認された. FA を混和した配合の中性化速度係数は同配合の OPC と比べて大きくなったためと考えられる.
4 結論
本研究から以下の結論が得られた.
(1) FA を使用することにより，塩害における海水練り鉄筋コンクリートの寿命(ひび割れ発生まで)を, OPC を用いた水練りコンク
リートよりも長期化する可能性が示唆された. 特に水セメント
比 0.5 の場合, JIS 規定の FAⅡ種を 30%置換した海水練りの配合

3.1 物性値は最も長い寿命を示し, その値は約 30 年となった.

表 3 は各配合の物性値の実験結果である.
-(2) 中性化における寿命(潜伏期)での海水練りと水練りの差は小(1) Cl 拡散係数
海水練りした場合の Cl- 拡散係数は水練りした場合よりも小さかった.しかし, FA を使用することで中性化速度が早くなるた-

さくなることが確認された. これは海水練りの初期混入 Cl が濃め, 鉄筋かぶりを大きくするなどの対策が必要である.

度勾配を緩やかにしたためと考えられる. また, FA を混和した

参考文献

-

場合の Cl 拡散係数は OPC と比べ小さくなることが確認され,

1) 小原弘毅, 塩害および中性化における海水練りコンクリー

FA のポゾラン反応による緻密化の可能性が示唆された.

トの寿命予測, 東京工業大学大学院修士論文, 2013
2) 魚本健人・高田良章, コンクリートの中性化速度に及ぼす炭酸ガス濃度の影響, 生産研究, 43 巻６号, pp.35-pp.38, 1991.6
3) 堺 孝司，開発土木研究所月報，No.457, pp.39-41,1991.6
4) 鳥取誠一， 鉄筋腐食に関する暴露試験等に基づいたコンク
リート構造物の劣化予測，京都大学学位論文，2002
5) 丸山真一， 中性化によるコンクリート中鉄筋の腐食に及ぼすセメントおよび温度の影響，東京工業大学学位論文 2002

(2) 中性化速度係数
海水練りした場合の中性化速度係数は水練りした場合と概ね同じになることが確認された. また, FA を混和した場合の中性化速度係数は OPC よりも大きくなる. これは, FA を混和した場
合 pH は OPC よりも低くなるためだと考えられる.
(3) 酸素透過量24Feasibility Study of FOSS GIS:
A case of World Heritage Site in Luang Prabang, LaoP.D.R
Student number: 10_06016 Name: Ryusuke Katagiri
Supervisor: Yume Yamaguchi, Junichi Takada
1 Introduction

3.2 QGIS

Town of Luang Prabang was inscribed as World
Heritage thanks to its unique townscape. However,
UNESCO monitoring report indicates that the rapid
development is gradually changing the townscape.
Therefore, the town may be at the risk of being
enlisted as heritage in danger in the near future.
(Kami.2010) Tech team has been collaborating withthe local government of Luang Prabang, The world
heritage site of Lao PDR, by introducing applicable
information and communication technology to assist
sustainable development of the town.
To assist in finding possible solution to tackle
this problem, usage of GIS (Geographic Information
System) was identified as a potential means with theaim to visualize and analyze the changes in thetownscape after World Heritage inscription. The
project team used ArcGIS, commercial software, fordevelopment of GIS prototype in the past, however,annual license fee has become burden for the local
institution. If Lao PDR decides to join WTO, alongwith its advantages such as loosen custom, no quantity
limitation for items, it would also influence on stricter
regulation on pirated software. Due to high cost forcommercial software the usage of illegal software iscommon issue in developing countries. Thus, the needof FOSS (free and open source software) GIS is
expected to be further highlighted with particularattention on cost and legality. Kami (2010) who wasproject team member conducted the feasibility studyof FOSS GIS, but almost all the software packages are
renewed and there are new software packages born. In
this context, this study aims to investigate feasibilityof FOSS GIS use in Luang Prabang.

QGIS is FOSS (Free and Open Source Software) GIS.
The strongest advantage of QGIS is its user interface.
QGIS has user-friendly interface that is similar to
ArcGIS, therefore users who have ever used ArcGIS
before can easily use QGIS as well. The second
advantage is GRASS plugin modules. By using the
GRASS plugins, QGIS is able to operate many
analyses function of GRASS. Other than GRASS tool
kit, QGIS has many plugins.
4 Study framework
The study investigated the feasibility of FOSS GIS to
be used in Luang Prabang using the following steps:
1) identifying important FOSS GIS functions andfeatures; 2) specifying suitable FOSS GIS throughcomparison among different software packages 3
times; 3) comparing QGIS with ArcGIS and clarifying
QGIS advantage and disadvantages in the project; 4)identifying the appropriate task for testing; 5) creating
manual to manage a specific function on QGIS; 6)
conduct testing on QGIS; and 7) to evaluate the use of
QGIS and improve manual. At last, revised manualwas sent to local staff members for their feedback.
5 Results
5.1 Needs for screening

The objectives of this research are: 1) to select anappropriate FOSS GIS to be used to manage the core
preservation areas of Luang Prabang; 2) to conduct
testing the use of selected FOSS GIS using thetraining manual; and 3) to evaluate the test result andto suggest the improvement.

First, this study identified important functions andfeatures requested for FOSS GIS to the project. Thus,
the important functions were identified with the local
team members, including; 1) Editor, 2) Attributecalculation, 3) Symbol, 4) GEO analysis, 5) Geo
referencing, 6) GPS. And important features were also
identified with priorities, including; 1) Programming
language, 2) Level of complexity, 3) Maturity, 4)Compatible user interface with ArcGIS, 5) Abundantfunctions, 6) Support of various data format, and 7)
Easy installation and test running. In these features,
they put high priority on 2) Level of complexity, 3)maturity, 5) abundant functions and 7) easy
installation and test running.

3 Over view of GIS

5.2 Results of screening

Geographic Information System (GIS) integrates
hardware, software, and data for capturing, managing
analysis, and displaying all forms of geographicallyreferenced information (Mattay et al., 2006).

Then first FOSS GIS selection was done. 21 software
packages were selected from over 100 software
packages by considering 3 conditions;(a) General
purpose of Desktop GIS applications, (b) currently
active or not and (c) Operating system is Windows.
In the second FOSS GIS selection, 8 software
packages are selected from 21 packages byconsidering 2 conditions; (a) Sufficient functionalities
as a desktop GIS system (b) Popularity of the software.
8 software packages are GRASS, gvSIG, ILWIS,
MapWindow GIS, OpenJUMP, QGIS, SAGA GIS,
and uDig.
In the third FOSS GIS selection, QGIS was
selected as most potential software package by
considering these conditions; (a) Check required

2 Objectives of this research

3.1 ArcGIS
ArcGIS is the most popular GIS software in the world.
Its share is about 36 percent in GIS software in 2008
and it is larger than any other software. It has easyuser interface, rich function in editing maps and geo
analysis, good user support. In addition to that, it
becomes easy to share data with other department that
use ArcGIS due to its biggest share in market.

25

functions by creating comparison table, (b) Simple
test running and (c) Refer other comparison tables.

With the testing, some useful suggestions wereidentified to make this manual more comprehensive.
The following points were incorporatead for revisedmanual: 1) to arrange procedures and pictures
alternately; 2) to indicate time to load something or
finish each procedure; and 3) to explain each
operations meaning simply by using glossary. On
the basis of these suggestions, revised training manualwas created and send to local staff members.

5.3 Comparison between ArcGIS and QGIS
To investigate feasibility of QGIS, its advantages anddisadvantages against ArcGIS are discussed byrevising some useful sites. As advantages of QGIS,
license fee, legality issue and user support wereidentified. As disadvantages of QGIS, lack of
calculation function in attribute table, fewer map
adjustment and edit functions and fewer geo analysis
functions were discussed.
5.4 Testing with appropriate task using QGISBefore the testing of QGIS, local staff members
identified two important and useful functions: 1)
distance calculation function; and 2) function ofcreating contour. First, distance calculation function as
employed using ArcGIS and QGIS in the map given
by local staffs. But there are almost no difference
regarding its function. And second, Function ofcreating contour is especially needed, mainly becauseof 2 reasons; 1) Local staffs can’t use this function on
ArcGIS due to license problem. 2) There are few
training sources of QGIS, because it is not commercial
software. Thus, the task using QGIS was decided on“creating contour line on QGIS”.

Figure 1 Creating contour lines using QGIS
(Source: Created by author, February, 2014)
6 Conclusions

5.5 Results of testingIn summary, this study investigated the feasibility of
FOSS GIS to be used in Luang Prabang.
QGIS performed well under the existing condition andits functions are adequate for local needs. By the test
running, function of creating contour lines isconfirmed to work on QGIS and the manual to create
contour lines was evaluated to be useful.
It is believed that QGIS might be effective and useful
tool for the project in Luang Prabang. It is hoped that
this study can support usage of FOSS GIS in the otherproject by selecting the most feasible FOSS GIS tocope with problems in implementing and sustainableusage.

As a next step, training manual for creating contour
lines on QGIS was created. Further, nine questions
to evaluate and improve this manual were asked. As asample DEM file, a file “Laos_dtm” was used tocreate contour lines. The author let 10 examinees tocreate contour lines by referring manual and recorded
their background, time to finish manual and frequencyof question.
The results are showed in the table below.
Participant

Age

E1
E2

20s
40s

E3
E4

20s
20s

E5
E6

20s
20s

E7
E8
E9

20s
20s
20s

E10

20s

Major
in
university
IDE
The faculty ofliterature
Electronics
Informationengineering
IDE
Library
information
IDE
IDE
MechanicalEngineering
IDE

GIS
Experience
None
None

Time(minutes)
15
16

frequencyof question
0
2

None
None

15
11

1
0

None
3 months

20
15

4
0

None
None
1 month

18
13
10

2
0
0

None

15

2

References[1] Yoshitaka Kami “Feasibility Study of Open Source
GIS Application for World Heritage Management inLuang Prabang, Lao PDR”, 2010[2] Neftali Sillero, Pedro Tarroso,” Free GIS for
herpetologists: free data sources on Internet andcomparison analysis of proprietary and free/open
source software”, 2009[3] Stud.techn. Atle Frenvik Sveen, “Use of Free andOpen Source GIS in Commercial Firms”, 2008[4] Stefan Steiniger , Geoffrey J. Hay, “Free and open
source geographic information tools for landscapeecology”,2009[5] Geoffrey Anderson, Cloudshadow Consulting, Inc,
Boulder, Colorado “Building Web-Based Spatial
Information Solutions around Open Specifications andOpen Source Software”2003

Table 1 Summary of test result(source: compiled by the author, February, 2014)
Based on the data collected, the analysis was
conducted using the following three points: 1)
possibility of using QGIS; 2) usability of QGIS; and
3) improvement of this manual. The test result may beinterpreted that DPL staff members with lessexperience of using GIS are able to create contour
lines easily. Because, including examinees without
experience of GIS, six out of 10 examinees finished
all the procedure without any questions during thetesting.

26

Study on charging method for enhancing
charge-discharge efficiency of Ni-MH battery
Student Number: 10-08593

Name: Kenta Koh

Supervisor: Kunio Takahashi

1 Introduction
2.3 Discharging condition
Energy harvesting is a technique for gathering
The battery is discharged at the current of 160mA
tiny energy from environments such as light,
until its voltage decreases to 1V. After discharging,vibration, heat, and electromagnetic waves. It isbattery’s voltage is recovered gradually. So I startused for small devices such as wireless network
all charging experiment when battery’s voltage issensor. Energy obtained from energy harvesting is recovered up to 1.2V.
unstable so that we cannot use this energy directly.
So we have to store those energy before use. In our 3 Constant current charging experimentlab, we used capacitors as storage devices because 3.1Experiment parameterof their advantage of charge discharge efficiency.
In this experiment, charging current is constant.
Fig2 shows charge-discharge circuit. I set 𝐼1 ,𝐼2 ,𝑡1 ,𝑡2
But capacitors have disadvantages compared torechargeable battery from the point of leak current, and measure 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 .
discharge characteristic and so on. So the possible
𝐼2
𝐼1
of using battery has to be discussed.
In the past, the effect of pulse charging on innerpressure and cycling characteristics of Ni-MH
𝑉2
𝑉1
batteries is studied by Jixiao Zhang et al [1]. But
charging efficiency has not been discussed.
The purpose of this study is to clarify the effect ofpulse charging on charge-discharge efficiency andFig2 Charge-discharge circuit
study charging method. To attain this purpose, the𝑡1 : charging time 𝑡2 : discharging time
following procedures are taken.
𝑡1) Measuring voltage and current for both constant 𝐸1 : charging energy (=∫0 1 𝐼1 𝑉1 𝑑𝑡)𝑡current and pulse charging.
𝐸2 : discharging energy (=∫0 2 𝐼2 𝑉2 𝑑𝑡)
2) Referring to the measurement result for𝐸𝜂1 : charge-discharge efficiency (= 2 )constant charging current, charge-discharge
𝐸1efficiency for pulse charging in analyzed to
3.2 Result
investigate the effect of duty ratio and magnitude
Fig3 shows relation of current andof pulse charging current on charge-discharge
charge-discharge efficiency.
efficiency.
0.883) Studying charging method considering control
loss.
Efficiency 𝐸2 𝐸1

0.87

2 Experiment condition
2.1 Battery condition
I use a Ni-MH battery which has been used lessthan 50 cycles. Its storage is 1900mAh.
2.2 charging condition
Battery is charged 160% of capacity and discharge
100% of capacity in case of full charging [3].

0.86
0.85
0.84
0.83

Amount of discharging current (%)

0

200

400

Current 𝐼1 (mA)

600

Fig3 Charge-discharge efficiency
Next, doing pulse charging experiment, I set
current and duty ratio based on this result
4 Pulse charging experiment
4.1 Experiment parameterIn this experiment, the charging current is pulse.
Fig4 shows definition of duty ratio.

Amount of charging current (%)

Fig1 Efficiency of amount of current
But looking at Fig1, battery cannot be charged
when the amount of charging current is over 100%of storage. So I charge battery up to 53% of storagei.e.1Ah in all experiments.

27

I

To compare charging method, I set charging circuit
like Fig7.

Current(A)

𝐼on

MOS-FET：t

𝑇𝑜𝑛 𝑇𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑇𝑜𝑛𝐸

𝑜𝑛 +𝑇𝑜𝑓𝑓

・𝑅DS : 78mΩI

The current I is 200mA and duty ratio is 1/2 toreproduce pulse charging experiment.
The charge-discharge efficiency considering
energy loss is 87.9%. Energy loss is decided by 𝑅DS
if FET’s switching frequency is less than 1kHz.
So, if we choose FET whose 𝑅DS is small andcharge battery with optimum duty ratio, there issome possibility using pulse charging to enhancecharge-discharge efficiency.

𝐸1

I decide 𝐼𝑜𝑛 so that it becomes the average ofamount of current is equal as shown equation.
𝑇𝑜𝑛+𝑇𝑜𝑓𝑓
1
𝐼3 𝑑𝑡 = 100(C)∫0
𝑇𝑜𝑛 +𝑇𝑜𝑓𝑓

So I set current and duty ratio as Table1 andmeasure efficiency shown.
Table1 Measurement plan
𝐼on

𝑇𝑜𝑛

𝑇𝑜𝑓𝑓

d

200mA

1sec

1sec

1 2

300mA

1sec

2sec

1 3

400mA

1sec

3sec

1 4

500mA

1sec

4sec

1 5

600mA

1sec

5sec

1 6

7 Conclusions
Measurement result shows that we should choosebattery’s capacity appropriately.
There is a duty ratio which optimizes
charge-discharge efficiency.
There is some possibility using pulse charging toenhance charge-discharge efficiency.

4.2 Result
Fig5 shows charge-discharge efficiency.
Efficiency 𝐸2 𝐸1

0.89

0.88

0.87

0.86

0.85

0.4

I

Fig7 Comparing two charging method)

𝜂2 : efficiency (= 2 )0.2

𝜂1 =87.6%

TOSHIBA TPC6006-H

Fig4 example of pulse charging

d : duty ratio (= 𝑇Constant
current
charging

Pulse
charging

0.6

0.8

1

Duty ratio

Fig5 Charge-discharge efficiency
There is a duty ratio which optimizes
charge-discharge efficiency. In next discussion, I use
this data in the next discussion.
5 Discussions
I propose pulse charging circuit with FET like Fig6.
I set duty ratio with controlling frequency of FET
switching. Energy losses by using FET are heat
which is generated in resistor between drain andsource 𝑅DS, gate drive loss, switching loss.

Fig6 pulse charging circuit with FET.

28

8 References[1]Jixiao Zhang, Jingxian Yu,” The effects of pulse
charging on inner pressure and cycling
characteristics of sealed Ni/MH batteries”, Journalof Power Sources,Volume 136, Issue 1, 10
September 2004, Pages 180–185[2]AIS-Panasonic，Pages for juridical person，Information of Ni-MH，第 1 章”ニッケル水素電池の5 大特性”[3]AIS-Panasonic，Pages for juridical person，Information of Ni-MH，第 3 章”充電方法について”

中国における高速鉄道と航空の旅客特性と機関選択
学籍番号：10_08601
1

氏名：康 書陽

はじめに指導教官：花岡伸也

サンプルを精査し、有効サンプル数は 744 となった。

中国では 2003 年に初めて旅客専用線の高速鉄道（時速

調査票の言語は中国語で、調査項目は、モデル変数に反は 200km/h 以上）が開通後、2011 年以降に北京・上海間映することを想定し、次の項目を質問した。RP 調査の場

（1,318km）や北京・広州間（2,298km）など次々に新しい合は社会属性（性別、年齢、職業、家族月収）、目的地、高速鉄道（時速は 300km/h 以上）が開通し、2013 年 9 月

旅行目的、ラインホール運賃、出発地住所、アクセス手段、

時点で約 10,500km が運用されている。2008 年に修正されアクセス時間、アクセス費用、日帰りかどうか、高速鉄道・た中長期鉄道網計画によると、四縦四横の旅客専用線、都航空の選択理由、全部で 14 問である。SP 調査の場合は社市間鉄道、高速化された在来線、西部開発のための新線、会属性（性別、年齢、職業、家族月収）、三段階の距離別

海峡西岸線の 5 種類の高速列車に対応した鉄道があり、における交通機関に対する選択傾向、全部で 7 問である。

2015 年まで約 18,000km が計画されている。
高速鉄道の開通後、競合する航空路線の運休や減便が3

旅客特性分析

生じている。例えば、大手航空会社の鄭州・西安間（505km）

RP 調査のアンケート回答者の中で、高速鉄道を利用すの航空路線は、2010 年に高速鉄道（時速は 300km/h 以上）

るのは 267 人で、航空を利用するのは 265 人である。回答の開通後に、2 社運休となった。石家庄・太原間などの 300-

者の多数は企業の従業員、学生、個人経営者である。高速700km 区間も航空路線の減便が起きている。今後国内航空

鉄道を利用する 35 歳以上の人の割合は 48％の一方、航空路線の需要の一部は高速鉄道に代わっていくものと考えの場合は 22％しかない。家族月収は 4 段階の選択式で回られる。

答を得て（1 元＝約 17 円）、高速鉄道の 37％が 0~5000 元、

高速鉄道と航空の旅客特性及び機関選択モデルの推定32％が 5000~10000 元、31％が 10000 元以上である。一方、事例は今までいくつかあるものの、中国を対象とした事例

航空の 28％が 0~5000 元、45％が 5000~10000 元、27％がは少ない。そこで、本研究では複数の高速鉄道路線があり、10000 元以上である。これより、高速鉄道と航空の主要旅

競合する航空路線の多い北京をケーススタディとして、行客の所得階層があまり異なっていないことがわかる。

動調査（RP 調査）と選好調査（SP 調査）を用いて高速鉄

片道運賃を旅行目的別、方面別で分析した。高速鉄道の

道と航空の旅客特性の分析及び機関選択モデルを推定と運賃は原則的に営業距離に比例し、割引制度もないが、一する。

等車と二等車に分けられる。一部の旅客は相対的に高い運賃の一等車を利用しているが、それでも航空運賃の 2 分の

2

現地調査

1 以下である。一方、航空運賃の分散は大きく、営業距離

本研究では、
北京で 2013 年 12 月に現地調査を行った。

にも比例しない。特に、北京と最も近い目的地、済南までの航空運賃は最も高い。

北京を起終点とする高速鉄道は、北京駅から発車する北京－瀋陽－哈爾浜を結ぶ内陸北向きの京哈線、北京西駅から

旅行目的は高速鉄道と航空で顕著な違いはなかった。出

発車する北京－鄭州－武漢を結ぶ内陸西向きの京広線、さ張、旅行、帰省のシェアが高かった。業務目的は`高速鉄道

らに北京南駅から発車する北京－南京－上海を結ぶ内陸と航空のいずれも約 40％を占めた。

南向きの京滬線があり、いずれも四縦四横の一つである。

アクセス手段については、業務旅客のほうがそれ以外の

これらの路線の高速鉄道の停車駅があり、かつ北京の首都目的の旅客よりもタクシーを利用する人が多い。空港まで

空港から航空路線のある都市として、上海、杭州、南京、の交通手段の選択は、業務旅行の 55％と非業務旅行の西安、武漢、鄭州、済南、太原、瀋陽、長春、青島、合肥

30％の人が自動車かタクシーを利用したことがわかる。

の 12 都市を選んだ。

次に、業務旅行と非業務旅行に分けて、高速鉄道利用者

RP 調査は北京駅、北京西駅、北京南駅の駅構内の待合に高速鉄道を利用する理由と航空を利用しない理由、航空室、北京首都空港のチェックインカウンター付近で行った。

利用者に航空を利用する理由と高速鉄道を利用しない理

SP 調査は北京地元の住民を対象に、企業、大学及びイン由を分析した。高速鉄道利用者では、短いアクセス時間とターネットで調査を行った。各調査地点のサンプル数が均

適切な出発時間を選択条件とした結果が最も多かった。一一になるように収集し（目標値 RP600、SP200）、合計 840

方、航空利用者は短いラインホール時間を選択している回

サンプルを集めた。その後、機関選択モデルに利用可能な答が最も多かった。さらに、業務旅行では、職場決定と高29

い定時運行率を決定要素として選択する人が多く、非業務

表 2 非業務旅行機関選択モデル推定結果

旅行では、低運賃を重視している人が多いことがわかる。

BL

MNL

SP 調査では一人の回答者から中距離（400~700 km）、中

説明変数

推定値

t値

推定値

t値

長距離（700~1000 km）、長距離（1000~1300 km）におけるアクセス運賃0.0642

4.23

0.09736.68

サンプル 3 つが得られる。回答者は全部 212 人で、公務アクセス時間

-0.05

-1.97

-0.03

-0.71

員、事業者、企業の従業員の割合が最も高い。16~35 歳の

便数

0.024

2.85

0.023

2.81

回答者は 60％以上を占める。35 歳以上の航空を利用した

ラインホール運賃

0.00030.62

0.00040.73

い人は高速鉄道を利用したい人より少ないが、その差はラインホール時間

0.00040.12

0.00020.05

RP データより小さい。家族月収については、高速鉄道と固有定数（空港）

0.553

0.65

-

-

固有定数（空港・車）--0.03640.03

固有定数（空港・公共）---0.095-0.04

固有定数（駅・公共）

-

-

1.08

1.95

航空を利用したい人の各レベルの数はあまり差がなく、
0~10000 元レベルが 80％を占める。
高速鉄道や航空に対する選択傾向は業務や非業務目的に分けられる。いずれにおいても、距離が長いほど、航空

修正 ρ

2

を選ぶ人の割合が高くなる。業務旅行において航空を利用

0.246

サンプル数

したい人は非業務旅行の約 2 倍で、非業務旅行の高速鉄道を利用したい人は業務旅行の約 1.5 倍である。

0.312
305

アクセス時間と便数は説明変数として統計的に有意な次に、選択傾向に対する理由を分析した。業務旅行の場

結果を得て、高速鉄道選択理由と一致している。アクセス

合、約 50％の人はラインホール時間、約 25％の人は快適

運賃の t 値が大きいものの、符号条件が合わない。そのほ性を重視して航空を選んだ。その一方、約 30％の人はラかに、ラインホール時間、ラインホール運賃、月収、駅・インホール時間、約 20％の人は安全性と定時運行率を重空港での待ち時間などを説明変数として検討したものの、視し、高速鉄道を選択した。非業務旅行では、約 35％の人

どれも t 値が小さく、符号条件が合わないケースもあり、はラインホール時間と快適性を重視し、航空を選んだ。約

統計的に有意な結果とならなかった。

35％の人は運賃、約 15％の人はラインホール時間、安全性と快適性を重視して、高速鉄道を選択した。

4

本研究では、北京で現地調査を行い、集めた RP と SP

機関選択モデル推定のデータを用いて高速鉄道と航空の旅客特性を分析し、本研究では、RP データから、高速鉄道、航空の 2 選択

RP データのみで機関選択モデルの推定を行った。修正 ρ2肢による非集計選択モデルの二項ロジットモデル（BL）をの値が十分高いことから、モデルの説明力があるとわかっ

用いて機関選択モデルを推定する。さらにアクセス方法をた。モデルは実情をある程度反映しているものの、サンプ

車・タクシーと公共交通機関に分けて、多項ロジットモデ

ル比率が実態と一致しているかどうか不明なことから、ラル（MNL）を用いて推定する。推定結果を表 1 と表 2 にインホール運賃とラインホール時間などの説明変数に影示す。

響している。サンプリングを注目し、モデル改善の余地が

表 1 業務旅行機関選択モデル推定結果
BL

ある。

MNL

説明変数

推定値

t値

推定値

t値

アクセス運賃0.08723.21

0.07245.07

アクセス時間-0.130-3.43-0.232

-17.6

便数

0.016

2.06

0.014

1.85

ラインホール運賃

0.00010.14

0.00010.03

ラインホール時間

0.00020.05

0.00010.01

固有定数（空港）

2.75

2.58

-

-

固有定数（空港・車）

-

-

4.66

11.33

固有定数（空港・公共）

-

-

10.0

0.00

固有定数（駅・公共）

-

-

2.84

0.244

修正 ρ2
サンプル数

結論

5

0.312

参考文献
[1]

Zheng Zhao, “The Analysis about the Impact of the Highspeed Railway Operation on Civil Aviation” (2009)[2]

Yi Liu, “The Impact of High-speed Railway on Civil
Aviation Transportation Industry” (2013)[3]“Year Book of China Transportation & Communications”(2013)[4]

Japan Society of Traffic Engineers “Disaggregate Travel
Demand Analysis” (2013)

0.299
277

30

Transport Infrastructure and the Location of Industrial Estates:
Thailand experience
Student Number: 10-09842

Name: Wataru Saito

Supervisor: Shinya Hanaoka

1 Introduction
The number of industrial estates in Thailand has
been increasing as industrial structure transferredfrom primary to secondary in 1980’s. Foreign Direct
Investment (FDI) to Thailand’s manufacturingindustry has been increasing as well, and most offoreign firms have moved into industrial estate to
get some profits by agglomeration effect. It canclearly be seen that transport infrastructure is one
important factor when firms decide their location.
There are more industrial estates in Thailand
than neighboring countries, but labor costs in
Thailand has been increasing so we can predict some

Figure 1: Map of location transition

firms will move their location to Laos, Cambodia or

Table 1: Location transition: number and area

Myanmar. Moreover, many official agencies has
①
②
③
④
⑤

invested in Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS) so it
is useful to research about relationship between
industrial location and transport infrastructure inCompletion age Num of IE located area
1970s
5 Bangkok
1980s
12 East area(Near to Leam
1990s
23 Chabang port)
2000s
13 Regional city(far from Bangkok)
2010s
7 West area, not central area

Due to promotion act in investing in regional

Thailand at the first setout for forecasting logistics

area of Thailand since 1987, some industrial estatesof GMS.

decided to locate farer from Bangkok in order toThis research attempts to identify the impact oftransport infrastructure factors on location ofobtain the benefits of tax reduction.

industrial estates in Thailand.

In addition, because of ‘Thailand Floods 2011’
and recent democratization in Myanmar, several

2 Industrial Estates in Thailand

industrial estates locate rather in west area than inThis section explains the chronological transition

central area. Furthermore, as shown in Figure 1,of industrial estates’ location in Thailand to

many of them are located along the main road orunderstand what kind of transport infrastructure isnear to the port. We can assume that road and port

important. The official website of ‘’The Board of

are one of important factors.

Investment in Thailand (BOI)’’ shows 60 industrial
estates. It is assumed that these 60 ones reflect the

3 Methodology and Results

tendency of whole industrial estates’ location in

3.1 Model and data

Thailand. Figure 1 and Table 1 show chronological

To identify the impact on the location fromtransition of Thailand industrial estates. Asiantransport

Highway are shown by bold line on Figure 1.The

multiple regression analysis. Linear regression

numbers on Figure 1 correspond to Table 1.

model and variables are proposed as following:

31

infrastructure,

thisresearch applies

Table 2: Independent variables: Definition, mean, standard deviation and expected effectstandard expected
deviation effecttransport DisBangkok Distance(km) to Bangkok which is the main market
248
306 －
Dis Port
Distance(km) to the nearest main port
197
171 －
Lane
Road length(km) which has only 2 lanes to go to Bangkok and Port[2008]32
48 －Surface
Road length(km) which is in bad surface condition to go to Bangkok and Port[2008]
5
13 －
BOI
Dummy variable with value 1 if the province lies in BOI zone 3,value 0 for others
0.39
0.49 ＋
EMP
Number of employees who is working on secondary industry in the province[2008] 101,416 162,053 ＋
non-transport
Wages
Minimum wages(baht/day)[2008]
169
17 －Fee(IE)
Average Maintainance fee of General Industrial Zone(baht/area/month)[2010]
762
150 －
Variable

Definition(unit)[data year]( )Table 3: Result of the regression analysis

Dis Bangkok
transport Dis Port
Lane
BOI
nonWagestransport
Fee(IE)R squareAdjusted R square
Num of observation( ) is the total industrial area

where

) of industrial estates located in each province( ).This refers to the number of firms located inindustrial

estatesindirectly.

Samplesare18

provinces after 55 industrial estates (by 2010 before‘Thailand Floods 2011’) are synthesized.

()

standardized
regression
coefficient

Variable

(1)

( )

(

mean

are

t-Valuesignificant level*10% **5%-0.820-0.746-0.8170.918-0.397-0.256
0.59
0.36
18

-2.740**-2.628**-2.057*2.671**-1.340-0.691parameters to be estimated and C is a constant.

transport. This explains that Thailand’s investment

From previous studies and section 2, this researchpromotion act has an influence on the location of

set independent variables which are explained inindustrial estates. When omitting one of 3 transport

Table

into

variables, adjusted R square decreases dramaticallytransport and non-transport variable. ‘Lane’ andfrom 0.36 to less than 0.2, so those transport‘Surface’ are referred to UNESCAP Asian Highway

infrastructure variables are definitely important.

2.

Independent

variables

dividedDatabase. As for ‘BOI’, Thailand divides the country

4 Conclusions

into 3 zones by different level of investment
incentive. ‘Fee(IE)’ is representing the land priceThis research analyzes the impact on industrial

indirectly.

estates’

3.2 Results

infrastructure. The result states that ‘distance toCorrelation

coefficients

among

locationin

Thailandfromtransport

independent

market’, ’distance to the main port’ and ‘the number

variable are less than 0.8 except ‘Dis Port’ andof road lanes’ are the key transport infrastructure‘Surface’. Coefficient of ‘Surface’ has less effect (－)

factors for location of industrial estates. Further

than ‘Dis Port’ when they are included so ‘Surface’ isresearch is required by two aspects: 1) Improve theomitted. Coefficient of ‘EMP’(＋) is the smallest andvariables and make a model including time-series

less than 0.1 so it is omitted as well. The result of

information 2) Estimate the future situation of

the regression model is shown in Table 3.

industrial location in GMS by using the model.

From this result, we can say that all of the signs

References(＋ or － ) are corresponding to our expectation. 3[1]Adeheid

Holl:Transport

transport infrastructure variables except ‘Surface’aconomies,

and

firm

have significance. In contrast, ‘BOI’ is the only

Portucal,regional science,Vol.44,pp693-712,2004.

variable which has significance among non-[2]JBIC: Investment to Thailand, JBIC report,201232

birth:

Infrastructure,agglomeration
empitical

evidencefromEﬀect of geometry of the multi-beam structure on gripping stress
Student Number:10B11431 Name:Shin Shimahara Supervisor:Kunio Takahashi
1Introduction⇒

Geckos use adhesion to move quickly on a wall and a ceiling. The hairs which geckos have on their toes deform toadhere to a surface and it enable geckos to get enough force
to grip on a wall and a ceiling [1]. In order to apply thismechamism to develop a device such as the gecko-inspired
tape [2], analysis of adhesion between a micro-nano-hairstructure and a rough surface is needed. The eﬀect of anelastic beam on adhesion was investigated in the precedingstudies[3] [4], but the eﬀect of geometry (mounting angle
and interval between the beams) of a multi-beam structure
which consists of a substrate and beams which are fixed on
the substrate on adhesion is not investigated. In order todesign a device which has the mulit-beam structure, it isneeded to analyze the eﬀect of geometry of the multi-beam
structure on adhesion.
The objective of this study is the evaluation of the eﬀectof geometry of the multi-beam structure on the maximum
gripping stress.
2⇒

Fig. 3: Contact process
3 Adhesion between the multi-beam structure and therigid body
The gripping stress σ is obtained as follow.
σ̃ =

F̃ave
δ̃W̃

(1)

Fave is the average gripping force. The gripping stress, theaverage gripping force, the interval, and the width of theFaveσδ
beam are normalized as σ̃ = 12EI/L
4 , F̃ ave = 12EI/L2 , δ̃ = L
and W̃ = WL . δ must be the minimum interval which thebeams do not interfere each other to calculate the maximum
σ. From Fig.4, δ is obtained as follow.

Model of the system(a)Figure.1 shows the model of the multi-beam structure andthe rigid body which has rough surface. The elastic beams
are fixed on the rigid substrate with the same interval δ andangle θ. θ ≪ 1[rad] is assumed. The surface roughness isthe triangle wave. Its amplitude is A, the angle of inclinationis φ. 2λ ≫ L and φ ≪ 1[rad] is assumed.
Figure.2 shows geometry of the elastic beam. Its lengthis L, thickness is H, width is W, Young’s modulus is E, andmoment of inertia of the cross section is I. H ≪ L andW ≪ L are assumed. H is negligibly thin.
Figure.3 shows the contact process between the multibeam structure and the rigid body. The multi-beam structure begins to be loaded from D = ∞. Loading stops at
D = 0. Then, the muli-beam structure is unloaded until it
detachs perfectly from the rigid body. As H ≪ L, W ≪ L,
θ ≪ 1[rad] and φ ≪ 1[rad] are assumed, the deformationof the beams obeys linear beam theory. As 2λ ≫ L is assumed, the number of the beams which are across inflection
point of surface roughness is much smaller than the numberof the beam which are not across inflection point of surface
roughness. Therefore, the eﬀect of the beams which are
across inflection point of surface roughness on adhesion is
ignored.

(b)

δcosφ
L

ll
al

δcosφ
L

lr
ar

Fig. 4: Geometrical relation at D = 0 (a):The contact angleis θ − φ (b):The contact angle is θ + φδ cos φ = L − ll + al = L − lr + ar(2)

ll and lr are the length of non-adhesion area. al and ar are thegap between the beams. As δ is the minimum interval which
the beams do not interfere each other and H is negligibly
thin, al or ar must be 0. At θ ≤ φ, ll = lr = L and it resultsin δ = 0. At θ > φ, δ is obtained as follow.

√(
)
(
)


3 tan φ 2tan φ
3 tan φ Γ
1 + tan(θ−φ)+ 12 tan(θ−φ)
tan(θ−φ) − 1 + tan(θ−φ) 1 − / cos φ (L − ll ≥ L − lr )


Γ



2



tan(θ−φ)√δ̃ = 

tan
φ

Γ



1
+
12
−
1



tan(θ+φ) tan(θ+φ)


1 −

 / cos φ(L − lr > L − ll )




2 Γ



(3)

tan(θ+φ)δθφΓ is the parameter which includes the work of adhesion.
F̃ave is obtained by convoluting the force curve of a single
beam with the height distribution function of the surface
roughness [5].
The maximum gripping stress σmax is the strongest gripping stress at a certain θ.
Relation between the maximum gripping stress σmax andthe angle θ is shown in Fig.5, Fig.6 and Fig.7. The amplitude is normalized as Ã = AL .

D
A

Fig. 1: Multi-beam structure
and rigid bodyFig. 2: Elastic beam

33

Fig. 5: Relation between the maximum gripping force σmax
and the angle θ at diﬀerent Γ

Fig. 7: Relation between the maximum gripping force σmax
and the angle θ at diﬀerent Ã

Fig. 6: Relation between the maximum gripping force σmax
and the angle θ at diﬀerent φ

Fig. 8: comparison between theoritical θmax and arctan(3Ã)

4Discussion

M1 〜M8 in Fig.5〜Fig.7 are the points where the maximum
gripping stress is maximal. θ at M3 and M6 approach to theminimum angle where all beams adhere at D = 0. θ at M1 ,M2 , M4 , M5 , M7 and M8 approach to the minimum angle
where all beams at θ − φ adhere at D = 0.
Figure.5〜Figure.7 show that the eﬀect of φ and Γ on
the angle where the maximum gripping stress is maximal ismuch weaker than the eﬀect of Ã.
For those reasons, the angle θmax where the maximum
gripping stress is maximal is determined from Ã and it isobtained as follow.
( )θmax = arctan 3Ã
(4)

Fig. 9: Relation between δmax and Ã
References

arctan(3Ã) is the angle where all beams adhere in conditionof φ = 0. Figure.8 shows comparison between theoriticalθmax and equation4. Figure.8 shows that equation(4) is correct.
Furthermore, as δ is obtained by using θ, φ and Γ, the interval δmax where the maximum gripping stress is maximal
is determined from Ã by equation(3). Fig.9 shows relationbetween δmax and Ã.
5[1] Kellar Autumn, Yiching A. Liang, S. Tonia Hsieh, Wolfgang Zesch,
Wai Pang Chan, Thomas W. Kenny, Ronald Fearing, Robert J. Full,
Adhesive force of a single gecko foot-hair”, Nature 405, 681-685,
2000[2] Geim A.K., Dubonos S.V., Grigorieva I.V., Novoselov K.S., Zhukov
A.A. and Shapoval S.Y., Microfabricated adhesive mimicking
gecko foot-hair”, Nature Materials 2, 461-463, 2003
[3] Y.Sekiguchi, P.Hemthavy, S.Saito, K.Takahashi, Adhesion between side surface of an elastic beam and flat surface of a rigid
body , Journal of Adhesion Science and Technology, 10 August
2012[4] Takehiko Yazaki, Yu Sekiguchi, Pasomphone Hemthavy, Kunio
Takahashi, Eﬀect of Shape and Distribution of Material Properties of Beam on Adhesion with Rigid Body Surface , 19th Symposium on ”Microjoining and Assembly Technology in Electronics”,
Mate2013 pp.297-300[5] ヘムタビーパソムポーン, 高橋邦夫, 生物の把持および脱離機構の解明と可逆接合への応用 , 溶接学会誌 vol.3,no3,2009,p195-200

Conclusions

In this paper, adhesion between the multi-beam structure
and the rigid body which has rough surface is theoriticallyinvestigated. The result shows that the angle and the interval where maximum grippinng stress is maximal are determined from the amplitude of the surface roughness whensmall deformation is assumed.
34

EXPRIMENTAL STUDY ON DETERIORATION OF PAINT-COATED STEEL WITH DIFECTAPPLIED CATHODIC PROTECTION IN TIDAL ZONE
Student Number: 10-11550 Name: Kyohei Shimura Supervisor: Nobuaki Otsuki

1 Introduction

2.2 Specimen

Steel is used for marine structures. However steel iseasy to corrode in marine environment, therefore
various protection methods are developed. Above all,paint coating and cathodic protection are common
methods and often used together.
Cathodic protection can stop corrosion reaction
under water zone. However, when cathodic protection
is applied to paint-coated steel with defect, cathodic
protection leads to degradation of paint coating arounddefect. Paint coating is blistered or ripped off by thegeneration and accumulation of hydroxide ions
induced by cathodic protection.
In tidal zone, there is a period in which paint-coatedsteel is exposed in air. At that time cathodic protection
cannot work. So paint degradation in tidal zone maylead to corrosion.
In the literature review, there are few research which
focused on influential factors on deterioration ofpaint-coated steel with defect applied cathodic
protection and deterioration of paint-coated steel withdefect applied cathodic protection in tidal zone.
Therefore there are few proposal of paint-condition
which is suitable for paint-coated steel applied
cathodic protection in tidal zone.
From the above background, the objectives of thisstudy are as following:(1) To clarify the influence of paint type, solution,
paint thickness, current density, defect on paintdegradation speed.
(2)To clarify deterioration of paint-coated steel withdefect applied cathodic protection in tidal zone.
(3)To select suitable paint-conditions for paint-coatedsteel applied cathodic protection in tidal zone.

In this study, steel plates (thickness: 3.2mm, width:
125mm) are provided as shown in Fig. 1 (a). Leadwire is attached on the backside of each steel plate bysoldering as shown in Fig. 1 (b). Steel plate wasembedded in epoxy resin as shown in Fig. 1 (c). After
painting, φ8mm defect was added as shown in Fig. 1(d).

2 Experiment procedures

3 Experimental results

2.1 Materials

3.1 Solution exposure test

The materials used in this study were steel (SS400),
two types of paint (TarEpoxy, PhthalicResin) and two
types of solutions (3wt%salt water, sea water).
Properties of each paint are shown in Table.1.
TarEpoxy paint has lower oxygen permeability, higher
indentation elastic modulus and stronger adhesion
than PhthalicResin.
Table.1 Properties of each paintThis experiment was conducted to examine theinfluence of paint type, solution, paint thickness,current density and defect on paint degradation speed.
Specimens are exposed in 20℃, 3wt% salt water or
sea water.
The influence of paint type and solution are as shownin Fig.3 and Fig.4 (TE=TarEpoxy, PR=
PhthalicResin/ SALT=3wt%salt water, SEA=sea
water/ all specimens are with defect/ Paint
thickness=300µm). From these figures, regarding
paint type, TarEpoxy paint has more durability against
cathodic protection. Regarding solution, polarization
resistance become higher and duration until blistering
becomelongerinseawaterbecauseofelectrodeposition.
The influence of paint thickness and current density
are as shown in Fig.5 (Paint type=TarEpoxy/ all

Oxygen permeability[ mol /cm2・sec]
Indentation Elastic Modulus[N/mm2]
Adhesion [kgf/cm2]

TarEpoxyPhthalicResin

1.32E-13

3.26E-13

1574

1425

over2014.1

Fig. 1 Outline of specimens

2.3 Measurement items and method
In this study, appearance observation was conducted
to understand duration until blistering on paintcoating.
Polarization resistance was measured by alternating
current impedance method. From bode plot as shownin Fig. 2, polarization resistance were measured.
Impedance Z (Ω)

Rp
Rs
Rs+ RpCp
Rsol
Frequency f (Hz)Fig. 2 Bode plot35

spesimens are with defect/ Solution=3wt%salt water).
From this figure, relation between paint thickness andduration until blistering is linear and difference of
current density hardly influences on duration until
blistering.
The influence of defect are as shown in Fig.6(D=with defect, ND=without defect/ Paint thicknessof PR=300µm, TE=150µm/ Solution= 3wt%salt
water). From this figure, defect shortens duration until
blistering drastically.

4 Conclusions
In tidai zone, using suitable paint, polarization
resistance of paint-coated steel with defectincreases applying cathodic protection becauseof electrodeposition and no paint degradation.
(1) TarEpoxy paint has more durability against
cathodic protection than PhthalicResin paint.
Regarding solution, polarization resistance becomes
higher and duration until blistering becomes longer inseawater because of electrodeposition. Relation
between paint thickness and duration until blisteringof paint-coated steel with defect is linear. Differenceof current density hardly influences on duration until
blistering of paint-coated steel with defect. Defectshortens duration until blistering drastically.
(2) In tidal zone, durability against cathodic
protection is different in each paint type. As for
TarEpoxy paint polarization resistance increases
applying
cathodic
protection
becauseofelectrodeposition and. no paint degradation. As for
PhthalicResin paint, though electrodeposition
generates on steel surface, polarization resistancedecreases applying cathodic protection because of
severe paint degradation.
(3) After seeing properties of each paint (Table.1) andthe results of solution exposure test and wet/dry cycle
test, suitable paint-conditions are selected as below :・Using paint which has lower oxygen permeability,
higher indentation elastic modulus and stronger
adhesion.
・Increasing paint thickness as much as possible.

3.2 Wet/dry cycle test
This experiment was conducted to examine
deterioration of paint-coated steel with defect applied
cathodic protection in tidal zone.
Specimens were exposed to wet/dry cycle
environment which is simulating tidal zone. 1cycle
consisted of 6hours 20℃ artificial sea water exposureand 6hours 20℃ air exposure.
The influence of paint type and cathodic protection
on polarization resistance in tidal zone are as shown in
Fig.7 (Applied or Not Applied means whether
cathodic protection is applied or not/ all specimen arewith defect/ Paint thickness=150µm). From this figure,durability against cathodic protection is different ineach paint type. As for TarEpoxy paint polarization
resistance increases applying cathodic protection
because of electrodeposition and. no paint degradation.
As for PhthalicResin paint, though electrodeposition
generates on steel surface, polarization resistancedecreases applying cathodic protection because of
severe paint degradation shown as Fig.8.

References

1) Masayuki Itagaki：AC impedance method
principle・measurement・analysis (2008)

Fig.3 The influence of paint type andsolution on polarization resistanceFig.4 The influence of paint type andsolution on duration until blistering

Fig.5 Relation between paintthickness and duration until blistering

Fig.6 The influence of defect on
duration until blistering

Fig.7 The influence of paint type andcathodic protection on polarization
resistance in tidal zone

Fig.8 Picture of Applied PR 63rd day

36Effects of free fatty acid removal on biodiesel fuel production
from used frying rapeseed-soybean oil
Student Number: 10B12991

Name: Zhenqiang SHISupervisor: Ryuichi EGASHIRA, Hiroaki HABAKI

1. Introduction
Biodiesel fuel, an alternative diesel fuel, is made from renewable

heating. The procedures of DA and drying were cited from thebiological sources such as vegetable oils and animal fats. Moreover,

2.3 Transesterification

previous works1-4).

biodiesel fuel production itself also shows good effects in carbon

The experimental conditions in transesterification are summarized

neutral. Nonetheless, biodiesel fuel commercialization has not beenin Table 2. Methanol and sodium hydroxide were used as alcohol

promoted sufficiently due to its high cost of production andsource and alkali catalyst to obtain FAME, as shown in thelimitation on feed supply. The cost of feed oil frequently shares 80 %following equation.

of biodiesel fuel production cost, so a reasonable feed oil andCH2OCOR1

improving biodiesel fuel yield are significant to reduction in the

CHOCOR2

production cost. The used frying oil has attracted many attentions

CH2OCOR3+ 3CH3OH

Triglyceride

Catalyst

Methanol

CH3OCOR1

CH2OH

CH3OCOR2 + CHOH

(3)

CH3OCOR3

CH2OH

FAME

Glycerin

due to its lower price and environmentally friend resource for

The equipment used in transesterification was the same as that usedbiodiesel fuel production. The used frying oil occasionally contains

in EDA. Oil and glycerol phases were separated into each other after

free fatty acid by higher level, and the treatment of the used frying

transesterification. Compositions of fatty acid methyl ester, FAME,

oil to remove free fatty acid has been studied5-6).

in the oil phase, were determined by analysis using a gas

This study aimed to examine the effects of deacidification

chromatograph (GC-14B, Shimadzu CO. Ltd).

methods in the feed pretreatment on the yields of treated oil andTable 1. Experimental conditions in DA

Deacidification by esterification

biodiesel.
2. Experimental
2.1 Feed Materials

MeOH/oil molar ratio [-]7.5

H₂SO₄/oil mass ratio as catalyst [-]0.03

Reaction temperature [K]333

Reaction time [h]1.5

Deacidification by neutralization

Fresh frying oil, FFO, which was commercially available and

NaOH/FFA molar ratio [-]consisted of rapeseed oil, soybean oil and a trace amount of silicone(less than 0.005wt%), and the used frying oil, UFO, derived from the353

Reaction time [h]0.083

Table 2. Experimental conditions intransesterification

above FFO were used as feed oils. Compositions of both feed oils,

MeOH/oil molar ratio [-]and some chemical properties like Acidity Value and Iodine Value
were measured. Although both oils originally contained FFA, oleic

0.01

Reaction temperature [K]333

The compositions of the feed oils are summarized in Table 3. The
used feed oils consisted mainly of oleic acid, linoleic acid andpalmitic acid. The FFO contained a trace amount of FFA, and xFFA,0in the original UFO was 0.017. Iodine values of FFO and UFO were
119.46 and 95.4 g/100g-oil, respectively, namely, the average
number of double bonds in a molecule contained in UFO was
smaller.

2.2 Feed Pretreatment
The experimental conditions of deacidification, DA, methods are
summarized in Table 1. Filtration was carried out for removing thesolid contents in UFO before DA. The DA and drying wereconducted for the feed oils as the pretreatment before
transesterification. Two types of DA methods were employed, suchas esterification of FFA into FAME by methanol and sulfuric acid,

Table 3. Compositions of feed oils

EDA, and neutralization of FFA to soap by sodium hydroxide, NDA,

Mass fraction
FFO

UFO

Oleic acid (C18:1)

0.22

0.21

Linoleic acid (C18:2)

0.53

0.47

Palmitic acid (C16:0)

0.12

0.12

as shown in the following reactions, respectively.
CH 3OH

RCOOH + NaOH

RCOOCH3 +RCOONa + H2O

H2 O

1

3. Results and Discussion
3.1 Compositions of feed oils

study the effect of FFA contant, xFFA,0, in the UFO. The Wijs method
was used for measuring of Iodine Value7).

+

6

NaOH/oil mass ratio as catalyst [-]Reaction time [h]acid (C18:1) and linoleic acid (C18:2) were added to the UFO to

RCOOH

1.15

Reaction temperature [K]

(1)
(2)

The reaction of EDA was carried out in a two-necked flask, which

α- linolenic acid (C18:3)

0.077

0.066

was equipped with reflux condenser, and temperature-controlled

FFA

0.00069

0.017~0.23

water bath. Liquids in the reactor were well mixed by a magnetic

3.2 Effects of DA method in feed pretreatment

stirrer during the reactions. After EDA, sulfuric acid and methanol

The effects of DA method on the mass fraction of FFA in thewere removed by washing and drying. In the case of NDA, thepretreated oil, xFFA,FP are shown in Figure 1. The xFFA,FP could bereaction was carried out in flask with a magnetic stirrer, and the soap

reduced to under 0.02 in the cases of both NDA and EDA, but xFFA,FP

was removed by centrifuge. The pretreated oils were dried by

was higher in NDA than that in EDA when xFFA,0 >0.05.

37

1

0.016
0.014

DA

Key

0.8

NDA

0.01
0.008

Feed oil

0.6

YTE[-]

xFFA,FP

0.012

EDA

0.004

FFO

NDA
EDA
一
NDA
EDA

UFO

0.2

0.002

0

0
0.05

0

0.1

0.15

0.2

0

xFFA,0YFP [-]

0.4

FFO

NDA

0.2

UFO

EDA
NDA

Key

EDA

0
0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.25

DA

Key

0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2

xFFA,FP[-]

Fig.4 Effects of xFFA,FP on YTE in UFO

The yield in the pretreatment, YFP, was defined as following:

1

Mass of pretreated oil
Mass of feed oil

0.8

Figure 2 shows the effects of DA methods on YFP. In the case of

YOA [-]

0.6

EDA, YFP was high, more than 0.9, irrespective to xFFA,0, because

0.4

FFA could be converted to FAME and recovered in the oil phase. In
the case of NDA, YFP decreased steeply with xFFA,0 due to theFeed oil

DA

FFO

NDA
EDA

Key

一

0.2

一
NDA
EDA

UFO

removal of FFA as soap. When xFFA,0 >0.1, the loss of feed oil was

0
0.05

0

much larger than the amount of FFA in the feed oil. The

0.1

0.15

Fig.5 Effects of xFFA,0 on YOA

neutralization of FFA should generate moisture content to enhance
the saponification of the feed oil. The YFPs by NDA were the same as

0.2

0.25

xFFA,0[-]

4. Conclusion

by EDA when xFFA,0<0.02. In the range of xFFA,0>0.2, the NDA

Deacidification was necessary for used frying oil, anddeacidification by acid catalyst attainted a higher fractional yield of
oil in feed pretreatment than that by alkali, which can’t be carried out
when mass fraction of free fatty acid in feed oil was higher than 0.2 .
Similar yield of fatty acid methyl esters were obtained intransesterification after different deacidification method.

treatment was impossible, because the liquid system became stableemulsion with the soap produced from the neutralization of FFA.
3.3 Effects of DA method in transesterification
The yield in transesterification, YTE, and FAME yield, YOA, aredefined as followings:
YTE =

0.2

EDA

0

Fig.2 Effects of DA method on YFPxFFA,0[-]

YFP =

0.15

一
NDA

YTE [-]

0.8

DA

0.1

1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0

1

Feed oil

0.05

Fig.3 Effects of DA method onYTExFFA,0[-]Fig.1 Effects of DA method on xFFA,FP in UFO

0.6

Key

一

0.4

0.006

DA

Nomenclature

Mass of FAMEY = YFP × YTE， OA
Mass of pretreated oil

xFFA,0 : mass fraction of free fatty acid in feed oil [–]xFFA,FP : mass fraction of free fatty acid in pretreated oil[–]Figure 3 shows the effects of DA method on the yield of FAME at

YFP : yield in pretreatment [–]the transesterification. The operation of transesterification was

YTE : yield in transesterification [–]impossible without DA in the range of xFFA,0<0.1 because of

Literature Cited

emulsification of the whole liquid system. Even if xFFA,0=0.01, the[1] Hayashi Tomoki

effects of saponification was serious and YTE decreased to around 0.5.

“Effects of Operating Conditions in Biodiesel Fuel

Production from Low-valued Feed” Bachelor Thesis, Tokyo Tech (2008)

With the pretreated feed oils, YTE was almost constant at around 0.94.

[2] Sinthupinyo Patima “Comparative Study of Biodiesel Production by

The effects of the iodine number of the feed oil on YTE were unclear.

Alkaline Transesterification from Low- valued Feed” Master Thesis, Tokyo

The effects of xFFA,FP on YTE are shown in Figure 4. When the mass

Tech (2007)

fraction of FFA i was more than 0.015, YTE decreased sharply from

[3] Sinthupinyo P. et al.;SCEJ Hamamatsu, R207 (2008)

around 0.94 to 0 because the operation was impossible.

[4] Sinthupinyo P. et al.; JCEJ, 43, (2)，214~223(February, 2010)

Figure 5 shows the effects of xFFA,0 on the overall yield of FAME
relative to feed oil, YOA. In the case of EDA, YOA was always morethan 0.8 irrelative to xFFA,0. In any case, YOA was the same as eachother when xFFA,0<0.02, and YOA decreased as xFFA,0 increased in thecase of NDA mainly due to the yield reduction at the DA treatment.

[5]Y.Wang, S.Ou, et al.; J. Mol. Catal. Chemical 252(2006)107-112[6] Mustafa Canakci. “The potential of restaurant waste lipids as biodiesel
feedstocks” Bioresource Technology, 98(2007)183-190[7] DIN 53241-1:1995, "Determination of iodine value by methods using
Wijs solution (FOREIGN STANDARD)"

38

International comparison on the performance of freight railway indeveloping countries
Student Number: 10B13246

Name: Masashi Sota

railroad quality is cited from World Economic Forum.
This value is sought by asking the executives in eachcountry to rate infrastructure quality of railway andtaking the average of these scores.
The productive efficiency of freight transportationby each country is calculated by Constant Return to
Scale model (CRS) and Variable Return to Scale model(VRS) to consider the effect caused by scale. In addition,
the output- oriented model is used for evaluation of
CRS and VRS efficiency because the idea was toanalyze the possibility of increasing the outputs while
keeping the current level of the input.[1]The results of DEA and the extent of thecontribution of the mining resources to each country’s
economy are combined in order to identify whichcountry has been successful in freight transportation
by railway without mining resources or which country
has failed in freight transportation in spite of richresources. The Mining Contribution Index (MCI) is
used for indicating the degree of effect of mining
resources to economy in each country. The efficient orinefficient countries are selected and further analysis isconducted for these countries by considering the factors
excluded in DEA. Through the further analysis, theresearch defines the reasons and factors which lead tothe efficient performance or inefficient performance.

1. Introduction
It is estimated that the amount of Greenhouse Gas(GHG) emission by transportation sector in 2050 will
be double of one in 2010 (DFID) and be largely occupied
by road transportation. The modal shift from freighttransportation by road to one by low carbon emission
mode such as railway and inter-water transportation isnecessary for reducing the amount of GHG emission
especially in developing countries because thesecountries heavily depend on the road transportation. In
case of transportation by railway, the amount of GHG
emission per ton-km is about one tenth of the one byroad transportation. In addition, in terms of cost, therailway has advantage and low cost for freighttransportation enables country to flourish.
However, so far, only a few countries with large land
and tremendous mining resources such as U.S.A,
Russia, China have been successful with the freighttransportation by railway. On the other hand, modal
share of freight transportation by railway in most othercountries is about 20% at most.
The objectives of this research are the following: (1)To examine the current performance and condition of
freight transportation by railway in each region such as
Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, Middle East andNorth Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, East
Asia and Pacific, East Europe and Central Asia (2) To
identify the causes and factors which make theperformance of the freight transportation by railway
better or worse.

3. Results
3.1. The characteristics of each region
In Sub Saharan Africa, all countries except South
Africa have low traffic. Almost all infrastructure androlling stocks are old and non-functional. Because of
insufficient fund from the government, the railway
service has been privatized recently. As a result, 70% ofrail networks have been fully or partially privatized.
However, only a few privatizations have beensuccessful due to the failure of demand estimation for
freight transportation.
In South Asia, all railway networks are operated
and owned by the government. India is the only country
which has succeeded in railway transportation. Thereis a tendency to invest in infrastructure and focus on
the market demand because of future demand for
freight transportation caused by growth of economy.
Compared with other nations, the ratio of thepassenger volume is quite high because of low fareregulated by the government policy.
In Middle East and North Africa, there is little
private participation though the governments have
tried to induce private participation. The countries inthis region give exclusive transportation service, only
for freight or only for passenger.
In Latin America and the Caribbean, almost all
countries induce the privatization positively, including
some cross-border ownership. These concessions werecompleted by 2000. The freight transportation by
railway in this region has been increased by more than
80% over the decades. However, the quality of
infrastructure is relatively low compared to otherregions since most networks were constructed by

2. Methodology
The Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) is adapted forassessmentoftheperformanceoffreighttransportation by railway. DEA is the method formeasuring the productive efficiency of the Decision
Making Units (DMU) based on the DMU with best
performance. The efficiency of each DMU is the ratio of
the sum of weighted outputs to the sum of weighted
inputs. The value of efficiency varies from 0 to 1. If it is1, the DMU is efficient. The efficiency of DMUk is
calculated as following equations:s∑u ymax θ k = j =m1

j

jk

(1)

∑v x
i =1

i ik

Subject to
s

∑u y
j =1
m

j

jk

< 1 (k = 1,2,...., n)

(2)

∑v x
i =1

i ik

v1 , v2 ,..., vm ≥ 0
u1 , u2 ,..., us ≥ 0

Supervisor: Shinya Hanaoka

(3)
(4)

Input is referred to as uj (j= 1,.., s) and output is referred
to vi (i = 1,..,m). In this study, 3 inputs, railroad quality,
network length (km), and number of rolling stocks, andone output, Freight ton-km (million), are selected. The

39

suzerain about 100 years ago.
In East Asia and Pacific, the railway network is
mainly operated by the government. This region has
also problem in infrastructure quality. In addition, theconnectivity among adjacent countries is not efficientdue to political reasons. Few mining resources lead
lead tothe lack of the demand for freight transportation by
railway.
In Eastern Europe and Central Asia, though thegovernments in this region have started to accept theprivate participation, only a few cases can be found.
They have tried to join EU by following theirregulations which force to induce vertical separation,enhancement of quality of infrastructure and improvefinancial condition. As a result, significant staff
reduction occurred in nearly all countries.
3.2 The results of DEA
Table1 and 2. The
The result of DEA is described in Table
efficient country group is clarified into two groups
based on the results of CRS model and VRS model. The
countries whose efficiency is 1 only in VRS model are
efficient in spite of small scale which means value of all
inputs and outputs are small (Table1).
The criteria for selecting the inefficient countries is
VRS<0.10 and Scale efficiency, the value of CRS/VRS,
is greater than 0.80. This means that efficiency is quite
low although the scale of the input of the country islarge to some extent. In addition, factors causing bad
performance can be identified
identified in the calculation processof DEA (Table2). The countries selected are thefollowing:
Table1. Efficient country
Criteria
Country
CRS=1 and VRS=1
Kazakhstan, Brazil,
Colombia, India,
India, Latvia
only VRS=1
Uganda, Albania, Jordan

other hand, the countries in the other circle have failed
in the operation of freight transportation by railway
and have lost the opportunity for delivering the mining
miningresources. These countries are also selected as
candidates for case study.
3.3 Further analysis
The selection of countries for further analysis isconducted by the criteria as mentioned and reflecting
the data availability for further research. From thefurther analysis, the following results are obtained
3.3.1 Inefficient country
There are mainly two reasons why performance of thetransportation by railway is insuffi
insufficient.
cient. First, lack ofability for maintenance of infrastructure is serious
trigger for inefficient performance. The railway
network was constructed by suzerain for delivering themining resources to the port. However, the network is
too large for them to maintain infrastructure quality
without suzerain’s support after independence.
The other reason is biased
biased government policy forroad transportation. The government spends more
funds for road transportation and deregulates the rule
related with road transportation, which leads to unfair
competition environment between rail transportationtransportation
and road transportation. As a result, revenue fromfreight transportation and fund from government
decrease and this leads to the lack of finance tomaintain and rehabilitate the infrastructure
infrastructure andinduce continuous decrease of infrastructure quality.
3.3.2 Efficient
Efficient country
They lost modal share of freight transportation by
railway once because of emerge
emergencence of roadtransportation. However, they have recovered it withmeasures such as privatization of the railway operation,
tremendous investment for enhancing the quality of
infrastructure and enhancement in the quality of port
for inducing the export from the landlocked countries.
countries.
As tendency for these countries, tthey
hey have increased
the transportation of container cargos by improving
quality of facilities such as inland port and container
terminal.

Table2. Inefficient country
FactorCountryrailroad quality
Kenya, Armenia, Algeria,
Bangladesh, Pakistan
network length
Nigeria, Sri Lanka
rolling stock
Moldova

4. Conclusion
This research figures out the current condition andperformance of freight transportation by railway indeveloping countries. This study also discloses thethereasons why some
some countries have been successful infreight transportation by railway and others havefailed in it.
Sufficient demand for transportationtransportation of bulk
materials plays an important role for ensuring enoughrevenue to maintain the quality of infrastructure. Low
developing countries need to focus on the lines withheavy freight traffic. Otherwise, they may result in
ruining the whole network due to fund shortage anddeficiency of ability for maintenance.
Furthermore, the policy of governments after
independence from suzerain heavily affects the current
performance of freight railway. This different policy
leads to increase or decrease the importance of freightrailway in each country.

The figure 1 shows the scatter plot between theefficiency which is calculated by VRS model andMining Contribution Index.
Index.
Efficiency
1.000
0.900
0.800
0.700
0.600
0.500
0.400
0.300
0.200
0.100
0.000
0

JordanLatviaRomania
Lithuania

ChileGeorgia
Bolivia
Armenia50
Mining Contribution Index

100

References[1] W.LAN, T.I LIN, Technical efficiency and service
effectiveness for railways industry: DEA approaches,
Journal of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation
Studies, Vol.5, pp2932-2947, 2003.

Fig.1 Scatter plot between the efficiency and MCI
Countries inside the circle in upper side have good
performance in spite of low mining contribution. On the40Removal of Trivalent Chromium by Artificial Zeolite from Lake Sludge

Student number: 10_13832 Name: Takahiro Takamatsu Supervisor: Hirofumi HINODE and Winarto Kurniawan
Spectroscopy (ICP-AES) to determine samples’ CEC.

1. Introduction
Water is a necessity to human life. The water that we
use are sometimes sourced from nearby lakes.
However, pollutants and nutrient salts are easily
accumulated in the lakes because of its nature as aclosed system, and sometimes also as the receiving
body of domestic wastewater.
Lake dredging is one of the most effective methods
used to remove pollutants accumulated as lake sludge.
However, the dredged sludge will be ultimately
disposed in landfills and may give rise to soft ground.
A preferable method of disposal is to utilize thesedredged lake sludge for other possible applications
such as water treatment.
According to previous study, lake sludge whichcontains silica and alumina can be used as raw
material to synthesize zeolites by hydrothermal
treatment [1]. Zeolites have cation exchange capacity,
and adsorption capacity that can be used for removalof heavy metal ion such as chromium (III). Chromium(III) is a common waste product from tannery andseveral processes from the steel industry, and it causes
adverse effect to the environment. In this study,zeolites were synthesized from dredged lake sludge
and were evaluated for its ability to remove Cr (III)ions from model wastewater.

2.3. Cr (III) Ion Removal
For Cr (III) ion removal experiment, zeolite (0.1 g)
was put into chromium (III) nitrate solution (100 ppm,
50 mL) and put into the shaker for 20 h. Cr(III)concentration of the solution was determined using
ICP-AES. The table below (Table 1) shows the
speciation of trivalent chromate cations. The
speciation depends on the solution pH, therefore pH of
solution was varied in order to observe this effect on
the removal performance. Because there is apossibility of precipitation when the pH of solution isover 5.0, pH of 3.0 and 4.5 were selected.
Table 1. Distribution of the chromium species as afunction of solution pH.
Dominant
pH
species＜4.0
Cr3+
4.0 - 5.7
Cr(OH)2+＞5.7
Cr(OH)2+

3. Results and Discussion
3.1 XRD Analysis
From XRD analysis of the zeolites synthesized at
different alkali concentrations, temperatures, and
Si/Al ratios, different synthesis conditions produced
different phases that are shown in Table 2. XRD
results show that the samples contains various crystal
phases in the zeolites such as sodium aluminumsilicate hydrate, Na-P1, and analcime-C.

2. Experimental
2.1. Zeolite Synthesis
In this study, sludge from Kasumigaura lake in Ibaraki
prefecture was used as raw material. The Si/Al ratio of
the sludge was adjusted to desired value by addition of
Na2SiO3 solution. For zeolite synthesis, 1.6 g of lakesludge was treated in 8 mL of alkali solution withdifferent concentrations (1, 2, and 4 M). Afterwards,
the samples were placed in the oven at 90oC, 120oC,
and 150oC for hydrothermal synthesis. The preparedzeolites have final Si/Al ratios of 1.2, 1.5, 1.9, 2.5, and3.0. The prepared catalysts were then characterizedusing Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and
X-ray Diffraction (XRD).

Table 2. CEC values of products obtained from various
alkali concentrations, temperatures, and Si/Al ratios
Zeolite Preparation
Conditions/Parameter

2.2 Measurement of Cation Exchange Capacity(CEC)
CEC of synthesized zeolites was measured by putting
zeolite samples into NaOAc solution and placed in a
shaker to facilitate Na+ adsorption. After shaking, thesamples were centrifuged to separate it from NaOAc
solution. The samples were then put into NH4OAc
solution to exchange Na+ ions with NH4+ions,followed by centrifugation to separate it from NaOAc
solution. Afterwards, Na+ ions exchanged in theseparated
solutionwasmeasuredusing
Inductively-Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission

CEC value[meq / 100g]

Phase

1.2

198

S, Q

Si / Al Ratio[mol / mol](120oC,
2 M NaOH)

1.5

221

P, A

1.9

264

P, A

2.5

287

P, A

3.0

186

P, A

Temperature(Si / Al = 2.5
2M NaOH)

90oC

269

P, Q

120oC

287

P, A

150oC

144

A

1M

195

P, A

2M

287

P, A

4M

177

P, S

NaOH concentration(Si / Al = 2.5,
120oC)

S = Sodium aluminum silicate hydrate
Q = Quartz ; P = Na-P1 ; A = Analcime-C

3.2 Cation Exchange Capacity of Samples

41

Table 2 also shows the CEC values of preparedzeolites.
The
highest
CEC
value
was
287 meq/100 g which was shown by zeolite
synthesized with the condition of 2 M NaOH, 120 oC,
and Si/Al=2.5.

Cr (III) removal values have sodium aluminumsilicate hydrate, therefore, it can be considered that
sodium aluminum silicate hydrate is a good forremoval of Cr(III) at pH = 4.5.
According to Table 3, zeolite synthesized with thecondition of 4 M NaOH, 120oC, and Si/Al=2.5, had
low CEC, however it showed higher removal value of
Cr (III) than zeolite synthesized with the condition of
120oC, 2 M NaOH, and Si/Al=2.5 which had thehighest CEC. Because the later zeolite which showeda low Cr (III) removal consists mainly of Na-P1 andanalcime-C, this result supports the conclusion that
sodium aluminum silicate hydrate was the phase that
contributes to Cr (III) removal.
Langmuir adsorption isotherm for these zeolites(at pH = 4.5) is shown in Fig. 2. The maximum
Cr (III) adsorption capacity of zeolite with the best
removal value was 46.0 mg/g.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Amount sorbed [mg-Cr / g]

3.3 SEM Images of Zeolite Samples

Fig. 1. SEM Images of zeolites synthesized under different
conditions (a) Si/Al = 1.2, T=120oC, 2 M NaOH, (b) Si/Al =2.5, T=120oC, 2 M NaOH, (c) T = 90oC, Si/Al = 2.5, 2 M
NaOH,(d) = 150oC, Si/Al=2.5, 2 M NaOH

Some of the prepared zeolites’ SEM images taken at2000 times magnification are shown in Fig. 1. These
are the samples that showed the highest CEC values,
according to Table 2.
Table 3.

Si / Al = 1.2, 120oC,
2 M NaOH

CEC
Value
[meq/
100g]
198

Si / Al = 2.5, 120oC,
2 M NaOH

287

T = 90oC
Si / Al = 2.5
2M NaOH

269

T = 150oC
Si / Al = 2.5
2M NaOH

144

NaOH Conc. = 4 M
Si / Al = 2.5, 120oC

177

Removal Amount[mg-Cr/g]
pH = 4.5

pH = 3.0

26.2

7.6

9.5

10.7

10.2

9.9

6.3

5.1

45.4

11.3

Si / Al = 2.5, NaOH Conc. = 4 M ,120 C
Si / Al = 1.2, NaOH Conc. = 2 M, 120 C
0

50

100

150

200

250

Equiliblium concentration [mg-Cr / L]

Fig. 2. Langmuir adsorption isotherm of Cr(Ⅲ) byrepresentative zeolites at pH of 4.5 (±0.2).

Cr (III) ion removal by prepared zeolites

Zeolite Preparation
Conditions

50.0
45.0
40.0
35.0
30.0
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0

Phase

4. Conclusions
The utilization of lake sludge as a raw material forzeolite synthesis was successfully done in this study.
The type of zeolites that can be produced from lakesludge is dependent on alkali concentrations,temperatures, and Si/Al ratios of hydrothermal
synthesis. Zeolite with a relative high Cr (III) removal
was successfully synthesized from lake sludge byhydrothermal synthesis. The pH strongly influenced
the Cr (III) removal by the zeolites.

S, Q
P, A
P, A

A

Reference:[1] Yan Shao, Synthesis of Zeolites from Lake Sludge, International
Development Engineering, School of Science and Engineering, Tokyo
Institute of Technology[2] Deyi Wu , Yanming Sui , Shengbing He , Xinze Wang ,Chunjie Li , Hainan Kong “Removal of trivalent chromium from
aqueous solution by zeolite synthesized from coal fly ash” Journal ofHazardous Materials,(2008) , 155, pp. 415 – 423[3] Japan Association of Zeolite, Zeolite conference home page,
http://www.jaz-online.org/, Retrieved in January 13, 2013[4] Qingyu Guan, Deyi Wu, Yan Lin, Xuechu Chen, Xinze Wang,
Chunjie Li, Shengbing He, Hainan Kong Application of “zeolitic
material synthesized from thermally treated sediment to the removal oftrivalent chromium from wastewater” Journal of Hazardous Materials,(2009) 155, pp.244-249

P, S

S = Sodium aluminum silicate hydrate
Q = Quartz ; P = Na-P1 ; A = Analcime-C

Table 3 shows amount of Cr(III) removal bysynthesized zeolites (experiment pH = 4.5 and 3.0).
The highest value was showed by zeolite synthesizedwith the condition of 4 M NaOH, 120oC, and
Si/Al=2.5, (pH = 4.5). The second highest value wasshown by zeolite synthesized with the condition of
2 M NaOH, 120oC, and Si/Al=1.2, (pH = 4.5). The
removal amount of other synthesized zeolites wererelatively lower.
It can be observed that both zeolites that showed high42

伝搬チャネル応答とモーションの同時測定のためのモーション
キャプチャソフトウェアの開発
学籍番号: 10B15417

1

名前: 陳

高超

指導教員: 高田

はじめに

潤一・金

ミンソク

Measurement

Simulation
Synchronization

無線ボディエリアネットワーク（WBAN）は人体周辺

Channel Response
Measurementの通信ネットワークであり，医療サービスなどの分野
で応用が期待されている．WBAN の要件としては，高Body Motion
Measurement
Kinect

VNA

信頼性かつ省電力のデータ通信が挙げられ，その実現

Avatar Generation

Rx
Txに向けては伝搬路特性の評価が重要な基盤となる [1]．

Channel Response
Simulation

WBAN における伝搬路特性は，様々な要因（周囲環境，

Focus of this research

人体，動作，アンテナ）に影響され，それらの複合的Comparative Studyな現象として観測される．そのため，実験により測定された伝搬路特性から各要因の影響を分離することが

図 1: 伝搬路特性評価の概念

現実的にできない．一方で，シミュレーションでは，すべての要因を含めることはできないが，限られた各要

力等のオーバーヘッドにより，秒間 12 回ほどしか記録

因を分離して伝搬路特性を評価することができる．

できない．すなわち，サンプリング時間が一定ではな

そこで，伝搬路特性における各要因の依存性を体系的い．一方，VNA のサンプリング時間は一定であるとみに解析するために，シミュレーションと伝搬測定の両なせるが，VNA は測定開始時刻を記録する機能を持っ方を用いる手法の開発を目指す．図 1 には本手法の全ていない．すなわち，時刻をもとにした同期が不可能

体像を示す．まず，歩行などといった特定の動作におである．そこで，本システムでは，人体動作をもとにいて，伝搬測定と人体動作の測定を同時に行う．伝搬した時刻同期を行う．人体のアンテナが取り付ける箇

測定では，送受信アンテナを人体に取り付け，Vector

所を急動作させると，その箇所の人体動作データと伝Network Analyzer (VNA) を用いることで送受信アンテ
ナ間の伝搬路特性を取得する．人体動作の測定では，安価なゲーム用モーションキャプチャデバイスである

搬路特性両方が急変化する．二つの急変化する時刻を合わせることで，同期を行うことができる．

Kinect を用いる．取得された人体動作データを元に，シミュレーション用の人体モデル（アバタ）を生成し，

3

アバタ生成

電磁界の数値計算手法を適用することで，伝搬路特性をシミュレーションする．そして，シミュレーションおKinect から得られるデータは各関節の 3 次元座標のよび伝搬測定で得られた伝搬路特性を比較・検討する．

みであるため，そのままではシミュレーションに用いこのような手法の実現に向けて，本研究では伝搬路特ることができない．そこで，本研究では Kinect から得性と人体動作の同時測定システムの構築を行う．具体られた関節座標データをもとに BVH ファイル [3] を生

的には，VNA と Kinect の同期方法と Kinect から得ら成し，これを 3D グラフィックソフトウェアにインポーれるデータをもとしたアバタ生成方法を検討する．

トすることで，アバタを生成する．BVH ファイルは，モーションキャプチャ用のデータフォーマットで，人体のスケルトン情報とその動作情報から成る．スケルト

2

同期測定システム

ン情報では，関節の接続構造が階層的な構造で表現されている．動作情報は関節の向きを表すオイラー角のKinect は人体における 20ヶ所の関節の 3 次元座標を 1

時系列となっている．BVH ファイルの生成は，動作測

秒間あたり 30 回取得できる [2]．また，関節座標デー

定における負荷削減のため，オフラインで実行される．

タを取得すると同時に，現在時間をオペレーティング
システムに問い合わせることで，その動作フレームの時刻情報とすることができる．しかし，実際には入出

1
43

4

実験

座標データをもとに生成した BVH ファイルを，人体スケルトンとして表現したものを図 4(b) に示す．さらKinect および VNA を制御するソフトウェアを C を用いて開発した [4]．Kinect の制御には Kinect for Win-に，この BVH ファイルをもとに生成したアバタを図4(c) に示す．図 4(a)-(c) において，人体動作がおおむね一致していることが確認できた．アニメーションでの再現も別途行い，歩行動作が再現できていることを確

dows SDK を利用した．また，BVH ファイルの生成をMATLAB を用いて実装した．
構築したシステムを検証するための実験を行った．送認した．

信アンテナは左手首，受信アンテナはへそに取り付けた．VNA の周波数は 445MHz, サンプリング数は 3001,
サンプリングレートは 100 sample/sec とした．まず，静止状態を保ち，伝搬路特性と Kinect の安定を待った．
次に手を急速に動かすことで，同期時期を作った．さらに，静止状態を保ち，伝搬路特性と Kinect の安定を待ったあと，歩行動作を開始した．
図 2 は測定した伝搬路特性と左手首の高さを，同期してプロットした結果である．0 秒は同期した時刻で，4 秒までは安定化のための静止状態，4 秒からは歩行時間である．伝搬路特性と左手首位置のトレンドが一致していること確認できる．これをより詳細に検証す(a) Joint data(b) BVH skeleton(c) Avatar

るために，この二つのサンプリング間隔を一致させてから，相互相関係数を計算した．図 3 に相互相関係数

図 4: アバタの生成を示す．遅延が-0.049 秒のときに，ピーク値 0.5401 が示された．Kinect の平均的なサンプリング時間である

60

20

50

10

40

0

30

-10

20 0
0

55

10
10

15
15

20
20

Time [sec]

-20

25
25

5

結論

WBAN 伝搬路特性における様々な影響要因を分離しhand movement distance(Y) [cm]Magnitude [dB]

0.08 秒に比較すると遅延は十分に小さい．以上により，測定システムの同期性が証明された．

て解析するために，シミュレーションと伝搬測定の両方を用いる手法の開発が必要である．これに向け，本研究では伝搬路特性と人体動作の同時測定システムを構築し，その検証を行った．具体的には，伝搬測定に用いる VNA と人体動作測定に用いる Kinect の同期方法
として，人体動作を用いる手法を提案した．また，シミュレーションに用いるアバタの生成方法として，BVH

図 2: 同期測定テスト

ファイルの作成と 3D グラフィックソフトウェアの利用を提案した．今後の課題としては，関節座標データに0.6含まれるノイズの除去が挙げられる．そして，様々な

0.4

動作やアンテナの位置を変化させた場合の伝搬路特性

Coefficent

0.2を評価する予定である．

0
-0.2

参考文献

-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-2

-1

0

lags [msec]

1[1] H．Cao，V．Leung， C．Chow，H．Chan，“Enabling Technologies for
Wireless Body Area Networks: A Survey and Outlook,” IEEE Commun.
Mag.，Vol．4，pp.84-93，Dec，2009

2

x 10

4

図 3: 相互相関[2] Kinect for Windows Programming Guide page，Kinect for Windows
Sensor Components and Specifications，http://msdn.microsoft.com/enus/library/jj131033.aspx

また，図 4 にはアバタ生成に関する結果を示す．図[3] M．Meredith，S．Maddock， Motion Capture File Formats Explained，
http://www.dcs.shef.ac.uk/intranet/research/public/resmes/CS-0111.pdf

4(a) は歩行動作中の１フレームにおいて，キャプチャ[4] 中村 薫，斉藤 後太，宮城 英人，「KINECT for Windows SDK プログラミ
ング C++編」，秀和システム

画像に関節座標データを重ねたものである．この関節244

A STUDY ON IMAGE MATCHING USING GLOBALPROJECTION TRANSFORMATION
Student Number:10-15446

1

Name:Yang Chen

I denote the transformed image by f 0 (x). The correlation
value between the input image and the transformed image
is given byZ
1
f (A−1 (x − b))g(x)dx.
(3)
C(f 0 , g) =|A|
K

Introduction

Image matching refers to a process of matching plural images taken from the same scene with overlapping to findthe correspondence between images. It is widely used in
medicine, biology, information processing and other fields.
It has been an indispensable technology for image recognition.
Image matching methods cover two categories:one isbased on the gray, the other is feature. Normalized crosscorrelation method based on the gray is commonly used forimage matching. It has many good qualities, such as highaccuracy, high adaptable, and strong anti-jamming. However, it has a problem that it is sensitive for the deformationof images. To this issue, the validity of a method using the
Global Affine Transformation (GAT) correlation has beenreported. In order to enhance the deformation resistance, I
prorose extending affine transformation to projection transformation.
In this paper, I explain the process of the Global Projection Ttransformation (GPT) correlation method. I show thevalidity and property of the method.

2

Supervisor:Yukihiko YAMASHITA

Because A and b are directly in the variable of function f ,it is difficult to determine A and b. Therefore, I change thefunction to (4) by using the Gaussian window function.
ZZ
C(f 0 , g) =G(Ax1 + b − x2 )f (x1 )g(x2 )dx1 dx2 .
K(4)Here, A and b appear only in the Gaussian window function.
In order to achieve a higher process speed, I also introduce the edge direction function. Finally the correlation
value formula is given by
ZZ
CGAT (f, g) =G(Ax1 + b − x2 )Kδ(∇f (x1 ), ∇g(x2 ))f (x1 )g(x2 )dx1 dx2 .

(5)

Global Affine Transformation Cor- 2.3 Linear Equations for Optimal GAT Determination
relation

To calculate factor A and b, I differentiate the objectivefunction CGAT (f ,g) by A and b. The necessary condition
I denote the input gray-scale image as f (x), and the target of maximization yields that both derivatives of CGAT (f ,g)gray-scale image as g(x). Here, I denote K and x as the with A and b equal to zero. Finally I get factor A and b as
domain of the image and a position vector defined in K, follows:
respectively.
x2 x1 Tx1 x1 T −1
By using the definite canonicalization, I obtain the
A = (x2 xT1 −)(x1 xT1 −) ,1
1matching measure of normalized cross-correlation as folAx1
x2
low:
Z
b = −
+
.
(6)
1
1
C(f, g) =f (x)g(x)dx.
(1)

2.1

Normalized Cross-CorrelationK

3 Global Projection Transformation
Correlation

However, because the approach is a correlation type, it
still has the problem that the correlation measure is sensitive to geometric image distortions such as an affine transformation.

2.2

Affine transformation is a special kind of the 2D projection
transformation, so I propose extending the GAT correlation
Global Affine Transformation Correla- method to the GPT method.
2D projection transformation is given bytion

The Global Affine Transformation (GAT) is a uniform
affine transformation to an input image. Affine transformation of a point x to x0 is expressed by
x0 = Ax + b.

x0 =Ax + b
.
1 + hc, xi(7)Here, hc, xi means the inner product between c and x. I
divide this function into the affine transformation part and

(2)
45
1

the partial projection transformation (PPT) part as follows:x00x= Ax + bx=(≡ P (x))
1 + hc, xi

(8)
(9)

A and b can be calculated by the method introduced in (a) Original (b) Target (c) GAT Trans. (d)GPT Trans.
Section 2. Therefore, I just need to calculate the factor c.
Figure 2: Projection Transformation
The function fp (x) which is transformed by the partial
projection transformation is given by
fp (x) = P −1 (x) f (x),
1 − hc, xi(10)Table 1: Correlation Values of Projection Trans.

where, P −1 (x) is the Jacobian of P −1 (x).
First, I substitute fp (x) into (1). Next, I also introduce theGaussian window function and the edge direction function
to get the objective function. Finally, the objective function
is given by
ZZ
x1
CPPT (f, g) =G(
− x2 )
1
+
hc,
x1 i
K
δ(∇f (x1 ), ∇g(x2 ))f (x1 )g(x2 )dx1 dx2 .
(11)

Projection Trans.
c=(0,0.014)
c=(0,0.026)
c=(0,0.050)
c=(0,0.060)

original Cor.
0.858192
0.866167
0.703475
0.624939

GAT Cor.
0.973581
0.943556
0.867848
0.818526

GPT Cor.
0.990416
0.980527
0.919415
0.879993

5 Conclusion

I set the derivation of CPPT by c to zero. The factor ccan be calculated as follow:

In this paper, I propose to use the GPT correlation methodc = (hx1 , x2 i x1 xT1 )−1 (hx1 , x1 i x1 − hx1 , x2 i x1 ) (12) for the gray-scale image matching. The validity of themethod has been verified.
To determine the optimal GPT factors, I use the succesFor the case of large deformation, the GPT correlation
sive iteration method. As for the whole algorithm, I cal- value has no significant increse. In order to achieve a moreculate the affine transformation part and the partial projec- stable matching, it is necessary to improve the process.
tion transformation part alternatively until the correlation Also, for future work, the interrelationship between GAT
becomes maximum. Then, output the maximal correlation and PPT is needed to be specified.
value as the final result.

4

References

Experiment Result[1] T. Wakahara and Y. Yamashita, “Acceleration of GATIn the experiment, I used gray-scale images. These pictures
correlation for distortion tolerant image matching,”
are taken by iPhone 5. I set the first shot as the original
Proceedings of the 21st International Conference on
image. I obtain the target images by changing the angle ofPattern Recognition (ICPR 2012), Tsukuba, Japan,
the actual shooting. First I match the target image with theNov.11-15, pp.746-749, (2012).
original image and calculate the original correlation value
between the two images. Then I adopt the GAT and GPT [2] M. Yasuda, K. Yamamoto, and H. Yamada, “Effectcorrelation methods to match the original and the target imof the perturbed correlation method for optical charages. Finally I obtain the new correlation values and generacter recognition,” Pattern recognition, Vol.30, No.8,
ate the transformed images of the target image.
pp.1315-1320 (1997).
Figures 1 and 2 show examples of original, target, andtransformed images. Table 1 shows the values of original, [3] T. Wakahara,Y. Kimura and A. Tomono, “Affineinvariant recognition of gray-scale characters using
GAT and GPT correlations. I measure the approximatedglobal affine transformation correlation,” IEEE Trans.
parameter of projection transformation with a protractor.
on, Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, Vol.23,
From the results, it can be seen that each correlation value
No.4, pp.384-395 (2001).
using GAT and GPT was increased. Especially for the projection transformed images, the GPT correlation method ismore effective than the GAT correlation method.

(a) Original(b) Target(c) GAT Trans. (d)GPT Trans.

Figure 1: Rotation Transformation
46
2

Central pressure drop underneath embankments caused by basal settlement（基礎の沈下によって引き起こされる盛土中央の圧力減少）
Student Number: 10B17333

Name: Junichiro NAKAMURA Supervisor: Thirapong PIPATPONGSA

1 Introduction

2 Literature review

After the Great East Japan Earthquake occurred on 11
March 2011, earthquake-induced damages of levees
and reclaimed lands were largely reported. According
to the investigation of the failure characteristic oflevees summarized by Tohoku Regional Development
Bureau of MLIT, damages caused by liquefaction of
the foundation ground would involve basal settlement
and saturated condition of loosening construction
materials inside levees submerged under water.
This study aims to highlight that initial stressstates influenced by passive arch action across a basal
deflection plays a dominant role in the mechanisms of
weakening resistance against liquefaction and willcontribute to embankments stability evaluation against
earthquakes. Arching effect influences to both initialstress states before liquefaction and failure conditionof embankments with excessive basal settlements afterliquefaction.
The scope of this study is restricted to static
condition, not including dynamics, saturated conditionand liquefaction, in order to focus on the initial stresscondition due to arching after basal settlement.
Therefore, 1G physical models of embankment madeof dry sand with constant unit weight γ inclined atangle of repose ϕ is focused in the present study.

States of stresses in a sand heap when a whole massreaches the plastic state are bounded by two limits ofactive and passive conditions. Paths of compressive
forces transferring to the base are shown in Fig.1
under an active condition and Fig.2 under a passive
condition. If the vertical stress is greater than thehorizontal stress along the centerline, a sand heap is in
the active condition. Oppositely, if the horizontal
stress is greater than the vertical stress, a sand heap isin passive condition. The previous works [1-3] haverevealed that the deflection of the heap base causes theappearance of the central pressure drop. As the basal
deflection is permitted to increase, the central pressure
drop beneath the embankment significantly increased
which was agreed well with the passive limit solution.

3 Apparatus
Dimension of in-house manufactured load frame madeof aluminum channel is shown in Fig.3. Movable rack
was designed to control vertical movements in up anddown directions induced by actuator using screw jackwith a belt linked to low-speed synchronous motor(SMK014K-A) 60 rpm (24VAC/50Hz) as shown in
Fig.4. Dial gauge (DDP-50A) with a maximum range
45 mm was attached to a semi-sphere roller. Fourminiature pressure gauges (P325S-02) were attached
on a 10-mm-thick acrylic plate. Hinge laid along thecenter of acrylic plate allowed basal deflection up to
40 mm with a constant speed of 0.042 mm/minute.

Figure 1: Trajectories of major principal stresses underactive condition
Figure 3: Plan of in-house manufactured load frame

Figure 2: Trajectories of major principal stresses underpassive condition

Figure 4: Photo of load frame and actuator

47

Table 2: Conditions of experiments№ SandBase
Pouring height
Settlements
1 Silica Acrylic
100 mm
45 mm
sand
2
45 mm
no.6
3
10 mm × 3
4
2.5, 5, 10 mm
5Teflon
40 mm
6
40 mm
7
50 mm
40 mm
8
200 mm
40 mm
9100 mm
10 mm × 3
10
2.5, 5, 10 mm
112.5, 5, 5 mm
12 Silica
40 mm
13 sand
40 mm
14 no.8
10 mm × 3
15
2.5, 5, 10 mm
Note: Test 1&2, Test 5&6, Test 12&13 were conductedunder the similar conditions to check the reproducibilityof experiments. Reversal uplifts were applied to all tests
back to the horizontal level at the end of each test.

4 Materials and experiments
Two types of sand, silica sand no.6 and no.8, wereused to build embankment. Physical properties ofsilica sand No.6 (D50=0.316 mm) and No.8
(D50=0.090 mm) are summarized in Table 1. Interface
friction between silica sand no.6 and Acrylic plate is
18º and that of between silica sand no.8 and Teflon
sheet (PTFE) is 24º.
Number of experiments was 15, starting from Test
1-11 using silica sand no.6 and the rest using silica
sand no.8. Pressure gauges were placed on a base ofacrylic plate for Test 1-4 but embedded flush to thesurface of Teflon sheet for the rest. Embankment was
built by pouring dry silica sand from the sieve sourceof sand spreader with a constant pouring height to theapex. Sand was generally deposited on the base withconstant pouring height 100 mm, except Test 7 andTest 8 to check its effect at different heights. Flow rateand sweep rate of a sand spreader was controlled at
0.04-0.06 kg/s and 5.28 mm/s, respectively. Angle ofrepose was measured by an angle meter at sliding
surfaces for every round of sand deposition. Height
during construction of sand heap was measured by alaser meter. Density was measured by density pans
(1.2 mm thick, 10 mm tall, 22 mm inner diameter).
Changes of soil pressure were measured at a rate of 1
Hz. Yielding in embankment was produced bysettlements and uplifts of the stiff base physically
hinged together at the center. Three groups ofexperiments were considered which are Test 1-4, Test
5, 6, 9, 10 and Test 12-15, each of which was settledwith different conditions of maximum settlement andhysteretic reversals as summarized in Table 2.

Figure 5: Passive and active pressure for Test 1-4

5 Results and conclusions
To address discussion about active and passive limits
due to settlement and reversals, the passive pressure
profiles after the final settlement to 10 mm when sandyielded (about 6.5% of the height of the sand heap)
and the active pressure profiles after the final uplift tothe level were considered. Though hysteretic reversals
were applied in experiments, the relevant results in
non-dimensional features were reasonably consistent
with the theoretical active and passive limits based onsand heap with angle of repose 35º as shown in
Figs.5-7. In general, as the basal deflection wasslightly increased, the central pressure significantly
decreased. Once the base was upturned, the centralpressure gradually increased. Therefore, a centralpressure drop caused by passive arch action could
potentially reduce the resistance against liquefactionof embankments constructed on a deformable ground.

Figure 6: Passive and active pressure for Test 5,6,9,10

Figure 7: Passive and active pressure for Test 12-15

Reference[1] Booker, J.R., “Applications of the theories ofplasticity to cohesive frictional soils”, Ph.D. Thesis,
University of Sydney, 1969.
[2] Trollope, D.H., “The stability of wedges of
granular materials”, Ph.D. Thesis, University of
Melbourne, 1956.
[3] Michalowski, R.L., Park, N., “Admissible stressfields and arching in piles of sand”, Geotechnique 54(8), 529-538, 2004.

Table 1: Physical properties of silica sand No.6, No.8
Friction
Silica Specific
Minimum/Maximum
angle
sand
gravitydensity (kN/m3)
No.6
2.643
12.17
15.26
41º
No.8
2.637
11.31
15.24
35º
48

Quantitative evaluation of the antimicrobial activity of the silver ion
Student Number: 10-19697 Name: Takuya HIBIOSupervisor: Kiyohiko NAKASAKI

1 Introduction

3 Results and discussion

Silver has been known as a kind of disinfectant
and is used widely in many applications such as
consumer products and medical supplies. However, thequantitative evaluation of the efficiency of theantimicrobial activity of the silver ion has not been
carried out extensively in contrast to other disinfectants
such as chlorine, ozone, chloramine and ultraviolet. [1]Generally, to evaluate the efficiency of the disinfection,
the Chick-Watson model shown below has been
employed [2].
Ln(N/N0) = ACnt
(1)
(N/N0: survival ratio, A: Chick-Watson coefficient ofspecific lethality, C: concentration of disinfectant (mgL-1), n: coefficient of dilution, t: time (min))In the equation (1), it is known that the value of n can beassumed to be 1 in many cases.
But, Chick-Watson has not been used in the evaluationof antimicrobial activity of the silver ion. Therefore, we
tried to conduct the fitting of experimental data with thismodel to confirm the applicability of the model for
disinfection by the silver ion. The dependency of theantimicrobial activity of the silver ion on the temperature
was also evaluated using Arrhenius equation.
In addition, the resistance of the spore to theantimicrobial activity of silver ion and the relation
between the disinfection efficiency and the classificationof the bacteria by gram staining were evaluated in thisstudy.

3-1 Antimicrobial activity of silver ion

Survivability (log N/N )Generally, the disinfection activity was formulated
by Eq. (2).
dN/dt=-kN(2)(N: the concentration of microorganism (CFU mL-1), t:time (min), k: the inactivation rate constant (min-1) )Therefore, the concentration of microorganism decreased
exponentially. Fig. 1 shows the courses of thesurvivability of E. coli K12 during the incubation withdifferent concentrations of silver ion. The inactivation
rate constants corresponding to the silver ion
concentrations were obtained as the slope of theapproximate lines. The inactivation rate constants at thesilver ion concentrations of 0.05, 0.08, 0.1 and 0.2
mg-Ag L-1 were 0.0033, 0.015, 0.047 and 0.092 (min-1),
respectively.
Fig. 2 shows the relation between the silver ion
concentration and the inactivation rate constants. Then
we tried fitting of this data with the Chick-Watson model.
But, the result of the fitting was not satisfactory. It wasconsidered that the threshold concentration exists in theantimicrobial activity by silver ions. Therefore, we
modified the Chick-Watson model, as follows:
k=-A(C-Cthr)(3)(Cthr: the threshold concentration (mg-Ag L-1))
0

0

2 Materials and methods
2-1 Bacterial strains
Four bacterial strains, Escherichia coli K12
W3110 and Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 as
gram-negative bacteria, and Staphylococcus gallinarum
BPT1 and Bacillus subtilis TB5 as gram-positive wereused in this study.

2-2 Cultivation of bacteria
E. coli K12 was incubated in 5 mL of
Luria-Bertani broth at 37°C for 18 hours. And the otherbacterial strains were incubated in 5 mL of
Trypticase-soy broth at 30°C for 18 hours. To enhance
the sporulation of B. subtilis TB5, B. subtilis TB5 wasincubated in 40 mL of the TS broth added withmanganese sulfate at 30°C for 1 week.

-1-2
0.05 mg-Ag/L-3

0.08 mg-Ag/L
0.1 m-Ag/L-4

0.2 mg-Ag/L

-5

0

40

80
120
Time (min)160

Fig. 1 The course of the cell density at 0.05, 0.08, 0.1
and 0.2 mg-Ag mL-1
0.25
y = -0.053449 + 1.3331x R= 0.97148-1

Inactivation rate constant (min )2-3 Disinfection test
All bacterial strains cultivated in the medium were
centrifuged at 2400 g for 5 min. Then, the supernatant
was removed and the precipitated cells were resuspended
in the HEPES-NaOH buffer (pH=7.0) to remove residual
medium. This washing procedure was repeated 3 times.
And the cell suspension was inoculated to 40 mL of
HEPES-NaOH buffer. To investigate the effect of theconcentration of silver, silver nitrate was added to thebuffer containing E. coli K12cell suspension at the final
concentration of 0.05, 0.08, 0.1 and 0.2 mg-Ag L-1. To
evaluate the effect of reaction temperature on theantimicrobial activity of the silver ion, the buffer
containing E. coli K12cell suspension was incubated at 5,15, 25 and 35°C. During the incubation, the 1mL ofsamples were withdrawn and the cell density wasdetermined by the dilution plating method.

0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0

0

0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
Silver ion concentration (mg-Ag L-1)

0.25

Fig. 2 The inactivation
rate constants at 0.05, 0.08, 0.1
and 0.2 mg-Ag L-1

49

subtilis
portion of spores of which resistance to the silver ion
was reflected as the little decrease of the survivability
after 20 min.

3-2 Effect of the temperature on the antimicrobialactivity
The inactivation rate constants at 5, 15, 25 and 35°C
where the silver ion concentration was 0.1 mg-Ag L-1
were determined based on the change in the cell densityof E. coli K12 during the incubation and they were 0.010,
0013, 0.047 and 0.066 (min-1), respectively. Then, theactivation energy of the disinfection by the silver ion wasdetermined using Arrhenius equation as 50 kJ.
This value of activation energy is similar to that of
the general chemical reaction. The activation energy forreaction of the disinfection by the sodium hypochlorite
was approximately 45-80 kJ and it was revealed that thetemperature dependency of the disinfection effect ofsilver ion was similar to that of the sodium hypochlorite.
0

3-4 Difference in the disinfection effects to thegram–positive bacteria and gram-negative bacteria
Gram-positive bacteria have only a peptidoglycan
cell wall while gram-negative bacteria have both a thin
peptidoglycan cell wall and an outer membrane layer.
The outer membrane layer acts as an extra barrier,thereby, gram-negative bacteria show higher resistance tomany disinfectants than gram-positive bacteria.
Fig. 5 compares the courses of the survivability of E.
coli K12, P. aeruginosa PAO1, S. gallinarum BPT1 andB. subtilis TB5 during the incubation with the silver ion
at the concentration of 0.1 mg L-1. The inactivation rate
for S.gallinarum BPT1, B. subtilis TB5, E. coli K12 andP. aerugionsa PAO1 were determined as 0.023, 0.11
(0-20 min), 0.047 and 0049 (min-1), respectively. The
results indicated that the resistance to the silver ion was
independent to the classification by the gram staining.

y = 18 - 6000x R= 0.96

-1

0

-3
0

Survivability (log N/N )

ln(k)

-2

-4
-5

0.00320.00340.0036
1/T(K-1)
Fig. 3 The arhenius plot for the disinfection by silver ion

3-3 Comparison of the resistances to the silver ions
between the spore and the vegetative cell-3
P. aeruginosaE. coliS. garinarum
B. subtilis

-4

0

10

20

30
40
Time (min)

50

60

70

Fig. 5 The survivability of P. aeruginosa PAO1, E. coli
K12, S. gallinarum BPT1 and B. subtilis TB5

4 Conclusions
It was revealed that the antimicrobial activity ofthe silver ion could not be expressed by Chick-Watsonmodel and the modified model was proposed.
The activation energy for the disinfection by silver
ion was determined as 50 kJ using Arrhenius equation.
The spore were high resistant to silver ions and theantimicrobial activity of the silver ion was considered
not to be related with the classification of bacteria bygram staining.

0

0

-2

-5

Generally, spores are much more resistant to thedisinfectants such as chlorine compared to the vegetative
cells [3]. And the resistance of the spore to the silver ion
was examined in this study.
Fig. 3 shows the courses of the survivability of thespore and the vegetative cell of B. subtilis TB5 during
the incubation with the silver ion of 0.01 mg L-1. No
bactericidal effect to the spore was observed in 1h
incubation, while the survivability of the vegetative cells
decreased after 1 h incubation. After 20 min of
incubation, decrease of the survivability of the vegetativecell was not significant and it was considered that theinitial culture of the vegetative cell contained small

Survivability (log N/N )-1-1

References[1] US Environmental Protection Agency, Disinfection
Profiling and Benchmarking Technical Guidance
Manual. Office of Water, EPA 816-R03-004,(2003)[2] Fariba Amiri et al.: Disinfection effectiveness oforganic chloramines, investigating the effect of pH,
Water Research, 44, 845-853[3] Gerald McDonnell et al.: Antiseptics andDisinfectants: Activity, Action, and Resistance,
Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 43, 147-179,(1999)-2-3-4

Vegetative cell
Spore

-5

0

10

20

30
40
Time (min)

50

60

70

Fig. 4 The survivability of vegetative cell, spore of B.
50

汎用ソフトウェア無線機を用いた電波伝搬測定装置の開発
学生番号：10B20039

1

名前：ビン

テンヨウ

研究背景と目的

無線通信において伝搬路特性はシステム設計を行うための重要な情報である．受信信号は伝搬路を通して距離減衰されるばかりではなく，反射や回折，散乱などにより多重波の影響を受ける．これらの特性を測定するために高分解能を持つ測定装置が必要となる．現在，伝搬路測定に用いられる測定装置は高価かつ大型であり，伝搬路測定実験は非常に高い費用がかかり，利便性も低いとの問題がある [1]．
そこで本研究では汎用ソフトウェア無線機（Universal
Software Radio Platform) を用いて伝搬路測定装置を開発し，その妥当性に関する検証を行った．本装置は，汎用の測定装置に比べて，安価かつ小型であり，通常の専用装置に比べて，RF 周波数が選択可能であることか
ら柔軟性が優れている．

2

Figure 1: 汎用ソフトウェア無線機の開発環境測定機のダイナミックレンジはこの出力電力により制限される．

3 本研究のアプローチ
3.1

N/2
∑
1
exp(j2πk∆F t + jϕk )s(t) = √N k=−N/2

ハードウェアの構造

図１のように，USRP はメインボードとドーターボー
ドで構成され，PC から転送された複素ベースバンド
信号は補間処理後，ディジタルアップコンバージョン(DUC:Digital-Up-converter) により中間周波数（IF) に周
波数変換され，高速 D-A 変換機（分解能 16 ビット，サンプリングレート 400MS/s) により複素 IF 送信信号としてドーターボードの RF アップコンバータ回路に入力される．
一方，中間周波数における複素 IF 受信信号は，高速 A-D 変換器（分解能 16 ビット，サンプリングレー
ト 100MS/s) によりサンプリングされ，FPGA においてデジタルダウンコンバージョン（DDC:Digital Down
Conversion) により，DC 領域への周波数変換が行われ，最終的に複素ベースバンド信号に変換される [2]．

2.2

送信信号

本研究の送信信号はマルチトーン信号である，マルチトーン信号は次式で表現される

汎用ソフトウェア無線機開発環境

汎用ソフトウェア無線機とは USRP(Universal SoftwareRadio Peripheral) というハードウェア開発環境と GNURadio というフリーソフトウェアで構成される．

2.1

指導教員： 高田潤一，金 ミンソク

汎用ソフトウェア無線機の制約

USRP と GNU Radio を用いることでソフトウェア無線機を容易に実現できるが，USRP の性能上いくつの制約が知られている．現在，RF ドーターボードは，DCから約 6GHZ までの広い周波数帯を選択できる．PC と
USRP 間の最大転送レートは，ギガビットイーサネットの場合，200MByte/s である．しかし，PC と USRP は，
4Byte の I/Q サンプルをやり取りするため，最大ナイキ
スト帯域幅は 25MHz に制限される．
USRP のメインボード上の FPGA では PC インタ
フェースの転送速度に応じて A-D 変換された複素 IF
信号のレート変換を行う．レート変換は 4 − stage CIC
フィルタと 32 タップのハーフバンド低域フィルタにより行われるが，伝達関数のロールオフ特性によりスペクトル両端に歪みが生じる問題がある．加えて，USRPの RF ドーターボードからの最大出力電力は 20dBm で，

51

(1)

ここで，N はサブキャリアの数，∆F はサブキャリアス
ペーシング，ϕk はニューマンフェースである．そして，
この信号帯域内の全周波数成分が等電力を持ち，一様なスペクトラムの形をするため，伝搬測定信号に適し
ている．

3.2

送受信プログラムの開発とシステムの構築

本研究では GNU Radio を用いて送受信を制御するプ
ログラムを開発した．GNU Radio の最上位階層はスク
リプト言語としては Python を用いる [3]．信号処理においてブロックの入出ポートを接続することにより簡
単に記述できる．
送受信システムの構築として送信信号（マルチトン信号）は最初に送信 PC で作成され，送信プログラムを介して送信 USRP に送られる．そして送信 USRP から変調した RF 信号を送信する．一方，受信側では伝搬路を通って伝わってきた信号を受信 USRP で受信し，復調する．受信信号は受信 PC に送られ，ファイルとして保存される．

3.3

データ処理

保存された生データから，伝達関数とインパルス応
答が計算される．受信した信号は MATLAB 上で信号処理をされる．伝搬路の伝達関数とインパルス応答を計算し，伝搬路特性を求める．信号処理の流れは次のようになる．伝搬路を通して受信された信号は次式で表現される．
∫y(t) = h(τ )s(t − τ )dτ + w(t)(2)
ここで，s(t) は送信信号，h(τ ) はインパルス応答，y(t)は受信信号，w(t) は受信機の熱雑音を表す．この式を

Effect of IQI and Phase Noise

2

10

雑音のみ
IQ不均衡と位相雑音あり
0

NMSE

10

−2

10

Figure 3: T 型試験回路−410Channel Impulse Response
Reference
This work

−50
−6

0

10

20
30
SNR (dB)

40

50
Path gain[dB]10

Figure 2: IQ 不均衡と位相雑音評価−100

フーリエ変換し，周波数領域で表現すると，次式となる．
−150

Y (f ) = H(f )S(f ) + W (f )

(3)

0.5

3
−6
x 10
Figure 4: チャンネルインパルス応答

上の式の両辺を S(f ) で除算することにより，伝達関数
H(f ) が求まる．さらに H(f ) を逆フーリエ変換をする
ことにより，インパルス応答 h(τ ) は求められる．

3.4

3.5

2

2.5

5 まとめ
本研究は汎用ソフトウェア無線機を用いて，安価で広い RF 周波数に対応する伝搬測定装置を開発した．そして，T 型の試験回路を用いて測定装置の性能を検証
し，VNA と同様に伝達関数の取得が可能であることを示した．今後の研究では，様々な環境における実環境
での伝搬実験を実施する予定である．

校正と評価

RF 回路の不具合により I/Q 信号の不均衡と位相雑音が伝送特性を劣化させる原因として問題とされる．I/Q
信号の不均衡は補償により除去されるが、位相雑音は確率的な現象のため，なるべく高精度の局部発信機を用いる必要がある．本研究では、測定機の I/Q 不均衡を GNU
radio 自動補償のプログラムで補償した．そして，補償後の I/Q 不均衡と位相雑音を測定し，NMSE(Normalized
Mean Square Error) を用いてチャンネル推定性能をシ
ミュレーションで評価した [4]．図 2 に結果を示す．I/Q
不均衡と位相雑音により NMSE が多少大きくなるが，運用範囲における影響は無視できることが確認できた．

4

1.5

Delay[s]Table 1: パラメーターの設定
周波数
2.4GHz帯域幅25 MHz
サンプルレート 25MSps
遅延解像度
40ns
送信電力
20dBm

同期

本章で主に同期の手法を説明する．周波数の同期は，高安定ルビジウム原子時計を基準として送信機と受信機の局部発信機を動作させることで達成し，送受信間キャリア信号の周波数オフセットを解消した．
一方，波形の送受信タイミングの同期はルビジウム
原子時計の Pulse Per Second(PPS) 信号を USRP 送受信機に接続することにより実現した．PPS 信号は 1 秒周期の高精度の信号であり，送信波形が繰り返して挿入された丁度 1 秒の長さを持つパケットを送信機の PPS 信
号の立ち上がりを基準として繰り返し送信し，受信機も同様に PPS 信号を基準としてデータをキャプチャー
することで，送受信間絶対同期を達成した．

1

検証実験

測定機の性能を確かめるため，図 3 のような T 型の試験回路を用いて検証実験を行った [5]．実験におけるパラメーター設定は表 1 に示す．この試験回路のインパルス応答を USRP サウンダとネットワークアナライ
ザ (VNA) の両方で測定し，その結果の比較を行い、装置の性能を評価した．図 4 に T 型試験回路のインパルス応答を示す．この結果より，本装置で測定された直接波，遅延波のタイミングが VNA の結果と一致していることが確認できる．

52

文

献

[1] D．Mass，M．H.Firooz，J．Zhang，N．Patwari and
K.Kasera， Channel sounding for the masses: low
complexity GNU 802.11b Channel Impulse Response
Estimation， IEEE Trans． Wireless Commun， VOL，
11，No.1，Jan．2012．
[2] 金 ミンソク，アズリル. ハニズ， オープンソースソフ
トウエア無線プラットホーム GNU Radio Gnu radio Open
Software Defined Radio Platform ，電気電子情報通信学
誌，Vol．96，No．1．Jul．2013．
[3] M．Gahadza，M．Kim，J．Takada， Implementation of a
Channel Sounder using GNU Radio Opensource SDR Platform， 信学技報，SR2008-94，Mar．2009．
[4] M．Kim，J．Takada，Y．Konishi ， Novel Scalable
MIMO Channel Sounding Technique and Measurement
Accuracy Evaluation With Transceiver Impairments IEEE
Trans．Instrum.Meas，VOL，61，No.12 ，Dec． 2012．
[5] S．Kobayashi，M．Kim，J．Takada， Development of
measurement system for Body Area Network by UWB，
Dept．of International Developemnt Engineering，Tokyo
Institute of Technology，Japan，Mar．2012．

Temperature eﬀect on adhesion hysteresis of elastic contact between
silicon rubber and glass lensStudent Number: 10 20045

1

Name: Guanda FU

Introduction

Zt

k

k
rigid

Adhesion of polymer is focused to develop gripand-release devices recently[1]. Adhesion hysteresis is a phenomenon which is defined as the difference between attaching and detaching processcaused by the energy lost at the interface. Understanding the mechanism of adhesion hysteresis isimportant to control and use adhesion.
Adhesion hysteresis is more obvious in experiments of polymer that it is first observed by Pascal Silberzan[2] using JKR model[3]. Adhesion
tests of polymer have been carried out by many
researchers[4, 5] and mechanism of adhesion hysteresis has been discussed using JKR theory[3] by
the assumption of energy equilibrium. However,
the mechanism of adhesion hysteresis has not beenclarified. In our laboratory, the mechanism of adhesion hysteresis has been studied by calculating
the energy dissipation[6]using JKR test with theconsideration the stiﬀness of the measurement system[7] and make a conclusion that the energy lostat the edge of the contact area is a constant value
by unit length. The problem is that the test is
carried out only in one temperature and eﬀect oftemperature on adhesion hysteresis has not beenstudied. In the present study, a JKR test has been
conducted between silicone rubber and silica glasslens in several temperatures to find the eﬀect oftemperature on adhesion hysteresis.

2

Supervisor: Kunio TAKAHASHI

rigid

F

R

δ
elastic

elasticaFig. 1: JKR model with the consideration of the stiﬀnessof the system

the stiﬀness of measurement system.
The external work Uexternal , the elastic energy
from the deformation Uelastic , the interface energy
Uinterface , and the lost energy Udissipation [6]can be
expressed as Eq.(2).
∆Uexternal = ∆Uelastic + ∆Uinterface+∆Ustiﬀness + ∆Udissipation (2)3Experiment

3.1

Material and devices

The schematic of experimental apparatus is shownin Fig.2. All of the devices is installed on a vibration isolation table(SIGMAKOKI). The externalload F , radius of contact area a and displacement
Zt are measured simultaneously.

Theory(a)

The JKR model with the considering of the stiﬀness of the measurement is shown in Fig.1 and weuse a spring to demonstrate the stiﬀness of the external force measurement. Relationship between
the radius of contact area a, external load F , displacement Zt and other parameters is shown in
the following expression:
a2
2Eak
(Z
−
)
t
(1 − ν 2 )k + 2Ea
3R

to controller

(e)

(d)
(c)

(f)
g(b)

F =(g)(a)Stepping motor
Resolution:1μm(b)Microscope(c)Electronic balance
Resolution:0.01g(d)Silica glass lens
R=207.6mm(e)Silicon rubber
E=0.67MPa,50*50*10mm(f)Mirror(g)Heater connected tocontroller
Resolution:1Υ

(1)
Fig. 2: Schematic illustration of the experimental apparatus

where E is Young’s modulus of silicone rubber, R
is the radius of curvature, ν is Poisson’s ratio, k is
53
1

3.2

Experimental procedure

Fig.3 and Fig.4. The energy dissipation is calculated using Eq.(2). and Fig.5 shows the energy
dissipation at the edge of contact area per unit
length for each temperature. The energy dissipation is 0 in loading process and it is nearly aconstant value in unloading process when the radius of contact area start to decrease. No diﬀerences can be seen between the three temperaturesin both loading and unloading process. We canconclude that the adhesion hysteresis between silicone rubber and glass lens is independent to temperature from 20◦ C to 60◦ C.

The adhesion experiments were conducted as thesurface temperature of silicon rubber at 20◦ C,
40◦ C, 60◦ C. The surface temperature of silicone
rubber is measured by a infrared thermometer.
For the case of 20◦ C(room temperature), the experiment can be done without a heater. For thecase of 40◦ C and 60◦ C, the surface temperatureof silicone rubber becomes stable 30 minutes afterturn on the heater. And the adhesion test is carried out after waiting for an other 30 minutes.
The stepping motor is operated to load and unload the silicon rubber with the a percision of 1µm
per step. The displacement is set to zero when thesilicone rubber start contacting the lens. Thereare 30 steps of loading process and we unload thesilicon rubber until it detached from the glass lens.
The duration of waiting time between each step is
60 seconds.

Energy dissipation per unit length[J/m]

3.3

0.001

Results and discussion

0.000820Degree
40Degree
60Degree

0.00060.00040.0002

Unloading0

Loading-0.0002-0.0004
0.00050.001

0.00150.002

0.00250.003

0.0035

Contact Radius[m]0.05

20Degree
40Degree
60DegreeFig. 5: Energy dissipation per unit length at each temperature

Loading

Force[N]04Conclusion-0.05

The adhesion test using JKR model with the measurement stiﬀness is done. The external force andcontact radius is measured. The energy dissipation is calculated and it is independent to temperDisplacement[µm]ature from 20◦ C to 60◦ C. We can conclude that
Fig. 3: Relationship between external force and displace- temperature from 20◦ C to 60◦ C has no eﬀect onmentadhesion hysteresis between silicone rubber andglass lens.
Unloading

-0.1

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

10

20

30

0.0035

References

20Degree
40Degree
60DegreeContact Radius[m]0.003[1] Y.Sekiguchi, et al., J. Adhesion Sci. Technol., Vol.26,
No.23, pp.2615-2626(2012)

0.0025[2] P. Silberzan, et al., Langmuir 10,pp.2466-2470(1994)

Unloading

0.002[3] K. L. Johnson, et al., Proc. R. Soc. London A 324,
pp.301-313(1971)

Loading
0.0015[4] N. Amouroux, et al., Langmuir 19, 1396 (2003)
0.001

0.0005-40[5] P. R. Guduru, et al., J.Mechanics and Physics of solid
55,pp.473-488(2007)
-30

-20

-10

0

10

20

30

[6] D. Baek, et al., “Mechanism of adhesion hysteresis in
the elastic between a silicone rubber and a silica glasslens”, a master thesis of Tokyo Institute ofTechnology(2013)

Displacement[µm]Fig. 4: Relationship between contact radius and displacement[7] K. Takahashi, et al., J.Adhesion Sci.Technol., Vol.9,

The both loading, unloading passes have little
diﬀerence between each temperature as shown in

No.11, pp.1451-1464(1995)

54
2

Tsunami Run-up Simulations for Complex Terrain
Student Number：10_22133 Name：Koki Matsumoto Supervisor：Hiroshi Takagi

1. Introduction

and the data was finally corrected by a neighboring electronic

By The 2011 Earthquake of the Pacific Coast of Tohoku

reference point’s data. It is recognized that this measurement

and Tsunami that occurred on 14:46 March 11st in 2011, theand correction can achieve accuracy at order of several

number of the dead or missing casualties reached 18,524

centimeters.

people, and the number of the building which had been

(a)

(b)

completely destroyed or partially destructed was 3,909,284
units (as of Feb 2014). According to the tidal record at
Ayukawa Station [1], 8.6 m tsunami was observed and theresultant flood extended 73 km2 in Ishinomaki City [2].
Ishinomaki was one of the most affected areas, where more(c)than 3,000 people died. Inhabitants in Ishinomaki also
experienced The Chilean Tsunami which generated 2-3 m
tsunami in 1960. However, this past experience may have led topeople’s underestimation against the tsunami in 2011 which

Fig.1 (a) (b) Scene of land survey, (c) Devastation of
Ishinomaki, photo taken from Hiyoriyama Park (March, 2013)

greatly exceeded the 1960 tsunami.
Given the complex geographical feature of Ishinomaki
which encompasses both flat and hilly terrains with port,

3. Tsunami Run-up in Ishinomaki

industrial area, residential area, agricultural land, canal,

A series of numerical simulations were performed to

man-made forest belt, sea dike, natural beach, river, and many

evaluate tsunami run-up over the lands of Ishinomaki Area

other land types, it is obvious that the inundated tsunami

immediately after the Great East Japan Earthquake happened

traveled over the land in complicated paths. In this study, aon March 11, 2011. Actual water elevations measured off thetsunami run-up analysis was performed and compared with thecoast of Miyagi and Fukushima by the GPS buoy system were

measured tsunami heights and inundation areas in order to

employed as the offshore boundary of the largest domain

assess the applicability of the model for such complex terrain.

(Fig.2). The other numerical settings are shown in Table.2.

2. Field Survey
In order to perform the numerical analysis precisely, the
GSI terrain data set was used as mentioned later. Besides, theauthors carried out a field survey for three days in March 2013
to measure the elevations of sea dike and river bank which
generally do not appear in the terrain data of publicly available,
but should have a great influence on the simulation results. A

Fig.2 Computational domains. Smallest one (d) focuses on

set of high-precision GPS was used to measure these elevations,

Ishinomaki with a fine resolution

55

Table2. Calculation Settings

Fig.3 shows the simulated water levels (blue) from the sea
level at 15:00 on March 11th at selected points, along with theitemLargest mesh(540m square mesh)
Second mesh(180m square mesh)Calculating area
Third mesh(60m square mesh)
forth mesh(20m square mesh)
Wave
the 2011 earthquake of the P acific coast of Tohoku and tsunami
Time stepΔt=0.1sec
Tide level condition
Mean sea-level of Tokyo Bay (T.P .+0.0m)
Computation time
2011/3/11 15:15～2011/3/11 17:00
Largest mesh: JODC 500m data
Second mesh: JODC 500m data
Bathymetric data
Third mesh: JODC 500m data
Forth mesh: プレジャーボート・小型船用港湾案内
Ground levels
It creates from 5m mesh data of Geographical Survey Institute0.025 is uniformly set to a water area
0.02 is uniformly set to a agricultual area
Relative roughness
0.06～0.15 is uniformly set to a housing area
0.15～0.25 is uniformly set to a factory area

measured heights (red). All of the figures in Fig.3 show that thedifference in maximum tsunami height between calculation andmeasurement is considerably small. According to Fig.4 which
represents flood areas by both simulation and observation [3],the simulated tsunami reaches a maximum distance of 4.5 km
from the coastline and shows a good agreement with theobserved area.

Table3. Locations in Ishinomaki at which comparison is madeIshinomaki gaikou

38.423141.269

num
berA

Ishinomaki port

38.413141.324

B

Iharatsu

38.422141.336

C

Mitsumata38.429141.273

D

Minamihama

38.416141.305

E

Nakase38.428141.311F

Ishinomaki Nippon paper

38.414141.287

G

Ishinomaki sensy uu university 38.450

Namelatitude longitude141.294H

Shinhigashimaenuma

38.435141.263

I

Yado

38.449141.319

J

Nishiy amamachi

38.434141.294

K

Midorimachi

38.418141.336

L

Minatomachi

38.427141.314M

Fig.4 Inundation areas in Ishinomaki (colored area: present
simulation, gray line: observation by the survey [3])4. Conclusion
Numerical simulation is indispensable in order toestimate a future possible tsunami. In the present research, thenumerical simulation was performed to assess the applicabilityof the model for the lands with complex terrain and multiple
land use. The authors has corroborated that complex behaviorof tsunamis over the lands can be adequately estimated by thenumerical model, using the GSI terrain data modified by thehigh-precision GPS survey on coastal and river structures andthe recorded tsunami data by the GPS buoy system as offshore
boundary.

References[1] Japan Meteorological Agency:

Fig.3 water levels (blue: simulation, red: measurement [3])Tsunami inundation heights and area were compared between

http://www.jma.go.jp/jma/press/1106/03b/the simulation results and the measured data [3] at totally 13[2]Geospatial Information Authority of Japan:

points (Table.3), which are located in different land types such

http://www.gsi.go.jp/common/000059939.pdf

as port and factory areas (A, B, G, M), residential area (C, D, E,[3] Detailed Maps of the impacts of 2011 Japan Tsunami Vol.1:

K, I, L), agricultural land (H, J) and river side (F).

Aomori, Iwate and Miyagi, T. Haraguchi, A. Iwamatsu, 2011

56

Study on Application of Water Supply Curing System
to Electro-chemical Repair
ID: 10-25210

Name: Shu YAMAMOTO Supervisor: Prof. Nobuaki OTSUKI
Concrete specimens with 150mm×300mm×1800mm were repaired using Water Supply Curing
System using the obtained condition in above two
reinforced mortar or concrete. Specimens used here had
been deteriorated under tidal zone for 40 years.
2.2 Evaluation
Effect of repair was evaluated from four points of view.
① Improvement of resistance to permeation ofchloride ion② Crack sealing effect③ Desalination effect④ Protecting effect against corrosion of steel bar
2.3 Repair method

1. Introduction“Water Supply Curing System1)” is one of thereliable methods for curing of concrete. This system canprovide water film on the surface of concrete.
On the other hand, electro-chemical repair2) is oneof repair methods which can repair reinforced concrete
deteriorated due to steel corrosion. Applying thesemethods to reinforced concrete with steel corrosion,
corrosion environment around steel bars, such as
existence of chloride ion or low pH, can be recovered
without concrete replacement or human error.
Here it is necessary to provide the external solution
on concrete surface in the case of applying
electro-chemical repair to reinforced concrete, however
there are some problems in conventional water supplying
systems such as panel system or cellulose fiber system.
Panel system needs holes on concrete to keep the system,and the method can apply only to flat surface. Cellulose
fiber system generates a lot of dust, and the appearance is
not good during repairing.
If Water Supply Curing System can apply toelectro-chemical repair, above problems can be solved.
So the applicability of Water Supply Curing System toelectro-chemical repair was investigated in this study.
Especially below issues were investigated.
1) To clarify the influence of solution quantity anddistance between anode and concrete on theresistance of chloride ion penetration after
repairing (mortar specimen).
2) To investigate the applicability of Water Supply
Curing System to electro-chemical repair (realreinforced concrete beam taken from existing
structure).
3) To evaluate the repair effect of electro-chemical
repair with Water Supply Curing System(deteriorated reinforced concrete exposed for 40
years under marine environment).

1) Repair conditions
Table 1 shows conditions selected by previous
research. Table 2 shows repair pattern applied toreinforced concrete specimen exposed for 40 years.
2) Supplying water by Water Supply Curing System
Picture.1 shows the view of Water Supply Curing
System. Pump and hose supply water evenly from tank
to concrete surface. Water flows between sheet andconcrete surface. Suction machine makes negative
pressure between sheet and concrete, and prevent fall ofsheet. Suctioned water returns to tank.
Table 1 Repair conditions.
Solution
Mg(CH3COO)2 aq
Concentration
0.1mol/L
2
Current density
1.0A/mPeriod2weeksTable 2 Repair pattern on RC exposed for 40 years.
Distance
No
System
Anode
(mm)
1
WSCS
Titanium
0
2
WSCS
Carbon fiber
0
3
WSCS
Carbon fiber
10
4
WSCS
Conductive sheet
05
Submersion
Titanium
20
WSCS: Water Supply Curing System.

2. Experimental procedure
2.1 Specimen
1) Mortar specimen
The size of mortar specimens was 40mm×40mm×160mm. They were used for investigation of
influence of the solution quantity and distance between
anode and specimen on repair effect.
2) Real reinforced concrete beam
The real reinforced concrete beam taken fromexisting structure was 13 m of length and its
cross-section is I- shape.
3) Reinforced concrete exposed for 40 years

Picture 1 View of Water Supply Curing System.
57

Crack seling
percent(%)

8.E-06
6.E-061

4.E-06

Solutionquantity
15 (ml/cm2)

0.E+00
0

2.5

5

10

20

Distance between anode and concrete(mm)Fig.1 Decrease of chloride on steel bar surface
after submersion (Mortar specimen)

3. Experimental result

0
N0.2

No.3

No.4

No.5

Fig.2 Crack sealing effect (Concrete specimen)

Corrosion rate ofsteel bar(mm/year)

3.1 Resistance to permeation of chloride ion
Fig.1 shows the decrease of chloride on steel bar
surface by submersion in 3.5wt% salt water for a week
after repairing, compared with no repair. As the solution
quantity become larger, or distance between anode andconcrete become larger, resistance to permeation ofchloride ion become larger.
3.2 Application method
Water Supply Curing System was improved in
two points shown below.
• Always pumping• Increase the suction power
And the usable anode materials were selectedfrom the viewpoint of applicability and price as shownin Table.3. In this way, Water Supply Curing System got
applicability to electro-chemical repair.
3.3 Repair effect
Crack sealing effect of repair using Water Supply
Curing System was almost same that of submersion
condition when titanium was used as anode as shown in
Fig.2. Even if carbon fiber was used, the equal effectwas gotten by giving space between anode and concrete.
That is thought in case of conductive sheet.
Fig.3 shows the increase of chloride quantity insolution during repairing, that means removed chloride
quantity from the concrete. Desalination effect of repair
using Water Supply Curing System is almost same thatof submersion condition.
Fig.4 shows corrosion rate of main reinforcement

50

No.1

5

2.E-06100

Chloride quantity insolution(g/cm2)

Chloride on steel bar surface(g/cm2)

No repair

0.025
0.02
0.015
0.01

WSCS

0.005

submersion005
10 (days)Fig.3 Increase of chloride quantity in solution(Concrete specimen)
0.02
Before
After
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
MR

S

MR

S

MR

S

No.1
No.2
No.5
MR: Main Reinforcement, S: stirrup
Fig.4 Protecting effect against corrosion of steel bar(Concrete specimen)
and stirrup. Although default rates vary widely,protecting effect against corrosion of steel bar is gotten
in repair using Water Supply Curing System like that ofsubmersion condition.

4. Conclusions
From the results of present study, it can be said
that Water Supply Curing System is applicable as thesolution supply system of electro-chemical repair
effectively. Also following conclusions were obtained.
1) Applicability of Water Supply Curing System toelectro-chemical repair was confirmed using realreinforced concrete taken from existing structure,and then proper anode materials such as separated
titanium or carbon fiber sheet was selected.
2) When titanium was used as anode, repair effect ofWater Supply Curing System was almost same withthat of submersion condition.
3) As the solution quantity become larger, or distance
between anode and concrete become larger,
resistance to permeation of chloride become larger.

Table.3 Selection of the most usable anode
Price
Anode
Applicability
2
Evaluation(yen/m )Nonseparated
△
15000
△
titanium
Separated○
15000○
titanium
Stainless△
2000△
Thick rubber
○
90000
×
Thin rubber
×120000×
Conductive
×
500
×
sheet
Carbon fiber
○
6000
○

5. Reference
1)
2)

58

Hazama Ando Corporation: Water Supply Curing System
of Concrete Structure, “Aqua Curtain”;2013.4
Japan Society of Civil Engineers: Recommendation for
Design and Construction of Electrochemical Corrosion
Control Method; 2001.11